a, :l5 . II ^ PRINCETON, N. J. ^ijj Presented by A . G^ . CQ\-\nneTO^ ^ PV^. iJ Divisioji .. «*W..>w!^0 I \ Section <^!:5?^ THE\ ^-•^^f/i^L S£«-'^>- BIBLE HAND-BOOK: AN INTRODUCTION i>\t ^tttbj of SatrtJr Stripture. JOSEPH ANGUS, D.D., MEMBEE OF THE KOTAL ASIATIC SOCIETY. PHILADELPHIA : WILLIAM S. & ALFEED MARTIEN, No. 144, CHESTNUT STREET. 1856. ( iii > PREFACE. The followiug pages are intended as an introduction to tlie study of Scripture, and are Avritten with the ^^ew of being used by all classes of intelligent readers. On a first perusal by younger readers, it is suggested that the sections marked (^) in the table of Contents, be omitted, together with such paragraphs as may be thought too abstruse. The attempt to adapt the work to both young and advanced students, renders such a selection at the outset desirable ; and the whole has been written so as to make the portions read in the first instance, easily intelligible and complete in themselves. On the otlier hand, any who wish to consult the book on particular subjects — as on the study of the Greek Testament, or on the proof of particular doctrines — can easily do so by the help of the index. If any \^'ish to connect the study of these pages with the study of Theological Science generally, he will find the following classification important. Theology is Exegetical, Historical, Systematic, and Pastoral : TTnder the head of Exegetical Theology are placed — Philology, or the study of the languages of Scripture, with their cognate dialects, see ch. i. sees. 2, 4: ch. iv. sec. 5. Criticism, which aims first to establish a correct text, and secondly, to explain the peculiarities of the style, etc., of the several books, see ch.i. sees, i, 3, 5, 6: ch. vi. sec. i, and Introductions to Pent., Gospels, Epistles, etc. Hermeneutics, or the theory and practice of interpretation, ch. i. see. 6 : ch. iv., and ch. vi. iV PREFACE. Under tlie head of Historical Theology are placed — ARCiiiEOLOCY, with its two divisions; Biblical Arcliajology, which treats of ancient customs, etc., see ch. iv. sec. 6; and Ecclesiastical, whicli treats of the opinions of early Jewish and Christian sects and writers, see ch. iv. sec. 6: Pai*t ii. ch. iv. sec. 2: ch. vi. sec. i: ch. vii. sec. i. History of Doctrine, of which this volume does not treat. Under the head of Systematic Theology are placed — Dogmatic Theology, which treats of matters of faith, etc. Practical Theology, which treats of practice. See chaps, iii., v., vii., and Introduction to Cor., Romans, etc. Under the head of Pastoral Theology are placed — HoMiLETics, of which this volume treats but indirectly, see ch. vii. The Pastoral Care and Ecclesiastical Law, of which nothing is said here. The Etidence of Christianity and the External History of the church of Christ are distinct branches of inquiry. Of the first, the following pages treat at some length, chap. i. sec. i ; chap. ii. sees. 1-4, etc. To some of the subjects enumerated in this list, this volume is only an introduction intended to guide the advanced reader to larger works ; but on most, it will bo found sufficiently full to enable earnest-minded inquirers to study and master the evidences, facts, and doctrines of Scripture for themselves.* Its aim is to teach men to understand and appreciate The Bible, and, at the same time, to give such information on ancient literature and liistory, as may aid the work of general education among all classes. ■ With the view of adapting the work more completely for use, a set of questions have been prepai'ed, which give a full epitome of the whole, and may be had at 5 6, Paternoster Row. CONTENTS. Preface iii PAET I. Introddctory p. I CHAPTER I. On the Genuineness of Scripture : or the Bible as Inspired Men wrote it p. 4 Sec. I. Genxiineness defined and proved, § 6-24. Sec. 2.^ The original languages of Scripture: Hebrew and the Shemitish languages generally; Hellenistic or Hebrew Greek of the New Testament and LXX, § 25-41. Sec. 3." The manuscripts of Scripture, § 42-64. Sec. 4.* The ancient versions of Scripture, § 65-74. Sec. 5.* The various readings of Scripture: rules for determining the text, § 75-112. Sec. 6. The English version on the whole identical with the original text, § 113-134. CHAPTER II. On the Authenticity and Authority of Scripture . . p. 65 Sec. I. Scripture claims to be regarded as an inspired teacher, and as the only inspired teacher, § 135-145. Sec. 2. Inspiration, § 146-150. Sec. 3. The canon, § 151-166. Sec. 4. Scripture evidences, § 1^7-213. CHAPTER III. Peculiarities of the Bible as a Revelation from God p. 116 Sec. I. A revelation of God, of Christ, and of human natm-e, § 214.218. Sec. 2. A revelation of spiritual religious truth, § 219-227. Sec. 3. A gi-adual and progressive revelation, § 228-238. Sec. 4. The unity of the Bible, § 239-245. Sec. 5. Not a revelation of systematic truth or specific rules, § 246-253. CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. On the Interpretation of Scripture . . . . P- 139 Sec. I. Of the necessity for care in the study of Scripture, § 254-269. Sec. 2. Of the spirit in which the Bible should be studied, §270-273. Sec. 3. Of rules of interpretation, § 274-309. Sec. 4. Of the utility and application of rvdes in interpretation, §310, 311. Sec. 5.* Of the application of these rules to the study of the original Scriptures, § 312-338. Sec. 6. Of the use of external helps in interpretation; Jewish and heathen opinions; history, profane and ecclesiastical; chronology; natural history; manners and customs; geography, historical and physical, § 3 39-404. Sec. 7. Of the application of these rules to the interpretation of allegories, parables, types, and symbols, § 405-433. Sec. 8." Of the interpretation of prophecy, § 434-454. CHAPTER V. On the Systematic and Inferential Study of the Scrip- tures p. 309 Sec. I. Of the study of the doctrines of Scriptxire, § 455-464. Sec. 2. Of the study of the precepts of Scripture, § 465-472. Sec. 3. Of the study of the promises of Scriptiire, § 473-480. Sec 4. Of the study of the examples of Scripture, § 481-487. CHAPTER VI. Principles and Rules illustrated in the Quotations of the New Testament from the Old, and applied to the Solution OF Scripture Difficulties . . . p. 332 Sec. i.** Quotations classified and examined with reference to the state of the text, the truths and evidences of Scripture, and principles of interpretation, § 489-500. Sec. 2. Scripture difficulties, § 501-523. CHAPTER VII. On the Inferential and Practical Reading of the Bible, p. 360 CONTENTS. Vii PAET II. THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE. Introductory P- 3 7J CHAPTEK I. The Pentateuch and xirE Boc»k of Job . . . . p. 378 Sec. I. Genuineness and avithenticity of the Pentateuch, § 7-13. Sec. 2. The Book of Job, § 14-17. Sec. 3. Of Hebrew poetry and the Poetical Books, § 18. Sec. 4. The Books of the Pentateuch arranged and epitomized with occasional helps, § 19-24. Sec. 5. The design of the Law ; summary of its religious insti- tutions, § 25-31. CHAPTER 11. Historical and Poetical Books to the Death of Solomon, p. 419 Sec. I. The Historical Books of Scripture generally, § 32-35. Sec. 2. Brief outline of these Historical Books, § 36. Sec. 3. The Books of Joshua, Judges, and Ruth, § 37-42. Sec. 4- The Books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, § 43-51. Sec. 5. The Poetical Books — Psalms, Song of Solomon, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes, § 52-62. Sec. 6. The whole arranged and epitomized, with occasional helps, §63-68. CHAPTER III. Historical Books trobi the Death of Solomon to the Close oir THE Old Testament Canon p. 466 Sec. I . Brief historical view of this period ; the Prophets in con- nection with history, § 69-73. Sec. 2. The nature of Prophecy during this period ; Predictions arranged according to time and according to subjects, § 74-76. Sec. 3 . The Books of Jonah, Joel, Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah, Nahum, § 77-87. Sec. 4. The Books of Zephaniah, Jeremiah, Habakkuk, Daniel, Ezekiel, and Obadiah. The Captivity, § 88-94. Sec. 5. The Books of Ezra, Haggai, Zechariah, Esther, Nehemiah, and Malachi, § 95-102. Sec. 6. The whole arranged and epitomized, § 103-106. Sec. 7. Chronology of Scriptui^e and early profane history from tiie Deluge to the close of the Canon, § 107. VUl CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. Civil and Moral History of the Jews trom Malachi to John THE Baptist p. 537 Sec. I. Sketch of the Civil Histoiy of the Jews between the two Testaments, § 108-115. Sec. 2. Sketch of the Moral and Religious History of the Jew4 between the two Testaments, § 11 6- 12 8. CHAPTER V. The Gospels ?• 55 1 Introductory, § 129-134. Sec. I. The Gospels in their mutual relations, § 135, 136. Sec. 2. The genuineness of the Gospels, § 137. Sec. 3. Introduction to Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, § 138-141. Sec. 4. The Chronology of the Gospels, § 142. Sec. 5. The Gospels Harmonized, § 143-150. Sec. 6. Topics to be noticed in reading the Gospels. Lessons to be gathered from a comparison of passages, § 151, 152. CHAPTER VI. The Book OF Acts P-5 72 Sec. r. The Gospel and the Gentiles, § 1 53-161. Sec. 2. Introduction to the Book of Acts, § 162, 163. Sec. 3. Chronology of the Acts and Epistles arranged, § 164-166. CHAPTER VII. The Epistles and the Book of Revelation . . . p. 583 Sec. I. On the study of the Epistles, § 167-169. Sec. 2. On the genuineness of the Epistles, § 170. Sec. 3. Helps to study of i and 2 Thessalonians, Galatians, i and 2 Corinthians, Romans, James, Ephesians, Colossians, Philemon, Philippiaus, Hebrews, i Peter, i Timothy, Titus, 2 Peter, 2 Timothy, Jude, and precepts given in each, with epitome of Doctrines, § 1 71-195. Sec. 4. Helps to the Study of i, 2, and 3 John, and to the Book of Revelation, § 196-204. Index P- ^5 1 THE BIBLE HAND-BOOK. PART I. INTRODUCTORY. " I use the Scriptures not as an arsenal to be resorted to only for arms and wea- pons . . . but as a matchless temple, where I delight to contemplate the beauty, tho symmetry, and the magnificence of the structure ; and to increase my awe and excite my devotion to the Deity there preached and adored."— Boyle • On the Style of Scripture, jd obj. 8. " Scarcely can we fix our eyes upon a single passage in this wonderful book which has not afforded comfort or instruction to thousands, and been met with tears of penitential sorrow or grateful joy drawn from eyes that will weep no more."^ Patson: The Bible above all Price. " This lamp, from off the everlasting throne, Mercy took down, and in the night of time Stood, casting on the dark her gracious bow, And evermore beseeching men with tears And earnest sighs, to hear, believe, and live."— Pollok. I. Even as a literary composition, the sacred Scriptures The Bible : form the most remarkable book the world has ever its ciauns. seen. Thej are of aU writings the most ancient. They contain a record of events of the deepest interest. The history of their influence is the history of civilization and happiness. The wisest and best of mankind have borne wit- ness to their power as an instrument of enhghtenment and of hoUness ; and having been prepared by " men of God who spake as they were moved by the Holy Ghost," ^ to reveal " the only true God and Jesus Christ whom he has sent," •> they have on this ground the strongest claims upon our attentive and reverential regard. The use of a hand-book of Scripture requires one or two cautions, which both writer and readers need to keep before them, * 2 Pet. I. 21. «> John 17. 3: Ps. 19. 2 THE BIBLE — HOW TO BE STUDIED. 3. First, we are not to contemplate this glorious fabric of To be Divine truth as spectators only. It is not our faith^^d ^^'^ business to stand before Scripture and admire it ; obedience. but to stand within, that we may believe and obey it. In the way of inward communion and obedience only shall we see the beauty of its treasures. It yields them to none but the loving and the humble. We must enter and unite ourselves with that which we would know, before we can know it more than in name.'' 3. Secondly, nor must the study of a help . to Scripture be A.11 helps of confounded with the study of Scripture itself, value only as Such heli^s may teach us to look at truth so as to they lead to •, -x- j i- "u 4. -4. • ^i, the Bible See its position and proportions, but it is the en- itseif. trance of truth alone which gives light. The road we are about to travel may prove attractive and pleasing, but • its great attraction is its end. It leads to the " weUs of salva- tion." To suppose that the journey, or the sight of the living water — perhaps, even of the place whence it springs — wiU quench our thirst, is to betray most mournful self-deceit or the profoundest ignorance. Our aim — "' the sabbath and port of our labours " — is to make more clear and impressive the Book of God, "the god of books,"*' as one calls it, the Bible itself. 4. The names by which this volume is distinguished are Its names, ^ot wanting in significance. It is caUed the Bible, The Bible. qj, ^^le book, from the Greek word (^lSXoq, book, a name given originally (like liber in Latin) to the inner bark of the hnden, or teil-tree, and afterwards to the bark of the papyrus, the materials of which early books were sometimes made. It is called the Old and New Testament (that is, covenant Old and New or appointment), the term by which God was Testament, pleased to indicate the relation or settled arrange- ment between himself and his people. The term was first apphed to the relation itself,*" and afterwards to the books in which the records of the relation are contained. Among the Jews, the Old Testament was called " The Law, * Prov. 2, 2-5: John 7. 17. ^ The Synagogue, No. xiv. " Ex. 24. 7" 2 Kings 23. 2: 2 Cor. 3. 6-14. %ia.6rixv, in classic Greek is disposition, or a will ; in Hellenistic Greek, it is often equivalent to a-vvS'/ixn, a covenant. Gen. 21. 27, 32: 26. 28: 31. 44. THE BIBLE — ITS TITLES. 3 The Law, the PropTiets, and tlie Writings." Sometimes the and Holy ^'^^ "Writings, or (as the Greek name is) the Hagiogra2)hay Writings. \eere called, from the first book under the division, the Psalms.* What books were included in these divisions vre gather from ancient Jewish authorities. Josephus reckons two-and- twenty canonical books of the Old Testament, and the whole may be thus divided : — The five books of Moses [nYin]. Torah. The Law. The Prophets [D^N^np]. Nebiim. The historical division D^DIt^NT D^&5^n3, Nebiim Rishonim, namely — 1. Joshua. 6. Daniel. 2. Judges and Ruth. 7. Ezra and Nehemiah. 3. Samuel, i and 2. 8. Esther. 4. Kings, I and 2. 9. Job. 5. Chronicles, i and 2. The Prophets, properly so called, C^innx D^N"*??. Nebiim Acharonim. 10. Isaiah. 11. Jeremiah and Lamentations. 12. Ezekiel. 13. The twelve minor Prophets. And the Hagiographa, D^nini), Cethubim, namely — The Psalms, the Proverbs, the Song of Solomon, and Ecclesiastes. In modern copies the following are also placed among the Hagiographa : — Job, Ruth, Lamentations, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehe- miah, and Chronicles. And this is the arrangement now in use in the Hebrew Scrip- tures. The terms, "the Scripture,"^ "the Scriptm-es,'"' and "the Other word of God," ^ are also apphed in the Bible itself to names. ^j^g sacred books ; as is the expression, " the oracles of God ;" ^ though this last is sometimes used to indicate the jjlace where, under the old dispensation, the will of God was revealed.^ "The Law ^" and " the Prophets '"" are each * Luke 24. 44. *> John 10. 35 : Jas. 4. 5. ** Luke 24. 27. <* Luke II. 28: Prov. 30. 5. ^ Acts 7. 38: Rom. 3. 2: Heb. 5. 13 ' I Kings 8. 6: 2 Chron. 4. 20: Ps. 28. 2. ^ Mat. 5. 18: John 10. 34: i Cor. 14. 21. *" Mat. 26, 56: Acts 3. 18, 21: 28. 23. B 2 4 THE BIBLE — ITS GENUINENESS. employed, and sometimes unitedly* by a common figure of speech, to designate the whole of the Old Testament. The sacred writings were sometimes called the canon of Canon of Scripture from a Greek word signifying a straight Scripture. rod, and hence a rule or law. Gal. 6. i6 : Phil, 3. 16. This term was employed in the early age of Christianity with some indefiniteness, though generally denoting a standard of opinion and practice. From the time of Origen, however, it has been applied to the books which are regarded by Chris- tians as of Divine authority. The Bible therefore is the canon, that is, the authoritative standard of religion and morality. 5. Of all these titles, the "word of God" is perhaps the most The word of impressive and complete. It is sufficient to justify ^od. the faith of the feeblest Christian, and it gathers up all that the most earnest search can unfold. We may say more at large what this title involves, but more than this we cannot say. It teaches us to regard the Bible as the utterance of Divine wisdom and love. CHAPTER I. On THE Genuineness op Scripture : or the Bible, as Inspired Men wrote it. " The integrity of the records of the Christian faith is substantiated by evidence, in a tenfold proportion, more various, copious, and conclusive than that which can be adduced in support of any other ancient writings."— Isaac Taylor. Sec. I. Genuineness defined and proved. 6. If a MS. of each book of the Bible in the author's hand- A genuine writing were still extant, and if the fact of its being MS. what. such could be proved, every copy that agreed with the MS. would be perfectly genuine. There are now, however, no such autographs of any ancient books ; and yet there are cir- cumstances attending the preservation and transmission of the MSS. of the Scriptures, which prove their genuineness with nearly as much certainty as if the first copies were still in existence. 7. A book is said to be genuine if it be as it was written by Genuineness *^^ author whose name it bears : if the present text defined. of that book varies from the text he wrote, it is said ^ Matt. II. 13: 22. 40. GENUINENESS : PRINTED COPIES. 5 to be corrupt, and if tlie book was not written bv tiie pre- tended author, it is said to be forged or spurious. 8. The question of the genuineness of Scripture is much sim- phfied by the invention of printing. That art fixes shortens an the dates of books, and by multiplying copies and inquiry. editions secures the text from corruption. As printed books cannot be altered by the pen, any material change of the text becomes impossible or nugatory. The !MSS. of printed books are now committed therefore without fear of falsification " to the immortal custody of the press." 9. There are still extant, for example, printed copies of the P'.-inted ^^^ Testament in Hebrew, dated Soncino, a.d. copies of the 1488, and Brixise, a.d. 1494. A copy of the year A^D.^1433- 1488 is in the library of Exeter CoUege, Oxford, and '5^^- in the Royal Library at Berlin is the identical copy (dated 1494), from which Luther made his German translation. There are extant also copies of the New Testament in Greek, dated Basil, 151 6, edited by Erasmus, and in Greek and Latin, dated Alcala or Complutum (in Spain), 15 14. On being com- pared with each other, and with modern editions, these copies are found to agree in the main. They, therefore, prove by a single step, the existence of the Scriptures in the 15th century. They prove, also, that the text of modern editions has not been materially impaired during the last 350 years. 10. These two editions of the New Testament which are Textus founded upon a very partial examination of MSS. receptus. fo^xi the basis of the Received Text. The first edition of that text was printed in 1624, by Elze^dr. Besides the two editions just named, he had the advantage of con- sulting the editions of Stephens (Paris, 1546), and of Beza (Gen. 1565), but did not introduce from them many important readings. 11. At the time these volumes were printed, there were MS. MSS. of the copies of the Scriptures in most of the pubhc Scriptures, hbraries of Europe. They form, with the writings 1457 to the of the Fathers, or of other ecclesiastical authors of 4ih century. ^^^ middle ages, the bulk of most hbrary catalogues of the 15th century. Dr. Kennicott collated 630 of these MSS. for his critical edition of the Hehreio Bible. De Rossi collated 734 more. And upwards of 600 MSS. have been examined for recent editions of the Greek Testament. 6 GENUINENESS : MANUSCRIPTS. 12. In the case of the Greek and Eoman classics, twenty, or Compared "ten MSS. are deemed amply sufficient to form an ^'^^''.'JSo'^'"^ accurate text : fifteen MSS. of Herodotus are known with MbS. of Classics, to critics, of which the most ancient belongs to the loth century : and this is a fair average of the ancient MSS. of classic authors. It is obvious, therefore, that the advantage in this respect, is greatly on the side of the Scriptures. The number of MSS. has afforded ample provision for restoring the text to its original purity, and at the same time gives absolute security against extensive corruptions. 13. The MSS. of the Hebrew Scriptures, now extant, were most of them written between the years a.d. iooo, MSS.VdV and a.d. 1457. Some, however, belong to the 8th and Greek. ^^j^ centuries, among which are two of the MSS. (Nos. 634, 503), lately in the possession of M. de Rossi, by whom the various readings they contain were published. The MSS. of the New Testament, and of the Septuagint or Greek translation of the Old, are earlier still. The Alexan- drian MS. (Codex Alexandrinus, called A by Wetstein, Griesbach, and other critics), now in the British Museum, com- prising in four volumes, small folio, both Old and New Testa- ments, must have been written before the close of the 5th century. The Vatican MS. (called B), preserved in the hbrary of the Vatican at Rome, belongs to the 4th, as does probably the Codex Cottonianus (I), the remains of which are now in the British Museum, the various readings of the whole being preserved in the works of Archbishop Usher. The Codex Re- gius, or Ephremi (C), so called from the author whose works were written over it, the parchment being what is called a rescript (or "twice-written," in Greek pahmpsest, or "rubbed again,") belongs to the 6th century. The Codex Bezee (D), given by the reformer Beza to the University of Cambridge, belongs (in the opinion of Wetstein) to the 5th century ; critics who give it least antiquity, assigning it to the 6th or 7th. 14. A Virgil in the Vatican, claims an antiquity as high as tJbLe 4th century ; but generally, the MSS. of the classics with MSS. of belong to periods between the loth and the 15th Classics. centuries. In antiquity, therefore, as in numbers, they are greatly inferior to the MSS. of the Scriptures. 15. As we reach the time of the earliest MSS. of the Scrip- jjuotations tures, another kind of evidence presents itself no less GENUINENESS : QUOTATIONS. 7 f^e^in^"^' impressive : namely, tlie quotations of Scripture, ecclesiastical and references to it, which are found in the writings Their"^^ of the early Fathers, and in the Rabbinical para- natvire. phrases. The references of classic authors one to another, though sufficient to establish the antiquity of the works quoted from, form a very inadequate provision for cor- recting the text of each. They are generally in the way of allusion only to some fact or passage. Even when the re- ferences are more pointed, they are generally so loosely made as to be of httle critical value. In quotations from the Scrip- tures the case is entirely different. They are generally made with the utmost care, the very words of the sacred writers being introduced, and forming the subject of lengthened dis- cussion, or of important practical teaching. 1 6. Looking first at quotations from the New Testament, we Quotations in have in the 5th century the writings of Theodoret Cent, v.-ii. Qf Cy|Drus, in Syria, on the Epistles of Paul, and on most of the Old Testament, Stiil earher, Cyril of Alexan- dria wrote on the Prophets, and on Johu. In the 4th century, Chrysostom. wrote commentaries on the whole of the New Testament. To the same century, belongs also the writings of Gregory of Nyssa. In the 2nd and 3rd cen- turies, we have the writings of Origen and Theophilus, of Antioch : fragments of each remain (though of the second, in Latin only), and are often quoted by later wTiters. In the 2nd century, we have the writings also of Irenseus, and of Clement of Alexandria. Not less important are the writings of Jerome, who wrote commentaries on Scripture in the 4th century. To the same century belong also the voluminous writings of Augustine. For a complete hst, see page 86. These are a few only of the authors of the early age of the Number of Christian Church. In not less than one hundred quotations, ^nd eighty ecclesiastical writers (whose works are still extant), are quotations from the New Testament intro- duced ; and so numerous are they, that from the works of those who flourished before the 7th centuiy, the whole text of the New Testament (it has been justly said), might have been recovered, even if the originals had since perished. The ex- periment was tried by Dr. Bentley, and he confirms this state- ment. 1 7. A similar process of investigation into the Hebrew text 8 GENUINENESS : VERSIONS. carries us to tlie era of our Lord. The Targum, or interpretation of Onkelos, translates the Penta- teuch into Chaldaic Hebrew (though of the purest order), and was written about sixty years before Christ. The Targum of Jonathan on the Prophets and historical books, was written about the commencement of the Christian era. In the 4th century, Joseph the Blind wrote a Targum on the Hagiographa ; and a little later, various similar versions of other jparts of Scripture were published. These Targums, ten in all, are of great value in determining the text of Scripture, being, for the most part, very literal paraphrases of the original Hebrew. 18. To corroborate this evidence of the correctness of the New Testament, and to carry still further back the evidence on the Old, we have the ancient versions of the Scriptures. Versions ^^ ^^^ ptb Century, a version of the Bible into the from the 9tii Slavonic, or old Russian language (of great critical the 1st. value), was published. In the 6th century, was completed a version of the whole Bible into Georgian. In the 5th, a version into Armenian, under the care of Miesrob, the inventor of the Armenian alphabet : and also into Gothic, under Ulphilas. In the 3rd and 4th centuries, aU the New Testament and parts of the Old were translated into Coptic (or Memphitic), the language of Lower Egypt, the Copts being Egyptian Christians : and also into Sahidic (or Thebaic), the language of Upper Egypt. In the 4th century a translation was made into Ethiopic, the language spoken in Ethiopia, the country of Candace and the modern Abyssinia. Several of these versions were made from the Septuagint, • some from the Syriac, and a few from the Latin Vulgate. The Peshito (or literal) Syriac version of the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures belongs probably to the ist cen- Peshito. ^^^^^ j^ ^^^ .^ general use among the Syrian churches in the year 378, and is then quoted by Ephrem the Syrian as the version generally received, and so ancient as to require frequent explanation. The true Philoxenian or New Syrian belongs to the 6th century, and the Haraclean (com- monly called the Philoxenian) to the 7th. Both versions take their name from the persons under whose sanction they were made. The Peshito >)eing, as its name imphes, very literal^ is of great value in determining the original text. Nor for this purpose is the Vulgate itself of small im- genuineness: versions. 9 , , portance. The text it contains was made by Jerome about the year 385. Part of it, including the New Testament, he took from an older Latin version called the old Italic, which is quoted by TertuUian in the year 220 ; but the greater part he himself translated from the original of the Old Testament. This version was gradually ado^^ted by the Latin Church, and was the first book ever printed. The present text is very corrupt. Still more ancient than most of these are the versions of Greek the Old Testament by Symmachus, Aquila, Theo- versions. dotion, and the Seventy. The whole were in the hands of Origen in the year 228 a.d., and were used by him in revising the text of the Septuagint. He afterwards pub- hshed them all with the Hebrew text in Hebrew and Greek letters in what was hence called his Hexapla or Six- columned Bible. The version of Aqiiila was made about the year 160 for the use of Hellenistic Jews, and is quoted by Justin Martyr (a.d. 160), and Irenseus (a.d. 176). It is extremely literal, and was read by the Jews in their synagogues. The version of Theodotion appeared about the same time, and is quoted by the same authors. The version of Symmachus is of later date, and is expressed in plain elegant language Without being a literal translation. These three texts are now lost, but their important variations are preserved in the Hexaplarian text of the Seventy, published by Montfaucon at Paris, 1713. The version of the Seventy (so called perhaps from the number of translators supj)osed to have been en- gaged in making it) is the most ancient of all. It has generally been received by both Jews and Christians, is more frequently quoted in the New Testament than the Hebrew, and was in common use both in the synagogues and in the early Christian churches. The first reference to it is by Aristobulus who lived in the 2nd century before Christ. The most probable date of the completion of the translation is about the year 285 b. c, when Ptolemy Lagus and Ptolemy Philadelphus were kings of Egypt.'' ^ Hody (on the authority of Clement and Eusebius), Usher, "Walton, Eichhorn, and others, do not matenally differ in the date they assign to it. Some (De Wette and others) suppose that it was written by different authors and at different times ; though it is agreed that the whole was extant in the time of the son of Sirach, b. c. 130. b3 10 GENUINENESS : SUMMARY. 19. Such is a sample of the evidence by which it is proved that in the ist century of the Christian era (and in the case of the Old Testament two centuries earlier), there existed and were known throughout the Roman world books called the Sacred Scriptures, written by inspired men, and that the present text of the Bible is identical with the text which these books contained. 20. These remarks apply without exception to the books of Homoiogou- ■til© Old Testament, and to twenty out of the mena, twenty-seven of the New. These twenty are the Antiiego- four Gospcls, the Acts, th6 Epistles of Paul (ex- ^^^^' cept that to the Hebrews), and the first Epistles of John and Peter. These twenty books were universally received as genuine, and were therefore called Homoiogou- mena (/. e. acknowledged). The other seven books were dis- puted for a time by particular churches, and were therefore styled Autilegomena (or disputed). After a deliberate exami- nation, however, they were at last received as genuine, the very delay proving the closeness of the scrutiny which their claims had undergone. 21. Decisive as these facts are, they give a very inadequate Facts more ideH of the amount of proof of which the genuine- decisive still, j^ess of the Scriptures is susceptible. The MSS. are innumerable. They belong to all ages : and many of them are very ancient. They have been kept for centuries in dis- tant parts of the world, under the custody of opposing sects, and in circumstances that made extensive or important altera- tions impossible. The possessors of these MSS. deemed them of the highest value, and professed to live under the influence of the truths contained in them. Copyists preserved them with the utmost reverence, counting every letter of every book, and registering the very tittles of the law. How remarkable, how decisive as an evidence of Divine care, that while all the libraries of Europe and of the world containing copies of the Sacred Scriptures have been examined, all ancient versions extant compared, the MSS. of all countries from the 3rd to the 1 6th century collated, the commentaries of all the Fathers again and again investigated, nothing has been discovered, not even a single general reading which can set aside an}' im- portant passage hitherto received as genuine. This negative conclusion, that our Bible does not essentially differ from the GENUINENESS : VARIOUS READINGS. 11 Bible of tlie Primitive Church is indeed an ample recompense for all the labour and time which have been devoted to these pursuits. 22. To give the reader a just conception of the expression Effect of ^^^^ ^^^ Bible does not differ essentially from the various Bible of the Primitive Church, we may notice what ^°° ' the various readings of the New Testament involve. In the Epistle to the Romans, for example, which, contains Epistle to 433 verses, there are at most four passages, the Romans. meaning of which is modified by readings which Griesbach deems of weight : — In ch. 7, 6, fbr "that being dead in which we were held," he reads " We being dead to that in which we were held:" a diflFerence in the original between 0 and e. So some editions of the tex. rec. Inch. II. 6, he omits the latter half of the verse. In ch. 12. II, he reads '* time " for " Lord;" aif for vfn. In ch. 16. 5, he reads the first fruits of Asia for Achaia. These are the only corrections that affect the sense, and they are all unimjDortant. To make them he examined all the principal MSS. already named, no others, and 30 from Mount Athos collated by Mattheei, who travelled over a great part of Eussia and Asia for this purpose. Epistle to In Galatians the important corrections are three Galatians. onlv " In ch. 4. 17, for you in the second clause he reads us : a change in the original of one letter. In ch. 4. 26, he omits the word " all." In ch. 5. 19, he omits the word "adultery.'' Corrections which make no difference in the sense. In the 7959 verses of the New Testament there are not more Xew than ten or twelve various readings of great im- Testament. portance, and these affect not the doctrines of Scripture, but only the number of proof passages in which the doctrines are revealed. The important various readings sanctioned by Griesbach are the following : — In Acts 8, 37, he omits the verse. In Acts 9. 6, he omits the first part of the verse. In Acts 20. 28, for "the church of God," he reads " the church of the Lord," a change depending on one letter K for e. 12 GENUINENESS : VARIOUS READINGS. In Phil. 4. 13, for ''through Christ,'" he reads ''through Him." In I Tim. 3. 16, for " God manifest," he reads " who was:" a dif- ference arising from the supposed omission of a mark in one of the two letters of the word — O for ©. In Jas. 2. 18, for "6^ thy works," he read3 " without thy works, " as do many copies of the English version. In I John 5. 7, 8, he omits from "in heaven," to "in earth." In Jude 4, he omits " God." In Rev. 8, 13, for "angel," he reads "eagle." These corrections are all sanctioned, except Acts 20. 28, and I Tim. 3. 16, by Scholz and Hahn. In these two passages both writers agree with the common text, as they do much more frequently than Griesbach in other unimportant readings, Several of the readings of Griesbach, though not theologically important, remove difficulties from the present text. 23. Of the Old Testament, a careful examiner has noted OIQ 1314 various readings of value. Of these, 566 are Testament, adopted in the Enghsh version ; 147 of the whole affect the sense, but none can be regarded as theologically im- portant : generally they correct a date or complete the sense. See Hamilton's Codex Criticus, Lond. 1821. 24. The writings of Terence (six pieces only) contain 30,000 variations, and they have been copied many times less frequently than the New Testament. We may weU acquiesce, therefore, in the language of Bengel, who, after laborious research into these topics, wrote to his scholar Reuss, " Eat the Scripture bread in simplicity, just as you have it, and do not be disturbed if here and there you find a grain of sand which the miU- stone may have suffered to pass. If the Holy Scriptures, which have been so often copied, were absolutely without variations, this would be so great a miracle that faith in them would be no longer faith. I am astonished, on the contrary, that from all these transcriptions there has not resulted a greater number of various readings."^ But many expressions have already been employed which need to be explained. If their meaning be clear, yet is there much to be said in relation to them before the reader is tho- roughly prepared to understand all they involve. The general * Quoted by Gausseu in his " Theopneustia." LANGUAGE OF THE BIBLE . HEBREW. 13 conclusion that our Bible is, on the whole, as inspired writers left it, is undoubted ; but the Bible-student often requires materials for closer inquiry. We proceed, therefore, to give a brief account of the original languages of the sacred volume — Hebrew and Hellenistic Greek— of the manuscripts, versions, and various readings of the sacred text. ''Sec. 2. The Original Languages of Scripture. — Hehreiv and the Shemitish Languages generally, 25. The Hebrew language, in which nearly all the Old Testa- ment is written, was the language of the Hebrews or Israehtes during their independence. The people themselves were known among other nations by the name of Hebrews and Jews, not by the name of Israelites. The epithet of Hebrew, however, was not applied to their language till the days of the son of Sirach (b.c. 130). It occurs first in the Apocrypha, where it means, not the old Hebrew, but the Aramsean, or Syro- Aramaean. This is also the meaning of the term in the New Testament. Josephus seems to have been the first who applied the name Hebrew language (rXwo-ca twv 'Ei^paiioy) to the old Hebrew, and this is the uniform meaning of the phrase in his writings. The Targums call the Hebrew " the holy tongue," and in the Old Testament it is caUed the language of Canaan, or the Jews' language. Isa. 19. 18 : 36. 13. 26. That the Hebrew language was the common tongue of Really Canaan and Phoenicia is generally admitted ; a con- Phoenician. clusion Supported by several facts. (r.) The Canaanitish names of persons and places mentioned in Scripture are genuine Hebrew, as Abimelech, Melchizedek, Salem. &c. (2.) Fragments of the Phoenician and Carthaginian tongues which still remain on coins and in inscriptions preserved in Roman and Greek writers, are Hebrew. Augustine and Jerome both testify, moreover, that the Carthaginian spoken in their time was made up chiefly of Hebrew words, while there is evidence that Carthage was founded by Phoenicians, who left Canaan before the Jews could have resided long in their country. (3.) The silence of Scripture respecting any difference between * See Preface. 14 LANGUAGE OF THE BIBLE : CHALDEE. the language of Canaanites and Hebrews is also remarkable. They both dwelt in the land, and yet no difference of speech is noticed, though the difference between the language of Hebrew and Egyptian (Psa. 8i. 5: 114. i) is noticed, and even between the Hebrew and cognate languages as in the case of the Aramsean used by the Assy- rians (Isa. 36. 11); and of the Eastern Ai amsean used by the Chaldees (Jer. 5. 15). It may be added that the Hebrew of Abraham's day was probably closely allied to the original tongue, if it were not itself identical with it. This conclusion is based chiefly on the proper names of the early chapters of Genesis, These names are all significant in Hebrew, and the meaning in that tongue always explains the reason why they were given. See Havei-nick's Intro- duction to the Old Testament, p. 134: see also Gesenius' Monum. Phoenicia. 27. The Hebrew, or modern Phoenician, as we may call it, belongs to the Shemitish family of languages, and is most closely connected with the other members of that family, both in matter and in form. The other members are the following, 28. The Aramsean. Of the old Aramaean, as spoken while Hebrew was a living tongue, we have no remains. But there have been discovered, near Palmyra, some inscriptions in this language, which were written about the commencement of the Christian era. The language was spoken in Syria and Mesopotamia. See Gen. 31. 47, and Jer. 10. II. 29. From this common root sprang the Chaldee or Eastern Chaidee and Aramsean, spoken in Chaldsea and Babylon, and the Syriac. Syriac, or Western Aramsean, spoken in Northern Mesopotamia and Syria, and perhaps the Hebrew itself. The Chaldee is known only from Jewish memorials — the i^'criptures and the Targums. The purer style of Onkelos is called the Babylonian dialect, to distinguish it from the language of the later Targums, which has been called the Jerusalem or Pales- tine dialect, and which is really a mixture of Hebrew and Aramaean or Syriac. What is now called Syriac is new Ara- msean, as formed or spoken by the Christians of Emessa and its neighbourhood. This tongue early produced a hterature rich in ecclesiastical 'history and theology, and is still the ecclesiastical language of Syrian Christians. Chaldee is the language of part of Ezra and Daniel :" as Syriac was the lan- guage of the Jews in the days of our Lord. "" Ezra 4. 8: 6. 18: 7. 12-26: Dan. 2. 4: 7. 28. LANGUAGE OF THE BIBLE : DIALECTS. 15 30. The Samaritan is a mixture of the Hebrew and Western Aramaean. All the ecclesiastical matter in this Samaritan. . . . , , - . _^ tongue IS m the bamaritan Pentateuch, and in some poems edited by Gesenius (Leii3sic, 1824), from MSS. in the British Museum.'' 31. Of all the languages yet named, the Arabic has by far the richest modern hterature : and next to the Hebrew it is the most important of the Shemitish tongues. It is still spoken in a large portion of Asia, and in . . part of Africa. The two chief dialects of it are the ^ " ^ ■ Himyaritic, formerly spoken in Yemen, and now extinct, and the Coreitic spoken in the north-west of Arabia, and especially at Mecca. This was a spoken lan- guage long before the time of Mahomet, and is still the popular dialect. The old Arabic differs from this lan- guage in its forms, which are more various, and in its matter, which is more copious. 32. A colony of Arabians, speaking the Himyaritic, early . settled on the opposite side of the Bed Sea in Ethiopia, and introduced their language into that country. This language, modified by time and circumstances, is the ancient Ethiopic, which is closely related to the Arabic. The district where it was. spoken, is the modern Abyssinia, and Amharic, or Geez, is the present language of the people. 33. All these languages are of value in guiding the student Utmty of of the Old Testament, to an accurate knowledge of SkTtSS ^^® original tongue, and no Hebrew Lexicon can tion. be regarded as a satisfactory authority, unless com- piled with a constant refereiice to the meaning of the roots of Hebrew words in the cognate tongues. It is upon the know- ledge and use of these tongues that the superiority of modern lexicographers chiefly depends. The history of the Hebrew language may be divided into History of three periods, each of which has its peculiarities of the Hebrew, g^yle and idiom. ^ At Oxford there is a Liturgia Damascena in Samaritan : whence Gesenius has given a complete view of Samaritan theology. Do Sam. Theol., Halle, 1822. 16 HEBREW : ITS PROGRESS. 34. (i.) The first includes the language as spoken in the In the days d&js of Moses, and as used in the Pentateuch. In of Moses. those books are forms of construction and phrase- ology not found elsewhere. "Words are introduced, which seem soon afterwards to have become obsolete ; or they are used in senses which early became unintelligible. Sometimes a knowledge of this pecuhar usage is important only, as sup- plying evidence of the antiquity of the books : sometimes it affords access to the meaning of particular passages. (2.) In the post-Mosaic period there is a marked change. The Golden ^^"^ words are introduced ; old ones seem for- period. gotten. New forms of expression become common, and some found in the Pentateuch are gradually discontinued ; a process which goes on till the days of David, who writes the language in great purity and elegance. To this period belong the writings of Solomon and the books of Judges, of Samuel, and of Ruth. The older prophets, Jonah, Amos, Hosea, write in a style of simplicity and harshness, not found in their im- mediate successors : but stih. their language is pure. Isaiah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Obadiah, are remarkable for the beauty of their style ; and the Hebrew is generally pure, though in some of them as in ]\Iicah, and in part of Isaiah, there are forms of speech (chiefly Aramaean), that bespeak the admixture of a foreign element. AU these writers belong, however, to the golden period of the Hebrew tongue, (3.) Zephaniah (the contemporary of Josiah) Jeremiah, The period of Daniel, and Ezekiel, belong to the third period, and the decline. ^11 exhibit the influence of intercourse with fo- reigners : as do the writings that appeared during or imme- diately after the exile — Ezra, Esther, and Nehemiah : all these writers employ words and phrases, which in the early purer state of the Hebrew were not known. The later prophets, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, again write in j)urer idiom, chiefly in consequence of the Hebrew having become during the captivity, a written, rather than a spoken tongue. As they wrote their predictions, it was less necessary to use forms of expression which were famihar chiefly in conversation. Their predictions, it was probably the part of the prophets to explain.'' "■ A few examples will explain these statements : "To be added to his people" is a phrase peculiar to the Penta- HEBREW : PROGRESS. 17 35. Of the Hebrew of all these periods, it may be remarked PecuUarity, ^^^^ i^ ^^s few roots ; SO that words have often Few roots, secondary or analogical meanings. Many phrases, therefore, sound strange to our ears, and some are susceptible of fanciful interpretations. 36. These facts give evidence of the antiquity, and of the Importance successive composition of different parts of Scrip- of these facts, ture. They also illustrate the importance of as- certaining the meaning attached to words at the time when each writer used them, before investigating their meaning, as employed in later or earher times. teuch, meaning ''to die." ''To sleep with his father" is the common phrase in later books. The word "people" is always applied in the Pentateuch to the Jews. In the prophets the mean- ing is more extended, Hos. 9. i : Isa. 11. 10. The expression "Arise, 0 Lord," was at fii-st used in lifting up and caiTying the ark as a prayer, soliciting the Divine presence. In the Psalms it often means. Assist and help. In the Pentateuch there are many words and forms pecuhar, which however are translated as ordinary words — |''P for species, 22\) for DDi to curse, tJ^Dl for property, [^ ^ fine Hnen, for ^^-ll the later word, Ex. 26, i: i Chron. 15. 27. See also Gen. 15. 9: Deat. 32. 11 (?Tb for |3), Ex. 2. 20, &c. Of such phrases Jahn has reckoned in the Pentateuch upwards of two hundred. Foreigxi words are all Egyptian, Gen. 41. 2, iH (-iriN): 41. 45, where Joseph is called "Saviour of the world" (Jerome). See Jablonski Opera i. 45, 374: ii. 160, and Rosenmiiller's Scholia on Old Testament, i. 30-32. So in other books. Job has several grammatical and other pecu- liarities, 3. 2 (p. pual m'n), 4. 12: 26. 14 (whisper), 4. 18 (hearer), 5. 26: 30. 2 (age), 5. 2: 17. 7 (indignation). Jerome observed, and Schultens proved, that the language of Job is peculiarly rich in S^T-iac expressions, and also in Aramaisms, 4. 2: 39. 9: 16. 19. For words and phrases peculiar to later writers, see i Chron. 21. 23 (L]^:;niD), i Chron. 2. 13 (^t^^^S*), Esther 4. n (ID^nTt?'), i Chron. 18. 5, 6: I Chron. lo. 12 (na^-l for n»11l), 2 Chron. 11. 21 (HK^X i^y^i for r[\P, Gen. 4. 19). For Peraian words see In ahum 3. 17, captain, or satrap. Esther 3. 9: Ezra 5. 17, treasures — gaz, hence Gaza. For Assyrian words, see proper names, K^ebu — planet Mer- cury : Merodach — planet ISIars. Chaldaisms need not be enu- merated. See HavernJck's Introduction, §§ 31-35. 18 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. HellenistiCj or Hehrew-Oreek of the New Testament^ and LXX, 37. The 1 6th century witnessed a singular discussion. Nevr Testa- Erasmus ai>d L. Valla, happening to affirm that ment-Greek: the Greek of the New Testament was corrupted ou^itrtme"^ with Hebraisms, both of words and idioms, were character. opposed by H. Stephens with great vehemence. In his preface to the New Testament (a.d. 1576), he undertook to prove that the Greek of the inspired writers was pure and idiomatic. A long controversy springing out of these asser- tions, the respective parties were called Purists and Hel- lenists, or Hebraists. The topic was deemed important on several grounds : 1. It involved questions of theology ; for, if the writers of the Bible be inspired, ought they not to write, it was asked, in pure Greek ? Could inspired men . do anything as such that was im- perfect. 2. On the other side it was deemed important as a question of e^^dence ; for, if the Greek of the New Testament is Hebraistic, this fact is a proof that it was written by Jews, and probably in Judaea. 3. By all it is admitted to involve an important canon of inter- pretation ; for if the dialect of the New Testament is pecuhai', the study of the common tongue {h x.oir/i) is not sufficient for the inter- pretation of Scripture. The Greek of the New Testament and of the LXX is likely, it was held, to have rules and principles of its own. 38. Both parties seeru to have forgotten in the heat of con- troversy, that the question was purely one of facts, and was not to be settled in the first instance, by any such considera- tions. The truth is, that the Greek of the New Testament is iieaiiy Hei- Hellenistic : a truth, which once ascertained, sug- leiiistic. gests important lessons. The perfection of in- spired composition is clearly not so much classic purity, as intelligibleness and adaptation to its proper end. The Greek of Scripture was evidently written by Hellenists, i.e., by Jews who spoke Greek, and whose modes of thought were formed on Hebrew originals. Hence, important evidence of the truth of their record. Hence, also, an instructive rule of in- terpretation. The prime source of biblical interpretation, is clearly the Bible itself: and we must gather thence, as far as GREEK : ITS DIALECTS, 19 possible, the meauing and illustrations of its terms. These are all important lessons, but the fact on which they are founded must first be established, before we can safely apply them ; least of all can they be taken as proof of the fact itself. 39. The Greek tongue is itself a mixture of dialects. The Hellenians or Greeks, consisted originally of several Greek. : its tribes, of whom two, the Dorians and lonians, were elements. ^^^-^^^ The Doric dialect is first in time and in influence : it is rough and broad-sounding. Among its chief writers are Pindar, Sappho, Theocritus, and Bion. The Ionic is second in time. It is soft and smooth, was spoken at first in Attica, and then, as the lonians migrated to Asia Minor, in that district. Among its authors are Herodotus and Anacreon. The Attic was formed after the lonians left Attica, and oc- cupies in quahty, a middLe place between the Ionic and Doric. The chief Greek authors wrote in this dialect : Thucidydes, Plato, Xenophon, Demosthenes, ^schy- lus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes. After the freedom of Greece was destroyed by Phihp of HeUenic, Macedon, these dialects were blended, and the Hel- or 7) Kotjoj. lenic or common dialect was formed, of which the base was Attic. On the death of Alexander, the j)eople of Macedon and Alexandria occupied the first place in literature, as in power, and from their influence, Macedonian and Alexan- Alexandrian. ,..,., ■ /-< ^ drian idioms became common in Greece, and es- pecially in Egypt and the East. At Alexandria, many Jews resided. There the Septuagint was written, and as the writers were Jews, the Alexandrian Greek which they spoke, was modified so as to embody the thoughts and idioms of the Hebrew. And this is the language of the New Testament. It is Hel- lenistic, or more properly, Hebrew-Greek : the later Greek, Elements ^^^^ is, chiefly Attic, with a mixture of other enmnerated. dialects, and the whole modified by Jews who had resided in Alexandria, and in Palestine. Hence words and phrases from foreign sources, Aramsean, Latin, Persian, Egyptian : hence words pecuhar in their orthography, or form, in their mflexion or gender : hence words common to 20 HELLENISTIC GREEK. the ancient dialects, but not usual in the Hellenic, and hence also words and phrases in senses pecuharly Jewish or Christian. Aramaean expressions maybe seen, Mark 14. 36 (abba). Acts i. 19 (field of blood), Mark 3. 17 (sons of thunder). Matt. 5. 22 (vain, foolish). Latin words. Matt. 10. 29 : 18. 28: 5. 26: 17. 25: 27.27, 65: 26. 53: Mark 15. 39: Luke 19. 20: John 2. 15 : Acts 19. 12 : and phrases, Matt. 12. 14: Mark 15. 15 : Luke 12. 58 : Acts 17. 9: Persian expressions. Matt. 27. 32 : Acts 8. 27: Matt. 2. i: Mark 6. 11: Luke 23. 43 (paradise, a garden of beautiful trees) : Egyptian expressions. Matt. 27. 59: Luke 24. 12. For a full account of grammatical and other peculiarities, see Planck's Treatise on the nature and character of the Greek style of the New Testament, Bib. Repository, 1831, p. 638. See also a brief account in M. Stuart's Syntax of the New Testament. 40. The grand lesson taught by these facts, is thalf while we need a knowledge of Greek generally, in order to read the New Testament, we need, in order to understand it, a knowledge of New Testament Greek, and of the Old Testament version. So essential is this knowledge, that a merely Enghsh reader, with only his English Bible, may understand the New Testament better than the scholar who brings to the investigation of a particular passage, only classical acquisitions. 41. For aid in studying Hebrew, see the ordinary grammars Aids to the and dictionaries of that language. In studying study of the Hellenistic Greek, see Winer's Idioms : any good hew Testa- ' '' ° ment. grammar of the New Testament, and Thiersch de Pentateuchi Versione Alexandrina. The " Englishmen's He- brew and English," and " Greek and English " Concordances, are of great value to a mere English student. The careful study of the LXX, compared with the Hebrew and the New Testament, is of course the best aid. " Sec. 3. The Manuscripts of Scripture. 42. In speaking of the MSS. of Scripture, we have mentioned their age, and their comparative value, it is now tiie^age'of"" necessary to state the facts on which these dis- ^^^- tinctions rest. How, it may be asked, is it pos- sible to ascertain the age of a MS., often fragmentary, and " See Preface. CRITICISM : ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS. 21 How ascer- generally exposed to influences, which cannot have tained. failed to obscure or modify the evidence of its date and character. 43. In answering this question, it may be observed, that in some MSS. the date is inscribed upon them ; and from dates on when this inscription is by the first hand, and the MS. Itself. Q^^ier evidence is confirmatory, it is regarded as pretty decisive. Such inscriptions, however, are never found on MSS. earlier than the loth century. 44. Sometimes the traditional or known history of a MS. afibrds important aid. The Cod. Alex. (A), for Or from Its , ^ . , ,, , . ■, „ ^ known his- example, was given by the patriarch of Constanti- ^°^' nople (Cyril Lucar), to Charles I., with the tradition inscribed upon it in Arabic, that it was written by Thecla, an Egyptian princess, who hved not long after the first council of Nice, A.D. 325 : a tradition supported by internal evidence. 45. In most cases, however, the question of date is more GeneraUyby intricate, and can be settled only after a careful ^f^ffi^uit*^ investigation of somewhat abstruse evidence, sup- evidence, phed by the material on which the MS. is written, the form of the letters, and the general style of the writing. 46. Some parts of the ancient Scriptures were written on skins tanned, or dyed red or yellow. In use, these material on skins Were generally connected, so as to contain on Sp^sTrT"" o^e ^^^^ ^^ volume, ^ an entire portion of the Bible, written. as the Pentateuch, or the Prophets. Some of the Skins. most ancient MSS. in the world are copies of the Pentateuch in this form. Next in durability was the parchment of the ancients, so called from Pergamos, the town where it was first made. Most MSS. which have come down to us, earher than the 6th century, are on this material. Sometimes tables of wood^ or of stone, called caudices or codices, were employed : hence the term codex came to be apphed to a MS. on any material. For legal purposes, where durability was important, the use of such tables was very frequent, and from this cir- cumstance a system of laws was called a code. •* Isa. 8. i: Jer. 36. 2: Zech. 5. i. ^ Ex. 32. 15: Deut. 6. 9: Isa. 30. 8: Hab. 2. 2: Luke i. 63: 2 Cor. 3. 3. 22 ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS : AGE. These tables were written on in* their natural state (or when used for temporary purposes covered with wax), with an iron needle called a stylus. From the name of this instrument our term style is taken. For many ages the article most in use was made from the P^-Pyrus, or flag of Egypt. By the Romans espe- cially this manufacture was carried to great per- fection. Towards the end of the pth century, however, the papyrus was very much superseded by paper made from the cotton plant (not unlike the present paper of India and China) ; and a little later, in the loth and nth centuries, old hnen was substituted in the manufacture for the raw material. Notices of these different materials occur occasionally in Tjjese ■ ancient profane writers. Herodotus mentions the materials skins of goats and sheep roughly dressed as being mentioned , . n t^ by ancient uscd by the lonians (v. 58). Pausamas says that authois. YxQ saw in Boeotia the works of Hesiod engraved on lead (ix. 31). Roman laws were often written on tables of brass, and Pliny states that papyrus was in use long before the Trojan war (b.c. 1184), Nat. His. xii. 21-29. "Libros linteos," books of cotton cloth, are also mentioned by Livy. The material 47. MSS. on all these materials are known to the ascertaL the antiquarians, and from the material an inquirer is ^^- . aided in ascertaining their age and origin. 48. The earliest specimens of Greek writing, the dates of which are known, are books found among the ruins of Her- culaneum and Pompeii. These cities were destroyed a.d. 79. The books recently found there are, at latest, of writing and that date, and consist of sheets of the papyrus, let™? connected together with gum and rolled. The i^iss. of writing runs across the volume, is in capital or ompeu. i^ncial letters, without any division of words or sentences, without accents or ornaments, and with but very few pause marks. These books give evidence of the most ancient style of writing, and are older than any MS. of the New Testament Scriptures. In the Imperial hbrary of Vienna there is a copy of an MS. of ancient work by Dioscorides, the copy written for Lioscorides. ^he daughter of one of the early emperors of Co'^i- Btantinople, and certainly belonging to the 5th century. It ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS : AGE. 23 agrees in the shape of its letters, and in the absence C5. 0 ag.. ^^ ^^ ornaments and marks, with the MSS. of Her- culaneum. These pecuharities suggest important tests of age. 49. In the earhest times the Ijs'ew Testament was divided Division of ^^^^ three parts : the Gospels {to evayyiXiov), the. dSa'^teSl Epistles and Acts (ro 'A-oaroXiKoy), and the Reve- testofage. lation (// aTTOKaXvxI/ig). In the 3rd century the Gospels were divided into two kinds of chapters, the longer called titXoi, or breves ; the shorter tcecpaXaia, or capitula. The latter were originally introduced by Ammonius, and were thence called Ammonian sections. In the 4th century they were in common use in the Gospels, and to these sections Eusebius adapted his tables of references, called from him the Eusebian Canons (a.d. 3x5-340). 50. In the latter part of the same century (360), Chrysostom Illumination speaks of the practice of writing biblical MSS. on a test of age. -^j^e finest parchment and in letters of gold and silver, as already introduced. Various 51- In tbe year 458 Euthalius pubhshed an edi- other^ts. tion of the Epistles of Paul, in which he gave, for Euthaiian, the first time, the contents of the chapters. In contents^ °^ 49° he divided the Acts and the Epistles into sec- tions. He himself states also that he introduced accents ; accents into MSS. copied under his supeiTision, — a custom, however, which did not become common till the subscriptions ^^^ century. He also added to the books of the to various New Testament the subscriptions which are stiU found in the Enghsh version. To make MSS. more legible, Euthahus further divided them into lines, called a-L^oi, stichometric consisting in some instances of as many letters as divisions; ^ould be placed in the width of a page, and in others of as many words as could be read uninterruptedly. This style of writing soon became common. In the 8th cen- dots • *^^^' ^ow®"^6r, the lines ceased to be written sepa- rately, and were indicated only by dots. In the same century other marks of punctuation were introduced, and later still the stichometrical dots were omitted, form of In the 7th century lectionaries, that is, MSS. of letters; Scripture lessons for use in public service, were 24 ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS : AGE. lectionary multiplied, and about the same time the letters iu gospels; which MSS. were written began to be compressed and sUghtly indined. In the 8th century these changes were stops • s^i-^ more marked ; in the 9th the note of interro- gation and the comma were introduced ; in the letter; loth the cursive style of writing had nearly super- chapter and seded the uncial ; and in the 1 2th the present aiuestsof division of chapters -was introduced by Hugo de age. Sancto. 52. From these facts various rules are deduced : — Negative -^ ^^- ^^^ ^^® present division of chapters and results: verses, is not earlier than the 12th century : A MS. on cotton is not earlier than the i ith century : A MS. in cursive character than the loth century : A MS. with compressed or inclined uncials, or with notes of interrogation or commas, than the 9th century : A MS, systematically punctuated, or marking the ortj^oi, with points or with ornamented initials, than the 8th century : A MS. in uncial letters, divided into hues or accented, or with the Euthahan divisions or titles or subscriptions, than the 5th century : A IMS. with Eusebian canons, than the 4th century. 53. These rules lead (it will be observed) to negative conclusions only. When the facts are appHed to Positive. ascertain positive results, much minute inquiry and skilful criticism is necessary. Full information may be ob- tained in the books mentioned below. On the whole subj ect see Montfaucon's Palgeographia Grseca. Hug's Introduction to the New Testament, ch. vi. Scott Porter's Lectures on Bib, Crit., and Michaelis' Introduction (4th edit.), vol, ii. 54. These results and the facts on which they are founded were reached at a comparatively recent period, and these^tests after protracted inquiry. In the mean time pro- Sioli gress was made in other processes of investigation, criticism which led to results no less important. These ?^ ASx)^New results will be best understood if our remarks be Testament, thrown into the narrative form. 55. The received texts of the Greek Testament is founded. The textus ^s we have seen (par, 10), on the texts of Erasmus leceptus, and of the Complutensian editors. Both thesa CRITICISM : HISTORY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT TEXT. 25 texts wore printed from modem MSS., and therefore, com- paratively speaking, the authority of the " received text" is not high. The examination of early MSS. was the work of many years. London I* began with the London Polyglot (1657), which Polyglot. added to previous editions the readings of sixteen MSS,, and supphed the renderings of ancient versions. Curce'iffius. Curcellseus also examined several MSS. for an edition of the New Testament which Elzevir printed Dr. Fell. jq 1658. In 1675 Dr. Fell pubhshed an edition with the readings of forty more, and selected Dr. Mill to com- plete a more thorough revision of MSS. and versions. To this work Dr. ]Mill devoted thirty years, and gave in his edition the readings of a large number of MSS. not previously examined, and also the readings of the early Fathers. In 1734 these readings were further augmented by Bengei. ^^^ labours of Bengel. Forty years after MiU, the edition of Wetstein was published (i 751), in 2 vols, fol. His text is the Received ; but he applies the results of his inquiry to the correction in notes of the text wherever he deemed it faulty. Upwards of forty years later still, Griesbach apphed the rules and investigations of Wetstein to a correction of the text itself (1796-1806), and added many various readings which his own inquiries had discovered. In the meantime other important additions to our know- ledge had been made. In 1782-8 Matthsei, of Moscow, pubhshed an edition, remarkable chiefly for containing the readings sanctioned by what was after- wards called the Constantinopohtan recension : while Alter, at Vienna (1786, 7), Birch and Adler, in Italy, Moldenhauer and Tychsen, in Spain, and others else- where, were busy completing inquiries which were to supply Griesbach with the materials of his critical apparatus. The results were embodied in the edition of the New Testament, pubhshed by Birch, at Copenhagen. 56. On comparing the evidence which these investigations Griesbach's disclosed, Griesbach found (as his predecessors had ^vmon 0 intimated) that characteristic readings distin- readings. guished certain MS. Fathers and versions, and that they were all divisible into three classes : MSS. &c., having one c 26 CRITICISM : HISTORY OP THE NEW TESTAMENT TEXT. set of readings, being said by him to belong to the Alexandrian family or recension ; those with another set to the Constanti- nopolitan ; and those with another set to the Western. This conclusion, supposing it well founded, was a most Its important discovery. It changed the whole science, importance. Hithefto the reading favoured by most MSS, had been regarded as having the best evidence on its side ; but from this time not the number of individual MSS. in favour of a reading, but the number of famihes, became the great question. In later times Scholz, who devoted many years to this Schoiz's work, divided Greek MSS. of the New Testament division. f^^^gt into five, and then finally into two families,' — ■ the Alexandrian, which includes the Western of Griesbach, and the Constantinopolitan. Of the three classes, Griesbach himself attached most importance to the Alexandrian and Western families ; Scholz, on the contrary, preferred the read- ings of the Constantinopolitan ; Hahn and Lachmann, it may be added, agree in substance with Scholz, but attach import- ance, the first to internal evidence, and the second to the antiquity of MSS. 57. It must be added that though later inquiries have not set aside this principle of classification, they have thrown doubt upon it. It is now a question whether Griesbach's conclusions be not an instance of those hasty generahzations which impede almost as much as they aid the progress of true science. This suspicion is strengthened by the inquiries of Dr. Lawrence, of Dubhn. Proposals have been for some time before the world for the pubhcation of a text founded not on famihes of MSS., but on the readings sanctioned by the most ancient authorities. Dr. Bentley first suggested this principle. Lachmann has practically acted upon it to a large . extent ; and Dr. TregeUes now proposes to adhere to it strictly in his intended edition of the New Testament. Whether antiquity alone, however, is a satisfactory test, may be gravely questioned. The earhest transcribers were subject to local influences as well as the later. Cursive manuscripts, of late date, may be accurate copies of very early ones, which are now Jost, and their testimony is not to be disregarded ; and, more- over, if there be any ground for the division of MSS. into fomilies, mere antiquity may be like mere numbers, a deluaioD and snare. UNCIAL MANUSCRIPTS. 27 •I g -s^ H ^ h •a S b .-^ •a Wets. Cons. Weta. Mill ; used I Mill. Semler Const. Col. stein. Const. II 11 i ■5 It : 1^: reac ke, I . . o • • : M '■ . "S v^ ll-l 3 S OM ^ - .-2 » ^'1 o t:%%i -.§1 I -I ^"1 ill si h:?se1 <- p CO 50 « aj "o -^ "3 "p c£ tw Sfl HJ J ^ 4: ^ ^^^^s ^ ij S " • I Ji ? ^ 1^ :s l^-g-g&a ^ ^? f s li ^ Za p !> p5 P pd (1, p fi5 1_^ p^ tH« 28 UNCIAL MANUSCRIPTS. O ^ CO a, « O § (5 S" X X* >^' '^. 0) « a> ^ ^H i^ I o o © o^ o « I* s.: ;2 «H. ^ <« St^ 4) O 0) O J O tn L, CO T: tj tL <= 3 o Sl2 S C5 PM O fi^(S a S § . » 8 (S .S p.M"5bc Wc 9.2 re's ""^ r^-2S^^-^J?S ^ 5 'z: .3 s _ ^ _ QUp - - .=3 S •a, |§|sr§| d" «« ccHtJ > f: >< P^-sjP^' MANUSCRIPTS : NEW AND OLD TESTAMENT TEXTS. 29 59. In addition to these uncial MSS. Griesbach has given Total the numbers, contents, and dates of 236 cursive Sl[ ■''^^^^•' ^ *° ^3^ 5 Matthsei of 23 more, 237 to 259 ; examined. Scholz of 270, which he for the first time collated either in whole or in part, 260 to 469. Particulars may be seen in the introductory explanations of the editions of the New Testament by Griesbach, Matthaei, Scholz, and Tischen- dorf ; also in Home ii., part i, ch. iii, § 2, and partly in Scott Porter's Criticism, p. 304. Of Lectionaries, Scholz enumerates 176 Gospels, and 48 from the -Acts and Epistles (Praxapostoli). Of the former, one (No. 135) is referred by him to the 6th century, and most to periods between the loth and 15th. Scholz enumerates in all, — Uncial MSS. Cursive MSS. Of Gospels 27 469 Acts and CathoUc Epistles 8 J92 Paul's Epistles . 9 246 Revelation 3 88 Many other codices have never been collated, of which 31 Others still are enumerated by Home as existing in hbraries in unexamined, -j^i^jg country, and others are known to be preserved in libraries on the Continent. 60. The history of the Hebrew text is much briefer. The process of inquiry which was undertaken in the 2. Applied case of the Greek text within the last two centuries Hebrew text "^'^^ undertaken for the Old Testament a thousand of the Old years earlier at Tiberias. There, existing MSS. were revised and compared, and a text was formed, on the whole very fair and accurate. This text is called the Masoretic Masoretic, and nearly all recent investigations have ^rf *'n and ended in sustaining generally its readings. On the accuracy. dispersion of the Jews through the influence of Mahommedanism, their learned men moved westward into Spain, Italy, and Central Europe, carrying with them the Ma- soretic text of Scripture, and in process of time multiplying the editions (as they may be called) to meet the wants of their nation. The value of these editions differed, according to the care with which they were written. As a matter of fact, the Spanish MSS. are generally most accurate : next in accuracy are the Itahan. and last, the G erman 30 HISTORY OP THE OLD TESTAMENT TEXT. 6i. It IS an instance of the slow progress of tnith, that Buxtorf, one of the greatest Hebrew scholars, main- The complete . i • i i i i i / accuracy tamed, m the 1 7th century, the absolute uniformity questioned, ^f ^^ ^^gg^ ^f ^^^ Hebrew text. GappeUus (1650) was among the first to combat this view, and Bishop Walton, Critical "the editor of the London Polyglot, having sided with JoSSSced Cappellus, commenced the work of forming a critical London apparatus. From this time, the coUation of Hebrew Polyglot, MSS. was made with vigour, and the results soon appeared in the publication of an improved text. In 1667, Athias, a rabbi and printer of Amsterdam, pub- lished a Hebrew Bible, the text of which was founded on MSS. and printed editions. In 1690, Jablonski published, Jabionski. at Berhn, a critical edition, and in 1705 the very Van der accurate edition of Van der Hooght was printed at °°^ ■ Amsterdam. His text is formed on that of Athias, with Masoretic readings in the margin, and a collection of various readings at the end. In 1709 Opitz, at Kiel, and in 1720 1. H. Michaelis, at HaUe, also published editions of critical value; and in 1746-53 Houbigant published, at Paris, a splendid edition in 4 vols, foho, though its value is much diminished by the number of conjectural emendations embodied in the notes and translation. In the ^ . same year Kennicott pubhshed his first Dissertation on the state of the printed Hebrew text, and in 1776-80 his Hebrew Bible was printed at Oxford. The text is that of Van der Hooght, with the various readings of 692 different authorities, including MSS., printed editions, and rab- binical writings. In 1784-8, De Rossi, of Parma, published 5 vols, of extracts from Hebrew MSS. : and in 1793 the most important readings of Kennicott and De Rossi were published in an edition issued at Leipzig 1793, Jahn ^^^ Doederlein and Meisner, and at Vienna by Jahn, 1806, as they were also in the English edition of the Hebrew Scriptures pubhshed in 1810-16 by Boothroyd. 62. The result of all these inquiries is, that we have but one Result: but class of MSS., the Masoretic, and that the variations of ]\fss"and °^ reading in them do not exceed those of one readings. family of MSS. of the Greek Testament. An edition of the Hebrew Bible which shall give the readings sanctioned HISTORY OP THE OLD TESTAMENT TEXT. 31 by ancient versions is still needed ; but so far as ibe accuracy of tbe present text is concerned, such a work is rather curious than important. 63. The general uniformity of Hebrew MSS. makes a classi- Number of fication of them less important than in the case of Heb.iiss. Greek MSS. Kennicott mentions 630, of which 258 were collated by him throughout, the remainder only in part. De Rossi collated 751, of which all but 17 were collated for the first time. Many others remain uncollated. (SeeJahn's Hebrew Bible, vol. iv. App.) Though, as aheady stated, there is but one recension, the Masoretic, it seems that in the loth century the Jews at Babylon had one set of readings, and those at Tiberias another. Hence arose the distinction of Eastern and Western and Western famihes. Bishop Walton, in his Polyglot, has given fanuiies. ^-^^ difierences on which this distinction is founded. They are differences in the letters, and are about 220 in all, none of which, however, materially affects the sense ; and in the vowel points, these amounting to about 860. In reference to the first, our printed editions vary from the Eastern read- ings in 55 places ; in reference to the second, they follow the Masoretic text as fixed at Tiberias. Particular copies were long celebrated for accuracy, but only their traditional fame has descended to our times. 64, It is a summary proof of the general accuracy of the present text, that the Jew agrees with the Christian in the letter of the Old Testament, and the Ro- manist with the Protestant in the letter of the New. On this subject see Home, vol. ii. part i. ch. ii. § i : Scott Portex', p. 75 : Bishop Marsh's Lectures on the Criticism and Interpretation of the Bible : and Davidson's Bib. Cr., vol. i. * Sec. 4. The Ancient Versions of Scripture. 65. The origin and history of the LXX were long matters of controversy, though now the questions connected with it may be regarded as settled. The story of Aristeas, a writer who pretends to be a Gentile and favourite at the court of Ptolemy Philadelphus, is, that this version wa,s "See Preface. 32 CRITICISM : ANCIENT VERSIONS. made by seventy-two Jews (six from each tribe) sent to Alex- andria by Eleazar at the request of Demetreus Phalareus, and that the whole was completed in seventy-two days. To this story various additions were made, claiming miraculous inter- position for the work, and infallibihty for the translators. Dr. Hody first proved that the narrative could not be authentic : though nothing has been discovered that materially affects either the value or the date of the version. Eegarding the work critically, it may be observed that it contains many Graeco-Egyptian words, and that the Pentateuch is translated with much more accuracy than the other books. The Book of Job, the Psalms, and the prophets, are all inferior, and especially Isaiah and Daniel. The historical books are often inaccurately translated. In the early Christian church the version was deemed of great value, tlaough writers often appealed against it to the Origen's Hebrew. With the view of correcting it, Origen Hexapia. formed his Hexapla. This work, which made afto- gether fifty volumes, perished probably at the sacking of Csesarea by the Saracens, 653 a.d. ; but happily the text of the LXX (which formed one of the columns) had been copied by Eusebius, together with the corrections or additions which Origen had inserted from the other translators. This Hexa- plarian text, as it is called, was published by Montfaucon at Paris, in 17 14. Of the two celebrated MSS. of the LXX, the Vatican (B) follows the original version, while the Alexandrian (A) exhibits many of the readings embodied in the Hexapla, and conforms more generally to the present Hebrew. The four chief printed editions of the LXX are — the Aldine, exhibiting many of the readings of B ; the Complutensian, which often foUows the Masoretic Hebrew and Origen's Hexapla ; the Koman or Vatican ; 9Jid the Grabian, which is taken chiefly from A. The version is rather free than literal, and frequently misses the sense of the original. It is often valuable iu interpretation, though less so in settling the text, 66. Among the earhest versions founded on the LXX was the Versions Italic. In the days of Augustine (died 430) there I'^xK ^^^ were several Latin versions of the Bible, of which 1. TiieltaUc. the old Italic was the best. Jerome bears the same testimony to its general excellence. It was made, as may be CRITICISM : ANCIENT VERSIONS. 33 gathered from fragments which still remain,^ from the Alex- andrian ]MS., and is ascribed by Eichhorn to the ist century. 67. The diversities and imperfections of this version induced Jerome (a.d. 382) to revise the text, as Origen had previously revised the version of the LXX. He employed for this purpose the Hexapla of Origen, and carefully corrected the whole of the Old Testament, though portions only of his revision remain. As these labours of Jerome were drawing to a close, the LXX, though long favourably received by the Jews, began to fall into disrepute, on the ground, probably, that it was appealed to by Christians. To meet this feehng, Jerome undertook to prepare a translation into Latin direct from the Hebrew. He devoted the larger portion of twenty years to this work, and it was completed in 405. A superstitious reverence for the LXX led many to oppose this version, but it gradually gained influence, and in the time of Gregory the Great (604) it had at least a co-ordinate authority, and was dignified with the name of the Vulgate. The text was made up in Vulgate in part from the old Itahc, in part from Jerome's im- part, proved edition of that version, and is in part a new- version formed immediately from the Hebrew. Jerome was acquainted with Hebrew expositors, and many of their inter- pretations are embodied in the Vulgate, but generally it follows the LXX, even when that version differs from tiie Hebrew. It is more useful for interpretation than for criticism, though for both it is of value. The version of the Psalms was made from Origen's Hexapla, and is called the Psalterium GaUicanum. The text was early corrupted, and various learned men have undertaken to revise it, among whom are Alcuin and Lanfranc. The two chief editions are those of Sixtus v. and Clement viiL, which, however, though both sanctioned by papal autho- rity, contain some most remarkable errors.*' (See par. 76.) 68. Ecclesiastical history places the conversion of Ethiopia Other about A.D. 330, and to the same century belongs theTxx.^^"^ the translation of the Scriptures into Gheez, the contmued. sacred language of Ethiopia. Its author is not Ethiopic. known. Perfect copies of the Old Testament are not common, though Bruce states that he found several ; and * Job, Psalms, some of the Apocrypha, and parts of other books. ^ Of the Vxilgate, as prepared by Jerome, the most unportant MS. is the C. Amiatinus, now at Florence, and written about the year 54.1.- c 3 34 CRITICISM : ANCIENT VERSIONS. there are MSS. of this version in some of the hbraries of Europe. Only fragments have been printed. The text follows the readings of A, and is foimded entirely on the LXX. The New Testament has all been printed. The text seems to be founded on the Peshito and the old Itahc. — See Ludolf, Gieseler, and the Travels of Bruce. The greater part of the Old Testament is also extant in the 4, 5. Coptic, Coptic and Thebaic, dialects of Egypt, though only Thebaic. ^ portion has been printed. The most probable date of their origin is the 3rd and 4th century, though some suppose them to have been made as early as the ist and 2nd. Both are founded on the LXX, and generally follow the readings of A. The translators are not known. The Gothic version of the Bible was made by Ulphilas, a bishop of the Moeso-Goths, who assisted at the Council of Constantinople in 359. The version was made from the Greek, and is of considerable critical value, though unhappily only fragments of it remain. The most celebrated MS. is the Codex Argenteus, written in silver letters, which is now preserved in the library of Upsal in Sweden. This MS. contains only the four Gospels, and is imperfect. Of the Armenian version little more is kno^vn than is stated in another paragraph. The date is 410, and the translator Miesrob, who seems to have used the LXX and the Alexandrian recension as the basis of his version. The Georgian version was made in the following century, from copies of the Armenian translation. The Armenian version has been repeatedly printed (Bible, Amst. 1666, New Testament, 1 668- 1 698), and the whole Bible, in Georgian, was printed at Moscow in 1743, parts of it having been previously printed at Tiflis. To the 9th century belongs the Slavic or Slavonic version, supposed to have been made by the sons of Leo, a Greek nobleman, who first preached the gospel to the Slavonians. It is generally regarded as a descendant of the LXX, though ancient testimony states that it was made, in great part, from the Italic, a statement which recent collation has confirmed. The text was early corrected from Greek MSS., and it is hence deemed of considerable critical value. The whole was printed in 1576, and several editions have since been issued from Moscow. CRITICISM : AXGIEXT YERSIOXft. 35 69. From the F^^/^ya^e were formed the various Anglo-Saxon Versions versions of parts of Scripture. About the year 706, from the Adhekn, the first bishop of Sherborn, translated Vulgate. ^i^g Psalms into Saxon, as did Egbert, the bishop of Holy Island, the four Gospels. About the same time Bede (A.D, 735) translated parts of the Bible, King Alfred imdertook to translate the Psalms, but died (900) when his work was about half finished. ^Ifric of Canterbury translated the Pen- tateuch and some of the historical books. To the same version we may ascribe the various translations of the Old Testament into French, Itahan, and Spanish, executed before the i6th century, and even Luther availed himself largely of its render- ings in making his German translation of the Bible.' 70. The Samaritan Pentateuch is rather a recension than a Samaritan translation of the Hebrew text. Copies are referred Pentateuch, ^q ]^j Eusebius and Cyril, but it was long thought that the whole had perished. In the early part of the 1 7th cen- tury, however, a copy was transmitted from Constantinople to Paris. Usher afterwards procured six copies, and Kennicott collated sixteen. The most probable account of this recension is, that it was taken from the copies of the Pentateuch which were in the hands of the Israelites in the days of Rehoboam, when the kingdom was divided. The Psalms and the writings of Solomon, which were known to pious Jews of that age, were rejected for obvious reasons. The critical value of the readings of this recension was Critical over-estimated at first, but now they are held to value. i^g not at aU superior to the Hebrew. The LXX seem to have followed it more frequently than the present Hebrew text, from which, however, it does not materially difier. Gesenius deems its readings preferable to the Hebrew in Gen. 4. 8, where it supplies the words, "Let us go into the field ;" in Gen. 14. 14, where it reads " he numbered," instead of "he armed ;" in Gen. 22. 13, where it omits the words " be- hind Jiirn ;" and in Gen. 59, 14, where the difierence is in expres- sion only and not in sense. The Samaritan is of great value in determining the history of the Hebrew vowels, and in con- firming the general accuracy of the present text, but it is not a source of valuable independent emendation. The characters in which it is written are probably the oldei forms of the Hebrew. 36 CRITICISM : ANCIENT VERSIONS. The ancient Samaritan Pentateuch must not be con- founded with the more modern Samaritan version which is printed with the other in the Polyglots. This is a very literal translation into modern Samaritan. 71. The Peshito version of the S-criptures w^as probably Syriac niade by those translators " who were sent to Horae Palestine by the apostle Jude and Abgarus king Syriacae. ^f Edessa." Such is the ancient tradition, and it is in itself sufficiently probable. From internal evidence it is behoved that the translators were Jewish Christians, and that they translated the Old Testament from the original Hebrew. It contains all the canonical books of the Old Testament, and all those of the New, except 2 Pet. : 2 and 3 John : Jude and the Eevelation. The text differs from all the chief families of MSS., and each in succession has claimed it. The New Tes- tament was first printed at Venice in 1555, and the Old Testa- ment in the Paris and London Polyglots. Internal evidence and tradition agree in ascribing it to the 1st century. It is of great critical value. Several ancient Arabic versions, and the Persian version of the Gospels (printed in the London Polyglot), were made from the Peshito. The Philoxenian (New Testament only) version was made from the Greek, by the hand, or under the care, or in the days of Philoxenius, Bishop of Maberg, in Syria, about the year 508. No MS. of it remains, but various readings taken from it are given in a MS. in the Vatican (153). Early in the following century Thomas of Harkel, or Heraclea, the successor of Philoxenius, began to revise the work of his predecessor, and published eracean. g^j^Q^j^gj. version in 616. It contains the whole of the New Testament except the Apocalypse. The most com- plete MS. of it is one which formerly belonged to Ridley, and is now preserved in New College, Oxford. The style is ex- tremely literal, and in consequence frequently violates the Syriac idiom. There is also a fourth Syriac version of Lessons from the Gospels (Vat. MS. 19). The date of the MS. is 1030, but the version seems to belong to the 5th or 7th century. The language is a mixture of Chaldee and Syriac. The readings generally favour the western recension ; and the MS. is some- times called the Palestino-Syriac or Jerusalem version. CRITICISM : VARIOUS READIXGS, 37 72. The Arabic versions of several of the books of Scripture,. Arabic as given in the Paris and London Polyglots, were versions. ^^^de from the LXX, by different authors be- tween the loth and 12th centuries ; and of Job, Chron., Judges, Euth, Samuel, and parts of other books from the Peshito Syriac. 73. From the same version was made the Persian version Persian of ^^^ Gospels, pubUshed with Le Glerc's Latin version. translation in the London Polyglot ; it abounds with Arabic expressions, and must have been later than the time of Mahomet, Another version of the same part of Scripture was published by Wheelock in 1652, but these, mth the more recent version made under the care of Nadir Shah 1 740-1, are of little critical value. 74. From these facts it is clear that the Samaritan Pen- ^ . tateuch, the LXX, part of the Vulgate, and the Peshito Syriac, are all more or less valuable for ascertaining the text of the original Hebrew ; but that other versions of the Old Testament being made from these, and not from the original are of httle or no critical value, except for ascertaining the text of those versions from which they were made. In the case of the New Testament all the earlier ver- sions from the Greek are of value, proportioned of course to the general condition of their texts, and to the obvious accu- racy with which they have been made. Modern versions (and to a great extent the ancient) are of value only as helps to interpretation. Full accounts of ancient versions may be seen in Le Long's BibHotheca Sacra (Masch's Edition), or in Home's Introduction, vol. ii. ^ Sec. 5. The various Readings of Scripture ; Rules for determining the Text. 75. Of Hebrew MSS. upwards of 1300 have been collated, Number of a^d of Greek upwards of 600. These numbers, it MSS. ^jl2 be observed, do not represent copies of com- plete Scriptures, but of parts only. Each of the three divisions of the Old Testament (par. 4,) forms in Hebrew one roll, and each of the New Testament divisions (par. 49,) generally forms one MS. in Greek. * See Preface. 38 CRITICISM : VARIOUS READINGS. 76. These MSS. have been exposed in transcription to many „ . . errors. Nor will this fact excite surprise if it is vrrious* remembered that carefully printed books often readings. contain numerous inaccuracies. In writing, the risk is of course much greater than in printing. Revision and correction are less practicable in the first than the second The slowness of the process increases the probabihty that letters, syllables, and words will be added, omitted, changed, or transposed. Sometimes the writer transcribed fi'om a MS. before him ; sometimes from dictation. In the latter case his ear frequently deceived him, and in the former, his eye. Dif- ferent words having often the same final syllable, or different sentences having the same final word, made mistakes the more easy. A misunderstanding of the MS. from which he copied would sometimes lead to the same result. He might eitlier misinterpret its abbreviations, or inaccurately divide the words, where they were written (as in most ancient MSS.) without pause marks ; or the MS. might be wholly or partially effaced. Independently, therefore, of design, these causes of error were always at work. The results, however, seldom aff'ect the meaning of the text materially (though they do so in some cases), and are similar to the mistakes produced in an English version by such errors of the press, as escaped the eye of even a careful reader. Diff'erences more serious may be seen in the Bibles printed " by authority " of the popes Sextus and Clement. Eody has given a large number of these discrepancies. Compare them in Prov. 25. 24 : Matt. 27. 35 : Judo-, 17. 2, 3 : which are left out in the Sixtine edition ; and in I Sam. 24. 8 : 2 Sam. 8,8: which are left out in the Clementine edition. They contradict one another, moreover in Josh. 2. 18 : 9. 19 : Exod. 32. 28 : Gen. 24. 24 : i Kings 2. 28. For example : — 77, (i) There are many cases in which, from the similarity Similarity of of sound or of form, the transcriber would naturally f^ ""^ ^^^^ ^ ^^"^^ reading. In Gen. 14. 5, the Heb. Sam. and LXX. read ''with them" (Dm), Behem. The English and seven Sam. MSS. read " in Ham " (Dn3), Becham. In Judges 8. 16, some Hebrew MSS. and the English read "he taught" (yn^), Yadah : but many MSS., the LXX, Chald., Arab., CRITICISM : VARIOUS READINGS. 39 Syr., and Vulg,, read ''he tore " (pi*'), Yadash, which is clearly the true reading. So in Numb. 22.5, where many read Ammon instead of "Ammo" (his people). In I Kings i. 18, " And noio" is our English version (Hni^l), Veatta but 200 MSS. and the Chald. read "And thou" (nriNI), Veatta. So ver. 20. In Jonah r. 9, "1 am a Hebrew" CHy), Ivri, is the reading of most MSS. and of the English: but the LXX and some MSS. read ""• 12]}, Ivdi, "the servant of Jehovah." N? lo (not) is put for r? lo (to him) fifteen times in the Old Testament, and the reverse twice. Though there is this change, the text which the Jews use, and which our Version translates, is in these places the correct one, except, perhaps, in one passage, 2 Kings 8. 10, where for "Go, say unto him. Thou mayest certainly recover," we ought to read, as the present Hebrew MSS., " Go, say Thou shalt not recover, for — " In Eph. 4. 19, some MSS. read "past hope" instead of "past feeling " (^u'^fikTiaon; for ci-prr,>-.yvixoTi;). Similar cases may be found in the Hebrew, of the following passages, i Sam. 20. 18: Psa. 59. 9. Under this same head may be placed the transposition of lettei-s, or even of words: as " Shalmai," Nehem. 7. 48. for Shamlai, see Ezra 2. 46: " almug-trees " for algum-trees ; i Kings 10. 11; 2 Chron. g. 10: In 2 Sam. 6. 5: and i Chron. 13. 8, "all manner of fir- wood," and " with all their might and with singing" differ chiefly in one similar letter and in the transposition of another. See also Hebrew of 2 Sam. 6. 2, compared with i Chron. 13.6. The Jews never pronounced the name Jehovah, but when it oc- curred in Scripture read Adonai or Elohim. These latter words are consequently often put in MSS. for the former. We have noticed elsewhere how similar letters have beeh con- founded in the case of numerals (par. 117), a confusion the more easy in the early stage of the Hebrew language, as the letters more closely resembled one another than at present. Similarity ot 7^- (2) Similarity of ending, either of words or endings. ^f whole Sentences, sometimes created mistake. There are different readings in i Chron. 9. 5, from this cause. I Kings 14. 23 seems to belong to this class: compare 2 Chron. 12. 29. See also the Hebrew of Numb. 26. 3; and compare Psa. 37. 28 with the LXX. In P^xod, 30. 6, " before the mercy-seat that is over the testi- mony " is a repetition, probably, of the previous clause. 40 CRITICISM : VARIOUS READINGS. In Matt. 28, 9, the expression " went to tell his disciples" (which is in Greek the same as "to bring his disciples word" in the eighth verse) is omitted in many MSS., B, D, and also in the Vulg., Syr., Copt., Arm., Fers., Arab., Chrys.. Jer., Aug. : but it is found in most MSS. On the other hand, the last clause of i Cor. 10. 28, is taken from ver. 26, and is wanting in A, B, D, in most ancient versions, and in many other authorities. 79. (3) A large class of various readings owe their origin to the use of synonymous expressions : as " he synonymous spoke " for " he Said," in 2 Kings i . 10 : " they found " exprebsions. ^^^ ^^ j^^^ saw" {evpov for dloy), Matt. 2. II : " this very world" for ''this present world," Matt. 12. 32; "the messengers of John " for" the disciples of John," in Luke 7. 24 ; " to foUow after" for " follow," Mark 8. 34. 80. (4) Many copyists w^ere acquainted with other Oriental Dialectic languages, and, in the case of the New Testament, changes. ^^h other dialects ; and thence arose great diver- sity in the orthography even where the readings are substan- tially the same. Absence of ^i- (S) Ancient MSS. are often without stops stops and ^nd without even the division of the words : hence words. occasional mistakes, though fewer than might be supposed. In Psa. 48. 14, for '*' unto death" some MSS. and the LXX read, by connecting the two words, ''forever." And Psa. 25. 17 may be read, through a similar mistake, ''Enlarge the troubles of my heart, and bring," etc.; comp. also LXX., and Heb. of Ps. 4. 3. 82. (6) Sometimes abbreviations are wrongly interpreted, "••(J) is the Heb. abbreviation for " Jehovah ;" and tioS^P- it means also MY: hence an occasional mistake, prehended. ^^ ^^^ LXX of Jer. 6. II, " the fury of J" is translated " my fury." So in i Pet. 2. 3, for " gracious,"- which is sometimes written XS (xp^oroc) some of the Fathers (Clem-Alex., Greg. Naz. Theoph.), read "Christ" (xpt^roe), which is also written XS. 83. (7) In the Old Testament MSS. the copyists never Misukes divided a word, nor did they leave, at the end of from lines, any vacant space ; and hence they often filled un^arum' • up the line with Bome favourite letter, or with the CRITICISM: VARIOUS READINGS. 41 initial of the next word, which of course was repeated in the following line. " For them," in Isa. 35. i, is an example. And, on the other hand, ignorant copyists have mistaken final letters for mere cusfocles linearum, as they are called, and have omitted them. 84. (8) Sometimes marginal readings have been inserted in Marginal the body of the MSS., corrective or explanatory of glosses. the original text. The repetition "Surely the people is grass" (Isa. 40. 7), is sup- posed to belong to this class, and is not found in the LXX. The number 50,000, mentioned in i Sam. 6. 19, is supposed by Jahn to be another instance. In Mark i. 16, the word "his" seemed ambiguous; and many MSS. (54, besides all Stephens') read "this same Simon." In Luke 7. 16, "God has visited his people for good" (s?j ayafiov) add eleven MSS., Arm. and Pers., in explanation of a phrase which seemed scarcely clear. So in Luke 5. 7, a few MSS. add " a httle " (5r««« t/). 85. All the sources of various readings noticed thus far may Various ^® regarded as accidental. Other readings, how- readings ever, were intentionally made, either fi-om good StentioS"^ motives or from bad. A Greek copyist, for ex- aiterations. ajj^pie^ accustomed to hear his own language spoken without an admixture of oriental idioms, and regarding a Hebraism as a violation of grammar, would correct it, for- getting that such idioms go to prove the genuineness of the inspired writings. He would sometimes substitute for the original, Greek words which he deemed more clear and easy. Sometimes he would correct one Evangelist by another, or fill up the shorter account from the longer one, or adapt the quotations from the Old Testament to the text of his own copy, whether it were Hebrew, or Greek, or Latin. In other instances motives less honourable may account for deviations from the original text. Mistakes 86. (9) Sometimes, for example, in particular '^d^^^^'^t^ copies of the Scriptures, a mistake in the speUing injure theMS. of a word, once made, is retained throughout the book. The Hebrew for a boy is put twenty-one times in the Pentateuch ior a girl ("liO for myj na-ai', na-ara), which latter is found but 42 CRITICISM: VARIOUS READINGS. once (Deut, 22. 19). All the versions and the Masora direct us to read it as a feminine noun. So, in Ezek. 40. there is a solecism in grammar, through the omission of the ordinary sign of the plural (before the suffix 1 viz. *•) in thh'ty-four words, though the Keri directs us to read it. Some critics, it may be added, ascribe these variations to other causes. Attempts to ^7- (^°) Sometimes attempts vrere made to im- improve the prove MSS., by making the language more clear and style. easy. Many passages of the Chronicles, for example, when compared with Samuel, -svill be found to give more modern words, in place of the obsolete ones of the earlier writer. These passages, when com- pai-ed by copyists, gave rise to various readings. See Hebrew of 1 Sam. 31. 12: I Chron. x, 12: 2 Sam. 7. 23 : i Chron. 17. 21: 2 Sam. 6. 16: I Chron. 15. 29. So, in Luke 16. 9, for "the mammon of unrighteousness," which is a Hebraism, some read (MS. Bezse) "the unrighteotis mammon." In Luke i. 64, "was loosed" is added in some MSS. (Bez. and Compl. text). In Exod. 15. 3, it is said that "■ The Lord is a man of war" The word seemed to the Sam. copyists objectionable; and they have put "mighty one of war." In Gen. 2. 2, it is said that God finished his work on the seventh day. The Sam. and Syr. seem to have read "on the sixth day." In the Pentateuch, the word for God is plural (Elohim) ; and is sometimes joined with a singular verb and sometimes with a plural verb. In all the latter cases, there is a variety of readings : most of them (as in the Sam.) in favour of a singular noun (as the Holy One), retaining, however, the plural verb: the object being, pro- bably, to prevent a supposition that the Scriptm-es favoured poly- theism. See Gen. 20. 13: 35. 7. MSS. of the Alexandrian family, it may be observed, often alter words to make what was deemed better grammar; as MSS. of \he Vv estem alter them to make the meaning more clear. 88. (II.) Sometimes alterations were made to suit the ParaUei parallel passage, or to make the text agree with passages. the passage from which it is quoted. See Schulz's edition of Griesbach (Ber. 1827), for a view of the influence in this respect of the LXX on the text of the New Testament. Luke 4. 18, "to heal the broken-hearted," is wanting in several MSS. It is probably taken from the LXX of Isa. 61. i. Matt. 12. 35, "of the heart" is omitted in many MSS., and in the CRinCISM : VARIOUS READES'GS. 43 Vulg., Syr., Copt., Fers., Arab. It is pi'obably from Luke 6, 45. Matt. 20. 22, 23, " the baptism I am baptized with can ye be baptized with ?" is wanting in several MSS.^ and in the Vulg., Ethiop., and Copt., probably from Mark 10. 38, 39. Matt. 27. 35, "That it might be fulfilled, "' etc., is wanting in ABDEFGHKLM, etc., and many other MSS., the Syr., Copt., Ethiop., and Arab. It is, pro- bably, from John 19. 24. Acts 9: 22: 26: and Acts 10: 11 : have been peculiai-ly liable to various readings on this ground, i Cor. 15. 5, '-'the twelve" being not strictly accurate (for Thomas was absent), some MSS. read "the eleven." So, in Mark 8. 31, some MSS. read ''after three days," and others "on the thii'd day." 89. (12.) Sometimes a passage has been altered wilfully to Alterations serve the purposes of a party, or to favour what purposes. vras deemed the cause of truth. In Deut. 27. 4, the Heb. reads " Ebal," and the Sam. "Gerizim," which was in the Samaritan territory; and the passage is used as a reason for erecting there a Samaritan temple. In Judg. 18. 30, " Manasseh" is written in many MSS. for Moses, to save the honour of his family. So R. Solomon Jarchi acknowledges. Isa. 64. 4, has been altered, and is now unintelhgible. It is quoted in I Cor. 2. 9. Isa. 53. 14, for " Sitthee" some MSS., the Chald., Syr., and Vulg. read " at him." Such intentional alterations, however, are very rare in the Old Testament ; nor are there many in the New Testament Greek. In Matt. i. 18, " before they came together," and the word "first-bom," are omitted in some MSS. and Versions, in favour of the perpetual virginity. In Mark 13. 32, "neither the Son" is omitted in several MSS. and Fathers, as seeming to favour Arianism. Luke 22. 43 is omitted in AB, and some other MSS., because supposed to detract from our Lord's Divinity, 90. (13.) There are also various readings, which can be ex- plained only on the supposition of carelessness on the part of transcribers, and which are not referable to any of the causes just enumerated. In I Chron, 6. 28, there is an omission of the name Joel (see ver. 33: I Sam. 8. 2), The verse really reads "And the sons of Samuel, the first-born Joel, and the second (now translated Vashni), Abiah." Bishop Lo'xth has noticed that, in Isaiah, there are as many as fifty shght omissions ; none of them, however, affecting the sense. A singular instance may be seen in 2 Sam. 21. 19, which ought to be read in the same way as i Chron. 20. 5. Read in 44 CRITICISM : VARIOUS READINGS. Samuel n^ for fl^l, eth, betli, and PIN for ni<, acb, eth. The word W'yii^ (weavers), has come up improperly from the end of the verse. The 430 years mentioned in Exod. 12. 40, as the time of the sojourning of the children of Israel in Egypt, is not correct ; it was only 215 years: and the text as it stands is hardly consistent with Gal. 3. 17: Gen. 12. 4; 17. i, 21: 25. 26. The Sam. Alex. LXX, and some MSS., read '•' and of their fathers who dwelt in the land of Egypt, and in Canaan." Perhaps, however, there is here a latitude of expression, easily understood by Jewish readers. 91. The readings which have originated in these and similar causes, amount to many thousands, but in nearly such various all, any various reading may be adopted without readings. materially affecting the sense. The most inac- curate text ever written (it has been justly said), leaves the truths of Scripture substantially unchanged. 92. It is, nevertheless, a question of much interest, how is the comparative value of various readings to be de- rative value cided? The following principles are recognised alSSd^^ by all competent scholars in this branch of inquiry. They are taken substantially from Griesbach, Wet- stein, and other critics. Griesbach's rules may be seen at length in his Prolegomena, or abridged in Planck's Sacred Philology, p. 245, etc., and Wetstein's, in his introduction to the Greek Testament. Eules approved by Eichhorn and De Wette, with special reference to the Old Testament, may be seen in De Wette, Introduction, i. 319. 93. (i.) When MSS., versions, and quotations agree in a External reading, the external evidence in its favour is evMencr"*^^ Complete, and, when the reading, thus fixed, agrees what. ' with the nature of the language, the sense, the connection of historical facts, and parallel passages, the internal evidence is complete. Where these concur, the reading is undoubtedly genuine ; and this is the evidence found in the case of the great bulk of the Scriptures, as contained in the common editions. 94. (2.) Generally, the value of a reading is in proportion to the age of the MSS., because the older it is, as to external the less likely is it to be a transcript of many pre- -ividence. yious transcripts, (ihough a recent MS. certainly copied from a very early one, may be of greater authority CRITICISM : A^ARIOUS READINGS. 45 than one less recent) : to the number of MSS. in which it is found ; to the family to which it belongs, (some preferring, with Griesbach, the Alexandrian ; and others, with Schulz, the Constantinopohtan) ; and to the obvious care with which the MS. is written. In the case of Hebrew MSS., we speak rather of the coun- tries where they were written, than of families formed on any other principle. Spanish, ItaHan, German, representing their origin, and the order of their critical value. The following rules mr.y be laid down for guiding the inquirer in determining the correct reading. 95. (i.) When the external and internal evidence are op- Externai evi- posed, the former ought GENERALLY to be preferred, imwrtanr ^ecause the "genuine reading" is an expression than internal, that refers rather to external than to internal evidence. It is the sum, not of reasons, so much as of au- thorities. 96. (2). Yet the internal evidence may be so strong, as to counterbalance a greater degree of external, (as in c p ions. ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ most of the Masoretic readings of the Old Testament) : wherever, in fact, the readings are clearly false, or where the introduction of a particular reading can be easily explained. 97. (3.) Readings are certainly right when they are sup- Various ported by the most ancient MSS., by most of the rea^ngs ancient versions, by quotations, by parallel places, highly pro- r^^^ by the sense, though such readings are not bableorcer- •{ ,, -.ro-^c • i • tain. found in ail MSb., or m the common version. Isa. 60. 21, " MY planting;" i Kings i. 18. 98. (4.) Readings are most probably right, when they are supported by a few ancient MSS., the ancient versions, quo- tations, parallel places, and the sense, though not found in MOST MSS. 2 Chron. 11. 18, '' Rehoboam took the son (p ben, Dl bath), of Jerimoth to wife;" so most MSS. : the E. v. says rightly, " the daughter" E. v. Psa. 22. 16, most MSS. read " like alion my hands and my feet," ("""IXD Kaari). Thi-ee MSS., two printed editions, the LXX, Syr., and Vulg., read "they pierced;" as does the English version, C^iO or -IIXD, Kore or Kaaru). Others, however, re- gard the present masoretic text as defensible, (Vitringa, Stuart). 46 CRITICISM: VARIOUS READINGS. Ezek. II. 7, most MSS. read ''he will bring forth" (i^^V^n hotzi). A few MSS., all the versions, and the English read '' / will bring forth," (N^^^IK otzi). Eph. 5. 9, most MSS. read " of the Spirit:" but A, and nine others, with the Syr., Copt., Ethiop., and Vulg., read " of the Hght." 99. (5.) Readings in the Pentateuch, supported by the Sam., a few Heh. MSS., the ancient versions, parallel places, and the sense, are certainly right, though not found in most MSS. Gen. 47. 3, "Thy servants are a shepherd," (sing.): read with thirty MSS. and the Sam. " shepherds.'* Even if the reading is not found in any Heb. MSS., it may be true. Gen. 2. 24, " They TWO shall be one flesh:" so Sam. LXX, Ital., Syr., Arab., Vulg.; Matt. 19. 5. So Exod. 12. 40. 100. (6.) The concurrence of the most ancient MSS., and the sense, is sometimes sufficient to show that a reading, though not general, is right. Isa. 57. 13, " Let thy companies deliver thee." Most MSS. have a singular verb : but ten read in the plural. This rule is especially applicable to the New Testament. loi. (7.) The concurrence of the most ancient versions, and the sense, or a parallel passage, will sometimes show the pro- priety of a reading, especially in the Old Testament. Psa. 68. 18, " He received gifts for men." Eph. 4. 8, says " He gave gifts unto men." So Targ., Syr., Ethiop., Arab., and some of the Fathers. The present Heb. is nnp? lakachta: the transposi- tion of the lettei's explains the difference; np?n chalakta. Isa. 59. 20, " unto them that tvirn from transgression in Jacob" is the present reading. But the Versions, and Eom. 11. 26, read ''that turn transgression from Jacob." In both these passages, how- ever, the ISTew Testament may be intended to give rather the general meaning, than the words. 102. (8.) When a text is very corrupt, a parallel passage may suggest the true reading. 2 Kings 25. 3, for '' on the ninth day of the month" read " of the fourth month," as in Jer. 52. 6. i Chron. i. 17, for *' The sons of Shem .... Aram and Uz," read " The sons of Sbem, and the sons of Aram," &c.. Gen. 10. 23. Isa. 30. 17, for ''At the re- buke of five shall ye flee," read " At the rebuke of five shall ten thousand flee," Lev. 26. 8. 103. When v.^0 come to consider readings which are but criticism: various readings. 47 Doubtful probable, being equally, or more or less nearly readings. equally Supported by external evidence, the rules of criticism become more difficult, and the appHcation of them must be made with less rigidity. 104. (i.) Of two readings, equally supported by external Various evidence, that is the most probable which best nUes. suits the sense, or which could not, so easily as the other, have been written by mistake. 2 Cor, 5. 14, " (If) one died for all," il is omitted in many MSS., but the sense requires it, and it is easily omitted before u;. Act? It. 20, ''unto the Grecijns" is the reading of many MSS. ; but, probably, it ought to be, as many read, "to the Greeks;" The fact seems noticed because of its remarkableness, and justly so, if it be the second case of the success of the gospel among the heathen, see chap. 10. 44, 45, for the first. Grecians were Jeics who resided out of Palestine. 2 Cor. 5.3, '* If so be that being clothed" (sv^uffciiu.ivoi) : so very many MSS. Others read ix^ui and maintained this rule, which they deem of essential value. 1 08. (5.) Of two readings (equally probable), that is to be preferred which best agrees with the style of the WTiter, or with his design, or with the context. Jude I, " sanctified by God the Father " ('/lytafffiivois), is more pro- bable than "beloved" (Jiya^ijfiivoi;), because more common in the commencement of Epistles. Acts 17. 26, ''of one blood" is more probable than " of one" (as in Rom. 9. 10), because it is a good Hebraism. John 6. 69, " Thou art the Christ, the Son of the hving God" (w«j), is preferable to Griesbaeh's readmg " the Holy One of God " {oiyio;), because this last is nowhere applied to Christ, except in the confession of the demoniac. Mark 1. 2, " in the prophets " is preferable to " in the prophet Isaiah," which is the reading of Gxiesbach and Mill, because two prophets are quoted, (Isa. 40. 3: Mai. 3. I.) 109. (6.) Conjectural readings, supported by the sense, or similar texts, may be probable ; but must not be received as true, unless they are confirmed by evidence. In Gen. i. 8, " God saw that it was good" is wanting at the end of the second day's creation, but is found in ver. 10, in the middle of the third day's woi-k. There has, therefore, probably been a transposition of the clause, especially as the LXX, reads the phrase in ver. 8. Josh. 24. 19, "Ye cannot serve the Lord " (fain N7), seems strange at the end of an exhortation, to serve him, " Cease not to serve him" (-"l^Dh ^57j, is probably the true reading, but it wants confirmation. Isa. 52. 15, "So shall he sprinkle many na- tions " (H-r yazze), is generally interpreted " he shall purify or make expiation for them ;" but this sense does not agi-ee with the pai-allel, and the verb has eveiy where else, a preposition after it (y]}). The LXX reads " Many nations shall admire him." They probably read(")|n''yechezu), asin Psa. 11. 7: 27. 5. The lexicographers give this meaning to the present word. Isa. 17.2, " the cities of Aroer " (lyny Aroer), are broken : but to say that the cities of a city are broken is unmeaning; and, besides, this has nothing to do with Damascus. Perhaps (HViy adadi), is the true reading. The LXX reads " for ever;" as this last reading means, and the Chald. reads *' are laid waste." no. In the New Testament (as MSS. are numerous and Conjectural varied), conjectural emendations are not admis- emeudations. gible, and but very rarely in the Old. CRITICISII • VARIOUS READINGS. 49 111. In a few cases, passages have two or more various readings ; all of wliich are suitable to the sense, and arc supported by MSS., vereions, and quotations : and in these cases, the jwobabihties vary with the evidence ; and the work of determining the true reading, is one that requires much discrimination and care. It is highly satisfactory, to know that, in the Bible generally, the text is clear and certain beyond doubt. 112. To aid the reader to apply these rules, we take as an Ruiesappiied instance, I John 5. 7. o n 5. 7. rpj^g passage is printed in the Clementine editions of the Vulgate, in the Complutensian of the Greek, in the third edition of Erasmus; and so thence foimd its way into the common texts of Stephens, Beza, and Elzevir. Against its genuineness it may be said, 1. That no Greek MSS. of certainly earlier date than the 15th century contains it. It is omitted in 174 Cui'sive MSS., and in A, B, G, H. 2. It is wanting in all the ancient versions, except the Latin, nor is it found in the most ancient MS. of the Vulgate, the C. Amiatinus, or in any earlier than the 9th century. It is wanting, for example, in the two S>ji\, Arab., Copt., Ethiop., Armen., Slavonic ; though some PRINTED editions of the two latter, and of the Feshito insert it. 3. Ancient Greek Fathers have never quoted it. Ver. 6, 8, 9, are quoted more than once, but ver. 7, never. 4. The best critical editions of the Greek Testament omit it : the first and second of Erasmus, Aldus, Harv:ood, Matthcei, Griesbach, Lachman, Scholz, Tisch., Hahn: Though on the other hand. Mill and Bengel retain it. In favour of its genuineness it may be said, 1. That it is inserted in some Greek MSS., the Codex Baviamis, at Berlin, Cod. Guelph, and three others; concerning which, however, it is remarked, that the first is a forgery; the second has the passage written, not in the text, but in the margin; and that the others belong to the 15th century, or later, and are therefore modem authorities. 2. It is found in the old Latin versions, except in copies made in Africa. This is another form of part of the statement above, IS"o. 2. 3. It is supposed to be quoted by some of the Latin Fathers, £w Tertullian, Cyprian, and Fulgentius. It is not cleai', however, whether the quotations are from the 7th, or from the 6th and 8th veraes. 4. It is quoted in a Confession of Faith, given in the history of D 50 CRITICISM : ENGLISH VERSION. the Vandalic persecution iu Africa, and which Coufessiou is said to have been presented by a body of Christians in the year 484. This alleged fact, however, is thought not sufficient to weaken the posi- tive evidence; and is, moreover, itself doubtful. 5 . It is said to be required by the construction and connection of the passage : an argument of which the English reader can himself judge. — Porter's " Biblical Criticism." On the whole, it is better not to rely upon this passage, when we are quoting proofs of Scripture doctrine. Sec. 6 The English Version on the whole identical with the original Text. 113. A question of much interest remains : Is the EngHsh English version of the Bible accurate ; and may the reader Op^infous ou regard it as, on the whole, expressive of the mind its accuracy, ^f the Spirit of God ] And, again, the answer is at hand. The English Bible is essentially the Bible of the Primitive Church. The Committee appointed in the days of the Commonwealth to inquire into the possibihty of improving it reported, that while it contained some mistakes, it was, iu their judgment, " the best of any translation in the world." A later witness, Dr. Geddes, admits " that, if accuracy, fidelity, and the strictest attention to the letter of the text be sup- posed to constitute the qualities of an excellent version, this, of aU versions, must in general be accounted the most excel- lent." " Of all the European translations," says Dr. A. Clarke, " this is the most accurate and faithful : nor is this its only praise. The translators have seized the very spirit and the soul of the original, and expressed it almost every where with pathos and energy.'"^ Dr. Doddridge bears the same testi- mony ; and adds, that his " corrections affect not the funda- mentals of rehgion ; they seldom reach any further than the beauty of a figure, or at most the connexion of an argument."»> 114. But while this is the unanimous testimony of compe- May be tent authorities, there are points (it is admitted) improved j^ which the translation might be improved : and these improvements, though not of vital importance as affecting the doctrines of Scripture, would, if made, often serve to remove objections which are now urged against it. * Preface to Commeutaiy on Old Testament, p. 19, •> Works, ii. p. 329. CRmCIS5I : ENGLISH VERSION. 51 115. (i) In some cases the English version has given a Examples of wrong meaning to the words or expressions of the inaccurate „ ■ •„„! translation, ongmal. In Exod. 3. 22, the IsraeUtes are said to f^ve " horrou-ed" of the Egyptians things which they never intended, to return. The original says simply, that they asked for them. In 2 Sam. 12. 31, a pre- position is translated under, instead of to. David cruelly tortured his captives, is the meaning of the Enghsh version. He put them to ignominious employments, is the meaning of the original. So Ps. 73. 4, for "no bands in their death," read, no bands, or di£S,- culties, till their death (7). Rosenm. It may be observed, generally, that the use of prepositions and particles is often indeterminate in our version. For sometimes means because, 2 Cor. 5. i; sometimes, instead of , Isa. 60. 17; some- times, in order to, Rom. 4, 3. So, of means from, as in John 8. 40, 42; and ly, as in i Cor. 15. 5. These ambiguities are not in the original. In the narrative of Elisha, 2 Kings 2. 23, the word translated ''children" is translated, elsewhei-e, "young men;" and is apphed to Isaac when he was twenty-eight years old, and to Joseph when he was thirty. In i Chron, 19. 7, a word is translated "chariots," instead of "riders;" and the passage is made to con- tradict 2 Sam. 10. 6. This correction makes the passages consistent; 32,000 men (cavalry and foot-soldiers) being the entire number. In 2 Kings 6. 25, the article sold for five shekels of silver was a kind of pulse, or vetch, as Bochai-t has shown; the fourth part of a cab being about a pint. Gen. 4. 15 ; for "set a mai'k upon," read, "gave a sign or asstirance to." Lev. 7. 10; for "mingled with oil and dry," read, or dry (i. e., whichever it be). Deut. 33. 25; for "shoes," iron and brass, read bars, alluding to the chain of mountains which protected Asher from the inroads of the Gentiles. Judges 15. 8, 11; for "top," read "cleft." Josh. 24. 14, 15; for *' flood," read "river." i Kings i. 45; for "inGihon" (a river), read "at Gihon." i Kings 4. ji; for " sons of Mahol," read, "players on the timbrel." Compare i Chron. 2. 6. i Kings 18. 42; for "he cast himself down upon," read, "he bowed down to." I Kings 18. 43; for " he said go again seven times," read, " he said seven times, go again." 2 Chi-on. 8. 2 ; for " had restored," read, "had given." 2 Chron. 21. 11; for "com- pelled," read, "sent bJTn astray," as in Deut. 30. 17: 4. 19. Neh. 6. it; for "to save his life," read, "and live." Not being a priest, Nehemiah was not allowed to enter the holy place. Psa. 86. 2; for " I am holy," read, " I am a devout man, or the object of thy favour." d2 52 CRITICISM ; ENGLISH VERSION. In Jolin 10, 2S, 29, for ''no man, any man," read, ''none, any.'' In Acts 7. 45, for "that came after," read, "having received.'' In Acts 17. 23, for " ignorantly," read, "without knowing him." In Acts 22. 23, for "cast off," read, "threw up." In Acts 27, 12, for "lieth," read, " looketh." In verse 15, for "into the wind," read, "against the vvdnd." In Acts 26. 18, for "to turn them," read, "that they may turn." In 2 Cor. 3. 6, for "who hath made us able ministers," read, " who hath fitted us to be ministers." In Gal. 4. 24, the history of the sons of Hagar and Sarah is said to be an "allegory," or a fictitious narrative. The apostle merely says that it represents important spiritual truth: the Jews of the apostles' day, "Jerusalem that now is," answering to Ishmael; and true believers — the Church — to Isaac, the heir of the promise. In 2 Pet. I. 5, for "and beside this," read, "and for this very reason." Miletiis (not urn), Euodia (not as), Urbautis (not e), are the correct renderings; and Joshua is less liable to mistake than Jesus, in Acts 7. 45 : Heb. 4. 8. 116. (2) In some cases, the full force of the original is not Examples of expressed. inadequate translation. In John i. 14, the word is said "to have dwelt among us :" the original connects his appearance with the ancient tabernacle as the dwelling-place of the Divine glory. In i Cor. 4. 13, the apostles are said to have been made as "the filth of the earth :" literally, "the sweepings " (classical usage), or " appeasing offerings " (LXX and classical usage). " Rid of us, the world will deem itself comparatively clean ;" or " it offers us in expiation to its gods," John 16. 2. In Heb. 12. 2, Christians are described as "looking to Jesus:" the original implies, looking up to him, and away from every other object of trust. In 2 Tim. 2. 5, read, "if a man contend in the games." So in 1 Cor. 9. 25. In i Thess. 4. 6, read "in that matter." In i Pet. 2. 13, read, "Submit your- selves therefore." In several passages the sense of the original is weakened by a mis- translation of the Greek article. In 2 Thess i. 12, e.g., we read, "according to the grace of our God and the Lord Jesus Christ:" the original reads, "according to the grace of our God and Lord, Jesus Chi'ist:" and so in 2 Pet. t. i, in Titus 2. 13, the original reads, "the glorious appearing of our great God and Saviour Jesus Christ." In i Thess. 4. 13, read, for "even as others," "even as tlu: rest of the world." In 2 Thess. 2. 15, read, "whether by our word." In i Cor. 4. 5, read, "and then shall every man have of God the praise that is hts." In i Cor. 5. 9, read "in my CRmCISM : ENGLISH VERSION. 53 epistle," and for "I wrote," read, ''I have written," referring pro- bably to the same epistle. The Hebrew article, though less definite than the Greek, is often important. In Exod, 17, 14, read^ "in the book (viz, of the law}:" in Psa. 89. 37, i-ead, ''as the faithful witness in heaven (the rain- bow)." In Isa. 7. 14, Bp. Lowth reads, following the Hebrew, " Behold the Virgin conceiveth, etc.'* 1 1 7- (3) I^ some cases the 29ec2'S. 61 As a iTile, no importance is to be attaclied to the division of verses or of chapters, unless it coincide with the division of paragraphs. Follow the pauses of the narrative, and mark the change of the subjects discussed. 128. The ancient divisions of the New Testament are noticed in § 49. To complete information on sion of Old this point, we append a brief account of the ancient Tesumeni. clivisions of the Old Testament. Modern Jews use the present division of chapter and verse. But ancient MSS. were differently divided. The law had fiftj-four greater divisions, called Parashoth, and the Prophets had similar divisions called Haphtaroth, or dismissions, being read shortly before the close of the service. One of each of these divisions was read on the sabbath. Smaller divisions were employed especially in the law, called also Parashoth, sometimes " open " (mhinS), where there is an obvious break in the sense, and sometimes " shut," or leaning upon (HIDiriD or ri'D-IDD), where the sense runs on. Of these, there are in the Pentateuch alone, 669. They are marked Q and D res- pectively. 129. When Jews referred to the Old Testament, it was their Scripture how custom to mention the subject of the paragi^aph, quoted. ^g j^ g^iH js amoug the Arabs, in quoting from the Koran. 'In Ellas/ Rom. 11. 2, (marg.) refers to i Kings 17-19. ' The bow' in 2 Sam. r. 18, refers to the poem so called, in the book of Jasher: So perhaps " in the bush" to Exod. 3. 130. These corrections must not lead to a depreciation of our Enghsh Bible. The more we examine it, the higher will be our estimate of its general excellence. But zeal for any version, must yield to zeal for that Divine word which it seeks to represent. 131. They have been given at considerable length, for se- ^^. , ^ veral reasons. They furnish answers to objections, Object of 1 • 1 1 1 1 1 these which have been brought agamst Sacred Scripture, corrections. Thej remove difficulties and reconcile apparent contradictions. They are of value moreover, because they illustrate very fuUy the nature of the differences which exist between the Enghsh version and the original text. Tt is obvious that very many of these differences may be rectified 62 HISTORY OF ENGLISH VERSION. by a comparison of parallel passages, so that the Enghsh reader has in his own hands the means, to a large extent, of correcting them. Nor do they disturb the conclusion to which the most competent authorities have come, that the English Bible is on the whole, identical with the Bible of the early Church. 132. The Enghsh version of the Scriptures now in use, is itself the result of repeated revisions. In the pre- Engiish face to the Bishops' Bible, (a. d. 1568), a distinct version. reference is made to early Saxon versions, and Saxon there are still extant, parts of the Bible in Saxon, translated by Bede, by Alfred the Great, and by ^Ifric of Canterbury. Early Saxon MSS. of the Gospels are still preserved in the libraries of the British Museum, and Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. The first complete translation of the Bible was made by Wyciiffe's "^'l/ci'ff^} about A.D. 1380. It existed only in MS. version. for many years, but the whole is now in print (New Testament, 1731 ; Old Testament, 1848). The work was re- garded with grave suspicion ; and a bill was introduced into the House of Lords for suppressing it ; but through the in- fluence of John O'Gaunt, this was rejected. In 1408, however? in a convocation held at Oxford, it was resolved that no one should translate any text of Scripture into English, as a book or tract, and that no book of the kind should be read. This resolution led to great persecution, though there is reason to believe, that notwithstanding, many MSS. of Scripture were at that time in extensive circulation throughout England. The first printed edition of the Bible in Enghsh, was pub- lished by Tyndale, the New Testament in 1526, and yn a e s. ^^^ Bii^je in part, in 1532. Tonstall, Bishop of Lon- don, and Sir Thomas More, took great pains to buy up and burn the impression, but with the effect thereby, of enabling the translator to publish a larger and improved edition." On the death of Tyndale (who died a martyr to the truth), Coverdak, Miles Coverdale revised the whole, and dedicated ^'^c. it to king Henry the 8th, a. d. 1535, and in 1537, John Bogers, who had assisted Tyndale, and was then residing "' See Anderson's Annals of the English Bible : and "Our English Bible," published by the Religious Tract Society. HISTORY OF ENGLISH VERSION. 63 at Antwerp, reprinted ■ an edition, taken from Tyndale and Coverdale, This edition was published under the assumed name of Thomas Matthews. A revision of this edition again was pubhshed (a. d. 1539), by Pdcliard Taverner. The Great Bible appeared a. d. 1539. It was Coverdale's, revised by the translator, under the sanction of Cranmer. It was printed in large foho. For the edition of 1540, Cranmer wrote a preface, and it is hence called Cranmer's Bible. It was pubhshed ' by authority.' During the seven years of king Edward's (YI.) reign, eleven editions of the Scriptures were printed : but no new version or revision was attempted. During the reign of Mary, was published the Geneva Bible, A. D. 1557-60. Coverdale and others who had taken refuge in Geneva, edited it, and added marginal annotations. Archbishop Parker obtained authority from Queen Ehza- beth, to revise the existing translations, and with the help of various bishops and others, pubhshed in 1568 what was called the Bishops' Bible. It contains short annotations, and in the smaller editions (from 1589,) the text is divided, hke the Genevan, into verses. The same text was afterwards printed (in 1572), in a larger size, and with various prefaces, under the name of Mattheiu FarJtti's Bible. It continued in common use in the churches for forty years, though the Genevan Bible was perhaps more read in private. The Rhemish New Testament, and the Bouay Old Testament, form the Enghsh Bible of the Romanists. The former was printed at Eheims (a. D. 1582), and the latter at Douay (a. D. 1609-10). In 1603, King James resolved on a revision of the ttanslation, and for this purpose appointed fifty-four men of learning and piety. Forty-seven only undertook the work, and in four years (from 1607- 11), it was completed. The text, as thus prepared and printed in 1611, is the authorized version. 133. What wisdom is seen in the fact, that we have a ivrlt- ^^^^ word : Scripture and not tradition : and not a written many Bibles, but one. A revelation more than record. ^^^^^ would have multiphed the difficulties of inquiry. A revelation less than this, would long ago ha^'e lost 64 VALUE OF A WRITTEN REVELATION. Its distinctness. Apart from any desire to vitiate a Divine message, merely oral tradition must have suffered from the condition of those to whom it was addressed. So incessant is the influence of man's moral state upon his judgment and perceptions, any unwritten revelation must have undergone essential, though perhaps insensible modifications. Every truth too, which had ceased in one age to be of present im- portance, would have been omitted in the number of truths handed down to the next. But for the Bible, we should have had a fearfully mutilated revelation, and of what remained we should have been contending, not so much for the sense of our Master's words, as for the v/ords themselves. What grace is it, therefore, that in a world prone to deteriorate everything holy, and to falsify everything true, whatever may have grown old with age, has the means of renewing its youth : whatever may have been lost from the memory of the church, is not lost irrecoverably. We have the seeds of reformation, and of renevv^ed knowledge : the very " word of the Lord, which liveth and abideth for ever." 134. And yet this blessing of a written Bible will prove a Danger to curse, if on that account we forget the reverence which a that is due to it. As each truth of Scripture was lationmay made known of old, God gave sensible evidence expose us. whence it came, and wherefore it was sent. Men were called to believe the report, because the arm of the Lord was revealed. Awe and submission, and the consciousness of a Divine approach v/ere impressed upon the minds of men by the most instructive solemnities. Adam heard God in the garden, before he had to answer for his disobedience. When God spoke to the children of Israel, they had such sensible proofs of his power, that they desired to hear his voice (with- out a Mediator) no more. When He spoke to Moses, the cloud was on the tabernacle, or his thunders shook the moun- tain. Samuel was taught by miraculous signs to give the Divine message a fervent welcome. Isaiah witnessed the scenes which we now read with so little awe, and he cried out in conscious unworthiness, " Woe is me, for I am of un- clean lips." John was prepared to receive his visions by a spectacle which absorbed all his faculties, and made him fall down as one that was dead. A complete tvritten revelation is clearly inconsistent with such miraculous evidence : and SCRIPTURE CLABIS TO BE DIVINE. 65 there is danger lest the famihar tone of the Bible, and the every-day appearance of the volume itself, should tempt us to read it as a common composition. We need, therefore, to supply by our thoughtfulness and solemnity, the feelings which were produced of old by sensible images of the (Creator's presence and authority. It is not the word of an equal ; and if we would have it bless us, we must study it with the col- lected and reverential frame of mind, which becomes an inter- view with Him who is its Author and our Judge. CHAPTER U. On the Authenticity and Authority of Scripturk " This reverence have I learnt to give to those books of Scripture only which are called canonical. Others I so read that I think not anything to be true because they so thought it, but because they were able to persuade me either by those canonical authors, or by some probable reason that it did not swerve from truth." — AUGUSTIXE, Ep. 19 : died 430. " If any of these books were disputed at first, but on examination were admitted, tliey are confirmed by their trial."— Gajxeier's Moral Evidence. " If those facts (on the origin, nature, and progress of the Christian religion) aro not therefore established, nothing in the history of mankind can be beUeved." — Chief Justice Bushe. Sec. I. Scripture claims to he regarded as an inspired teacher, and as the only inspired teacher. 135. In proving the genuineness of the books of Scripture, A.uthority nothing has been said of their Divine authority, ofs.s. as They have come to us as their writers left them, &riptuJe and this is all that is proved. What they are, and Itself. -what they claim, must be first gathered from the books themselves. A httle attention wiU easily satisfy the reader of the truth of the following statements : — 136. (i.) The books of Scripture represent the mission of Mission of our Lord as Divine. He professes to be a teacher represeift3d ^^^^ from God, and from the first announces that as Divine. he is to give liis hfe for the salvation of the world. John 8. 42: 7. 16: 17. 8: 3. 14-18. In proof of his mis.sion h© performed manf miraculous 66 SCRIPTURE CLAIMS TO BE DIVINE. works and showed supernatural acquaintance with the human heart and with future events. Matt. II. 2-6: John 5. 36: 15.24: 6.64: 16.30: Matt. 20.17-19: Luke 19. 42-44. Those who knew him best and were least favourably dis- posed towards him were unable to account from natural causes for his power and wisdom. Mark 6. 1-3: Luke 4. 22: John 7. 15. His x^ubhc life was self-denying and disinterested : his private life blameless and beneficent. I Pet. 2. 22, 23: Matt. 27. 3, 4: Acts 10. 38: John 4. 34: 6. i^; : 7. 18. He was put to death (as he foretold) for making himself " equal with God," — a charge he did not deny ; and after his death he arose from the grave. Luke 22. 70: John 20. 17: Acts i. 3. On these grounds we conclude that his words are to be received as Divine. John 14. 10, 11: 12. 44-50: Matt. 17. 5. 137. (2.) They represent the commission of the apostles as Divine. Of the eight writers of th« New Testa- sion of five ment, five, Matthew, John, Peter, James, and Jude, writw-s^oniie Were among the number of the apostles to whom New Testa- Christ gave power to perform miracles and to publish his gospel to the world. Matt. 10. 1-4, 7, 8: Luke 9. 6. He promised to them in this character, on four different occasions, the presence of a Divine instructor, who should recal to their remembrance what he himself had taught, and impart a more complete and permanent knowledge of his truth." The apostles proved their commission by miracles which they performed in the name and by the power of Christ, and they imparted supernatural gifts to others.^ * Matt. 10. 19, 20: Luke 12. 11, 12: Mark 13. 11: (Luke 21. 14:) John 14-16: see also Matt. 28. 18-20: Mark 16. 20: Acts r. 4: 21. 4: I Pet. I. 12. ^ Acts 3. 16: Heb. 2. 4: Acts 5. 12, 15: Mark 16. 17, 18: Acts 8. 17-19. SCRIPTURE CLAIMS TO BE DIVINE. 67 Their mission was attested by holy self-denial and integrity of purpose, and by the rapid and (humanly speaking) the unaccountable success of their ministrations. Acts 4. i6: 5. 29: 2. 41: 12. 24. We, therefore, conclude that the words of Matthew, John, Peter, James, and Jude, are Divine. John 14. 12-14: 20. 21: Matt. 10. 20: i John 4. 6. 138. The Gospels of Mark and Luke were written by corn- Mark and panions of the apostles: Mark the convert of Luke. Peter (1 Pet. 5. 13) and Luke, the intimate friend of Paul. Papias (flourished no), Justin (died 164), Irenseus (flourished 180), and Origen, all speak of Mark's Gospel as commonly received, and as having been dictated or sanctioned by Peter. Luke and Paul resided in Palestine for two years, travelled together during a large part of the apostle's journies, and were together during Paul's imprisonment at Rome. Acts 21. 17: 24. 24: 28. 16: Col. 4. 14: 2 Tim. 4. ir. Luke 10, 7 is quoted as Scripture in 1 Tim. 5. 18. Irenaeus, TertuUian, and Origen, speak of his Gospel as universally received and as sanctioned by Paul. 139. (3.) They represent the commission of Paul as Divine. . . He was called to the apostolic ofiice, claimed apos- of Paul tohc authority, vindicated his claims by miracles, Di\-ine. imparted supernatural gifts, manifested the utmost disinterestedness, submitted to the severest sufferings, was acknowledged by the rest of the apostles, and was eminently successful. He therefore claims to speak in Christ's name, and his words are Divine. I Cor. 15.8: Acts 26. 12-17: 9. 13-17: 2Cor. 11.5: Gal. 1. 1-12; 2. 6: I Cor. 2. 10-13: i Cor. 7. 40: Rom. 15. 18, 19: 2 Cor. 12, 12: Acts 19. 6: 2 Tim. i. 13, 14: 2 Cor. 11. 7: 2 Cor. i. 5: Gal. 2. 7-9: 2 Cor. II. 14-16: 2 Cor. 5. 18-20: i Thess. 2. 13. 140. (4.) They represent the apostolic writings generally as Divine. The apostohc writings were composed by w-Stmgs Divine command, and in fulfilment of the commis- Divme. gj^jj ^j^eir writers had received. iThess. 4. 15: iTim. 4. i: Rev. i. 19: John 20.31: i John 5. 13: I Cor. 14- 37- bo SCRIPTURE CLAIMS TO BE DIVINE. The apostles had the same object iu view in their writings as in their preaching. Jude 3: Heb. 13. 22: i John 2. 1, 26. The wi'itings of the apostles set forth their verbal instructions in a permanent and condensed form, and they claim for both the same authority. Eph. 3. 3-5 : I John i. 1-5 : 2, 12-14: John 20. 3 r : 2 Pet. r. 15 : 2 Pet. 3. r, 2 : 2 Thess. 2. 15: 3. 14: i Cor. 15. r. (2. 13). The writings of the apostles were received by the first Chris- tians as of equal authority with their preaching, and produced similar effects. Acts 15. 19-31: 16. 4: 2 Cor. 7. 8-10: 2 Thess. 2. i. There is evidence that from the first the apostohc writings were held equally sacred with the Old Testament, and that they were quoted as the words of God. 2 Pet. 3. 15, 16: James 4. 5 (comp. Gal. 5. 17-21): James 2. 8 (comp. Matt. 22. 39). 141. (5.) The Jewish religion and the Jewish Scripture Jewish are represented in the New Testament as Divine. reUgion and Christ and the writers of the New Testament uni- Jewisn Scnp- ture Divine, formly assume that the religion of the Jews was from God. Chi-ist, in John, 4. 22: Peter, in Acts 3. 13: Paul, in Rom. 9. 4. They acknowledge the Divine origin of the revelation given to Abraham and to Moses. Christ, in John 8. 56: Peter, in Acts 3. 25: Paul, in Gal, 3. 18. Christ, in Mark 12. 26: John, in John i. 17: Paul, in 2 Cor. 3. 7. They acknowledge the Divine authority of the moral law and the Divine origin of the Jewish ritual and of the civil enact- ments of the Mosaic law. Christ, in Matt. 15. 4: Peter, in i Pet. i. 15, 16: Paul, in Rom. 7. 22 (see ver. 7. 12). Christ, in Luke 22. 15, 16: John, in John 19. 36: Paul, in I Cor. 9. 8, 9. They represent Christianity as the completion of Judaism, and as foretold by the j^rophets. The Old Testament writers at the same time acknowledge that what they spoke or wrote was given to them from God, and published by his command. SCRIPTURE THE OXLY DIVINE AUTHORITY. 69 Christ, in Matt. 5. 17: 26. 54-56: Peter, in Acts 10. 43: Paul, m Eph. 2. 20. Rom. 3. 21: 2 Cor. 3. 6-14. Ex. 4. 12. 15, ib- Deut. 18. 18: Jer. i. 6: Amos 3. 7, etc. They maintain the Divine authority of the ancient Jewish Scriptures under the three-fold division of the Law, the Prophets, and the Psahns, and under other equally familiar titles, ascribing all to the Holy Ghost. Matt. 22. 31: Heb 13. 5: Acts 28. 25: Matt. 22. 43: Rom. 3. 12: John 10. 35: Gal. 3. 8: Hcb. 3. 7 (comp. 4. 7): i Pet. i. 11. 142. Here then we have the first pecuharity of the Bible. It professes to be a book from God, speaks every- where with Divine authority and demands our submission. It is the one book, which claims " God for its author, unmixed truth for its contents, and salvation for its end." If we admit the authority of our Lord as a Divine teacher, the authority of the Bible is established. If we deny the authority of the Bible, v/e deny the truth of some of his most frequent teachings, and with it the Divinity of His mission. 143. As Holy Scripture claims to be regarded as the book Scripture the of God, a Divine authority, so it claims to be the amhority?*" ^^y authority. It is not a rule, it is the rule both of iiractice and faith. To ascertain its meaning, Result of an , , . , . . ^ j opposite we employ reason and the opinions 01 good men, "^'^®^'- and the experience of a devout heart ; but no one of these helps, nor aU combined, can be regarded as of co- ordinate authority. They are not parts of the law, they only help to expound it. To foUow reason or opinions, or inward experience in matters of faith, when their decisions contradict the Bible, is to deny it : to follow them when they add to it, is to admit another revelation ; and to make thtnt our rule when they agree with it, is to rest our obedience 'on the A'isdom of man, and not on the tiTith of God. Faith ceases to be, even in the last case, submission to Divine authority. 144. From the following passages it will be seen that these conclusions are drawn from the lessons of the ^"""^ Bible itself. The inspired writers address themselves to men of every country and condition. 70 SCRIPTURE THE ONLY DIVINE AUTHORITY. Prov. 8. 1-4: Psa. 49. 1-3: Rom. 10. 12, 13. See Deut. 29. '^9. Psa. 78. 5-7. The most impoi'tant parts of the inspired books were addressed, in the case of the Old Testament to the Jews, in their assembhes ; and in the case of the New, to the people generally, and to the churches. Deut. 5. 22: 31. 24, 26: Ezek. 33. 30, 31: Josh. 23. 6: Jer, 36. 2-6: Hab. 2. 2: Matt. 7. 28: Acts 5. 20: Rom. i. 7 (2 Cor. i. i: Gal. I. 2: Col. I. 2: Philip, i, i): Rev. 2. 29. The pubhc reading of these books in a language intelligible to the people, was appointed by God both among the Jews and in the Christian Church. Deut. 31. 11-13: Josh. 8. 33-35: Ezra 7. 6-10: Neh. 8. 1-8: 1 Thess. 5.27: Col. 4. 16. The private reading of Scripture, which was strongly incul- cated in the Old Testament, is commended in the New. Deut. II. 18-20: Psa. 19: Psa. i. 2: Josh. i. 8: Acts 8. 30-35; 17. 11: Rom. 15. 4: 2 Tim. 3. 15 : 2 Pet. i. 19. Men are ultimately accountable for their rehgious opinions and practices to God. Eccl. II. 9: Rom. 14. 4-12: James 4. 12. The Bible, on the principle of man's responsibihty, ex- pressly appeals to his reason. I Sam. 12. 7: Jer. 2. 9-11: Mark 7. 14, 16: i Cor. 10. 15. In the New Testament especially the exercise of private judgment— in a teachable spirit, of course — is represented as essential to the existence and progress of true rehgion. Matt. 6. 22, 23: I Cor. 14. 20: Col. i. 9: Phil. i. 9, 10: Acts 17. 23. See I Pet. 3. 15: Rom. 12. 12. Men are exhorted in Scripture to bring all doctrines pro- posed to them and their own character, to the test of scrip- tural or apostolic truth. Isa. 8. 20: I John 4. 1: i Thess. 5. 20, 21: Eph. 5. 6, 8-10, 17: Col. 2. 18: Gal. 6. 4, 5: 2 Cor. 13. 5: i Cor. ii. 28-31. Our Lord and his apostles, in addressing those who had the Old Testament in their possession, always appealed to its authority. See § 141. Our Lord and his apostles condemn SCRIPTURE THE ONLY DIYi:SE AUTHORITY. /I all spiritual usurpation, and point to their teaching as the ultimate standard. Matt. 33. I, 8-10: 2 Cor. i. 24. The utter insufficiency of unenhghtened reason to discover or rightly to appreciate Divine truth, makes it incompetent to do more than interpret the revelation ; it cannot sit in judgment upon it. Psa. 19: I Cor. 2. 9, 14: i. 18-25: Gal. i. 11, 12. From the earliest times God commanded that whatever was to become a rule of faith or practice, should be com- mitted to writing. , Exod. 17. 14: Deut. 31. 19: Hos. 8. 12: Isa. 8. 19, 20. The inspired writers were guided to use such language as the Spirit of God approved. Dan. 12. 7-9: Matt. 10. 19, 20: i Pet. i. 10-12: 2 Pet. i. 21: 2 Tim. 3. 16: Heb. i. i: i Cor. 2. 12, 13. Hence conclusions are drawn from particular words. I Cor. 15. 45 : Heb. 3. 7-10. Any attempt to add to or to take away from the words of God is denounced. Deut. 4. 2: 12, 32 (Heb. 13. i): Prov. 30. 5, 6: Eev. 22. 18, 19 (Gal. 3. 15). The oral traditions of the Jews, which were censured both by the law and the prophets, were condemned by our Lord. Isa. 29. 13, 14: Matt. 15. 2-9. If the comparatively imperfect revelations of the Old Testament were sufficient for man's instruction and salva- tion, much more are the fuller discoveries of the New. Psa. 19. 7-11: 119. 130: 9. 104: Prov. 22. 19-21: John 20. 3c, 31:1 John I. 34: I Cor. 15. 1-4. An examination of these passages will prove that the Scriptures are our only rule, that we are bound to study them, and that according to oui' use of this blessing they will become the " savour of hfe unto life or of death imto death."* * See for these passages in detail Morren's BibHcal Theology, part I, On the Rule of Faith. 72 INSPIRATION. 145. These are among the first principles of Protestantism. Not the It claims for us the right, and it enforces the duty, ^f'th ^"^'"^rin- ^^ examining the Bible for ourselves. But be it cipiesbui remembered, that our safety hes not in the ac- tiSi'of'tiit^m knowledgment of these principles, but in the can save. application of them ; and in the consequent behef of the doctrines and precepts which the Bible reveals. Sec. 2. Inspiration. 146. The general truth that the books of Scripture are of Divine origin and authority is sometimes expressed in another form, and they are said to be inspired. Holy men spoke or wrote them as they were moved by thjg^ Holy Ghost. 147. Whatever refers to the explanation of this truth — as, how men were inspired, and whether the same kind of inspiration was needed in each case — is theory, and is concerned with questions rather curious than useful. The truth itself is all that is fully revealed. Among the heathen and uninspired Jews it was generally Ancient lield that while inspired men were under the views. Divine impulse, all voluntary action was sus- pended. Among the early Christians the doctrine of inspi- ration was held rather practically than speculatively, though they generall}'- maintarined that the writers of the Bible, when inspired, exercised their ordinary mental powers. On the mode or kinds of inspiration they said little. When the authority of the Papacy, however, began in modern times to be questioned, the whole doctrine of inspiration was more closely examined. The facts were generally admitted, but the theory or comprehensive statement which best embodied and accounted for them, was a topic regarded as open to discussion. See the passages from the Fathers, in Westcott's Gospel PTarmony. ►Some held that the Holy Spirit dictated the sacred books Modern word for word,* as we have them in the original views. languages : others, however, holding that this theory went beyond the facts, and was inconsistent with the diversities of style, the varying quotations, and the very ])rofessions of the writers themselves. * Advocates of verbal dictation, are Calamy, Haldaue, and otbert;. INSPIRATIOX. 73 A few taught that the fundamental truths of the Bible were given by inspiration, while the arguments and illustra- tions were of human origin f to which it is a sufficient reply, that unless we are told what truths are fundamental, this theory throws the whole of Scripture into disrepute, and is inconsistent with those texts which represent it as an autho- rity in religious matters. Others, again, held that those parts of the Bible whose moral tendency is obviously good are Divine, but not the rest ; a theory which strips the Bible of all authority, and supposes man to have right notions of what is morally good before he can use the Bible.^ Another and much more rational theory is one which Dr. Vaiious Doddridge and many modern theologians'" have kinds of. sanctioned. In this theory there are supposed to be different kinds of inspiration ; the first and highest pro- viding for the revelation of things not previously known to the sacred writers ; the second, providing for the security of the writers against error in exhibiting doctrines and facts with which they were aheady acquainted ; and the third, conferring Divine authority by the approbation of inspired men, on parts of writings originally composed without inspi- ration. This theory does not materially differ in its results from another which many have preferred. They main- •vvithout tain that holy men wrote in obedience to Divine theory. command, and that in writing they were kept free, we know not how, from all error, whether they taught truths previously unknown to them, or publiohed truths and facts already familiar. In this theory, which is indeed rather a statement of the fact than a +.heory in relation to it, itispi- raiion is ascribed to the whole of Scripture, while revelation is confined to those acts of the Spirit by which truths pre- viously unknown were communicated to men. All Scripture is inspired^ and the new truths of Scripture are revealed ; or, as Thomas Scott expressed it, inspiration discovers new truth (this we call revelation), and superintends the communication of the old. This distinction it is convenient to retain. " Priestley, and even Burnet: see on the Articles, Art. 6. ^ Kant. ' Bishop D. Wilson, etc. 7-1 INSriRATIOX. 148. These (except the last) are theories of inspira.tion. Scripture The fact which they have to embody and explain claims, jg iiy^f^ Scripture is everywhere the utterance — the word — of Divine wisdom, and that it expresses the very ideas which the Holy Spirit intended. It is this gift which the inspired writers profess to have received. Their writings are God-inspired, or, to use the words of one not prejudiced in favour of sound views on this question, " animated through and through by the Spirit." — Be Wette. 149. Old Testament writers, for example, claim it for them- „ . , selves. bcnpture proofofthe Exod. 4. 15, 16: 19. 9: Lev. passim: Dent. 4. 2: liict. ISTum. 23. 12: 2 Sam. 23. 2: Jer. i. 7-9: Ezek. 3. 4-T0: Mic. 3. 8, etc. New Testament writers claim it for the old, and also for themselves. 2 Pet. I. 20, 21: Luke i. 20: i Pet. i. 11 : Acts i. 16: 28. 25: Heb. 3. 7. John 14. 26: 16. 13, 14: I Cor, 2. 13: 14.37: i Thes. 2. 13: 4. 8: 2 Pet. 3. i, 2, etc. 150. The gift, however, admitted, in the sacred writers, of Vfhatinspi- diligent and faithful research,** of the expression ration aiiuws. ^f the same thought in different words -^ of such differences (not discrepancies) between the accounts of in- spired men as would be likely to arise from the different stand-points of each ;" of quotations from other inspired authorities f of the employment of uninspired documents ;' '^ Luke I. 1-4. ^ Compare Matt. 26, 26, 27: Luke 22. 19, 20, aud i Cor. 11. 24, 25: and Matt. 3. 17: Mark i. 11, and Luke 3. 22. To this class belong quotations from the Old Testament. These are taken either from the LXX, without giving the exact words, and even Avhen that vei-sion is not verbally accurate, or sometimes (when the original differs from the Greek) from the Hebrew direct. The quotations ai-e rather substantially than literally accurate, see chap. 6. ^ See Introduction to the Gospels, Part ii. ** Psa. 108, and Psa. 57. 7-1 1: 60. 5-12: Gen., chaps. 10. ir. and I Chron. i. 17, etc.: 2 Kings 18. 13-37, ^^^ I^^- 3^- 1-22: Mic. 4: Isa. 2: also Chron., with Kings and Sam. Eichhorn has given a list of such quotations. ^ Josh. 10. 13: Numb. 21. 14: Jude 9, 14, 15. SCRIPTURE CANON. 75 and of peculiarities of style and manner arising from diver- sities of intellectual structure and from educational or other influences, such as may be observed on a comparison of Ezekiel and Isaiah, of John and Paul. Add to these facts that the inspired writers were sometimes uncertain of the precise meaning or application of their message,'' and that this message was delivered in language which the Spirit of Uod approved,^ and we have the Scripture facts on this doc- trine. These facts it is the business of theory, if a theory- must be framed, to embody and explain. Sec. 3. Tlie Canon. 151. The question of the authority of the books of Scrip- Canonicit of ^^^^^ ^^ sometimes put in another form, and it is Scripture asked whether the whole belong to the Canon ; a bow proved, question settled, if it is once proved that they are the production of inspired men. It is sometimes said, indeed, that we prove the inspiration of the books by first proving their canonicity ; the church has received them, and there- fore they are Divine. The reverse, however, is the accurate order. They are Divine, and therefore the church has re- ceived them. The books are now received as canonical because we have satisfactory evidence of their inspiration ; and if there had been other books not recognised in the present canon, but demonstrably of Divine origin, we should be bound to give them a place among the rest. 152. The question, therefore, of the canonicity of the books A three-fold of Scripture is three-fold. Is each' book the pro- question, duction of its professed author ? is it authentic 1 and was the writer in composing it under the special guidance of the Spirit 1 Genuineness and authenticity are both in- volved ; and though the present section is placed between the sections on those subjects, the argument needs the facts of both. * I Pet. I. 10, II : Dan. I2. 8: so also the facts mentioned in the following passages are not recorded in the Old Testament Scripture, Acts 7. 22: 2 Tim. 3, 8: Heb. 9. 4, that the pot was golden: Heb. /2. 21, the words of Moses: facts in 11. 37, etc.; so the burial of the patriarchs in Sychem, Acts 7. 15. b I Pet. I. 10, 11 : Dan. 12. 8: 2 Tim. 3. 15: Heb. 1.1:1 Cor. 2. 12, 13. See § 144. e2 76 CANON : NEW TESTAMENT. 153. We begin with the New Testament. In the early church many writings were extant professing to give an account of the hfe and character of our Lord ; but four only were received as authori- tative. It was admitted on all hands that these were the productions of the Evangelists whose names they bear : the Gospels of Mark and Luke being respectively penned under the care of Peter and Paul, The apostle John moreover is recorded to have acknowledged publicly the authority of the first three Gospels and added his own to complete them. These books, therefore, were written by apostles to whom our Saviour specially promised his Spirit that He might guide them into all truth, bring to their remembrance whatever He himself had told them, and qualify them to give his gospel to the world. In the same way, though less directly, John is supposed to The Acts have attested the book of Acts.^ The Epistles So of the Epistles of Paul. There are thirteen ° ofthem which bear his name. Other disciples were witnesses of his having written them.^ Generally he wrote by an amanuensis, who also became a witness of the genuine- ness of his writings :"" in these instances he added his sub- scription and salutation.*^ His Epistles were sent by jDrivate messengers." Nine of them moreover were addressed to j)ublic bodies. The earliest of them he commanded to be read in the public assembly, the second, and indeed all the rest, were read in pubhc too ;^ and we know from Ignatius, Poly- carp, and Clement, and especially from Peter, that his Epis- tles were regarded as inspired Scripture, and read with the Law and Prophets of the Old Testament and the Gosj)els of the New.^ To complete this evidence it should be added that the language of Peter was used by him after aU the Epistles * See the evidence in Wordsworth on the Canon, pp. 156-160. ^ I Thess. 1.1:2 Thess. i, i. *= Rom. 16. 22. d Col. 4. 18 : i Cor. 16. 21. '^ Rom. 16. i: Appendix: Col. 4. 7, 8: Appendix: Eph. 6. 21: Philip. 2. 25. f I Thess. 5. 27: 2 Thess. 2. 15: 3. 6, 14: 2 Cor. i. 13: Col. 4. 16, « Ign. to Eph. chap. 12: Poly c. to Phil. 3. ir, 12: Clem. to Cor. 1. c. 47: 2 Pet. 3. 15, 16. canon: new testament. 77 of Paul to the cliurches had been ■written,'' and that he apphes to them a name (" Scripture ") which, though occur- ring fifty times in the New Testament, is never apphed to any- other than the present canonical books. The conclusion, therefore, is, that these Epistles are Paul's, and that they have what Paul claimed for them (§ 139), and what the early church and a chief apostle ascribed to them, inspired and therefore canonical authority. They are not the words which man teaches : they are the words of the Holy Ghost. All the parts of the New Testament mentioned thus far Antiiego- wcre deemed, as soon as pubhshed, to be Divine, as rSro- ^^^^ ^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^ John. The remaining books Canouicai. of the New Testament were called, as we have seen (§ 20), Antilegomena, or, from their forming a part of the Canon, only after a second revision, the Deutero-Cano- nical. That position in the Canon they gained gradually ; at the beginning of the fourth century they were received by most of the churches, and at the end of that century they were received by all. The special evidence of each book it is not necessary to give now. The point to be noticed is that the doubts icity why which existed had reference not to the canonicity questioned. ^^ ^^^ Writings of James, Cephas, John, and Jude, but to the question whether the writings bearing their names were really written by them. Nor can these doubts excite surprise. The subject was one of deep interest. Many spu- rious compositions were abroad under the names of these very apostles.** Apostolic teaching might be quoted in defence of caution.*^ The internal evidence of the authorship of these Epistles is peculiar ; the Epistle to the Hebrews, for example, is without the author's name, and differs in style from most of the Epistles of Paul: the style of 2 Peter differs in the same way from the style of the first Epistle. In James and Jude the authors are described not as apostles but as "servants" of Christ, while in 2 and 3 John the writer describes himself as a presbyter or elder, not as an apostle. Jude also refers to stories which were supposed to ^ Shortly before the death of Peter, who suffered martyrdom the same year as Paul, 2 Pet. i. 14. ^ Jones on the Canon, i. 37-45. " 2 Thess. 2. i, 2: i John 4. i. 78 CAXOX : NEW testament. be contained in apocryphal writings. All these Epistles more- over were addressed either to Christians generally or to private persons, not to particular churches. No body of inen, therefore, were interested in preserving them, and external evidence in their favour was necessarily scanty. All these causes of doubt did operate as we know. In the end there was universal conviction ; and the very doubts which deferred the reception of a small portion of Scripture in certain parts of the early church now serve to confirm our faith in the rest. 154. These facts sufficiently indicate the course of argu- Nature of ment by which the canonicity of the New Testa- proof, ment is proved. Let it be shown that they were written by the men whose names they bear, and that there is reason for believing that their authors wrote under the guidance of the Spirit, and the evidence of the canonicity of the books is complete. As part of the evidence, — in some sense a subordinate Evidence of P^^'^' ^^^ *^® claims and character of the books churches or themselves supply the chief evidence — it may be hoTim-' added, that the books which now form the Canon portaiit. were read from the first in Christian assemblies as of Divine authority,"" that ecclesiastical authors quote largely from them,^ and that they constituted the canonical books of the early church. 155. Between the years 200 a. d. and 4C0 a. d. fifteen cata- Ancient logues of such books were pubhshed. Of these, lists. six — those of Athanasius, Epiphanius, Ruffin, Aus- tin, the third Council of Carthage, and of the anonymous author of the works of Dionysius the Areopagite — agi-ee , with the present Canon : three, those of Cyril, the Council of Laodicea, and Gregory Nazianzen, omit the book of Revelation only ; one — that of Caius, probably 196 — omits James, 2 Peter, 3 John, and Hebrews ; another, that of Origen, omits James and Jude, though he elsewhere owns them. The catalogue of Eusebius marks James and Jude, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and Revelation, as doubted by some. Philastrius omits Hebrews and Revelation ; Amphilochius inserts all, but marks the Antilegomena, he himself deeming the Hebrews genuine, and " Lardner, ii. 132. 526. ^ Lardner, ii. 52, 72, 93, loq. CAXOX : OLD TESTAMENT. 79 Jerome speaks of the Hebrews only as doubtful, and that Epistle he elsewhere receives.'' Add to this evidence the authority of the Peshito and of the early Latin versions. The former contains all our present books, except 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude, and Revelation ; and the latter included probably all the books afterwards inserted in Jerome's version. 156. Though the opinion of the early church is called sub- Proves ordinate or indirect evidence, that opinion has canonidty often been regarded as sufficient to decide the noutseif ' canonicity of the books of Scripture. The recep- decisive. i^f^y^ ^f these books by the churches was taken as proof of their inspiration ; just as the decision of a competent legal tribunal Avould be deemed conclusive evidence of any fact proved before it, or as the opinion of an eminent mathe- matician might be taken as proof of the soundness of some demonstration. This practice, however, must not turn our attention from the real nature of the proof. The question is not one of authority, but of evidence. To reckon a book canonical, because a council or a church has pronounced it so, is neither logical nor scriptural Our wisdom is to use such a decision (according to its intrinsic worth) for the purpose of ascertaining the claims of the book itself. The canonicity of each book — its right, that is, to a place in the Canon — is a question as large as the question of its Divine authority, and involves a consideration of the same evidence. Of that evidence early opinion is only part ; an important x^art, doubtless, for the utmost care was taken from the first in discriminating the genuine from the spurious ; but it is only part. It may aid, it must not control our decisions. 157. The canonicity of the Old Testament is best esta- Canonicity of bhshed by the New. Our Lord received as Scrip- melit prifved ^^^^*^ what the Jews delivered to Him as Scripture, from New. and the apostle speaks of the advantage of the Jew as consisting chiefly in his possession of the " oracles of (rod." As an evidence of the close connexion of the two dis- pensations, and of the sanction given in the New Testament * These aiitliorities may be seen in the original in Wordsworth on the Canon, Appendix A. Thirteen out of the fifteen are referred to in Jones on fhe Canon, 1. 73-76. 80 canon: old testament, to the Old, it may be noticed that the former has not less than 263 direct quotations from the latter, and that these quotations are taken from almost every book. The obvious allusions to the Old Testament are even more numerous, amounting to upwards of 350. See chap, vi., § i. 158. That at the time of our Lord the Canon was fixed as Phiioand ^t present is established by decisive evidence. Josephus. Ij^ addition to quotations in the New Testament fvoia particular books, Josephus and Philo both testify to the books themselves, and to the reverence with which the Jews regarded them ; the former expressly stating that the Canon he was setting down was received by all Jews, that they all would contend for it to the death, and that none had ever dared to increase or diminish or change them. (Cont. Ap. i. 8.) 159. Testimonies no less decisive will be found in the next • f r f P'li^agraph. In examining this list it nmst be remembered that when certain books are omitted from professed catalogues of the Old Testament Scriptures, there is the greatest probability that each of those books was included in the preceding book ; Esther, for example, in Nehemiah, Ruth in Judges, and Lamentations in Jeremiah. The fact that some books are not quoted in the New Testa- ment is accounted for on the simple principle that the writers had no occasion to quote them. That all our present books were included at the time of our Lord in the Old Testament Canon is undoubted, and as such they are quoted under the usual Jewish division. 160. The authorities referred to in tiie preceding paragraph, may be classed as follows : — The New Testament, which is really authoritative, refers to all Scrip- Ancient Old ^^^^ under the threefold division of Law, Prophets, and Testament Writings. It also appeals to each of the books, except ^^^^' Ruth, Ezra, Nehemiah, Canticles, Ecclesiastes, aud perhaps Lamentations. The version of the LXX, which is ecidencc, includes them all. The son of Sirach, B.C. 130, mentions the threefold division : as does Fhilo, a.c. 41, quoting from all except lluth, Chronicles, Nehemiah, Esther, Canticles, Ecclesiastes, La- mentations, Ezekiel, and Daniel. Josephvs, b. a.d. 3 7, enumerates them according to their classes, including all the present books. Melito, 177, mentions all except Esther and Lamentations, Origen, 230, mentions all without exception. Athanasius, 326, mentions CANONICAL books: HOW iukserved. 81 all except Esther. Cyril (Jerusalem), 348, mentions all, as also the Council of Laodicea, 363; Epiphanius, 368; and //«7rt/-?/ of Poictiers, 370. Gregory of Nazianzen, 370, mentions all except Esther; aa does Amphilochius, 3 70. The Apostolic Canons, of uncertain date, but not later than the end of this century, mentions all; as also the Apostolic Constitutions. These are Greek authorities. Of Latin authorities, the chief are Jerome, 392: Eofin, 397: 3rd Council of Carthage, 397: and Augustine, 395: and all agree in enu- merating the whole. i6t. How the books of the Old Testament were preserved, is a question of some difiSculty, and we can but give the most iJrobable solution. The books of the law were placed in the Tabernacle with the ark of the covenant, and were kept there I'estament during the joumeyings in the wilderness, and preserved. afterwards in Jerusalem.** To the same sanctuary were successively consigned the various historical and pro- phetic books, from the time of Joshua to that of David. On the erection of the temple, Solomon deposited in it the earliest books,^ and enriched the collection with the inspired Xjroductions of his own pen. After his days, a succession of prophets arose, Jonah, Amos, Isaiah, Hosea, Joel, Micah, Xahum, Zephaniah, Jeremiah, Obadiah, and Habbakuk. They all flourished before the destruction of the temple, and en- larged the volume of inspiration by valuable additions. About 420 years after the temple was built, it was burnt by Nebu- chadnezzar. What became of the MSS. of the Sacred Scrip- tures is not known. In Babylon, however, Daniel speaks of the book of the law as familiar to him, and also of Jeremiah, and of other prophets.*^ Shortly after the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus, the Jews were released from captivity, rebuilt the temple, and restored Divine worship, being encouraged to per- severe by the exhortations of Haggai and Zechariah. About 50 years after the temple was rebuilt, Ezra is re- corded by tradition to have made a collection of the sacred writings, as he certainly took great pains to expound and en- force the ancient law (see Neb. 8. i, 3, 9). To this collection * Deut. 31. 9, 26: Josh. 24. 26: I Sam. 10. 25. ^ 2 Kings 22. 8: Isa. 34. 16. •^ Dan. 9. 2, II. In these passages the word book or a book is more properly "the book." E Z 82 CAXOX : THE APOCRYPHA. were added (probably by Simon the Just,) the writings of Ezra himself, with those of Nehemiah and Malachi, and thus was completed the canon of the Old Testament : for, from the days of Malachi, no prophet arose till John the Baptist, who connected the two covenants, and of whom it was foretold, that he should precede the great day of the Lord, Mai. 3. i. The collection of the canonical books, is generally said to have been the work of the Great Synagogue, a body which included Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, and afterwards, Simon the Just. The existence and labours of this body are distinctly referred to in the most ancient Jewish writings. After the captivity, synagogues were established in Judea, and throughout the world, and copies of the inspired Scrip- tures were so greatly multiplied, as to make the preservation of particular MSS. rather a question of curiosity, than of his- torical importance.'' The early existence and history of the LXX, have been noticed in a previousi chapter. 162, If we examine by these tests the books called Apo- TheApocrj'- cryphal, we shall be constrained to reject their P^^- authority as Divine. 163. Externally the evidence is conclusive. External They are not found in any catalogue of canonical evidence. writings, made during the first four centuries after Christ ; nor were they regarded as part of the rule of faith, till the decision of the council of Trent, 1545. Philo never quotes them as he does the Sacred Scriptures, and Josephus expressly excludes them.** The Jewish church never received them as part of the Canon, and they are never quoted either by our Lord, or by his ajDostles, a fact the more striking, as Paul thrice quotes heathen poets. It is remarkable, too, that the last inspired prophet closes his predictions, by recom- mending to his countrymen the books of Moses, and intimates, that no other messenger is to be expected by them till the coming of the second Elijah.*^ Against this decisive external evidence, must be placed the fact, that particular books have been quoted as canonical by one or more of the Fathers. Baruch alone is quoted as canonical by Origen, Athanasius, "■ See Stuart on the Canon, and Havernick's Introduction to the Old Testament, Edin. p. 18-22. ^ Cont. Apion. 1.8. *= Mai. 4. 4-G APOCRYrHA: EVIDENCE AGAINST. 83 Cyril, and Epiphanius. Of the Latin cburch, Augustine alone quotes as canonical, Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus, and i and 2 Maccabees. By other writers of the 3rd and 4th centuries, the books are not cited, or their canonicity is denied. 164. Internal evidence, moreover, is against their inspira- Jiiternai tion. Divine authority is claimed by none of the evidence. writers : and by some it is \'irtually disowned.'' The books contain statements at variance with history,^ self- contradictory,'^ and opposed to the doctrines'^ and precepts of Scripture.^ 165. For historical purposes, and for " instruction of man- iTowfar ners," so far as they exemphfy the spirit and pre- usefui. cepts of the Gospel, the books are of value. But they are without authority ^ and form no part of the rule of faith. 166. The utility and relative importance of these books Relative iiiay be further explained. The whole illustrate (rf tiiese"*^^ the progress of knowledge among the Jews, their books. taste, their religious character, and their govern- ment : while some of the books explain ancient prophecies, and prove the fulfilment of them, and others exhibit the most exalted sentiments and principles of uninspired men. Of least value are ist and 2nd Esdras, Tobit, Judith, Esther, Susanna, and the Idol Bel and the Dragon. These books contain indications of childish creduhty, or of wilful disregard ■ of truth. ^ 2 Mac. 2. 23: 15.38: Prol. of Eccles. b Baruch i. 2, compared with Jer. 43. 6, 7. The story of Bel and the Di'agon contradicts the account of Daniel's being cast into the hons' den. " Comp. I Mac. 6. 4-16: 2 Mac. i, 13-16: 2 Mac, 9. 28, as to the place where Antiochus Epiphanes died. The writer of the Book of Wisdom pretends that it was composed by Solomon, and quotes Isa. 13. 11-18. ^ Prayers for the dead sanctioned, 2 Mac. 12. 43-45. Justifi- cation by works involved, Tob. 12. 8, 9: 2 Esd. 8. 33. ^ Lying sanctioned, Tob. 5. 12: 12. 15. Suicide is spoken of as a manful act, 2 Mac. 14. 42 : assassination is commended, Judith 9. 2-9, comp. Gen. 49. 7 : and magical incantations sanctioned, Tob. 6. 16, 17. :84 EVIDENCES. An intermediate place is due to the book of Baruch, tlia Song of the Three Children, and the Prayer of Manasseh. The authorship of these books is uncertain, and they contain several mistakes ; but they were probably written with sin- cere intentions, and they show the views which, in that age, were entertained of personal religion. The remaining books claim a higher place. The Wisdom of Solomon, though not written by the Preacher, was probably intended as an imitation of his writings, and contains many striking counsels. Ecclesiasticus, avowedly uninspired, is often excellent. To the student it is also useful, as shew- ing how the Jews expounded their law, what hopes had originated in the Divine promises, and by what motives the practice of godliness was enforced. The ist book of the Maccabees gives the history of the deliverance of the Jews, under the illustrious family from whom its name is taken. It contains many examples of heroic faith, and may be perused mth the same design as any other portion of authentic his- tory. The 2nd Book is less accurate than the ist, historically and morally ; but it illustrates the firm confidence of the Jews in a future life, and records several instances of devotedness to the religion and institutes of the law. For an account of other Apocryphal books see Fabricii Codex Pseudigr. V. T. 1713-41, and Codex Ps. IsT. T. 1713-22, with Birch's Auctarium, 1 804, or Jones on the Canon. Sec. 4. Scripture Evidences, 167. All that has been advanced thus far on the authority of Scripture, is taken from Scripture itself. We have only arranged and given expression to its claims. The evidence by which those claims are sustained, is among the most interesting subjects of inquiry. We can but touch upon it here, and must be content to refer to various authors for ampler in- formation. 168. We have already seen that Scripture is genuine, and "What evi- "^^^^ from the earliest times, its various books were dence of received as written by the men whose names they is\ivoived in bear. Ordinarily, nothing more would have been genmneness. proved by this process ; but in this case the evi- dence of genuineness is also evidence of authenticity. The EVIDENCES : HISTORICAL. 85 truth of the general narrative, its authenticity, is involved in the very proofs of the genuineness of the record. The books are quoted and copied as history, and were received as such, while witnesses of most of the transactions they describe were living. That Palestine was under the Roman yoke, that during the reign of Herod, Christ was born, that he professed to be a teacher sent from God. that he claimed the power of working miracles, that these miracles were always beneficent, that they sustained a morahty altogether unknown to the Gentiles, and novel even to the Jews, that he had several fol- lowers, that he was put to death under Pontius Pilate, that many hundreds, beheving him to have risen from the dead, became his disciples, that in the course of a few years, his disciples were scattered over the whole Roman world, that (in shoi-t) all the main statements of the Gospel history are facts, is involved (whatever be thought of their spiritual significancy) in the very genuineness of the record. The whole was deemed historically true : so that, while many rejected the gospel, the facts, on which in one sense it was founded, were acknowledged by all. 169. An explanation of previous evidence (§ i6,) will make this statement clear. In the first four centuries evidonrcsof WO liavc upwards of fifty authors who testify geiiiuiieaess. ^q facts told or implied in the Gospel nar- rative. The whole or fragments of the writings of these authors remain. The writings of about fifty others referred to by Jerome (392) have perished. These authors belong to all parts of the world, from the Euphrates to the Pyrenees, from Northern Germany to the African Sahara. They speak the Syrian, the Greek, and the Latin tongues. They repre- sent the behef of large bodies of professed Christians, and no less the admissions of multitudes who were not Christians, They agree in quoting Scripture as genuine and true. They refer to it as a distinct volume, universally received. They comment upon it and expound it. They refer to it as Divine. Heretics who separated from the great body of the faithful received the narrative of the facts, and difiered only on tlie doctrines which they supposed those facts to embody ; and even infidels who denied the faith founded their denial upon the very facts which our present record contains. So general had a belief of the facts of the Gospel become, that we find 86 EVIDENCES : HISTORICAL. J. Martyr (165) observing, that in every nation prayers and thanksgivings were offered to the Father by tlie name of Jesus ; while only fifty years later Tertullian states that in almost every city Christians formed the majority. Heathen and Jewish writers, without speaking of the New Heathen Testament, and without giving any evidence there- testimonies. fQj.Q Qf j^s genuineness, confirm in a general way the narratives of the hfe of our Lord and of his disciples, or incidentally illustrate them. Josephus in his Annals (a.d. 37-93), Tacitus in his History (a.d. 100), Suetonius in his Biographical Sketches (a.d. 117), Juvenal in his Satires (a.d. 128), and Pliny in his Letters (a.d. 103), all confirm the his- torical statements of the sacred story. Indeed there is no transaction of ancient history that can exhibit more than a frac- tion of the evidence by v/hich the narrative of the Gospels is sustained. See the passages quoted in Paley, p. i, eh. 2. Ecclesiastical 170- The following are the princij)al ecclesiastical AVTiters of \\'riters who prove at once the genuineness and centuries. general truthfulness of the New Testament : — FIRST CENTURY. Scriptures quoted as genu- ine and authentic, and as a distinct volume. Quoted as of peculiar authority, or as divine : expounded and com- mented upon. Appealed to by various sects and by adver- saries. Barnabas. Epistle belongs to the 2nd cent. Hernias. Shepherd, do. Clement. Rome, died 100. Ignatius, flour. 70, died ii6. Poly carp, died 166. Barnabas. Ilermas. Clement. Ignatius. Polycarp. SECOND CENTURY. Quadratus, 122. Papias, flour. 119, died 163. J. Martyr, flour. i48,died 165. Dionysius (Cor.), i6j. Ch. at Lyons, 1-70. Melito, flour. 170. Hegesippus, flour. 175. Irenaius, flour. 176, died 202. Athenagoras, 176. Theophilus (Aut.), 178. Basilides, Alex. 122. Valentinians, Rome, 140 J. Martyr. Sethites, Egypt, 140. Ttttian, flou. n8 died 176. Carpocratians, Alex. 145 Dionysius. Marcion, 150. Montanists, 157. Encratites, 165. Irenaeus. Celsus. S J'hecHiotu?, ■( iArtemon, 3 ^'' Theophilus. EVIDENCES : HISTORICAL. THIED CEXTURY. 87 Scriptures quoted as genu- | tuSorlty, or'as^S : expoimded and com- I mented upon. ine and authentic, and as a distinct volume. Origen, flour. 185-21?. Tertulliau, flour. 198, d. 220. Minucius Felix, died 220. Clement, Alex, died 217. Dionysius, Alex, flour. 2J2. Cyprian, Carthage, 200-258. Commodian, flour. 270. Victorin (Germany). ArnoMus, flour, 307. Lactantius, died 325. Eusebius, 270-J40. Origen. Tercullian. Ammonius, Alex. 200-2 J5 Hippolytus, 220, died 250. Clement. iJionysius. Cyprian. Novatian, Rome, 250. Victorin. Lucian, died 312. Appealed to by various sects and Lv adver- Ilermogenes, 20J. Carthage. Novatians, Rome, 251. fcjal)eUians, Egypt, 258. I'urph^Tj', Rome, 262. Paul of Samosata, An- tiodi, 265. Jlanicha^ans, Persia, 274. FOURTH CENTURY. Hilary, Poictiers, died 368. Gregory Nazien. 328-359 Apollinaris, Eaodic. flou. 362. Athanasius, died 373. Allans, 318. Damasus, Rome, 366. Ephraem,Svrus,died 378. Doiiatists, 328. Gregory, Xyssa, 331-396. Basil (Caesarea), died 378. Julian, Emp, died 365. Theodore, Tarsus, flour. 376. Cyi-il(Jerus.), 315-386. I'l-is- illiaiiists, 378. Eusebius, Nico. flour. 335. ApuUinarians, 378. Ambrose, Milan, 374-397. Ambrose. DidjTnus, Alex. 375-396. Amphilochius, Iconimu, flou. Epiphanius, Cyprus, 368, 380. d. 403. Palladius, flour. 407. Jerome, 329-420. Jerome. Chrysostom, 344-407. Pelagians, 410. This evidence is sometimes called the historical, and it „. . , forms the subiect of the first part of Paley's volume. Historical rr -x i. xi, i, • i i i i -x i • evidence, ii its truth be acknowledged, it places an inquirer effect of. ^j^ ^Yie position of a contemporary of our Lord, leaving the claims of his rehgion to be established by othei evidence. 171. Admitting the existence of a Being of infinite power and goodness, there are strong probabilities that how cias- He would not leave his creatures in ignorance Bified. .^^^ misery ; and probabihties no less strong that any communication from him would contain a distinct refer- ence to their condition, and would present analogies to other works of the Creator. These probabilities form the presump- tive evidence of revelation, and are discussed by such writers as Ellis, Leland, and Butler. Evidence founded on revelation itself is called, positive. 88 EVIDENCES CLxVSSIFIED. In God are attributes of power and of knowledge, of holi- ness and love. Sometimes the evidences of Scripture are ranged under corresponding divisions, and we speak of the miraculous, the prophetic, and the moral. A message from another, again, is susceptible of a two-fold evidence of truth ; viz., credentials supplied by the messenger, and peculiarities or marks in the message itself. The cre- dentials are external, and the marks are internal. In this arrangement prophecy often belongs to both : the prediction is in the message, and the fulfilment either in the Bible or in profane history. The internal evidence, again, is twofold ; according as it is founded (i), on the precepts of the Bible, the character of inspired men, or on the influence of truth in promoting holiness, which is the moral evidence as it may be called ; and (2), on its internal harmony — literary, doctrinal, and ana- logical, on the adaptation of the message to human wants, or on its consistency with all our holiest conceptions of the Divine character and purpose, which may be caUed the spiritual evidence ; and this is the division to which it is intended to adhere. 172. It is instructive to notice that each kind of evidence The very abounds in directly spiritual instruction. Miracles Scriptrre*^^ prove at least that physical nature is not fate, nor instructive, a merely material constitution of things. Pro- phecy proves that things material and moral (both nature and man) are governed by a free and Almighty hand. What were once grave questions of natural religion, are thus settled in the very evidences of the revealed. The spiritual truth wrapped up both in prophecy and miracles, and the obviously holy tendency of the moral evidence of the Bible, wiU be noticed elsewhere. Contrary to what is sometimes affirmed, the devout study of Christian evidence may become the means of spiritual improvement. Evidence 173- The different evidences then of the truth of arranged. Scripture may be arranged as follows : — EXTERNAL EVIDENCE : MIRACLES. 89 i, EXTERNAL Evidence : appealing to our senses. f I. Direct: as in the miracles of our Lord, John 3, 2: 5. 36: 10, 37: 14. II. Works by Bishop Douglas; Campbell j "West; Sherlock; Le Bas. . Eetrospective: as in the connection of Christ with the miracles and prophecies of the Old Testament, Luke 24. 26, 27: John 5. 47. Leslie; Stillingfleet; Faber; Kidder; Brown; Simpson; . Prospective: as in the fulfilment of prophecy since the days of our Lord, John 14. 29, [ Davison; Xewton; Keith, ii. INTERXAL: which is either I" a. Moral; appealing to our conscience; consisting of the ( I. Moral precepts of the Bible. I Jenyns; Gregory. ^ I 2. Character OF OUR Lord and cf the inspired writers. I <, Newcome; Lyttelton, ^13. Character and lives of the early Christians, and the general influence of truth. [ Chalmers; Warburton; Ryan; Pliny, etc. h. or Spiritual; appealing to our intellectual perceptions and to our new nature generally. It includes C I. The Scriptural or Literary, or the wisdom and harmony of revealed truth, In its different dispensations. — Alexander. I In the various parts of the record. — Graves on the 1 Pentateuch; Paley's Horje Paulinae; Blunt, -—' Bii-ks, etc. ^ I With nature.— Butler's Analogy; Chalmers. •S ^ 2. The Experimental. The gospel felt to be adapted ^ to our wants. Pascal; Fuller; Erskine; Sumner; J. J.Gurney. j 3. The Spiritual properly so called. The Bible consis- Itent with the character and purpose of God. Gilb. Wardlaw; Aldis; Philosophy of Salvation, ^ Rel. Tr. Soc. 174. The success of the gospel is connected in Scripture, External and by all ancient Christian writers, with the evideuce. possession (on the part of our Lord) of miraculous Miraculous power. Men beheved, in the first age at least, power. because Divine works or miracles (facts, that is, "which cculd not have taken place from natural causes or 90 EXTERNAL EVIDENCE : MIRACLES. without superhuman aid) attested the truth of the message. T<"i these works our Lord repeatedly appealed, as works which none other man did, and as an evidence of his mission. He healed the sick, he raised the dead, not once only, but in many hun- dreds of cases ; for it is said frequently that they brought sick people unto him, and that he healed them all. Matt. 4. 24: 12.15: 14.14: 15.30: 19. 2, etc: Mark 1.34: 3.10: Luke 6. 17: 9. II. He gave the same power to his disciples, first to the twelve, Similar and then to the seventy. After his departure his tohfs^^^^"^ apostles received the power of bestowing this disciples. miraculous gift on all ui:)on whom they laid their hands ; so that many hundreds and perhaps thousands were thus endowed. It is certain that the apostles speak of it as a thing familiarly known, and reckon it among the signs of a Divinely appointed teacher. Indeed (when there was no New Testament) miraculous power seems the necessary evidence of a mission from God. 175. The sufficiency of the evidence which our Lord exhi- Effect of tbis bited in this form was admitted by all, John 7. evidence. ^i : 3. 2. The effect on those who witnessed the miracles, in a teachable spirit, was a deep conviction of his Messiahship, John 6. 14 : 2. 11, etc., as the effect of the record of those miracles and of the doctrines they confirmed, ought to be saving faith, John 20. 30, 31. 176. But did he not deceive the peo^^le ? How? He Did he introduced his religion among enemies. He wrought deceive ? i^ig miracles openly. The senses of men were able to judge of them. His adversaries narrowly watched his proceedings, John 9. And why ? He foresaw and foretold his death. He promised his disciples persecution and sufier- ing, and he enforced and practised universal holiness. But was he not himself deceived 1 Whence, then, the Bobriety and holiness of his precepts, the disheartening faith- fulness of his warnings, the dissimilarity between his teach- ings and the expectations of his countrymen 1 No one mark of enthusiasm is to be found in Him. The predictions of our Lord in this respect were soon ful- fiUed. Most of the ai)ostles seem to have se;Ued their testimony EXTERNAL EVIDE^•CE : illRACLES. 91 ■with their blood, and each noblv endured the trial. The following facts are gathered chiefly from ecclesiastical historv. They are not all, however, equally cei-tain : — Matthew suffered martyrdom (by the sword) in Ethiopia. Mark died at Alexandria after being dragged through the streets of that city. Luke was hanged on an olive-tree in Greece. John was put into a cauldi'on of boiling oil but escaped death, and was banished to Patmos. Peter was crucified at Eome with his head down- wards. James was beheaded at Jerusalem. James the Less was thrown from a pinnacle of the temple, and beaten to death below. Philip was hanged against a pillar in Phrygia. Bartho- lomew was flayed alive. Andrew was bound to a cross, whence he preached to his persecutors till he died. Thomas was inm through the body at Coromandel in India. Jude was shot to death Avitli arrows. Matthias was first stoned and then beheaded. Barnabas was stoned to death by Jews at Salonica. Paul "in deaths oft," was beheaded at Rome by Nero. Does the world furnish any such examples of sincerity and faithfulness ? 177. In truth this evidence can be set aside only by sup- if miracles posing a miracle greater than all. If Christ were denied, a jjq^ from God, we have a Jewish peasant, changing miracle must the religion of the world, weaving into the story i)e admitted, ^j j^-^ j^£^ ^-^^ fulfilment of ancient predictions, and a morahty of the purest order, as unhke the traditional teaching of his countrymen as it was superior to the precepts of Gentile philosophy ; enduring with most pecuhar com- j)0SLire intense suffering, and inducing his followers to submit to similar privations, and many of them to a cruel death : in support not of opinions but of the alleged fact of his miraculous resurrection. We have then these followers, * unlearned men,' going forth and discoursing on the sub- limest themes, persuading the occupiers of Roman and Grecian cities to cast away their idols, to renounce the religion of their fathers, to reject the instructions of their philosophy, and to receive instead, as a teacher sent from heaven, a Jew of humble station who had been put to a shameful death. And all impostors! To receive this ex- planation of the acknowledged facts, is to admit a greater miracle than any which the Bible contains. 178, These remarks apply in a similar way to the miracles 92 EXTERNAL EVIDENCE: PROPHECY. Leslie's tests ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ Testament ; and the whole may bo of miraculous examined by the tests laid down (in Leslie's tract) appearances. ^^ infallible marks of the reality of miraculous appearances, i. AVere they such as men's senses could judge of ? 2. Were they public ? 3. Were pubHc monuments kept up, and some outward actions performed in memory of the events thus publicly wrought 1 and 4. Were such monuments and observances set up at the very time when the events took place, and were they afterwards continued without inter- mission ? The first two tests render it imjoossible for men to be deceived at the time, and the last two as impossible for deception to be practised in any subsequent age. If the reader will apply these tests to the miracles of the Bible, and then to the alleged miracles of other teachers, he will see at once the distinction between the false and the true. 179. Prophecies are miracles of knowledge, as miraculous Prophecy a ^*^^^ ^^® miracles of power. These last generally miracle of bring their own evidence with them, while the ow e ge. eyi(ieQce of the former is gradual and accumu- lative. The study of pro^Dhecy and of its fulfilment is highly in- structive, both for the confirmation of our faith and for the enlightenment of the church. The want of books, which Lord Bacon noted in this department, has been largely sup- plied in later times, especially by such works as those of Newton and Keith. 180. In order that predictions may form part of the evi- „ . ., , dence of Scripture, it is necessary, first, tjiat the Requisites of ^ •, , 1 -, ■, , -, 1' j • i prophetic event foretold be beyond human calculation and evidence. foresight ; secondly, that the prediction be known before the event takes i)lace ; and thirdly, that the prediction be fulfilled without an intentional regard to the Divine pur- pose on the part of the agent. If prudence could hsiYe foreseen the result, the prediction may be but an instance of human sagacity. If the result was not foretold, there is no prophetic evidence. And if the prediction led men to seek its fulfilment, tlie fulfilment is the result of human contrivance. There are indeed predictions, to which all these marks do not apply ; but such predictions, though useful for other purposes, cannot be regarded as decisive evidence of Scripture truth. EXTERNAL EVIDENCE : PROPHECY. 93 i8i. Prophetic evidence, it may be noticed, inins tlirough Pervades the ^^^ Bible, and each dispensation has its appropriate Bible to the predictions. Immediately after the fall, we have the promise of a Sa^^our : in the days of Enoch, predictions of a coming judgment : in the days of Xoah, of the flood. After the flood, prophecy gave a new charter of temporal blessing, and pro- mised a continuance of the seasons to the end of time. In Abraham, it founded the double covenant of Canaan and the gospel, promising to his seed a country, of which he possessed only his burying-place, and to all nations, that in his great descendant they should be blessed."" It foretold the bondage of Egypt, and promised dehverance.^ By Jacob, it foretold the future history of the patriarchs and of their descendants.*" During the bondage of Egypt, the gift was withheld, but To the giving ^as renewed at the giving of the law. It then of the Law. foretold the coming of a second and mightier pro- phet,^ the future dignity of Judah," and the destinies of the Hebrew people to the end of time -J while the whole of the dispensation foreshadowed in types the great doctrines of the gospel. A pause of four hundred years follows the giving of the law : and a pause of like duration precedes the coming of our Lord. In the days of Samuel, whose prophetic office is distinctly To the days noticed," it foretold the consequences of the eleo- of Solomon, tion of a temporal king,*' the death of Saul,' the appointment and character of David,J the estabhshment of his kingdom,'' the birth and character of Solomon ;' and after- wards, the division of the kingdom,"" the overthrow of the idol-altar at Bethel," and the dispersion of Israel. Contem- poraneously we find brief sketches of the nature and future progress of the kingdom of Christ. The prophecies and miracles of Elijah and Ehsha, occupy Great pro- ^n important place in the narrative of the two phetic period, kingdoms," and reach in their evidence, nearly to " Gen. 12. 2, 3: 15. 13. ^ Gen. 15. 14. •= Gen. 49. •* Deut. 18. 15. " Numb. 23. f Dent. 4.: 28.: 33. ^ I Sam. 3. 20. ^ I Sam. 8. 11-18. ' i Sam. 28. 19. J I Sam. 16.: 13. 14. ^ 2 Sam. 7. 12-17. » I Chron. 22. 9; see i Kings 4. 25. «" i Kings ir. 34, 40. ° I Ivings 13. ° 2 Kings 1-12. 94 EXTERNAL EVIDENCE : PROPHECY. tlie days of Jonah, with whom the series of Hebrew prophets may be said to begin. Amos foretold the destruction of Samaria, and the final dispersion of the Ten Tribes,'"" as does Isaiah,*' who also foretells the temporary captivity of Judah by Babylon,*" a small and friendly state, and the deliverance of Hezekiah from Assyria, whose forces then surrounded Jerusalem."^ The most prominent circumstances of the cap- tivity were all foretold, — the time of its continuance, seventy years,*" the moral reasons for it,' the issues of it, the course of means by which it was to terminate." The names of nations scarcely then known, and of a conqueror not yet born, are introduced, and the whole prediction has given to it the dis- tinctness of history. During the whole period, the prophets pre-signify an ap- proaching change of the Mosaic covenant, give the futuro history of the chief pagan nations, and complete the announce- ment of the Messiah and his work of redemption. In the captivity, we have the predictions of Obadiah, of Daniel, and (in part,) of Ezekiel. After the captivity, the prophecies of Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, cheered the builders of the temple, and point yet more earnestly to the advent of the gospel. Thus it is that prophecy makes its earhest and latest work, preparation for Christianity. The office and work of our Lord are set forth as the beginning and end of the earher revelation of God. AUsubordi- ^^^' '^^^'^^ Subordination of prophecy to one nate lo one great object deserves closer investigation. ^" ■ AVe know that in fact the rehgion of the Bible is generally acknowledged among two hundred millions of the human race ; and that while other systems indicate speedy dissolution, it continues to extend on all sides, and seems destined to fill the earth. Little more than eighteen hun- dred years ago it had not one thousand followers. This fact is itself significant, but becomes doubly so when connected with the Scri|)ture predictions which have been handed down to us. " Amos 9. 9, etc. ^ Isa. 7. 6-8. *" Isa. 39. 2-6. ^ Isa. 37. "^ Jer. 29. 10, etc. - isa. 37. oer. 29. lu, etc. Ezek. 24.: Jer. ^o. 1-20: Isa. 27, etc. * Isa. 13. 19: 14. 3: 44.: 45.: Jer. 25. i: Ezek. 2.: 12,: 23. etc EXTERNAL EVIDE^•CE : PROPHECY. 95 It was distinctly foretold that tliis mighty change should The work of "1^'^^^ place ; that it should be effected by the seed the Messiah, of the woman^ (itself an apparently contradictory expression) ; that it should be in connection with the people who were to spring from Abraham ;^ that though in con- nection with them, it would be by means of a neiu co- venant f that not the whole nation, but one out of the nation, was to be author of this change ; that he was to be despised and condemned by his countrymen, and though put to death was to estabhsh a lasting and extensive kingdom.** The ancient books speak with equal clearness of his human and Divine nature ;'' of his descent from Isaac, not Ishmael ; from Jacob, not Esau ; from Judah, not from Eeuben,^ the eldest son, or Levi, the father of the priestly tribe ; and from David the youngest of the sons of Jesse.° They mention the time of his coming ;'' the place and circumstances of his birth ;' his offices as prophet, priest, and king ;■> the scene of his earliest ministry;"*^ his miracles, Hiis sufferings, and his death ;"' his resurrection and ascension ;° his bestowment of the Holy Spirit f and the final and general extension of his truth .P These are but specimens of upwards of one hun- dred predictions generally delivered in clear and exphcit lan- guage ; aU referring to the work or person of our Lord, and exclusive of the typical and allusive predictions which in their ultimate application terminate in him. 183. These predictions were most of them dehvered at least Complete- six hundred years before he appeared, were many of "rediclions^^ them highly improbable, and even apparently con- as evidence, tradictory, and are aU so remarkable as to imply the exercise of miraculous wisdom and power. A loose general prediction (of some great conqueror, for example) might have been made by guess, but a series of predictions containing many minute and seemingly ojpposite particulars, * Gen. 3. 15. ^ Gen. 22. 18. '^ Jer. 31. 31: 32. 40: Ezek. 37. 26: Mic, 4. i. «* Isa. 9. 6: ir. i: Ezek. 34. 23. * Isa. 9. 6. ' Gen. 49. 10. 5 I Sam. 16. 11: Jer. 23. 5. h Gen. 49. 10: Dan. 9. 24: 7.: Hag. 2. 6-9. • Mic. 5.2: Isa. 7. 14. J Psa. no.: Zeeh. 6. 13: Isa. 61. r. ^ Isa. 9. i: Matt. 4. 14. ^ Isa. 35. 5, 6. ™ Psa. 22. 16: Isa. 53. " Psa. 68. 18. ° Joel 2. 28. p Isa. 53.: 9. 7: Psa. 2. G: 22. 96 EXTERNAL EVIDENCE : PROPHECY. All fulfilled in the person of our Lord, could have been given only by Him who worketh all things after the counsel of hiii own will. How instructive to notice that while no man is the them© The testi- ^^ '"^^^ series of prophetic revelations — not even monyof Moses — the Messiah is the theme of all. When spfrit 0^1110- He came he had his signs before him as well as phecy, -^Yith him. It was in the form and for the pur- pose which God himself had foretold "by the mouth of his holy jx'ophets, who have been since the world began," Luke 2. 70. 184. Nor are the destinies of other nations overlooked. Pagan God revealed to Noah the history of his descend- noticed in ^^"^^ 5 Canaan a servant of servants, as his descend- conneciion ants have long been ; Japheth enlarged and dwell- ing in the tents of Shem, or Europe master of Asia. To Abraham he revealed the remote judgment that awaited Egypt and the Amorites, and the nearer judgment of Sodom and Gomorrah. Balaam spoke of the Hebrews, of the rise of Christianity, and of the visitations which were to fall upon the Amalekites, the Kenites, and the Assyrians. Moses foretold the rise of the Roman power eight hundred years before its existence. Of Ishmael it was foretold three thousand years ago that his family should dwell in the presence of their enemies ; that their hands should be against every man, and every man's hand against them. And to this day they are unsubdued, though Sesostris, and Cyrus, and the Romans, and the Turks have all attempted to conquer them. In the prophets the overthrow of the Persian power by Alexander,'' of Babylon, of Tyre,^ and of Egypt," is sketched either before those states had risen into greatness or at the time when they were among the mightiest nations. The conquests of the Saracens and of the Turks,'! the names of the kingdoms which were to escape their power or to fall under it, the history of Edom,e of Moab,*" of Ammon,^ and Philistia,'' are all foretold with such minuteness and pecu- liarity as proves that each must have been present to the vision of the prophet. " Dan. II. 2, 4. ^ Ezek. 28. 1-20. " Ezek. 29. 14, 15. *^ Dan. I r. 40, 41. ^ Jer. 49, etc. ' Jer. 48. 8 Ezek. 25. 2-10: Zeph. 2. 9, etc. ^ Ezek. 25. EVIDENCES : PROPHECY : THE JEWS. 97 These predictions were given amidst tlie decays of the Object of Jewish covenant, and were intended to rebuke the these pro- pride of the nations, to administer consolation and i> ccie..,. instruction, and above all, to lead the thoughts of men to that kingdom which could not be moved. In the midst of the captivity Daniel numbered and weighed the kingdoms of the earth, and pointed to the dominion of the Ancient of days. See Davison, p. 303. 185. To these facts it may be added that every promise FiiiflUod reahzed in this life, every answered prayer, every klnTo/^^ act of honoured faith, every spiritual blessing propbccy. obtained as the result of spiritual obedience, is a fulfilled prediction ; while the typical persons and events of the previous economy still further swell the prophetic evidence of the faith, till we have at length a series of pro- phecies so full and so clear, as to defy all explanation short of the inspiration of the Almighty. See on this subject Fleming's Fulfilling of Scripture. 186. To form a more definite idea of these predictions, and Instances of of the completeness with which they fulfil the fulfilment, requisites of prophecy as an evidence of a Divine revelation (see § 180), the reader may compare Psa. 22. and Isa. 53. -with the Gospels ; or he may take the predictions of the Pentateuch" on the history of the Jewish people, which are referred to by Nehemiah'' and in part repeated in the books of Amos, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. The Pentateuch has been in hostile keeping for more than 2500 years, and all the predictions were known and quoted by other writers 2000 years ago. The priority of the prophecy, therefore, to the fulfilment, is in this case undoubted. 187. When the promise was first given to Abraham he was childless f and nearly 200 years afterwards, during which time the promise was often renewed, the family had increased to only seventy souls.*^ Their preservation and greatness was foretold by Balaam^ and Moses, when such a result was highly improbable, when the whole nation were under the Divine disj^leasure, and nations mightier than themselves, and whom they were commanded to exterminate, had combined to destroy them. Isaiah foretold the captivity in ^ Deut. 28. 64, 65; Lev. 26. 32, 33. ^ ]s^eli. i. 8. ' Gen. 15.2. d Gen. 46. 27. ^ Numb. 23.9. F 98 evidences: prophecy, the days of a pious king and a prosperous government. Jeremiah's predictions of dehverance were given when utter destruction threatened them in Babylon, and when ten of the tribes had ah-eady disappeared.*" After the overthrow of Jerusalem, their land became " trodden down of the Gentiles ;"^ and they were driven from their country. For nearly 2000 years they have been without distinction of tribes, without a prince, without go- vernment, or temple, or priesthood, or sacrifice, dispersed and yet preserved, scattered and yet kept from mixture ; and they are a proverb and a bye-word still. These are events without a parallel, and opposed to all our experience. Man could not have foreseen them, as certainly man has not of his own purpose accomplished them. To make the lesson morally complete, the law remains, and the Jews guard the very prophecies which then- history fulfils ; so that they have become not only " a reproach and a taunt," but an " instruc- tion " unto the nations that are round about them (Ezek. 5. 15.) 188. Their history becomes the more impressive when TheEdom- compared with that of the Edomites. Both were ites. descended from Isaac. The latter rose earher into power ; were never scattered by captivities, and when Jeru- salem was destroyed, they formed a flourishing community. Thirty ruined towns, within three days journey of the Eed Sea, attest their former greatness. Utter desolation, both of the country, and of the family of Esau, was foretold, Jer. 49. 17, 10: Obad. 8, and utter de- solation is now their condition. They were distinguished for wisdom : now, the wanderers in Edom are sunk in the grossest foUy, and regard the ruins around them as the work of spirits, Obad. 8. Edom lies in the directest route to India : but none " shall pass through it for ever and ever," and " even the Arabs," says Keith, " are afraid to enter it, or conduct any within its borders," Isa. 34. 10. The people who visit it are described as a most savage and treacherous race, and so the prophet foretold, Mai. i. 4. Its desolation is said to be perpetual, Jer. 49. 7-22, and " Jer. 30. 10, 11: 53. 23, ;6: 46. 27, 28 ^ Luke 21. 24. EVIDENCES : PROPHECY : BABYLON. 99 travellers state, that the whole country is a vast expanse of sand, drifted up from the Ked Sea. What human foresight could have foretold destinies so distinct ? We may add one or two examples more : — 189. One hundred and sixty years before Babylon was over- Babylon; thrown, Isaiah dehvered his prophecy. Judea prophecies, ^^g then a powerful kingdom. Persia, the native country of Cyi-us, was yet in barbarism, and Babylon itself was only rising into notice, its existence being scarcely known to the Hebrews. One hundred years later than Isaiah, Jeremiah prophesied : and at that time Babylon was " the glory of kingdoms," " the praise of the whole earth." Nebuchadnezzar had enlarged and beautified the city, and through aU that region his authority was supreme. Isaiah begins these predictions, foretells the overthrow of the city, calls its conqueror Cyrus by name,^ intimating that this was his surname, and not given him at his birth^. He summons people from Elam (Persia,) and Media,*" tells how the city win be entered, the river dried up, the two-leaved gates left open, and the place taken by surprise during a night of revelry and drunkenness.'^ Both prophets add, that the place is to be for ever uninhabited, a lair of wild beasts, and a place of stagnant waters.^ A century after the first of these prophecies was dehvered, they began to be fulfilled. Nebuchadnezzar conquered Judea, and in two independent historians, Herodotus and Xenophon, (the former of whom hved 250 years after Isaiah, and the latter 350,) we have historical proof of the minute accuracy of all the predictions. Herodotus states, that Cyrus assumed that name on his accession to the throne, Bk. i. 114. Xeno- phon notes the miscellaneous character of his army, but specially mentions the Persians and Medes, Cyrop. v. ciii. 38. Both writers have left a careful account of the siege, of the diversion of the river, of the capture of the city, and of the death of the king. * Isa. 44. 28: 45. I. ^ Isa. 45. 4. *" Isa. 21. 2: 13. 4, 5: Jer. 51. 27, 28. cide on this alternative, and to say, whether what is taught in Scripture, is what might be looked for from enthusiasts or impostors. This is a question on which all can judge, though it requires some experience and knowledge of the world, as well as an acquaintance with Scripture, rightly to appreciate it. 194. The first peculiarity of Scripture morahty is the im- portance, which is everywhere attached to holiness. 1. Import- ^ ^ 1 n ance of hoU- Judging from what we know of systems of human "^^^" origin, a rehgion from man would either have spent its force on ritual observance, or have allowed active service on its behalf to make amends for the neglect of other duties. Mohammedanism gives the highest place to those who fight and fall in conflict. Hindooism rewards most the observance of ritual worship. Jewish tradition taught that all Jews were certainly saved. The Scriptures, on the con- trary, bring all men into the presence of a Being of infinite hohness, before whom the most exalted human characters fall condemned ;^ and they declare plainly, that nothing we can say or do in the cause of Christ, can make up for the want of practical virtue. Those who have preached in the name of Christ are to be disowned if they be workers of iniquity,^ and the reception of the true faith makes Chiistian hohness only the more incumbent.*' 195. The kind of moral duty which the Scriptures teach, is 2. Pecu- not such as man was hkely to discover or to morarpre- approve. When our Lord appeared, the Romans ccpts. were proud of their mihtary glory, and the Greeks of their superior wisdom. Among the Jews a pharisaic spirit prevailed, and the whole nation was divided between opposing sects, all hating their conquerors, however, and the Gentile world at large. An enthusiast would certainly have become a partisan, and an impostor would have flattered each sect by exposing the faults of the rest, or the nation by condemning their conquerors. Our Lord came, on the con- trary, as an independent teacher, rebuked all error, condemned all the sects, and yet did nothing to court the favour of the people. His precepts, bidding men to return good for evil, to love their enemies, to be humble and forgiving, to consider every race and every station as on a level before God, were ^ Job 40.4: Isa. 6. 5: Dan. 9.4: r Tim. r. 15. ^ Matt. 7. 22, 23: Luke 6. 46. *" i Cor. 5. 11, 12 102 EVIDENCES : MORALITY. acceptable to none, and were yet repeated and enforced with the utmost earnestness and consistency. 196. It may indeed be said that men are always ready to Not oni commend a greater degree of purity than they are above hmnan prepared to practise, and that ancient philosophers contxSyto* wrote treatises describing a much nobler virtue it. than was found among their countrymen. This is true, and if the Jewish fishermen had studied philosophy, it would not have been wonderful if they had taught a higher morality than men generally j)ractised. But they were " ignorant men," and their precepts go not only beyond what men practised, but beyond what they approved. The gospel is not only better than human conduct, it is often contrary to it. The endurance of suffering, the forgiveness of injury, and the exercise of a submissive spirit were not only not practised, they were not admired ; and while the gospel teaches these duties, it exhibits them in combination with a spiritual heroism of which the world knows nothing, and which has ever been supposed inconsistent with the patient virtues which the Scriptures enjoin. 197. Add to these facts another, (on which Paley has en- j. Eeguiation larged,) namely, that Scripture seeks to regulate the of motives, thoughts and motives of men, and is content with nothing less than a state of heart which refers all our actions to God's will ; and it must be felt that the morality of the gospel is not of man. Bad men could not have taught such truths, and good men would not have deceived the people. 198. But there is yet another peculiarity in the morahty of 4. Peculiarity Scripture, equally trae in itself and striking. Sin t^G^d*^^"d -"^^ everywhere spoken of as an evil against God, sin. and everywhere it is not the instrument or human agent who is exalted, but God alone. The first notion is inconsistent with all heathen philosophy, and the second with the natural tendency of the human heart. " This," says Cicero, " is the common principle of all philosophers, that the Deity is never displeased, nor does he inflict injury on man," De Ofi". iii. 28. In Scripture, on the contrary, sin is represented as an evil and bitter thing, because it is dishonouring to God. Hence the destruction of the Amalekites,^ of Sennacherib'', and " Exod. 17. 16, marg. ^ 2 Kings 19. 22-37. EVIDENCES: MORALITY. 103 Belsliazzar*. Hence the abandonment of the Gentile world to a reprobate niind> Hence God's controversy with the Jews*^ and with Moses.*^ Hence Eli's^ punishment and David's/ Hence the death of Nadab and Abihu," of Uzzah,'' and Herod.' Hence also the calamities of Solomon, the division of his kingdom into Israel and Judah, and the captivity and destruc- tion of both.^ God alone is honoured. The great object' of all the writers seems to be, to lead men's thoughts to Him. The false teacher gives out that he himself is some great one (Acts 8. 9), but in the Bible it is God only who is exalted. This rule is illustrated in Moses, Deut. r. 31: 2.33: 3.3: 4.32-38: Exod. 18.8. Joshua. Josh. 23. 3. David, i Chron. 29. ir, 14. Daniel, Dan. 2. iu, 23, 30. Ezra, Ezra 7. 28. Xehemiah, Neh. 2. 12. Peter and John, Acts 3. 12-16. Paul, Acts 21. 19: i Cor. 3. 5: 2 Cor. 4. 7. Creation is represented in the same way as God in nature :'' the revolutions and progress of kingdoms as God in history.^ 199. It is in -paxi with the view of strengthening the feelings which these jDeciiliarities produce, that faith is made the principle of obedience and suc- cess. In relation to God, faith is the confession of our weakness, and excludes all boasting ; and yet in relation to success, it is omnipotent ; a truth as profoimdly philosophical as it is spiritually important. And yet it is a truth revealed only in the Bible. Rom. 3. 27: Eph. 2. 8, 9: i Cor, i. 29-31: John 11.40: Isa. 7. 9, 200. The candour and sincerity of the inspired writers are not less remarkable than their moral precepts, and sincerity of are quite incompatible with either enthusiasm or Scripture. imposture. ^ Dan. 5. 23. ^ Rom. i. 21, 28. *" Heb. 3. 19. ^ Ntmib. 20. 12. ^ I Sam. 2. 29, 30. f 2Sam. 12.9 (Ps. 51,4.) ^ Lev. 10. 1-3, 10. b 2 Sam. 6. 7. » Acts 12. 23. i I Kings II. 3-14: 2 Kings 17. 14-20: 2 Chron. 36. 16, 17; Luke 19. 42-44: Rom. II. 20. ^ Ps. 104. 10: Jer. 5. 24: Joel 2. 23, 24: Matt. 10. 29. ' Jer. 17. 7-10: Dan. 4. 35: Jer. 25. 9: Isa 44. 28. 104 evidences: morality. They denounce the sins of the people. " Ye have been rebelliovw against the Lord from the day that I knew you," says Moses (Deut. 9. 24), and all later -wiiters give the same view. Judges 2.19: i Sam. 12. 12; Neh. 9. They speak of themselves and of those whose characters were likely to reflect credit upon their cause with equal plainness. Moses fore- told that the Jews would break his law, and that ho would be super- seded by a greater prophet. Gen. 49. 10: Deut. 18. 15, 18: Acts 7. 38. He records with all fulness the sins of the Patriarchs, Gen. 12. TI-13 : 20. etc. : of his grandfather Levi, Gen. 49. 5-7 : of his brother Aaron and of his elder sons, Exod. 32.: Lev. ic. : nor less plainly his own sms, Xumb. 20. 12: 27. 12-14: Deut. 32. 51. In the same spirit the evangelists notice their own faults and the faults of the apostles. Matt. 26. 31-56: John 10. 6: 16. 32: Matt. 8. 10, 26: 15. 16: 16. 7-11: 18. 3: 20. 20. Mark and Luke speak no less plainly, Mark 6. 52: 8. 18: 9. 32, 34: 10. 14: 14. 50, 32, 35-45: 16. 14: Luke 8. 24, 23: 9. 40-45: 18. 34: -2. 24: 24. ir. With eqvial truthfulness the Scriptures record the humiliation of our Lord, his sufferings, and dejection. Matt. 27. 46: Ileb. 5.7. The apostles record without reserve the disorders of the churches which they themselves had planted, and even add that their own ajjostolic authority had been questioned among them, i Cor. i. 11 : 5.1:2 Cor. 2. 4: II. 5-23 : 12. 20. It is thus that simplicity distinguishes the Bible, and forces on the mind the conviction that its authors had no other " object in view than by manifestation of the truth to com- mend themselves to every man's conscience as in the sight of God." Lowth, on the Study of Scripture. 201. But no analysis can give a just idea of the morality of No anal 'sis ^^^ Bible. It must be compared in the bulk with of it can give other teaching. Men have praised maxims of fts excel-* *^^ virtue, or appealed to the moral sentiments of our lencies. nature, or sought to promote holiness by systems of morals. But all these are defective. The common maxims of virtue are mere dictates of prudence, without authority or influence. Our moral sentiments are retiring and evan- escent, easily corrupted by the strong passions in whoso neighbourhood they dwell, and are feeblest when most wanted ; and systems of morals, hke all processes of reasoning, depend on the perfection of our faculties, and are too much the evidences: character. 105 subject of disputation to become powerful motives of lioij action. All these plans moreover are defective, in not taking into account our fall, and the necessity of providing for our recovery. Scripture, on the other hand, teaches the Christian to use these helps, only subordinating all to its own lessons. It begins its work with a recognition of our ruin, and an intelligent foresight of its own end ; brings the soul into narmony with God and with itself, enlightens and educates the conscience, quickens and purifies the feehngs, subjects instincts to reason, reason to love, and all to God ; and pro- vides an instrumentality as effective and practical as the tmths it reveals and on which it rests are unearthly and subhme. 202. Among the most decisive moral proofs of the Divine The charac- origin of Scripture, is the character of Christ. It ter of Christ, jg ^ proof however rather to be felt than to be described, and its force will be in proportion to the tone of moral sentiment in the reader. Holy and purer minds wiU feel it more than others, and such as are like Nathanael the " Israelite indeed, in wliom is no guile," will exclaim with him, '' Rabbi, thou art the Son of God ; thou art the King of Israel." Three things are obvious in the history of our Lord, (i.) The whole narrative is free from panegyric. (2.) The charac- ter is wholly unstudied : the story being written by unpractised authors, without learning or eloquence ; and moreover, (3.) the moral character of Christ is unimpeached even by the oppo- nents of the gospel. His apostles appeal to all men's tes- timony to his morality, as a fact admitted and notorious. His own moral teaching was an appeal of the same kind, for had he been guilty of the practices he condemns, his hearers would have been sure to detect and reproach his incon- sistency. That Ills holiness was admitted generally will appear from the following passages: John 7. 46-51: 8. 46: 10. 32: Matt. 26. 59: 27. 23, 24: Luke 23. 13-15: Acts 3. 13, 14: i Pet. 2. 21-23. His benevolence and compassion are shown in John 4.: Luke 9. 55: 10.30-37: Mai'k 7. 26, etc. : 10. 13-21: 45-52: Luke 13. 16: 14.12: 22. 50, 51 : Matt. 9. 36, etc.: 18. 11, etc. His kindness and affec- tion in Matt. 14, 27-31: Luke 19. 5: 22. 61: John ir.: 19. 25-27. F 3 106 EVIDEXCES : CHARACTER. His meekness and humility in Matt. 9. 28: 18. 22, etc.: 5. 1-12 • Tiuke 22. 24: John 13. 4. His moral courage, firmness, and re- signation in Matt. 26. 39-46: Mark 10, 32: Liike 4. 23, etc.: 13. 31, etc.: 18. 29, etc.: John 11. 7: 18. 4, etc. His sincerity and abhorrence of hypocrisy and corn-ting popularity in Matt. 6. 1-18: 10. 16-39: 22. 18; etc.: Mark 12. 38-40: Luke 11. 44, etc.: John t6. 1-6. His moderation and the absence of enthusiastic austerity. Matt. 8. 19: 23. 23: Luke 5. 29-35: John 2. i, etc.: Mark 12. 17. " The character of Clirist (says an eminent writer), is a OriginaUty wonderful proof of the Divinity of the Bible. The and beauty Hindoo cannot think of his Brahmin saint, other of his cna- . ' . racter. than as possessmg the abstemiousness and austerity which he admires in his living models. The Socrates of Plato is composed of elements practically Greek, being a compound of the virtues deemed necessary to adorn the sage. A model of the Jewish teacher might easily be drawn from the writings of the Rabbis, and he would prove to be the very reflection of those Scribes and Pharisees, who are reproved in the Gospel. But in the life of our Redeemer, a character is represented which departs in every way from the national type of the writers, and from the character of all ancient nations, and is at variance with all the features which custom, education, rehgion, and patriotism, seem to have consecrated as most beautiful. Four different authors have recorded different facts, but they ex- hibit the same conception, a conception differing from all they had ever witnessed or heard, and necessarily copied from the same original. And more, this glorious character, while bor- rowing nothing from the Greek, or Indian, or Jew, having nothing in common with established laws of perfection, is yet to every believer a type of excellence. He is followed by the Greek, though a founder of none of his sects, revered by the Brahmin, though preached by one of the fishermen caste, and worshipped by the red man of Canada, though belonging to the hated pale-race." 203. One point more remains on the morahty of Scripture . The influence ^^® effect of its religion on the character of men. of Scripture Apart from particular facts in support of this vSiiSfs'and truth, it is generally admitted that the doctrines society. ^f ^^io Bible agree with its precepts, and that they contain in their very substance, urgent motives to holiness. It is on this principle that Fuller proceeds in his Gospel its EVIDENCES: EFFECTS OF GOSPEL. 107 own Witness, and Erskine in his Treatise on the Internal Evidences. See also i Peter 2. 12. We confine ourselves, however, to a few facts in illustra- tion of the general truth. The effects of the gosj^el in the first age are well known, and are incidentally told us in the Epistles. Paul has pointed out what occurred at Corinth and Ephesus,* and Peter, the effects which were produced in Pontus and Galatia.*' In a dissolute age, and under the worst governments. Christians (who had been no better than their neighbours) reached an eminence in virtue which has never perhaps been surpassed. Similar appeals may be found in the writings of the early- apologists. Clement of Rome (a. D. 100), in his Epistle to the Corinthians, commends their virtues. " Who," says he, " did ever hve among you, that did not admire your sober and moderate piety, and declare the greatness of your hospitahty. You are humble and not proud, content with the daily bread which God supphes, hearing diligently his word, and enlarged in charity." Justin Martyr (a, d. 165), who had been a pla- tonic philosopher, says in his Apology, " We who formerly dehghted in adultery, now observe the strictest chastity : we who used the charms of magic, have devoted ourselves to the true God, and we who valued money and gain above all things, now cast what we have in common, and distribute to every man according to his necessities." " You (says Minu- cius Fehx to a heathen opponent) punish wickedness when it is committed, we think it sinful to indulge a sinful thought. It is with your party that the prisons are crowded, but not a single Christian is there, except it be as a confessor or apostate." TertuUian, the first Latin ecclesiastical writer whose works have come down to us (a. d. 220), makes a similar appeal, and speaks of great multitudes of the Roman empire as the subjects of this change. Origenin his reply to Celsus (a. d. 246), Lactantius, the preceptor of Constantino (a.d. 325), repeat these appeals: and even the emperor JuUan holds up Christians to the imitation of Pagans, on account of their love to strangers and to enemies, and on account of the sanctity of their hves. This influence of the gospel was early seen among ancient ' I Cor. 6. II: Eph. 4. 19: 2. i. ^ 1 Pet, 4. 3. 108 EVIDENCES : EFFECTS OF GOSPEL. In society nations. In Greece, the grossest impurities had generally. i^^en encouraged by Lycurgus and Solon. At Rome they were openly practised and approved. Among nearly all ancient nations self-murder was commended. Se- neca and Plutarch, the elder Phny and Quinctilian, applaud it, and Gibbon admits that heathenism presented no reason against it. Human sacrifice, and the exposure of children were allowed, and even enforced. But wherever the gospel came, it condemned these practices, discouraged and finally destroyed them. That it was not civihzation that suppressed them is certain, for they were kept up by nations far superior to the Christians in refinement, and the suppression of them was always found to keej) pace, not with the progress of hu- man enhghtenment but of Divine truth. The relief of distress and the care of the poor are almost peculiar to Christian nations. In Constantinople, there was not, before Christianity was introduced, a single charitable building : nor was there ever such a building in ancient Rome. After the introduction of Christianity, however, the former cit}' had more than thirty buildings for the reception of orphans, of the sick, of strangers, of the aged, and of the poor. In Eoine, there were twenty-five large houses set apart for the same purpose. With equal certainty, it can be established, that the gospel has abolished polygamy, mitigated the horrors of war, redeemed captives, freed slaves, checked the spirit of feudal oppression, and improved the laws of barbarous nations. '• Truth and candour," says Gibbon, " must acknowledge that the conversion of these nations, imparted many temj^oral benefits both to the Old and New World, prevented the total extinction of letters, mitigated the fierceness of the times, sheltered the poor and defenceless, and jDreserved or revived the peace and order of civil society."" As therefore the providence of God is seen in the preser- vation of the Bible, so also is his grace in its efiects : and those eff'ects bear strong testimony to its Divine origin, I Thess. I. 4-10 : Gal. 5. 22. 204. No work gives a better view of man's need of the gospel than Leland's, On the Advantage and Necessity of a Christian lievelation, shown from the state of " Gibbon's History, chap. 55. For a large collection of similar fects see Kyan'fi KfFects of Religion, i. 6 3, and App. EVIDENCES : INTERNAL AND LITEHAIIY. 109 religion iu the ancient heathen world, with respect to the knowledge and worship of the one true God, a rule of moral duty, and the state of future rewards and punishments. He shows clearly that the representations of Scripture on the state of the Gentiles are hterally true, and that idolatry gathered strength among the nations as they grew in refine- ment, that the ancient philosophers were profoundly wrong in the first principles of morahty, that the best systems were lamentably defective, and that all rules wanted clearness and authority ; that as to a future hfe, most denied it, and that of those who professed to beheve, none x:)laced it on grounds satisfactory or rational. 205. On that part of the Scriptural evidence which is called the harmony of revealed truth, it is not possible to evidence, enlarge : and the subject has been fully discussed Harmonies. ^^ yarious writers. On the agreement between the two Economies, the works of Dr. Kidder, and of Dr. W. L. Alexander, will be found highly interesting. On the agreement between the doctrines and peculiarities of Scripture, and the facts of Nature, the Analogy of Biahop Butler is unrivalled. On the coincidences between sacred and general history, the works of Bryant, Lardner, Gray, Prideaux, Shuckford, and Russell, may be consulted with satisfaction. On coincidences of a minute and statistical character, with the geography and natural history of Palestine, ample materials may be found in the works of Harmer, Clarke, and Keith. On coincidences between various parts of the record itself, much information may be obtained in the works of Graven Blunt, Paley, and Birks.* These coincidences are hterally innumerable, and are inter- woven with the whole texture of Scripture. Some are ap- parently trifling, as when it is said that our Lord went doivu from Nazareth to Capernaum, and Dr. Clarke points out the graphic consistency of the phrase with the geography of that region. Others are deeply affecting, as when it is said that * See edition of Paley's Evidences, with Xotes, by Birks, also Paley' s Horse Paulinae, with Horse Apostolicoe, by Birks, published by Religious Tract Society. 110 EVIDENCES : INTERNAL AND LITERARY. blood and water issued from the side of Jesus, and medical authorities affirm, that if the heart is pierced or broken, blood and water flow from the wound. Some are critical, as when it is remarked, that at no time after the destruction of Jeru- salem, could any known writers have written in the style of the books of the Bible : and that at no one time could these various books have been written. They are demonstrably the work of different authors, and of different ages. Some are historical, as when it is noticed, that after the time of the apostles, all writers applied the name Christian to designate the followers of Christ, a name never apphed in the New Testament ly Christians to designate one another : the very terms which the apostles employ, indicating that the new rehgionwas the comiDletionof the old — "chosen" and "faithful." Some are religious, founded, that is, on the peculiarities of the rehgious system revealed, as when it is stated, that the rehgion of the New Testament is the only one in which is omitted the one ordinance, which would have been natural and acceptable to both Jews and Pagans, namely, the offering of animals in sacrifice ; an instructive omission. The effect of the whole is highly impressive, and is of itself a sufficient proof of the substantial credibility of the narrative, and of the honesty of the authors. Some idea of Paley's Horce Pauhnse, may be gathered from Of Scripture ^u examination of the following passages, it being •vxith itself, premised that the books quoted were Avritten either by different authors, or at different times, and with altogether different purposes. Rom. 15. 25. 26. Rom. 16. 21-24. Rom. I. 13: 15. 23, 24. I Cor. 4. 17-19. I Cor. 16. 10, II. I Cor. I. 12: 3. 6. I Cor. 9. 20. I Cor. I. 14-17. Acts 20. 2, 3: 21. 17: 24. 17-19: I Cor. 16. 1-4: 2 Cor. 8. 1-4: 9. 2. Acts 20, 4. Acts 19. 21. Acts 19. 21, 22. Acts 19. 21; I Tim. 4. 12. Acts 18. 27, 28: 19. I. Acts 16. 3: 21. 23, 26. Acts 18. 8 : Rom. 16. 23 : i Cor. 16. 15. A single instance may be yet more impressive. Bamafcas (we are told) was a native of Cyprus, who sold his Barnabas. property and laid the money at the apostles' feet, (Acts 4. 36, 37). We are told also, quite incidentallj^, that EVIDKN'CES : SPIRITUAL. Ill Mark was his nephew, (Col. 4. 10). Compare these facts with the following passages (where it is stated, that John Mark went as far as Cyprus his native country, and soon re- joined his mother at Jerusalem, greatly to the dissatisfaction of Paul), and how remarkable the consistency of the whole : I Cor. 9. 6, 7 : Acts 11. 20, 22 : 13. 4 : 15. 37, 39 : and 13. 13. The harmony pervading everything connected with Barnabas (says Mr. Blunt) is of itself enough to stamp the book of Acts as a history of perfect fidehty. See Birks' Horse ApostohcEe, published by the EeHgious Tract Society. Compare in the same way the abrupt termination of the history in Acts 8. 40, with Acts 21. 8, 9. 206. But in addition to the moral evidence of Scripture, evidence suggested by the morahty of the New Testament, the character of our Lord, the candour and sincerity, and self-denial of the first Christians, and the moral beauty of Christian principles, as illustrated in the hves of consistent behevers, there is evidence directly spiritual. This evidence is partly appreciated by the intellect, but stiU more by the heart and conscience. So far as it treats of man as the gospel finds him, it appeals equally to all ; so far as it treats of man as the gospel /o/7?-ts him, it appeals only to the he- liever. To the first part of this evidence the apostle refers in I Cor. 14. 23-25 ; and to the second, in Eom. 8. 16 : i John 5. 20. 207. This evidence consists, in part, in the agreement Harmony of between what the awakened sinner feels himself, Scripture and and what the Bible declares him to be. The rienceofthe gospel proclaims the universal corruption of sinner. human nature. It speaks not only of acts of transgression, but of a deep and inveterate habit of imgod- liness in the soul, and of the necessity of a complete renewal. If this description were felt to be untrue, if man were con- scious of dehght in submitting his wiU to God's wiU, and in obeying commands which rebuke his selfishness and pride, he might at once discredit the truth of the gospel. But when he finds that the description answers to his own state, and that every attempt at closer examination only discovers to him the completeness of this agreement, he has in himself an evidence that this message is true. 112 EVIDENCES : SPIRITUAL. 2c8. The second stage of the evidence is reached when a . man finds that the provisions of the gospel are adapted to adapted to his state. He is guilty, and needs our wants, p^j-don. He is corrupt, and needs holiness. He is surrounded by temptation, and needs strength. He is living in a world of vexation and change, and he needs some more satisfying portion than it can supply. He is dying, and he shrinks from death, and longs for a clear revelation of another life. And the gospel meets all these wants. It is a message of pardon to the guilty, of holiness to the aspirin^sj, of peace to the tried, and of life to them that sit in the shadow of death. 209. And whilst there is perfect adaptation to human want, Harmony of ^^ "^^^^ striking is the agreement between the de- Scriptme scription given in the gospel of its results, and the perienceof Christian's experience. The effects of the behef the Christian, ^f ^j^g tiiith are repeatedly portrayed in Scrip- ture. Each promise is a prediction, receiving daily fulfil- ment. Penitence and its fruits, the obedience of faith and the increasing light and j)eace which it supplies, the power of prayer, the influence of Christian truth on the intellect, and the heart and the character, the struggles, and victories, and defeats even of the new hfe, all are described and constitute an evidence in the highest degree experimental ; an evidence which grows vvdth our growth, and multiplies with ever}'- step of our progress in the knowledge and love of the truth. Such insight into our moral being, and such knowledge of the changes which religious truth is adapted to produce, could never emanate from human wisdom, and they prove that God himself is the author of the book in which sucli quahties are disclosed. 210. We repeat the caution, however, that this evidence is -, f , „ chiefly of value for the confirmation of the faith of Useful for ^, , i -n continnation a Christian, because none else wiU appreciate or ^ ^^^^ ' understand it. To such, however, this evidence is so strong as often to supersede every other. To the Christian, the old controversy between Christianity and infidelity haf? but little interest ; he already feels the truth which evidences seek only to prove ; it seems needless to discuss the reality of what he already enjoys ; he has the " witness in himself." 211. It may be added, too, that the evidence depends not EVIDENCES : EXPERIMENTAL. 113 Christianity SO much on Christianity as adapted to our wants, m!)\e wT* ^ ^^ Christianity adapted to promote our holi- hoiiiiess. ness. When Christ appeared, the Jews felt their want of an earthly deliverer. A Messiah who should make the Gentiles fellow heirs, they did not want at all. The system of Mohammed, again, is adapted with great skill to the desires of a sensual, gross-minded, and ambitious people. The Hindoos adhere to a religion that is without evidence, because they find it suited to their tastes. All these cases, however, are very different from the case of Christianity ; it came to us not conformed to our natural inchnations, but seeking to conform them to itself; and when this process is begun, then only is its adaptation revealed. Heathen na- tions sought a rehgion conformed to their own corrupt pro- pensities : and on finding such a religion they embraced and beheved it. Pagan systems are adapted to man as he is, and as he desires to be, while yet in love with sin ; the gospel is adapted to man as he is and ought to be. Paganism is the adaptation of a corrupt system to a corrupt nature ; the gospel is the adaptation of a hfe-giving system to a nature that needs to be renewed. The first seeks to conform its teaching to our tastes ; the second to conform our tastes to its teaching. And it is while this latter conformation is proceeding, that the believer has the evidence of the truth. When he believes, he has the hope of faith, then comes the hope of experience — experience founded on the sanctifying influence of the love of God, Eom. 5. 2-5. To the physician w^ho is intrusted with the cure of some Analogous mortal disease, two courses are open. He may case. treat the symptoms, or he may treat the disease itself. If in fever he is anxious only to quench the thirst of his patient, or in apoplexy to excite the system, his treat- ment may be said to be adapted to the wants of the sufierer ; but it is not Hkely to restore him. A sounder system treats the disease, and that medipinc is the true specific which is adapted ultimately to remove it. The evidence of the virtue of such a specific is, not its palatableness nor its power of exhilaration, but the steady continued improvement of the health of the patient ; an evidence founded on experience, and strongly confirming the i^roofs which had originally induced him to make the trial. 114 evidences: sujimari. And so of tlis gospel. It may eshilarate, and it may please the taste ; but the evidence of its truth and of its being truly received is its tendency to promote our hoHnesa. 212. What then is the reason of our hojDe ? is a question Summary.— which every inquirer may ask and answer. All Slemgibie *^® answers of which the question admits, no one to aU. can be expected to give, for a full investigation of Christian evidences would occupy a hfe-time ; but it is easy to give such an answer as shall justify our faith. Christianity and the Christian books exist, and have 3xisted for the last eighteen hundred years. Christian and profane writers agree in this admission. The great Founder of our faith pro- fessedly wrought miracles in confirmation of his message, and gave the same power to his apostles. They all under- went severe suffering, and most of them died in testimony of their behef of the truths and facts they delivered. These facts and the truths founded on them, the apostles and first Christians embraced in spite of the opposing influences of the religious systems in which they had been trained. The character and history of the Founder of the faith were fore- told many hundreds of years before in the Jewish Scriptures. He taught the purest morality. He himself gave many pre- dictions, and these predictions were fulfilled. His doctrines changed the character of those w^ho received them, softened and civilized ancient nations, and have been everywhere among the mightiest influences in the history of the human race. They claim to be from God, support their claim by in- numerable evidences, and we must either admit them to be from God, or ascribe them to a spirit of most miraculous and benevolent imposition. Add to all this, that he who receives them, has in himself additional evidence of their origin and holiness, and can say from experience, ** I know that the Son of God is come, and hath given us an understanding, that we may know Him that is true. We are in him, even in his Son Jesus Christ. This is the true God and eternal hfe," i John 5. 20. These facts are not abstruse, but accessible to all, and in- telligible to the feeblest. For the candid inquirer, any one department of this evidence will often prove sufficient : no other religious system being founded on miracles and pro- phecy, or exhibiting such hohness and love. The ivhole evi- dence combined^ is overwhelmingly conclusive. EVIDENCES. 115 213. And yet there is, in relation to these evidences, much Evidence unbehef both among inquirers and professed ctasiVin*^ Christians. Among inquirei's there is unbehef, doubt. for want of candour and teachableness : a fact, The rmcandid which is itself an evidence of the truth of Scripture, inquirer. ^^d in harmony with the general dealings of God. In common hfe, levity, or prejudice, or carelessness will often lead men astray, and even make them incapable of ascertain- ing what is really \ds>e and time. And Scripture has expressly declared, that those who will not love truth, shall not under- stand it. So deeply did Grotius feel this consideration, that he regarded the evidence of Christianity as itself an evidence of the Divine origin of the gospel, being divinely adapted to test men's character and hearts. De Vent, ii. § 19. See also Dan. 12. 10: Isa, 29. 13, 14: Matt. 6. 23: II. 25: 13. II, 12: John 3. 19: I Cor. 2, 14: 2 Cor. 4. 4: 2 Tim. 3. 13. Among professed Christians, too, there is want of confidence . , ^, in the fulness of the Christian evidence, and conse- And the „ . . careless quent want of inquiry. Baxter has acknowledged, nstian. ^^^^^ while in his younger days he was exercised chiefly about his own sincerity, in later life he was tried with doubts about the truth of Scripture. Further inquiry, how- ever, removed them. The evidence which he found most conclusive, was the internal : such as sprang from the witness of the Spirit of God with his own. " The spirit of prophecy," says he, " was the first witness : the spirit of miraculous power, the second ; and now," he adds, " we have the spirit of renovation and holiness." " Let Chris- tians therefore," he concludes, " tell their doubts, and inves- tigate the evidence of Divine truth, for there is ample provision for the removal of them all." Most of the doubts which good men feel may be thus dis- pelled. Others, chiefly specidative, may in some cases re- main, and are not to be dispelled by the best proofs. Even for these, however, there is a cure. Philosophy cannot solve them ; but prayer and healthy exercise in departments of Christian hfe to which doubting does not extend can ; or, failing to solve them, these remedies will teach us to think less of their importance, and to wait patiently for stronger light. Ours is a complex nature, and the morbid excitabihty 116 THE BIBLE A REVELATION OF GOD. of one part of our frame may often be cured by the increased activity of another. An irritable faith is a symptom of defi- cient action elsewhere, and is best cured by a more constant attention to practical duty. Difficulties which no inquiry can remove will often melt away amidst the warmth and vigour produced by active love. CHAPTER III. Peculiarities of the Bible as a Revelation fro^i God " a man's love of Scripture at the beginning of a religious course, is such as >iiakes the praise, which older Christians give to the Bible, seem exaggerated : but after twenty or thirty years of a religious life, such praise always sounds inadequate. Its glories seem so mucli more full than they seemed at first."— Dr. Akxold. " To seek Divinity in I'hilosophy, is to seek the living among the dead : so to seek Philosophy in Divinity, is to seek the dead among the living."— Bacox, Advance-' ment of Learning. " Tlie Old and New Testaments contain but one scheme of religion. Neither part can be understood without the other They are like the rolls on which they were anciently written It is but one subject from beginning to end • but the view which we obtain of it grows clearer and clearer as we unw hid the roll that contains it." — Cecil. Sec. I. A Bevelation of God, and of Human Nature. 214. There are various aspects in which Scripture may be regarded. The most important, is that which represents it as a revelation of God and man : of God in relation to man, of man in relation to God : and of both in relation to the work and office of our Lord. 315. Scripture is a revelation of God, of his character and Scripture, a will. That will is indeed written on the works of revelation of j^^g hands, and more clearly on the constitution of God, and of ' "' man. man : but in the Bible alone is the transcript com- plete, and there alone is it preserved from decay. 216. Or with equal accuracy, the whole may be described as the exhibition of human nature, in individuals and in na- tions under every form of development ; holy, tempted, fallen, degenerate, redeemed, believing, rejecting the faith, strugghng, victorious, and complete. The Bible begins with man in the garden of Eden, his Maker as his friend ; and after a wondrous history, it exhibits him again in the same fellowship, though no longer on earth or in paradise, but in heaven : the whole of his forfeited blessedness won back by the incarnation and suffering of the Son of God. 217. More generally still, the Bible may be described as the •THE BIBLE A REVELATION OF RELIGIOUS TRUTH. 117 ^ ^ , great storehouse of facts and duties, and of all A storehouse . . , t , ,, t* • of spiritual spiritual truth, it gives authentic information on truth. ^YiG history of the world, from the remotest times on which all human writings are silent, or filled with fable'r ; the occasion and immediate consequences of the first sin ; the origin of nations, and of diversity of language. We thus trace the progress, and mark the uniformity of those principles on which men have been governed from the beginning, all bearing their testimony to the wisdom and holiness of God, and the mercy of the Divine administration. We trace the i^rogress and development of human nature, and of the plan of redemp- tion : the first, shown in every possible diversity of position, and the second, influencing all the Divine procedure, perfected in Christ, and exhibited in the gospel. In a word, we find all the great questions (whether of fact or duty), which have occupied the attention of the wisest men, settled by authority, and on principles which neither need nor admit of appeal. We have given to us the decisions of the infinitely wise God as the ground of our opinions and practices, and his promise as the foundation of our hope. 2x8. In no part of the Bible, therefore, are these questions inappropriate : — Appropnatc JiJ: ,-,.,,, . „ questions in What docs it teach concerning man ? or concern- reading It. cerning God 1 or concerning the grand scheme of redemption 1 or concerning the restoration of human na- ture to its primeval dignity and blessedness 1 Sec. 2, The Bible, a BevelaUon of Spiritual Relifjious Truth. 219. If this view of the subject of the Bible, be kept in Scripture, a mind, — God in relation to man, and man in relation spirftmr ""^ *° ^^^' ^^^ ^^^ ^'^^ ^^^ i^ relation to the work truth, on and office of our Lord, — one pecuharity of Scripture Kud'saiva- (j^ ^0 i^s fulness and brevity), will be explained. tion. \i gives the history of the world, as " God's world," and as destined to become the kingdom of his Son. It tells us of its origin, that we may know by what God has done, the reverence due to him : what is his power whose law this book has revealed : whose creatures we are, that we may distinguish him from the idols of the heathen, who are either imaginary beings, or parts of his creation. All the subsequent narrative of the Bible, seems written on 118 THE BIBLE A REVELATION OP RELIGIOUS TRUTH. the same principle. It is an inspired history of religion (of man in relation to God,) and of other things, as it is affected by them. Idolatrous nations are introduced, not as indepen- dently important, but as influencing the church, or as in- fluenced by it : and thus narrative and prophecy continue from the first transgression, through the whole interval of man's misery and guilt, to a period, spoken of in a great di- versity of expressions and under both economies, when the " God of heaven shall set up a kingdom that shall never be destroyed." That these historical disclosures supply ample materials for inquiry, and (had the narrative been false), for refutation, and that as they have never been refuted, their antiquity and extent are strong presumptive evidence of the truth of Scrip- ture, is obvious :^ but it is the principle of selection, and the clear scope of the whole which are now noticed. To convey religious truth is clearly the author's design. Whatever is revealed must be studied with this fact in view, and whatever is withheld, may be regarded as not essential to the accom- plishment of this purpose. 220. Let it be remembered, too, that it is God as holy in relation to a man as a r,inner, and God and man in of God, as relation to Christ as the Eedeemer, who form the holy. great theme of Scripture : and that what is told us, has reference to the relation of such Beings. Take for example, the history of the first sin. The object of tiyi narrative of the fall is cleai-ly moral. It shows the progress of temptation^ and directs our thoughts to the Saviour. We mark the conviction of duty, the contemplation of the pleasure which sin may produce, the consequent obtuseness of conscience, and the hope that desire may be indulged and yet punishment be averted, desire be- coming intenser, passion stronger, conscience feebler, till at length the will consents and the act is done. Such is all transgression. The moral lesson of the fall is thus complete, though much is con- cealed. Subsequent portions of Scripture are written on this same prin- ciple. In the history of Cain, and in the rapid progress of wicked- ness, we notice the consequences of sin, and from the Deluge learn how deeply man had fallen. And yet each expression of God's dis- pleasure is so tempered with mercy, as to prepare us for the double truth, that God had provided a Redeemer to restore us to Divine * See these remarks illustrated in Bishop Butler's Analogy, 2nd Part, THE BIBLE A REVELATION OF RELIGIOUS TRUTH. IID favour, and a Sanctifier to renew us to holiness, and that man needed them both. Hence it is, that amidst all this wickedness, facts are recorded, which hold out the prospect of recovery, and even fore- shadow the means of sec\iring it. In Abel and Seth, and Enoch and Noah, we find faith in the Divine promise, and consequent holiness. They " called upon the name of the Lord." They '' offered a more excellent sacrifice " than their ungodly neighbours, expressive at once of their obligation and then- guilt; they "walked with God." As the world was repeopled, human sinfulness is seen in other forms. Men are scattered over the earth, and ultimately, the plan of the Divine procedure is changed. A particular family is made the depository of the Divine will, and its history is given. Of that family, the son of the promise is chosen : and of his sons, not the elder and favourite, but the younger. The history of his descendants is then given -with a double reference, first to then- own faith and obedience, and then to the coming of the Messiah. There is both an ultimate and an immediate pui^ose, and both are moral. The institutes of this people illustrate the doctrines of the cross, and we have moreover, the record of their sins, for om* warning, and of their repentance, for oiu: imitation and encoviragement. Concerning all these narratives, much might have been told . , us, which is withheld. Difficulties might have on this prin- been solved : important physical, or historical or "P ^' ethical questions might have been answered. But we have to seek the solution of these questions elsewhere. Of Assyria, for example, we read in a single passage of the book of Genesis, (Gen. lo. 1 1, 1 2,) but not again for 15 00 years, till the time of Menahem (2 Kings 15. 19): and of Egypt we have no mention, be- tween the days of Moses and those of Solomon. The early history of both nations is exceedingly obscure, perhaps impenetrably so. But the knowledge is essential neither to our salvation nor to the his- tory of the church, and it is not revealed. In the prophetic Scriptures, tliis peculiarity is equally ob- Soofpro- vious. They are all either intensely moral, or pLecy. evangehcal, or both. It might have been other- wise, without injury to prophecy as an outward evidence of Scripture. The gifts of prediction and of moral teaching, might have been disjoined : but in fact they are not. What might have ministered to the gratification of natural curiosity only, is enlisted on the side of practical holiness. The pro- phet is the teacher, and the history of the future (which 120 THE BIBLE A REVELATION OF RELIGIOUS TRUTH. prophecy is), becomes like the history of the past, the hand- maid of evaugehcal truth, and of spiritual improvement. So is it in all that is revealed in relation to Christ. We read of the dignity of his person, but it is with ^ ^ ^"^ ■ a constant reference to " us men, and to our sal- vation." If he is set forth as the Light of the world, it is to guide us into the way of peace : if, as the Lamb of God, it is that he may redeem us by his blood : if, as entering into heaven, it is as our propitiation and intercessor. We call him justly the " Son of God :" he loved to call himself as his apostles never called him, and with a pecuhar reference to his sympathy and work, the " Son of man." Scripture then, is the revelation of religious truth, and of truth adapted to our nature as fallen and guilty. We use it rightly therefore, only as it ministers to our hohness and con- solation. It might have revealed other truth, or the truth it does reveal may be regarded by us only as subhme and glorious. But this is not God's purpose. He has given it for our instruction, our conviction, our rectification (or correction), and our estabhshment in righteousness. All knowledge may be Tiseful : but this knowledge is necessary. " Let it not go, keep it, for it is thy Hfe," Prov. 4- I3- 221. Two practical rules are suggested by these remarks. First, we must not expect to learn anything from Scripture, except what it is, in a rehgious point of view, important for us to know. Some seek " the dead among the living," (as Lord Bacon jjhrased it,) and look into the Bible for natural philo- sophy and human science : others inquire in it for the " secret things " which " belong only to God :" and both are rebuked by the very character and design of the Bible. It is the record of necessary and saving truth ; or of truth in its rehgious as- pects and bearings, and of nothing besides : its histories being brief or full, as brevity or fulness may best secure these ends. 222. Secondly. It becomes the Christian to make ai^ractical application of every truth which Scripture reveals. He must believe, and apply the whole. To reject truth is wrong : to deny morality is wrong : and it is equally wrong to disjoin them. It is only as virtue is moulded on truth, that it be- comes genuine and complete. 223. Bvit though the Bible is not a revelation of science, it THE BIBLE A REVELATION OF RELIGIOUS TRUTH. 121 may be expected to be free from error, and to con- Scripture not '' "^ i • i i -. iiKonsistent tain, under reserved and simple language, much with science, concealed wisdom, and turns of expression which harmonize with natural facts, known perfectly to God, but not known to those for whom at first the revelation was designed. This expectation is just : and in both respects, the Bible presents a striking contrast to the sacred books of heathen nations. 224. All ancient systems of rehgion, and all eminent philo- . . , sophers of antiquity, so far as they are known. Ancient and • , ■ ^ . '^ . , "^ , , , ' Scripture maintained notions on science no less absurd than cosmogonies. ^^^^^ theologv. In Greek and Latin pliilosophy, the heavens were a solid vault over the earth,* a sphere studded with stars, as Aristotle called them. The sages of Egypt held that the world was formed by the motion of air and the upward coui'se of flame : Plato, that it was an intelligent being: Empedocles, held that there were two suns: Zeucippus, that the stars were kindled by then- motions, and that they nourished the sun with their fires. All eastern nations beheved that the heavenly bodies exercised powerful influence over human aflfairs, often of a disastrous^ kind, and that all nature was composed of four elements, fire, aii', earth, and water, substances certainly not elementary. In the Hindoo philosophy, the globe is represented as flat and triangular, composed of seven stories; the whole mass being sus- tained upon the heads of elephants, who, when they shake them- selves, cause earthquakes. Mohammed taught that the mountains were ci-eated to prevent the earth from moving, and to hold it as by anchors and chains. The ''Fathers of the church" themselves teach doctrines scarcely less absurd. '•' The rotundity of the earth is a theory," says Lactantius, ''v,-hi(;h no one is ignorant enough to believe." How instructive, that while every ancient system of idol- atry may be overthrown by its false physics, not one of the forty writers of the Bible, most of whom hved in the vicinity of one or other of the nations who held these views, has written a single Hne that favours them. This silence is con- solatory, and furnishes a striking confirmation of the truth of their message. ' Firmamentum, v.if.ufji.si.. " h; cLirrpoy, '' ili-stan-ed." G 122 THE BIBLE A REVELATION OF RELIGIOUS TRUTH. 225. The exactness of Scripture statements, and its agree- ment with modern discovery, is also remarkable. The S(fl:iptiires, for example^ speak of the earth as a globe, and as suspended upon, nothing, Isa. 40. 22: Job 26. 7-10: Prov. 8. 27. In treating of its age, they distinguish between the creation of unor- ganized matter, and of the heavens and the earth, Gen. i. i, i. They give to man a very I'ecent origin, and their accuracy in this respect is attested by the ascertained state of the earth's surface and by the monuments of antiquity. They describe the heavens as boundless space, not as a solid sphere ; and light as an element inde- pendent of the sun, and as anterior to it, anticipating the generally received theory of modem inquirers. When they speak of air, they say that God gave it weight, as Galileo proved; and of the seas, that he gave them their measure : a proportion of land and sea such as now obtains being essential to the health and safety of both animal and vegetable life. The waters above ''the expanse" have an im- portance attached to them in Scripture which modern science alone can appreciate ; many millions of tons being raised from the surface of England alone by evaporation every day. (See Whewell's * Bridgewater Treatise.') When they speak of the human race they give it one origin, and of human language they indicate original identity and subsequent division, not into endless diversities of dialect such as now exist, but rather into two or three primeval tongues ; facts which, though long questioned, ethnography and philosophy have confirmed, Gen. II. i: 10. 32. When they arrest the course of the sun, that is, of the earth's rota- tion, they stay the moon too; a precaution which could not have been supposed necessary, but on the supposition of the diurnal motion of the earth. When they speak of the stars, instead of sup- posing a thousand, as ancient astronomers did (Hipparchus says 1022, Ptolemy, 1026), they declare that they are innumerable; a declaration which modern telescopes discover to be not even a figure of speech. " God," says Sir John Herschel, after sun^eying the groups of stars and nebulse in the heavens, "has scattered them like dust through the immensity of space." And when the Scrip- tures speak of their hosts, it is as dependent, material, obedient things, Isa. 40. 26, 27. 226. Generally, however (it maybe added). Scripture speaks Apparent i^ relation to physical facts in the language of exception. common life, and sometimes that language is not strictly accurate; as in Job 38. 6: 9. 6: Psa. 104. 3: THE BIBLE CONSISTENT WITH ETHICAL SCIENCE. 123 Prov. 3. 20. And the reason is plain. If strictly philo- sophical language had been employed, Scripture must have been less intelligible : and besides, suth language describing natural facts not as they appear, but as they reaUy arc, would have made all such facts matters of revelation. It must have excited doubts among the ignorant, and prejudice (from the necessary incompleteness of Scripture teaching on such ques- tions) among the philosophic ; destroying, among all, the unity of impression which the Bible seeks to produce. The Bible would have become, in that case, a Divine, though in- complete hand-book of science ; an arrangement as little con- ducive to the cultivation of a truly philosophical spirit as to the interests of religion itself. 227. JSTor less remarkable is the way in which the Bible has Scriptural noticed abstract questions, or gi-eat principles of ethics con- ethical science. The laws of our moral nature are sistent with experience, evidently kuo-^Ti to the Author of Scripture, but they are not formally announced. They are rather involved by implication in the truths or precepts which are revealed. Independent investigation long ago discovered that the heart of man takes much of its complexion from his thougl]ts, and that what interests the mind influences the character. In harmony with this law is the doctrine of Scripture, that habitual and beheving attention to the truths of Christianity is the great instrument of bringing the mind into holy states. r John 4. 10, 16, 19: Gal. 2. 20: i Cor. 15. 2:2 Cor. 3. 18: I Tim. 4. 16: Psa. 119. 9-11: Psa. 19: i Pet. i. 22. "How can man regulate his behef ?" is a question which long occupied the attention of thoughtful men. "By attend- ing to evidence, and then by contemplating truth," is the reply of philosophy. And Scripture is in direct harmony with her decision. Faith and affection are both influenced, not by analysing them or by violently attempting to strengthen or purify them, but by examining truth and holding communion with the objects that deserve and claim our love. The Bible bids us consider and give heed, assuring us that earnest humble consideration wiU end in faith, and faith be followed by holy and appropriate feeling. Men beheve by ''giving heed" to truth, Acts 8. 6, 8: Heb. g2 1 24 THE BIBLE A PROGRESSIVE REVELATION. 2. I: Prov. 4. 1-4: 2. 1-9: Mark 4. 24, 25: Acts 17. 11, 12. Their impenitence is a consequence of their neglect, and their neglect, of a wrong state of heart, 2 Thess. 2. 11, 12: Mark 8. 18: John 3. 19, 20: 5. 38, 39: 2 Cor. 4. 3, 4: Hos. 4. 10. Holy aflFection is in- fluenced by attention and faith, Gal. 5. 6: 2 Cor. 5. ii: Heb. 11. 7: I John 4. 16-18: Rom. 6. 6: Col. i. 22, 23: Josh. 22. 5. Scripture embodies these laws, and acts upon them ; ad- ding, however, the significant fact, that where hohness and salvation follow in the train of attention and thoughtfulness, this result is to be ascribed throughout every part to the grace and blessing of the Divine Spirit. Attention is the gift of the Spirit, Acts 16. 14: Zech. 12. 10. Faith, which follows attention, is his gift, Acts 10. 44 (see 11. 17, 18): II. 21. The clearer understanding of truth, which follows the believing study of it, is his gift, Isa. 42. 7: Psa. 119. 18: Luke 24. 45: i Cor. 2. 14: 2 Cor. 3. 16: Eph. I. 17, 18. The holy feeling that follows an attentive and believing study of truth, is his gift, Ez. 36. 27: 2 Thess. 2. 13: 2 Pet. i. 2, 3: Gal. 5. 22. Sec. 3. Tlte BilJe a gradual and progressive Eevelation. 228. Another peculiarity of Scripture is, that it is a gradual and progressive revelation. 229. The truths and purpose of God are in themselves in- In what capable of progress 5 but not the revelation of sense, those truths. In nature, the rising sun scatters the mists of the morning, and brings out into light first one prominence, and then another, till every hill and valley is clothed in splendour. The landscape was there before, but it was not seen. So in revelation, the progress is not in the truth, but in the clearness and impressiveness with which Scripture reveals it, 230. In the beginning, for example, God taught the unity In the reve- of his nature ; while the truth that there^is a plu- indThe^Hoiy ^'^^^^^ ^^ *^® Godhead was taught but indistinctly. Spirit. Several expressions in the earliest books imply it, and are evidently calculated to suggest it." In the later * Such expressions, for example, as. Let us make man in our image (see Gen. i. 26: 3. 22); and the use of the plural noun, to indicate the true God, with a singular vei-b, Gen. i. i: Psa. 58. 11 (Heb.): Prov. 9. 10 (Heb.), and several himdred times. I THE BIBLE A PROGRESSIVE REVELATION. 125 prophets, the truth comes out with greater distiuctness ;" and in the New Testament it is fully revealed. In the same way, the work of the Holy Spirit is recognised in the Old Testament, and with increasing clearness as we approach the timus of the gospel. It is in the New alone, however, that vre have a distinct view of his personality and work.^ 231. This gradual disclosure of the Divine will is yet more remarkable in the case of our Lord. The first promise (Gen. 3. 15) contained a prophetic declara- tion of mercy, and foretold his coming and work, though in mysterious terms. The first recorded act of acceptable wor- ship (Gen. 4. 4: Heb. 11. 4) was a type, expressing by an action the faith of the ofierer in the fulfilment of the first prediction. There was to be triumph through suSering, and there was to be the substitution of the innocent for the guilty. These promises and types were multiplied with the lapse Patriarchal of time. In the person or worship of Enoch,*" of period. Noah,d of ]\Ielchizedec,'= and of Job,f there was much that was typical and predictive ; still more in the his- tory of Abraham" and his immediate descendants. Under the Mosaic dispensation, other typical acts or per- sons, and places and thing.s, were instituted, and the design of the institution was most distinctly The expressions in Numb. 6. 22-27, compared with the Xew Tes- tament benediction, Isa. 6. 3, 8: 48. 16: Jer. 23. 5, 6, are very remai'kable. The " angel of the Lord" probably refers in most passages to the Messiah, as the Jewish writers generally maintain, regarding him as an object of Divine worship. See Gen. 16. 7 and 13, where the incommunicable name of Jehovah is given to him : see, also. Gen. 22. 11-18: 31. 11-13: 32. 28-30: Hos. 12. 4, 5: Gen. 48. 15, 16: Ex. 3. 2-15: 19. ig, 20: 20. i: 23. 20, 21, compared with Acts 7. 38: Josh. 5. 13-15: 6. 2: Judg. 13. 3-23: Isa. 63. 8, 9: Mai. 3. i. * Isa. 9. 6: Mic. 5. 2: Zech. 13. 7. ^ Gen. I. 2: 6. 3: Psa. 51. ir, 12: Isa. 48. 16: 61. i: Ezek. 3c 24, 27. ° Jude 14. ! .[ob. 3. I. ® Deut. 32. 51. t Paley has some admirable remarks, applying these principles to the character (given in Scripture) of ovir Lord. " Evidences," p. 23 r. Keligious Tract Society's ed. s Besides answering this moral purpose, it is wox-thy of remark that the style of Scripture, consisting of figurls and specific exam- ples, or " singtilar terms" is the kind of diction lea.st impaired by ti-anslation. See Whateley's Rhet., part iii., chap. 2, § 2. THE BIBLE: XOT A SYSTEM. 137 hcKsible by all .Christians. The Koran for example, places the utmost importance on the offering of prayer at sunrise and sunset ; a rule which proves that the rehgion of the false prophet was never designed for Greenland or Labrador, where for several months the sun never sets. A summary of doc- trine, too, perfectly intelligible to a matured Christian, might be nearly all mysterious to the converted Hottentot. 250. And even if such a summary could have been made generally intelligible, its effects upon the minds of awUifflecdon Christians would have been disastrous. They important, -vvould have stored their memory with the very words of the Creed, without searching the rest of Scripture. There would have been no room for thought, no call for in- vestigation, and no excitement of the feelings or improvement of the heart. The creed being, not that from which the faith is to be learned, but the faith itself, would be regarded with indolent and useless veneration. It is only when our energies are roused and our attention awake, when we are acquiring or correcting, or improving our knowledge, that knowledge makes the requisite impression upon us. God has not made Scripture like a garden, " where the fruits are ripe and the flowers bloom, and all things are fully exposed to our view ; but like a field, where we have the ground and seeds of all precious things, but where nothing can be brought to maturity without our industry ;"^ nor then, without the dews of hea- venly grace. " I find in the Bible," says Cecil, " a grand pecu- liarity, that seems to say to all who attempt to systematize it, I am not of your mind I stand alone. The great and the wise shaU never exhaust my treasures : by figures and parables I will come down to the feelings and imderstandings of the ignorant. Leave me as I am, but study me incessantly." 251. Even good men, too, have undue preferences. If aU truth of the same order were placed together in and duties Scripture, men would read most what they most interwoven, jQyg j . ^q ^j^g neglect of what may be as important though less welcome. But as truth is scattered throughout the Bible, we learn to think of doctrine in connection with duty, and of duty in connection with the principles by which it is enforced. " More's Mystery of Godliuess. 138 THE BIBLE: NOT A SYSTEM. 252. These facts rebuke the system of the Romish church : UotTheo- she condemns the study of the Bible, fostering logy, but the man's aversion to the investigation of truth, and H'Lhl P to DG studied. his indolent acquiescence in what is ready prepared to his hand : a propensity against which the very structure of the Christian Scriptures seems designed to guard. They suggest, too, a lesson to those who regard the Bible as influential only when made a treasury of intellectual truth. Systematic Divinity, founded upon the Bible, is perhaps the last perfection of knowledge, but not necessarily of character. A man may be drawn to the sacred page by its pictures of Divine goodness, and may love it with a return of affection for all its mercy, or of hope for its promises, or may feed his soul with its provisions, or direct his life by its counsel, and yet do nothing to systematize its doctrines, or at all under- stand the technical phrases of theological truth. This life of devotion with its acknowledgment of Providence, and imita- tion of Christ, is the chief thing : combined with systematic thinking, it makes a man profoundly holy and profoundly wise ; but without the systematic thinking there may be both holiness and wisdom. 253- They suggest a third lesson. Systematic cateclietical treatises on doctrine are of use, chiefly in definini;^ b^ok fo'Ah? or preservmg unity of faith : but must not be re- young. garded as the instruments of rehgious training, or as the store-houses of effective knowledge. They address the intellect only, and that too in logical forms, without narrative, or example, or feehng, or power. They contain no patterns of hohness : no touches of nature. Use them therefore in their right place ; but remember that the Divine instrument of man's improvement, is that book which abounds in examples of tenderness, of pity, of remonstrance ; which gives forth tones, and looks, and words, at once human and Divine, ever the same, and yet ever new — the Bible. [On the subjects of this section, see " Errors of Romanism traced to their Origin in Human Nature," and " Essays on aome of the Pecuharities of the Christian Religion," by Arch- bishop Whately.] INTERPRETATION: STUDY. 139 CHAPTER IV. On the Interpretation of Scripture. " Man can weary himself in any secular affair, but diligently to search the Scrip- tures is to him tediou;- and burdensome. Few covet to be mighty in the Scriptures ; though con\ inced theu- great concern is enveloped in them." — Locke, Commonplace Book, Pref. " The generality of Scripture hath such a contexture and coherence one part with another, that small insight into it will be gained by reading it confusedly. There- fore, read the whole in order." — Dit. Fkaxcis Kobeets. " The tropical sense is no other than the f gurative sense. As we say in language derived from the Greek, that a trope is turned from its literal or grammatical sense, so we say in language derived from the Latin that a fgure is then used, because in such cases the meaning of the word assimies a new form. The same opposition, therefore, which is expressed by the terms literal sense and figurative sense, is expressed also by the terms gi'ammatical sense and .tropical sense." — Maksh, Lectures, Part iii. Sec. I. On the necessity/ of Care in the Study of ScrijAure. 254. The importance of carefuUy studying the Bible with every accessible help may be gathered from the need study circumstances connected with the preparation of ^ZS:«S- the sacred books. in which they They were written by different writers of every ,„ . ^ " deoree of cultivation, and of different orders — Wnters of ° o. 1 different priests as Ezra, poets as Solomon, prophets as orders. Isaiah, warriors as David, herdsmen as Amos, statesmen as Daniel, scholars as Moses and Paul, fishermen, " unlearned and ignorant men," as Peter and John. The first author, Moses, lived 400 years before the siege of Dates and Troy, and 900 before the most ancient sages of Places. Greece and Asia, Thales, Pythagoras, and Confucius : and the last, John, 1500 years later than Moses. The books were written in different places ; in the centre of Asia, on the sands of Arabia, in the deserts of Judaea, in the porches of the temple, in the schools of the prophets at Bethel and Jericho, in the palaces of Babylon, on the idolatrous banks of Chebar, and in the midst of the western civihzation ; the allusions, and figures, and expressions, being taken from customs, scenery, and habits, very different from each other, and from those of modem Europe. 140 CIRCUMSTANCES IN WHICH THE BIBLE WAS WRITTEN. Some of the writers, as Moses, frame laws, others sketch Have differ- ^^i^^^^'y) ^^ Joshua ; some compose psalms, iu* ent purposes, David ; or proverbs, as Solomon. Isaiah writes differentcba- prophecies ; the evangehsts, a biography ; several racters. of the apostles, letters. Whole books, and parts of books, refer to the heathen, as in Isaiah and Nahum ; while parts are addressed to the Jews only : one Gospel was intended for Hebrew converts, and another for Gentiles. The Epistles to the Corinthians are addressed to men who had little respect for authority, and were unwilling to be bound, except by the fewest possible ties. The Epistle to the Galatians is addressed to those who wished to bring their converts under the bondage of the law. That to the Eomans addresses (in ];jart,) the pharisaically self- righteous ; the Epistle of James, the nominal and careless professor. The time, the place, the employment and previous history, the character and aim of the various writers, and even the position of those they addressed, all need to be considered ; as these circumstances must have exercised an influence, if not upon the thoughts embodied in the language of Scripture, yet upon the language itself. 255. The importance of a careful study of Scripture will yet Scripture D^ore appear, when we consider the difficulty of needs study, communicating to men, and in human language, fection onaii- any ideas of rehgious or spiritual truth. K"^s^- 256. Most of the language which men employ in logy in meii- reference to spiritual things, is founded on aualogj' tai science, or resemblance. This is true of all language which speaks of the mind or of its acts ; and especially of the lan- guage of early times. In the infancy of races, language is nearly all figure, and describes even common facts by the aid of natural symbols. The very word " spirit," means in its derivation, " breath." The mind is said to see truth, because the act of the mind by which it is perceived, bears somo resemblance to the act of the eye. To " reflect," is literally to bend or throw back, and so to look round our thoughts. " Attention " is a mental exercise, analogous to the stretching of the eye in the examination of some outward object. It is the necessity of man's state, that scarcely any fact connected with the mind, or with spiritual truth, can be described, but ANALOGICAL LANGUAGE OF SCRIPTURE. 141 in language borrowed from material tilings. To words ex- clusively spiritual or abstract, we can attach no definite con- ception. 257. And God is pleased to condescend to our necessity. He leads us to new knowledge by means of what is In religion. ^ ^ , ^_ -,"-,.,„ already known. He reveals himself m terms pre- viously famihar. If he speak of liimself, it must be in words originally suggested by the operations of the senses. If he speak of heaven, it is in figures taken from the scenes of the earth. We say that God " condescends to our necessity." This is true : but it might be said with as much truth, that God having stamped his own image upon natural things, employs them to describe and illustrate himself. " The visible world is the dial-plate of the invisible." Spiritual thoughts were first embodied in natural symbols ; and those symbols are now employed to give ideas of spiritual truth. To the devout man, especially, the seen and the unseen world are so closely blended, that he finds it difiicult to separate them. The world of nature is to him an emblem, and a witness of the world of spirits. They proceed from the same hand. In his view, Earth Is but the shadow of heaven, and things therein. Are each to other like. It is impossible to avoid the conviction, that many of the figures of the Bible have originated in such a habit, and are the oflspring of exquisite taste and devout piety. Nor is it only from the nature of spiritual truth, or from the marvellous connection which subsists between material and spiritual things, that the inspired writers employ the language of figure. Such language is often most appropriate, because of its impressiveness and beauty. It conveys ideas to the mind with more vividness than prosaic description. It charms the imagination, while instmcting the judgment, and it impresses the memory, by interesting the heart. 258. (i.) Sometimes, for example, common things are as- Common " sociated in Scripture, with what is spiritual. things sug- gest reUgious God dwells in " light." He sets up his ''kmgdom." tenns. Heaven is his "throne." The Christian's faith is described in the same order of terms. He " handles " the word of life. 142 EXPRESSIONS TAKEN FROM MAN. He "sees" him, who is invisible. He "comes" to Christy and he ** leans " upon him.. 259. (2.) Sometimes the Bible, borrowing comparisons from ourselves, speaks of God as having human affections, and performing human actions. Hands, eyes, and feet, are ascribed to God; and* the meaning is, that he has power to execute all such acts, as those organs in us are instrumental in effecting. He is called "the Father;" because he is the creator and suppoi-ter of man, and especially, because he is the author of spiritual life. He " lifts up the light of his coun- tenance," when he manifests his presence and love (Psa. 4. 6,) and He "hides his face" (Psa, 10, i), when these blessings are withheld. In Gen. 6, it is said, " It repented the Lord that he had made man," i. e., He had no longer pleasm-e in his work, so unpleasing and unjprofitable had man become by transgression. In Gen. 18. 21,. He says, " I will go and see," to imply that he should examine the doings of men before he condemned them. In Jer. 7. 13, He says, " I spake unto you, rising up early and speaking," to imply the interest he felt in their welfare, and the care he had taken to instruct them. In Dan. 4. 35, it is said, " He doeth according to his will," i. e., not capriciously, but independently of men, and so as justly to re- quire our entire submission. It may be observed generally, that though there is some analogy between the love and wisdom, the knowledge and holiness, which we ascribe to God, and those same faculties in men, there is a great difference between them. The faculties in God are infinitely more noble, though there is enough of resemblance in the expressions of each, to justify the application of the same terms. Two remarks, in reference to the employment of this ana- logical language, are important. 260. (i.) The figures which are used in speaking of spiritual truth, are not used, as in common description, to do not^exag- give an unnatural greatness or dignity to the ob- gerate truth, j^^^g ^^^ describe. The things represented have much more of reahty and perfection in them, than the things by which we represent them. It is so in all such language. The mind weighs arguments, and that action is more noble than the mechanical habit from which the expression is taken. God m^s much more perfectly than the eye : and the light in which he dwells is very feebly represented by the material EXPRESSIONS TAKEN FROM JEWISH RITES. 143 element to -which that name is apphed. When it is said that the chm-ch is the bride of Christ, the earthly relation is but a lower form of the heavenly ; in the same way as earthly kingdoms and earthly majesty are but figures and faint sha- dows of the true. The figurative language, then, which we are compelled to employ when speaking of spiritual things is much within the truth, and never beyond it. 261. (2.) It is a necessary result of the employment of such Often used in language, that figurative expressions are sometimes different used in difiereut senses. senses. If God is said, for example, to repent, and to turn from the evil which he had threatened against sinners, and in other places, it is said that God is ''not a man, that he should lie j neither the son of man, that he should repent" (JS'umb. 23. 19), in the first, it is meant that God changes his dealings with sinners, when they change : and in the second, that there is no fickleness or untruthfulness in him. In Psa. 18. II, God is said to make " darkness his secret place," and in I Tim, 6. 16, he is said to dwell in hght. In the first case, dark- ness means inscrutableness, and in the second, light means purity, intelligence, or honour. In Exod. 33. 11, it is said, that God "spake unto Moses face to face," and in ver. 20, he declares that no man can see his face and live. In the first passage, the expression means to have intercourse without the intervention of another; in the second, to have a full and familiar sight of the Divine glory. The same word (it has been remarked), expresses in Hebrew, " to bless" and "to curse," and this dissimilarity of meaning has excited surprise. The word originally means "to bend the knee,'' and that act was equally appropi-iate in asking a favovir for others, and in denouncing them. 262. (3.) It may be remarked further, that the Bible often speaks of spiritual truth, in terms suggested by Jewish his- the facts of Jewish history, or by rites of Divine *'*'^'- institution. The idea of holiness, e. g., for which in its Christian sense, the heathen have no word, was suggested to the Jews by means of a special institution. All animals, common to Palestine, were divided into clean and unclean. From the clean, one was chosen without spot or blemish : a pecuHar tribe, selected from the other tribes, was ap- pointed to present it; the offering being first washed with clean water, and the priest himself undergoing a similar ablution. Is either the priest, nor any of the people, nor the %'ictim, however, was deemed 144 EXPRESSIONS TAKEN FROM JEWISH RITES. sufficiently holy to come into the Divine presence, but the offering was made without the holy i^lace. The idea of the infinite purity of God, was thus suggested to the mind of observers, and holiness in things created, came to mean imder the law, '' purification for sacred uses," and under the gospel, freedom from sin, and the pos- session by spiritual intelligences, of a " Divine nature." The demerit of sin, and the doctrine of an atonement, were taught in words taken from equally significant rites. The victim was slain, and its blood (which was the life,) was sprinkled upon the mercy seat, and toAvards the holy place ; and while the people prayed in the outer coiu't, they beheld the dark volume of smoke ascending from the sacrifice, which was burning in their stead. How plainly did this sviggest that God's justice was a consuming fire, and that the souls of the people escaped only through a vicarious atonement! The ideas thus suggested, wei'e intended to continue through all time, and we find them often expressed in terms borrowed from these ancient institutions. Under the law, again, the priests were clothed in white linen, and dressed in splendid apparel. Expressions taken from these customs are hence employed to indicate the purity and dignity of the redeemed. The whole of Jewish history is in the same way suggestive of spiritual truth, and of analogous expressions. Men are the "slaves " of sin. Their road is through the "desert." They cross the " Jordan" of death. They enter the " rest " that i-e- mains for the people of God. They have their " forerunner:" their prophet : their priest, who is also called in prophecy after the days of Saul, their king. 263. (4.) It may be remarked again, tlxat many of the ex- pressions of the New Testament are employed in used^iu new senses entirely unknown to the common writers of «ense«. ^j^g Q^eek tongue. The New Testament term for humility, meant in classic Greek, mean-spiritedness, and though Plato has used the word once or twice, to indicate a humble spirit, this is confessedly an unusual meaning, De leg. iv. The Greeks had no virtue under that name, and even Cicero remarks, that meekness is merely a blemish. De Off. Ill, 32. Grace in the sense of Divine unmerited favour: Justi- fication as an evangelical blessing : Qod as a holy, self-existent merci- ful Being : Faith as an instrument of holiness, and essential to pardon : all these terms are used in Greek, and in all versions of the New Testament, with peculiar meaning. To us all, they are old FIGURATIVE EXPRESSIONS. 145 words in a new sense. All language exhibits similar changes: " calamity " meant oi'iginally, in the language from which it is taken, the loss of standing corn (calamus): "sycophant" meant fig-informer, and "sincerity," without wax, alluding to the practice of the potter in concealing tho flaws of his vessels: but in Scripture, such changes are imusually numerous. Happily, however, there need be no misappx-ehension concerning the terms which are thus employed, as Scripture itself has defined the ideas they convey, sometimes by a reference to the old dispensation, sometimes by a formal or indirect explanation of the terms themselves. 264. It may aid the reader in interpreting Scripture, to Figures cias- k^ow how the various figures which our condition sitied. compels US to use in speaking of spiritual truth, are classed and named by grammarians. A knowledge of the names is not essential, but a knowledge of the differences on which the classification is founded, may often prove so. 265. When a word, which usage has appropriated to one thing, is transferred to another, there is a trope or figure : and the expression is tropical or figurative, if, however, the first signification of a word is no longer used, the tropical sense becomes the proper one. The Hebrew word " to bless," for example, meant originally " to bend the knee,*' but it is not used in Scripture with that sense, and therefore " to bless " is said to be the proper, and not a figura- tive meaning. When there is some resemblance between the two things to which a word is applied, the figure is called a Metaphor, as *' Judah is a hon's whelf)," Gen. 49. 9. " I am the true Vine," John 15. I. When there is no resemblance, but only a connection between them, the figure is called Synecdoche : as when a cup is used for what it contains, i Cor. ii. 27 : or as when a pai-t is put for the whole, " my flesh " for " my body," in Psa. 16. 9. When the connection is not visible, or is formed in the mind, as when the cause is j)ut for the effects, or the sign for , the thing signified, the figure is called Metonymy, as in John 13. 8. " If I ivash thee not, thou hast no part with me," where by wash, is meant, purify or cleanse. Sometimes the figure is explained in Scripture itself, as in i Pet. 3. 21, where bap- tism is explained as there meaning " the answer of a good coDiscience toward God" H 146 ALLEGORICAL NARRATIVES. All the foregoing figures refer to single words, The follow- ing refer to several words, as they make a continued represen- tation or narrative. 366. Any statement of supposed facts, which admits of a Allegories literal interpretation, and requires or justly admits classified. g^ moral or figurative one, is called an Allegory. It is to narrative or story what trope is to single words, adding to the Hteral meaning of the terms employed, a moral or spiritual one. Sometimes the allegory is pure, that is, contains no direct reference to the apphcation of it, as in the history of the prodigal son. Sometimes it is mixed, as in Psa. 80, where it is plainly intimated (ver. 17,) that the Jews are the people whom the vine is intended to represent. When the allegory is written in the style of History, and is ^ ^, confined to occurrences that may have taken place, Parables, etc. ., . „ , -^^ "^ i ■> it IS called a Parable. When the allegory contains statements of occurrences, which, from their very nature could not have happened, it is called a Fable. (Judges 9. 6-21 : 2 Kings 14. 9 : 2 Chron. 35. 18.) When the resemblances on which an allegory is founded, are remote and abstruse, it is called a Eiddle. Nothing, how- ever, need be said of Scripture riddles, as their hidden mean- ing is always explained. (Judges 14. 14 : Prov. 30. 15-21.) When the resemblance between two persons or things is represented, not in ivords, but in some action or object, the object or action, which has (so to speak) the double meaning, a literal and a spiritual one, is called a Type. It is a double representation in action : as an allegory is a double represen- tation in words. When the act or thing which is represented is present, or past, or near at hand, the act which represents it is called a Symbol, and is said to be symbolical. Baptism is thus an outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace ; and the bread we eat in the holy supper, and the wine wo drink, are symbolically the body and the blood of Christ. (See also i Kings 11. 30: 2 Kings 13. 14-19: Jer. 27. 2-8: 13. 1-7 : 18. 2-10.) Some things, as the Passover, are both symbols and types. They commemorate one event, and they prefigure another. Language drawn from types and symbols. is subject to the same rules as ordinary figures of speeoli. STUDY NEEDED. 147 267. Tropical, or figurative, then, is a general term, applied Figiirativo ^^ words or single expressions, and includes meta- dek's Motto, 270. The first place is due, wlien we speak of tlie study of Teachable "tl^e Bible, to the exercise of a humble and devout spirit. mind. It becomes us, first of all, to cherish the habit of earnest and reverential attention to all it reveals and to seek that inward teaching of the Holy Spirit which God has promised to them that ask him. This is, perhaps, not strictly a rule of interpretation, but it is essential to the apphcation of all rules. An analogous truth is admitted in relation to every other subject of inquiry. To appreciate true poetry, there must be a poetic taste. The study of phi- losophy requires a philosophic s]3irit. An inquirer into the processes of nature needs, above all, to be imbued with the temper of the inductive system which Bacon taught ; nor should this truth be questioned when it is apphed to the study of the Bible. 271. Men need Divine teaching, not because of the peculiar Origin of this difficulty of Scripture language, nor because of the need. incomprehensibility of Scripture doctrine — for the things most misunderstood are the things which are revealed most clearly — but because, without that teaching, men will not learn, nor can they knoiu those truths which are revealed only to those who feel them. When Christ appeared, the light shone in the darkness, and the darkness comprehended it not. Unholy affection had surrounded the mental eye with the very opposite of clear " dry hght," and had impaired the "Whence and *^^'g^^ itself. Blindness of heart jDroduced ig- how Bupl • norance ; and alienation " from the life of God " ^'^^'^^* was at once the cause and the aggravated efiect of SPIRIT OF STUDY. 140 an "understanding darkened." Epli. 4. 18. The source of tliis teaching is clearly revealed : Christians are " all taught of the Lord ;" and he who gave to the Ephesian church " the spirit of wisdom and revelation," was "the God of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Father of glory," Eph. i. 17. The means of se- curing this teaching is equally revealed. " The meek will h& guide in judgment, the meek will he teach his way." He that is willing to do His will " shall know of the doctrine, whether it- be of God," John 7.17. " If any of you lack wisdom, let him ask of God . . . and it shall be given him." A child-like docility, an obedient heart, a dependent and prayerful frame, are evi- dently essential to the successful study of Divine truth.. " Be7ie orasse est bene studuisse " is, therefore, an aphorism, subordinately, indeed, of Luther's, but really of God's. 272. It is necessary, however, in order to complete this- A teachable ^^'^th, to add, that the Spirit of God does noi spirit dis- commuuicatc to the mind of even a teachable,, revealed"^ obedient, and devout Christian, any doctrine or truth. meaning of Scripture which is not contained al- ready in Scripture itself. He makes men wise up to what is written, but not beyond it. When Christ opened the under- standing of his apostles, it was " that they might understand the Scriptures," Luke 24. 45. When he opened Lydia's heart she attended to the things that were spoken by Faid : David prayed that God would be pleased to open his eyes, that he might behold wondrous things out of the Divine law, Psa. 119. 18. "The Bible, and through the Bible," indicates, therefore, at once, the subject and the method of Divine wisdom. Whatever is taught contrary to it, or in addition, or without its aid, is to be ascribed to the spirit of darkness, or to our- selves. 273. This first principle of Bible interpretation is taken This order ^^m the Bible itself. It occupies the same place, sanctioned by too, in the teaching of our Lord, who, in his first recorded discourse, assured Nicodemus that, " ex- cept a man be bom again, he caimot see " — can neither under- stand the nature nor share the blessedness of — "the kingdom of God," John 3. 3. Compare, also, i Cor. 2. 14 : i Cor. 12. 8 : i Cor. i. 21. I Johu 2. 20, 27: 2 Cor. 4. 1-6. I Pet. 2. i, 2 : James i. ir. Vaz.. 25. 4, 5: 119. 12, 18: 2 Tim. 3. 13, etc. 160 RULES OF INTERPKETATIOX : FIRST RULE. Sec. 3. Of Eules of Interpretatimi. "Strict grammatical analysis, and the rigid observance of exegetical rules, lead to tbe same views of truth as are entertained by theologians, who bring to the study of the Bible strong sense and devout piety." — Tholuck. " The various controversies among interpreters have commonly led to the admis- sion, tliat tlie old Protestant views of the meaning of the sacred text are the correct views."— WiNEu. " He that shall be content to use these means, and will lay aside the prejudices . . . which many bring with them to every question, will be honoured to gain an imderstanding of Scripture ; if not in all things, yet in most ; if not immediately, yet ultimately."— Whitaker (Disput. of Scrip., p. 47?). " The most ilUterate Christian, if he can but read his English Bible, and will take the pains to read it in this manner, will not only attain all that practical knowledge which is essential to salvation, but, bj^ God's l^lessing, he will become learned ui everything relating to his religion in such a degi'ee that he will not be liable to be misled, either by the refuted arguments, or the false assertions of those who endea- vour to engraft their own opinions upon the oracles of God." — Hoksley. 274. Wlietlier words are used literally or tropicaUj, the First rule • ^^^^ ^^^® ^^ interpretation is to ascertain the sense usage of Ian- in which general usage employs them. As all the ■^^se- writers of the sacred Scriptures wrote or spoke to "be understood, we must interpret their language as we inter- pret the language of common hfe. They tell mb, for example, that "there is none that doeth good;"^ figuratively, that ''all flesh has corrupted his way;"'' affirming the same truth in two different forms. They state that repentance is necessary to forgiveness;*^ and that both re- pentance and forgiveness are the gifts of Christ."^ All the great doctrines of the gospel are stated in language equally simple and decisive : the existence and perfections of God ; the unity of Jehovah, of God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit; the fall of man; the corruption of human nature; our moral responsibility; redemption through the atonement of Christ; the rencAval of the heart by the influence of the Holy Spirit; the freeness and sove- reignty of Divine grace; the progressive holiness of Christians, and their final and eternal blessedness. If language have meaning, these doctrines are taught in innumerable passages of the Bible, and in terms incapable of mistake. 275. Simple, however, as this rule is, it is often broken in This rule ^^^^ interpretation of the Scriptures. violated. Origen, for example, reading that Abraham married Keturah, in his old age, and learning that Kcturah meant, in He- brew, "sweet odour," and that " sweet odour" is specially applicable ^ Rom. 3. 12. ^ Gen. 6. 12. " Isa. 55. 7, ^ Acts ?. 31. FIRST rule: HEBRAISMS. 15\ to such as have the fragrance of righteousness in their character, thought that one most important meaning must be, that in his old age Abraham became eminently holy. A more modern commen- tator, Cocceius, examining the 8th Psalm, thinks that when it is said that "all sheep and oxen" are put under his feet, "the fowl of the air, and the fish of the sea," it is meant that all Christians are subject to Christ; and that even the -ungodly (represented by the birds and the fish) are really, though unwillingly under his rule. 276. A kindred error changes the plainest history into fable, and teaches us to regard the whole of the miracles of Christ as common occurrences, obscurely described. On this principle, Scripture history means nothing that is definite, or it means anything which a vivid fancy can imagine is to mean. In either case, the meaning is not in the Bible, but in the mind of the inquirer. 277. But while, as a general rule, we are to understand the . words of Scripture in their common sense, there are some pecuharities which need to be noticed. Being translated from the Hebrew with great literalness, the English version often employs the idioms and expressions of that tongue, and those are to be understood not according to the English, but according to the Hebrew idiom. (a). The Jews, for example, frequently expressed a qualifying . ..^ ..^ thought by the use, not of an adjective, but of a second how ex- noun ; a practice which may be ti'aced in the Hebrew pressed. Greek of the IS'ew Testament. "Your work of faith, and labour of love, and patience of hope," means, "your beheving work, and loving labour, and hopeful patience," i Thess. 1.3. So, in Eph. I. 13, the "Spirit of promise" means the "promised Spirit." (h). It was a common idiom of the Hebrew to call a person having a peculiar quality, or subject to a peculiar Quaa.ics. ^^ .^^ ^^^ ^j^.^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ ^j^^^ quahty. In I Sam. 2.12, EH's sons are called "sons of Belial," that 1% of wickedness. In Lvike 10. 6, a "son of peace" means a person of gentle and attentive mind, disposed to give the gospel a willing re- ception. In Eph. 5. 6-8, " children of disobedience," and "children of light," mean, respectively, disobedient and enlightened persons. So Matt. 24. 15: Mark 13. 14: Rom. 7. 24: i John 3. 10: Jas. 2.4: Heb. I. 3: Rev. 3. 10. In some of these passages, however, the idiom ir,, perhaps, emphatic. 152 FIRST rule: Hebraisms. (c). Comparison, again, is very peculiarly expressed iii Hebrew. Comparison. To love and to hate, for example, is a Hebrew ex- pression for preferring one thing to another. Thus it is said in Luke 14. 26, "If any man come to me, and hate not his father:" for which we find, as in Matt. 10. 37, ''He that loveth father more than me." The same expression is used in John 12.25; in Rom. 9. 13; in Gen. 29. 18, 30, 31; and in Deut. 21. 15. Comparison is sometimes intimated by the use of adverbs of negation. Thus in Gen. 45. 8, "not you sent me hither, but God:" it was God rather than you. So Ex. 16. 8: i Sam. 8. 7: Prov. 8. 10: Hos. 6. 6: Jer. 7. 22, 23. So in Mark 9. 37, ''Whosoever shall receive me receiveth not me, but him that sent me ;" not so much, or, not only mdj but him. So in Matt. 5. 39: Luke 14. 12: John 5. 22, 30, 45: ejiage. ts 5. 4: I Cor. I. 17: Eph. 6. 12: i Thess. 4. 8. \/?/> '■^livral nouns are sometimes used in Hebrew to imply Plurals, iiow that there are more than one, though it may be to used. Q^e Qjily ^i^at reference is made. Gen. 8. 4: 19. 29: Judges 12. 7: Neh. 3. 8: Matt. 24. i, wher-e "his disciples" means one of them: Mark 13. i: Matt. 26. 8, and John 12. 4: Matt. 27. 44.: Mark 15. 32, and Luke 23. 39: Luke 23. 36, and Matt. 27. 48. In some of these instances, however, all or Geveral shared in the sentiment, John 13. 4. " Gai'ments," i.e., one of them, the upper, see Mark 5. 27, 30 (original). (e). The names of parents, or ancestors, are often used in Scripture for their posterity. Names of •■■ i J imceAors, ThMQ in Gen. 9. 25, it is said, "Cursed be Canaan," i, e., his posterity. This curse, it will be remembered, did not affect those of his posterity who were righteous; for both Melchisedec and Abimelech were Canaanites, as was the woman who came to Christ, and whose daughter was healed. Gen. 14. 18-20: 20. 6: Matt. 15. 22-28. In the same way, Jacob and Israel are often put for the Israelites, as in Ex. 2. 24: Psa. 14. 7: i Kings 18. 17, 18. (/). The word "son" is sometimes used, by a Hebraism (common, indeed, to nearly all languages), for a remote descendant. The priests arc called the sons of Levi. Mephibosheth is called the son of Saul, though he was the son of Jonathan, 2 Sam. 19. 24: riKST rule: Hebraisms. 153 BO Gen. 46. 22. Zechariah, the grandson of Iddo (Zech. i. i), ia called his son, Ezra 5.1. ''Son " is thus used for any descendant, as ''father" is used for any ancestor, i Chron. i. 17. "Brother" is used in the same way for any collateral relation. It is thus applied by Abraham to Lot, who was his nephew.'^ In one instance, too, the descendants of a man who married a daughter of Barzillai are called, from the name of their maternal ancestor's father, the children of Barzillai.^ In the same way, Jair is called the son of Manasseh, because his grand- father had married the daughter of one of the heads of Manasseh. Mary is also thought to have descended from David in this way; so that our Lord was David's son, not only thi'ough his reputed father, but by direct descent through his mother. 278. A knowledge of these last rules of speech will often Apparent Correct apparent contradictions. Athaliah, for ex- contradictions ample, is called in 2 Kings 8. 26, the daughter of Omri, and in ver. 18 she is called the daughter of Ahab. She was really Ahab's daughter, and Omri's grand- daughter. See also i Kings 15. 10, and 2 Chron. 13. 2, and I Chron. 3. 15, compared with 2 Chron. 36. 9, 10. 279. There are other peculiarities, semi-Hebraisms, which Other pecu- need to be named. liarities : use (a). Some numbers in Hebrew are used for an of numbers. • i /> ., t mdennite number. "Ten," for example, means "several," as well as that preciso number, Gen. 31. 7: Dan. i. 20. "Forty" means "many." Persepolis is called in Eastern lan- guage, "the city of forty towers ;" though the number was much larger. This is probably the meaning in 2 Kings 8, 9, where Hazael is said to have brought as a present to Elisha forty camels' burden of the good things of Damascus. This is probably the meaning, too, in Ezek. 29. 11, 13. "Seven" and "seventy" are used to express a large and com- plete, though an uncertain number, Prov, 26. 16, 25 ; Psa. 119. 164: Lev. 26, 24, etc. We are commanded, for example, to forgive till seventy times seven, to indicate that, if our brother repent of his sin, there must be no end of our forgiveness. The seven demons cast out of Mary of Magdala indicate her extreme suflfering, and, perhaps, her great wickedness. ** Gen. 14. 16: 29. 12, 15: so the word is probably used in John 7. 3: Gal. I. 19. b Ezra 2. 61: Neh. 7. 63. h3 154 FIRST RULE : PROPER NAMES. (&). The Scriptures sometimes use a round number when not perfectly accurate. From Numb. 25. 9 and i Cor. 10, 8, we learn that between 23,000 and 24,000 were slain by the plague. The first passage mentions 24,000, the second 23,000. In Judges 11. 26, 300 years is put for 293. See Josh. 4. 19: Numb. 33. 3 : and compare 14. 33: Judges 20. 46, 35: 9. 5, 18, 56. (c). Occasionally, in Scripture, verbs denoting simple being Tj-a e of °^' action are used, when only a declaration is verbs of intended, or even a mere supposition that the act is or will be done, or regarded as done. In Lev. 13. 3, 13, for example, where the priest is said to cleanse the leper; i. e., he declares him to be clean. The letter killeth; that is, declares death as a consequence of sin, Rom, 5. 20: Phil. 3. 7. See also, Eom. 4. 15 : 7. 9 : 2 Cor, 3. 6, So in prophecy, the speaker is said to do what he only foretells, Jer. i. 10: Ezek, 43. 3 : Isa. 6. 10. (d). In interpreting the words of Scripture, it needs to be Use of proper noticed, that the proper names are used very names, peculiarly. Different persons have often the same name, Pharaoh (or ruler, from Phre, the sun) was the general name of the kings of Egypt from the time of Abraham till the invasion of Egypt by the Persians, as Ptolemy was the common name of their kings after the death of Alexander, Abimelech (meaning my father the king) seems to have been the common name of the kings of the Philistines; Agag was the name of the kings of the Amalekites; as was Benhadad (the son of the sun) of the kings of Damascus. Among the Romans, Augustus CaBsar was the common title of their emperors. The Augustus mentioned in Luke 2, i was the second of that name. The Caosar who reigned when Christ was crucified was Tiberius, The emperor to whom Paul appealed, and who is called both Augustus and Csesar, was Nero, Acts 25, 21. The Egyptian and the Philistine kings seem to have had, like the Ro- mans, a proper as well as a common name. We read, for example, of Pharaoh Necho and of Pharaoh Hophra; and the Abimelech mentioned in Psa, 34, is called Achish in i Sam. 21. 11, In the New Testament, several very diflerent persons are known under the common name of Herod, Herod the Grpiat, cro , WHO. ^^ ^^ ^^ called in profane history, was he who slew in his old age the young children at Bethlehem. It was he who FIRST RULE : PROPER XAMES. 155 rebuilt and decorated the Temple, and enlarged Csesarea. He was notorious for Ms jealousy and cruelty. On his death, the half of his kingdom (including Judasa and Samaria) was given to his son Archelaus ; most of Galilee was given to his son Herod the Tetrarch, or king, Luke 3,1: Matt. 14. 9; and some other parts of Syria and Galilee to his third son, Philip Herod. It was Herod the Tetrai-ch who beheaded John, and mocked our Lord in his last sufferings. His conduct towards Herodias, his niece and sister-in-law, ended in his being banished to Gaul. The dominions of both Herod and Philip were ultimately given to his nephew, the brother of Herodias, Herod Agrippa, who is called in Scripture, Herod only. In the end, he possessed all the ten-itory in Palestine \vhich had belonged to his grandfather, Herod the Gi'eat. He was the murderer of the apostle James, and died miserably and suddenly at Caesarea. His son was Herod Agrippa, called in the New Testament Agi-ippa only. It was before him that Paul was brought by Festus. The character of this man was very different from that of his father, and a know- ledge of the fact that they were not the same man is essential to a clear understanding of the history. Different places have often the same name. Csesarea is the name of two cities ; one called Csesarea Philippi, in Galilee; the other on the shore of the Mediterranean. The one mentioned throughout the Acts of the Apostles was the port whence travellers generally left Judsea for Rome. Antioch, in Syria, again, is the place where Paul and Barnabas commenced their labours, and where the followers of Christ were first called Christians. The Antioch of Acts 13. 14, and of 2 Tim. 3. II, is in Phrygia. There is a Mizpeh ('watch-tower') in Moimt Gilead, where Jephtha resided, where Jacob and Laban made their covenant. Gen. 31, 49: Judges II. 34; a Mizpeh of Moab, i Sam. 22. 3, perhaps the same as the previous; a Mizpeh of Gibeah, where Samuel re- sided, and where Saul was chosen king, i Sam. 7. ii; and there is also a Mizpeh in the tribe of Judah, Josh. 15. 38. Sometimes the same name is applied to a person and to a place. Magog, for example, is the name of a son of Japheth, and it is also the name of the country occupied by a people called Gog, probably the Scythians, or, as they are now called, the Tartars, Ezek. 38.: Rev. 20. 8. The Turks have sprung from the same etock 156 FIRST rule: PROrER NAMES. The same persons and places have sometimes different names. The father-in-law of Moses, for example, is called Hobab antl Jethro, Judges 4. ii : Ex. 3.1. Eeuel was perhaps his wife's grand- father-, though called her father. Ex, 2. 18. Levi is the same aj Matthew. Thomas and Didymus are the same person; the words meaning a twin. Thaddeus, Lebbseus, and Judas, are all names of the apostle Jude. Sylvanus, Lucas, Timotheus, are Latin forms of Silas, Luke, and Timothy; the last three belong to our transla- tion, not to the original. Horeb and Sinai are names now and anciently applied to different peaks of the same range of mountains; and both names are some- times applied to the whole range. Cesarsea (of Galilee) was called Laish, and then Dan, i Kings 12. 29: Judges 18. 29. The Lake of Gennesarcth was anciently called the Sea of Cin- neretli, afterwards the Sea of Galilee, or the Sea of Tiberias, Matt. 4. 18: John 21. I. The modern Abyssinia is called Ethiopia, and sometimes Gush; the latter name, however, being applied generally to Arabia or to India; hence, probably, Chusistan. Greece is called Javan and Greece, Isa. 66. 19: Zech. 9. 13. Egypt is called Ham and Rahab, Psa. 78. 51: Isa. 51. 9. The Dead Sea is called the Sea of the Plain, from its occupying, or adjoining, the plain on which the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah once stood; the East Sea, from its position in relation to Jerusalem; and sometimes the Salt Sea, 2 Kings 14. 25: Gen. 14. 3. The Nile is called in Scripture Sihor, Josh. 13. 3, but more com- monly the River; both names, however, being applied also to other streams. The Mediterranean Sea is sometimes called the Sea of the Philis- tines, who resided on its coasts; or the Utmost Sea; or, more com- monly, the Gi-eat Sea, Ex. 23. 31: Deut. 11. 24: Numb. 34. 6, 7. The Holy Land is called Canaan; the Laud of Israel, of Judsea; Palestine, or the Land of the Shepherds; and the Land of Promise, Ex. 15. 14: I Sam. 13. 19: Isa. 14. 29: Heb. 11. 9. 280. The careful recognition of the different application of proper names is of great moment, especially in reconciling apparent contradictions in sacred Scripture. Aha.-,iah, for example, the son of Jehoram, is called Azariah and Jehoahaz, 2 Kings 8. 29: 2 Chron. 22. 6: 21. 17. Jehoahaz, the son of Josiah, is called Johanau and Shallum, 2 Kings 23. 30: I Chron. 3. 15: Jer. 22. 11, RULES OF INTERrRETATION : SECOND RULE. 157 Jehoiada, the priest, is called Johanan and, probably, Barachias, 2 Chroii. 24. 2c: i Chrou. 6. 9. Matt. 23. 35. The meaning of all these names is similar. Uzziah is called Azariah ; ISTathaniel, Bartholomew. In such instances, the different names have often the same meaning. 281. It is obvious, however, that a word has often various Second rule- senses, each of which is sanctioned by general usage, as in- usage. We need, therefore, a second rule of the rest of interpretation ; to fix the meaning of a word, it the sentence, jg necessary to mark the meaning of the other words with which it is connected in the sentence ; i. e., we must ascertain the sense in which general usage employs it in its particular connection. Faith, for example, sometimes means the gospel (of which faith in Christ is the great doctrine), as in Gal. i. 23, "he Illustrations. ^^^^ preacheth the faith which once he destroyed." And so in i Tim. 3. 9: 4. i: Acts 24. 24. It means, again, truth or faithfulness, as in Rom. 3. 3, "shall their imbehef make the faith of God without effect?" iind so in Titus 2. 10 (orig.), and probably in Gal. 5. 22. It means, further, in one passage, proof or evidence. Acts 17. 31 (Gr.) It means a conscientious'-; viction of duty, as in Rom. 14. 23; or, most comprehensively, at exercise of the mind and heart which receives spiritual an< '!' ,ine truth (Heb. 11.); or, more specifically, the repose of the r, id and heart in the work of Christ as the ground of our pardon and means of our holiness (Rom. 3. 28). Flesh means sometimes what is tender and teachable, as in Ez.ek. ir. 19; "I will give you a heart of flesh;" Avhere it is opposed to a heart of stone. It means, also, human nature, without any reference to its sinfulness, John i. 14: Rom. i. 3: 9. 3; or, more commonly, human nature as corrupt and sinful, Rom. 8. 5 : Eph. 2.3. Another meaning is, all that is outwai-d and ceremonial in religion, aa distinguLshed from what is inward and spmtual, as in Gal. 6. I21 3,3; where it refers more especially to the ceremonies of the Mosaic ritual (compare Phil. 3. 3). Salvation means in some places outward safety and deliverance, as in Ex. 14. 13; Acts 7. 25 (orig.); or healing, aa in James 5. 15, where, in the case of a sick Clu'istian, the prayer of faith is said to save, i. e., heal, the sick. Its more common meaning, however, is in reference to spiritual blessing ; when it sometimes includes jxistification for as much of our salvation as is completed on earth; 158 SECOND RULE: FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. as iu Eph. •2. 8: Luke i. 77; or, more frequently, the whole of the blessing which Christ has secured for believers, beginning -with forgiveness, and ending in etei-nal glory, Eom. 13. 11. Sometimes it means simply the gospel, as in Heb. 2. 3, where it is said to be ''spoken by the Lord, and confirmed unto us by them that heard him," In the same way, blood is used in Scripture with several mean- ings : God "hath made of one blood all nations of men," Acts 17. 26, i. e., they have a common origin or nature. To give the wicked blood to drink, is to place in their hands the cup of death. In Matt. 27. 25, ''His blood be on us, and on our children," means, the guilt of having put him to death: "his death" (that is, the guilt of it) be upon us. In Rom. 5 . 9, the Christian is said to be justified by the blood of Christ; and ia Heb. 9. 14, the blood of Christ is said to "purge our consciences from dead woi-ks." The robes of the redeemed are made white in the blood of the Lamb. In these passages, the blood of Christ means his "obedience unto death," "the offering of himself" on the ci'oss, the ground of our justification, the instrument and motive of our holuiess. The general meaning of the word grace is " favour." As applied to God, it means the unmerited favour exercised by him towards men; as in 2 Tim. i. 9, "According to His own purpose and grace." It means, moreover, all the different gifts of that grace : justifi- cation, as in Rom. 5. 15; strength and holiness, as in 2 Cor. 12. g, "My grace is sufficient for thee;" and eternal glory, i Pet. i. 13, The "word of his grace" is the gospel, in Acts 14. 3. So in Heb. 13. 9, it means doctrines of the gospel, and not meats or rites. In nearly all these passages, the meaning of the words is fixed by tlie position in which they stand. The general ideas which the words suggest are defined by their particular connection. 282. The rule which thus helps us to select, out of the Rule dH d ^^^^y meanings of a word, the single meaning to figurative which is appropriate to the place, helps us also to language. determine whether the word is used literally or figuratively. If, on reading the sentence, it is found that the words, in their proper sense, involve a contradiction or an impossibility, it becomes plain that there is a figure of speech. In I Pet. 2. 5, for example. Christians are called "living stones." In Rom. 13. 12, they are exhorted to " put on the armour of light." In I Pet. I. 13, they are said "to gird up the loins of their mind." In all these passages, the connection of each word shows it be figii- THIRD RULE: CONTEXT. 159 rative. Taken alone, it may be figurative, or it may be literal; but in its present connection, tne literal interpretation would be incon- gruous. Thus, again, the washing which the apostle states Christians to have received (i Cor. 6. ii) is clearly figurative; for it is "by the Spirit of our God." The command of our Lord, *•' Let the dead bury their dead" (Matt. 8. 22), must be understood figtiratively, and means, let the worldly-minded attend to worldly concerns. The words of Christ, '' This is my blood," are figurative; the literal interpretation of them being repugnant to reason and Scripture. In the use of figurative language, the inspired writers seem to have selected their expressions on the principle fi^^ativ? of resemblance. Scrmtm-e.^^ What is grand in nature is used to express what is dignified and important among men : the heavenly bodies, mountains, stately trees, designating kingdoms, or those in authority; the lower ground, the branches, and the earth generally, designating the mass of the people. Political changes are represented by earthquakes, tempests, eclipses, the tiiming of rivers and seas into blood, Jer. 4. 23-28: Isa. 13. 10, 13: Matt. 24. 29: Acts 2. 19. Things which have a fertilizing influence, as dew, showers, streams, are used to represent spiritual blessings, Isa. 25. 6: John 4. 13, 14. The qualities of animals are referred to in figurative expressions; beasts and birds of prey being emblems of oppressors. A horn signifies power, Dan. 8. A rod, the exercise of power in chastening. Light and darkness express joy and sorrow, knowledge and ignorance, prosperity and adversity, holiness and sin.^ Mar- riage often denotes a covenant with God; adultery, the violation of that covenant by idolatry. A vineyard often denotes a chiu'ch; if it bear wild grapes, it is unfruitful; if its inclosures are broken down, it is afflicted, or corrupt, Isa. 5. 1-7. This rule will not determine, in all cases, whether vv'ords are to be understood literally or figuratively ; but it will go far to decide in most. Other rules will be found noticed below. 283. But, while the words employed, or their connection in Third rule : the Sentence, will often suggest the meaning, it is the context, sometimes necessary to look beyond the words, and even the sentence, to the context ; and there we find — * Esther 8. 16: Isa. 5. 20: Psa. 97. 11: Eph. 5. 14. 160 THIRD rule: context. 284. (i). Words and passages explained in the language of the inspired writers themselves, sometime^ by definitions, and sometimes by examples ; sometimes by expressions which hmit.the meaning. In Heb. 11, for instance, Faith is first described, and then illus* trated. It is said to be a confident expectation of things hoped for : a perfect pei-suasion of things not seen : and then examples are given of both parts of the definition. In Noah, it was perfect persuasion of the truth of God in regard to the Deluge. In Abraham, it was confident expectation of the fulfilment of the promise made to himself, and to his seed. If the Divine word speak of mercies, faith hopes for them; if of things pm-ely spiritual and future, faith believes in them. Perhaps no x^assage illustrates better than this, the difficulty of making a good translation; and the wisdom of God in giving us a Bible of examples, rather than of definitions. The word '' substance," is a literal translation of the original ; and means, whatever stands under and sustains all that is attached to it, whether subjects or qualities. No one word could have expressed more completely, the idea of the original: and yet it is not clear. In Heb. 1. 3, the same word is translated '^ person" and in 2 Cor. 11. 17, confidence, (of boasting :) and buth translations are connect. The full idea is that of well-founded or confident expectation. Faith is therefore, as to things hoped foi', a thing on which real or substantial confidence may rest. It is moreover, the evidence of things not seen. The full idea here, again, is, such evidence of things not seen, as silences doubt and refutes opposition; or rather, it is the conviction which such evidence produces. All this extent of meaning is found in the original words : but no one word can express it. If the Bible were made up of definitions, a translation without a paraphrase would be impossible. We may well feel thankful, therefore, that it is a book of examples chiefly : and that it illustrates its principles rather in the lives of believers, than in logical and abstruse terms. Perfection, again, is defined in several parts of the Bible. In Psa. 37. 37, it is used as synonymous with uprightness or sin- cerity, a real unfeigned goodness : and this is its general meaning in the Old Testament, i Chron. 12. 33, 38. In the New Testament, it means either the possession of clear and accurate knowledge of Di- vine truth, or the possession of all the gx'aces of the Christian cha- racter, in a higher or lower degree. The first is the meaning in Heb. 5. 14: where strong meat is said to belong " to them that are of full age, (marg. ]oerfcct) : even to those who by I'eason of use have theu' senses exercised to discern both good and evil." So in i Cor. THIRD RULE : C0N1»EXT. 161 2, 6: Phil, 3. 15. The second is the meaniiig in James i, 4: where "perfect" is defined as ''entire, wanting nothing." In 2 Pet. i. 5-7, the graces which make up the perfect Christian, are enumerated. In Eph. 3.4, 5, Mystery is defined by example, as the truth, that the Gentiles should be partakers of the promise in Christ by the gospel. The cocese of this world, means man's natural state and life, as opposed to the kingdom of Chiist : it is the outgoing of the spirit that worketh in the children of disobedience. In Gal. 4. 3, the expression, the elements of this world is used; and is explained in ver. 9, 10, of the same chapter. See also Heb. 2. 5 : 6. 5 : I Cor. 10. 11. Not unfrequently, the meaning is limited, or explained by the context even in simple narrative. Compare Gen. 6. 19, 20: 7. 2, 3: where "pairs," and the number of pairs are spoken of respectively: so from Gen. 48, 8, 10, we gather that Jacob's blindness was partial: From Exod. 6. 3, and Gen. 13. 4 (Heb. Jehovah), it may be concluded that the faithfulness of Jehovah in giving effect to his promises, was not revealed to the Israelites till the Exode: From Exod. 9. 6: 9. 20, it is clear that " all," means all, -vsith specified exceptions. The Levites spent five years on probation, before fully entering upon their office, hence Numb. 4. 3 : 8. 24. Modify in the same way, Numb. 14. 30, by Josh. 14. i: and Josh. 11. 19, by 15. 63. 285. (2.) Sometimes, where there is no formal definition, the meaning is made clear by the use of some ana- plained by logons or similar expression ; or by the use of oJ^iitTexJ opposite O^eS- In Gal. 3. 17, the " covenant with Abraham" is ex- Examples, plained, as the promise which God made to him. In Rom. 6. 23, the meaning of the word death (the wages of sin), is gathered from the opposite: "the gift of God is eternal life, through Jesus Christ our Lord." In Col. 2. 7, the expression, " rooted and built up in Christ," is explained, as meaning " established in the faith." In liom. 4. 5, it is said, that " to him that worketh not, faith is coimted for righteousness:" the expression "worketh," being ex- plained in several places in the same chapter. In ver. 2, the phrase is "justified by works." From the same verse, we learn that it means the contrary of " believing in Him that justifieth the un- godly." So in James 2. 14, the faith that cannot save, is the faith 162 THIBD RULE: CONTEXT. tliat spends itself in words, and not in deeds. It is a faith that is without obedience : it is a faith such as devils feel (vei\ 19,) and it is not such as Abraham felt (ver. 23). To be ''justified by works/' therefore, expressly includes in Paul, the rejection of Christ as the Saviour of the guilty, and an adherence to the whole covenant; while the " works" of which James speaks imply faith in Christ. The same truth is taught by our Lord in John 3. 36; where it is said, " He that belie veth on the Son hath everlasting life: and he that believeth not the Son shall not see life:" where the word *'believeth not" is in the original, " is not obedient to;" showing, as Doddridge well observes, that the faith to which the promise of eternal life is annexed, is a principle of unreserved obedience. In I John 3, 9, it is said, " Whosoever is born of God doth not commit sin." But, on comparing this expression with other parts of the Epistle, wo find that, to commit sin, means " to walk in darkness," i. 6; " to keep not the commandments," 2. 4; "to hate his brother," 2. 9 ; ''to love the world,'' 2. 15 ; expressions that bespeak settled habit; a habit alien to the spirit of a Christian. 286, To this class of expressions belong the parallelisms or metres of the original Scriptures ; in which one Words ex- , . , ^ ^ ' , , plained by part of a sentence answers more or less accurately Parallelisms. ^^ another. Sometimes the parallelism is synonymous or gradational ; Synonymous giving precisely the same thought, or the same or gi-ada- thought with somo addition. tional. » ■ The first Psalm is a beautiful instance of this gradual extension of thought : Blessed is the man That walketh not in the counsel of the ungodly, Nor standeth in the way of sinners, Nor sitteth in the seat of the scornful. The gradations are obvious — Walketh — has casual intercovirse. Standeth — has close intimacy. Sitteth — has perma- nent connection. Counsel — has public i-esort. Way — chosen path. Seat — habitual rest- ing place. Ungodly — negatively wicked. Sinners — positively wicked. Scornful — profanely wicked. Similar instances may be found in Psa. 24. 3, 4: Isa. 55. 6, 7. Prov. 16. 32, is an instance of the synonymous parallel. He that is slow to anger is commended, not because he is listless or indif- THIRD RULE : PARALLELISMS. 163 ferent, but because lie "rulethhis own spirit:" the one expi'essioa defining the meaning of the other. Occasionally these parallelisms extend over whole chapters^ or over books of Scripture. In this case, the similarity of thought needs to be traced with some care. Thus in Psa. 132. Ver. I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, is answered by ver. 12. Ver. 7, , , by ver. 13. Ver. 8, , , by ver. 14. Ver. 9, , , by ver. 15, 16. Ver. 10, ,, by ver. 17, 18. In Psa. 135. 15-18, thei'e is a similar instance. An attention to these parallelisms is often necessary to bring out the meaning of Scriptiire. In Luke 12. 47, 48, for example, the comparison of the expression, " he who prepared not, neither did according to his will," with the expression, " he that did commit tilings worthy of stripes," suggests the reason that acts of omission in spite of knowledge, are to be punished with many stripes, while sins of commission without knowledge, are to be punished with few. Sometimes the Paralldisms are antithetic ; containing op- Antithetic, posite terms, and sometimes opposite sentiments. In Prov. 10. 7, for example, it is said that '' the memory of the just is blessed;" where the meaning of the word " memory " is fixed by the following line: "but the name of the wicked shall rot," " jSTame" and "memory" are synonymous. In Prov. 11. 24, the scattering which tends to increase, is not the scattering in which extravagance may indulge, but the exercise of a \\ise generosity: for the following clause opposes it to the withholding of more than is meet, which tends to poverty. In Hosea 14. 9, it is said, "The ways of the Lord are right, and the just shill walk in them: but the transgressors shall fall therein:" where the just are obviously the obedient. Other kinds of metrical parallelism are also frequent in Scripture : but as they are parallelisms of construc- Constructive. -^ / n i . i r tion only, (called therefore, synthetic or construc- tive,) and refer only to the form of the sentence, it is not ne- cessary here to notice them. Psa. 19. 7-11 : Psa. 148. 7-13: Isa. 14, 4-9, are instances. 287. (3.) Very often the meaning is decided by the general Words ex- reasoning, or allusions of the context. Sereaso^^ng (''] Sometimes the meaning is defined by the or allusions, allusions of the context : and the words are to be t-aken in a hmitea sense. 164 INTERPRETATION: CONTEXT. In Psalm 7. 8, for example, David prays, "Judge me, 0 Lord, ac- cording to my X'ighteousness;" i.e., according to his innoceucy, in re- ference to the charge of Cnsh the Benjamite. He often uses the same expression with similar limitations. The word ' ' righteous " or "more righteous" is even applied to -vsacked men: as in i Kings 2. 32; and in 2 Sam. 4. 1 1 . In the second instance, Ishbosheth is said to be righteous (though he had opposed Avhat he knew to be God's promise in reference to David,) merely to imply that he had done no injury to his murderers. The same phrase is applied to Sodom and Go- morrah, because they were less gtiilty than Jerusalem, Ezek. 16, 52. The counsel of Ahithophel is called good, and the conduct of the unjust steward icise, not because they were absolutely so, but be- cause they were likely means of accomplishing the ends of each. In John 9. 3, it is said, " Neither hath this man sinned, nor his parents." The meaning is simply, that his blindness was not the punishment of any particular sin. In James 5. 14, the elders of the church are commanded to anoint the sick, and to pray over him; " and the prayer of faith shall save him." The church of Rome founds on this one passage the doctrine of extreme unction; which they say is to save the soul of the dying. But from ver. 15, 16, it is plain that by "save" is meant "heal." So that, whatever this practice implied, it was to be observed, not with the view of saving the soul; but, in the case of one already a Christian, with the view of restoring his health. Opposite (^0 The context, or general arrangement of a sense some- passage, may even prove that words are to be un- tiraes uiten- ^ \ . ■, • pi- ded. derstood m the very opposite 01 their usual sense. In I Kings 22. 15, "Go, and prosper" was spoken ironically: and meant the reverse. In JSTumb. 22. 20, " Rise up, and go" ap- pears from ver. 12. 32, to imply " If, after all I have told you, yovir heart is set on violating my command, do it at your own risk." The use of this form of speech may be seen in i Kings j8. 27; Judg. 10. 14: Mark 7. 9: i Cor. 4. 8. 288. The general reasoning of the various passages of In reasoning *^cripture is, commonly, sufficiently plain to indi- of Scripture, cate the meaning of the words employed. Great and^particies attention, however, needs to be paid to the use of important, parent'beses and of particles ; the particles con- necting different branches of a sentence, or argument, toge- ther, and the parentheses withdrawing from the direct line of argument the words which are included in them. The latter interpretation: context. 165 interrupt the grammatical construction of the sentence, and the former perfect, or complete it. 289. When the parenthesis is short, it creates no difficulty, Parentheses ^^^^ ^^^ scarcely be said to interrupt the reasoning, ^^ * as in Phil. 3. 18, 19 : Acts i. 15. When it is long, it seems to embarrass the argument, and often ends in the repetition of the words of the preceding clause, Eph. 3. 2 to 4. I (first clause) is all in parenthesis ; so in Phil. i. 27 to 2. 16, and, perhaps, 3. 2 to 3. 14. In the first and last of these cases, " therefore " is an evidence of the end of the paren- thesis. Tlie parenthesis is often indicated in the argumentative parts of Scripture, by the use of the word "for:" as in Eom. 2. 11-16, or 13-16: 2 Cor. 6. 2: Eph. 2. 14-18. 290. Attention to particles is often important. Thex, for example, is often emphatic ; sometimes as an adverb of time, as in Mai. 3. 4, and 16. And again in I Thess. 4. 16, ''The dead in Chi'ist shall rise first. Then, we which are alive, and remain, shall be caught up together with theia in the clouds." It is not said here, that the dead in ChrLst rise be- fore the rest of the dead, but that the dead rise before the living are changed. But it is much oftener used as an equivalent for therefore. Therefore, itself generally expresses an inference or conclusion from what precedes : but it sometimes indicates that the sentence has been interrupted by a parenthesis, or is repeated : and means "As I before said," or "to resume." Matt. 7. 24, (see ver. 21): I Cor. 8. 4, (see ver. i): Mark 3. 31, (see ver. 21): John 6. 24, (see ver. 22): Gal. 3. 5, (see ver. 2). Through, means sometimes *' by means of:" as in John 15. 3. " Through the word I have spoken unto you:" and sometimes " for the sake of," Eom. 5. i ; or '•' in the midst of," as in Gal. 4. 13. Now, is sometimes an adverb of time: sometimes it means "as the case is," contrasting an actual with a supposable one, John t8. 36, where "then" means "in that case," and asserts the consequence; Luke 19. 42; Heb. 8. 6, (ver. 4.) "Eather" means "on the contrary," Eom. 11. II : 12.19: Eph. 5. II. The comparison implied in the modern use of the word is expressed in Scripture by " and not." See § 277 (c). 291. The connection is sometimes obscured through the ether sources ^^se of a covert dialogue; objections, responses, Tn thfcou-^ ^^"^ replies not being distinctly marked. iiectiou. ggg j^QjQ^ ,^ ^^ g|.g_^ where we have a dialogue between 166 INTERPRETATION : CONTEXT. the apostle and an objector, Isa. 52. 13: 53, 54, a dialcgue be* tween God, the prophet, and the Jews. Psa. 20. 15 : 24. 104, are responsive. The abruptness of transition in historical narrative, and especially in prophecy, creates difficulty. Different, and often distant events are joined in what seems to be the same paragraph. Frequently a difficulty arises from the fact, that the con- clusion of an argument is omitted, or a premise is suppressed, or an objection is answered, without our being told what the objection is. The Epistle to the Romans furnishes examples of all these diffi- culties. Rom. 3. 22-24: 8. 17, 18: 9. 6: chapters 3 and 4. 292. Attention to the context is of great moment in ascer- taining the meaning of the figurative language of piiedTo inter- Scripture, and in determining whether the language pret figures, ^g figurative or hteral. That the expressions are figurative is sometimes stated or impUed, and then the mean- ing is appended. Sometimes it is necessary to look to the general argument or allusions of the passage. In I Pet. 3.21, the baptism which saves us is defined. It is ''not the putting away of the filth of the flesh, but the answer of a good conscience towards God." ''To bear one's sin," is a figurative ex- pression, meaning to suffer the punishment of it. Hence the synonymous expressions to be cut off, and to die, are connected with it, Exod. 28. 43: Lev. 19. 8. In Hosea 4. 12, and elsewhere, (especially in Ezekiel,) a spirit of lasciviousness is said to have drawn the Israelites astray; but then it is immediately added, " They sacrifice upon the tops of the mountains, and bm-n incense upon the hills;" to show that it is spiritual unfaithfulness of which the prophet is speaking. When Christ said " He that eateth me, even he shall live by me," John 6. 57, the Jews misunderstood his meaning, but he had him- self already explained it : for in the same discourse, he had repeated the truth in literal terms, " He that believeth on me hath ever- lasting life," This text is understood literally, by most Roman Catholic writers; though our Lord expressly gave it this figurative interpretation ; and the ordinance of the Supper, to which they sup- pose it to refer, had not then been instituted, and was entirely unknown to His hearers. In Matt. 26. 28, Christ calls the wine his blood: and again, in interpretation: scope. 167 ver. 29, he calls the same cup the fruit of the vine: implying, that his first expression was figurative. The expression in i Cor. 3. 15, '' He himself shall be saved, yet so as by fire," is the passage in Scripture generally quoted in favour of the popish doctrine of pur- gatory. Attention to the context will show that the whole is figurative. The wood, hay, stubble, which man may build on the foundation, are expressions confessedly figurative. The foundation itself is figurative, and means Christ; and the expression '^ so as by fire," must be understood in a sense consistent with the general argument of the passage. Similarly figurative expressions may be seen in i Cor. 5. 8: Matt. 16, 6, 12. See also Isa. 51. i: Eph. 5. 32, where the union of Christ and his church (and not marriage,) is spoken of as the mystery. 293. When the words, the connection of the sentence, and Fourth rule the context, fail in removing all ambiguity, or in tion°*graerS" gi^'i°g ^^^ f^^l meaning of the writer, it is then scope. necessary that we look at the scope or design of the book itself, or of some large section, in which the words and expressions occur. The last preceding rule touches this ; and, indeed, all the rules of interpretation glide by degrees into one another. 294. Sometimes the scope of a section, or of the book itself, is mentioned. Scope some- tiSTed'"^'" ^^ -^°'^- ^- ^^' ^°^ example, St. Paul tells us the conclusion, to which his reasonings, iip to that point, had brought him : namely, that man is justified by faith, without the deeds of the law. The principal conclusions of the Epistle to the Ephesians are stated, the first doctrinal, in 2. ir, 12, that the Gentiles were no longer aliens; the second practical, in 4. 1-3, exhorting Jews and Gentiles to exercise the spirit and temper which become their new relation. Subordinate conclusions are expressed in 3. 13 : 4. 17, 25 : 5. I, 7: 6. 13, 14: where the words ''therefore" or "wherefore," generally indicate the result of each successive argument. The design of the Proverbs is told us in i. 1-4, 6; of the Gospels Proverbs. i^ Jol^ 20. 31; of the Bible itself in Eom. 15. 4* The Bible. 2 Tim. 3. 16, 17. 295. The design of some parts of the Bible can be gathered DesiKii a- Only from the occasions on which they were written. th^'^^ccS ^^® ^°*^ ^^^^ ^''"^^ probably written by Moses, at the time when God sent back the children of Israel to wander in the wilderness. The scope of Psa. 18. 34. 3. 16S INTERPRETATION : SCOPE. 5 1 . is illustrated by their inscriptions . The Psalms which are headed *'Songs of Degrees," 120-134. were wiitten forthe Jews, to be sung during their annxial journeys to Jerusalem. Many of the verses will be seen to have additional meaning from the knowledge of this fact. The Epistles to the Colossians, the Ephesians, and the Galatians, Ep Colos- were all written to ilkxstrate the peculiar doctrines of sians, Ep. the gospel, and to answer the misrepresentations of the Ep!^Gala-^' Judaizing teachers of the church. Many expressions tiana. -will be explained by a reference to the Acts of the Apostles, and especially to the 15th chapter; where we have the history of the whole question, which these epistles discuss. 296. The great means, however, of obtaining a knowledge Scope f-a- ^f *^® scope of the various books of the Bible, or tberedlrom of particular passages, is the repeated and con- study of tinuous study of the books themselves. When Scripture. q^xcq this knowledge is gained, it will throw great light on particular expressions, and illustrate other parts of the Bible in a way both instructive and surprising. To understand the precept of our Lord, Matt. 19. 17. "If thou wilt enter into life, keep the commandments," we look Examp eb, ^^ ^^^^ scope. An inquirer proud of his own righteous. ness, asks what he must do to obtain eternal life, and our Lord refers him to the law, to rebuke and humble him. The subjects of the predictions, Isa. 1-39, are generally indicated. The subjects of subsequent chapters, are less marked, and the con- nection can be traced only by repeated perusal. When traced, it throws light upon the meaning. Chapters 5 1-5 5, for example, form one prophecy; 51. 1-8, containing an earnest thrice-repeated appeal to the people to hear, verses i, 4, 7 : 51. 9-52. 12, contains an earnest appeal to God and to Zion; verses 9, 17: 52. i: 52. 13-53. 12, is a glorious description of the work of the Messiah, and forms the centre of the" prophecy; 54. describes the results of his work on the destiny of the church; and 55. on the destiny of the world. 297. Sometimes it is difficult to tell whether the irame- sco e of as- ^^^'^^ scope of the passage, or the general scope of sage and of the book, is to be regarded. book some- times dif- In Luke 1 5 . for example, there are several parables addressed to the Pharisees, who complained that our Lord received sinners: and among those parables, is that of the prodigal son. It is certain that the scope of the Gospel of L\ike, is to exhibit and recommend the gospel to the Gentiles : and the question arises, who is meant by the elder son, and who, by the INTERPRETATION : SCOPE. 169 younger ? Some say, the Pharisee and the sinner; othei-s say, the Jew and the Gentile. The first interpretation is sanctioned by the scope of the context; and the second, by the general scope of the Gospel. It will be seen that both interpretations are consistent and probable. A due regard to the scope of the parables is of great im- portance. It h?^ been doubted whether the "rest" (or the keeping of a rest or sabbath, a.s it may be translated,) spoken of in Heb. 4. refers to the literal sabbath, to heaven, or to the peace which the gospel bi'ings, ending however in etei-nal life: a question that can be de- cided only by the argument. Comp. verses 3, 9, 10. In the same Epistle, the description of Melchisedec as M'ithout descent, has created some difficulty. It will be noticed, however, that the apostle is compaiing his priesthood with that of Christ; and it is said, that both are alike in this, that they are equally without succession; and so differ from that of Aaron. The limited, and not the universal meaning of the wojds, is therefore the only one required by the argument. In the same way, if we need further light on the apparent contra- Comparison Lnpture. become sure of the true meaning of particular 170 INTERPHETATION : PARALLEL PASSAGES. passages ; and, above all, it is by this rule alone tliat wo ascertain the doctrines of Scripture on'questions of faith and practice. A Scripture truth is really the consistent explana- tion of all that Scripture teaches in reference to the question examined ; and a Scripture duty is the consistent exj^lanation of all the precepts of Scripture on the duty examined. It is in studying the Scripture as in studying the works of God. We lirst examine each fact or phenomenon, and ascertain its meaning ; and then classify it with other similar facts, and attempt to explain the whole. Such explanation is called a general law. 299. The importance of studying Scripture in this way is Importance strikingly manifest from the mistakes of the Jews, of this coui- " We have heard out of the law" (said they) " that paiison. Christ abideth for ever," Isa. 9. 7 : Dan. 7. 14, " and how sayest thou The Son of man must be lifted up ?" The everlasting duration of his kingdom was often foretold ; but that he should be lifted up and cut off, though not for himself, had been foretold too, Isa. 53. : Dan. 9. 26. A com- parison of these passages would have removed the ground of their objections. 300. (i). Sometimes we compare the words of Scripture Paiaiieiisni with oue another, with the view of ascertaining of words. ll^^,ly moaning. David, for example, is called in i Sam. 13, 14, and iu Acta 13. 22, " a mau after God's owu heart:" and the question lias been asked, whether this expression is meant to exhibit David as a model of perfection. On referring to i Sam. 2. 35, however, it will befomid that the phrase is again used, " I will raise me up a faithful priest, who shall do according to that which is in mine lieart:" and this suggests the pi-imary meaning; namely, that David, especially in his public official conduct, should fulfil the Divine will, and main- tain inviolate the laws which God had enjoined. From the Psalms and histoi-y, we gather that David was also an eminently devout mau, but it was in reference to his kingly office, primarily, that this description was given; however applicable it may also be to tlie general spirit of piety which David evinced, and to the unfeigned penitence which he manifested after haviug been betrayed into sin. In x-eading Gal. 3. 27, we find the expression " As many as have been baptized into Christ have put on Christ:" and we l*ulon Christ. . . ^„ i .1 r^ i .1 i. ^ i. turn to Kom. 13. 14; and there find, that to put ou INTERPRETATION : PARALLEL PASSAGES. 171 -Christ, 13 opposed to making provision for the flesh; and then again to Col. 3.10, where the same phrase of "putting on" the new man, implies renewal in knowledge after the image of the Redeemer, Cver. 12,) kindness, humbleness, meekness, and, above all, charity, the bond of perfectness. In Gal. 6. 17, the apostle says, "From henceforth, let no man trouble me," (by such calumnies, as if I Avere a friend of the ceremonial law); " for I bear in my body the marks of the Lord Jesus." We turn to 2 Cor. 4. 10, where we find a similar phrase, " bearing about in the body the dying of the Lord Jesus:" and, turning again to 2 Coi\ 11. 23-27, we gather that these jnarks of the Lord Jesus, were simply the scars of his sufferings for Christ; not (as some interpreting the passage literally have sup- l)osed,) the marks or stigmata of the cross. The comparison of the words of Scripture is often essential Importance to the right understanding of Scripture truth, parallelism is, that a passage in which an idea is ^"exSned ^^P^'^ssed bricfl}^ or obscurely is explained by iiy what is those in which it is fully or clearly revealed ; and p am. ^^^^ difficult and figurative expressions are ex- plained by such as are proper and ob\'ious. The doctrine of justification by fh,ith, for example, is explamed briefly m Phil. 3. 9, and fully in the Epistles to the Komans and the Galatians. "A new creature" is a figiu-ative expression, used in Gal. 6. 15, lUid is explain'jd in chap. 5. 6, and in i Cor. 7. 19. 174 INTERPRETATION : ANALOGY 01^ FAITH. The charity spoken of in i Pet. 4. 8 is "brotherly love," and it is said to cover " a multitude of sins ;" not because it extinguit;he.s them and so justifies the sinner, but (as shown in Prov. 10. 12) because it quenches contention and strife. 304. When any passage is explained by a reference, not to raraiieiism any One or more texts, but by a reference to the analogy- of general tenor of Scripture, it is then said to be faith. interpreted according to the analogy, or rule OF FAITH. We have examples of this kind of reference in Gal. 5. 14, and again in i Cor. 15. 3-11, where the apostle states the facts and doctrines connected with the death and resurrection of Christ, and then proceeds to prove other facts and doctrines from them. This analogy of faith is called in the Bible, "the Scrip- Meaning of tures," I Cor. 15. 3, 4 ; " all the law," as in Gal. 5. thistenn. j^ . ^nd "the mouth of all the prophets," Acts 3. 18, "The analogy of faith" is the expression used by the apostle Paul, in Rom. 12. 6, where he exhorts those who expound the Scriptures (or prophesy) to do it according to the proportion or analogy, the measure or rule of faith. The expression therefore is identical with "the whole tenor of Scripture ;" and the doctrine which is founded upon it is taken from all the texts relating to one subject, when impartially compared ; the expressions of each being re- stricted by those of the rest, and the whole explained in mutual consistency. (i). God is set forth in Scripture, for example, as a Spirit, omniscient, and holy, and supreme. All passages, Examples. ., „ %. , -^ \ ^ , „. ^ . ^- ■, therefore, which seem to represent Him as material, local, limited in knowledge, in power, or in righteousness, are to be interpreted agreeably to these revealed truths. (2). If, again, any expositor were to explain the passages of Scripture which speak of justification by faith as if it freed us from obligations to holiness, such an interpretation must be rejected, because it counteracts the main design and spirit of the gospel. (3). In Prov. 16. 4, it is said, " The Lord has made all things for himself : yea, even the wicked for the day of evil." The idea that the wicked w^cre created that they might be con- demned, which some have founded upon this passage, is inconsistent with innumerable jiarts of Scripture (Psa. 145. 9 : INO^RPRETATION : PARALLEL PASSAGES. 1 75 Ezek. i8. 23 : 2 Pet. 3. 9). The meaning therefore is, as de- termined by the analogy of faith, that all evil shall contribute to the glory of God, and promote the accomplishment of his adora,ble designs. 305. It is thus that philosophy interprets natural appear- Genoiai laws ances. When once a general law is established, appiifcdiu particular facts are placed imder it, and any ap- natural pearaucc that seems contradictory is specially philosophy, examined; and of two explanations of the ai>- parent anomaly, that one is selected which harmonizes best with the general law. 306. The use of the parallel passages of Scripture in deter- Paraiieiisms mining whether language is figurative or literal is Sgmes! ^^ of g^sat moment. God, for example, often repre- Exanipies. sents himself as giving men to drink of a cuxd which he holds in his hand : they take it, and fall prostrate on the ground in fearful intoxication. The figure is used with much brevity, and without explanation, in some of the prophets.'' In Isa. 51. 17-23, it is fully explained, and the meaning of the image becomes clear. The intoxication is desolation and helplessness, more than can be borne ; and the cup is the fury (or righteous indignation) of Jehovah. In reading Acts 2. 21, we find it said, that " whosoever shall call on the name of the Lord shall be saved ;" and the question may be asked, What is meant by calling upon the name of the Lord 1 jMatthew tells us, that " not every one that saith Lord ! Lord ! shaU enter into the kingdom of heaven :" so that the passage is not to be understood in its hteral and restricted sense. On referring to Rom. 10. 11-14, and i Cor. I. 2, we find that this language, which is quoted from the prophet Joel, implied an admission of the Messiahship of Christ, and reUance on the doctrines which he revealed. 307. It is obvious that, while the figurative meaning of a „. , word has generally some reference to its literal Figures r.ot . . ° '^ to be applied meaning, it must not be supposed to include in ioo uir. ^-^^ figurative use all that is included in the literal ; simihtude in some one respect, or more, being sufficient to justify the metaphor. Christ calls his disciples his sheep, and the points of com- parison are, clearly, his affection for them, his care over them, and their confidence and attachment to him. Common sense ' Nahura 3. 11: Hab. 2. 16: Psa. 75. 8, elc. 176 INTERPRETATION: SUMMARY. discovers and limits the application of the terms. Christ himself is called, with smaller limits, the Lamb, with special relation to his character and sacrifice. So sin is called in Scripture a debt ; atonement, the payment of a debt ; par- don, the forgiveness of a debt. But we must not hold these terms so rigidly as to maintain that, because Christ died for man's sin, therefore all will be finally saved ; or that, oecause he has obeyed the law, therefore sinners are free to live in sin. Men are dead in sin, but not so dead as to be free from the duty of repentance ; nor are they guiltless if they disregard the Divine call. These principles are suffi- ciently obvious when applied to passages which contain figures founded upon material objects. They are even more important, though less easy, when applied to passages which contain figures taken from human nature or common life. More errors, probably, have arisen from pushing analogical expressions to an extreme than from any other single cause ; and against this tendency the sober, earnest student of the Bible neecls to be specially upon his guard. 308. To ascertain, therefore, the meaning of any passage of Summary of Scripture, whether the words be employed figu- these rules, ratively or hterally, we must ask the following questions : What is the meaning of the terms ? If they have but one meaning, that is the sense. If they have several, we then ask, Which of those meanings is required by other parts of the sentence 1 If two or more meanings remain, then, What is the meaning required by the context, so as to make a consistent sense of the whole 1 If, still, more than one meaning remains, What then is required by the general scope ? And, if this question fail to ehcit but one reply, What then is required by other passages of Scripture 1 If, in answer to aU these questions, it is found that more than one meaning may still be given to the passage, then both inter- pretations are true ; and we must fix on the one which best fulfils most of the conditions, or must look elsewhere for some further guide. 309. It is important to observe that, whether the language These rules we examine be figurative or hteral, and whether it iutei^reting be used in history or in prophecy— in allegory or the words of j^ plain discourse — these rules are equally appli- all parts of \ . 1 /. I -i Scripture. cable. There is not one rule tor tropes, ana another for words in their ])roper sense : nor is there one APPLICATION OF RULES. 177 rule for interpreting tiie words of the parables of Scripture, and another for interpreting the words of its historical statements. It is true that in history or narrative we expect to find words used in their hteral sense ; while in poetry or allegory the figurative may be expected to pre- dominate. We apply, however, the same rules, needing some, indeed, more in one case than in the other; but still* taking the sense which the words express, as that sense is defined and limited (if it be so) by the whole of the sentence, by the context, by the scope of the wi'iter, and by other parts of the Bible. Nor is it less important to observe that theSe rules are And of com- required not only in interpreting Scripture, but in mon life. interpreting all language that is used in the inter- course of life. Sec. 4. Of the Utility and Application of Rules in Interpretation. It must have occurred to the reader that, imderneath the rules of interpretation which we have given, there are some general principles common to all language, which regulate the apphcation of them. Those principles it is important to state, as they both justify the rules we have given and aid us in applying them. 310. To perceive the meaning of most parts of the Bible which teach the fundamental truths of the gospel, *^cripturG ox/ generally it is only necessary to know the subject and the P^'^"^* language employed. If the Bible be in our own tongue, and we understand what the topic is of which it treats, the meaning will generally be plain. !No instance can be given in Scripture of an obscure passage, concerning which a man may rationally suppose that there is any doctrinal tnith contained in it, which is not elsewhere explained. The great advantage of iiiles of interpretation is not to , , discover the meaning of plain passages of Scrip- Use of rules. . • XI. -ex ture, but to ascertain the meanmg of such as are ambiguous or obscure. Yet, as on many points of importance we need to comj^are Scripture, in order to ascertain and x>rove its meaning, and as such comparison is itself part of our disciphne, promotes our 178 APPLICATION OF RULES. holiness, and is adapted to unfold the treasures of Diviue truth, it is of great moment that the humblest Christian should understand these rules, and appty them. Eevelatioii is to be the study of our lives, and it is plainly the will of God, that all the resources of learning, industry, and prayer, should be employed in the search. So dependent is man for his knowledge of the Divine A devout "^^illj upon the motive and temper of his inquiries, spirit. Q^T^^ the teaching of the Spirit of God, that ^ prayer- ftd and humble Christian with few advantages, will often gain a more accurate and extensive acquaintance with Scripture, than one of higher mental attainments, but of feeble piety. The exercise of a teachable and prayerful spirit, therefore, is among the most important principles of Biblical interpreta- tion. The true meaning of any passage of Scripture is not True Kean- every sense which the Vv'ords will bear, nor is it ing of words, every sense which is true in itself, but that which is intended by the inspired writers, or in some cases by the Holy Spirit, though imperfectly understood by the writers themselves. The sense of Scripture is to be determined by the words : a true knowledge of the words is the knowledge of Is the sense. , , the sense. The meaning of words is fixed by the usage of language. Fixed by Usage must be ascertained whenever possible from usage. Scripture itself. The words of Scripture must be taken in their common meaning, unless such meaning is shown to be in- meauiiig to consistent with other wor-ds in the sentence, with be preferred. ^^^ argument or context, or with other parts of Scripture. Of two meanings, that one is generally to be preferred, which was most obvious to the comprehension of the hearers or original readers of the inspired passage, allowing for those figurative expressions which were so familiar as to be no ex- ception to this general rule. The meaning attached to the words of Scripture, must always agree with the context. When the corn- must agree mon meaning is inconsistent with the context vitiicomext. ^^ must be abandoned, and such other meaning APPLICATION OF RULES. 179 adopted as fulfils the requirements and conditions of the pas- sage, and can be proved to be sanctioned by usage, either in common writers, or in the Bible. The scope of a passage, or the reasoning of the writer, Scope useful can be employed to determine, which of two senses T\'^ th^^ ^^ ^^ *^ ^® adopted only, as the scope or reasoning is meaning. clear ; nor will the scope fix the meaning, unless a particular meaning is required by the scope. The parallel passage that fixes the meaning of words, Parallel must either contain the same words used in a passages. somewhat similar sense, or it must evidently speak of the same thing, or of something so similar, as to afford occasion for comparison. No doctrine founded upon a single text, belongs to thft analog}' of faith. The analogy of faith is chiefly fauii requires of use in teaching us to reject an interpretation several texts, -^jj^jch is not Scriptural. If both the supposed meanings of a passage are consistent with this analogy, the Is useful in rule cannot be appHed, so as to decide the meaning, rejecting a j-^ controversial reasoning, this rule is only appU- pretation. cable on the supposition, that the doctrine to be applied for the purpose of interpretation, is admitted to be vScriptural. If it is not admitted, we cannot apply it in the intei-pretation of a disputed text. 311. Theology is the whole meaning of Scripture, or it is The sense of the sense taught in the whole of Scripture, as that th^oi'^^^^^ *°^ sense is modified, limited, and explained by Scrip- thing, ture itself. Scriptural theology is not one thing, and the meaning of Scripture another. It is a consistently interpreted representation of the statements of the Bible, on the various facts, doctrines, and precepts, which the book of God reveaJ3. 180 STUDY OF ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES. '^ Sec. 5- Application of these Rules to the Study of the Original Scriptures. " As I shiU not exact the study of the original Scriptures, from those whose want of parts or leisure dispenseth them from it ; so I cannot but discommend thor;e, who wanting neither abilities, nor time, to range through I know not how many other studies, can yet decline this : and who, sparing no toil nor watches to put it out of the power of the. most celebrated i>hilosophers to deceive them in another doctrine, leave themselves obnoxious to the ignorance, fraud, and partiality of an interpreter, in that of salvation ; and thereby seem more shy of taking any opinions upon trust, than those, in whose truth or falseness, no less than God's glory, and peradventm-e their own eternal condition is concerned. Methinks, those who learn other languages, should not grudge those that God hath honoured with spcakhig to us, and employed to bless us with that heavenly doctrine that comes from huu, and leads to him." — Boyle. " The habit of reading the Scriptures in the original, throws a new light and sense over numberless passages " — Cecil, liemains, p. 199. 312. The rules of interpretation which have been apphed Previous ^^^ ^^^ previous section to the Enghsh version, are rules appii- equally applicable to the study of the original of orig*inar ^ Scriptures. The importance of such study is Scriptures. obvious, from the fact, that all versions are more or less accurate as guides to the meaning of the inspired writings. On referring to Sec. 6, Chap, i., it will be seen that the meaning of particular words, the connection of arguments, and the significance of parallel passages, are all hable to be obscured in even the best translations. , 313. In studying and explaining a living language, we de- termine the usage by a reference to our expres- But others . . ° 1 ^ ■ ^^ * 4.1 i needed, be- sions in common life, but in the case of the lan- languaS o? g^^S^^ ^^ ^^^ Original Scriptures, we are dependent Scripture not for a knowledge of their meaning almost entirely spoken. , , , . , . uj)on books : grammars, lexicons, and versions, are our authority, and for most purposes, their authority is sufficient. 314, But in saying that our knowledge of the meaning of We depend dead languages rests upon authority, an expression ^°^ ™fh"-"^ ^^ employed, which it is important to explain ; we ties. speak of the authority of law, and of the authority of a witness, or of a manuscript, but the word is used in these two cases, in very different senses. By the authority of laiu, Authority is IS meant its rightful power ; by the authority of a testimony. loitness is meant his testimony, which we deem to be more or less credible in relation to the question in hand, * See Preface. ORIGINAL SCRIITURES : GRA.'\DIARS. ISl Now, it is in the socond sense only, that we speak of the au- thority of lexicons. A good lexicon has great weight attached to it, because it professes to give both carefully examined meanings of the words it contains, and also a summary of the evidence upon which those meanings rest. If we doubt its explanation, we either examine other lexicons, from the days of Hcsychius (a. d. 400,) downwards if the word be Greek, or examine the passages where the word is found, and then weigh for ourselves the evidence they supply. Whenever, therefore, we have to interpret a Divine precept addressed to us in a dead tongue, tve ascertai,i the meaning of the precept through the medium of human authority, /. c, testimony ; u-e ohey the precept because it has the authority of God. This diflference of the two meanings of the word is important. If then, there be reason to question the meaning given to a word or phrase, in any lexicon or grammar, we proceed to investigate that meaning for ourselves, and various plans may be adopted. 315. i. We may consult other authorities, grammars or lexicons. We may turn (if the phrase be Jlebrew\ Lexicons and to the grammar and lexicon of the earlier Hebrew Grammars, writers, Juda Chajug (1040,) and Jona ben Gan- nach (1121), preserved in manuscript, in the Bodleian library ; to the grammar of Moses Ki;.iichi (12th century), or to the grammars and lexicons of his brother, D. Kimchi, or of Elias Levita, all of which have been published. We may examine the grammar and lexicon of Gesenius, the founder of the modern empirical school of Hebrew, or the grammar of Ewald, the founder of the scientific school, or the concordance of Furst, and the Hebrew works of his pupil, Dehtisch, the founder of the historical school ; the first, making great use of examples, and a moderate use of the Arabic and cognate tongues, the second, investigating too exclusively the j)hiio- sophy of the language, and the third, the founder of historical investigation, and applying Sanscrit to the interpretation of Hebrew. For a knowledge of cocjnate dialects, we may turn to the Pentaglot of Schindler (Ham. 161 2), the Heptaglot of Castel (Lon. 1669), to Hottinger's grammar of Heb., Chald., Syr., and Arab., (1649), or to the Hebrew grammars (Institu- tiones, 1737, Origines HebrreEe, 1723), of Schultens. 316. In the case of the Greek language, we may use cither 182 ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES I VERSIONS. ci general Greek grammar, that, for example, of Lexicons and Biittman, or of Matthise, or of Jelf, and a general Grammars, lexicon, Stephens' Thesaurus, for example, or the hand-lexicon of Liddell and Scott, or we may use a Hellenistic or New Testament grammar and lexicon. Winer's gr£immar is rich in the illustration of New Testament idiom ; and Schleusner's lexicon is invaluable from the light it throws ou the New Testament, from the version of the LXX. Th& lexicons of Brotschneider, and of Eobinson, are also well known, and highly useful. 317. ii. We may examine the versions of the Bible. They ,, . give the translator's views of the meaning of the Versions. i /? o • j. words of Scripture. The first in value for purposes of interpretation, are the Origenand fragments of Origen and Jerome, both of whom Jerome. ^qq]^ great pains to ascertain the exact meaning of the original Scriptures. Next to these are the Greek versions. The LXX, however, alone remains in a perfect state: it is of great value, but often fails to be of service in difficult passages, from the freeness of the translation,'' the careless- ness or ignorance of the translators,'' and the want of fixed rules of translation. Next in value are the Targums, (See Part ii.), and inferior ^ to these, the Comments of the Talmud, and the Targums. ' Notes of the Masorets. Ainsworth on the Pentateuch, and Gill's Commentary, through- out, generally give the interpretations of the Targums, etc., when- ever they are important. Last of all among the ancient versions, are the Peschito Pesciiito and and the Vulgate. The former, is on the whole, Vulgate. ^gij translated, but not unfrequently disfigured by additions and omissions. The latter is lessened in value, from the fact (which Jerome acknowledges,) that it was trans- lated hastily, that he retained many of the old renderings, * Isa. I. 21 : 4. 4: 42. i: Exod. 6. 12, 30: Deut. 32. 8: 33. 2: Numb. 12. 8: Exod. 18. 7. ^ Esth. 7. 4: Lev. 19. 26: Psa. 78. 69: Exod. 14. 2. Compare Numb. 33. 7: Isa. 23. i, 10, 14: Ezek. 27. 12: 38. 13: compared with Isa. 2. 16: 60. 9: (See further illustrations in Carpzov's Critica Sacra, New Testament, p. 513.) ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES ; VERSIONS. 183 though deemmg them inaccurate, from a desire not to offend the popular ear (Preface to Pent., and Commentary on EccL), from the very free use -^hich has been made of the LXX^ and also from the general inaccuracy of the modern Vulgate text. Tlie portions of the Vulgate translated by Jerome, are bet- ter helps to interpretation than the other books : but for the settlement of the Hebrew text, the other books (which belonged to the Old ItaUc versions,) are the more important. Of modern versions the merits are very various. Latia Modem versions made by Ilomanists are generally ex- Laun % cr- tremely literal, and often obscure : such are the Romanist. yersions of Pagninus (1528), Arias Montanus (1584), Cajetan (1639), and Malvenda (1650). Some (as the version of Clarius) are founded on the Vulgate, which they merely correct. Houbigant (1753) gives an elegant version of his emended Hebrew text. The New Testament has been translated by Erasmus and Sebastiani. Among Protestants, Munster (1534) gives an intelligible version from the Hebrew, preferable to the ver- sions of Pagninus and Montanus. He follows, however, the same text, and does not widely differ in prin- ciples of translation from those authors. Leo Juda (1543-4) began another version of the Hebrew and LXX, which was published by Bibhander, the New Testament being added by others. This version is both free and faithful. Castalio (1573) gives a version from the original, in which he studied to give the sense in elegant classical Latin. It is wanting, however, in simplicity and force. The version of Junius and TremeUius (1590) is deemed by M. Poole among the best. They expressed the article by the demonstrative pronoun. The version of the Osianders, hke that of Clarius, is founded upon the Vulgate. The version of Schmidt (1696) is extremely hteral, and that of Dathe (1773- 99) remarkable for fidehty and elegance. The Neiu Testament of Beza is highly esteemed. Among modem versions into vernacular tongues, that of Vernacular Luther is one of the best (1517-30). It is the^ versions. basis of the Swedish (1541), the Danish (1550),. ers.e c. ^^^ Icelandic (1584), an early Dutch version (1560)^ 184 ORIGIi^AL SCRIPTURES : YKKSIOXS. and the Finnish, with its cognate dialects (1642, etc.). A German-Swiss translation was also made by Leo Juda (1525- 29), and, in 1667, a new or revised version for the same church was published at Zurich. Luther's version was also revised and published by the Zuinglians in 1679. The Scriptures were translated into French by R. P. Olivetan (i^?,^), with a considerable number of rrencli ^^fj/' references from the LXX placed in the margin. This version was corrected, chiefly as to the language, by Calvin (1540) ; again, by Bertram, Beza, and others (Geneva, 1588) ; and has since, from time to time, undergone other alterations of the same sort : the revision by Ostervald is best known. A French version by Beausobre and L'Enfant (17 1 8) was pubhshed at Amsterdam, and is highly esteemed for its accuracy. By order of the Synod of Dort, a version was made into the Dutch language, in place of a version made from Luther's, which had been used till then. This version was printed in 1637, and is highly valued for its fidelity. There are two versions of the Old Testament into Spanish ; the one made by a Romanist (Reyna), Basil, 1569, and the other by a Protestant (Valera), Amsterdam, 1602. They are founded chiefly on the Latin version of Pagninus, and the second partly on the Genevan -French Bibles. There are also three Spanish versions made from the Vulgate (1478, 1793-4, 1824). The best Italian version is that of Diodati (afterwards translated into French), 1607. It follows both the LXX and the Hebrew, and is free, accurate, and clear. In opposition to the vernacular versions of Protestants, Popish versions have been made into nearly all the preceding languages, generally from the Vulgate. 318. All these versions, however, and especially the earliest Their value ®^ them, are inferior to a good modern lexicon, lor inter- Most of them were made under peculiar influences pretation. ^^^^ amidst many difficulties. A modern lexico- grapher has larger helps, a more certain text, and the very apparatus which these versions themselves supply. So that, not to excel with all these advantages on his side would prove him to be incompetent or careless. ORIGINAL scriptures: ETYMOLOGY. 185 319. iii. In further investigating the meaning, we may Help from ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^P ^^^^ ^^® WORDS THEilSELVES, their the words etymology, the analogy of speech, and the meaning of similar words in cognate dialects. 320. (i). Etymology traces the progress of the meaning of words, the changes of form which they undergo, ' i^° °sy- ^^^ points out the significance of their several parts. It often gives the true meaning, explains the allusions of the context, and accounts for the rendering of ancient In Genesis^ the "firmaincnt" should be translated " expatise,** contraiy to the Septuagint, Vulgate, and English ; the root meaning to beat or spi-ead out. The Hebrew phrase for " making a covenant," refers to the stroke that smote the victim, whose death confirmed it Upm, a priest, is so called, from the fact tliat he attends to sacred things, or because he sacrifices to God, lipa'/i^uyf in the sense of Buiiv. So facere, for sacrificare, Virgil Ec, iii., 77, and "by. asa, for "offer," Lev. 9. 6, 16: Numb. 28. 24. The original word for "minister," in Heb. 8. 2, means, in classic Greek, one who performs a public work at his own cost; or, re- garding the whole phi*ase as a Latinism (Antistes Sacrorum), it indicates that our Lord presides over the worship of the church, and pi-esents it acceptably through his intercession. The Hebrew woi'd for *'to make atonement " ("133, kipper) means, properly, to ''cover over" sin, or expiate; and, secondarily, to pro- pitiate, i. e., to remove the displeasure of another in relation to it. The corresponding word in the LXX and New Testament (h.dirxofieti) means, first, to propitiate, and, secondarily, to atone for. Both ideas are involved in each word, and are sometimes fully expressed. The Greek word for "to sacrifice" (Buetv) means, in Homer, to bum wine or food in the fire as an offering, and in later writei'S, to sacrifice, properly so called. From this double meaning we have two sets of Greek words, the one referring to the slaying of victims. Sum, Bvirici, and the other to the sweet odours, or incense, which were offered to God {Buf/ZiufAa, thus), and sometimes both ideas ai-e combined. Lev. 4. 31: Eph. 5. 2. Hence, also. Bum is used to translate two different Hebrew words, meaning, respectively, to sacrifice and to burn sweet incense, i Sam. 3. 14: 2 Chron. 25. 14: 28. 3 : Jer. i. 16: 44. 5. Nearly all the names in Hebrew are significant, and a knowledge of their meaning throws light upon the context. The prophecies of Jacob concerning his sons refer in a great degree to their names. 18G ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES : ANALOGY. chap. 49 compared with chaps. 29, 30. See also Ruth i. 20: Gen. 4. 16. So the meaning of Piov. 25. 21, 22^ and Eom. 12. 20, "heap coals of fire," is explained by the fact, that Hn, chatha, means, ety- mologically, to apply fire, and thence to soften. The rendering of the LXX and Vulgate in Psa. 7. 14, etc., is owing to their translating etymologically ; and so elsewhere, iveoTl^ojicai is an etymological translation of the Hebrew word ]'»T^?^, heezin. Lev. 14, 52, as, rpif^ipnTs, E^?K^, shillesh, Deut. 19. 3. "To stir up," in 2 Tim. i. 6, means, in the Greek, to blow fire into a flame, dvaZiCoTvpuv. In the use of the English version, of course, etymology is allowable as a guide to the sense only when the etymology of the English corresponds with the etymology of the original : gospel, for example, = evayyiXiov ; crucify = <=;avp6u) ; pre- determine = Trpoopil^u) ; mediator = fxeaiTt]Q = intercessor, one who acts for another especially to produce harmony be- tween parties. It is an important principle, that etymology does not of itself fix the meaning, except where usage is either doubtful or silent ; and it is always, from the changes of meaning which words undergo, an uncertain guide. 321. (2). Analogy fixes the meaning of one form of a word from the known meaning of the similar form ua ogy. ^^ another word, or of one word from the meaning of some opposite or corresponding one. If, in reading Hebrew, for example, we meet with a noun ending in C), we may conclude, from the general meaning of that ending, that it is probably an ordinal number or a patronymic : if we meet with a verbal noun beginning with (D), it indicates probably an act, or the place where some act is performed; such being, for the most part, the meaning of this preformative. Commonly, the Hiphil forms of verbs are causative of the Kal, as J^y^, yatsa, "to go out," and in Hiphil, "to bring out;" 12i\ abhad, "to perish," and in Hiphil, "to destroy." If, therefore, we meet with a verb in Hiphil, it has probably a causative meaning; though there are exceptions to this rule. The Hiphil forms of the OU Testament the LXX found it diffi- cult to translate without a paraphrase, and hence that version sometimes uses a neuter verb in an active sense, Gen. 2. 9: 4. 11: ig, 24: Numb. 6. 25: 34. 17; and the New Testament, as may bo suppo.sp.d, often employs the same form for the same piu-pose. ORIGIN' AL SCKIPTDRES : COGNATE LANGUAGES. 187 Matt. 5. 45, literally, ''he rises/' "he rains;" i.e., ''he causes to rise," and " causes to rain, i Cor. 3. 6, "increased;" i. e., "gave the increase." Luke n. 53, not "they began to speak off hand," or "to silence," but rather, "they caused Christ to speak offhand;" i.e., "they provoked him to speak." 2 Cor. 2. 14, literally, "to triumph," or "to lead captive," as in Col. 2. 15; rather, as in the English, "to cause to triumph." That "folly" means sin in Gen. 34. 7: Deut. 21. 21 : Josh, 7. 15 : 2 Sam. 13. 15, may be gathered from the fact, that "wisdom" means, in various parts of Scripture, "uprightness" or "piety." Matt. 6. 2, 5, 16, a.'Tix^ai Tov fji.tff6ov has been translated, "they hinder, or fail of their reward " (Gerard), and a.Tiz'f^ai is used in the sense of abstaining from; aTax'/J, however, the noun, means a receipt in full, and hence the phrase may be taken to mean, "they have their reward;" that is, all they will ever get. In Matt. 6. 11, Wiiaiov has been variously rendered; it does not occur in the LXX, and is a very rare word. It has been translated, "necessary for our subsistence" (Vulgate), "smtable for our sub- sistence" (Macknight), "sufficient for the morrow, or for future life" (Grotius): the meaning, however, is fixed by an analogous expression : Tipt^irtov means more than enough, and as lir/ often indi- cates equality or adaptedness, \-rii(nov means just enough; a transla- tion which agrees with the context. 322. (3). We may compare the words in Scripture with „ . the same words in cognate languages. The value L sage ;n cog- ° ° ° nate Ian- of cognate languages, though sometimes underrated, fiiages. -j^^^ j^gg^ exaggerated. By modern lexicographers, they are applied within proper limits, and are of use chiefly when ancient versions differ, and where we have not, in Hebrew, materials sufficient for defining the meaning of terms. (a). They give the roots of words, the derivatives of which alone are found in Scripture, and thus aid to a consistent meaning. jn^X, aithan, for example, is a somewhat rare word, translated " mighty stream " {i. e., ever-flowing), Amo35. 24; "mighty waters" (ever-flowing), Psa. 74. 15; "strength" (constant flowing), Exod. 14. 27; "strong" (durable), Micah 6. 2 ; "mighty" (prosperous), Job 12. 19; so Xumb. 24. 21: Jer. 49. 19. The Arabic root means "to continue running;" then, "to continue" generally, i.e., "to en- diu-e;" then, "to be inexhaustibly rich:" hence the appai-ently contradictory meanings of the texts in which the derivative is found. 168 ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES : CLASSICAL USAGE. (b). They fix meanings whicli might otherwise have been only conjectural. j^S, balag, for example, occurs four times in Hiphil : Job 9. 2 7, ** comfort myself;" 10. 20, "take rest;" Psa. 39, 13, "recover strength;" Amos 5. 9, "that strengtheneth :" the versions are altogether uncertain. The Arabic root means "to shine like the dawn;" "to be, or to render, clear and serene;" and that sense meets the requirements of all the passages. In the same way, many of the plants and minerals mentioned in Scripture are identified. (c). They discover the primary meaning of roots whose secondary senses only are found in Scripture, though the primary throws light on some texts. 71JI, gadhal, for example, means "to be great," but, in Arabic, ** to twist," and so "to make great or strong;" hence a noun formed from it means "fringes," Deut. 22. 12 ; "twisted thread," or "chain work," i Kings 7. 17. Another noun, similarly formed, means "brawniness," Exod. 15. 16; and the verb is jused in its primitive sense in Job 7. 17, "to struggle," or "wi'estle;" English, "magnif3^" So plV, Tsadak, means "to be just;" in Ai-abic, to be "stifi"," "inexorable," "unbending:" hence, in Isa. 49. 24, "the lawful captive" ought to be "the captive of the inexorable ones;" see verse 25. ((f). They explain idiomatic phrases, the time sense of which can- not otherwise be determined. See on all this paragraph Gerard's ' Institutes.' These last examples are taken chiefly from Schultens. A large number may be found also in the Lexicon of Gesenius. In applying these principles to the New Testament, there are modifications of them which are rendered necessary by the nature of the Greek tongue, the large critical apparatus we already possess in classic authors, and the connection through the LXX between the New Testament and the language of the Old. 323. iv. In the case of the New Testament, we ma}'- seek the meaning of its words and phrases in classic Classic usage. ,, authors. vriffru, which commonly means "faith," is used in the sense of proof. Acts 1 7. 3 1 ; so Aristotle, Polyb. \-Txyy'iWo[/.ui means, by itself, "to announce," and so "to pro- mise:" followed by certain nouns, it means to "profess" (i Tim. ORIGIN.VL SCRIPTURES : JOSEPHUS. 189 2. lo). The word is regularly used for professing an art or science, Diog. I,aert., Proem. 5, 12; Xen. Mem. i. 2, 7. -xu-fot., in composition, often means in the Greek Testament "by the way," Rom. 5. 20; or "secretly," Gal. 2. 14: Jude 4; a usage found in classic authors, Polyb., Herodian, Plut. TO 6ori/3«XXav (j^'ipoi, Luke 15. 12, is a legal phrase, indicating the share which fell to a man as heir; the use of the word here shows how completely the prodigal son was estranged from all filial feelmg. iTi^oLXuiv 'Uxai-zv, Mark 14. 72, "when he thought thereon," rather, *' having rushed out;" and so it agrees with Matthew and Luke, Poh'b. 'ix"'' ''^ "^^ o.(r6ivi'a., John 5. 5, is classic Greek for "to be ill;" so that, when these wordo are translated "there was a sick man thirty- eight years old " (Paulus), the rendering is contrary to Greek tisage. The apparently-incomplete sentences in Luke 13. 9: 19. 42: 22. 42 (Gr.), are all good Greek; the custom being, frequently, to omit the apodosis (or conclusion) of a sentence after u or lav, when the meaning is clear, Raphe^ Bos, Eisner, Kypke:, Grotius, Wolf, "Wetsteen, Raphel, have largely illustrated the phraseology of the New Testament from classic sources ; Kypke and Raphel from particular authors, and the rest from classic authorities generally. 324. V. Or we may turn to the works of Josephus and Philo, wliich in this respect are not unimportant. Usage m ' ^ ^ Josephus and fi.iriupiZ,i 8: TO i/Tip a/napriaf, Lev. 8. 2: Ixda-fio;, Ezek. 44. 27, and hence the use of these phrases in the New Testament. On the other hand, it may be noticed, that ni^Dn, chatath, means both "an act of sin" and "a sinful dispo- sition," as does a/xapTiu. The New Testament has no distinct phrase, corresponding to the Latin "vitium," which is the act, and " vitiositas," which is the disposition. Compai^e "a sin" and *' depravity." *0 'ip;^9fiiyo;, " the coming one," is the LXX translation of various passages, which refer to our Lord, and hence it is applied frequently in the New Testament to him, Luke 3. 19: Heb. 10. 37: not "shall come," but " is coming," or " is to come," Eev. i. 8. The New Testament also abounds in Hellenistic constructions: Nouns absolute for example, Eev. i. 4, 5: 2. 20: 3. 12: unusual governments, adj. with gen. cases, where good Greek requires no prep., John 6. 45, and the contrary. Matt. 27. 24: a^o in the sense of "by" or "because," |D, min, Matt. 11. 19: 18. 7: Gal. i. i: 2 Cor. 3. 18: Acts 22. II. 328. The reference to Hellenistic usage, may, however, be carried to an extreme : ciKaioavrr), for example, has been translated " mercy " in Rom. 3. 25, 26 ; and the rendering is defended by an appeal to the LXX, where it is used for ^Dn^ chesedh. The LXX, however, itself corrects this translation. Nine times in the Old Testament, it is so used : but seven of these are in the Pentateuch, and many hundred times, -i. e., nearly always, it translates righteousness (ptJV, Tsedek). 329. Perhaps we may best illustrate the connection between Rules ap- the Hebrew, the LXX, and the New Testament, plied to ex- ■|3y explaining the meaningr of the various Greek ciiiation, etc. words apphed in Scripture to the work of our Lord ; reconcih'ation, propitiation, expiation, atonement, redemption, satisfaction, substitution, and salvation. (a.) Looking into the English New Testament, we find ' ' recon- ciUation " and " reconcile " in several passages, in all of which (ex- cept one,) the Greek word is some form of «xxajo-5; and o 'ifia-S; : see Matt. i. 1-16: 2. 16, 19. On the first mention of a name the article is generally omitted. The names of persons not well known also take the article when mentioned a second time. 2. If the proper name is followed by a description which has the article, the name is without it unless the person is very eminent. ''John the Baptist" is the common form. 3. Objects present to the parties concerned have the ai-ticle attached to their names, Matt. 26. 23, in the dish. John 13. 26, the sop. Mark 11. 5, loosing the colt, i Thess. 5. 27, this epistle. Matt. 13. 27, these tares. Hence the nominative, with the article, to express the vocative, Eph. 5. 22: Heb. i. 8. 4. The possessive pronoun, in Greek, with a noun, takes the article; not my will — the will of me — ^but " the thy will" be done. The second and third of these rules are in accordance with English usage, the others are not. We can say, indeed, the Christ; but then Christ is not a name, but a description, and means "the anointed." (h). Familiarity may arise from something in the context, as from 1. Previous mention. Luke 2. 16, the child: in verse 12, a child. John 4. 43, after the two days: verse 40, two days. The English adopts this rule whenever it can be adopted without violating another. 2. Implication in some preceding expression, Mark 2. 4, the roof, verse i. Luke 15. 4, the ninety and nine; one out of a hundred being lost. Luke 11.38, before the dinner or meal : verse 3 7, to dine THE GREEK ARTICLK 199 with him. Matt. i. 24, from the sleep, in which he had a di-eam, verse 20. Matt. 10. 12, into the house, i.e., where they receive you, verse 11 : Acts 20. 13: 2 Thess. 2. 11: see 9. 10. 3. Association, when the noun, Tsdthout being implied in any- thing previously expressed, is connected with it. John 21. 8, came in the small boat, i.e., of the fishing vessel: see verse 3. So Acts 27. 16: Luke II. 7: John 13. 5: Mark 4. 38: Acts 20. 9, the win- dow, the only one of the chamber; Acts 21. 26, 27, until the offering, and so throughout referring to the law on vows. The article thus rendered necessaiy by the context is often to be expressed by the possessive pronoun, ''putting his (Gr. the) hands upon him," Acts 9. 17. The difference between Greek and English rules will be seen from the examples. (c). Familiarity arises from something neither mentioned nor suggested, of which there are several kinds. 1. Abstract nouns generally take the article, and always when they are personified, i Cor. 15. 26, death (a S.) John 7. 22, 23, circumcision, i Cor. 11. 14, nature, Matt. 11. 19 : Phil. 3. 3. Numbers in the abstract (to h, unity, the state of being one), and the infinitive used as a noun, belong to this class, to Tna-n-juv = believing. This usage is not frequent in English. 2. Nouns representing objects in natiu'e which exist singly, and entire natural substances, generally take the article. Matt. 5. 18, heaven and earth: 24. 29, the sun. Mark 13. 28, summer (^= the hot season); hght; salt; water. Generally, we omit the article in these cases, whenever, at least, the use of it wotdd indicate some particular thing, I'ather than the imiversal substance. 3. Words indicating entire species, either of animals or objects, generally take the article. Matt. 6. i, men, as men: 7, 6, dogs, as dogs. Matt. 10. 16, serpents. Luke 21. 29, fig-tree. James 3. 4 (the) ships. The omission of the article would indicate that the statement made is true only of some, and not of the class as a whole. The English generally omits the article in these cases. 4. Whole classes of agents generally take it. Matt. 10. 10, the labourer. Matt. 18. 17, the publican. Matt. 25. 32, the shep- herd. 5 . Many words in all languages express ideas familiar to classes of readers, and properly take the article; and generally it is best to retain it, even in a translation, though the translation be not quite clear. Matt. 17. 24, to. Vit^a^^fjt.oe,, ^Ae half-shekel temple-tax : 2x, 12, the doves used, viz., in the temple service. John 18. 3, -h ff-TTBipa., the detachment on duty. John i. 21, art thou the prophet. Luke 21.8, 200 THE GREEK ARTICLE. 0 xcitoos, the time (so long expected), i Cor. 3. 13, the day shall show it, Heb. 10. 25. in rov oLiuva. = for ever, to eternity, Matt. 21. 19: Mark .11. 14: John 4. 14. So -h hVo;, that way, i. c, the gospel. Acts 9. 2: 19. 9, 23: 24. 22: so in proverbial expressions, Matt, 23. 24, the camel, the gnat : so tI 0^0; = the mountain district of Galilee, or of Palestine, Matt. 14. 23, Mark 3. 13. 0 K^-AfAvo;, ^/ie precipice (surrounding the lake). Matt. 8. 32. to ^Xowv, Matt. 13. 2, Mark 4. I, the vessel generally used by ovu* Lord and his apostles, w otKia, the house to which he resorted when at Capernaum, Matt. 13. i, 36 : Mark 9. 33. For obvious reasons, Luke and John, the former writing for those who knew nothing of Palestine, and the latter writing after the whole aspect of the country had been changed, never use these latter expressions. Exceptions 334- The excex3tions to these rules are numerous, classified. ]3^t easily classified. (a). Generally, it may be said that it is often trinsicmean- dispensed With where the intrinsic meaning is so mg IS clear, ^lear that perspicuity is not affected by the omis- sion. Proper names are often without it, i Cor. 3. 22. Abstract nouns are often without it. Certain principal objects of nature are without it, Matt. 13. 6: i Cor. 15. 41: 2 Pet. 3. 10: James i. 6. Superlatives and ordinal numbers take it or are without it, Mark 15. 33 : Matt. 14. 25 : 22. 38. So to a certain extent in English. (b). Nouns not in themselves definite are often without it, \Vhere it is especially if in very common use. In these cases, uS'Vor^on- ^^^y ^^® made definite by the context, or usage, text. and are unambiguous, (scca-tXfj; means, in classic Greek, a king; 0 (hccfftXiv; alone, the Persian king; and in later Greek, (hxiriXvji itself has that meaning. So, in the New Testament, hi; is applied, without the article, to God, and y.v^io; to Jehovah, both in the New Testament and in the LXX, I Thess. 2. 5: see verse 10: see Matt. 10. 28, 37. (c). Nouns used adverbially, i.e., with prepositions, often Nouns used dispense with the article, adverbially. j^j^^ j j . j^om. 8. 4. 335. An accurate application of these rules will solve many difiiculties, and is essential to the right under- ^^ ^^ ' standing of portions of Scripture. In Mat. I. 17, for example, it is said that all the generations THE GREEK ARTICLE. 201 from Abraham to David are fourteen. Probably the article here refers rather to the genei'ations just enumerated. In Rom., tofcoi, ■without the article, refers to any revelation or written rule of moral duty; 'O v«^«,-, either to the Mosaic law, or to some law just named. 336. A very striking use of the omission of the article is Omission of "to Call attention to the idea in the anarthrous — article. unarticled— word. Heb. I. T, 2, of old, God spake by the prophets, now by one who is Son, Iv v\u: so 7. 28. i Cor. 14. 4, one man — a church. John 3. 6, that which is bom of the flesh (article) is flesh (no article). Rom. II. 6, grace (article) is no longer r/race (no article), 7. 43. 337. In the collocation of words, the following i-ules are Rules on the i^Portant. coUccation of (a). When two or more words are connected, and are descriptive of a single object, or of objects regarded as single, the article is prefixed (as in English) to the first only. Matt. 12. 22, the blind and dumb. Luke 11. 28, he that heareth and keepeth. John 6. 40: Rom. 2. 3 : i John 2. 4: Eph. 5. 20. (h). Nor is the article repeated, when a single class of things or qualities is described, by an enumeration of its parts. Eph. 3. 18, what is the breadth and length, etc., describing the extent. Matt. 20. 19, to mock (article), and scourge, and crucify — the sufferings. So Acts 8. 6: i Cor. 11. 22. (c). Nor when the w^ords used express one idea, though a complex one. Phil. 2. 17, upon the sacrifice and service of your faith. 2 Cor. 13. II, the God of love and peace (not and 6/ peace), 2 Pet. i. 10. {d). Nor when two or more persons make one agency, or a single act is directed against two or more objects. Matt. 17. I, Peter (ai'ticle), and John, and James, Luke 19. 11: Acts 3. 11: 17. 15. (e). On the contrary, the article is repeated when distinct- ness is given to each of the things named. Matt. 23. 23 : Tit. 3. 4, the goodness and the philanthropy of God our Saviour appeared. K 3 202 EXTERNAL HELPS : THEIR VALUE. (/). And when tlie words employed are not descriptive of a single object, or of what is regarded as such. Heb. II. 20, Isaac blessed tov lay.ufi and tov 'H.ffo.v. 2 Thess. i 8, to those who know not . . , and to those who do not obey. ((/). Apply these rules to explain the following. Tit. *. 13: 2 Thess. i. 12: Eph. 5. 5: i Tim. 5. 21: Examples. -r, ■ t j 2 Pet. 1. 11: Jude 4. 338. The doctrine of the Greek article was first fornaally Literatme of ^^^^^6^. in modem times by Granville Sharp ; the Greek afterwards, at greater length, and with more accu- facy, by Dr. Middleton, some of whose conclusions, however, have been overthrown by more recent investiga- tion. The above rules are in harmony with such of Middle- ton's as have stood the test, and are most of them taken sub- stantially from Winer's " Idioms," and from Green's " Gram- mar of the New Testament Dialect," 1842. Sec. 6. Of the use of External Helps in the interpretation of the Bible. " The Bible resembles au extensive garden, where there is a vast variety and profusion of fruits and flowers, some of which are more essential or more splendid than others ; but there is not a blade suffered to grow in it, which has not its use and beauty in the system. Salvation for sinners is the grand truth presented every- where, and in all points of light : but the pure in heart sees a thousand traits of the Divine character, of himself, and of the world ; some striking and bold, others cast as it were into the shade, and designed to be searched for and exammed."— Cecil, Remains, (p. 198). 339. Thoroughly to understand the Scriptures, to har- monize apparent contradictions, to gather up all the truth it contains, and sometimes even to enable us to select out of several meanings, the one which is most consistent with the Divine wiU, it is often necessary to seek some external or col- lateral help. We need to know the opinions and ideas preva- lent among the people to whom the various parts of Scripture were addressed ; facts of general history, of chronology, of natural history, of geography, and especially the manners and customs of eastern nations. 340. The estimation in which these external helps have Estimation been held, has been singularly subject to deprecia- P^^i^^*^^ tions in some cases, and to excess in others. helps are ' boki. With many they are the chief study, and it is EXTERNAL HELPS: OPINIONS AMONG THE JEWS. 203 thought that no one is quahfied to understand the Bible until he is in a position to use them. By others they are despised. The first class forget that these helps are of value chiefly in confirming a sense, which is already discovered, or in expound- ing less important texts ; the statements of Scripture on all knowledge essential to salvation, being, when compared with one another, abundantly plain. The second forget, that these helps are often needful to determine the sense when it re- mains doubtful, and that if we neglect them, much of the significance of Scripture in particular passages, many of them impressive, is concealed. 341. (i.) Some knowledge of the ideas and opinions pre- valent among the people to whom the inspired writings were addressed, or among surrounding nations, is often important. At the time, for example, when our Lord appeared, there was a Ivingdom of general expectation among the Jews of the coming of Heaven. the Messiah, and his reign was called, '' the world to come," '* the heavenly Jerusalem,"* " the kingdom of heaven," or " of God,"^ To enter that kingdom was to become his disciple. The Jews had very erroneous conceptions of its nature : and it was necessary that our Lord should correct them. This he does in the teaching of himself, and his apostles. The nature of the kingdom of God must be learned, therefore, from the New Testament : and the fact (which we learn from external som-ces,) that the name was given by the Jews to the reign of the Messiah completes our know- ledge, and confirms the interpretation. "He is born again," was the Jewish description of a proselyte; and this use of the expression confirms the common interpretation of the language of our Lord, John 3 . " To bind and loose," meant among the Jews, as Lightfoot has shown, to forbid as unlawful, and to allow as lawful: (as ''bound not to" is still used among us). Hence the true explanation of Matt. 18. 8: (Wetstein). The precepts of the sermon on the Mount, become more impres- sive from the following facts. The Pharisees held that the thoughts of the heart are never sinful (See Matt. 5. 28); the Scribes, that the gifts which Jewish worshippers were required to place upon the altar, expiated all offences which were not amenable to the Judge, fver. 24). All maintained, says Maimonides, that oaths by heaven * Schoetgenii, Horse Heb. i.. Diss, v., Chap. vi. *> See Lyall's Propaedia Prophetica, p. 270. 204 OPINIONS AMONG THE HEATHENS. or by earth, might be taken collusively, and had not the eoleuin obligation of oaths in which the name of God occurred (v. 34). It was also maintained (Buxtorf,) that the prayer wliich is long shall not return empty (6, 7). 342. The chief sources of information on the opinions of the ancient Jews, are the Targums and the Talmud. Next in importance, is the Sohar of R. Simeon ben Joshai, who flourished early in the second century. This book is held in the highest veneration, and is the foundation of the Cabbala, See Part ii., ''Intro, to the Gospels." Its subject is the coming of the Messiah, and the events foretold concerning his reign. It illustrates both the meaning of Scripture, and the unbelief of the Jews, that the sense which was put upon the several prophecies quoted by the apostles in the New Testament, is the same (with two or three remarkable excep- tions,) as had been put upon them by the Jews generally? All the Psalms for example, and all the predictions of Isaiah quoted in the New Testament, are applied by the authorities just named to the Messiah. And yet in a Messiah, who so remarkably fulfilled them, they do not beheve. The student Avill find the views of Jewish authors lai'gelj'' quoted in the Horas Hebraicas of Lightfoot and Schoetgenius ; in the com- mentaries of Dr. Gill and Koppe, and in the notes of Wetstein's Greek Testament. 343. It is important to observe, however, that while a knowledge of the opinions held in early times may Caution. ., . . 1, • • 1 . i .1 1 oiten suggest the original meaning 01 the words employed in Scripture, that meaning is only an auxiliary help in ascertaining their Scripture use. " A regenerate man " meant to a Jew, a proselyte ; one made a Jew by circumcision or baptism. But it is plain that though this use of the term accounts for the adojDtion of it by our Lord, and to a great extent even explains its meaning, yet the true and complete meaning can be gathered only from Scripture itself. 344. A knowledge of the rehgious opinions of the nations by whom the Israelites were surrounded, is also often useful. Among the Egyptians, for example, a lamb or kid, was an object of veneration, and the male, as the representative of Ammon, Avas worshipped. The plagues of Egypt were all inflicted on objects of Egyptian EXTERNAL HELPS : HISTORY. 20-3 worship, and thus they became a rebuke to idolatry, as well as an evidence of Divine power. At solemn festivals, the Fliocnicians ate of the raw flesh of their oflferings; part of it they roasted in the sun, and part was sodden for magical purposes, the intestines being used for divination, and the fragments for charms and enchantments. All these practices were forbidden to the Jews, and though no doubt other solemn lessons were taught by the burning of the victim in the fire, it was alsc» intended to teach them to avoid the rites of the heathen. See also Lev. 19. 28: Lev. 11. ii: Psa. 16. 4: Jer. 44. 17, 26. Among the ancient Persiaiis it was held that there were two deities, of equal power, Ormuzd and Ahrihman. Jehovah in his address to Cyrus, claims authority over them both. " /form light and darkness — peace and evil," Isa. 45. 7. Many who had embraced the oriental philosophy, became Chris- tians, and attempted to blend then- former tenets with the doctrines of Chi-ist. Some of them (the Gnostics for example,) held the opinion that there were several emanations of the Godhead, called the Word, the Life, the Light, etc, : and it is supposed that the apostle John refers to their opinions in John i. i-i3, where he claims all those titles for our Lord. From their principles, many of them deduced a loose morality, and others jxistified the imposition of um-easonable austeiuties. To the speculative opinions of those sects, are opposed such passages as these, I John i. i, 2, 7: 2. 22, 23: 4. 2, 3, 9, 14, 15: 5. 1-5, 9-20; and to their practice, i John i. 5, 6: 2. 2, 6: 3. 4-10: 5. 18, 21. The deeds of the Xicolaitanes were probably of the same order, Kev. 2. 6. In Europe, the Greek philosophy was most prevalen land the Greek character showed its tendency in subtle disquisition. Two only of the Grecian sects are mentioned in Scripture, the Epicureans and the Stoics. The first held that God took no concern in the affairs of the universe, but dwelt in some distant region: and the second held that he was the soul of the world. They agreed, how- ever, in maintaining that the Greeks were superior to all other nations. The apostle Paul rebuked both, Acts 17. 18-32, alter- nately correcting their errors, and revealing to them the great doc- trines of the resurrection, and the atonement of Christ. A know- ledge of their views explains his appeal, rebukes " reserve" in the exhibition of the gospel, and illustrates the simplicity and dignity of truth. The Divinity of our Lord, and the inutility of the ceremonial law, are both taught in the Epistles of Paul. It is a confirmation of this view that the Ehionites who observed the law, and maintained the 206 EXTERNAL HELPS: BlSTOll'I. simple liiimanity of Christ, rejected those Epistles, and received only a mutilated copy of the Gospel of Matthew. Wilson, p. 283, Many of the discourses of our Lord contain special reference to the views of the various Jewish sects. The reader will find those views noticed at length in the introduction to the Gospels. 345. Here, again, a caution is needed. The errors referred to in the passages which are thus made clear by this knowledge were often local and temporary. They generally sprang, however,* from some deep-seated tendency of human nature, and are apt to show themselves under different forms; and the refutation of them, given in Scripture, always embodies truths of permanent and uni- versal apphcation. 346. (ii.) A knowledge of ancient profane history, often aids in the study of the Bible. In Gen. 46, it is said, " every shepherd is an abomination to the Egyptians." This fact explains the assignment of the land of Goshen (on the extreme border of Egypt,) to the Israelites; an ari'angement which preserved them from too intimate a connection with the Egyptians : and it is itself explained by the investigations of Dr. Hales, and IMr. Faber. They tell us, from a fragment of Manetho's, that about the year 2159, b. c, 'Egypt was invaded by a band of Cushite shepherds from Arabia, who after many years of cruel domination, were expelled by the general revolt of the princes of Upper Egypt, and then withdrew to Palestine (the land of shep- herds,) and are known in Scripture as the Philistines. This event, which occurred some time befoi-e the commencement of Joseph's administration, accounts for the suspicion with which the Israelites, coming from the same quarter, were received, and for the abhor- rence in which their occupation as nomade or wandering shepherds, was held. It may be added, that while Egyptian archgeologists, Champollion, Rosellini, and Wilkinson, agree in this view of a shepherd invasion, Hengstenberg has thrown doubts upon the whole of this part of Manetho's narrative, though without su£S.cient reason. See Tables of Egyptian Chronology (Part ii). It is instructive to remark, that the history of Assyria and the antiquities of Egypt, which were once the favourite resort of infi- delity, now supply some of the most decisive external evidences of the truth of Scripture. So again, the best commentary on Deut. 28, and on our Lord's prophecy of the destruction of Jerusalem, is found in the history of EXTERNAL HELPS : HISTORY. 207 the Jewisli wai:s by Josephus, He was himself a Jew by bu'th, born at Jerusalem, about A. D. 37, and was an eye witness of the siege of that city. The truth of his nan-ative is confirmed both by contem- porary writers, and by the testimony of the emperor Titus. Matt. 2. 2, 3, is explained by the fact, that there was a general im- pression at that time throughout the East, that a great prince was about to appear and govern the world, Tac. Hist. 1.5: Suet. Vit. Vesp. c. 4. In Matt. 24. 15, 16, our Saviour warns his disciples to quit Jeini- salem before the siege began; and profane history tells us that they profited by his instructions, for before the city was surrounded by the Eomau armies, they retu-ed to Pella, on the eastern side of the Jordan. The rest spoken of in Acts 9. 31, is explained in contemporary histoiy. It must not be ascribed to the conversion of Saul, for the persecution continued three years after; but to the circumstance, that at that time (a. d. 40,) Caligula attempted to set up his statue in the Holy of Holies, The consternation of the Jews at this threatened profanation, diverted their attention from the Christians, and so " the churches had rest." In Acts 17. 16, Athens is said to be "full of idols" (margin), -^lian (a. d. 140,) calls it the altar of Greece, and Pausanias, another historian (a. d. 170,) tells us that this city had more images than all Greece besides. All antiquity agrees in representing it as the seat of Grecian learning, and as the school of the world. How instructive is this combination of secular enlightenment and gross idolatry ! The nobleness of Paul's conduct in his addi'ess to Felix (Acts 24. 2 5 ), is evident even upon the surface of the narrative. Josephus tells us that Felix was notorious for oppression, and that he had been liring in adultery with Drusilla, the wife of the late king of Edessa. Paul neither defended liimself, nor attacked the vices with which Felix was chargeable; but with admirable tact he reasoned on the virtues of righteousness and temperance, and on the solemn truth of future judgment. Felix had no excuse for interrupting him, and yet it is evident that he felt his appeals. 347. (ill.) Ecclesiastical history is also of value in interpret- ing Scripture : sometimes by supplying facts on which the sacred writers are silent ; sometimes by giving the history of opinion in the church itself. We learn, for instance, that before the destruction of Jerusalem, Labours of ^-^^ within thirty years of the death of our Lord, the the apostles, gospel had been preached in Macedonia and Syria, by 208 EXTERNAL HELPS : HISTORY. Jude; iu Egj^t and pai-ts of Africa, by Mark, Simon, and Jude; in Ethiopia, by the Eunuch of Candace, and by Matthias; in Pontus, by Peter; in the territories of the seven churches, by John; in Parthia, by Matthew; in Scythia, by Philip and Andrew; in Pei'sia, by Simon and Jude ; in Media, by Thomas ; in Ital}* and Gi'eece, by Paul, In most of these regions, churches were formed about the same time. So rapidly did the seed of the kingdom spring up and fill the earth, Mark i6. 15-20. 348. The history of the sound opinions of good men, and of the origin of erroneous ones, is also of great moment. In a letter still extant, drawn up by the Christians of Smyrna, and giving an account of the martyrdom of Polycarp, they say, in reply to an accusation of the Jews that they were ready to worship Polycarp instead of Christ, " This is impossible, for Christ only is, or can be the object of worship: to him alone we offer adoration: and the martyrs (they add,) are objects only of gratitude and love." The Fathers of the first three centuries all deliver the same doctrine :n relation to our Lord; and "'hence (adds Eusebius,") the hymns and psalms written from the beginning by the faithful, celebrate the praises of Christ, and attribute Divinity to him," Eccl. Hist. v. c. 27, 28: Matt. 28. 17. The duty of all classes to search the Scriptures, is clearly implied in various passages of the Bible :'^ and it is interesting to know that the early writers of the church enforce this duty in the strongest terms. Chrysostom and Jerome, and Origen and Augustine, all agree on this question. They even affirm, that the cause of the evils of their times, is to be found in the fact " that the Scriptiires are not known." (See § 144). 349. These opinions are not autliority, but they are evidence. These They prove that the interpretation now attached authorit^ °°^ to the jDassages of Scripture, which speak of these but evidence, truths, is sucli as commended itself to the judg- ment of good men, who had peculiar facilities for ascertaining the meaning of the inspired volume. 350. Nor less important is the history of erroneous opinions on questions of truth. We first read, for example, of the title of universal Bishop (at Eome,) A. D. 606; of the canonical authority of the Apocrj'pha, and Vulgate, and traditions as articles of faith, at the Council of ^ 2 Tim. 3. 15: John 5. 39: Acts 17. 11, 12: Luke 16. 29: Matt. 22. 29: John 21. 30, 31: 2 Pet. I. 19: I Thess. 5. 27: Kev. r. 3. EXTERNAL KELPS: CHRONOLOGY. 209 Trent, in the i6th century; of the vise of the Latin tongue in wor- ship, to the exclusion of the vernacular in the 7th century (666). Transubstantiation was first taught in the 8th century. In the i ith, the Lord's supper was mutilated by the establishment of comm union of one kind. In the 12th, the doctrine of Seven Sacraments was fii-st taught. The doctrines of the meritorious virtue of penance, of purgatory, and prayers for the dead, date no earlier than the 7th century, and were not positively affirmed till the year 1140. The power of granting indulgences, was not claimed by the popes till the 12th century. Auricular confession was first enjoined by the 4th Lateran Council, in the 13th century. The celibacy of the clergy as universal and compulsory, was ordained at the end of the 4th, and was confirmed by Gregory vii. at the end of the nth. Col. 2. 23: 2 Thess. 2. 7-12. 351. The comparatively recent origin of all these errors is not authoritative against them, but it is evidence of the meaning of the Bible. It proves that Popery is a novelty, and that its dogmas were not taught by those who lived nearest to the times of our Lord, and who had most facility for as- certaining the meaning of Scripture. 352. It is an important canon in reference to the help which c , ,-• . "^e thus receive from history, that the historical Such history i ■ i • no part of fact which IS gathered only from profane or eccle- cnpture. siastical writers, is not part of the Bible. It may embody a truth which is taught in Scripture, and then we believe that truth, because it is found there : or it may ex- plain a Scripture statement, but without being itself anywhere revealed. In that case, we believe it according to its evidence but never as a truth taught of God. 3.53- (i^'-) A knowledge of the order of events, and of tho intervals between them, is essential to an understanding of parts of Scripture : and such knowledge is supplied by chrono- logy, the science of computing and adjusting the epochs and periods of time. It illustrates the depravity of human nature, for example, to know- that in the second generation from Adam, all flesh had so corrupted its way, that it repented the Lord that he had made man. It is an aggravation of the guilt of Sodom and Gomorrah, that when they became so utterly wicked, their progenitor Xoah had not been dead a hundred years. The judgment against the house of Eli, in Shiloh, was first exe- 210 EXTERNAL HELPS : CHRONOLOGY. cuted in the death of his sons, but it was not completed till eighty years afterwards, in the forfeiture of office by Abiathar, (i Kings 2. 26, 27). God visits surely though slowly. The sin that most dishonoured David's character was committed when he was fifty years of age. An instructive illustration of the power of temptation, and the inefficiency of even long religious ex- perience to preserve the Christian. From 2 Kings 23. 13, we learn that the places built to Ashtaroth, remained till the days of Josiah, or for 350 years: Solomon pro- bably died penitent, and yet the consequences of his sin were felt for several generations. The earliest of the apostolical epistles, is the First Epistle to the Thessalonians, and it contains a special direction that the Epistle should be read to the churches. This direction, given at such a time, shows that this class of writings, is part of the canon of Scrip- ture. The date of the Epistle to Timothy, A. D. 64, nearly thirty years after the conversion of St, Paul, adds great weight to his declaration, that he was the chief of sinners. He never ceased, it is plain, to cherish a deep sense of his sinfulness. We may measure our pro- gress in holiness by the degree of our humility, i Tim. i. 15, Some commentators have supposed that 2 Cor. 11. 25, refers to the events recorded in Acts 2 7, but in fact, the Epistle was written before those events took place. The man of sin mentioned in 2 Thess. 2. 3, has been referred by Grotius and others, to Caligula; but the Epistle was not written till twelve years after his death. The precept of Peter, i Pet. 2. 17, "Honour the king," derives additional force from the fact, that the tyrant Nero was then em- peror of the Roman world. An examination of the 5th chapter of Genesis, will show that Noah might have received the account of the Creation from Adam, through Enos only, or from Lamech, his own father. Lamech was 56 years contemporary with Adam, and 100 years with Shem. Shem was contemporary for several years with Abraham and Isaac. The communication from Adam to Isaac may only have been through Lamech and Shem. So easy is it to account for the trans- mission of Divine truth from the earliest times. More than 4000 years elapsed between the time' of the first pro- mise and its fulfilment: more than 400 between the promise given to Abraham, and its accomplishment under Joshua: and not less than 400 between the prophecy of Malachi, and its fulfilment in John the Baptist. ' ' A thousand years are with the Lord as one day :" though the promise tarry long, we are to wait for it. CHRONOLOGY : ERAS. 211 This knowledge is especially important in interpreting pro- phecy, both to enable us to ascertain the event rop ecy. foretold, and to perceive the accomphshment. The meaning of Isa. 37.2 2-34, is fixed, for example, by a reference to chapter 36. The former is a prediction of a remarkable dehver- ance from impending danger, and the latter points to Hezekiah and Sennacherib, as the persons in whom the prediction was fulfilled. 354. In the chronology of all nations some remarkable date Chronological is filled upon, from which they begin their compu- epochs. tations. Christians reckon from the birth of Christ, A. D. The Eomans reckoned from the foundation of their city, A. u. c. The Greeks by Olympiads, the first of which dates 776 years before Christ, about 55 years before the captivity, in the days of Uzziah. These points are called epochs or eras, though the former is the more usual term. The follow- ing are the chief : The Grecian year of the world from - The era of Constantinople, ecclesi- astical and civil _ _ _ _ The Jewish era, ecclesiastical and civil, A. M. - The era of Abraham, or Eusebian era The era of the destruction of Troy - The era of Solomon's temple The Olympiads, 01. - - - - Sept. I, B.C. 5598. Apr. I, Sept. I, B. c. 5508. Apr. Sept. B. c. 37&1. Oct. I, B.C. 2015. Jime 12, or 24, B.C. 1184. May, B. c. 10 15. New Moon of Midsummer, B.C. 776. Apr. 21, B.C. 753. Feb. 26, B. c. 747. Sept. I, B.C. 312. Jan. I, Sept. i, B. c. 3. Jan. I, A. D. I. July 16, A. D. 622. The Roman era (the Consular year from Jan. i), A. u. c. The era of Xabonassar - - - - The era of the Seleucidse - - - The Pontifical and Constantinopolitan era _______ The common Christian era, a. d. The Hegira, the Mohammedan era - The Persian era ----- June 16, A. D. 632. 355. As several remarkable events are recorded in Scripture, each of general or of national importance, there are various divisions of sacred chronology. The Jews reckon from the Creation (a.m.), from the Flood, from the Exode, Numb. 33. 38 : I Kings 6. i ; or from the building of the temple, ? Chron. 8. i. The first epoch begins with the Creation, and ends at the 212 CHRONOLOGY ; PERIODS. Flood. Its duration can be gathered only from Scripture, by summing up the ages of the patriarchs on the birth of the son whose name is placed on the record (not always the eldest,) See Gen. 5. This number amounts according to the common Hebrew Text to 1656 years : according to the Samaritan text to 1307, and according to the Septuagint, to 2262, or to 2256 years. In the Enghsh version, the dates ascertained from the He- brew text are generally used, and the adjustment of them which is adopted, is the one which was completed by Arch- bishop Usher, slightly modified by Bishop Lloyd. Whence taken. Period. Usher. Septu- agint. Josephus, by Hales. Gen. 5 . . Gen. II.IO-J2: 12.4. Gen. 21.5: 25. 26: 47-9,28. I Kings 6. I . 1. From the creation to the flood . 2. From the flood to the call of Abraham 3. From the call of Abraham to the Exode 4. From the Exode to the foundation of Solomon's temple .... 5. From the fomidation of Solomon's temple to the restoration of Cyrus. 6. From the restoration of the Jews to the birth of our Lord .... 1.656 427 4J0 479 476 5J6 2,262 1.207 425 601 476 537 2,256 1,062 445 621 49J 5H 4,ccH 5,508 5,411 The modern Jews reckon the age of the world at the coming of Christ, 3760 ; 244 years less than Usher. 356. The difference between the LXX and the Hebrew in these chronological statements, wiU bo seen in part from the following tables ; the origin of the differences being easily explained. To six of the patriarchs he/ore the Flood, the LXX gives an additional hundred years, on the birth of his son. It also adds six years to Lamech, though in the corrected text of Josephus, those six years are taken off. Immediately after the Flood, the LXX adds 100 years to the ages of the six first patriarchs. It inserts also, as does Luke 3. 36, the name of Cainan, making him 130 years old on the birth of Salah ; and it calls Serug eighty years old instead of thirty. The total difference, therefore, in the second period is 780 years The Samaritan text agrees with the LXX in this period, except that it omits Cainan. Before the Flood it reckons 1307 years. CHHOXOLOGY : DIFFERENT SYSTEilS. 213 The difference in the date of the third period arises from the fact, that the chronology founded on the LXX reckons Abraham's call as given in Haran, while Usher and the Eng- lish version regard it as given five years before in Ur (Gen. 12. I. See also Acts 7. 2, 3.) I. From the Creation to the Deluge. Pi-oof. Geu. 5. Gea. 7, 21 I 25 I 28 i II H*--. 1 ^^- Sam. Years i ITears. Y^ears. Adam lived i;o and begat ; 230 130 Seth lived . . 105 i 205 105 P:nosUved . . 90 190 90 Cainan i. lived . "P > 170 70 Jlahalaleel lived 65 165 65 Jared lived . . 162 i6i 62 JJiioch lived . . 6? 165 65 Jletbuselah lived 187 1 T87* 67 Lamech lived . 182 1 i88t 53 Noah at the Deluge 600 years 1 600 (L 1656 j 2262 IJ07 Josephus makes the total 2256, agreeing in Lamech -with the Hebrew, and else ■where with the LXX. * Some copies, 167. f Jos. 182. II. and III. From the Delucre to the Exode. Proof. Hebrew. Septuagint. Sam. Years. Y'ears. Y'ears. Gen. II. 10 j Shem after the 7 Flood, lived . / 2 and begat 2 2 12 Arphaxed lived ?? „ 135 135 LXX, and| Liike 3. 363 Cainan 11. lived . 130 and begat Gen. II. 14 Salah lived . . . ?o and begat IJO 130 Heber lived . . . H „ 134 134 18 Peleg lived . . . ?o „ 130 130 „ 20 Eeu lived . . . ?2 132 132 22 Serug lived . . . 30 „ 130 130 n " }'^ Nahor lived . . . 29 „ 79 79 Gen. 11.26, 7 32: 12.4. ]■ Gen. 12. 4 Terah lived . . . IJO „ 130 130 Abraham lived . . 2? and had the \ promise. 3 and begat 75 75 „ 21. 5 „ after that lived 20 20 » 25. 26 Isaac lived . . . 60 „ 60 60 ., 47- 9 Jacob aged . . . {"° aTid went to \ Egypt. j" 130 130 Exod. \z.\ 40,41: Sep- tuagint, f Gal. ^ 17: Israelites in Egypt. 215 years. 215 215 (?) See Nimib. 26. 59- ; 857 1637 1502 The Exode therefore occurred a. >r. 251J 3899 2749 or B.C. 1491 214 CHRONOLOGY : TIMES OP THE JUDGES. The differences in the fourth period are not owing so much to various readings, as to the authenticity of one passage, and the meaning of others. Nor is the subject free from grave difficulties. Usher makes the fourth period 480 years (479 years 16 days,) taking as his guide i Kings 6. i. If the reading of that passage is correct, the question is decided. But there are strong doubts concerning it. The LXX indicates by various readings the uncer- tainty of the text. In 2 Chron. 3. 2, (the parallel passage,) there is no date. Josephus, Theophilus, and others who have left systems of chronology, seem to have been ignorant of this computation, which is first mentioned in the 4th century by Eusebius, and he does not adopt it. St. Paul, again, seems to assign 450 years as the time from the division of Canaan 'Hill Samuel," (Acts 13. 20,) and if so, the whole period must have been 5 79 years at least.* Usher, howevei', supposes the 45 o years to refer to the time between the birth of Isaac, and the entry upon Canaan: a somewhat forced construction, Josephus mentions for the whole period 592 years (Ant. 8. 3, i): 632 (10. 8, 5): and 612 (20. 10, i): and Dr. Hales supposes his true reckoning to be, after obvious corrections, 621 years. Petavius reckons 519 years; Greswell, 549 years; Jackson, 579 years; Clinton and Cuningham, 612 years. In turning to the history in Judges, and reckoning up the periods named, the questions raised by these different views are not solved. Six. servitudes ai'e mentioned, extending over 11 1 years; and four- teen Judges (not including Joshua, Eli, or Samuel,) extending over 279 years, or 390 in all: adding to this number 46 and 83 as in the note % we have an entire period of 519 years. But here are various elements of tmcertainty. Are these servitudes and judge- ships to any extent contemporaneous? Usher thinks they ere. Hales, supposing that Judges 2. 18, applies to all, concludes that they are not. Again, nothing is told us of the length of Joshua's govei-nment, or of the government of the Elders, who survived him, except in the case of Othniel, his son-in-law. Nor further, is it clear whether Eh was a political ruler, or simply a civil judge, as Usher describes him. If the latter, he is not to be reckoned cnronologically among the judges. And lastly, we cannot gather * VIZ. In the wilderness, and till the land was divided 46 years. Judges to Samuel - - - - 450 ,, Saul 40: David 40: 3rd Sol. ;; - - - 83 ,, 579 chronology: the lxx. 215 from Scripture, what time elapsed between the death of Samson and Saul. Eli judged Israel forty years, but Usher makes him a contemporary of Samson, and not his successor. He reckons be- tween Eli's death and Saul's election, twenty-one years: though Samuel could hardly have been in that case, " old and gray-headed," (i Sam. 12. 2). Eusebius reckons Eli at forty, and includes Samuel in Said's reign, while Josephus reckons fifty -two years for Eli and Samuel; Hales allowing for them seventy- two. Clinton supposes St. Paul's reckoning to end with the beginning of Samuel's judge- ship, and adds for that thirty-two yeai's. On the whole, therefore, it may be said, that if we set aside the reading in i Kings 6. i, and are tmcertain of the precise meaning of Acts 13. 20, we have not materials for solving the difficulties which this fourth period in- volves. The dates of the fifth and sixth periods nearly agree, and are gathered, the first from Scripture, and the second almost wholly from profane authors. 357. The comparative claims of these systems are not easily settled. The longer chronology, is by many, considered to be best entitled to confidence ; and among other reasons, for the following : — 1. The Hebrew is deemed the more hkely to have been altei-ed, as, for some time after the Christian era, its use was very much confined to the Jews (and chiefly to the more learned amongst them), who had a motive for shortening the period between the creation and the bu-th of Jesus, in order to make it appear that the time which their expositors had fixed for the appearance of the Messiah was not yet passed; whilst, on the other hand, no motive so strong can be supposed to have existed on the part of the Jewish translators of the Septuagint : nor could there have been an oppor- tunity to alter the Greek version after it was made; for it was in extensive circulation, and in constant pubhc use, both among Jews and Christians. 2. The length of time assigned by the Septuagint, the Samaritan text, and Josephus, to the period between the deluge and the bh*th of Abraham (about iioo years), is deemed more consistent with historical facts than the shorter time assigned by the Hebrew (about 350 years), which appears insufficient for the great multiphcatiou and extended dispersion of iS"oah's descendants over immense tracts of country, extending from India and Assyria to Ethiopia, Egypt, and Greece; and for the establishment of the organized and pow- erful monarchies of Babylon, Nineveh, and Egypt ; besides the 216 CHRONOLOGY: LXX AND HEBREW. lesser chieftaincies of Canaan, widch seem to have been founded by descendants of Ham, after the expulsion of earlier settlers. 3. The longer chronology appears to bi'ing the age of each pa- triarch, on the birth of his eldest son, into better proportion to the gi-adually diminished length of human life. Those who adhere to the shorter computation urge, principally, the following considerations : — 1. The general accuracy of the original Hebrew text, which was preserved by the Jews with most jealous care. 2. The facilities afforded by the shorter chronology for the safe and rapid transmission of revealed truth in the earliest ages; Lamech being contemporary both with Adam and with Shem, whilst Shem was contemporary with Abraham. 3. The coincidence (at least, within a few years) of the date fixed for the creation -with a remarkable astronomical epoch, ■w'hen the major axis of the earth's orbit coincided with the line of the equinoxes, 4. The objection dra-\vn from the shortness of the interval between the deluge and the birth of Abraham, compared with the apparent populousness of the earth, is more than met by the increase of man- kind in newly-peopled districts in modern times, and by the fact, that the Hebrew text gives at least as many generations as the LXX; while, on the supposition that men generally married as early as the ages assigned in the Hebrew text, it implies a larger population. On the whole, therefore, the longer chronology is not established; and, without accepting all the reckonings of Usher, we may safely deem it to be as probable as any opposite system. 358. In addition to all the difficulties created by facility of mistake in copying figures, and consequent diflferent readings, there are difficulties in chronology which arise from different modes of reckoning. The principal eras begin, as we have seen, in different months. Many nations have two or more modes these discre- of reckoning the beginning of the year itself, civil, pancies. ecclesiastical ; civil, consular ; and above aU, the year of chronology does not agree with the year of actual time. The Julian year, for instance, consisted of 365 days, 6 hours, which was 1 1 minutes, 9 seconds, too much. From A. D. i, to A. D. 1836, therefore, the Juhan year would be 14^ days in advance. The Council of Nice, however, struck out 2^ days, and in 1582, Gregory xiii corrected the Calender, by ordering the 5th of October to be called the 15th, thus disposing of CHRONOLOGY : DISCREPANCIES. 217 lo days more. In England, the 3rd of September, 1751, was reckoned as the 14th, and in 1800, the usual 29th of February- was omitted. We therefore have corrected accurately the overreckoning of the Juhan era, so that from a. d. 30, to a. d. 1836, is, within a few hours, exactly 1806 years. Other eras are more erroneous than the Juhac, and it is Different obvious that the absence of the necessary correc- eras. tions in each, must give rise to many errors. Other peculiarities of reckoning add further to our diffi- culties. (a). Jemsh historians, for example, speak of the reign of a king Different which is continued through one whole year and parts of - modes of two others as a three years' reign. It may be two yeai's rec omng. ^^^ ^^^ months, or it may be one year and two monthg. (6). They sometimes set do'^\Ti the principal number, the odd, or smaller number, being omitted; as in Judges 20. 35 : see ver. 46. (c). As sons freqviently reigned with their fathers in ancient monarchies, the time of the reign of each is sometimes made to include the time of the other, and sometimes to exclude it. Thus Jotham is said to have reigned sixteen years, 2 Kings 15. 33 ; and yet, in ver. 30, mention is made of his twentieth year. For foiu" years he seems to have reigned with Uzziah, w^ho was a leper. So 2 Kings 13. I, 10: 2 Kings 24. 8, compared with 2 Chron. 36. 9. A similar principle explains Dan. i. i: Jer. 25. i: Nebuchad- nezzar being king with his father when Jerusalem was besieged. This peculiarity of reckoning has been applied, with great advan- tage, to explain the chronological tables of Egypt and other eastern countries. {d). It not unfrequently happens that different modes of reckonmg are adopted in reference to the same transaction. See Gen. 15, 13 and Gal. 3, 17; Moses speaking of 400 years from the birth of Isaac to the Exode; Paul, of 430 years from the call of Abram to the giving of the law, which occurred three months after the Exode. See Exod. 12. 40. The same remark apphes to other numbers. In Gen. 46. 26, 27, it is said that all the souls that went mth Jacob into Egypt (not including his sons' wives) were sixty-six, or (adduag Jacob, Joseph, and his two sons) seventy. In Acts 7. 14, it is said that Joseph sent and called Jacob, and all his kindred, seventy-five persons. This last includes the nine wives of Jacob's sons (for Judah's and Simeon's wives were dead, and Joseph's was abeady in Egypt). These nine, added to the sixty-six, make the seventy-five mentioned in the Acts. These passages were long supposed to involve a contradiction. L 218 HOW TO FEAME A STSTEM. Comparing Ezra 2. and ISTeh. 7., we find that 42,360 persons i-e- turned from Babylon, of whom the numbers of the tribes of Ben- jamin and Judah, and of the priests, are given. The numbers in Nehemiah amount to 31,089; in Ezra, to 29,818. Add to Nehe- naiah's number 494 names, mentioned only in Ezra; and to Ezra's, 1,765 names, mentioned only in Nehemiah, the results agree — 31,583. The difference, 10,777, represents the number of persons belonging to other tribes. This apparent discrepancy was long I'egarded as an objection to the narrative. In reference, generally, to these apparent contradictions, it be- comes us rather to suspect om- own ignorance than the writei-'s accu- racy. No passage can appear more contradictory than Ezek. 12. 13, and yet it was literally fulfilled: Zedekiah did not see Babylon, though he died there. In framing a chronological system, two rules are of great value. 1. Ascertain important epochs, and reckon onwards or up- Pvuies for wards from them. The epoch of the birth of our svs?em°of ^ord is of course the centre point of all modern Chronology, chronology, and of much of ancient. The year of the. Council at Jerusalem, or of the death of Herod, is the key to the chronology of the Acts : as the date of Paul's conversion is the key to his Epistles. The return from the captivity, the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, and the building of the first temple, are all (reckoning upwards from a. d. i,) epochs of Old Testament History. Chnton in different parts of his Fasti, has well illustrated this rule, 2. Wherever practicable, test chronological conclusions by- astronomical facts. The Jewish Passover, for example, was commenced on the day j)receding that on which the moon was full, between the 1 8th of March, and the i6tli of April. As the moon can be echpsed only at the full, the day of the Passover for any year, will be the day preceding any eclipse that occurs between those dates. The Passover day, was the I4tli of Nisan, and reckoning backwards, we ascertain the first day of each year. Fifty clear days after the 14th of Nisan came Pentecost : and 177 clear days from the full of the moon of Nisan — six luna- tions that is— came the feast of Tabernacles. The Great Day of Atonement was five days earlier, the loth of Tisri. Mr. Greswell applies this rule to confirm his chronology. Supposing the date of our Lord's crucifixion to be April 5th, EXTERNAL HELPS: NATURAL HISTORY. 219 30, A.D., he reckons that an edipse mentioned by Dion must have occurred August ist, 45, a. d., and another by Phny, April 30th, 59, a. d." Pingre's tables, based on astronomical calculations show that echpses did, in fact, take place on these days. Eecorded eclipses may be found in Pingre's tables, and in Play fair's Chronology. See also Hales' Chronology, i., p. 74. Tables have also been framed for correcting errors conse- quent upon the difference between the chronological and astronomical year. 359. V. Many of the allusions and expressions of Scripture can be explained only by the aid of knowledge of natural history. In Psa. 92. 12, for example, it is said that "the righteous shall flom-ish like the palm," and the habits of this tree beautifully illus- trate the character of the righteous. The palm grows not in the depths of the forest, or in a fertile loam, but iu the desert. Its verdure often springs apparently from the scorching dust. ''It is in this respect," says Laborde, "as a friendly lighthouse, guiding the traveller to the spot where water is to be found." The tree is remarkable for its beauty, its erect aspiring growth, its leafy canopy, its waving plumes, the emblem of praise in all ages. Its very fohage is the symbol of joy and exultation. It never fades, and the dust never settles upon it. It was therefore twisted into the booths of the feast of tabernacles (Lev. 23. 40), was borne aloft by the multitude that accompanied the Messiah to Jerusalem (John 12. 13), and it is represented as in the hands of the redeemed in heaven (Rev. 7. 9), For usefulness, the tree is vmrivalled. Gibbon says that the natives of Syria speak of 360 uses to which the palm is applied. Its shade refreshes the traveller. Its fruit restores his strength. When his soul fails for thirst, it announces water. Its stones are ground for his camels. Its leaves are made into couches, its boughs into fences and walls, and its fibres into ropes or rigging. Its best fruit, moreover, is borne in old age; the finest dates being often gathered when the tree has reached a hundred years. It sends, too, from the same root a large number of suckers, which, in time, form a forest by their grovrth (Judges 4. 5). What an emblem of the righteous in the desert of a guilty world ! It is not unin- structive to a,dd that this tree, once the symbol of Palestine, is now rarely seen in that cotmtry. ^ Mr. Greswell's reasonings on these facts, however, are not very complete. He fails to supply the links which connect the dates of the eclipses with the date of the crucifixion of our Lord. l2 220 NATURAL HISTORY. Another beautiful tree found in Palestine, and also an emblem of the Christian, is the cedar.- ''The righteous shall grow like the cedar," This tree strikes its roots into the cloven rock. Like the palm, it loves the water; and if the wells near which it grows are diied, it withers, or ceases to grow. As its roots stretch away into the mountain, its boughs are spread abroad. Like the palm, it is an evergreen; though used to wintry weather, it is always covered with leaves. Its bark and leaves are highly aromatic, and the " smell of Lebanon" has become a proverb for fragrance. The cedar is sound to the very core. It adorns the mountain's brow, and then does service in the temple. After living a thousand years, it preserves all it touches, and gives beauty to the lintels and ceiling of the house of the Lord. Such is the character and influence of a resolute and consisfent Christian ! In Deut. 32. II, God is said to have taught Israel as the eagle trains her young. When the eaglets are old enough to fly, she stirs up her nest, separates its parts, and compels the young birds to fly to some neighbouring crag; she then flutters over them, teaching them to move their wings and to sustain and guide themselves by their movements. Finding them weary or unwilling, she spreads her wings, takes her brood upon her back, and soai's with them aloft. In order to exercise then' strength, she then shakes them off"; and when she perceives that their pinions flag, or that an enemy is near, she darts beneath them with sm-prising skill, and at once restores their strength, or places her own body between her young and the danger that threatens them. The eagle is the only bird endowed with this instinct, and the whole of her procedure is suggestive of instructive lessons in relation to the dealings of God. In the history of ancient Israel, and in the history of the church, it is found that He weans his people from their resting-place— in Egypt, in the world, and in their own righteousness — by means of affliction : He stirs up the nest. By the example of good men, by the exhibition of his perfections, by the life and character of his Son, he flutters over them; while }iis promise and spirit sustain their hearts, and make their happiness and safety as sure and un- changing as his own. In mountainous coimtx'ies like Palestine, the ass, or mule, was often preferred for domestic uses even to the horse. Asses are con- sequently enumerated among the riches of Abraham and Job, Gen. 12. 16 : Job 42. 12. Mephibosheth, the grandson of Saul, rode upon an ass; as did Ahithophel, the prime minister of David; and as late as the reign of Jehoram, the son of Ahab, the services of this animal were required by the wealthy. The Shunammite, for example, a person of high rank, saddled her ass and rode to Carmel, the EXTERNAL HELPS : NATURAL HISTORY. 221 residence of Elisha, 2 Kings 4. 8, 24. In later times, howerer, and even from the reign of Solomon, the paces of the horse began to be regarded as more stately and noble. Solomon himself introduced a numerous stud of the finest horses — horses of Arabia; and after the return of the Jews from Babylon, their great men rode for the most part on horses or mules. It soon became, therefore, a mark of poverty or of humility to appear in public on an ass, and this was the impression generally prevalent in the time of our Lord. (Com- pare Zech. 9. 9 -VA^th Matt. 21. 45). The Hebrews employed both the ox and the ass in ploughing the gi'ovmd, Isa. ^o. 24; 32. 20; but they were forbidden to yoke them to the same plough, partly because of their unequal step, and partly because the animals never associated happily together. This prohi- bition was perhaps intended to suggest the impropriety of an inter- course between Chi-istians and idolaters in social and religious life ; but it was also intended in the first instance, and chiefly, to protect the animals from cruel treatment. Issachar is compared to an ass; and vigour and bodily strength are suggested by the comparison. It is said also that he should bow his shoulder to bear, and prefer the yoke of bondage to the difficult issues of war, and inglorious ease to just freedom, Gen. 49. 14: a prophecy fulfilled in the history of that tribe, who submitted successively to the Phoenicians on the one hand, and to the Canaanites on the othei . The tail of the Syrian sheep is much larger than in other breeds. In a sheep weighing seventy pounds, the tail will often weigh fifteen ; and it is deemed the most delicate part of the animal. Hence, in the religious ritual of the Hebrews, the priest is com- manded to take the ram and the tail (or the rump, as it is called in our version, Lev. 3. 9), and present them in sacrifice to Jehovah. Both were to be placed on the altar, to indicate the completeness and the value of the offering . . . In its domesticated state, the sheep is a weak and defenceless animal. It is therefore dependent upon the shepherd both for protection and support. To the disposition of these animals to wander from the fold, and thus to abandon themselves (in a country like Judsea) to destruction, there are many touching allusions in Scripture, Psa. 119. 176 : Isa. 53. 6. . . . The eastern shepherd calls his sheep, and they recognise his voice and follow him. His care of them, and their security under his pro- tection, are beautifully set forth in John 10. it. It is plain that a knowledge of their habits is essential to a right appreciation of the imagery of Scripture. The lioji is remarkable for courage and strength. If he retreats from an enemy, he retreats with his face towards him. After he 222 NATURAL HISTORY. has killed liis victim, lie tears it in pieces, and, devours it with the utmost greediness, Psa, 17. 12: Hos. 13. 8. The young lion sub- sists according to ancient naturalists, by hunting, and seldom qtiits the deserts; but when he has grown old he visits more frequented places, and becomes more dangerous to man. This fact explains the language of God by Hosea. '' I will be unto Ephraim (or the ten tribes,) as a great (or old) lion," most therefore to be dreaded; '' and to the house of Judah as a young lion," Chap, 5. 14. In ac- cordance with this prophecy, Ephraim was diiven into a distant land, where this tribe suffered a protracted exile, while Judah re- tained its position for 133 years longer, and was then carried into captivity for the shorter term of seventy years. . . . One of the -coverts of this animal was in the low ground in the neighbourhood of the Jordan, which, like the Nile, overflows its banks every spring. At that season, therefore, the coverts were laid under water, and the wild beasts were all driven to the hills, where they often com- mitted great ravages, Jer. 49. 19. '' Like a lion from the swellings of Jordan," thus became a proverb in Judaja, which comparatively recent discovery has enabled us to understand. The energy of the gospel in striking terror into the hearts of the impenitent, and in imparting comfort to the church, is compared to the roaring of the lion, Joel 3. 16. The savage disposition of the lion is sometimes referred to, and then always in a bad sense. In i Pet. 5 . 8, Satan is compared to a lion, and the enemies of the chiu'ch generally are represented under the same name, Isa. 5. 29. Many other expressiens and figiu^es are borrowed from natm-al history. The " oil " of the olive berry soothes pain, and by closing the pores of the body against noxious exhalations, promotes health. It was thought peculiarly successful in coimteracting the effect of poison, and hence it is often iised to desci-ibe the power of the gospel. Its medicinal properties (See James 5.) made it of great commercial value : hence it is said, that ''he that loveth oil, shall not be rich." The " myrrh " and '' balm" (or balsam) of the East are strongly aromatic gums, which flow spontaneously, or by means of incision from the trees, and wex'e in great request as articles of commerce. The balm of Gilead, Jer. 8. 22, was deemed a very valuable medi- cine, and the expression is often used figuratively to indicate any gi'eat remedy or restorative. The habits of the ant, of the locust, of the camel, of the dove, are all interesting, but they are generally sufficiently known, or are refeiTed to with sufficient minuteness in the Scriptures themselves. 360. Since the English Bible was completed, our knowledge BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. 223 of eastern botany, especially, has largely increased, and as the force of the imagery of Scripture frequently depends upon a knowledge of the plants which are named, we append a table of all the plants referred to in the Bible, with such a descrip- tion *as will enable the reader to identify them. . In some instances, the results are rather conjectural than certainly ac- curate, but these are few, and even in these, there is no doubt as to the general accuracy of the renderings proposed. The table is drawn up from various documents, and chiefly from the very elaborate articles on this subject, prepared by Dr. Eoyle, for Kitto's Bibhcal Cyclopeedia. Almond is the name of two trees mentioned in Scripture; the one, Luz, translated ''hazel/' Gen. 30. 37, is the wild almond (Boch. Jer. Rosenm.), and the other, Shaked, the cultivated almond. The flowers are like the bloom of the apple-tree, at first rose- coloured, and then white. It is hence a symbol of old age, Eccl. 12. 5, and from its early blossoming, of any sudden interposition, Jer. i. 11: Numb. 17. 8: Gen. 43. ir. Almug, or -Algum, is not known. Sandal wood, which is yellow or white, and fragrant, answers the description given in 1 Kings ID. II, 12. The name given in 2 Chron. 2. 8, is probably an error of the transcribers, see i Kings 10. ii, and 2 Chron. 9. 10, II. Aloes, properly hgn-aloes, must be carefully distinguished from the aloe, which emits no agreeable odour, see Psa. 45. 8: Numb. 24. 6. This tree is still known in India by the name of Aghil, and in Europe as the Eagle-tree (Aquilarid). The wood is highly odoriferous, and the tree is said in Eastern tradition to have been one of the trees of Paradise. The wood was very costly, and was used to impart fragrance to the linen in which dead bodies were wrapped, John 19. 40. Heb. Ahalim. Anise, or Dill, occurs only in Matt. 23 {Hvvidov). It is an herb of small value. Its seeds are aromatic and carminative, yielding an oil much used in flatulency. Apple of Scripture, is probably the quince, which is in the East more highly scented, and much sweeter than in Europe (Cels. Ray,) or it may be the citron, a rich golden-coloured fruit, Prov. 25. 11: Joel I. 12: Cant. 2. 3, 5 : 7. 8. Heb. Tappuach. Bay-tree occurs only in Psa. 37, 35, and is the laurus nobihs, an evergreen with an agreeable spicy odour. Heb. Ezrach. Bean occurs in 2 Sam. 17. 28: Eze. 4. 9, and is rightly translated. There are various speciss, but not widely different from each other. Heb. Pol. 224 BOTANY OP SCRIPTURE. Box-tree of tlie East, is the same as that of Europe, though in the East it grows wild and large, Isa. 41. 19 : 60. 13. It is specially adapted to mountainous districts, and a calcareous limestone soil, like Lebanon. Heb. Teashur. Briers. — The thorny plants of Palestine are very numerous, and Kabbinical writers say, that as many as twenty-two words are used in Scripture to express this species. The particular plants indicated by these words are generally not known, but they are nearly all thorny and useless. Brier, D"*Jp'l!l» Barkanim, Judg. 8. 7, 16, some thorny prickly plant Eosen. translates "flails." p^^, Chedek, Prov. 15. 19, "thorns," and Mic. 7. 4, ''a brier," a species of night- shade, Solanum spinosum (Royle). p'pp, Ez. 28. 24: nQ"lp, Isa. 55. 13: niD^, Isa. 32. 13; and everywhere else in Isa., except 55. i^-, thorny plants not no AV known. Heb. Sillon: Sirpad: Shamir. Bramble, Judg. 9. 14, 15, etc., ItOX, properly thorns, which see : PI in, thorn or thistle, which see. JS^ettle, Prov. 24. 31: Job 30. 7: Zeph. 2. 9, P-lin, Charal. Royle thinks wild mustard. It is destructive to other vegetation ; common to the East, and known by the name of Chardul, or in English, Curlock. The nettle is probably the plant mentioned in Isa. 34. 13 : Hos. 9. 6 : Prov. 24. 3 1 (pSBp,, Kimmosh), where it is so translated. Bush (riDp, i3«Ttfj), Exod. 3, 2: Deut. 33. 16. The Greek word means bramble: and the Rubris sanctus is common in Palestine. Pococke thinks the hawthorn the more pro- bable. Heb. Sene. Thistles O'l')'!'), Gen. 3. 18, r^ifioXes in Lxx and New Testa- ment, Matt. 7. 16: Heb, 6. 8; a common prickly plant, spreading over the ground. Tribulus (niH), probably a thorn -bush, Job 41. 2: Prov. 26. 9: Isa. 34, ij. Thorns, a general name, pHPI, Plin, }*'lp, Y^)iV)., fl^tJ^, D^SL*^ (pricks,) Dn"*p, D'*3V- Gr. clxxv^a in the lxx, and in Matt. 7. 16: 13. 7, 22: 27. 27: John 19. 2, 5. All these words are translated thorns, and there is nothing in the terms to lead to a more minute knowledge of the species to which they refer: another name is ^OS, Atad, Judg. 9. 14, 15: Psa. 58. 9, translated " bramble," probably a kind of buckthorn. It puts forth long, slender, thorned switches, and is by many supposed to be the thorn with which Christ was crowned, Zizyphus Spina Christi. Thorns, thistles, and brambles, are to this day very numerous BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. 225 in Palestine. The common bramble and the holy bramble (Bubris sanctus), abound : and thistles cover large tracts of ground, and grow to a prodigious size; among others, travellers mention the white Syrian thistle, with the Egyptian or purple variety, and the musk-scented thistle (^Carduus mollis.) Calamus or Sweet Cane, Exod, 30. 23: Cant, 4. 14: Eze. 27. 19: Isa. 43. 24: Jer, 6. 20. This plant is found in Asia and Egypt, though the most fragrant are said in Jer. to come from a far country. Dr. Royle thinks that a species found in the Himalayas (and which he calls Andropogon Calamus aromaticus), best answers the description of Scripture. It was one of the ingi'e- dients of the anointing oil of the Sanctuary. Heb. Kana. Camphinc, old English for Camphor, is probably the Alhenna (Gr. Kupros), of the East : a very fragrant shrub, with flowers growing like those of the lilac. The leaves form a powder used for dying the nails and eyebrows, — both in Syria and Egjrpt, Cant. I. 14: 4. 13. Heb. Kopher. Cassia, Exod. 30. 24: Eze. 27. 19, an inferior kind of cinnamon. The bark yields an essential oil, less aromatic than cinnamon, but in larger quantities, and of a more pungent taste. Heb. Kida. Cedar, the name probably of the pine-tribe of trees, and especially of the noblest of the tribe, the cedar of Lebanon. The Hebrew word was probably used with the same extent as the English, hence we have the red, or pencil cedai', which is a Juniper, and indeed the cedar of the Pentateuch (Lev. 14. 4, 6,) was probably a Juniper, which tree is common in the desert of Sinai. Heb. Erez. Chesnut-trce, Gen. 30. 37: Eze. 31. 8, probably the plane, one of the most magnificent of trees. Those of Assyria were especially fine, see Eze. 31. Cinnamon, Ex. 30. 23: Prov. 7. 17: Cant. 4. 14: Eev. 18. 13, the bark of the laurus kinnamomum. The plant is found in India and China; but the best kind is from Malabar and Ceylon. Cockle, Job 31. 40, perhaps the English plant so called: but more probably a species of night-shade (Solanum nigmm), or Aconite. The plural of this word is translated " wild grapes," Isa. 5. 2: the nightshade referred to grows largely in the East,' and the Arabic name resembles the Hebrew. -The fruit is nar- cotic and poisonous. Heb. Beushim. Coriander, an umbelliferous plant, yielding a fruit (called seed), the size of a pepper-corn, globular and greyish. It is common in the south of Europe, and is cultivated in Essex. The fruit is used by distillers, etc., as a good stomachic, Exod. iC. 31: Numb. II. 7. Heb. Gad. L 3 226 BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. Cucumber, Numb. 11,5: Isa. i. 8; rightly translated. The plant is called Kissa by the Arabs, and is extensively cultivated m the East. Heb. Kishuim. Desire, Eccl. 12. 5. The word so translated is generally regarded as the Caper plant (see 2 Sam. 19. 34, 35,) which yields a pungent pickle, stimulating to the appetite. The flower-buds, and in some species the unripe pod, in others the berry, ai'e used for this purpose. Heb. Ebiyona. Doves-Dung, 2 Kings 6. 25, is probably the chick-pea, a vetch com- mon in the East. The same name is still applied in Arabic to the dung of pigeons, and to these peas (Bochart, Taylor). Some suppose that the root of a wild-flower, the star of Bethlehem, is the article here mentioned. Heb. Dibhyonim. Ebony, Eze. 27. 15, wood greatly prized for its colour and hardness. It is the heart-wood of a date-tree, which grows in great abundance in the East, and especially, in Ceylon. Heb. Hobhnim. Fig-tree, Arab, teen: properly translated: a native of the East; with broad shady leaves (i Kings 4. 25), The fig sprouts at . the vernal equinox, and yields three crops of fruit. The first ripening about the end of June, having a fine flavour, and generally eatei! green (Jer. 24. 2). The others are often pre- served in masses or cakes, i Sam. 25. 18, etc. Heb. Teena. Fir-tree ip'T\'l, Berosh), is frequently mentioned in Scripture, 2 Sam. 6, 5 : Cant. i. 17, etc., and probably includes varioiis trees of the pine tribe. Some regard the cypress and jvmiper as the true representatives of Berosh; others the cedar, and others the common pine. All are found in Palestine ; and as cedar and fir constantly occur together in Scripture, they probably in- clude the whole genus. Flax (nnEJ'S, Pishta, once translated tow, Isa. 43. 17, more pro- perly a wick): the common plant, so called, used to make linen, cord, and torches; extensively cultivated in Egypt and Syria. Gr. x'tvov, Matt. 12. 20. ^^, Shesh, translated fine linen and silk, was probably the hemp plant, in Arabic husheesh, yielding an intoxicating drink (whence assassin), now knovvTi as the bang of the East. The plant is cultivated in Persia, Europe, and India. Two other words are translated linen in the English version, nS, Bad; p3, Butz, the former is used in the Pentateuch, etc., and is probably the linen made from flax; the latter is used only in Chron. and the Pi'ophets, and is probably cotton cloth, a product not mentioned till after the captivity: it is g(inerally translated fine linen, and was probably of finer fibre than the flax. The livffffos of the New Testament was proba- BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. 227 bly linen. In the lxx, /SyVs-oj translates both words. The word, cotton does not occur in Scripture, but the Hebrew name (Karpas), is found in Esth. i. 6, where it is translated green. The cotton plant seems not to have been known in Palestine, before the captivity. The cotton is the lining of the aeed pods, and is gathered by hand, as the pods ripen and burst. Flag (translated meadow, in Gen. 41. 2, 18), Job 8. 11, probably any green herbaceous plants of luxuriant growth. Heb. Achu. Fitches, i.e., vetches, occurs only in Isa. 28. 25, 27, and is probably a species of Mgella. The seeds are black, and are used in the East, like carraway seeds, for the pxu^pose of imparting to food an aromatic, acrid taste. Heb. Ketzach. Galbanum, Ex. 30. 34 only, a very powerful and not very fragrant gum, exuded by a shrub belonging to the family of Umbel- lifei'ie (Bubon Galhamim). It was used in preparing inceq§e. Garlick, ISTumb. 11. 5 only. This plant is now known by the name of Eschalot, or Shalot, and is common in Europe {Allium Esca- loniam, i.e., of Ascalon). Herodotus states, that it was supplied in large quantities to the labourers engaged in the erection of the Pyramids. Heb. Shum. Gopher is mentioned only in Gen. 6. 14. Probably a tree of the pine tribe, perhaps Cypress (Bochart, Celsius), which is very abxmdant in Assyria. Heb. Gopher. Gourd, Jonah 4. 6-10, is now generally admitted to be the Palma Christi, or Castor-oil plant. It is of very rapid growth, with broad palmate leaves, and giving, especially when young, an ample shade. The oil is obtained from the seeds of the tree. Gourd, Wild, 2 Kings 4. 39. The wild cucumber, whose leaves are like those of the vine, but of a poisonous quality and bitter taste. Heb. Kikayon and Pakvioth. Hemlock, Hos. 10. 4: Amos 6. 12, ti-anslated ''gall " in Deut. 29. 18 : Lam. 3. 19. Tremellius and Celsius regard hemlock as the true meaning : others think it a general name for any bitter herb (Royle). Heb. Rosh. Hyssop, Exod. 12. 22, etc., either marjoram, a small shrub, its leaves covered with soft woolly down, adapted to retain fluid ; or the thorny caper (Royle), which grows wild in Syria, and is pos- sessed of detergent properties. Arab. Asaf. Heb. Ezov. Husks (xtpxTix), Luke 15, the pods (probably) of the Carob-tree, a tree which is called St. John's Tree, Ls of middle size, the fruit consisting of flat pods, six inches long, and an inch broad. The seeds are hard, bitter, and useless, but the pods are used for feeding swine. The tree is common in Spain, and its pods were the chief food of the horses of the British cavalry there in 811, 1812. 228 BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. Juniper, i Kings 19. 4, 5: Job 30. 4: Psa. 120. 4; is probably the Spanish broom. The wood of this tree burns with a remarkably light flame, giving out great heat: hence coals of juniper in Psa. 120. This fact is noticed by various Eastern travellers. Leehs (T'Vn, '^fatrov)^ Numb. it. 5. The word so translated, is ren- dered grass, I Kings 18. 5: herb. Job 8. 12: and hay, Prov. . 27. 25. It properly means anything green. But it is trans- lated leeks in these passages by most of the versions; and the plant has been known (and indeed worshipped), in Egypt from very early times. Lentiles, a kind of pulse, from a small annual, and used for making soups and pottage. It is of the colour of chocolate (reddish- brown), and is compared by Pliny to the colour of the reddish sand around the pyramids. Wilkinson (Anct. Egypt), has gkren a picture of Lentile-pottage making, taken from an ancient slab. Gen. 25, 34: 2 Sam. 17. 28. Heb. Adashim. Lily, this word is probably applicable to several plants common in Palestine. In most passages of Scripture where the word is used, there is reference to the lotus, or water-lily of the Nile. This species was eaten as food : the roots, stalks, and seeds are all very grateful, both fresh and dried. Hence the allusion to feeding among lilies. The *' lily of the valley," i.e., of the water-courses, belongs also to this species. Cant. 2. 2, 16: 4. 5, etc. The flower was worn on festive occasions, and formed one of the ornaments of the temple, i Kings 7. 19. Heb. Shushan. The lily of the New Testament (xplvav), is the scarlet marta- gon lily (ZiL Chalcedonimn), a stately turban-like flower. It flowers in April and May, when the sermon on the Mount was probably delivered, and is indigenous throughout Galilee. It is called in the New Testament the *' lily of the field," Matt. 6. 28. Mallows, only in Job 30. 4, is probably what we imderstand by the name. It is still used by the poor as a common dish. Others suppose that a kind of salt- wort (or ache), is meant; so Bochart and Dr. M. Good. Heb. Malluach. Mandrakes, Gen. 30. 14. 16: Cant. 7. 13, Atropa Mandragora, a plant like lettuce in size and shape, but of dark green leaves. The fruit is of the size of a small apple, and ripens in wheat-harvest (May). It is noted for its exhilarating and genial virtues. Melon, Numb. 11. 5. The gourd tribe, to which cucumbers and melons belong, are great favourites in the East, and abound iu Egypt and India, There are different kinds, — the Egyptian (Cucumis Chate), the common water-melon, etc., all of which ai-e probably inckided in the Scripture name. Heb. Abattichim. Millet-, Ezo. 4. 9, the panicum miliaceum of botanists, a small grain, BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. 229 Eometimes cultivated in England for feeding poultry, and grown throughout the East. It is used for food in Persia, and in India. Heb. Dochan. Mulberry, in the New Testament Sycamine-tree, Luke 17. 6, (very dififerent from the Sycomore, which is a kind of fig), is the mulberry of Europe^ very common in Palestine. The word translated mulberry in 2 Sam. 5. 23, 24: i Chr. 14. 14, 15, pro- bably means poplar. The rustling of its leaves answers the des- cription given in these passages. The same word occurs in Psa. 84. 6, and is there regarded as a proper name (Baca), but most of the versions translate it " weeping:" Valley of Baca equalling "vale of tears." Mustard (2/va?r/), is either a species of the plant known in England under this name, which has one of the smallest seeds, and is itself among the tallest of herbaceous plants, or the Sahadora Persica, a shrub or tree, whose seeds are used for the same purpose as mustard (Royle, Irby). Myrrh, is the representative of two words in Hebrew, of which the first ("lb ffiAvpvot), is properly translated, Exod. 30. 23 : Psa. 45. 8, etc.: Mark 15. 23, 36. It is a gum exuded by the Balsamo- dendron Myrrha, and other plants. It is highly aromatic and medicinal, and moderately stimulating. The Greeks used it to drug their wine. The shrub is foimd in Arabia and Africa. nVl^, Bedolach, Gen. 2. 12 : Nimib. 11. 7, is probably a gum, still known as bdellium. The gum exudes from more than one tree, and is fo\md in both India and Africa. 131?, Lot, is properly labdanum. It is a gum exuded by the Cistus, and is now used chiefly in fumigation. Gen. 37, 25 : 43. II. Other similar gums mentioned in Scripture, are Balm 0"))?), Gen. 37, 25: Jer. 8. 22. It is probably the balm or balsam of Gilead (the Hebrew of which word, however^ DK^S, is generally translated spice, or sweet odours). This tree is common in Arabia and Africa. The gum is obtained in small quantities, and is highly aromatic and medicinal. Frankincense (n^ilp)^ is a gum taken from a species of Storax, and is highly fragrant. It was employed chiefly for fumigation, and was largely used in the service of the temple. It was regarded as an emblem of prayer, Lev. 2. i: Psa. 145. i, 2: Rev. 8. 3, 4. Heb. Lebona. Spicery {T\\2T), Gen. 37, 25: 43. 1 1, is a kind of gimi, per- haps taken from the tragacunth tree. Heb. Necoth. Stacte (PltDJ), occurs only in Exod. 30. 34, and is another gum, not now certainly known. Celsius thinks it an inferior kind of myrrh. Heb. Neteph. 230 BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. Myrtle grows -wild in Palestine, and reaches the height of twenty feet. Its leaves are dark and glossy, and its white flowers highly aromatic. Its branches were used at the Feast of Taber- nacles, Neh. 8. 15: Isa. 41. 17-19. Heb. Hadas. Nard, Mark 14. 3 (11?., nerd, translated Spikenard in the Old Testa- ment), the plant Nardostachys Jatamansi, from which a deli- cious and costly perfume is made. The root and the leaves that glow out of it have the appearance of spikes, hence the name (stachys = spike). Cant. i. 12: 4. 13. 14: John 12. 3. J!^ut is the translation of two Hebrew words. D0t31, Botnim, Gen. 43. 11, the pistachio-nut tree, well known in Syria and India, but not in Egypt, and t13J<, Egoz, the u-alnut-tree, which is called in Pers. and Arab, "gouz,'* Cant. 2. Oah (pi'^), Gen. 35. 8: Isa. 2. 13: 6. 13: 44- 14: Eze. 27. 6: Hos. 4. 13: Amos 2. 9: Zech. 11. 2. In other passages where the word ' ' oak " is found, the word ought to be turpentine-tree (see teil.) The oak is not common in Palestine, nor is the English oak (Q. robur), found there. Oaks of Bashan are still of large size; but they are chiefly either the evergreen oak (Q. ilex), the prickly-cupped oak (Q. Vcdonia), or the Kermes oak (see Scarlet Oak). Heb. Allon. Olive, an evergreen, common from Italy to Caubul. The unripe fruit is preserved in a solution of salt, and is used at desserts; when ripe, it is bruised in mills, and yields an oil of peculiar purity and value. Both the oil and the tree were used in the feast of tabernacles. In Judsea it was an emblem of prosperity, Psa. 52. 8, and in all ages it has been an emblem of peace. The wild olive, (Rom. 11. 17, 24), was probably a wild species of the Oka Europxa. It was a common mode of graft- ing in Italy, to inseii; a branch of the wild olive on the stock of the cultivated plant {Columella'). Heb. Zaith. Onion, a plant well known in this country and in the East. In hot climates it loses its acrid taste, and is highly agreeable and nutritious, JSTumb. 11. 5. Heb. Betzal. Palm, or date-tree, Arab, tamr, is one of the most valuable eastern trees, Exod. 15. 27. It flourished especially in the valley of Jordan (hence Jericho, the City of Palm-trees) and in the deserts of Syria (Tamar = Palmyra). It was considered characteristic of Judsea, being first met with there by nations travelling southward from Euj'ope. Heb. Taman. Pomegranate (" gi'ained-apple"), a tree of gi'eat value in hot climates. Its fruit is globular, and as large as a good-sized apple. The interior contains a quantity of purple or rosy seeds, with a sweet juice, of a shghtly acid taste, i Sam. 14. 2. The BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. 231 tree is not tmlike the common hawtliorn, but larger It ia cultivated in North Africa and throughout Asia, Hag. 2. 19: Deut. 8. 3: Cant. 8. 2: Joel i. 12. Heb. Rimmon. Carved pomegranates were placed on the capitals of the columns of the temple. Poplar, Gen. 10. 37: Hos. 4. 13, is either the white poplar or the storax-tree. The latter yields the fragi'ant resin of frankincense. Either tree answers the description given in Genesis and Hosea. In the former, the lxx translate storax, and in the latter, poplar. The version of Genesis is the more ancient and authoritative. Heb. Libna. Beed, of the East, is a tall, grassy plant, consisting of a long, hollow -jointed stem, with shai-p- cutting leaves. The plant grows on the banks of rivers and in moist places, i Kings 14. 15: Job 40. 21: Isa. 19. 6, 7: 36. 6: Ez. 40, 5: Matt. 11. 7, and was used for measuring, fishing, walking, etc. A small kind was used for writing, 3 John 13. This reed is very abundant in the marshes between the Tigi'is and the Euphrates. Heb. Kane. Rose, Cant. 2. i: Isa. 35. i. Though the rose was known in Syria, and one species (the Damask rose) takes its name from Damascus, it is not mentioned in Scripture. The word so translated being (as its name implies) a bulbous-rooted plant. It is probably the Xarcissus, which is found throughout Syria, and is both very fragrant and beautiful. Heb. Chavatzeleth. Rm, only in Luke 11. 42, is the common garden-plant so called. Its leaves emit a strong and bitter odour, and were formerly used medicinally. Rxish, Isa. 9. 14, translated also "hook," Job 41. 2 : and bulrush, Isa. 58. 5, ought to be translated reed, or rash, in all these passages. NDil, (Gome,) translated, also, bulrush, Exod. 2. 3: Isa. 35-7: 18. 2, is the Egyptian j9 op ^/n/s, which belongs to the tribe, not of rushes, but of sedges. It grows eight or ten feet high. The stem is triangular, and without leaves, but is adorned with a large, flocculent, bushy top. The plant was used for making boats, sails, mats, and ropes ; the stem itself yielding the celebrated paper of Egypt. The plant is foimd in all parts of the Nile, near Babylon, and in India. Heb. Agmon. Saffron, xpokos, part of the yellow crocus. Cant. 4. 14. The stigmas and style of the flower formed this fragrant perfume, which was used to flavoiir both meat and wine, and as a powerful stimulative medicine. It is veiy common throughout Asia, and derives its English name (saffron) from the Arabic " zafran." Scarlet oah, of Palestine, is not mentioned in Scripture, but the 232 BOTANY OF SCRIPTUKE. insect living upon it is mentioned (T\]!hF\, Tolaatli), Exod. 25. 4: Lev. 14. 4, (>, etc. The tree is the kermes (hence crimson), or quercics coccifera (holm-oak), and the insects, a worm (vermes, hence vermilion), seem to grow on the branches, and were long thought to be vegetable excrescences of the tree itself. These insects are a lively red, and formed in early- times the common scarlet dye. This was superseded in part by the Tyrian purple, and in later times by cochineal, the product of another insect {Coccus cactus), indigenous to South America. Shittah-tree, the acacia, or Egyptian thorn, Exod. 25, 5, etc. The stem is straight and thorny, the bark is a greyish-black, the wood very light and durable, and therefore well adapted for a moveable structvire like the tabernacle. All this species bear flowers, and are remarkable for their fragrance and beauty, Soapf of Scriptvire, Jer. 2. 22: Mai. 3. 2, was a carbonate of soda, obtained from a kind of salt-wort. The ashes of this species of plants is called in commerce barilla, and is used in the manu- facture of glass. Probably, the carbonate of potash (pearlash), which is obtained b}'' burning poplar and other plants, is in- cluded under this name. Heb. Bor, or Borith. Sycomore, i Kings 10. 27: Psa. 78.47, etc., erroneously translated by the lxx (ruH,a.[jt,ivos (see Mulberry). In its leaves it resembles the mulberry, but is really a fig-tree, bearing a coarse, inferior fruit {Ficus sycomorus). It is lofty and shady (Luke 19. 4), with wood of no great value (i Kings 10. 27: 2 Chron. i. 15). The mummy-cases of Egypt were generally made of it. This tree must be distinguished from the English sycamore, which is a kind of maple. Tares (^/^«v;a). Matt. i^. 25, the LoUum temulentum, a kind of darnell, or grass, resembling wheat. It impoverishes the soil, and bears a seed of deleterious properties. Teil-tree, Isa. 6. 13, is the linden-tree of botanists {Tilia Europ.): called also the turpentine-tree (Pistachia terehinthus). The word so rendered is translated elsewhere elm, Hos. 4, 13, and oak. Gen. 35. 4. It grows to a great size, and yields a kind of turpentine, of agreeable odour and taste. Heb. Ela. TJiyine-u-ood (Rev. 18. 12), was in great demand among the Romans, who called it thya, or citron-wood. It grows only in the neighbourhood of Mount Atlas, in Africa, and yields the sanderach rosin of commerce. It is highly balsamic and odoriferous. Vine (|Q5, Gephen, a.f/,Tiko;)f Gen. 9. 20, etc., a well-known tree, and highly esteemed throughout the East. The vines of Eshcol, and of Sorek, were especially celebrated. The vine was grown EXTERNAL HELPS : MINERALOGY. 233 on terraces on the hills of Palestine, Isa. 5. i: Micah i. 6, or elsewhere on the gi'ound, Eze. 1 7. 6, 7. Sometimes it formed an arbovir, i Kings 4. 25: Hos. 2. 12, propped up and trained. A noble vine = men of generous disposition, Jer. 2.21: Isa. 5.2. A strange, or wild vine = men ignoble and degenerate, Deut. 32. 32: Gen. 40. 9, 10, etc. Willow, Psa. 137: Isa. 44. 4, was well known in Judsea, and one species, the weeping willow, is the Salix Bahylonica. (nSVQV), Tsaphtsapha, Ez. 1 7. 5, is probably the Egyptian willow {Salix ^gypt.) Wormwood {T^IVy, Laana, u-^lveiov), " root of bitterness," Deut. 29. 17: Rev. 8. 10, II, an emblem of trouble. There are various species of this tribe {Artemisia), of which the English plant {A. absinthium) is a specimen. There are several kinds found in Judaea, all of which are exceedingly bitter. The wormwood of commerce consists of the tops of the plants, flowers, and yoimg seeds intermixed. 361. For the same reason (§ 360,) we append tables of the minerals mentioned in Scripture. They will be found to throw light on several passages. I. JEarths and other Mineral Sulstances. Bitumen, or asphalt, translated slime, is an earth-resin, abounding in the neighbourhood of the Dead Sea and elsewhere. It was used as cement, Gen. 11. 3, as it still is in Zante and in some parts of the East. Pliny states that the Egyptians used it for making the papyrus boats of the Nile water-tight : (see Exod. 2. 3). Heb, Chamar. Brimstone, or sulphur, a mineral found in a natural state, and ob- tained by art from pyrites and various rock formations. It is found in Palestine in both states. Gen. 19. 24, 25: Psa. 11. 6: Ezek. 38. 22: Isa. 30. 33: 34. 9: Rev. 14. 10. Heb. Gophrith. Naphtha is also found in Palestine, and is, with the fore- going, highly combustible. The word occurs only, or I'ather, this earth-oil is mentioned only in Theodotion's version of part of Daniel. Clay, an unctuous eaiiih, used in making earthenware, Isa. 29. 16: 45. 9: Jer. 18. 4, 6, and, when mixed with sand — then called mud — for building. Job 4. 19. D''D, Tit (properly, dirt), has also the meaning of clay in Isa. 41. 25. Earth has thi-ee representatives in Hebrew: |'^X, Eretz, = the earth, habitable and uninhabited; HDIK, Adama, properly. ?34 MINERALOGY : STONES AND ROCKS. red earth, cultivable land, and sometimes tlie whole earth; "ISy, aphar, dry earth, or dust. There are also words for very fine dust (Deut. 28. 24: Nahum i. 3), and a dust-particle^ or atom (Isa. 40. 15). Clods of earth have three names, Job 7. 5 : 31.33: Joel I. 17. Nitre (soda), natrum, "iri3, Nether, a mineral alkali (as DHb, Borith, translated soap, is a vegetable alkali), found in a natural state in Egypt, etc. It occurs only, Jer. 2. 22, and in Prov. 25. 22. Vinegar (any acid) makes it emit a disagreeable odour, and destroys its qualities; hence the last passage. Salt abounds in Palestine. The Dead Sea is strongly impregnated with it. The salt-valley of 2 Sam. 8. 13 : i Chron. 18. 12: Psa. 60, is a large plain, still existing, south-west of the Dead Sea. The salt-pits of Zeph. 2. 9, were probably such as are still dug in the borders of the Dead Sea, into which the water runs, and where a thick crust of salt is soon deposited. Figu- ratively, salt expresses permanence, friendship, payment or sup- port, sterility; pure, salutary, healthy influence; preserving from decay. Hence a covenant of salt, 2 Chron. 13.5: Rosenm. on Lev. 2. 13: Ez. 4. 14, marg. : Psa. 107. 34 (because nothing can grow in a soil covered with salt, Jer, 17. 6: Judg. 19. 45): Col. 4. 6 (where it refers to apposite pure discourse): Matt. 5. 13: Mark 9. 50. Heb. Melach. Sand abounds in Palestine, and is often used as a comparison, to express abundance, extensiveness, weight, etc. Heb. Choi. 2. Stones and Bocks. Alabaster (from the Coptic, the whitish stone) of the moderns, is a kind of gypsum : among the ancients, the word was applied to a box, made of a kind of onyx (Pliny, lib. 36, chap, i). Matt. 26. 7: Mark 14. 3 : Luke 7. 37. Pliny states that it was much used for perfumery-boxes, as it still is in Egypt, Chalk-stones, Isa. 27. 9, lime-stone, the chief material of the hills of Syria and Palestine. It is hard and whitish; sometimes yellow or grey. Heb, Gir. Crystal (Ezek. i. 22: Job 28. 18) means literally in Hebrew and Greek, ice, a transparent, glass-like stone, of the flint family, Eev, 4, 6: 22. i. Heb. Kerach, Gabhish. Flint, Deut. 8. 15: 32. 13: Psa. 114. 8: Isa. 50. 7: Job 28. 9, translated also rock. The rocks of Sinai, to which in Deut. 8. the word is applied, are granite, pox-phyry, and green-stone, and such rocks are no doubt intended. Heb. Chalamish. Lime (T'b^, Seed, Isa. 33. 12: Amos 2. i: translated plaster, Deut. 27 24), is more properly gypsum, which was moi'e suitable for mdteralogy: precious stones. 235 the purpose named in Deut. 27. Lime, or gypsum, was early used for plastering, Dan. 5.5. Marble (tJ^^, Shesh) is limestone of a close textm-e. The name iu Hebrew means whiteness, and this was probably the common colour, I Chron. 29. 2: Esther i. 6: Cant. 5. 15. It is very common in Arabia and Persia. Josej^hus states that the second temple was rebuilt by Herod with white marble, either from Arabia, or, possibly, from the hills of Syria. Eock (")-1^*, Tsur) is the generic name. High precipitous rocks, fit for refuge, are called VT'D, Sela, Judg. 15. 8, 11: i Sam. 14. 4: Psa. 18. 3. Stone (|3X, Even), is generic. The Hebrew has distinct names for pebbles and gravel, )*i*n, nij^D, I'lV- 3. Precious Stones. Agate, a common compound mineral, of flint and various gems, so called from the river Achates in Sicily (Pliny), Exod. 28. 19: 39. 22. The word in Isa. 54. 12 : Ez. 27, 16, is different (n*2"l5). A similar Arabic word means vivid redness, and the stone referred to is probably the oriental ruby. Amethyst, a kind of blue transparent quartz, sometimes pm-ple or greyish ; supposed by the Greeks to have the power of driving away drunkenness, hence its Greek name; by the Hebrews, of procuring dreams (Q^H, Chelem, a dream). Rev. 2r. 20. Beryl, Tarshish stone, or chrysolith, properly, a gem of yellow gold lustre, sometimes vei-ging to yellow green, Exod. 28. 20: 39. 13: Cant. 5. 14: Ezek. i. 16, etc.: Rev. 21. 20: see Onyx. Carbuncle (flashing as lightning) ; the word so translated is rather the oriental emerald (s-fji.d.ou.y^o;), a beautiful green, of different shades, Exod. 28. 17: Ezek. 28. 13: so Lxx: Jos. Other words are used in Isa. 54. 12, meaning ''sparkling stones." Carbuncle is derived, etymologically, from carbo, a glowing coal. See Emerald. Diamond, D?n^ Yahalom, and "l''?pLi', Shemir. 1h.e first is the onyx, a kind of chalcedony, of various tints. When red, called sardonyx (see Sardius'); reddish grey, chalcedonyx; tawny, memphitonyx. This gem, the onyx, was semi-transparent (like the human nail, hence its name), and was much used for cameos and seals, Exod. 28, 18: Ezek. 28. 13. The second is fo\md Jer. 17. i (also Ezek. 3. 9: Zee. 7. 12, translated adamant), and probably means emery, an aluminous mineral, very hard, used for polishing glass. Enwrald, rather, carbuncle, under which name several brilliant red 236 MINERALOGY: METALS. stones were included, especially the ruby, garnet, etc. Exod. 28. 18: Ezek. 28. 13. Jasper, an opaque gem, of various tints, green, red, and yellow, Exod. 28. 20: Ezek. 28. 13: Kev. 4. 3: 21. 11, 18, 19. Ligure, hyacinth, or jacinth, a transparent gem, orange-yellow-red, found in Ceylon and India, Exod. 28. 19: Eev. 21. 20: 9. 17. Onyx, probably the heryl or chrysojorase, Gen. 2. 12: Rev. 21. 20 (i. e., a leek-green stone), generally transparent, and a pale green colour, Exod. 25. 7: Ezek. 28. 13. Sapphire, a transparent gem, generally sky-blue, and very hard; hence the floor of the throne of God in heaven is compared to it, Exod. 24. 10: Ezek. i. 26: Rev. 21. 19. The sapphire of the Greeks was our lapis lazuli ; the same colour as the Scrip- ture sapphire, but much softer. Sardius (DIX, Odem, r(?t? stone), properly carnelian (h, carne), a flesh-coloured gem, of the chalcedony family. It abounds in Arabia, and was found largely at Sardis, in Lydia, Exod. 28. 17: Ezek. 28. 13: Rev. 4. 3: 21. 28. Tcpaz, a yellow gem, with red, grey, or green tinge, found in South Arabia. Hence the topaz of Gush ; an island of the Arabic Giilf being called Topaz island (Diod. Sic. Pliny), Job. 28, 19: Exod. 28. 17: Ezek. 28. 13: Rev. 21. 29. The descriptions in Eevelation, it will be noticed, are closely connected with those in Exodus, and in Ezekiel. 4. Metals. Amber, Ezek. i. 4, 27: 8. 2, pi^operly, a metal composed of copper and gold. Electron, which is used by the Lxx to translate it, meant amber, and also a similar composition (Pliny). The corresponding Greek word is found in Rev. i. 15, ''fine shining brass." Antimony, or stibium, occurs in the Hebrew, but is translated paint (viz., the eyes) literally, with antimony, 2 Kings 9. 30: Jer. 4. 30: Ezek. 23. 40. The verb is pVO, Kachal, tocolourvrith al-kohol, a fine black powder made from the metal. The name {i. e., 'H, al-kohol), was ultimately applied (in Europe) to the purely spirituous part of liquors. The stones of Jerusalem are said to be set in stibium "fair colours," Isa. 54. 11. Copper, or brass : the former word is derived from Cyprus, where it was largely found. Brass is copper mixed with zinc or tin. In early times, this metal was generally used instead of iron. Wherever the word steel occurs in our version, the original is MINERALOGY : METALS. 237 brass. There is ample evidence from classic and Egyptian authorities that brass was extensively used, and it is said that the Egyptians had the art of tempering it. It was employed in making bows, and arms of all kinds. The columns of the temple, i Kings 7. 13-21, the bath, or sea, in the priests' vesti- bule, the forks used in sacrifice, the mirrors, were all of this material, Exod. 38. 8: 2 Kings 25. 13. The ''copper shining like gold," Ezra 8. 27, was p'^nbably a mixture of the two metals. See Amber. (?o/c?(")ijp, Segor, Dri3, Kethem, properly, what is barely concealed ; l^^in, Charuts, what is strongly lustrous; T S3, Paz, ^wre gold; and iHT, Zahab, gold itself, its mineral name) is found pure, and in combination with silver or iron. The Jews obtained their gold chiefly from Sheba and Ophir, both in Arabia, i Kings 9. 28: Psa. 45. 9. At present, no gold is found there, but ancient writers (Aftemid. Diod. Sic.) affirm that it was formerly found in considerable quantities. The places named in Dan. 10. 5, and 2 Chron. 3. 6, are not kno-mi. Beaten, or perhaps alloyed (Ges.) gold is mentioned in i Kings 10. 16, 17. Gold and silver were sometimes purified by fire, Prov. 1 7. 3 ; lead, antimony, salt, tin, and bran, being used for this pvirpose. Gold orna- ments were early used. The first mention of gold money is in David's age, i Chron. 21. 25. ■Iron was largely foimd in Syria, even in the earliest times, Deut. 8. 9. Instruments and tools were made of it, Niunb. SS- 16: Deut. 27. 5. Steel is called in Jer. 15. 12, "northern iron." The tribe celebrated in ancient times for making it were called Chalybes, and resided near the Black Sea. Hence Jer. descrip- • tion: and its Greek name. Another name for steel (H^ipS Pal da, from the Arabic) is translated torches, Kahum 2. 4: steel scythes. See Copper. Lead is first mentioned, Exod. 15. 10. Before quicksilver was known, it was used to purify silver. Hence several expressions, Jer. 6. 29: Ezek. 22. 18. In Amos 7. 7, a weight of lead, or plummet, is mentioned. The word is the Arabic for lead (!]^N, Anak). Ore of gold or of silver has in Hebrew a separate name. It means properly (Arabic similar), something broken off. It is variously translated in our version. Heb. H^ll, Betzar. Silver (f|D3, Keseph, literally, as in Greek, white metal) is found native, and combined with sulphur and acids. It often lies in veins. Job 28. i, and was purified by lead and heat (see Lead). Lead and silver combined is called silver dross; the separated 238 EXTERNAL HELPS: MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. silver, purified silver, P.!:a. 12. 6. It was brought (among other places) from Spain, Ezek. 27. 12: Jer. 10. 9. In veiy early times we find it in use, Gen. 23. 15, 16. Many utensils were made of it. Gen, 44. 2: Exod. 12. 35: IsTumb. 7. 13: 10. 2. The earliest mention of it as money is in Gen. 20. 16. The shekels were not coins, however, but pieces weighed out; see Gen. 23. 16: so even in the days of Jeremiah, Jer. 32. 9. The first coinage in Palestine was in the days of the Maccabees : see p. 248. The word rendered pieces of silver in Josh. 24. 32 is, properly, a kesitah, i. e., a piece equal to four shekels, as Gesenius gathers from Gen. 33. 19, and 23. 16. Tin is first mentioned. Numb. 31. 22. Latei-, the Tyrians imported it from Tarshish, Ezek. 27. 12: a levelling instrument of tin is mentioned, Zech. 4. 10. This word is also used for a refuse of lead and silver (see Lead), in Isa. i. 25. For further information on the foregoing, consult Eosen- miiller on the mineralogy of Scripture, and Gesenius's Lex. 362. vi. A knowledge of the manners and customs of the Jews Is of great service in interpreting Scripture. 363. Habitations, (a.) The founders of the Israelitish nation were a tent-dwelling people. Tents were invented before the deluge, and seem naturally associated with pastoral life, Gen. 4. 20. The first tents were covered with skins, Ex. 26. 14, but the coverings of most of those mentioned in Scripture were of goat's hair, spun and woven by the women (Ex. 35. 26) : hence their black colour (Sol. Song, i. 5) : tents of linen were used only occasionally for hohday or travelling purposes. The early tent was probably such as is still seen-in Arabia, of an oblong shape, and eight or ten feet high in the middle. Sometimes a person of consequence had three or four tents •; one for himself, another for his wives, a third and fourth for his servants and strangers. Gen. 24. 67 ; more com- monly, however, a very large tent was divided by curtains into two or three compartments. The Holy Tabernacle was formed on this model, Ex. 26. 31-37- (&.) Of huts, the intermediate erection between the tent and the house, we read but little in Scripture. Jacob seems to have used them to shelter his cattle (Gen. 33. 17), and we find them in later times erected in vineyards to protect those who watched the ripening produce (Job 27. 18 : Isa. i. 8), (c.) The Israelites probably saw good houses in Egypt ; on MAXNEES: HABITATIONS. 239 entering Palestine, however, they occupied the houses which their predecessors had built, and afterwards constructed their own on the same model. Domestic architectm-e must have made progress during the monarchy. Solomon's palace, -built by the aid of Phoenicians, no doubt suggested improvements. Jeremiah (22. 14) indicates some grandeur in building, and in the days of our Lord, the upper classes at all events had gathered instruction from the rules even of Grecian art. 364. (a.) The houses of the poor in the east, were generally built of mud, and thus became appropriate images of the frailty of human hfe. The walls were easily broken through, and the houses as easily destroyed (Job 24. 16 : Ezek, 12. 5 : Matt. 6. 19. (h.) The houses of "the rich were of a different order. They had generally four sides, of which one fronted the street, having only a door, and one or two small windows above. The door opened into a porch, and the porch led by a side door into a waiting-room, and the waiting-room into a four- sided court, open at the top, and surrounded by the inner walls of the house. Covered walks often running along by the walls on the ground-floor, while above them was a gallery of the same dimensions. Opposite the passage leading from the waiting-room into the court, was the guest-chamber (Luke 22. 11), where the master received visitors, and occasionally transacted business. The roof was flat, surrounded on the outside by a breast-work or battlement : and on the side next the court, by a balustrade of lattice-work. The stairs to the roof, and to each storey of the building, were generally in a corner of the quadrangle nearest the entrance, so that each visitor ascended to the roof, and to each of the rooms, without passing through the rooms below. In summer, the people slept on the roof, and at aU times it was used as a place of devotion, of mourning, and of rest. At the Feast of Taber- nacles tents were erected here, and during festivals or public rejoicings, the guests often assembled in the square below, which was sometimes covered. These facts explain the following passages, and many others : Deut. 22. 8 : i Sam. 9. 25 : 2 Sam, 11. 2 : Isa. 22. i : Acts 10. 9 : Mark 13. 15 : Mark 2. 4, (c.) The doors of eastern houses were double, and moved on pivots : they were secured by bars (Deut. 3.5: Judges 16. 3), 240 MANNERS : HABITATIONS. of wood, or of metal, Isa. 45. 2. Ancient locks were merely wooden slides, secured by teeth or catches, Sol. Song 5. 4. The street-doors, as well as the gates of towns, were adorned with inscriptions taken from the Law (Deut. 6. 9). The windows had no glass, but were latticed : in winter they were covered with thin veils, or with shutters having holes suffi- cient to admit light, i Kings 7. 17 : Sol. Song 2. 9. {d.) No ancient houses had chimneys, though holes were sometimes made, through which the smoke escaped, Hos. 13. 3. In the better class of houses, the rooms were warmed by charcoal, as is still the practice in the East (Jer. 36. 22) : John 18. 18. (e.) The articles of household furniture in use in the East, have always been few and small. In sitting rooms, little chairs or seats, and sometimes tables appear, ]\Iark 14. 54. The seat was either a rug or mat, on which the people sat cross-legged, or with their knees bent under them, or a legged seat, such as chairs and stools (i Kings 2, 19 : i Sam. i. 9 : Prov. 9. 14: Matt. 21. 12). The beds consisted generally of mattresses and quilted coverlets ; sheets, blankets, and bed- steads were not known, though on the house-tops a settee of wood, or a legged frame of palm branches was used, on which to place the bed (Psa. 132. 3 : Amos 6. 4). (/.) The common domestic utensils were of earthenware, or of copper, and a few were of leather : they consisted of pots, kettles, leather bottles, plates, cups, etc. ; lam^^s fed with ohve oil were used for giving light at night, and were of earth or of metal : in the houses of the rich they were placed upon stands, called candlesticks, and those had occasionally branches for several lamps (Gen. 15. 17 : Ex. 25. 31-40). A lamp was always kept burning at night (Job 18. 6 : Prov. 20. 20.) {(j) The towns of Palestine were small in size, but very numerous. Jerusalem, Samaria, and afterwards Csesarea, seem to have been the only exceptions: from the want of temples and pubhc buildings (except at Jerusalem), they must have had but a mean appearance, the streets being exceedingly narrow, dull, and unpaved. Even in the time of Moses, those towns had many of them high walls (Numb. 13. 25-33,) and gates implying walls are mentioned as early as the days of Abraham (Gen. 19. i.) At the gates most of the public bu- siness was transacted (Gen. 23. 10, 18 : Deut. 21. 19 : Kuth MANNERS : DRESS. 241 4. i) : there also the markets were held so long as the business of the Israelites was confined chiefly to the sale of their pro- duce, or flocks (2 Chron. i8. 9 : Neh. 8. i, 3) ; but afterwards, they had in the large towns, bazaars, or covered streets of shops, such as are now usual in the East. 365. The DRESS of the Jews consisted commonly of two gar« ments : the one a close-bodied frock or shirt generally with long sleeves, and reaching to a httle below the knees, though later to the ankle : and the other, a loose robe of some yards in length, fastened over the shoulders, and thrown around the body. Within doors, the first dress only was often worn. It was regarded, hovrever, as a kind of undress, in which it was not usual to pay visits, or to walk out. Hence persons clothed in it alone, are said in Scripture to be naked (Isa. 20. 2, 4 : John 21.7: John 13. 4,) or to have laid aside their garments. The sleeves were generally sufficiently long to cover the hands, and were used during visits of ceremony to conceal them. On occasions when great or continued efibrt was required or implied, the arm was " made bare,'' and the sleeve tucked up or removed, Isa. 52. 10: Eze. 4. 7. The outer garment (a kind of mantle or plaid), sometimes served as a covering by night, or as a bed (Deut. 24. 13 : Exod. 22. 27). The Israehtes on leaving Egypt, folded their kneading troughs in it. Prophets and others wrapped it round their heads as an expression of reverence or of grief (i Kings 19. 13: 2 Sam. 15. 30: Esth. 6. 12), or sometimes as a protection from the rain or wind, When gathered round the middle of the body, the garment is called the lap (2 Kings 4. 39), when gathered round the shoulders, the bosom (Psa. 79. 12 : Luke 6. 38). A considerable part of the wealth of eastern nations consisted in these garments, which were easily exchanged, and were often given and worn as expressions of affection and respect. Gen. 45. 22 : 2 Kings 5. 22. For a single shirt, the wealthy classes sometimes substituted a shirt of fine hnen, and an outer one of coarser material, the mantle being worn as an additional garment. The beauty of these garments consisted not in their shape, which never varied, but in their whiteness, Eccles. 9. 8, and they were 242 MANNERS: DRESS. torn or rent in token of sorrow or repentance, Gen. 37. 34 > Job I. 20. The inner garment was made of either linen or cotton, the outer garment generally of wool, or of wool and hair. The art of embroidery was evidently somewhat known, Exod. 35. 35 : Judges 5. 30 ; and one family seems to have been pecuharly famous in the manufacture of fine linen, i Chron. 4. 21. White, blue, and various shades of red and purple, were the favourite colours for clothes, and no others indeed are men- tioned in Scripture. Around the shirt, or inner garment, a girdle was sometimes worn, made of leather, fastened ^vdth clasps, 2 Kings i. 8, or of muslin, wound in many folds around the waist, Jer. 13. 1 : Matt. 3. 4 ; and still more commonly around the mantle. To have the loins girt in this way was especially necessary in travelling, or when engaged in strenuous effort of any kind. In the girdle a knife or sword was sometimes carried, or in the case of literary men, an inkhorn and pens, 2 Sam. 20. 8 : Ezek. 9. 2 : other valuables were often i^ut into it too, I Sam. 25. 13 : 2 Sam. 18. 11 : Matt. 10. 9 (Greek). Drawers were a part of the dress of the High Priest, and were perhaps used in later times by the people generally (Exod. 28. 42). They were worn next the person. The feet were covered with sandals, consisting of soles of leather, or of wood, bound to the foot by thongs or latchets (Matt. 3. 11). In transferring property, or in passing to the next of kin any personal obligation, it was customary to deliver a sandal (Euth 4. 7), as in the middle ages, a glove. To throw a shoe or a sandal over a country was a symbol of possession (Psa, 60. 8). To remove the sandals was an expression of reverence (Exod. 3. 5 : Deut. 25. 9). The operation being often performed by servants, to loose or to carry them was a famihar symbol of a servile or degraded condition, Mark 1.7: Acts 13. 25: Matt. 3. II : Isa. 20. 4. Stockings-were never in use, and the mass of the people went altogether barefoot, except in winter, or during a journey. The neck was generally left bare, and very frequently the head; when covered, it was protected among the higher classes by a kind of turban, and among the common people by a piece of cloth confined by a fillet around the brows : in CUSTOMS : FOOD AND MEALS. 243 the case of women, this turban -was connected with a veil covering the upper part of the person. The Israehtes allowed the hair of the head and beard to grow ; the foi-mer was occasionally cut, and the partial use of the razor in trimmiag the beard was not unlawful. Baldness was rare, and was despised, 2 Kings 2. 23 : Isa. 3. 24 : Jer. 47. 5. The beard as the sign of manhood was much respected ; to shave it, to spit upon it, to puU it, even to touch it, except as a salutation, was a gross insult (2 Sam. 10. 4-6 : i Chron. 19. 3-6 : Isa. 7. 20), and for a man to neglect or maltreat his own beard, was a sign of madness or of extreme grief (i Sam. 21. 13 : 2 Sam. 19. 24 : Isa. 15. 2.) 366. All the Easterns generally, and the Israehtes, were Food and simple and plain in their food, which consisted Meals. largely of bread, fruits, honey, milk, butter, and cheese. Meat was but httle used, animal food being in some degree restricted by the law which aUowed the flesh of no beasts to be eaten, but such as chewed the cud and parted the hoof, nor any fish but such as had both fins and scales (Lev. II. 1-28). It was in this general way that the hog was forbidden, but as it was commonly eaten in the East, this application of the prohibition of the law attracted more atten- tion than the rest. Blood and fat, the large lobe of the hver and the kidneys, were also forbidden. Poultry was used but sparingly, pigeons and the common fowl being the only do- mestic birds kept in Palestine, except " the fatted fowl," pro- vided for the tables of Solomon and Nehemiah (i Kings 4. 23: Neh. 5. 18). Eggs are only twice mentioned as articles of food. Though fish with fins and scales were aUowed, it does not seem that much use was made of this indulgence : the operations of fishing were clearly weU known however, (Job 19. 6: Isa. 51. 20: Job 41. i : Isa. 19. 8) : fish-ponds- are mentioned in Sol. Song, (7. 4) : fish were even brought by the Phoenicians across the country, from the Mediterranean to Jerusalem (Neh. 13. 16), and one of the gates of the city called the Fish-gate, seems to have been appropriated as the place of sale (2 Chron. 33. 14 : Neh. 3. 3). Among insects, it may be noticed, that locusts were per- mitted to be eaten. Lev. 11. 22, and were a common article of food in the East, Matt. 3. 4. Bread was not baked as with us, in loaves, but in cakes, M 2 244 CDSTOMS : FOOD AND MEALS. rolls, and large thin biscuits, each family bakmg its own, and that daily. The modes of baking were various ; the thicker roll or cake was baked upon the heated hearth ; the thin bread upon metal plates, or around the sides of earthen- ware vessels, or of a pit in the floor. Gen. i8. 6 : Lev. 2. 2, 4, 5. This work, like that of grinding corn, was at first performed by the wives and daughters of famihes. Gen. 18. 6 : 2 Sam. 13. 6, 8 : Jer. 7. 18 ; but was in time abandoned in some cases to servants, i Sam. 8, 13. The bread in common use needed not to be cut, but was broken, Isa. 58. 7 : Lam. 4. 4 : Matt. 14. 19. The Jews had generally two meals a day ; one in the morn- ing, between the third and sixth hours, and the other, their principal meal, about the eleventh hour, or five o'clock, in the oool of the day. At this meal, the guests aU recHned on their left sides on couches, placed around a circular table. In this posture, the head of one guest approached the breast of his neighbour, upon whose bosom, therefore, he was said to lean. Hence Christ told John who was to betray him, without the other disciples hearing his description, John 13. 23 : Prov. 26. 15. The feet were stretched out from the table, and were of course first reached by any one entering the room (Luke 7. 38). Hence it is said that the woman who washed our Lord's feet stood hehind him. This practice was borrowed from the Persians : in earlier times, the Jews probably used seats, or sat, as is the present custom in the East, round a table raised only a few inches from the ground. The food was taken by the hand, without aid of knife or fork, and hAice the practice of washing before and after meals, Mark 7. 5. In very early times, each guest had his own portion. Gen. 43. 34 ; see i Sam. 1.5: but later, all ate from the same dish. The ordinary beverage taken, not during the meal, but afterwards, was water, or wine diluted with water. A common acid wine diluted in this way, is called in our Enghsh version, vinegar, and was the usual drink of labourers and soldiers, Ruth 2. 14 : Matt. 27. 48. This was what the soldiers gave our Lord Vv-hen he cried " I thirst," The beverage previously ofiered him, vinegar and gall, or wine and myrrh. Matt. 27. 34 : Mark 15. 23, was given to persons about to be executed, in order to stupify them. Our blessed Lord refused to drink it. CUSTOMS : TAXATION, 245 In full consciousness he endured the cross, desiDising the shame. The beverage with which each guest was supplied, was in ancient times handed to him in a separate cup, ready mixed by the host : and hence the word cup is frequently used to signify a man's lot or portion, Psa. ii. 6: Isa. 51. 22 : Matt. 26. 39. " Mixed wine " in the Enghsh version, was not wine and water, but wine made stronger by spices, Prov. 23. 30. '• Strong drink " including a very inebriating liquor, made from dat.es and various seeds, Lev. 10. 9 : i Sam. i. 15. Not unfrequently, precious oils were used at banquets for anointing the guests, Psa. 23. 5 : 45. 7 : Amos 6. 6. Christ was thus honoured by the woman. Matt. 26. 7. She broke the box or jar in proof of the purity of the oil ; the neck being sealed, to show that it was an imported perfume, Mark 14. 3. The principal meal being in the evening of the day, was generally called supper. The hght and joy within the house on such occasions, were often employed to represent the hap- piness of heaven, while the darkness without, the " outer darkness," was employed to shadow forth the misery of the lost, Matt. 8. 12. 367. The system of taxation employed in Palestine before the davs of the Romans is not clearly defined. The Revenue '' • . j • . • and raxa- royal revenue, however, consisted m part m pre- ^'"^^' sents, I Sam. 10. 27 : 16. 20: 2 Chrou. 17. 5; in the produce of the royal flocks, i Sam. 21. 7 : 2 Chron. 26. 10: 32. 28, 29 ; in lands and vineyards either confiscated or re- claimed from a state of nature by the sovereign, j Kings 21. 9-16 : I Chron. 27. 28 ; in tribute, probably a tenth of the income of the people, i Sam. 8. 15 : 17. 25 (see Gesenius) ; in the plunder of conquered nations, 2 Chron. 27. 5 ; and in pay- ments imposed upon merchants passing through the terri- tory, I Kings 10. 15. Later still we find, probably in the place of some of the above, a toU and a tax on articles of con- sumption, corresponding to our excise, Ezra 4. 14, 19, 20. Doth these were of Persian or Assyrian origin. Of the system of taxation prevalent in the time of our Lord, we have more accurate information. Soon after Judcea was reduced to a province of the Eomau empire, an enrolment was made of the names and fortunes of the citizens, and on this enrolment was founded a capitation 2-16 CUSTOMS : modes of reckoning. ^Hax or tribute." This tax was laid by the magistrates of each city. It occasioned much division of opinion in Judsca, and gave rise to more than one insurrection, Acts 5. 37. Our Lord was urged to identify himself with its advocates or opponents, Matt. 22. 17. The tax was paid to collectors, either in Roman money (the denarius, or penny), or in Grecian (the drachma). If paid in the latter, however, the coin had to be changed by the traders, or " money-changers," as Roman money only was received at the Roman treasury. Besides this census or head tax, there were custom duties, or taxes on exports and imports, Matt. 9. 9. These were fixed by law, and were levied by revenue farmers through their servants. These servants are called Publicans in the New Testament, and the farmers of the revenue, Chiefs of the Publicans. This system of farming the revenue, proved a strong temptation to the Publicans, who were generally un- popular. The third public tax in Judoea was the half shekel required by the law, to be paid by every Jew into the temple treasury. It was always paid in Jewish money, and by all Jews, even by those who lived out of Palestine. The money-changers who sat in the temple, procured this Jewish money in ex- change for Greek and Roman coins, Matt. 21. 12 : John 2. 16. This tax was regarded as paid to God : when therefore our Lord intimates to Peter, that the children of kings are exempt from tribute, he imphed that He himself was the son of the Pather, Matt. 17. 26. This distinction between the different kinds of taxes is always preserved in the original of the New Testament, and generally in the Enghsh translation. 368. A knowledge of the modes op reckoning employed by Weights and the Jews wiU often aid us in gathering lessons Money. fj.Qj^ Scripture, and is sometimes essential to an intelligent interpretation of Scripture language. The following are tables of the weights, measures, and money, mentioned in the Bible. They are taken from Ar- buthnot's work, as quoted by Home. CUSTOMS : WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 247 369. (i), Jewish weights, reduced to English troy weight: — The gerah, one-twentieth of a shekel Bekah, half a shekel The shekel The maneh, 60 shekels ----------- The talent, 50 maneh, 3000 shekels ------- 370, (2). Scripture measures of length, reduced to English measure: — Eng. ft. in. lbs. oz. pen. gr- 0 0 0 12 0 0 5 0 0 0 10 0 2 6 0 0 125 0 0 0 A digit, Jer. 52. 2i 0 0 0 I - 7 - 10 - 14 - 145 paces. 0 145 729 40J i5i 172 0-912 3648 10-944 12 1 3 \ A span, Exod. 28. 16 9-888 96 1 24 1 6 1 2 1 A fathom, Acts 27. 28 144 1 36 1 12 1 6 1 1-5 1 Ezekiel's reed, Ezek. 40. 3-5 - - - 3-552 11-328 192 1 48 i 16 1 8 j 2 1 1-3 1 An Arabian pole 7-104 1920 1 480 1 160 1 80 1 20 1 13-3 1 10 1 Measm-iug line, Ezek. 40. 3 11-04 371. (3). The long Scripture measiires : — Eng. miles ft. 40D 1 A stadium, or fui'long, Luke 24. 13 0 4-6 •2CXX5 1 5 1 aA sabbath day's journey. Acts I. 12 - - - 0 3-c 4000 1 10 1 2 1 An eastern mile, Matt. 5. 41 - - - - i i-o 12000 1 30 1 6 1 3 1 A parasang 4 3-0 96000 : 240 i 48 1 24 1 8 1 A day's journey 3 J 4-0 .1 So called, because this was the distance between the tabernacle and the extreme point of the camp. 372- (4)- Scripture measures of capacity for liquids, reduced to English wine measure: — Gal. pints. A. caph ■.... o 0-625 i'3 I A log, Lev. 14. 10 o 0-833 5-3 I 4 I A cab o 3*333 ;i6 I 12 I 3 I Ahin, Exod. 30. 24 i 2 32 I 24 i 6 I 2 I A scab 2 4 96 I -72 I 18 I 6 I 3 I A bath, or ephah, I Kings 7. 26: John 2. 6 7 4 960 I 720 I i8o I 60 I 20 I 10 I Akororhomer,Ezek.45.i4:Isa.5.io 75 5 373. (5). Scripture measures of capacity for things dry, reduced to English com measure : — Peck. gal. pints. A gachal ----------- --------o o o'i4i6 20 I A cab or choenix 2 Kings 6. 25 : Eev. 6. 6 ----o o 2-8333 36 I 1-8 I Anomer, Exod. 16. 36: 29.40 o o 5-1 120 I 6 I 3-3 I A seah, Matt. 13. 33 i o i 360 I 18 I 10 I 3 I An ephah, Ezek. 45. 11 - - - - 3 o } 1800 I 90 I 50 I 15 I 5 I A letech, Hos. 3.2 16 I „ I I 1,1,1 C A homer or kor, Numb. ■) ,, 3600 I 180 I 100 I 30 I 10 I 2 I I II. 32: Hos. 3.2- -1^2 248 CUSTOMS : weights and money. 374. (6), Jewish money, and its value in English coin A gerah, Exod. ^o. 13- ---- 10 I A bekah, Exod. j3. 26 20 I 2 I " A shekel, Exod. 30. ij : Isa. 7. 23 : Matt. 17. 27 ["200 I 120 I 50"! A maneh or minah Hebraica, Luke 19. ij - 60000 I 6000 i 3000 I 60 I A talent Jf. s. 0 0 d. I-26C 0 I 1-687 0 2 5 14 i42 3 r3:s 0.75 9 0 12 1 16 0-5 6 5475 0 A sol.dus aureus, or sexlula, was worth A siculus aureus, or gold shekel, was worth A talent of gold was worth " First coined by Simon Maccabaeus, i Mac. 15. 6. In the preceding table, silver is valued at 5s. and gold at 4I. per oz. In ancient times, gold and silver were much scarcer than now, and therefore of higher relati\ e value. A shekel would probably purchase nearly ten tunes as much as the same nominal amovmt will now purchase. 375. (7). Roman money mentioned in the ISTew Testament, and its value in English money : — f . s. d.far. A mite (^Xeirrov or aa-crdpiov), Mark 12. 42 ---------000 c | A farthing (/coSpai/r»js)> ^'I^^rk 12. 42 about o o o i.f A penny, or denarius (fiiji/dpiov), Matt. 22. 19 --------007 2 A poimd, or miua i26o The Grecian drachma in common use was of about the same value as the denarius. The Persian daric is the first coin mentioned in Scripture, and is the most ancient history makes known to us. It was rather heavier than a guinea. See i Chron. 29. 7 : Ezra 2. 69 : 8. 27: Neb. 7. 70-72, where the word is translated dram. 376. Many passages may be explained by these Tables. From Table 3, we learn that the sabbath day's journey was less than a mile. How suggestive of the sacredness of the day, when everything approaching to bodily fatig-ue was for- bidden ! From Table 6, we learn to admire the noble disinterestedness of Elisha. Naaman offered him 6,000 pieces or shekels of gold, or more than ten thousand pounds. This was the temptation under which Gehazi fell, and yet it did not excuse his guilt. The same Table illustrates strikingly the unreasonableness of an unforgiving spirit and the aggravations of our ovra guilt. The debtor, who threw his fellow-servant into prison because he owed him a hundred pence, about 3Z., had himself been forgiven 10,000 talents, or, if these were silver, upwards of three millions sterling, Matt. 18. 24. How clearly does it illustrate the prophecy of Isaiah, "He was despised and rejected of men," to find that Judas be- CCSTOiK : ilODES OF RECKONING. 249 trayed our Lord for thirty pieces of silver, or 3/. los. 8d., the price paid for a slave when killed by a beast. From. Tables 4 and 5, we learn the displeasure of God against covetousness. " Ten acres of vineyax-d (says the prophet) shall yield one bath, and the seed of an homer shall yield an ephah," Isa. 5. 10. That is, one acre of land shall yield less than a gallon of wine, end nine-tenths of the seed shall perish. Unfaithfulness and irrehgion are real foUy. The fear of the Lord is, in all senses, the beginning of wisdom. 377. The Jewish mode of reckoning time was pecuhar. Time and They had two years ; the sacred and the civil, modes of The sacred began in March or April (according to reckoning. ^^^ moon), the month of deliverance of the children of Israel from Eg}-23t ; and the civil in September or October, the commencement of seed-time.'' The prophets use the former ; those engaged in civil and agricultural concerns,, the latter. The year was divided into twelve lunar months,, with every third year, a thirteenth. Till the return from captivity, these months had no separate name, except the first, which was called Abib (the month of "the green ears of corn "), or Nisan, the month of " the flight," Esth, 3. 7. (See Exod. 12. 33 : Heb.) After the captivity, Babylonish names, were employed. The natural day was from sun-rise to sun-set (as with the Romans), and was divided (after the captivity) into twelve hours of unequal length. The civil day (the day used in common reckoning) was from six in the evening to six in the next evening ; differing in this respect from the Roman civil day, which, hke ours, was from midnight to midnight. This was divided agam into night and day of equal length. The night was divided, in very early times, into three watches. The first (Lam. 2. 19) till twelve o'clock ; the middle till three in the morning (Judg. 7. 19) ; and the morning watch till six (Exod. 14. 24). In the time of our Lord, however, the night was divided, as among the Romans, * The Rabbins say that the year began in March, as did the Roman year, and in September; but the probability is, that in earlier times it began with the new moon of April and October res- pectively. See Jahn Archie ologia Bib., § 103. 250 cusTOiis: modes of reckoning. into four watches, of three hours each (Mark 13. 35) ; the third of which was called cock-crowing (Matt. 26. 34). The day, iDroperly so called (from six in the morning till six at night), was divided into twelve hours, of which the third, the sixth, and the ninth, were devoted to the public services of worship. This division is still retained among the Jews. In very early times, and till the Babylonish captivity, the day was divided into the following parts : — The break of day. Mid-day at 12 o'clock. The morning. The cool of the day, from 3 The heat of the day, from 9 o'clock till 6. o'clock till 12. And the evening. From the sixth hour (or twelve o'clock), tiU the close of the day, was called evening. This part of the day was divided into two portions, called evenings, Exod. 12. 6 : Levit. 23. 5 (original). 378. These distinctions explain several passages. About the eleventh hour, the husbandman said to the labourers, "why stand ye here all the day idle?" (Matt. 20. 6). With us, the eleventh hour is not yet noon : with the Jews, it was about an hour from sunset. . , . Peter's reasoning is rendered forcible by these facts. It is (said he) but the third hour of the day (nine o'clock), Acts 2. 15, the time of the morning sacrifice, before which time the Jews did not eat or drink. On the day of the crucifixion there was darkness over all the land from the sixth to the ninth hour, i. e., from twelve o'clock to three. The passover was always kept at the full moon ; this darkness, therefore, could not have taken place in the ordinary course of nature from an eclipse of the sun. ... It was at the ninth horn', Jesus cried with a loud voice, and shortly afterwards (or ''between the evening," the time of offering the customary sacrifice) he expired. .... John says that Pilate brought Jesus forth to the people at the sixth hour (John 19. 14), pi-obably reckoning from midnight, the commencement of the Roman civil day. After the overthrow of the Jewish state, the adoption of the civil day of Europe and Egypt for reckoning was the more natural. It was at the fourth watch of the night, or about dawn, that Jesus went to the disciples on the sea. He had spent the whole night, therefore, in prayer, Mark 6. 48. The highest praise was bestowed upon the servant whom his Lord found watching in the second or third watch, i. c, from nine till three, Luke 12. 38. CUSTOMS: MISCELLANEOUS. 251 It is to be observed, that the Jews and other Orientals generally speak of any part of a day, or of a period of time, as if it were the whole. Thus Jesus said, "After three days I will rise again," Matt. 27 63 ; though he was in the gi-ave only a day and a half, from sunset on Friday to the earhest morning on Sunday. He intimated, also, quoting from Jonah, that he would be in the grave three days and three nights, i. e., part of three separate civil days ; day and night meaning a day of twenty-four hours. Matt. 12. 40; i Sam. 30. 12, 13. In the same way, a- week is called eight days in John 20. 26, as it often is in German. 379. There are many other customs referred to in Scripture Miscei- *^^-^ which it is impossible to enlarge, ton^."''^"^" Opulent Jews, for example, in ancient times, had their childi'en taught some medianical art, to prepare them for any reverse of fortune; and so St. Paul received a liberal education, and learned tent making. Acts 18. 3. At the time of the passover the people of Jerusalem prepared 2jrivate rooms, in which any stranger might celebrate the feast; and hence Christ sent Peter and John, without any scruple, to seek an upper room for this pui^ose, Mark 14. 15. In ancient Rome, children were adopted at first privately; then the adoption was ratified by a pubhc act; and the children so adopted became the heirs of their foster parents. Btnce, in Rom. 8, Christians are said to be adopted, and yet to wait for their adoption, even the redemption of their bodies; i. e., for their pubUc recognition at the coming of the Lord, ver. 23. The common salutation in the East was a kiss ; sometimes upon the beard (2 Sam. 20. 9), sometimes upon the cheek: the kiss of respect and homage was upon the brow (Gen. 27. 26: Exod. 4. 27: I Sam. 10. i: Psa, 2. 12: Acts 20. 37). ... In meeting, the Jews used many ceremonies, and persons charged with urgent business, therefore, were forbidden to salute by the way (2 Kings 4. 29^ Luke 10. 4). . . . The usual greeting was, "Peace be with thee" (Judges 19. 20: I Sam. 25, 6): other forms may be seen in Ruth 3. 10: 2. 4: Psa. 129. 8. Persons paying visits to a superior generally brought presents (Prov. 18. 16 : Job 42. 11). Kings and princes also made presents as marks of distinction (Gen. 45. 22, 23: Esther 8. 15: i Sam. 18. 4). J^ot to wear garments thus given was a great afiront (Matt. 22. II, 12). An insult was shown by maltreating the beard, by spitting in the faco, by putting men to degrading employments (Judges 16. 21; 252 cusTOJis: miscellaneous. Lam. 5. 13), by clapping the hands (Job 27. 23), by casting contempt upon a man's mother (i Sam. 20. 30: 2 Sam. 3. 39: 16. 10: 19. 22;^ by dishonouring the dead (Jer. 26. 23: 8. i: 16. 5, "). In the earliest times there were no inns like ours, and travellers generally waited in the street, or at the gate, till invited to some house (Gen. 19. 2: Judges 19. 15-21). In the time of our Lord there were places of accommodation where lodging v/as provided, but where each guest brought his own provisions, fuel and bed. In the stable of such an inn, there being no room in the lodging apart- ment, the Saviour of the world was born. Places of a similar kind, probably without x-esident occupants, were found upon the main roads even in the days of the patriarchs (Gen. 42. 27 : 43. 21 : Exod. 4. 24). Both are still fo\md in the East; the former called khans, and the latter, caravanserais. When a person died, his relations rent their garments from head to foot ; a smaller rent being made by spectators : hired mourners often added to the expressions of grief by their lamenta- tions and music (Jer. 9. 17, 18: Matt. 9. 23: Acts 9. 39). Em- balming was common, though, except in Egypt, the i)rocess seems to have consisted of little else than anointing the body with odoriferous drugs, and wrapping it in linen. The funeral followed death within twenty-four hours ; the body not being placed in a coffin, but closely Avrapped from head to foot on an open bier, and so borne to the place of burial, which was always, except in the oase ofiikings and distinguished men, at some distance from the city. For the poor, there was a common burial ground ; but families had often their sepulchres in their own fields or gardens. There was no particular ceremonial at the gi-ave, but the day wa.s concluded by a funeral feast (2 Sam. 3. 35 : Eos. 9. 4). Mourning was expressed afterwards by rent clothes and sackcloth ; sometimes by a shrouded face, and sometimes by dust sprinkled upon the head (2 Sam. 3. 31: 19. 4: Job 2. 12). The gi-aves v.ere generally dug in the rocks, with niches all round, each holding a corpse (Job ic. 21, 22: 33. 18: Psa. 88. 6: Isa. 14. 9-19: 38. 10: Eaek. 32. 18.) Crucifixion was the punishment of slaves only, or of those upon whom it was intended to fix the deepest ignominy. It was not a Jewish punishment, nor was it inflicted upon a Roman citizen. Thus Christ was delivered to the Gentiles, and numbered with the wicked in his death, Matt. 20. 19. At the feast of tabernacles, the people (''on the last day of tho feast") drew water from the spring of Siloam, which issued from a rock near the temple. Part of this water they drank amidst joyful acclamations; the people singing the words of Isaiah, "With EXTERNAL KELTS : GEOGRAPHT. 253 joy shall they draw -water from the -wells of salyation,-*' and the rest they poured on the evening sacrifice: see John 7.37. In the time of our Lord it -was a common practice for the hings of Syria to -^dsit Borne, to obtain the confirmation of their title frora the emperor and senate, or to court their favour. Herod the Great went to Augustus for this purpose, and his sons -visited Rome. They -went, as our Lord expresses it, ''to receive a kingdom and to return," Luke 19. 12. This practice explains the incidental allu- sions to the custom in many of the parables; and it gives an indii-ect proof of the truth of the gospel. The bottles of the ancients were not of glass, but of skins, and hence they shrank in the smoke (Psa. 119. 83) and burst, if new or fermenting T,-ine were placed in them, IMatt. 9. 17. When a person charged with crimes against the state was tried in ancient times, the citizens who tried him voted for his acquittal by dropping a v:hite stone into the box, and for his condemnation, by di'Opping a black one. Our Lord, therefore, is said to give unto him that overcometh a white stone (Eev. 2. 17). Many customs were connected in ancient times -with sealing; the seal, generally a signet-ring bearing the name of the o-wner, preserved the object. Job 14. 17, and secured privacy, Isa. 29. 11. It gave authority and completeness to documents, oSTeh. 9.38: Esther 8. 8: Dan. 6. 9, 13, 17; or it marked the object as the peculiar property of him whose seal was placed upon it, 2 Tim. 2. 19: Rom. 4. It : Rev. 7. 2, 3. 380. vii. A knowledge of geography, under its twofold di- vision of historical and physical, is of great use in the study of Scripture. 381. The rible directs us to the high parts of Armenia Tiie lands of and the fertile plains between the Tigris and the the Bible. Euphrates as the first settlement of mankind after the flood. The i3ride and idolatry of Shinaar dispersed them ; Shem and his descendants occupying the peninsula bet-ween the Black Sea and the Indian Ocean ; Ham, Africa ; and, after some time, Japhet, Europe, and part of Asia. Going south-westward from Ararat, we come to Mount Lebanon in Palestine, and have round us "the lands of the Bible." Looking southward from this position, we have on our left, far over the Syrian desert, the Euphrates and the Tigris, which, taking their rise in Armenia, run into the Persian Gulf, and, as they flow, inclose the country called 254 GEOGRAPHY OF SCRIPTURE. Mesopotamia (" between the rivers "). On the banks of these rivers, men first formed societies ; on the Euphrates rose the city of Babylon, and on the Tigris, the city of Nineveh.. Between the Euphrates and the table-land, east of Jordan, is Arabia Deserta ; southward, Arabia Petrea (the rocky), with Petra as its capital ; southward still, and reaching to the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf, is Arabia the fruitful, whence (or through which) came the gold and spice of eastern story. 382. Eeturning to Lebanon, and looking (still to the south) on the region below us, we find Palestine, having on its northern seaboard Phoenicia (the coast of Tyre and Sidon), and, on its southern, Philistia. Looking northward for a moment (supposing that we stand on Hermon, where Libanus and Antilibanus seem to join), we find two ridges of hills running through the whole of Syria, Libanus and Antilibanus, till they are lost in Asia Minor ; the district they inclose is Coele-Syria (or the Hollow Syria), called also the Plain of Lebanon ; its capital, Baalbec, the city of the sun. Looking southward, again, we find these ridges running through the whole of Palestine, till the left-hand ridge is lost in the Eed Sea, and the right-hand ridge in the peninsula of Sinai, the scene of the wanderings of the Israelites during forty years. To the west of this latter region we find Egypt. 383. Immediately beneath us, on the left, we have the city of Damascus, ever famous for bigotry and fruitfulness ; on the right, we have the blue tideless waters of the Mediter- ranean, connecting the traffic of Europe with the marts of the East ; and in succession, Cyprus, Crete, Malta, and Sicily — " the isles of the sea." If now we carry our eye in a line with our right hand, we enter Asia Minor, whose various provinces are mentioned in the Acts. Running westward, and crossing the yEgean Sea, we come to HeUas, or Greece (" Achaia "), having Macedonia on the north, and Thrace on the north-east. From Macedonia, Illyricum stretches away in a north-west line. Crossing the Adriatic, we land at Brundisium, in Italy, whence we proceed over the Appenine Hills to Rome, on their western side. Thence we may travel by land over the Alps, or, by sea, through the Gulf of Genoa, to France (Gaul) ; and from France, over the Pyrenees, to GEOGRAPHY OF SCRIPTURE. 255 Spain, and proceeding southward, come to " Tarsliish." We thence sail along the northern coast of Africa till we reach Carmel and Lebanon again. Still occup^dng our position on Mount Hermon, and looking southward, we find on our left, beyond Jordan, the high lands of Gilead and the pasture-grounds of Bashan. The whole country is beautiful and verdant. The valleys, says Bucking- ham, are filled with corn and olives, and the hills are covered with vines. See i^Tumb. 32. 1-4. Here, to the south, were the territories of Ammon, Moab, and Edom. 384. Between the ridge of hills which runs through this Valley of the district, on the east side of the river, and the ridge Jordan. of Lebanon, which also runs southward on the west side (under the names of the mountains of Xaphtah, of Ephraim, or Israel, and the mountains of Judah), lies the valley of the Jordan ; containing the Lake of Gennesareth (or sea of Galilee), the Jordan itself, and the Dead Sea. The ■whole length of the Jordan with windings, is about 20c miles ; the width of the Sea of Gennesareth is from eight to ten. Compare Matt, 14. 23, with John 6. 19. Westward of this range of hiUs, and between it and the sea, is the district of Tyre, the plain or valley of Sharon, and the country of the Philistines. Southward, " as thou comest to Gaza," it is de- sert ; so that the sea-board plain ends in the desert of Gaza ; the centre, or plain of the Jordan, in the desert of Sinai ; and the district beyond Jordan in the deserts of Edom. Isa. Si- -'■ Cant, 2. i. 385. Looking, again, to the district nearer to us, it is not difficult to mark a triangular valley opening to the sea at Mount Carmel, one of the terminations of the mountains of Israel, — the mountains of JSTaphtah, or of Galilee, and another part of the same range, the mountains of Gilboa, forming Valley of the other sides. This valley has been called suc- Esdraeion, cessively the plain of Esdraelon, of Jezreel, and of Megiddo. The river Kishon, that "ancient river," flows through it into the "Great Sea," not far from Acre, Judg. 4, 13 : 5. 21. The little town of Nazareth lies among the hills to the north. This valley was the scene of the victory of Deborah and Barak, of Gideon, of the PhiHstines in their last battle v.'ith Saul, of Ahab over Benhadad, and of the 256 GEOGRAPHY OF SCRIPTURE. Egyptians over Josiah. Here the Assyrians and Persians, the Crusaders and Saracens, the Egyptians and Turks, the Arabs and Franks, have fought ; and it was on this battle- field of nations that Bonaparte gained one of his victories just before he was compelled to relinquish Syria. Mount Tabor rises on the north side of the plain. Judges 4. 12-24: X Sam. 31:1 Kings 20: 2 Kings 23. 29. 386. If we trace in this way the history of particular places mentioned in Scripture, we shall find the exercise highly interesting and instructive. Between Jerusalem and Beersheba, and about twenty miles from each place, lies one of the oldest cities in the world, now occupied by some 6,000 Arabs — the city of Hebron. Here lived Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob ; here they received the promise and the seal of the covenant, and here, they and their wives were buried. In the days of the spies it was inhabited by the sons of Anak. Joshua des- troyed it, and the place was given to Caleb. When rebuilt, it became one of the Levitical cities. Here David was anointed king over Israel ; here Abner was assassinated ; here Absalom established his head-quarters during his rebeUion ; and over one of the pools of Hebron (several of which still remain), David hung up the assassins of Ishbosheth. Numb. 13: Josh. 10. 37: 14. 13: 2 Sam. 2. 11: 3. 27: 15. 7, 12. About twenty miles eastward of Jerusalem, and accessible only by a lonely and dangerous road (the Bloody way as it was called in Jerome's days), lies the city of Jericho, Within sight of its walls the manna ceased. In the days of Joshua it was overthrown, and a curse was pro- nounced upon who should rebuild it, a curse fulfilled 520 years afterv/ards upon Hiel. In the time of EHsha, it was a school of the prophets. Here Herod the Great died. Once the city was visited by our Lord, when he lodged with Zaccheus. I Kings 16. 34: 2 Kings 2. 4, 5 : Matt. 20. 29, 30. Between Jericho and the Jordan lay the town of Gilgal, where were erected the twelve stones taken from Giljral. the river when the Israelites passed over. Here Samuel offered sacrifice, held his yearly courts, and recognised GEOGRAPHY OF SCRIPTURE. 257 Saul as king. And here was one of the schools of the pro- phets. In the days of Ahaz, however, it was the seat of idolatrous worship, and an object of execration by the pro- phets. The place where the children of Israel had renewed their covenant with God, and whence he had so often gone up with their armies, thus became defiled with idolatry. Josh. 4. 19 : Hos. 9. 15. If we trace the history of Shiloh, the place chosen by Joshua for the tabernacle, and where it remained for more than 400 years, till the days of Eh, we shaU have in brief a history of many a favoured and after- wards rejected city, Josh. 18. i-io ; Judges 21. 19-23 : i Sam. chax)s. 1-6 : i Kings 11. 29 : 12. 15 : 14. 2, etc. : Psa. 78. 60 : Jer. 7. 12-14: 26. 6. The pecuhar feelings with which Jacob must have visited Beersheba, where he offered sacrifice (Gen. 46. i), may be gathered from Gen. 31. 33: 22. 19 : 26. 23-25. It was already endeared to him by many holy asso- ciations. A brief notice of Palestine will throw light upon several passages, both of the Old and New Testament. Falestine. 387. Its XAiiES. — It is called the world,"* the earth or the land. Hence Solomon is said to reign from the river (Euphrates), to the end of the earth, Psa. 72. In the person of Christ these words have a stiU larger fulfil- ment. The country which lay to the south of Judaea, was Arabia, and at its extreme border (from the sea), was the city of Sheba, or Saba. And hence the queen of Sheba is said to have come from the uttermost parts of the earth to hear the wisdom of Solomon. The country was early inhabited by the descendants of Canaan, the grandson of Koah (Gen. 11). It was thence called the land of Canaan. From the descendants of Jacob, it was called the land of Israel. From the fact that the tribe of Judah occupied it almost alone after the captivity, it was called Judaea (Psa. 76, i). From the covenant into which God entered with Abraham and his posterity, it was called ■ Luke 2, i: Acts ir. 28: Luke 4. 25 : 21. 26 : James 5. 17. 258 GEOGBAPHY : PALESTIXE. the laud of promise, Gen. 12. 7 : 13, 15 : Ex. 15. 14 : Heb. II. 9. And from the PhiHstiues or Pali (shepherds), who inhabited its southern coasts, Palestine. The land of God, Lev. 25. 23 ; the holy land, Zeoh. 2. 12, are also terms employed in Scripture. It must be observed, however, that the limits of the country to which these names were given, have varied at different periods. Its extent and divisions. — The whole land of Israel, from Its extent I)an to Beersheba, was in length equal to the dis- and divisions, tance between London and York, or about 200 miles, and in its widest parts was less than the distance be- tween York and Liverpool, or about ninety miles. For seven centuries after the dispersion, it was occupied by the Canaanites, who divided it among ten nations. They after- wards dwindled to seven. Gen. 15. 18-21 : Deut. 7. i ; of whom the Amorites were the most powerful, and their name is some- times used for the whole. Gen. 15. 16. The Philistines, Moab- ites, Midianites, Ammonites, and the children of Amalek and Edom were residing, tvhen the Israelites entered Canaan, in its immediate vicinity, and some of them within its borders. Joshua divided the country into twelve parts, giving one to each tribe, E^^hraim and Manasseh being reckoned among the tribes, and Levi ha\dng his portion among the rest. In the North dwelt Asher, Naphtali, Zebulon, and Issachar : after- wards Galilee of the Gentiles, and Galilee proper. In the Middle, Ephraim, and half of Manasseh ; afterwards Sa- maria. In the South, Judah, Benjamin, Dan and Simeon; afterwards Judaea. Beyond Jordan, Eeuben, Gad, and half of Manasseh; afterwards Persea, etc. Under the reign of Solomon, the kingdom was greatly ex- tended, and the distinction of tribes became less marked. The whole of his territory was therefore divided afresh into twelve districts, each under its own officer (i Kings 4. 7-19). On the death of Solomon, ten tribes revolted from his son Eehoboam, and formed the kingdom of Israel, of which Sychar or Shechem was the capital. The other tribes of Benjamin and Judah, with parts of Dan and Simeon, formed the king- dom of Judah, whose chief city was Jerusalem. This division GEOGRAPHY : PALESTINE. 259 ceased, however, on the subversion of the kingdom of Israel, by Shahiianeser, the Assyrian, after it had continued for 254 years : and the country fell successively into the hands of the Assyrians, the Greeks, the Jews (under the Maccabees), and the Romans. In the time of our Lord, it was divided into five provinces, 1 . Galilee, which included most of the scenes of his personal ministry, and whence most of his disciples were chosen, Isa. 9. I : Matt, 2. 22, 23 : Luke 4. 14 : Matt. 26. 6^ : 28. 7. 16. This district was despised by the Jews because of its distance from Jerusalem, its connection with the Samaritans, and the impurity of the dialect spoken by the people, Mark 14.70. 2. Samaria, which included the middle division of the king- dom, and separated Galilee from Judsea, John 4. 4. 3. Judaea, which was nearly co-extensive with the ancient kingdom of Judah. 4. The district of Fercea (or heyond Jordan), which included Abilene, where Lysanias was tetrarch, Luke 3.1, Trachonitis, Ituraea or Auranitis,^ Gaulonitis,b Batansea, the ancient Bashan, but less extensive, Persea proper (between the Arnon and the Jabbok), where John was beheaded, and Decapolis (or the district of the ten cities). 5. Idumcea, a province which was added by the Romans. It comprised the extreme south parts of Judsea, with a small part of Arabia. After some time, the Idumseans became mingled with the Ishmaehtes. 388. In later times, these divisions have undergone various Later divi- changes. In the fifth century, the country was sions. divided into three parts : Judaea and Samaria ; Gahlee and Trachonitis ; Pereea and Idumaea. In the time of the Crusades, episcopal sees were established in the principal cities. Under the modem Turkish authority, the whole country is divided between the pachahks, or governments, of Acre and Damascus. 389. It will facihtate the study of Sacred Scripture to have State (as to a distinct idea, both of the divisions of the country K^Sys*'^ ^^^ of ^^6 changes of the government, in the time of our Lord, of our Lord. ^ I Chron. r. 31, (from Jetur.) : Ezek. 47. 16. 18 : Hauran. ''Josh. 20. 8. 260 GEOGRAPHY : PALESTINE. Herod the Great reigns from b. c. 37 to b. c. 3, over Judasa, Samai'ia, Idumcea. Galilee, Perooa Proper. Trachonitis and Iturea. Revenue, 400 talents (about one million sterling). These he bequeaths to his son, Archelaits, who is ba- nished, and the pro- vince is put under prociu'ators, of whom one of the chief was Pontius Pilate, A. D. 7 to 36 (dies 36). Ptevenue, 200 talents. These he bequeaths to his son, Herod Antipas, who beheaded John. Herod Antipas ba- nished (40J. Revenue, 100 ta- lents. These he bequeaths to his son, Philip Herod (Jehu 4.) Philip dies (37). Herod Agrippa (grandson of Herod) made king of the whole (Acts 12) A. D. 41-44- Herod Agrippa dies, a. d. 44. Roman Governors. Fadus Alexander. Felix (4th Governor). Festus (5 th Governor). I Agrippa (son of H. Agrippa), tetrarch of Trachonitis, is made tetrarch of Galilee also. .Paul pleads be- fore him at Csesarea (Acts 25, 26.) 390. The physical appearance of the country is remarkably rhysicai broken and mountainous. The higher peaks of appearance. Lebanon and of Sinai (which lie about 400 miles apart) rise to a height of nearly 10,000 feet above the Lledi- terranean. The Jordan springs from the sides of the former, and at the lake of Tiberias its level is 750 feet below the Mediterranean. At the Dead Sea, the depression has in- creased to 1,312 feet ; and, as the depth of that sea is 1,350 feet, we have, altogether, a more remarkable change of surface than is to be found in any part of the world. From the plain of Esdraelon the hilLs to the south continue gradually rising, GEOGRAFHY: PxVLESTlNE. 261 till at Jerusalem "we reach a height, above the surface of the Dead Sea, of 3,900 feet. In the hill country of Judah (south of Jerusalem) they reach a still gi'eater height : eastward, the country falls rapidly, so that Jericho, which is but twenty miles from Jerusalem, is 3,406 below it : so accurate is the description given in the Bible, Luke 10. 30 : John 7. 10 : Acts 24. I. Compare Gen. 26. 2 : 46. 3, Many of these mountains abound in caverns. Their sides afford large sheep walks (Amos i. 2), and the plains which are found on the summits of some are covered with corn. In the crevices of the rocks, and wherever was any depth of earth, the ohve flourished, and the fig. The vales were most luxuriant and fruitful, and the very deserts were formed chiefly of extensive pasture-land, unfit for the plough, but rich in grass and timber. The products of aU chmes were thus found in Palestine, and upon the same range of hills were often gi-owing the fig and date of the tropics, with the oak and fir of the temperate zone. A chmate all soft and sunny would have injured the robust industry and manly character of the peoj)le : a country all rugged and moun- tainous would have driven them into aUiance with their heathen neighbours. Mountains, which grew ohves and wheat ; the snow-covered heights of Lebanon, and the hot deep valley of Jordan — pasture and tillage — aU seem to have been adapted to the circumstances of the chosen people, and to have answered the description of the Bible — " a good land, a land of brooks of water, that spring out of the vaUeys and hills." 391. In the time of David, the population was probably four or five milhons (see 2 Sam. 24. 0), or between ropulation. , , ^ .7 ■^^' 400 and 500 to every square mile ; a proportion such as is now found in the West Riding of Yorkshire. The present population of Syria, which is four times the size of the kingdom under David, is about a million and a half.* Even this population seems sustained with difficulty, and a great part of the country is completely barren. Its former fertihty is ascribed in Scripture to the special blessing of God, and its present barrenness to "the heat of his great anger :" see Lev. 26. 3-5 : Deut. 7. 12-14 - u- 8-15 : 28. 1-12, compared with Deut. 29. 23-25 : 28. 16-24, 38-42. * Dr. Bowring's Keport. 262 geography: Jerusalem. 392. The capital of Judsea was Jerusalem. Its name in the days of Abraham was Salem, ^ and it was called Jebus ei-usa e . ^^j^gj^ Israel obtained possession of the Holy Land.^ Its Jewish name was perhaps suggested by these facts, and means the possession, or home of peace. Part of the city be- longed to Benjamin, and pai-t to Judah. The foundation of the whole is a high rock, with four heads or hills, and with a steep ascent on every side except the north." A deep valley sur- rounds three sides, and beyond the valley are still higher hiUs ; so that the city is no't easily visible till the traveller is near it. The soil is very stony, and the country round is dry and barren. The extent of the city differed at different times. It was largest at the time of its final overthrow by Titus. It then included Zion, Acra, JVIoriah, and Bezetha. Zion was on the south-eastern side 01 the city, and immediately north of it was Acra. Zion was the higher of the two ; the part of Jeru- salem which was built upon it was called the upper city, and the part built on Acra, the lower. They were divided by a high waU, first erected by David, who resided on Mount Zion. Zion is now the site of an English Protestant church. Moriah (where it is supposed Abraham was about to offer Isaac, when the angel stayed his hand) lay to the east of Acra, and was the site of the temple. The valley between it and Acra was nearly filled up, that access to the temple might be more easy. With Zion, Moriah was connected by a bridge and terrace. It is now the site of the mosque of Omar. To the north was the hill Bezetha, which Agrippa joined to the city. The whole circumference of the walls was about four miles and a half. 393. The name of the temple is apphed in the English Scrip- tures not only to the place appointed for Divine worship — the sanctuar}^ and the holy of holies — but to the courts and buildings connected with it. The first temple had been erected by Solomon. It retained its original splendour only thirty-four years, when Shishak, king of Egypt, took it, and carried away its treasures. After undergoing repeated pro- fanations, it was finally plundered and burned by the Chal- dajans under Nebuchadnezzar, B. c. 584, 2 Kings 25. 13-15 : 2 Chron. 36. 17-20. * Gen. 14. 8. ^ Josh. 15.8. " Psa. 125. 2. GEOGRAPHY : JERUSALEM. 263 The second temple was erected by Zerubbabel, but with greatly diminished glory, Ez. 3. 12 ; and was profaned by Antiochus Epiphanes, who erected an image of Jupiter on the altar of burnt offering, b. c. 163. In this condition it remained for three years, when Judas Maccabseus purified and repaired it, B.C. 160, I Mace. 162. About sixteen years before the birth of Christ (i. e., b. c. 20), the repairing, or gradual rebuilding of this temple was undertaken by Herod the Great. For nine years and a half he employed 18,000 workmen upon it, and spared no expense to render it equal in magnitude and splendour to the original structure. After his death, the Jews continued to ornament and enlarge it ; so that, at the beginning of the ministry of our Lord it was still unfinished, though forty-six years had elapsed since Herod had collected his materials and com- menced the work, John 2. 20. The whole pile was con- structed of hard white stones, of very great size, and was surrounded by a wall of very great height. When Titus took Jerusalem, he wished to preserve the temple ; but his most strenuous efforts were unsuccessful, and the whole was destroyed by fire on the same day, and in the same month, in which the first temple had been burned by Nebuchadnezzar, 15 Lois (August), A. D. 73. It contained no ark or mercy- seat — no shekinah — no sacred fire, first kindled from heaven, nor Urim and Thummim — no prophetic spirit, as did the first temple — but it had been rendered "more glorious" through the presence and teaching of Him who was the Desire of all nations (Hag. 2. 9). But let us enter within these stupendous walls by one of the eastern gates, " the gate Beautiful." We are now in the outer court, the court of the Gentiles, and can walk around ; each side is 250 yards long. Here is a market ; salt, incense, and cattle — all used in sacrifice — are here on sale. Here also are the money-changers ; and here, or perhaps within one of the next inclosures, is the treasury. Before us, but raised a few feet, and separated by a low wall or partition, is the court of the women. On these pillars, \vliich run along the whole of the waU, we may read inscrip- tions, warning Gentiles and unclean persons not to enter on pain of death. iSee Eph. 2. 13, 14. All ascent of fifteen steps leads us into the inner, or men's 2fi4 GEOGRAPHY : JERUSALEM. court ; and in these two courts, called collectively the court of the Israelites, the people prayed, while the priest was offering incense within the sanctuary, Luke i lo. In the corners of this square are rooms appropriated for the purifi- cation of lepers and for the use of Nazarites. Within the court of the Israehtes is the court of tho priests, v/ho only are permitted to enter it. A flight of twelve steps leads into the temple itself. In entering, we pass through the portico, where are suspended the votive offerings of devout worshippers : see Luke 21. 5. Here also are the rooms where the Sanhedrim used to assemble ; till the frequent occurrence of violence rendered it necessary for them to hold their meetings in the outer inclosure. From this porch we enter the sanctuary, or holy place, and atill in front of us is the holy of holies, concealed by a double veil, which, at the crucifixion of our Lord, was rent in two, to indicate that the way into the holiest was made manifest and accessible to all by the one Mediator, Jesus Christ, Heb. 10. 19-22. The holy of holies was twenty cubits square (from thirty to forty feet), and was entered but once a year on the great day of atonement. Lev. 16. 2, 15, 34 : Heb. 9. 2-7. Here, on the destruction of Jerusalem, Titus found the golden candlestick, the table of shew-bread, and the sacred trumpets, which had been used to proclaim the year of jubilee. The arch of Titus has preserved the images of these relics, and it is stiR among the evidences of the truth of the Bible. But let us leave the temple. Here at the north-east cor- The Sheep-, ner was the sheep-market, and adjoining was the market, etc. Pooj of Bethesda. At the market the sheep v:ere sold for the temple-service, and in the Pool they were washed before being delivered to the priests. At the north-west corner of the temple wall was a strong fortress, built by Herod the Great, called Antonia. It was connected by a flight of steps with the temple-courts, and was guarded by a Roman garrison. It was from this place that the tribune with his soldiers ran to queU the tumult, which the Jews raised in consequence of Paul having, (as they supposed), taken Trophimus within the sacred precinct of the temple. Here, it is probable that Pilate resided, when- ever he came from Ccesarea to Jerusalem. This fortress waa GEOGRAPHY : JERUSALEM. 2b*o therefore the Preetorium where the supreme judge held his court of justice, John i8. 28, 33 : 19. 9 : Matt. 27. 27, orig. Before the Praetorium was a raised pavement, called Gabbatha, and on it stood the tribunal, or seat of judgment. This pave- ment was constructed that the Jews might have their causes decided without entering the Prsetoriura, and thus becoming defiled. When Pilate examined Jesus apai-t from the Jews, he was within the Praetorium : when in their presence it was on the raised pavement. There Pilate condemned him. In the Praetorium the soldiers mocked him. Matt. 15. 16. Pro- bably to produce compassion in the minds of the Jews, Pilate again brought him to the pavement, and when Jesus was finally delivered to them, he was conducted through the gate of justice (west of the temple), to Calvary, which was just without the walls, and there they crucified him, 394. On the night of our Lord's betrayal, he seems to have been taken from Gethsemane, to the house of Annas (on Acra), thence to the house of Caiaphas, on Mount Zion, thence to the Praetorium, thence to the palace of Herod, in Bezetha, thence again to the Praetorium, and then lastly to Calvary. 395. To the east of Jerusalem lay the Mount of Olives, with the valley of the Brook Kedron between them. This valley has been for more than 3000 years, and is to the present day, used as a burial-place. This is called in the Old Testament, the valley of Jehoshaphat, Joel 3. 2. 396. Southward was the valley of Hinnom (Gehenna), where the Jews had once worshipped Moloch, and ofi"ered to it in sacrifice their own children. "When Josiah recalled them to the worship of the true God, the valley was made the recep- tacle for the filth of the city, and for the bodies of criminals who had been executed, 2 Kings 23. 10 : 2 Chron. 28. 3. To consume these substances fires were kept continually burning, and hence the place was used as an emblem of future punish- ment. Matt. 5. 22. On the south dechvity of the vaUey, lay the Potter's-field, afterwards called, from the circumstances of its purchase, the field of blood. 397. At the destruction of Jei-usalem more than a million t ^^ ^^^ Jews perished, and 97,000 were taken pri- hietoryof soners. About sixty years afterwards, the Jews Jerusalem. ^-^^ j^^j begun to gather round their ancient home, were all banished, their return prohibited on pain of death, 266 GEOGRAPHY : JERUSALEIU. and the site of the temple ploughed up. Several hundred years afterwards, the city was agam rebuilt. In 614, the Per- sians captured it, and 90,000 Christians were slain. In 637, it was taken by the Saracens, who kept it tiU 1079, when the Turks became its masters. It is still a large city, with about 20,000 inhabitants, but trodden down of the Gentiles, a " by- word, and a reproach." After the capture of Jerusalem by Titus, many of the Jews removed to Tiberias, which was long the chief seat of their literature and worship. 398. A knowledge of geography will often explain and re- concile the statements of the Bible, show the beauty and truthfulness of particular passages, and bring out the sense, which might otherwise remain concealed. Asia, for example, means in the New Testament, a small part of Asia Minor, of which Ephesns was the capital : hence when the apostle was forbidden to go into Asia, he felt himself free to go to Bithynia, one of the provinces of Asia Minor, Acts 2. 9: i Cor. 16. 19: Kev. I. 4. The word '' sea," is often applied in Scripture to great rivers. The Nile is so called, Nah. 3. 8. The description applies to No- Ammon, or Thebes, the ancient capital of Egypt, built on both sides of the Nile, and S'^'^ miles from the Mediterranean, see also Isa. 27. i: Jer. 51. 36. Euphrates is so called, Isa. 19. 5. The Nile is still called by this name, el Bahi- (the sea), Eobinson's Researches, i. 542. The word " coasts" means borders or districts, Matt. 2. 16: 15.21. In the time of our Lord the Jews called all civilized nations, excei)t themselves, Greeks, Acts 19. 10: 20. 21 : Rom. 1. 16: 2. 9, 10: 10. 12 ; as the Greeks called all except themselves, Barbarians. Hence the woman whom Matthew calls a Canaanite is called by Mark a Greek, and a Syro-Phoonician, Matt. 15. 22: Mark 7. 26; the word " Syro " being intended probably to guard Roman readers (for whom his Gospel was designed), against supposing that she belonged to Carthage, a " Phoenician city." The word "Grecian" or ''Hellenist," however, refers to Jews who for the most part resided out of Judrea, and used the Grecian language and manners, Acts 6. i: 9. 29: ir. 20. The expression in John 4. 4, "he must needs go through Samaria," has sometimes been taken to imply that the " needs-be" vras founded upon the Divine purpose. The fact is, that Samaria lay between Judaea and Galilee, and the dh-ect road to Jerusalem led through that country. GEOGRAPHY : UTILITY, 267 That the Gadarenes kept swine, has been regarded as a vio- lation of the Je-ndsh law, and on that account it is supposed our Lord allowed the demons to enter into the herd : Josephus states, however, that Gadara was a Greek city, and that it had been only recently annexed to Galilee, Luke 8. 37. On comparing Luke 24. 50, with Acts i. 12, it seems that our Lord led his disciples as far as Bethany, and yet he ascended from the Mount of Olives. In fact, the Mount of Olives has on the side of it, next to Jerusalem, the garden of Gethsemane, and on the other side, the village of Bethany. The top of the Moimt overlooks them both, and the two passages are quite consistent. In Isa. 28. I, Samaria is called "the crown of pride," and lier glory is compared to the fading flower of the drunkard. The custom referred to in this passage (and which is mentioned in Wisd. 2. 7, 8), is that of wearing chaplets in seasons of festivity. Samaria, moreover, was built on the top of a roimd hill, and the fact suggested the appropriate image of a wreath of flowers bound round the head of the di-unkard. The chief city of Edom is described, with equal truth, as dwelling in the clefts of the rock, and folding the height of the hill, Obad. 3 : a most accurate description of the wondrous city of Petra, whose ruins were discovered by Burckhardt, in 1811, and have been recently visited by Dr. Wilson. 399. In using a modern atlas of Palestine, giving Arabic names, the following table will be of use : — Ain, ayvm — fountain, s. Arabah — plain, or desert. Bahr — sea, or lake. Beit — house. Bir— well. Burg — castle. Deir — convent. El, en, er, etc. — the. Ghor —valley between two mountains. Hajr — great stone. Hummaun — bath. Jebel, jebal — moun- tain, s. Jisr — bridge. Kabr — tomb. Khan — inn. Khulatj Kusr \ — castle. Kasr J Merj — meadow. Mesjed — mosk, tem- ple. Mukam — tomb of a saint. Nahr — river. Nukb — pass. Ras— cape, or head. Tel— hill. Wady) — valley, or Wely j water-course. 400. Under physical geography are included climate, weather, seasons, etc. ; and a knowledge of these will often throw hght on Scripture. 401. The heat of the climate of Judaea in summer is in- tense, and fi-equentlj proves fatal. Near Mount Tabor, many soldiers of the army of Baldwin iv. died from this cause, and at the very place (Shunem) where the child died in the days of Ehsha, 2 Kings 6. 18-20. How x2 Heat. 268 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. impressive tlie figure of the prophet when speaking of the Saviour, "He shall be as the shadow of a great rock in a weary land !" Isa. 32. 2. During the summer there was no rain in Palestine ; but in the evening the dew fell heavily and suddenly, ^"^' often wetting the incautious traveller to the skin. It was as suddenly dried up on the following morning. Com- pare with this fact the following passages, Psa. 133. 3 : Hos. 6. 4 : 14. 5 : 2 Sam. 17. 12. Philo tells us that there are no rains in Egypt ; and it is No rain in certain that rain in that country is exceedingly i^gypt. rars."" Hence the evidence of the miracle of rain mentioned in Exod. 9. 18-26, and the hardness of heart dis- played by Pharaoh in resisting the message of Moses. Rain is generally preceded by a squall of wind. Compare 2 Kings 3. 16, 17, and Pro v. 25. 14. The east wind of Palestine is very hurtful to vegetation. In winter it is dry and cold, and in summer dry ^ *■ and hot. It carries off 'the moisture of the leaves too rapidly, and withers them.^ When it sweeps over the Mediterranean it is pecuharly dangerous.*' It was this wind — Euroclydon, or a Levanter, as modern sailors call it— which proved so fatal to the " Castor and Pollux.'"^ The west wind brought showers, and, after a long drought, heavy rain." The north wind was cold and drying.^ The south wind brought heat° and whirlwinds. These whirlwinds are sometimes used in Scripture to illus- trate the power of God in the punishment of the wicked, and the suddenness with which it overtakes them.*" Mr. Bruce, in his travels to discover the source of the Nile, was suddenly caught by a whirlwind, which hfted up a camel, and threw it to a considerable distance. It also threw himself and his servants down on their faces, so as to make the blood gush from their nostrils. Sometimes, Maillet informs us, whole caravans have been buried under the sand with which these winds are charged. When connected with the hot, pestilential simoom, they are peculiarly fatal. Thevenot mentions the suffocation from this cause of 4,000 "" Zech. 14. 18. ^ Gen. 41. 6: Ezek. 17. 10: 19. 2: Hos. i.'.is- •■■ Psa. 48. 7. ^ Acts 27. 14. e L^xte 12. 54: i Kings 18. 44, 45* ' Prov. 25. 23: J9b 37. 9, 22. s Luke 12. 55: Zech. 9. 14. h Prov. r. 27: 10. 25. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY: SEASONS, ETC. !2,i59 persons in 1655, and of nearly 20,000 in 1688. Compare Isa. 17. 13 : Hos. 13. 3 : Isa. 32. 2 : Matt. 7. 27 : Prov. 29. i. Harmer's Observations, i., 164. The value of wells in the East can be fully appreciated only by those who know the scarcity of water in the summer season. These wells were a source of strife between Abimelech and Isaac, Gen. 26 ; and Moses commemorates God's bounty in giving the Israehtes weUs which they digged not, Deut. 6. 11. Travellers crossing the deserts sometimes go as much as 80 miles without water. The wells, too, are often very deep, many of them 160 feet, and then filled only with rain-water. In going to Jerusalem, the devout Israelites went from strength to strength, the rain fiUing the pools, Psa, 84 : see also Gen. 24, 16. The comparison of false teachers to wells without water is thus seen to be peculiarly just ; bitterly disappointing the hopes of their hearers, 2 Pet. 2. 17. The miraf/c, or glowing watery appearance of distant sand, is also a figure expressive of dis- appointment. Camels and travellers are both deceived, and when they reach what seemed a sheet of water they find burning dust. See Jer. 15. 18, marg. Between the days ■ and nights of Europe, there is no very Frosty great difierence as to the quahties of heat and jughts. cold. In the East it is quite otherwise. In the height of summer the nights are often as cold as at Paris in the month of March, and the days scorchingly hot. Compare Gen. 31. 40, and Jer. 36. 30 : Isa. 49. 10 : Kev. 7. 16. Sii- J. Chai'din, Harmer, i., 182. 402. It is instructive to notice that the Scriptures always represent the weather, whose laws are apparently the most difficult to ascertain, as under the control and superintend- ence of the Creator, Matt. 5. 45: Acts 14. 17 : Jer. 5. 24: Psa. 147. 16-18 : Nahum i. 5, 6. Harmer's Obsei'vations will be found a rich store-house of illuB- trations on the physical geography of Palestine. Recent travellers, and especially Dr. Robinson, Dr. Kitto, and Dr. John Wilson, have largely added to our knowledge. 403. Combining the mode of reckoning common among the Jews with the facts of physical geography, and the sea- sons fixed for the various annual feasts, we obtain a table of much interest and value. 270 CALKNDAU OF THE JEWS, The first month of the sacred year was the one whose full moon answered to March and sometimes to Month of Name, Answering to the Months of Festivals and Lessons. Sacred Civil Year. Year. ist 7th Abib, or Nisan (30 days), Excd. 12. 2 : Ezra n. 9 : Neb. 2. i : Esther 3. 7. Parts of Mar. and Apr. 3. Lev. 6. Jer. 7. 21. 14. Paschal lamb slain. The Pa.s- sover. 16. The lirst-fruits of the barley harvest presented. 21. End of the Passover and un- leavened bread. 2nd 8 th Tyar,orZif(29days), 1 Kinss 6. 1. Parts of Apr. and May. II. Lev. 16. 1: Ez. 22. 14. The second Passover (Numb. 9. 10, n) for such as could not celebrate the first. 3rd 9th Sisan, or Siuvan (30 diys), Esther 8. 9. Parts of May and June. 6. Pentecost, or feast of weeks. First-fruits of wheat-harvest (Lev. 23. 17, 20) and lirst-fruits of all the ground, Deut. 26. 2, 10, 16: I Kings 12. 25-33- 10. Numb. I : Hos. i. 4.,h ioth Thammuz (29 days). Pts. of June and July. 3. Numb. 13. I: Josh. 2. 26. Numb. 22.2: Mic.5. 7. 5th 11th Ab (30 days), Ezra 7-9- Pts. of July and Aug. 3. Numb. 30. 2: Jer. i. 20. Deut. I : Isa. i. 6th 1 2 th EM (29 days), Neh. 6. 15. Pts. of Aug. and Sept. • 3- Deut. 7.12: Isa. 49. 14, 20. Deut. 16.18: Isa. 51. 12. 7th ISt Tisri, or Ethanim (30 days), I Kings 8. 2. Parts of Sept. and Oct. I. Feast of trumpets, Lev. 23. 24. Numb, 29. I. 10. Day of atonement, Lev. 23. 27, 28. 15. Feast of tabernacles, or of the in-gatherings, Exod. 23. 16: Lev. 23. 34. First-fruits of wine andoil. Lev, 23. 39- 21. Gen. I : Isa. 42. 5, 8th 2nd Marchesvan, or Bui (29ds.),iKing3 6.38. Pts. of Oct. and Nov. 8. Gen, 23.1: iSam, i.i. 9th 3rd Chisleu(3odays),Zech. 7. I : Neh. i. 1. Parts of iSov. and Dec. 10. Gen. 37- i: Amos 2. 6. 25. Feast of the dedication, i Mac. 4. 52-59: John 10. 22, 23. loth 4fh Thebeth (29 days), Esther 2. 16. Parts of Dec. and Jan. 25. Exod. 10. 1: Jer. 46. 13. nth 5th Shevet, or Shebat (30 days). Zcch. i. 7. Parts of .Jan. and Feb. r7. Exod, 21. 1: Jer, 34- 8. ~ I2lh 6th Adar (29 days), Ezra 6.15. Ve Adar, or 2nd Adar. Parts of Feb. and Mar. I. Exod. 38. 21 : I Sam. 17. 13. 14, 15. Feast of Purim. 25. Lev. I. : Isa. 4}.2t. SHOWING THE SEASONS OF THE YEAR, ETC. i^Tl followed next after the vernal equinox.and therefore sometimes April, and sometimes to parts of both. Seasons and Weather. I The latter rain begins to fall, Deut. ii. 14: Zech. 10. I. The weather dvuring the rains chilly, Ezra L 10. 9: John 18. 10. Harvest (-This rain prepares the corn for harvest. begins. Great heat, especially in the plains. The rivers swell from th'j rains, Josh. j. 15 1 Chron. 12. 15: Jer. i:. 5. The latter rains still frequent. These rains often preceded by whirlwinds, I Kings 18. 45: att. 8. 24. Excessive drought. From April to Sept. no rain or thunder, i Sam. 12. i"; : Prov. 26. i The morning cloud seen early, but soon disappears, IIos. 6. 4: IJ.3. Summer f Copious dews at night. Job 29.9: Psa. ijj- 3- beguis. I North and east winds increase drought, Gen. 41. 6: Jer. 4. 8. Hot season. Heat increases. Heat intense ; countrj' apparently burned up. Lebanon nearly free from snow. Heat still intense, 2 Kings 4. 19, 20: 121. 6: Isa. 49. 9, 10: Kev. 7, 16. j Heat in the day: nights frosty. Gen. 31. 40. I Showers frequent: iac former, or early rain. Seed- r Ploughing and sowing begin, time begins. Sometimes the eai'Iy rain begins now. •Wheat and barley sown. Winter f Trees lose their foliage, begins. I Snow begms to fall on the mountains, Jos. 36.22. Productions Barley ripe at Jericho ; wheat partly in ear ; fig-tree blossoms : winter-fig still on the tree, Matt. 21. 19: Mark 11. i.j. Barley generally three weeks earlier than wheat. Barley ge- nerally cut this month, Ruth i. 22. '\1(1ieat begins to ripen. Wheat ripening on the hills in June; in the valleys, early in May. Grass in some places a yard high, John 6. 10. Early vintage. Lev. 26. 5. Rice and early figs ripen. Ripe figs at Jerusalem ; olives at Jericho ; grapes ripening. Grape harvest general. The latter grapes gathered. On the motmtains the cold is severe. Hail; snow. Josh. 10. 11: Psa. 47. 16, 17. AV'eather warm at intervals, Ez. 3J. jo, 31. Cold season. I Corn still sov.n. I At the beginning of the cold season the weather cold, but giadually tecoraes j warm. I Thunder and haU. frequent. ' Barley sometimes sown. Grass and herbs spring up after the rains. The winter-fig found on the trees, though they are stripped of their leaves. The almond-tree blossoms. 272 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY; DTD^ITY 404. The perusal of this Table wiU suggest one or two obvious analogies. The summer and winter in Palestine coincide with the same seasons in England ; as does the time of greatest heat, July and August, and of greatest cold, January. Seed time is in our autumn ; and harvest begins in our spring, and extends through the early summer. The rainy seasons in Palestine begin about the Equinoxes ; the rain in our autinnn is the early or seed rain ; the rain in our spring is the latter or harvest rain. The one quickens the seed, the other fills the ear. The rains generally come from the west (Luke 12. 54), driven up from the Mediterranean Sea. During harvest and summer, rain is most unusual, a fact which explains the surprise of. the people as described in I Sam. 12. 17. The Israelites crossed the Jordan in April, when the river was swollen with the winter rains, and hence the necessity for the miracle recorded in Josh. 3. In Scripture, dates are often fixed by a reference to the seasons or productions, 2 Sam. 21. 9 : Numb. 13. 20 ; or by a reference to the feasts, John 10. 22. The fact recorded in Luke 4. 17, has been thought to fix the time of our Lord's visit to the synagogue at Nazareth. The reading of the Law was completed in the fifty-two sab- baths of each year, and was begun in Tisri (or Sept.), a cus- tom founded on Neh. 8. 2 ; and Deut. 31. 10, 11. Gen. 1-6 was read at the feast of tabernacles ; and on the sabbath before, Deut. 29. 10, with Isa. 61, i — 63. 10. This reckoning, which is Lamy's, fixes the visit on the 14th Tisri. The time seems fixed by the context, however, nearer to Pentecost, d,nd the phraseology of Luke rather intimates that Christ had chosen the passage, than that he found it in the general order of reading. Lamy has giveu aU the lessons (App. Bibl. Bk. i., chap. 5). The preceding Table gives the commencement of a few only. The zeal of the peoi)le mentioned in 2 Chron. 30. 23, be- comes more obvious, when it is remembered that they kept the feast other seven days, in the midst of the harvest. Important lessons are often suggested by an accurate know- ledge of such facts as this Table contains. Our Lord, for example, was crucified on the day when the paschal lamb was offered, and rose on the day when the first fruits of the early INTERPRETATION OP ALLEGORIES. 273 harvest were presented, " the first fmits of them that slept," The Spirit was poured out at Pentecost, when the first fruits of the ground were presented at the temple : and on that day 3000 persons " out of every nation under heaven," were added to the church, Acts 2. 5, 41. The feast of taber- nacles (when thanks were offered for the ingathering of all the fruits of the land), is yet to come. The language of our Lord (Matt. 23. 27, 29), comparing the Pharisees to whited sepulchres, becomes clearer from the fact, that it was spoken just before the Passover, and after the winter rains, when the Jews were busy whitewashing the burial-places near Jerusalem, and preparing for the feast. Sec. 7. On the application of these Bules to the interpretation of the Allegories, Parables^ Types, and Symbols of Scripture. *' The Scriptures being written to the thoughts of men, and to the succession of all ages .... are not to be interpreted only according to the latitude of the proper sense of the place, and respectively towards that present occasion whereupon the words were uttered .... but have in themselves, both distributively and collec- tively, infinite springs and streams of doctrine to water the church in every part not that I wish men to be bold in allegories .... but that I do much con- demn that interpretation of the Scriptiu-e, which is only after the manner men use to interpret a profane book." — Bacon ; Advancement of Learning. " Our Lord might have uttered the common places of morality, but he teaches by parables, because he knew that they would more constantly inhabit both the me- mory and the jtidgement."— SiK P. Sydney. " ^lanifeste dicta absolvent parabolas."— /renffjis, lib. ii., c. 47. 405. We have been engaged thus far in collecting the sense of Scripture, and in order to ascertain that sense, it has only been necessary to find the meaning of the words. There are some parts of the Bible, however, where we need an additional kind of interpretation. Hitherto the meaning of the words has been regarded as the Bible. In the j)assages to which we are about to refer, however, there is a further meaning called the allegorical or spiritual. To this class belong the allegories and parables, types, typical actions, and symbols of the sacred volume, and as they agree in the principles of interpretation apphcable to them all, we class them under one name as -allegories. Figures and 4^6 . They differ from the figures of Scripture in Parables. several particulars. First, They present to our view only the less important meaning they are intended to convey, the moral or spiritual one being for a time concealed; while in figures the secondary or important mean- ing is generally the promment one. When it is said, for example, n3 274 ALLEGORICAL AND FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. that the Sou of Man is the sower, we use a figiire, and the meaning of the word "sower" is fixed by its place in the sentence. But when we say, ''A sower went forth to sow," w^e express but one meaning, though there is an ultimate meaning in view which is not Secondly, Figures always represent one thing as another thing, and the meaning is at once fixed by excluding the points in which they differ and combining those only in which they agree. In the case of allegories or parables, it is never said that one thing is another, though this may be said when the parable is explained. Thirdly, In figures there is but one meaning consistent with the context and scope; in the allegory and parable there are two, the verbal and the allegorical; the verbal being the explanation of the words, and the allegorical, of the thing or things signified by them. 407. It must be remembered, that in an allegory or type, we are not to expect an agreement between the verbal sense and the allegorical meaning in all points. The allegory, so far, is like a figure of speech. In the latter, it is enough if the two things compared touch in one point, and in the former, things must not be expected to touch in all. At the same time, the allegory so far differs from the figure, that it generally touches in more than one. It is in its very nature a continued comparison, and an expositor may safely proceed on the pre- sumption that there is contact in most points ; nor need he desist from his comparison till the resemblance refuses to appear, unless it be forced, or till it is evident that the cir- cumstance under consideration is added only to give beauty or energy to the narrative. 408. The occasions on which it is proper to use an alle- Parabies gorical representation, are numerous. It tests a when used, teachable disposition (Matt. 13. 13). It is pecu- liarly useful in giving a figurative exhibition of truth, before it is intended to reveal it clearly. It often serves this purpose in the Old Testament, and in the book of Revelation. It is useful in gaining a man's judgment against himself, as in the case of David, and as in many of the parables ; and even when there is no need of concealment, it often attracts the atten- tion of men who might otherwise remain indifferent. 409. All the rules of allegorical interpretation take as granted, that the verhal interpretation of the pas- words"o be sage has been completed, and that if the allegory ascertained. ]^q g^ ij^Q or Symbol, we have ascertained precisely ALLEGORIES : THE SCOPE. 275 what the action or symbol is, whose allegorical meaning we are about to investigate. Till this be done, no step can be taken in the real interpretation ; we must first know what the thing is, before we can know what it is intended to represent. 410. (i.) The first rule of interpretation is ; ascertain what Firscruie: IS the scope, either by reference to the context, or the scope. ^q parallel passages ; and seize the one truth which the type or parable is intended to set forth, distinguishing it from all the other truths which border upon it, and let the parts of the parable that are explained, be explained in har- mony with this one truth. In the case of allegories the scope is generally told us, as in Psa. 80; the whole being explained in verse 17, where the man of God's right band is introduced in such a way as directs iis to Israel as the Vine. Sometimes, however, we have to look to other parts of the Bible. The entire book of Canticles is an extended allegory, and under this form is shadowed forth the spmtual affection between Christ and his church. To explain the book, we have recoiirse to other places, where the relation between God and his church is described imder a similar representation. So also Isa. 5. 1-7; Ezek. 15. 19, 10, 14.: 19. 1-9: 23: 31. 3-17. In the parables, the scope is generally told us in the context; sometimes by our Lord himself (Matt. 22. 14), sometimes by the inspired narrator in his own words (Luke 18. i). Sometimes it is set forth at the commencement of the parable (Luke 18. 9: 19. ir); sometimes at the close (Matt. 25. 13: Luke 16. 9); sometimes at both, as in Matt. 18. 23 : see verses 21 and 35. So again in Matt. 20. i-t6: Luke 12. 15-21. Sometimes, though rarely, we need to turn to a parallel passage ; jis, for the full interpretation of Luke 15. 3, we turn to Matt. 18. 12, etc. When from none of these circumstances the scope can be gathered, we must then have reco\irse to the occasion or the subject of the parable itself. The meaning of the parable of the baiTen fig-tree (Luke 13. 6, 9), and of the prodigal son, is gathei'ed in this way. The progi-ess of the parables, and the study of the cu'cumstances under which they were spoken, will clearly show the design of owi Lord in uttering them. 411. In the case of a type, it is important to remember that Scope vi the scope or intention of God in instituting it can tTpps, \^Q gathered only from the Bible. Sometimes from 276 ALLEGORIES : SUBORDINATE TRUTHS. the Old Testament, as in the case of Moses, Deut. i8. 15, frequently, only from the New, as in John 3. 14: 6. 32: I Cor. 5. 7, 8 . Matt. 12. 40, etc. The principle laid down in the Epistle to the Hebrews, is that the whole of the previous dispensation was typical — a shadow of things to come. In applying this principle, the rules found below must be care- fully observed. Views incon- 412. Any interpretation of a parable or allegory distent with ti^^t is inconsistent with the great truth, which it b-2 rejected, is thus Seen to involve, must be rejected. The parable of the good Samaritan, for example, has been sup- posed to refer to our Lord; the wounded traveller, to our sinful race; the priest and Levite, to the moral and Levitical law; the inn, to the church : an interpretation entirely inconsistent with our Saviour's design. It is not enough, therefore, that the truths which we suppose to be contained in the allegories and types of Scripture are Scriptural ; they must be evidently shown to be in- volved in the purpose of God in instituting the one, and of inspired teachers in speaking of the other. This remark is applicable to all parts of the parables, and it may be reversed. We have the right interpretation when all the main circumstances are explained. If any important member of the nar- rative is rendered by our interpretation nugatory, or is paralysed, the interpretation is false ; and when we have a true interpretation of the whole, that interpretation of any part is to be rejected which does not conduce to the consistency and force of the whole. In interpreting the parable of the prodigal son, for example, some ex- positors have descended to details which are quite inconsistent with the obvious scope and force of the narrative. The alienation of the prodigal from all home affections — his resolution to seek happiness where God is not — the fearful change in his position, and his con- sciousness of that change — his attempt to repair his broken fortunes —his bitter disappointment and wants— the resolve to return — the father's love and welcome — the festal rejoicing which his return created — the discontent and grudging spirit of the elder brothei' — the father's noble remonstrance — all illustrate the great truth of the passage, that God Avelcomes the return of the vilest of his children, and all are important. To deny, as some have done, that the prodigal's desertion of his home has any reference to man's apostasy, weakens the parable; and to teach that the ring is the everlasting love of God, or the seal of the Spirit — that the sinner is called the younger son, because man as a sinner is younger than man .as righteous — that the citizen to whom he went was a legal allegories: subordinate truths. 277 preacher — that the svvine were self-righteous persons — that the husks were works of righteousness — that the fatted calf was Christ — that tho shoes were means of upright conversation, the doctrines and precepts of the Scripture — that the music which the elder brother heard was the preaching of the gospel— is to call off our attention from the great lesson of the parable to doctrines which the disciples could not have found in the parable itself. By turning the most delicate touches into important Scriptural truths, the great design of the whole is obscured, and we learn to bring a meaning into the passage, and not o'lt of it; a habit which we are likely to employ with more serious mischief in other places. 413. But while everything that is explained, must be explained with reference to the writer's scope, it tails to be is an important question, how far the details of the explained. parables and allegories of Scripture have a reference to corresponding facts, in the application of them. From the inspired interpretation of parables given us in Scripture, we may gather that we are to avoid both the extreme of sup- posing that only the design of the whole should be regarded, and the extreme of insisting upon every clause as having a double meaning. In the parables of the sower and of the tares, for example, which our Lord himself interpreted, the moral application descends to the roinutest particulars of the narrative; the birds, and thorns, and stony ground, have all their meaning; and, as Tholuck has re- marked, it may be said generally that the simiUtude is pei-fect, in proportion as it is on all sides rich in applications. Even in these parables, however, not all the circumstances are explained. "While men slept," in the parable of the tares (Matt. 13. 25), and the phrase, "I cannot dig," and "to beg I am ashamed," in the parable of the unjust steward, have neither of them any application in the explanation which our Lord himself gave. So in the longest allegory in Sci'ipture — the book of Canticles — the description given of the bride is probably no moi-e than an expression of the love and complacency of Jehovah towards his chosen. The two following rules, in addition to the one just given as to the scope of the parable, will be sufficient to guard us in the interpretation both of the parables and allegories of Scripture. 414. (2.) Even of doctrines consistent ^vith the design of 278 ALLEGORIES : OTHER RULES. the parable or type, no conclusion must be ga- of interpre- thered from any part of either of them, TN'hich is tation. inconsistent with the clearer revelations of Divine truth. The high priest, under the law, offered first for his own sin, and then for the sins of the people. It does not, therefore, follow that Christ partook of our sinful nature; the contrary is the fact; ''for in him was no sin." So of the paschal lamb ; it was a type of our Lord; it shadowed forth his death and person, but not the efficacy of his death, nor at all adequately the holiness of his nature. If it be attempted to prove from the fact that the rich man iu the parable prayed to Abraham, that therefore we are to pray to glorified saints, we reject the interpretation as inconsistent with the express statements of Sci'ipture ; or if, from the parable of the faithful servant, or the prodigal son, it be gathered (as by the ancient Pelagians^ that God pardons us without sacrifice or interces- sion, on the ground simply of our repentance or oiu: prayers, we reject the interpretation as inconsistent with the whole tenor of the Bible (John 8. 24: Heb. 10). 'Nov can we gather from Luke 15. 7 that the Phaiisees were just men who needed no repentance, or from verse 29, that the elder brother had never transgressed his father's command; nor from Luke 16. i, that dishonesty is in any good sense true wisdom. David was, in his kingly character, a type of our Lord ; and also in his family descent, but not in his sins. 415. (3.) It is important that neither types nor parables be made the first or sole source of Scripture doctrine, interpreta- Doctrines otherwise proved may be further illus- *^°°* trated or confirmed by them, but we are not to gather doctrine exclusively or primarily from their represen- tations . From the parable of the unjust steward, some of the early Scrip- tm-e expositors gathered, without reason, tlie history of the apostasj- of Satan. He was said to be the chief among the servants of God, and being driven from his place of trust, he drew after him the other angels, whom he tempted with the pronaise of lighter tasks and easier sendee. Nor can we conclude, from the parable of the ten virgins, that because five were wise and five foolish, half of those who make a profession of religion will finally be saved and half finally perish. In the parable of the lost sheep, one in a hundred only went astray; in that of the lost piece of silver, one in ten was lost: neither circumstance can be made the foundation of a doctrine. PARABLES CLASSIFIED. 27J> Both these rules are a modification, as it will be seen of the rule which bids us interpret according to the analog}'- of faith, and to look to passages that are clear, for the meaning of those that are abstruse. 416. The interpretation of symbols, and of symbohcal actions, is regulated by the same principles as the interpretation of allegories. A symbohcal expres- sion is simply a figurative one, founded on analogy, or re- semblance, and is interpreted on the principles common to the interpretation of all figurative language. Parables, etc. 417- The following are the parables and fables of 'iSmcnt. the Old Testament. Jothaiu's; the trees making a king, Judges 9. 7. Nathan's; the poor man's ewe lamb, 2 Sam. 12. r. Two brothers striving together, 2 Sam. 14. 6. Tlie prisoner that made his escape, i Kings 20. 39. Micaiah's vision, i Kings 22. 19-23. The thistle and cedar, 2 Kings 14. 9. The vineyard yielding wild grapes, Isa. 5. i. Th? parables in the Gospels will be found enumerated chronologically in the introduction to the Gospels. Parables of ^^^' Ne9,nder has classified the parables of our the Xew Tes- Lord with reference to the truths taught in them, *™^" ■ and their connection with his kingdom. Parables on the progress of the kingdom of Christ : — 1. The sower, Matt. 13. 3: Mark 4. 3 : Luke 8. 5. 2. The tares, Matt. 13. 24. 3. The mustard-seed, Matt. 13. 31: Mai'k 4. 31: Luke 13 ► 18, 19. 4. The leaveu, Matt. 13. 33: Luke 13. 20, 21. 5. The net. Matt. 13. 47, Moral requisites for entering the kingdom of Christ : — ■ Anti-pharisaic parables, or negative requisites. 6. The lost sheep. Matt. 18. 12: Luke 15. 4. 7. The lost piece of money, Luke 15. 10. 8. The prodigal son, Luke 15. 11-32.. 9. The Pharisee and the Publican, Luke 18. 9-14. 10. Strife for the first places at feasts, Luke 14. 7-1 1. Positive requisites. 11. The two sons, Matt. 21. 28. 12. The hidden treasure, Matt. 15. 44. 280 PARABLES CLASSIFIED. 13. The pearl, Matt. 13. 45, 46. 14. The towei" and the waiTing king, Luke 14. 28-33. 15. The wedding garment, Matt. 22. 11. Call to enter the kingdom of Christ. 16. The feast, Luke 14. 16-24: Matt. 22. 1-14. Activity in the kingdom of Christ. 17. The vine, John 15. i. 18. The vdcked vine-dresser, Matt. 21. 33-41. 19. The talents, Matt. 25. 14-30: Luke 19. 12-27. 20. The barren fig-tree, Luke 13. 6. 21. Favour independent of works. Matt. 20. 1-16. The La- bourers. The true spirit of the kingdom of Christ. Forgiveness. 22. The good Samaritan, Luke 10. 25-37. 23. The unforgiving sei'vant, Matt. 18. 23: Luke 7. 41. The right use of Avorklly possessions. 24. The unjust steward, Luke 16. 1-23. 25. The rich man and Lazarus, Luke 16. 19. The Christian sphit under the name of prudence. 26. The ten virgins. Matt. 25. Prayer. 27. The importunate widow, Luke 18. i. 28. The friend on his joui-ney, Luke 11. 5-10. 419. Other authors have ado^Dted a dififerent division. Dr. Gray divides them into (i.) Such as represent the nature and progress of the goppel dispensation. (2.) Such as represent the rejection of the Jews, and the calling of the Gentiles. (3.) Such as deliver moral instruction. Greswell divides them into the prophetic and the moral. 420. Lisco's division is f)i'eferable to either. He regards them as of three classes. i. Such as represent the heavenly kingdom as containing truths and powers Divine in their origin, and blessed in then* eflFects. See preceding list, i, 3, 4, 11, 12. ii. Such as represent the heavenly kingdom founded on these truths, and these are — I. Those that respect the church as a whole, 20, 18, 16, 15 (calling and election differ), 2, 5 . ALLEGORICAL INTERPRETATION OP HISTORY. 281 2. Those that respect the entrance of individuals into the church, 6, 7, 8, 14. iii. Such as represent the heavenly kingdom in the faith, love, and hopes of its members. In relation — 1. To faith and humility, etc., 21, 9, ir, 25, 26. 2. To love (Luke 7. 41), 23, 22. 3. To hope, 26, 19. These classifications are important, chiefly as showing the views of eminent authors on the scojje of each parable. Care must be taken not to adhere so rigidly to the classification we adopt as to miss obvious moral lessons. 421. The principles which are applicable to the interpre- Aiiegoricai tation of allegories and parables, properly so called, tSnES- ^PP^^ equally to much that is historical in Scrip- tory. ture. The ancient Jewish people, for example, sustained to God, the same relation as is now sustained by the Foundation Christian church, and by each Christian. Their ®^it- sufierings in Egypt, their deliverance under Moses, their wanderings in the desert, their entry into Canaan, pre- figure important facts in the history of all Christians. The Israelites not only lived under the same authority with us, and were governed by an economy of disciphne hke our own, but the facts of their history were typical of the history of the church (Rom. 2. 28 : i Cor. 10 : Heb. 4 : i Pet. 2. 10 : Rev. 15. 5). 422. It is observable, too, that the relation between the Jewish people, and some of the nations that surrounded them, is a type of the relation between the Christian church and its adversaries : Sodom and Ishmael : Egypt and Babylon, have all their representatives in the history of the true Israel (Gal. 4. 25 : Rev. 14. 8). 423. It may be added, that while in one aspect Israel as the son, is the representative of our Lord, eminent characters among the Israelites were types of Him ; as Moses among the prophets, David and Solomon among the kings ; and hence expressions, which were originally true of the type, are applied to Christ as the antitype or fulfilment. See Hos. ii. i, com- pared with Matt. 2. 15, etc. 424. And as the people, so the rites and worship of the Old Testament were typical. The whole dispensation was the shadow of good things to come, not the very image or sub- stance of them. That substance was Christ (Heb. 10. i). 282 ALLEGORY : ABUSE. Thus it is, tliat since the beginning of our race, there has been a connected series of representations, each embodying- some truth, and all tending to illustrate the office and work of our Lord, or the character and history of his people. Jewish history and worship form one grand type. The Old Testament (as Augustine long ago remarked), is the New veiled, and the New Testament is the Old unveiled. 425. In the interpretation of all these types, and of history in its secondary or spiritual allusions, we use the same rules as in interpreting parables and allegories properly so called : compare the history or type with the general truth, which both the type, and the antitype embody ; expect agreement in several particulars, but not in all, and let the interpretation of each part harmonize with the design of the whole, and with the clear revelation of Divine . doctrine given in other parts of the sacred volume. 426. In applying these rules, it is important to remember that the inspired writers never destroyed the his- torical sense of Scripture, to establish the spiritual (as some inquirers have done), nor do they find a hidden meaning in the words (as do the Jews), but only in the facts of each passage ; which meaning is easy, natural, and Scrip- tural ; and that they confine themselves to such expositions as illustrate some truth of practical or of spiritual importance (Heb. 5. II : 9. 5). Indeed, an examination of the passages quoted from the Old Testament in the New, will show that they are adduced exclusively with reference either to the per- sonal history and mediatorial office of our Lord, to the spiritual character of his kingdom, or to the future destiny of liis church. . 427. The allegorical interpretation of Scripture abuse of his- has been so greatly abused, that it becomes im- ^°^'' portant to illustrate these remarks at greater IcngtPi. 428. The ancient Jews allegorized on the words of Scripture. Among the I^ the oi'iginal of the word translated " created," for Jews. instance^ Gen. i. i, they find the first letter of the Hebrew for Father, Son, and Spirit, and hence they prove the doc- trine of the Trinity. They refer Psa. 21. i, to Christ, because the letters of the original, for "shall joy," make by transposition, Messiah. The letter {< occurs six times in Gen r. r, and as {St represents loco, they suppose that the existence of the world for ALLEGORY : ABUSE. 283 6000 years, is tLe truth included in this fact. fiX, the sign of the definite acciisative in Hebrew, they regard as including the M'hole essence of a thing, because it is made up of the first and last letters of the Hebrew alphabet. In the same spuit, the pseudo-Barnabas says that Abraham circumcised 318 men of his house, Gen. 14. 14, because this number in Greek letters, represents Jesus and the cross, I =: 10, H =r 8, and T = 300. 429. Some writers, on the other hand, allegorize Scripture by destroying its facts. John the Baptist, for example, is said to have had no real existence, but to be only a mythic representation of the collective body of the Jewish prophets in their relation to Chiist. The nar- rative of the inn and manger at Bethlehem, exhibits nothing more (they add), than the common birth into oiir world of everything Divine. In the same spirit, the seven days of creation were held to imply merely the perfection of the work of God, and the moving of the Spirit of God on the face of the waters, to indicate the spmtual washing of Christian baptism. 430. A practice more frequent, though scarcely less mis- chievous, has been adopted in all ages, of admitting the his- torical truth of the inspired narrative, and basing upon every part of it some spiritual doctrine, not as illustrated, but as proved and intended by the Holy Spirit. To this tendency may be traced the impression, that the seventh thousand years in the history of the world, will be the millenium. The division of animals into clean and unclean, was held on a similar principle to represent virtue and vice in human nature. The simplest statements were thus made ridiculous. Moses had said, ''All that divideth the hoof and cheweth the cud, ye shall eat," indicating, says the Epistle of Barnabas, that we should hold fast to those who meditate on the command, and who (divide the hoof, that is), live in this world, but have their expectation in another. Heaven and earth in the Lord's Prayer, refer (says Tertullian), to the body and the soul of man, Luke 11. 2. The five loaves with which our Lord fed the multitude, represent, says Clement, the five senses, John 6. 9. ^Vjaother writer (Cyril), regards them as the five books of Moses, and the two fishes as the Grecian philosophy, which is generated and carried through heathen waters: or our Saviom''s teaching, as apostolic and evangeHcal. Origen even builds upon the images of Scripture, as he calls them, the doctrine of the final restoration of the whole spu-itual universe to its original bles- sedness and purity. 284 ALLEGORIES AND TYPES. Justin thinks that the wi-estliug of Jacob was a type of the tempta- tion of our Lord, that the injury he received, represented the suf- ferings and death of Christ. Athanasius who sometimes condemned this style of interpretation, expounds Matt. 5. 29, and supposes the body to mean the church, the eyes and hands the bishops and deacons, who ought to be cut off, if they commit acts hurtful to the church, Hilary thinks that the fowls of the air (Matt. 6. 26-30), are im- clean spirits, to whom God gives life without trouble. The lilies are the angels: the grass, the heathen. The mother of Zebedee's children represents the law: her children the believing Jews. Cyril thinks Malchus a type of the Jews, and that as Peter cut off his right eai', so they were to be deprived of right hearing, their hearing being only sinister or disobedient. These interpretations were all justified on principle. The obvious historic sense of a passage was always regarded as the less important, sometimes even as altogether untrue; while the spiritual or allego- rical was alone deemed worthy of an enlightened mind. Hence Oi'igen maintains that the history of the creation, of Lot's incest, of Abraham's two wives, of Jacob's marriage with Leah and liachel, is all an allegory ; so readily do extremes l)eget each other. These examples were widely copied among the various sects which sprang up in the early church. All justified their dogmas by alle- gorical interpretations of Scripture : and in the end the literal historic sense with all the moral and spiritual lessons it conveyed was over- looked or denied. 431. Intelligent piety will reject all these fabulous inter- pretations, the results of a vagrant fancy, and will be at no loss to elicit from the historical parts of Ssripture, the chief lessons of holy wisdom they were designed to supply. The essential points are, that many characters and transactions recorded in the Old Testament are typical, that many more exhibit qualities which we are to imitate or condemn, that others illustrate principles of the Divine government which are still in force, and that none must be interpreted without a reference to the clear revelations which are given in other parts of the Divine word. 432. Types (it may be added), are prophetic, and may be i>pcs, both used to prove, as well as to illustrate the gospel, analogical Examples, analogies, and resemblances, not an- phetk.*^* nounced as typical, are illustrative only. They explain truth rather than prove it. allegory: literature. 285 433. On the subjects discussed in this section, see especially on the parables — Dodd's Discourses on the Miracles and Parables, 4 vols., 1757. A. Gray's Delineation of the Parables, 1777. Lisco on the Parables. Clark, 1840. Trench's Xotes on the Parables of our Lord, 1847. On the Types, besides M'Ewen and Wilson (of Irvine) — The Gospel of the Old Testament, from St. Matthew, by Charlotte EHzabeth. Marsh's Lectures on Biblical Criticism and Interpretation, where it is maintained that nothing is a type unless formally recognised as such in the New Testament: Fairbairn (Typology of Scnpture, 2nd Series), maintaining that the whole of the previous economy is affii-med in the New Testament to be typical. This principle he appHes to the patriarchal and Mosaic institutions and history. Edwards, on the Types of the Messiah. On Allegorical Interpretation, see — Olshausen on Biblical Interpretation, as taught oy the inspired writers: or, on the deep sphitual sense of Scripture. ISTeufch., 1 8 41, and Maexscher on the Types, and the Typical Interpretation of Scrip- ture. Am. Bibl. Eep., January, 1841. Sec. 8. On the Interpretation of Prophecy. "In a certain sense, histoty has been justly called the interpreter of prophecy; btit to the Israelite, prophecy was more the interpreter of history, for it gave him intelligible notice of approaching events, and it supplied him with the reasons of God's providence in bringing those events to pass." — Davisox : Lectures on PrO' phecy. 434. AH the difficulties of Scripture interpretation to which Peculiar diffi- we have referred are to be found in prophecy. Its pheUc^hiter- language is largely figurative, and often allegorical. pretation, Allusions to the history and circumstances of the times are frequent. The events recorded are for the most part future, and but dimly revealed. On all grounds, there- fore, the utmost attention is required rightly to understand the meaning of the inspired predictions. As the prophets are called seers, the prophecies of the Prophecies Ol^i Testament are commonly called visions, Numb. visions. 24. 17 : 2 Chron. 9. 29 : Ezek. 37 : Hab. 2. i. Some of them were recorded in writing, for the information 286 PROPHETIC LANGUAGE. of the church throughout all time ; others were communi- cated orally by the prophets to their contemporaries : the whole in language taken largely from the customs and wor- Hence pecu- ship prevalent among them. Hence have originated iruiicatious of several peculiarities of the prophetic Scriptures, time. 425- As to time : — 1. The prophets often speak of things that belong to the remote future as if present to their view. Thus in Isa. 9. 6 it is said, " Unto us a child is born, unto us a eon is given;" so in Isa. 42. i. 2. They speak of things future as past. In Isa. 5 3, for example, nearly the whole of the transactions of the life of the ''servant" of God are represented as finished: the prophet seeming to stand between the death of our Lord and his coming glory. 3. When the precise time of individual events was not re- vealed, the prophets describe them as continuous. They saw the future rather in space than in time ; the whole, therefore, appears foreshortened, and perspective rather than actual distance, is regarded. They seem often to speak of future things as a common observer would describe the stars, grouping them as they appear, and not according to their true positions. In Jer. 50. 41, for example, the first conquest and the complete destruction of Babylon are connected, without any notice of the interval between them; in fact, nearly a thousand years elapsed be- tween the first shock of the empire in the attack of the Persians and the final overthrow of the city. In Isa. chaps. 10, 11, the deliverance of the Jews from the yoke of the Assyrians is connected with the deliverance which was to be effected by the Messiah. In the same way, Isaiah, Micah, Hosea, Ezekiel, and Jeremiah, all connected these two events, without intimatmg, however, that the Messiah was to take part in both. Zechariah, again, who lived after the exile, connects the spiritual salvation of the church in the distant future with the temporal deliverance of the Jews under Alexander and the Maccabees. In tlie description which is given of the humiliation and glory of the Messiah, there is seldom any notice taken of the time which is to elapse before his kingdom is established. Both are often con- PROPHETIC LANGUAGE. 287 uected iu the same verses, as in Zech. 9. 9, 10. Joel connects i'l the same way the etfiision of the Si^iiit on the day of Pentecost, and its general effosion in later times, chap. 2. 28, etc. Sometimes, indeed, the precise time wiis revealed to the prophet, and is recorded, as in the case of the sojom^n of Abraham and his posterity in Egypt, Gen. 15. 13; the sixty-five years in which Israel v.-as to be broken, Isa. 7. 8; and the captivity in Babylon, Jer. 29. 10; but more commonly the prophets were ignorant of it, us the apostle Peter tells us, and as Zechariah has acknowledged, I Pet. I. 10-12: Zech. 14. 7. Very often the events, instead of being represented as continuous, are blended together. The latter parts of Isaiah, and some of the prophecies of our Lord, concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the final judgment, illustrate this remark. Matt. 24. 28, 29. 436. As to language : — As the future was thus represented Hence pecu- ^ visions, and under a typical dispensation, it can liarities of excite no Surprise that the whole is often described P ra&eo ogy. ^^ figurative, and allegorical or symbolical terms. If prophecy had everywhere consisted of literal description, it would have defeated its object, and either have prevented the fulfilment, or have taken from the fulfilled prophecy all evi- dence of a Divine original. Besides, as everything earthly supplies images for describing things spiritual, so does the whole of the Jewish economy. Language borrowed from nature and the law is therefore as appropriate as it is neces- sary. The unity and vastness of God's plans are illustrated by it all. Under the gospel, for example, Messiah is to be king, and hence the prophets represent him as possessed of all the characteristics of the most distinguished princes of the Jewish theocracy, and more than once apply to him the title of David, who was, in many respects, the ideal of kingly authority, Hos. 3. 5: Jer. 30. 9: Acts 13. 34. They describe his character as prophet or priest in the same strain, multiplying images in each case adapted to give the most exalted ideas of his office, Psa. no: Zech, 6: Heb. 7. In the same way, they speak of his kingdom, either of grace or glory, as the highest perfection of the Jewish economy. It is called Jeru- salem, or Zion, Isa. 62. i, 6, 7: 60. 15-20: Gal. 4. 26-28: Heb. 11. 72. See, also, Isa. 60. 6, 7; 66. 23.* To Joel, the outpoming of ' See ''Bickersteth on the Prophecies," p. 50. 288 FOUNDED ON JEWISH HISTOIIY. the Spirit appears as a general extension of the three forms of Divine revelation which occur in the Old Testament. The idea that all nations should worship the true God, Zechariah expresses by the declaration that they will join in the feast of tabernacles (14. 16). The perfect love and fidelity of the people of God appear to Hosea and others as the removal of the worship of Baal, and the abandon- ment by the church of Assyria and Egypt, Zech. 14. 16: Isa. 19. 19-21: Zech. chaps. 2. 14. 13: Mic. 5. The glory of the Mes- siah's days is represented by the prosperous times of David and Solomon, Zech. 3. 10: i Kings 4. 25. The prevalence of peace, by the union of Judah and Israel, Hos. i. ii: Isa. 11. 13. In the same way, the enemies of the kingdom of the Messiah are not only called by the name given to the enemies of the ancient theocracy, viz., the nations of the Gentiles, but they often bear the name of some one people who, at the time, were peculiarly inimical or pow- erful. In Isa. 25, they are called by the name of Moab; in Isa. 63 and Amos 9. 12, by the name of Edom; and in Ezek. 38, by the name of Magog. There are, of course, specific prophecies con- cerning most of these nations and cities, but their names are also used generically, or figuratively, in these and other passages. Hence we have foretold the restoration, in the latter days, of Moab and Elam, Jer. 48. 47: 49. 39. Hence, also, the ''blessing to the earth" is to proceed in ''that day" from Israel, Assyria, and Egypt, Isa. 19. 18-25. 437. Nor need this peculiarity of prophetic language excite surprise. It is found pervading the whole ancient liarity of dispensation. That dispensation began with the fangSag? promise to Abraham. His descendants were to common in be as the stars, and in him and his seed all nations cnp ure. ^^^^ ^^ ^^ blessed. The first part of this pre- diction was fulfilled in his literal seed, as Moses implies, Exod. 32. 13: Deut. I. 10, II. Paul also applies it to his spiritual seed, even to all who believe, Rom. 4. 16 : Gal. 3. 8, 9. The blessing upon all nations, the second part of the promise, is also upon all as behevers, and is received through Christ, who is the seed according to the flesh, Gal. 3. 16, 19, 29. The next remarkable fact in the history of the Jews is their deliverance from Egypt, and in connection with that deliverance the most remarkable expressions are used to indicate the favour which God bore them. All of these ex- pressions, however, are in the New Testament applied to the LANGUAGE FOUNDED ON JEWISH HISTORY. 289 church. God is said to have chosen them (Deut. lo. 15 : Ezek. 20. 5 : Eph. 14). He delivered and saved them (Exod. 3. 8 : 14. 30 : Gal. 1.4:1 Thess. i. 10 : 2 Tim. i. 9) ; He created and called them (Isa. 43. i : 44. 2 : i Cor. 1.9: Col. 3. 10). Both are sows, helpless, and dear (Ezek. 16. 3-6 : Isa. 44. 2: Deut. 32. 6: Gal. 3. 26: i Pet. i. 3); both are hrethren (Deut. i. 16: Col. i. 2) ; a house, o, family (Numb. 12. 7 : Heb. 3. 6) ; a nation (Deut. 4. 34 : i Pet. 2. 9) ; both felloio-citizens, with aliens around them (Exod. 20. 10 : Eph. 2. 19) ; and both heirs of their appropriate inheritance (Numb. 26. 53 : Heb. 9. 15). Compare in the same way the apphcation of the following words under the two dispensa- tions. " Servants ;" " husband " and " wife," " mother " and '' children ;" " adultery ;" " sanctuary " or " temple ;" " priests ;" "saints" or "holy;" "near" or "nigh," and "afar oflf;" " congregation " or " church ;" " vine," " vineyard ;" " shep- herd," "flock;" "inheritance" or "heritage;" or the privi- leges and duties which these terms imply, and it wiU be found that nearly aU the characteristic names of Israel are apphed to the body of believers. In the first case, the blessings and relations, so far as the people were concerned, are earthly and temporal ; in the second, spiritual and eternal: individual spiritual blessings being enjoyed in both. The apostles reason throughout their writings on the same princi]3le. We who believe, and are united to Christ, are children of Abraham and heirs of his promise (Gal. 3. 29 • Eom. 4. II, 16); the Israel of God (Gal. 6. 16), as distin- guished from the Israel according to the flesh (i Cor. 10. 18) ; the true circumcision (Phil. 3. 3), who therefore appropriate ancient promises (Gen. 22. 16, 17, applied to all behevers : Heb. 6. 13, 20 : Deut. 31. 6 : Josh. i. 5, quoted Heb. 13. 4,5 : Hos, I. 10: 2. 23, quoted Rom. 9. 24-36). 438. After the exode comes the institution of the ritual Leviticai l^-w, its sacrifices, priesthood, mercy-seat, taber- ^'^^^ nacle and temple, and worship. All these, it need hardly be remarked, are represented in the prophets as being restored in the latter days, and in the Gospels each expression is applied to our Lord or to his church. He is priest, and propitiatory (tXaorr/piov), tabernacle {aicrjvii, John i. 14), and temple {vaug, John 2. 19) ; as also, since his ascension, is his O 290 LANGUAGE FOUNDED ON JEWISH HISTORY. church (i Cor. 3. 16). Her members offer spiritual offerings. They form a royal priesthood, a holy nation. 439. The next prophetic era begins with Samuel. His tabU h- chief office was to prepare for the estabHshment of nientofthe kingly authority. He was commissioned, more- 8 °°^" over, to give to David an assurance that his seed should sit upon his throne for ever, i. e., literally till the end of the kingdom, or, spiritually, in the person of his greater Son, till all things should be put under his feet. Of this en- larged meaning Samuel says nothing, nor does Nathan ; but David, himself a prophet, clearly understands it, applies it in part to himself (2 Kings 2. 4), but passes on the fulness of the promise to his Lord, Psa. 2 : 72 : no. All these Psalms are applied, in the New Testament, to the kingdom which Christ commenced when he appeared on earth (Heb. i. 5), or rose from the dead (Rom. i. 4). 440. This prophetic era is closed with the predictions of Later pre- Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, and the later prophets. The dictions. great theme of their predictions is the restoration of the Jews, and the re-estabhshment of that dispensation which seemed hastening, without hope of remedy, to decay ; and under a twofold form this theme is presented. The prophets who preceded the captivity, and those who hved in it, foretell a restoration, and borrow from it phrases to de- scribe the estabhshment of a 7ieiu kingdom. Haggai and Zechariah foretell the rebuilding of a temple, and under that figure speak of the church. After the temple was finished, Jewish worship was selfish and insincere. Malachi therefore foretells the coming of one who shall purify the sons of Levi, and secure from all a spiritual offering. In a word, not only the prophets, but all the inspired writers describe the church in terms borrowed from suc- cessive stages in the history of the ancient economy. Whether because Old Testament prophecy is expressed in •Question of terms founded on that economy, therefore when Sn'henS^ apphcd to the church it has no fiirther or more arising. literal fulfilment, is another question. In the meantime, mark the fact from which that question arises. That fact is itself of great importance in explaining both the gospel and the law. DOUBLE APPLICATION OF PROPHECY. 291 441. From the typical character of ancient dispensations Poubi r ^^^^^ another peculiarity of prophecy. It not cation of pro- Only speaks their language, but it has often a SeTj^elid position of (2), to his predictions, (i.) Each prophet was a each prophet, jj^essenger to his own times. From the circum- stances of his country he borrowed his imagery, and to the RULES OF INTERPRETATION, 293 moral and physical condition of his country as existing or as foreseen, he adapted his message. If he foretells impending evil, the more distant future is the opposite of the evil he foretells. If he describes immediate good, the future is the completion of the good he describes. And even when that future is more distant, it is ever linked with the present by phrases level to the capacity, and adapted to the wants of the age. (2.) Ascertain also his standing point in relation to his own predictions. Let the student also take his place if possible by the prophet's side, and look with him on the past and on the future. If his country Hes desolate around him, reahze and learn to describe its condition. If he seem in vision amidst the scenes of the gospel, stand near him at the birth, or death, or in the kingdom of our Lord. To understand Isaiah, for example, read repeatedly 2 Kings 14-21: 2 Chron. 16-22. Mai'k also the connection, and if possible^ the centre of each prediction (see p. 286). When and where the last six chapters of Zechariah were AAritten is a question essential to a right understanding of that part of his prophecies. If written by him (and not as some suppose, by Jeremiah), these chapters must refer to the time of our Lord, the second destruction of Jerusalem, and subsequent events (14. 2). If again, they were written after the return of Ezra, with the last band of the captivity, the pre- dictiouG of chapter 10, have not yet received even a partial fulfil- ment. See Introductions to the prophetic books. 2. Famiharize yourself with the language of prophecy — its study the figures and symbols. In these prophecy is more fau^t^^'Tof ^^^^ than common history. Its poetic style and Scripture. other reasons make its usage in this respect both necessary and appropriate. The meaning of these figures is pretty nearly fixed : and though perhaps not clear to those who first used them, to us -with the completed Bible in our hands they ought to be familiar. Compare, for example, the following passages : — Descriptions of afflictions and distress, Psa. 42. 7: Isa. 13. 13: 29. 6: 34. 4: Jer. 4. 23-26: Ezek. 32. 7, 8: 38. 20: Joel 2. 10, 30,. 31: Amos 8. 8, 9. Interpositions of Di\ine Providence and grace in delivery from dangers, Psa. 18. 7-17: Nah. i. 4, 5: Hab. 3. 5-11: Zech. 14. 4. The joy of deliverance, Isa. 33. 17: 35. 1-7: 55. 12, 13: 60. 13: 65. 25: Joel 4. 18. 294 RULES OF INTERPRETATION. See also the classification of Scripture symbols, at the close of this Section. Further light may often be obtained in determining whether words be xised figuratively or not : (a.) From the words themselves. To this rule belong numerous illustrations founded on the typical character of the Jewish people. The kingdom of David is foretold .'liter he had appeared, and the earlier occiurences of Jewish history, are spoken of as if they were to be repeated, Isa. ii. 15, 16: so in Zech. 10. 11: Hos. 2. 14, 15: Isa. 4. 5. (h.) Sometimes from the context : To interpret Isa. 66. 20 literally, requires that verses 21, 23 should also be interpreted literally; involving the re-estal>lishment of the Jewish priesthood and worship. This last view seems incon- sistent mth the reasoning of Heb. 10. lu the last eight chapters of Ezekiel, the literal interpretation seems at first, to have much in its favour, and yet many passages cannot be explained literally. In chapter 47. 1-12, for example, a stream of water of unfathomable depth is said to flow out from the temple, restoring the waters of the Dead Sea, and spreading life wherever it comes. The aptness of this passage to describe the progress of the gospel through the outpouring of the Sphit, is obvious: so in Zech. 14. 8, In any case, the whole must be consistently explained. (c.) Sometimes we need to refer to parallel passages : In Isa. II, the kingdom of Messiah is spoken of as a kingdom oi peace; and in chap. 9, the prophet speaks of the wars and victories of his reign. A reference to the New Testament, or to other parts of the same prophet, shows that chapter 9, is figuratively expressed. The war and peace are real, but not literal. 3. It is a golden rule, that as prophecy is not " self-inter- Comparepre- pretative " (of private interpretation, 2 Pet. i. 20, kSwS'fui-^^ 21), each of the predictions of Scripture must bo liiments. compared with others, on the same topic, and with history, both profane and inspired. Parallel predictions will often throw light upon one another, and recorded fulfilments will explain predictions or parts of predictions still unfulfilled. History and the New Testament will thus often fix the mean- ing of individual passages, and these will illuminate and explain their respective connections. RULES OP INTERPRETATION. 295 Compare in this way the parallel predictions on Babylon, Tyre, Egypt, Amnion, Nineveh, Edom, and Moab (See Epitome of the Prophets, Paa-t ii.), and on the man of sin, 2 Thess. 2 : i John 2. 18; Dan. 7: Rev. 13. A few instances of recorded fulfilments taken from profane history may be seen in the Section on Evidences. Fulfilments recorded in the New Testament may be seen in the chapter on Scripture Difficulties. 4. Mark the principles of prophetic interpretation sane- Mark tiie tioned by the New Testament. It gives from God principles of ^-^q meaning of the Old, and while fixing the sense tionsauc- of particular passages, it suggests principles of New Testa?^ interpretation applicable to all (See Chap. VI. Sec. i). ™ent. Instead of pointing out these principles at length, we may notice and illustrate one which is suggested in almost every chapter of the later Revelation. The great end and theme of prophecy is CmiiST; either in his Its great end person and ojB&ce, or in the establishment of his king- is Christ, dom. Under this twofold division most of the Old Testament predictions may be ranged: some of them are already fulfilled, others are in course of fulfilment, and others, again, are to be fulfilled at some future day. In paradise, prophecy gave the first promise of a Redeemer. In Abraham, it connected the covenants of Canaan, and of the gospel. In the law, it spoke of the second prophet, and foreshadowed in types the doctrines of Christianity. To David, it revealed the kingdom of his greater Son. In the days of the later prophets, it pre -signified the changes of the Judaic economy; gave the history of the chief pagan kingdoms, and completed the announcement of the Messiah. After the captivity, it gave clearer information still of the advent of the gospel. In the days of our Lord, it spoke in parables and direct predictions ; and at last, in dark symboHcal language, foretold the history and final glory of his reign. " The testimony of Jesus " ia indeed " the spuit of px'ophecy," John 5. 39: Acts 3. 18: 10, 43; Rom. I. 2: 3. 21, 22: Rev. 19. 10. This fact is of the greatest importance. It proves the general scope of ancient predictions, and Hmits them. It teaches us to seek Christ everywhere, under both Dispensa- tions, and it makes plain the general meaning of these pre- dictions themselves. 445. While most inquirers concur on the whole in these 2i)G TWO SYSTEMS OF INTERPRETATION. rules, the application of them has led to very ofinterpre- different results, owing chiefly to the importance tation. which is attached by various classes to particular rules. In much that is essential these results agree, — Points of I- The hterai fulfilment of predictions which agreement, refer to our Lord's lirst coming is admitted by all. Passages which might seem sufficiently fulfilled in a general sense by the events of his hfe, were nevertheless fulfilled to the letter. His riding upon an ass, the division of his rai- ment, the appointment of his death with the wicked, and of his grave with the rich are examples, Zech. 9. 9 : Psa. 22. 18 : Isa. 53. 9. 2. The hterai fulfilment of many predictions in relation to the history of the Jews, and of other, nations, is admitted by most ; and both facts are used by one class of inquirers as evidence of the truth of Scripture ; by the other class they are likewise used as evidence of the truth of Scripture, and also as illustrations of the principles of interpretation which we ought to apply to prophecy not yet fulfilled. 3. As to the scheme of prophecy generally, most admit that it has two centres, round which all events revolve : these centres marking the eminences from which the history of the world and of the church may be best surveyed. The one is the first advent of our Lord, to .suffer, the other is his second advent to reign, the latter to be followed after an interval, by the judgment. 4. The future conversion of the Jews, and the general pre- valence of truth, in fulfilment of the glorious predictions of both Testaments— ending, after various struggles, in the final overthrow of the enemies of the faith, are also generally admitted. To this view many from both classes add the restoration of the Jews to their own land. In describing these events, there is also extensive agree- ment. Predictions of spiritual blessing to be enjoyed under the gospel, are applied by both parties without scruple, to the Christian church ; and the reign of righteousness, it is held on both sides, will be visible as well as spiritual, affecting social relations, and modifying by its influence all human society. So far, there is substantial agreement among most students of prophecy. TWO SYSTEMS OF INTERPRETATION. 297 446. The above is (in brief) all which the one class of /•(.ints of inquirers find there. Giving great weight to the difierence. facts, that the Jews were types, that the distinction between Jew and Gentile is formally abolished, and that our dispensation is spiritual ; thinking, moreover, that the descrip- tions in prophecy, if taken Hterally, would lead to a behef in the restoration of Judaism, and ia the introduction of a system adapted to th^ infancy rather than the maturity of the church ; finding that these descriptions, so far as the re-establishment of the Jews is concerned, are not repeated in the New Testament, and that many prophecies which seem to apply to them as a nation, are referred in the New Tes- tament to the church, or to the conversion of the Jews, Acts 2. 17-21 : Kom. II. 26 ; they conclude that a spiritual inter- pretation of the whole series is most consistent with the tenor of Scripture. The other class go further. Much of this reasoning they admit to be true ; deeming it, however, not all the truth. Find- ing that predictions even of spiritual blessing have had for the most part a literal accomplishment, that the Jews are spoken of in both dispensations as still beloved for their father's sake, that many prophecies (those for example, which speak of Israel and Judah in terms, either inapphcable to the first return, or written after it, Isa. 11. 12 : Hos. 3. 15 : Zech. 14), remain unfulfilled, that the language of these pro- phecies, though often applicable in a general subordinate sense to the Christian church, cannot be confined to it without doing violence to the commonest rules of speech, that in the New Testament, prophecies having undoubtedly an early ful- filment in Jewish history, or in the Christian church (as Isa. 13. 9, 10 : 25. 8 : Hag. 2. 6), seem referred to as having fulfilments still future (Matt. 24 : i Cor. 15. 54 : Heb. 12. 26), they maintain, that besides a first accomplishment of many predictions in the history of the Jews, and the spiritual ac- complishment of others under the gospel, many remain to be accomphshed in a hteral and more extended sense. They hold, therefore, throughout, the principle of literal interpre- tation, whether predictions refer to the restoration of the Jews, to the second, i. e., as most think it, the pre-millenial advent of Christ, or the establishment of his reign. 03 298 SYSTEMS OE PKOPHECT. 447. A complete view of these two systems of interpreta- tion may be obtained from the following Tables, systems One is taken from Powel's " Concordance " (1673) ; iUustrated. ^-^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ Bickersteth's " Guide to the Prophecies." i. The Jews shall be gathered from all parts of the earth and (a) Inrela- brought to their own land, Isa, 11. 11: 27. 12, 13: 43. tioutothe 5, 6: 49. II, 12: 60. 4. Compare Jer. 3. 18: 16. 14, '^^"^' 15: 23. 3: 30. 10: 31. 7-10: 32. 37: so Hos. II. ic, 11: Zeph. 3. 10: Zech. 8. 7, 8: 10. 8-10. ii. They shall be carried by the Gentiles to their place, who shall join themselves with the Jews, and become the Lord's people, Isa. 49. 22: 14. 2: 60. 9: 66. 18, 20: 2. 2-4. Compare Jer. 3. 17: 16. 19: Ezek. 47. 22, 23: Mic. 5. 3: Zech. 2. ii: 8. 20-23. iii. Great miracles shall be wrought when Israel is restored. 1. Drying up the Euphrates, Isa. 11. 15, 16: Zech. 10. 11: Rev. 16. 12: Hos. II. 15: ^lic. 7- 15- 2. Giving rivers in desert places, Isa. 41. 17-19: 48. 20, 21: 43. 19, 20. 3. Sending prophets, Isa. 66. 18-21: Hos. 12. 9, 10. 4. The Lord Christ himself as their head, Isa. 35. 4: 52. 12: 58. 8: Hos. I. 10, 11: Mic. 2. 12, 13. iv. The Jews restored from a state, with judges and counsellors; the Lord Christ their Bang, who will then be acknowledged as king over the other nations, Isa. i. 26: 60. 17. Compai-e Jer. 23. 4: 30. 8, 9, 21: Hos. 3. 5: Ezek. 34. 23, 24: 37. 24, 25: Isa. 54. 5: Obad. 21: Zech. 14. 5, 9: Psa. 22. 27, 28. V. They shall have victory over all enemies, and all kingdoms and nations shall submit themselves unto them, Isa. 11. 13, 14: 14. I, 2: 41. 14-16: 49. 23: 60. 12: 25. 10-12: Joel 3. 7, 8, 19, 20: Obad. 17. 18: Mic. 4. 6-13: 5. 5-7: 7- 16, 17: Zech. 2. 13: 9- 13-16: 10. 5, 6: 12. 6: Numb. 24. 17: Isa. 60. 10-16: 66. 19, 20. 6. The Jews restored will live peaceably, without division or con- tentions, Isa. II. 13, 14: 14. I, 2: Jer. 3. 18: 50. 4: I^zek. 37. 21 22: Hos. I. II. Be very numerous, Isa. 27. 6: 44. 3, 4: 49. 18-21: 54. 1-3: 6r. 9: Jer. 23. 3: 30. 18-20: 31. 27: Ezek. 36. 37, 38. Have great outward prosperity, Isa. 32. 16-18: 33. 24: 54. 13-17: 60. 18, 21: Jer. 23. 3-6: 30. 10: 31. 34-40: 33. 6-9: 50. 9j 10- Joel 3. 17, 18: Mic. 7. 18-20: Zeph. 3. 13. Be a blessing to the earth, Isa. 19. 24, 25 : 61. 9: Jer. 33. 9: Ezek. 34. 26; Zeph. 3. 19: Zech. 8. 13. SYSTEMS OF PEOPHECT. 299 vii. The land of Judsea shall be eminently friutful, Isa. 29. 17: 35. 1-9: 51. 3, 16: 54. 11-13: 55. 12, 13: 60. 13, 17: 65. 25: Ezek. 34. 26, 27: 36. 36: Joel 3. 18: Amos 9. 13, 14. viii. Jei-iisalem shall be rebuilt, never to be destroyed, Isa. 52. i: 26. i: 60, 18: 33. 6: Joel 3. 17: Obad. 17: Zech. 14. 10, 11: Jer. 31. 38-40: Ezek. 38. II. ix. A little before the time of the conversion of the Jews there shall be great wars and desolation, Isa. 34: Joel 3. i-io: Zeph. 3. 8, 9: Ezek. 28. 25, 26: Hag. 2. 21-23: Jer, 30. 7-10: 2 Chron. 15. 3-7. Such is one view. Each passage is taken hterally as it stands. The other view, looking at the typical character of the ancient J ews and the nature of prophetic language, re- gards the whole as appHcable either to the first return from captivity, or subsequent return to the church of Christ under the dispensation of the gospel, or to the conversion of the Jews, and the establishment among them of that system which their own law prefigured. Before deciding on either view, let the student compare, humbly and prayerfully, the inspired interpretation of ancient prophecy as given in the New Testament. 448. jMr. Bickersteth's Table gives events, in part, contem- poraneous with the preceding ; in part, subsequent to it. i. As the times of the Gentiles are passing away, their power is Cb). In rela- overthrown, though vast numbers have been converted tiontothe to the faith (Dan. 2. 7: Eev. 7. 9-14: Eom. 11. 25-32: coi^Tof"'^ Luke 21. 24, 25); the Jews are visibly recalled into the oiirLord. chui-ch, Dan. 9. 27: Ezek. 20. 32-44: Isa. 49. 9-12: 62. I. ii. Tiiey partake of renewed favour, are restored to their own land,^ and are exposed to persecution from apostate Gentiles, who, under the last Antichrist, come against restored Israel.^ iii. Soon, signs in the sun and stars appear, '^ and the sign of the Son of man himself is seen in the heavens.** ^ Ezek. 36. 1-38: 37. 20-23: Psa. 37: Isa. 11. 11, 12: 21: Jer. 31. 1-5: Gen. 13. 14-18: 15. 18-21: 17. 7, 8: Exod. 6. 2-8: Lev. 26. 40-44: Deut. 30. 4-6: 32. 43. ^ Jer, 30. 1-9: Isa. ic, 20-27: Dan, 9. 27: Isa. 31: Ezek. 38. 1-16: Dan. 11. 41-45: Joel 2. 1-20: l^Iic. 4. 1 12. 12. ° Matt. 24. 20-29: Luke 21. 24-26: Heb. 12. 26-28: Hag 2. 6, 7: Isa. 13. 9-11: 34. 1-4: Joel 3. 12-15: 2. 31, 32: Mai. 4. 1-6. •^ Matt. 24. 29, 30: Isa. 18. 3-7: II. 12-14: Dan. 8. 13, 14: Matt. 23. 39: Luke 17. 24. 62. 4: 60. 26. 3, 4: n- i-io: 5-10; ; Dan. 300 SYSTEMS OF PROPHECY. iv. Christ raises his dead, changes his living saints, and they I'ise to be with him in the air. Matt, 24. 31 : Kev. 11. 15, 18: i Cor. 15. 51-54: I Thess. 4. 15-17: 2 Thess. i. 7: Isa. 27. 12, 13: Eev. 3.10: Isa. 26. 19-21: Mai. 3. 17. V. The beast and the kings of the earth combine against the Lord," and He pours his judgments on Antichrist and his adherents, pleading with all flesh by fire and sword.^ vi. The character of this dispensation is discriminating, punishing, and purifying (I Cor. 3. 12-15: Mai. 3. 3: Zech. 13. 9: Mark 9. 42, 50: Jar. 20, 9: 23. 29: Psa, 98. 3: i Pet. 4. 12: 2 Pet. 3. 10-13: Kev. 3. 18). The Jews have a special promise (Isa. 51. 16). The fire and tribulation have a crisis at the beginning (Ezek. 38. 22: 39. 6: Isa. 66. 15, 16), and again at the close of the millennial kingdom (Rev. 20. 9), Matt. 24. i: Dan. 12. i: Jer. 30. 7: Rev. 19. 20: 20. 9. vii. Christ descends on Olivet, with his saints, in the sight of Israel, '^ who welcome his coming.'^ Satan is bound: the millennial kingdom begins, over his saints and the nations not yet consumed.* viii. This reign very blessed, but rebellion still lurks among the nations. Satan loosed for a season, Zech. 14. 17-19: Rev. 20. 9, ix. The final judgment, Rov. 20. 10-15. X. The new heavens and the new earth ; no more sea. The holy city descends, God is All in all, and the saints reign for ever and ever. Rev. 21: 22. 5. Whether all the details of this scheme are to be fulfilled literally and precisely in this order is not agreed, but the general plan itself is, on this system of interpretation, as is here described. * Matt. 24. 30: Rev. 11. 18: 16. 14: Isa. 8. 8-10: 10. 24-26: 24. 21, 22: 27. 4: 31. 4: 54. 15 : 66. 18: Joel 3. i, 2: Mic. 4. 11-13: Zeph. 3. 8, 9: Zech. 12. 2-5: 14. 1-5 : Rev. 19. 19. ^.Matt. 24. 36-39: Rev. 15. i: 16. i: Dan. 9. 27: Isa. 10. 24, 26: 14. 24, 26: 24. 21-23: 34: 63: Rev. 19. 10-21: Joel 3. 11-16: Nah. 19. II, 15: Isa. 30. 27-33: Ezek. 38, 17-23: Dan. 7. 9-14: Mai. 4. I, 3: Matt. 3. 12: 2 Thess. i. 8: 2. 8: Rev. 19. 15, 20: Isa. 66. 16: Rev. 19. •= Acts 1. 11: Zech. 14. 4, 5, 10-14: Isa. 64. i: 66. i: 60. 13: Ezek. 43. 7-9: Isa. 66. 18, 19: Isa. 25. 9: Matt. 23. 29: Rom. ir. 26: Isa, 59. 20: Zech. 2. 10-12. d Zech. 12. 10-14: Jer. 31. 8-12: Acts 3. 19-21: Isa. 12. 2, 4: Psa, 117: 118. 98: Rev. 19. i-6. ' Isa. 32. i: Dan. 7. 18, 27: 12. 4: Luke 22. 28-30: .John i. 51: Rev. ir. 18: 20. 4, 6. THE COMING OF CHRIST. 301 The other view of these passages we can only indicate. Those that are taken from ancient prophets, and have not yet been fulfilled, are interpreted spiritually of the church and its enemies, either in its present state, or when aug- mented by the conversion of the Jews, and yet larger acces- sions from the Gentiles : those in i and 2 Thess. and in 1 Cor., that speak of the resurrection of the dead, are referred to the one resurrection : and those that speak of the coming of our Lord are interpreted according to one or other of the following facts. i. ' ' The coming of Christ " is an expression applied to his coming in the flesh, either — (a). At his birth, John 16. 28: i John 4. 2, 3: 2 John 7: Matt. 18. II: 20. 28; Eph. 2. 17: I Tim. r. 15. (h). On his entering 'jpon his ministry, Matt. 3. ii: Mark i. 7: Luke 3. 16: John i. 15, 30: Matt. 11. 17: John 5. 43'. 9- 59- ii. It is applied to any great, though invisible interposition. (a). As for punishment, or i-eward, Eev. 2. 15, 16: 3. 3: Matt. 10. 23(?). (6). As in the remarkable gift of the Spirit, John 14, 18, 28: Matt. 16. 28: Mark 9. i. (c). As in the destruction of Jerusalem, Matt. 24. 27: Luke 21. 6, 7, 27: Mark 13. 26, ver. 30. iii. It is applied to his appearance for general judgment. Matt. 16. 2 7, and in many other places. From this language it is concluded that, as Christ came in the flesh, at Pentecost, in Asia Minor to remove the privileges of apostate churches, in Judaea to destroy the ancient temple, so he will come in the fresh and enlarged outpouring of his Spirit, and at last, in person, for judgment. All " comings " for punishment being taken from the last, and all " comings " in grace from the first. His reign began at his resurrection and at Pentecost (Psa. 2 : Mark 9. i : Rom. i. 4 : Heb. i. 5). After struggles of great principles, such as many of the pas- sages above quoted indicate, it will be completed, so far as EARTHLY manifestation is concerned, in millennial glory. 449. Having stated these difierent systems, we deem it Substantial unnecessary to examine or defend them. Vv'e harmony. mark rather their substantial agreement. The coming triumph of truth, the spirituahty and glory of 302 INTERPRETATION OF TIMES. Christ's reign, the dignity and blessedness of his church, the consequent diminution of earthly evils, are common to both. Where they differ is rather in relation to the modes or ac- companiments of these changes than to the changes them- selves ; and in relation to these accompaniments, we can but commend the student to the disclosures of the New Testa- ment and to the general principles of interpretation sanc- tioned in its quotations from the Old. (See Chap. VI.) 450. In the interpretations of the times of prophecy, it is On the inter- generally agreed that when years are not men- pretationof tioned, davs are reckoned as years. This rule is tune m pro- „ -,■, -, i- i- ,i ii-ii phecy. founded on several analogies, and is at least, highly probable. See Numb. 14. 34 : Ezek. 4. 5, 6 ; where God ex- pressly appoints " each day for a year." Again the expression " Time, times and half a time," is imderstood as meaning three prophetic years and a half, i. e. years of 360 prophetic days each, or 1260 years in all, the period assigned for the rise and fall of Antichrist, Dan. 7. 25 : See also Rev. 11. 2, 3, where the same period seems spoken of as 1260 days, or 42 months. Some of the most remarkable predictions of Scripture, how- ever, specify the time in years. Such are the 430, and 400 years of the history of Abraham's descendants, Gen. 15. 13 : Exod. 12. 40 ; the sixty-five years foretold by Isaiah, in which Israel was to be broken, Isa. 7.8; the seventy years of Judah's captivity ; and the seventy weeks of years (for the word day is not found in this passage), in which Messiah was to be cut off, Dan. 9. 26. Concerning the precise times foretold in the Scripture, it is clearly not God's intention to give us exact know- ofSfficuit^ ledge. These are put in his own power, and there interpreta- jg often very little of a sanctified spirit in seeking tion even "^ \ . ° when fui- to know them. The prophecy sustains our hope, ^ ^ ■ and elevates our feelings. It assures us of the final issue, and lays down certain prognostics highly useful for a moral and spiritual discernment of the Divine purpose, which, however, is very different from the merely mechanical process we have above condemned. Even in prophecies which have been fulfilled, the dates are often difiicult of adjustment ; a fact that should suggest humility and modesty in inter- preting prophecies whose fulfilment is yet to come. GENERAL MEANES'G OF PROPHECIES. 303 The captivity, for example, lasted seventy years, aud there are at least two different dates, from which it may begin From the carrying away of Daniel, to the decree of Cyrus, 2 Chron. 36. 5-7: ri. From the destruction of the temple in the days of Zedekiah, to the decree of Dariiis to restore it, 2 Chron. 36. 14-21 : Ezek. 6. Pi'ideaux adds a third, from the final deportation by Nebuzax'adan to the dedication of the temple, Jer. 52. 30: Ezek. 6. The interpretation of the seventy weeks in Daniel is subject to a like difficulty. Volumes have been written on the precise date when the period begins, and though the meaning is now comparatively clear, the passage gave to the ancient Jew but a general idea of the time of the coming of our Lord. See Bickersteth on the Prophecies, p. 191; Hales, quoted by Dr. Kitto; and Fuller, on the Apocalypse, Dis. 10. " What, aud what manner of time," are both proper sub- jects of inquiry in studying the prophets : but then we must remember that God gave us their predictions rather as part of our moral training than to gratify our curiosity and " He means that his providence, and not ours should be manifested by them to the world." — Sir I. Newton. 451. Amidst all these difficulties, two facts are highly con- solatory to the ordinary reader. With care, he will easily distinguish between prophecy, and Moral lessons those parts of the prophetical writings which are me^amn'^^^^ purely historical or moral. Such portions are, as ahvays clear, w'^e have Seen, frequent, and highly instructive. They contain affecting descriptions of the guilt and degrada- tion of the Jews, powerful appeals, and striking exhibitions of the Divine character, but they must not be confounded with the prophetic narrative. However mysterious the prophecy may be, the moral lesson is generally plain. See Jer. 9. 11-14. 452. When the precise reference of any particular prophecy is not clear, its general meaning can often be ascertained. On reading Rev. 6. i, 2, for example, it is plain that whatever be understood by the white horse, the era or event to which the pro- phet refers, and which is the first of a series, will be peaceful and prosperous; as the era, or event described (6. 3, 4), is one of per- secution and bloodshed. Verses 5, 6, describe an era of equitable government, united ^\dth famine; verses 7, 8, an era of mortal sick- ness and ruin; verses 9-11, of severe protracted persecution; verses 304 SPIRITUAL LESSONS. 12-17, the era of universal change, the breaking up of empires, and the overthrow of established institutions. There may be great dif- ference of opinion as to what particular era or event these predictions refer, but the general characteristics of the era are admitted almost on all hands. So of the whole book of Kevelation; whatever be the meaning of specific terms, it clearly reveals the coming of our Lord in power and great glory; till that coming, the suffering and affliction of his church, and after it, her triumph and blessedness. How consolotary are these truths in every age, and how impressively are they revealed in nearly all the prophetic writings of Scripture. The moral and spiritual lessons therefore, of prophecy, remain, and may be applied by all to stimulate their effort?, and sustain their faith. Obedience to these lessons is more- over the best preparation for understanding what is mys- terious : a special blessing being given to them " that read, and hear, and keep " the sayings which prophecy contains. 45 3 . In addition to predictions on the coming and work of our Lord Predictions (see Part II.), and those given in the prophets (see of Scripture. Introduction to Prophetical Books, Part IL), it is im- portant to notice that nearly all the books of the Old Testament contain prophecies. The principal events of Jewish history were, as Ml'. Davison has remarked, all foretold. A complete view of these predictions may be seen in Brown's " Harmony of the Scrip- ture Prophecies," or in Simpson's ''Key to the Prophecies," London, 1809. In the historical books, for example, from Gen. to 2 Chron. there are upwards of a himdred predictions recorded, with their fulfil- ments ; the whole supplying evidence of the truth of Scriptm'e, or illustrating principles of prophetic interpretation. The flood, Gen. 6. 17 (7. 21, 23). Canaan and Shem, 9. 25, 26 (Josh. 9. 23: I Kings 9. 20, 21). Ishmael's history, 16. 12 (see Heb. Job 39. 5): 21. 20 (Isa. 21. 17): 17. 20 (Gen. 25. 18). The rebuilding of Jericho, Josh. 6. 26 (i Kings 16. 34). Eli's house, I Sam. 2. 30: 4. 14, 17: 22. 9-23 (i Sam. 4. ii: 2. 27: see Ezek. 44. 15). Name and conduct of Josiah, i Kings 13. 1-3 (2 Icings 23. 15-20; 350 yeai's after), 454. The interpretation of symbolic or figurative language is a sub- Interpreta- J*^^^ ^^ much difficulty. Full information in reference to tion of sym- it must be sought for in such works as Wemyss' " Key to ^°^' Symbolical Language," Edin. 1835; ^^^^s' "Sacred Symbology," 1853; or Daubuz's "Preliminary Discom-fse in bis SYMBOLIC LANGUAGE. 305 Commeutary on Revelation." The nature of this language may be gathered from the following examples. Adultery, unfaithfulness to covenant, and so a symbol of idolatry, especially among an enlightened people, Jer. 3.8: Rev. 2. 22. Arm, s. of strength or power, Psa. ic. 15 : Isa. 52. 10. a. inade bare, of power put forth. Babylon, s. of an idolatrous, persecuting enemy of the church; Rome especially, pagan and papal, Isa. 47. 12: Rev. 17. 18. Balance, s. of fair dealing. Job 31. 6; or (when the sale of corn, etc., is indicated) of scarcity. Lev. 26. 26: Ezek. 4. 16: Rev. 6. 5. Beast, s. of a tyrannical, usurping power, or power merely worldly, Dan. 7. 3, 17: Ezek. 34. 28. Bear, s. of a fool-hardy, ferocious enemy, Prov. 17. 12: Isa. II. 7: Rev. 13. 2. Bull, s. of a furious enemy, Psa. 22. 12: Ezek. 39. 18; bullocks = people, Jer. 50. 26; and stalls = cities or houses. Dog, s, of uncleanness and apostasy, Prov. 26. 11 : Phil, 3. 2: Rev. 22. 15; also of watchfulness, Isa. 66. 10. Crocodile (in Heb, of Job 7. 12: Isa. 27. i: 51. 9: Ezek. 29. 3: 32. 2: Psa. 74. 13), s. of Egypt, and so of any anti- christian power. Rev. 11. 18: 13. i. Goat, s. of Macedonian kings (^^geades), and especially of Alexander, Dan. 8. 5-7: s. of the wicked generally, Matt. 25. 32, r^. Horse, s. of agencies fit for war and conquest, Zech. 10. 3: s. for speed, Joel 2. 4: to ride, is to have dominion, Deut. 32. 13: Isa, 58. 14. Leopard, s. of a cruel and deceitful foe (Isa. 1 r . 6 : Jer. 5.6: Hab. I. 8), Dan. 7. 6: Rev. 13. 2. Lion, s, of one having energy and dominion, 2 Eangs 23. 33; Amos 3. 8: Dan. 7. 4: Rev. 5. 5. LocDST, s. of a hostile, destroying army, Joel i. 2: Rev, 9; the chief called Abaddon, or Apollyon, i. e., the destroyer, ver. II. Bee, s. of Assyrian king, Isa. 7. 18, so represented in hieroglyphics; also of any fiex'ce invader, Deut. i. 44: Psa. 118. 12. Book, received, s. of inaugui-ation, 2 Kings 11. 2; written xcithin and without, of a long series of events; sealed, of what is secret; to eat a book, s. of consideration, Jer. 15. 16: Rev. 10. 9; '"'the hook of Jfe," the list in which the names of the redeemed are enrolled, see Ezra 2. 62: Rev. 3. 5; a book opened, s. of the beginning of judgment. Rev. 20. 12. 30G SYMBOLIC LANGUAGE. Bow^ s. of conflict and victoiy, Rev. 6. 2; or (because apt to start aside) of deceit, Hos. 9. i6: Jer. 9. 3. Brass, s, of baseness and obduracy, Isa. 48. 4: Jer. 6. 28; or of strength and firmness, Psa. 107. 16: Isa. 65. 4. Breastplate, what protects a vital part and strikes terror into an adversary, Isa. 59. 7: i Thess. 5. 18: Rev. 9. 9. Brim (i. e., burning) stone, s. of torment. Job 18. 15: Psa. 9. 6: Rev. 14. 10: 20. 10. Chariot, s. of government or protection, 2 Kings 2. 12: Psa. 80. 8; chariot and two riders, Isa. 21. 7; Cyrus and Darius (Lowth). In Zech. 6. i ; the four great empires. Chariots of God, the hosts of heaven, Psa. 68. 18: Isa. 66. 15. Cherubim, s. of God's regal glory (Wemyss), Psa. 18. 12; or of the Trinity and human nature of Christ (Parkhurst); of angels (Lowman, Pierce, Mack.); of the excellencies of God's servants (Taylor, Newc); of angels and, in Revelation, of the redeemed (Mede); of God's manifested perfections : see Gen. 3. 24: Exod. 25. 18, 22: 37. 7, 9: Lev. 16. 2: Num. 7. 8, 9; i Kings 6. 23: 8. 7: 2 Chron. 3. 10, 13: Ezek.i. 10. Colour, s. of the nature of the thing to which it is applied; hlacli, s. of anguish and affliction, Job 30. 30: Rev. 6. 5-12; pale, of mortal disease. Rev. 6. 8; red, of bloodshed, or victory, Zech. 6. 2: Rev. 12. 3; or of what cannot be discharged, Isa. i. 18; white, of beauty and holiness, Ecc. 9. 8: Rev. 3. 4; v:liite and shining was the Jewish royal and priestly colour, as purple wau the Roman. Crown, s. of delegated authority. Lev. 8. 9; or of imperial au- thority and victory, Rev. 19. 12 (Greek, diadem). Cup, s. of enticing luxury. Rev. 17. 11; of idolatrous rites, i Cor. 10. 21; of a man's portion, Rev. 14. 10: 18. 16. Drunkenness, s. of the folly of sin, Jer. 51. 7; and of the stupidity produced by Divine judgments, Isa. 29. 9. Earthquake, s. of violent agitation, Joel 2. 10: Hag. 2. 21: Rev. 6. 12. Eating, s. of meditation on and communion ^vith truth, Isa. 55. I, 2; s. of results of previous conduct, Ezek. 18. 2; s. of destruc- tion of a man's peace or property, Rev. 17. 16: Psa. 27. Egypt, s. of a proud, persecuting powei', as Rome, Rev. 11. 8. Eyes, s. of knowledge, fidelity, glory, Zech. 4. 10 ; of government, Numb. 10. 31. Evil eye = envy; bountiful eye = liberality. Fire, s. of God's word, Jer. 23. 29 : Hab. 3. 5; of destruction, Isa. 42. 25: Zech. 13. 9; of purification, Mai. 3. 2; of persecution, I Pet. I. 7; of punishment and suffering, Mark 9. 44. First-born, had power over their brethren. Gen. 20. 37; were the SYMBOLIC LANGUAGE. 307 priests of the family, Exod. 24. 5 ; "^ere consecrated to God, Exod. 13. I. 13; sanctified the family by their own acceptance, and had a double share of the inheritance, Deut. 21. 17. See Heb. 2, 10, II : 3. i: Col. i. 12. Fish, s. of the rulers of the people, {. e., of the sea, Ezek. 29. 4, 5 : Hab, I. 14. Forehead, written on, the mark of a priest, Lev. 19. 28; of a servant, and of a soldier: see Eev. 22. 4. Servants of idols wore a mark, a name, or a number : see Rev. 13. 16. Forest, s. of city or kingdom; tall trees the rulers, Isa. lo. 17-34: 32. 19: Jer. 21. 14: Ezek. 20. 46. Frogs, s. of unclean, impudent enemies, Eev. 16. 13. Garments, s. of qualities or condition; c/ean garments, s. of purity; tchite, of holiness, Psa. 51. 7, or happiness, Isa. 52. i: Rev. 3. 4: Zech. 3. 3; to bestow garments was a mai'k of favour, 1 Sam. 17. 4. Gems, s. of magnificence, beauty, variety : see Table of gems. Grapes, rijyc, s. of people ready for pvmishment. Rev. 14. 18; gleaned, B. of a people carried away, Jer. 52. 28-32. Hands, s. of actions; pure hands, hands full of blood, etc., indicate such actions respectively, Psa. 90. 17: Job 9. 30: i Tim. 2. 8: Isa. I. 15. To wash the hands, s. of expiation, or of freedom from guilt, I Cor. 6. 11: I Tim. 2. 8. s. of power: the right hand is the place of favour, Mark 16. 19; to give the hand of felloAvship^ s. of communication of rights and blessings. Gal. 2.9. To give the hand is to yield to another, Psa, 68. 31: 2 Chron. 30. 8 (Heb.); to lift up the right hand was a sign of swearing. Gen. 14. 22: Dan. 12. 7. Marks on the hand, s. of servitude and of idol worship, Zech. 13. 6; hands put on another, s. of ti-ansmission of blessing, authority, or gvdlt, Gen. 48. 14-20: Dan. 10. 10; hands of God laid on a prophet indicates spiritual influence, i Kings 18. 46: Ezek. I. 3: 3. 22; his finger less influence; his arm greater. Harp, a s. of praise and joy, Psa. 49. 5 : 33.2; used especially after victory, 2 Chron. 20. 28: Isa. 30. 32: Rev. 14. i. 2. Harvest, s. of time of destruction, Jer. 51. 33: Isa. 17. 5: Rev. 14. 14-18; sickle, the s. of the instrument, Joel 3. 13; 3. of time of complete deliverance, or ingathering; so (Horsley) Hos. 6. 11; s. of the field of labour for the church. Matt. 9. 26. Heaven and Earth, used in a threefold sense; the invisible and moral, the visible and literal, and the political. In the last sense, heaven is a s. of rulers; earth, of the people; heaven and earth, of a kingdom, or polity, Isa. 51. 15, 16: 65. 17: Jer, 4. 23, 24: Matt 24. 29. 308 SYMBOLIC LANGUAGE. To fall from heaven, is to lose dignity; heaven opened, is a new phase in the political world; a door opened in heaven, the begin- ning of a new government: see Hag. 2. 6-22. San, moon, stars, are s. of authorities, supreme or secondaiy, Isa. 24, 21, 23 : Joel 2. 10: Kev. 12. I. Horn, s. of power, Amos 6. 13 (Heb.) : Deut. 33. 17 (see Josh. 17. 14- J 8) : I Kings 22. 11 : Mic. 4, 13; so of i-egal dignity, Jer. 48. 25: Dan. 8. 9: Rev. 13. i. Horns of the altar, when touched, formed a sanctuary, Exod. 21. 14: Amos 3. 14: Jer. 17. i. Horns, or rays, wex-e part of the glory ascribed to God, Deut. 33. 2 • Hab. 3. 4 (Heb.), and to Moses. Incense, a s. of prayer. Psa. 141. 2 : Rev. 8. 4: Mai. i. 11 ; it was ofiered with fire taken from the bm-nt offering. Key, a s. of authority; a commission to open or shut, Isa. 22. 22: Rev. I. 18 : 3. 7: 20. I. Lamp (so •' candle" should be translated), a s. of light, joy, truth, and government. Rev. 2. 5: see Exod. 25. 31, 32: i Kings 11. 36; i. e., a successor shall never fail, Psa. 132. 17. Manna, s. of Divine, immortal sustenance. Rev. 2. 17: see Exod. 16. 33, 34- Marriage, s. of a state of union under covenant, and so of per- fection, Isa. 54. 1-6: Rev. 19. 17. Measure, to, or divide, s. of conquest and possession, Isa. 53. 12: Zech. 2. 2 : Amos 7. 17, where re-measurement implies I'e-posses- sion. Mother,, s. of the producer of anything, Rev. 17. 5; s. of a city, whose inhabitants are her children, 2 Sam. 20. 19: Isa. 49. 23; of the metropolis, whose daughters are dependent cities, Isa. 50 i: Hos. 2. 2, 5 ; of the New Testament church. Gal. 4. 26. Mountain, s. of stability and greatness, Isa. 2. 2: Dan. 2. 35. Trees, tall, s. of rulers, Ezek. 31. 5-9; low, s. of common men. Rev. 7. i: 8.7- Trumpet, blown, s. of the warning of the approach of important events. Vine, s. of luxuriant productiveness, Jer. 2. 21: Hos. 14. 7: Rev. 14. 18; vintage, of the destruction of such. Rev. 14. 19. Virgins, s. of faithful servants, uncorrupted by idolatry. Rev. 14. 4. Wind, agitatinrj the air, s. of commotions; restrained, of tranquillity, Rev. 7. I. SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. ?,0d CHAPTER V. On the Systematic and Inferential Study of the Scriptures. " Inferences from Scripture that appear to be strictly legitimate must be received ■a ilh the greatest caution, or, rather, decidedly rejected, except as they are supported by explicit Scripture declarations." — Bridges: On the Christian Ministry. " No science is more strictly inductive than theology. . . . The Bible is a record of words and facts . . . and our duty is to analyse ihem ; reducing them, by a method strictly inductive, into a proper order, and then deducing " (rather gathering) " from them the legitimate general truth." — Bishop of Kentucky. " A Bible Christian insensibly borrows and unites what is excellent in all systems, perhaps wi±out knowing how far he agrees with them, because he finds all in the written word."— Newton : Works, vi. 418. Sec. I. O71 the Study of the Doctrines of Scripture. 455. It is obvious that truth may be revealed in different forms ; either authoritatively, as law ; or historically, by way of example ; in promise, or in doctrine. The truths of the Bible are revealed in all these forms, and each often involves the other. A command includes a doctrine ; a doctrine, a promise ; and both doctrine and promise, correspondent duty. 456. If the commands, and doctrines and promises of Scripture ar- Scripture were respectively placed by themselves, ranged ac- ^^ should have a System of truth on one principle cording to » 1 ^ , r l theformoof of arrangement. And if the doctrmes and pre- *"^^ ■ cepts which refer to each truth of Scripture were placed together, we should then have a system of truth on a different principle. In the first case, Scripture truth would be classified under the form of the statement, which may be OraccorcUng pi'^ceptive, promissory, or doctrinal. In the se- to the truths coud, the various forms of Scripture statement would be classified under the truths to which they respectively refer. By the careful student, both principles of arrangement are combined. That view of the whole which puts the correct meaning upon every part of the Divine word, and assigns to every truth and duty such a place, both in order and importance, as properly belongs to it, each truth and duty honouring the rest, and itself appearing to the greatest advantage, is the true system of divinity. 310 SrSTEMATIC STUDY OF SCRIPTURE IMPORTANT. 457. Nor is the necessity of sucli arrangement peculiar to the Bible. Both in nature and in providence facts uot peculiar and objects are scattered in endless variety. It ia to Scripture, ^-^q business of science to detect amongst them aU unity and order. The general laws that regulate the universe therefore, and the rules of conduct by which men govern their hves, are alike facts reduced to system by intelligence and care. In both cases, too, we employ the same principle of investigation — the great principle of the inductive philo- sophy. The texts of Scripture form the basis of theology, as the facts of nature form the basis of natural science, or as the facts of consciousness form the basis of mental philo- sophy. In the Bible, however, we have this advantage, that while in nature facts are the only data from which we gather general laws, in Scripture, we find the general laws of truth and duty, as well as particular instances in which those laws are seen to be applied to the uses of hfe. 458. The systematic study of the Bible (it must be ob- Interpreta- served) difiers very materially from the interpreta- temat?c^tS ^i^n of it. Interpretation is concerned only with differ. ^he meaning of individual passages : Systematic Theology considers them in their relation to one another and to ourselves. 459. When it is said that we study the doctrines of Scrip- ture in its precepts, we embody un important voivesdoc- truth. Between the doctrines and precepts of trine. Christianity there is an essential connection. Not only does doctrine contain by implication a command, but it exhibits such views of truth as are adapted by God to excite holy affections, and those affections are the immediate prin- ciples of holy conduct. The belief of the doctrines of the gospel, and obedience, are therefore inseparable. " Morality is religion in practice, and religion is morality in principle." He that loves God keeps his commandments, and he that keeps the commandments loves God. Man may attempt to put asunder the things which God has thus joined. He may explain truth so as to destroy morality, making "void the law through faith," or he may hold " the truth in unrighteous- ness." But God's design is that truth should always pro- mote hohness, as it is essential to it. Holiness, therefore, is never found without truth ; and if ever truth be found with- RULES FOR FRAMIJfG A SYSTEM. 311 out holiness, it is because the perverseness of human nature has succeeded in parting them. 460. The systematic study of Scripture has been singularly Importance misrepresented. Some hold that there can be no tematicstudy intelHgent knowledge of Scripture without it, and of Scripture, others, that it is useless ; a remnant, in fact, of scholastic habits, which it is for the interest of the church to destroy. Both these views, however, are wrong. The pas- sages of the Bible which contain clear summaries of truth are so numerous (Tit. 2. 11-14: Eph. 2. 4-10), that a good man will often gather, without knowing it, a comprehensive and sound system. On the other hand, to repudiate system compels us either to confine ourselves in statements of doc- trine to Scripture language ; or it exposes us to the risk of misrepresenting one doctrine in enforcing another ; or, more commonly still, it tempts us to overlook the due proportion or connection of doctrines, and so leads us into error, the more seductive that it is founded partially on truth. " General principles drawn from particulars," says Locke, "are the jewels of knowledge, comprehending great store in little room : but these are therefore to be used with the greater care and caution, lest, if we take counterfeit for time, our loss be the greater when our stock comes to a severe scrutiny." 461, The Bible may be studied systematically for a double Theology, purpose ; either, first, to ascertain the doctrines of dogmatic Scripture, or secondly, to determine its rules of morality and hohness. The system of doctrine thus framed is called dogmatic, or doctrinal theology ; and the system of duty, moral, or practical theology ; both, however, being most closely interwoven in Scripture as they are in human experience. 462. In gathering doctrinal truth from Scripture, we bring together all the texts that refer to the same sub- ject, whether they be doctrines, precepts, pro- mises, or examples ; impartially compare them ; restrict the expressions of one text by those of another ; and explain the whole consistently. When the proposition which we derive from the passages examined embodies all they contain, and no more, it may then be regarded as a general Scriptural truth. 312 RULES FOR FRAMING A SYSTEM. 463. The following rules are equally obvious aud im- Rules. poi'tant, r. From the "^ye must gather our views of Christian doctrine New Ics- ° tament. primarily from the New Testament, interpreting its statements consistently with one another, and with the facts and clear revelations of the Old. In carrying out this rule it is necessary to explain am- biguous aud figurative passages by those that are clear and 2. Loca literal ; and passages in which a subject is briefly ciassica. described with those in which it is largely dis- cussed ; and general assertions by others (if such there be) which treat of the same truth with some restriction or exceptions. Not only must the passages which speak of the same doc- 3. All held trine be explained consistently with one another, consistently, -^^-t each doctrine must be held consistently with other doctrines. The Scriptures teach, for example, on a comparison of passages, that repentance, faith, and obedience, ai'e the gifts of God.* Do we therefoi'e gather that men are guiltless if they do not repent, and believe, and obey the gospel? or do we deem it needless to ex- hort men to repentance, obedience, and faith? If so, our views are unsound, for the guilt of impenitence is charged entirely upon man.^ His unbelief is declared to be his great sin and the ground of his condemnation;'' and not to obey God is everywhere con- demned. Men are exhorted, too, to repent, "^ and believe, and obey. So Samuel taught the Israelites, and so Peter exboi*ted Simon Magus and the murderers of our Lord.® Though truths may be revealed in Scripture which it is difficult for us to harmonize, yet one truth so held as to con- tradict another is not held as the Bible reveals it. Employ and interpret the doctrines of Scripture with 4. Truth to special regard to the practical purposes for which be held for the Scripture reveals them. practical pur- ^ poses. -^^cts 13. 34, and, generally, Rom. chaps. 9 to 15. 4. The principles involved in Old Testament history may be applied in the same way to the experience of the church under the gospel: whether that history illustrate human character, or God's dispensations, Rom. 9. 7, 9: Gal. 4. 22-31: i Cor. 10. 4: Rom. 8. 36: I Cor. 10. i-ii: Heb. 3. 7-ro; 10. 26-30. RULES OP INTERPRETATION. 339 From these quotations, it cannot justly be affirmed, of course, that the persons referred to in the original passages, are types of those to whom the quotation is applied: still less can it be said that in these quotations, we must understand by the persons named, f.he persons intended by the New Testament writer. The case (■[uoted, is simply a case in point, proving and illustrating by example, a particular principle. In the 9th of Romans, for example, the apostle is proving that in all ages there has been (what his readers urged as an objection to the gospel), an election, even of Jews, according to grace: and he establishes this conclusion, by Bhowing, that not all the descendants of Abraham were chosen, but only his descendant by Sarah : nor all the descendants of Isaac, but only his descendants through Jacob. 5 . Passages in the prophets which contain general promises, or are descriptive of classes, are, of course, repeatedly fulfilled. They are, in fact, general principles. See the quotations of Isa. 6. 9, 10 : see Matt. 15. 8. 9: ^cts 13. 41. See also Isa. 54. 13: Hab. 2. 4: Heb. 13. 5 (from Joshua i. 5). 6. Predictions, properly so called, may have a double fulfilment; a fact, of which vaiious explanations have been given. Sometimes, for example, the persons or things are types, one of the other;* sometimes they are in certain aspects, identical,^ and sometimes the events referred to, are so closely blended, as to be scarcely distinguishable.*' °- The promise to Abraham, for example, that he should be the father of a numerous seed, is applied litei^ally by Moses, Deut. i. 10: by Paul it is applied to those v/ho are partakers of his faitli, Rom. 4. 18. ^ In another epistle, he says expressly, that the seed in whom the nations are to be blessed, is Christ, and then, that all who are Christ's, are the seed and heirs of the promise. Gal. 3. 16, 29. To Class (a), belong such passages as Exod. 12. 46 (the paschal lamb, John 19. 36), and the promise concei-ning Solomon, 2 Sam. 7. 14; and the corresponding Psalms, as 132. 11. To (a) or (6), belong^ Psa. 8. 2-6, applicable first to man as the chief of God's creatures, and thence to our Lord, who is in this respect identified with us, or (it may be said), our antitype: Psa. 91. 11, 12, applicable first to all who " say of the Lord ' He is my refuge' "' (ver. i), and pecu- liarly therefore, to Christ : and various Psalms, which, originally descriptive of the afflictions of individual believers, have their fullest accomplishment in our Lord, Psa. 69. 9, 21, 25: 109. 8: 41. 9: ir8. 19, 20, 25, 26. " Such are the predictions in Isa. 40. 3-5, where the coming of our Lord in the flesh, aud the final extension of his truth, are Q 2 340 SCRIPTURE DIFFICULTIES. 500. If it be said that this double fulfilment (whatever the explanation) weakens the evidence of prophecy, it fiUnent con- sliould be remembered in reply, that the facts on iusuuaivc'' ^hich it is founded — ^the typical nature, for ex- ample, of the two economies, or the complete identity of Christ's interests, and those of his church — them- selves supply both evidence and consolation ; while many of the Psalms'*, and most of the predictions of our Lord, taken from the prophets, apply exclusively to Him. Sec. 2. Scn_pture Difficulties. " In divinity many things must be left abrupt and concluded witli this : — Oh the depth ! . . . . For the inditcr of Scripture did know four thiugs which no man attains to know, — the mysteries of the kingdom of glory, the perfection of the laws of natm-e, the secrets of the heart of man, and the future succession of all ages." — Bacoix. 501. The Bible was written "for our learning," and by "in- spiration of God," and yet it is confessed that its iusiKlnd general clearness is obscured by " things hard to intended for "be understood."' Christians are often harassed by ourlearmng, . * and yet objections deduced from them, and unbelievers make them an excuse for rejecting the authority of revelation. What, it may be asked, is their origin, their solution, their use, and how far are they consistent with the character and aim of the Bible as an inspired and instructive book ? 502. Their origin, it may be answered, is sufficiently plain. The languages in which the Bible was composed Scripture are disused ; they are distinct from each other, and difficulties, (^[ifferent from our own ; the expressions, images, and thoughts, it contains belong to different ages, countries, and persons ; the manners and customs it describes have passed away ; its topics are the most various and compre- hensive, including the history, in part, of all nations and of blended ; in Mai. 3 . 1-3, where we have the same double reference, and in Joel 2. 28-32. Compare the New Testament quotations. Of the same character are the predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem, as given in Matt. 24, 25, where are represented also some of the awful transactions of the last judgment. '•^ Psalms 2, 22, 45, no; and probably, 40, 16. and 72: Psalms 16, 22, 40, embody the experience of the suffering Messiah ; 2,45, 72, and no, describe his victories and glory. THEIR ORIGIN-. 341 all time3 ; the system of truth it reveals is to influence both worlds ; and it contains precepts and disclosures which refer to both, exjjressed necessarily in terms taken from one only ; and the whole revelation is included in a brief volume. Let these and kindred facts be remembered, and it will be seen at once that, to give within so narrow a range, and even to give at all, to a mortal, finite mind amidst the changes in- cident to everything human, a revelation that shall be free from difficulty is impossible. Difficulties there must be^ such as need a larger amount of inquiry than any one mau: can give, and such as will leave, after the utmost inquiry, much to be hereafter explained. Either Scripture must have been written without reference to history or common expe- rience, without reference, moreover, to anything not familiar to every man of every age, or difficulties must abound : in some- respects they do abound ; but it is the darkness of the readers, not of the writers which creates and continues them. 503. Comparing the sections of chap. iv. ; chap. i. sec. 5, and the Introductions of Pai-t ii. ; it will be seen. cia^-ified^^ that Scripture difficulties are such as are entailed upon us, (ist) hyi the uncertainties of the text j (2ndly), by the meaning of words and phrases, the connection of arguments, the scope and authorship of particular books ; (3rdly), by the customs and manners of the age and country in which inspired authors wrote ; (4thly), by the chronology, geography, and history of the sacred volume ; (5thly), by the apparent contradiction of the precepts or truths of revelation regarding them as matters of interpretation only ; and, lastly, by the objects with which revelation is conversant : the last description including the difficulties involved in the whole range of spiritual and moral truth as revealed in the sacred volume. Let us briefly illustrate each class : 504. I. It is sometimes difficult to ascertain the reading of Difficulties in the inspired text. °'" Gen. 49. 6, ''digged a wall" ("I'it^, shur), but there Ls no such circumstance mentioned in the history, and it would have been comparatively innocent, see 34. 25. Some read ("l'"lK^, shor), an ox; "they houghed the oxen," but this is not true, 34. 29; more pro- bably "1C^, sar, a prince: in their WTath or self-will, "they slew a prince." So the S^'riac version 342 DIFFICULTIES IN PHRASES. 505. 2. After the text has been fixed there are difficulties in the explanation of words and phrases,** the cou- connecfion, ' nection of arguments,^ the scope and authorship of and scope. particular books," or in two or more combined.'^'' Many of the illustrations in chap. iv. sec. 6, once belonged to this class ; they were Scripture difficulties, and the solution of them is the result of modern inquiry. ( ^ ) John I. 16, "grace fok grace," has created difficulty. " For the benefits of the law we have the blessings of the gospel," Chrys., Beza, Erasmus: ''additional grace for grace properly used," Le Clerc: ''grace on account of the grace of Chi-ist," Grot.: "grace upon grace," i. e., abundance, so Dodd, Wesley, Olshausen: probably correct, though a.vrt (for), has not this meaning elsewhere in the New Testament. It may be a Hebi-aiSta for py al, vpon, and there are instances of this meaning in classic authors. Heb. 12. 17, "though he sought it carefully with tears;" if it refers to the nearest antecedent, it means "repentance," either his own or his father's, Dodd. ; it may, however, refer to the remoter antecedent, his father's blessing ivXoyiav, and this agrees with the history, Gen. 27. 34. Heb. 9. 16, "where a testament is (oLadi'jKv) there must also of necessity be the death of the testator," i. e. either where there is a will the testator must die before it can be proved or take effect ; so the English version, Guyse, Stuart : or, where there is a covenant the victim whose death is to ratify it must be slain, Mich., Mack., Dodd., Bloomfield. I Cor. II. 10, "For this cause ought the woman (i) to have power, (2) on her head, (3) because of the angels." "To have power on," that is, say some, to have a veil-cover-iug, but the word never has this meaning elsewhere. Others understand it literally, and then (2) by "head" they understand her husband, and trans- late, "for this cause should she have power in or through the man," i Tim. 2. 11 — 13, (3) "because of the angels," i. e. either evil angels who will be gratified by indecency, or good angels who observe her conduct, Eec. 5.6; or, the teacher of the churches. Rev. 3; or, spies sent by the pagans. " One of the very few passages of Scripture wholly inexplicable," Barnes. When the language is figurative the difficulty is often in- creased. Psa. 104. I — 3, for example, is figurative, and the expressions may be taken from nature, or they may be taken from the tabernacle ; light referring to the Shekinah, the curtain referring to the veil, the beams of his chamber to the pieces of wliich the tabernacle waa DIFFICULTIES IX CONNECTION. 343 composed, the clouds his chariot to the moving of the Shekinah, and cloud when the ark moved ; the latter verses of the Psalm, however, refer to nature. In Ezekiel's descriptions, some are clear, some purposely am- biguous. (*") 2 Pet. I. 19, " a more sure word of prophecy," than what ? "Surer than fables," verse 16, Chandler; others, than the trans- figuration, Sherlock; but better, "the word of prophecy confii-med," either by the transfiguration or rather by New Testament fulfil- ments. Prophecy was as a lamp in a dark place, the fulfilment in Christ is as the dawn. {^) Of the difficulties of scope and authorship the Book of Job may be taken as an illustration. Some reckon it very ancient, as early as Moses or earlier, Michael. Schult. Lo\^'th; others modern, during or after the Ivings, Heath, Warbm'ton : wiitten by Job or Elihu, or some contemporary, so Dupin, Lowth, Schult. Lightfoot; translated by Moses, so Patrick, Grey ; or written by him, ]\Iichael. Lowth; or by Solomon or some contemporary, Dupin, Spanheim; or by Ezra, Warburton: some regard it as real history, Lowth, Schtilt. ; others as an allegory, Michael. Warburton : its scope is to give an example of patience, Schult. Grey; to show that affliction is consistent with piety, Lowth; to illustrate God's sovereignty, or contradict the Manicheean doctrine of the existence of a power of evil equal to God, Sherl.; to comfort the Israelite in Egypt, Michaelis; or during the captivity. Heath; or to explain the change in God's providential government after the capti\ity, viz., the sub- stitution of a more spiritual system for the system of earthly rewards which had previously prevailed, Warburton. It may be added that many of the foregoing ends are answered by this Book, and that comparatively recent investigation has thrown much light upon its meaning. {^) Sometimes there are difficulties both in the words and in the connection. One of the most difficult words of Scripture is the particle tVa. The question involved in it is whether it means only in order that or also, icith the result that. If the former be its only meaning, then it always expresses the purpose or view with which a thing is done. If the latter be one meaning, then it may express the con- sequence of an act, without implying intention upon the part of the agent. The first is called its telic (jeXos) meaning, and the second its ecbatic (iic-^alvco). Authorities are divided. Tittman, Stuart, Robinson, Burton, all maintain that it is used in both senses; Winer, Dq Wette, Olshausen, that it is used in the first sense only. The 3-1-4 DIFFICULTIES IX HISTORY. telic sense is no doubt most consistent ■with classic usage, and so the word is generally used in Scripture ; some think the ecbatie pense preferable in the following passages, John 9. 2: Luke ir. 50: Eom. II. Ill others maintain a telic sense even here. It is sometimes used also to express not the chief end of an act, but a subordinate one, as in Rom. 5. 20: Rom. 11. 32: John 5. 20: I. 7: 15.6. This looser usage is probably owing to the employment of the word by the LXX in passages where there is nothing, either in the Hebrew or in the context, to indicate a telic sense, but the con- trary, Gen. 22. 14: (LXX). (*) Sometimes there are difficulties both in the reading and the sense, Isa. 5 3 has been altered by transcribers and its meaning obscured. Mic. 5. 1-5, quoted in Matt. 2. 6, and many of the quotations in the New Testament. Isa. 3. 6, 7: 6. 10: 8. 12-18: 16. 1-7: 48. 16, on which see Lowth, 506. (3.) When the meaning of words has been fixed, it is sometimes difficult to understand the custom to which they refer and the reasons for it, Ecc, II. I : ''Cast thy bread upon the w^aters: for thou shalt find it after many days :" " Give bread to those in affliction," Gill. *'Sow thy corn -without hope of harvest:" that is, be disinterested, ill your liberality, Jebb. " Be liberal while you can," Bcothroyd. Rather, exercise a large faith in God; act in your gifts and efforts as the husbandman, who casts his rice upon the waters and waits for the crop; the rice-grounds being imxndated from seed-time till nearly harvest. Dr. Clarke. Various customs are mentioned m the following passages in Isaiah, and create difficulty; all of them, however, are explained by Lowth, in his notes, Isa. 3. 16, etc.: 49. 16, 23: 50, i, 6: 51. 23: 52. 2: 57. 6-9: 65. 3, 4- In chronology 507. (4.) Difficulties in chronology and history and history." q^q various. In Gen, 4. 17, the early building of a city by Cain has created difficulty, and it has been asked — who inhabited it? A little calcu- lation, however, will show that, 500 years after the creation, the descendants of our first parents must have amounted to mauj hundred thousand in all. Dr, A. Clarke. DIFFICULTIES IN HISTORlt. 345 Difficiilties in chronology and in numbers generally have often arisen, as we have seen, from false readings, the similarity between different numeral letters, and from the use of different modes ot reckoning. So among profane authors. Cyrus reigned thirty years, Cicero de Div., i.e., from his joining Cyaxares; nine yeai'S, Ptol. Canon^ i. e., from his taking Babylon ; seven years, Xen. i. e., from his be- coming sole monarch. This last is perhaps Ezra's I'eckoning, Ez. I. I. Shuckford. 508. Historical difficulties are of two kinds : such as arise on comparison of different parts of Scripture, and such as arise from the comparison of Scripture with profane records. Sometimes difficulties arise from the proper names of Scripture, some of which are spelt differently,'' or the re- ferring to the same person or place are entirely different.*" " Eliam., Sam., Amiel., Chron., Nebuchad = nezzar, = rez2ar. Correct such from pai-allel passages, ancient versions, and Josephu.s. ^ For a comparison of the discrepancies between 2 Sam. 5. 23 and Chron. 11, see Kennicott's First Dissertation. 509. (i.) Comparing parallel and apparently contradictory historical passages of Scripture, the following solutions are important : — («.) Facts that seem contradictory are often really different. In Matt. I. I, we have our Lord's genealogy thro\igh Joseph; in Luke 3. 23, through Mary. See Introd. to Gospels. (5.) In giving the same nan-ative different historians relate different circumstances, some giving more, some fewer than the rest ; the fuller account includes the shorter, and the shorter does not contradict the fuller. Compare Luke 2. 39, with Matt. 2. 22, 23, where they agree: in all the preceding verses they differ, though without contra- diction. Compare, on the call of the apostles, Luke 5. i-ii: Matt. 4. 18- 22; Mark i. 16-20. Some (as Greswell) place the passage in Luke later; others (as Robinson) deem the whole, as they stand, recon- cilable. Compare, on the two demoniacs, Mark 5. 1-21: Matt. 8. 28-9. i: Luke 8. 26-40. (c) The same remark apphes to the narrative of what was iaid on some particular occasion, one historian giving the Q 3 346 DIFFICULTIES IN HISTORY. very words and another the sense, or each a different part of what was said, or varying the order for a particular reason. The words of the Supper; the titles on the cross, Matt. 19. 3-12; Mark 10. 2-12. (d.) Things said to be done by one man are elsewhere said to be done by another who however acted on his behalf,*^ and sometimes the plural is used when the remark is apphcable to one only.^ Here there is no contradiction. ^ Matt, 8. 5, 6: Luke 7. 2, 3. Mark 10. 35, and Matt. 20. 20. '' Matt. 26. 8; and John 12. 4. Matt. 27. 44, aud Luke 23. 39-42 (e.) Narrative of what was spoken or done may create diffi- culty from the fact that general expressions 'are to be limited by particular ones, obscure expressions to be explained by those that are plain. Matt. 10. 10: Mark 6. 8: Luke 9. 3. (/.) The narratives of Scripture are compiled on different principles and for different purposes. Some are written chronologically on the whole or in particular passages, or give incidents in groups. The principle of arrangement must be studied, and the whole harmonized in accordance with it. The order of Mark and Luke, is generally chronological. Matthew gives facts and parables in groups: see Har. of the Gospels, Pt. ii. Sometimes, however, Matthew gives the true order, and indicates the fact by the terms employed. In the history of the temptation, for example (Chap. 4), he affii-ms the order, ''then:" again, Luke 4 gives a different order, but the order is not afi&i'med, "and" — In Gen. i. 27, the creation of man is mentioned briefly, at greater length in chap. 2. 7, 21, and so as to create an apparent contra- diction. The order of the Lord's suppei', and the betrayal of Judas is given by John, Matthew, and Mark; between Matthew 26. 25, and 26: John 13. 26-35, niust be iusei'ted, and Luke's order will be, Luke 22. 21-33, ^9- 20. So the true order of Isa. 38. 21, 22, may be gathered from 2 Kings 20. 7, 8. These difficulties are augmented by the present aiTangement of the Psalms and prophecies. See chronological arrangement of tlie whole, Pai't ii. (g.) Sometimes there is an apparent discrepancy between an original narrative and the reference made to it elsewhere, DIFFICULTIES IX HISTORY. 347 and in that case there is generally a fake reading, or some- times another explanation. Mark 2. 25, 26, ''in the days of Abiathar," see i Sam. 21. i, 2; Ahimelech was the priest: not a false reading; not about the time of; rather in the days of Abiathar, afterwards so well known as high priest, and who was present at the time, i Sam. 22, 22. Matt. 23. 35, Zachariah, the son of Barachiah, see 2 Cliron. 24. 21, where his father is called Jehoiada; the names have in Hebrew substantially the same meaning (whom Jehovah cares for or blesses); ?.s Uzziah (the strength of Jehovah), is called also Azariah (whom Jehovah helps), 2 Chron. 26. i: 2 Kings 14. 21, Acts 7. 16, ''which Abraham bought," — but Jacob bought it. Gen. 23. 19: Josh. 24. 32; and Jacob, moreover, was buried in Hebron, not in Sychem, Gen. 50. 13. Read, probably, our father i. e., Jacob, and omit Abraham. (A.) Sometimes the reference contains more than the ori- ginal narrative, and the difficulty is removed by remembering that the earlier inspired historians do not relate all that hap- i:»ened. Joseph fettered, Psa. 105. 18: the saying of our Lord, Acts 20. 35 : an appeai-ance of Christ to James, i Cor. 15. 7: the marriage of Salmon and Rahab, Matt. i. 5, is not recorded in the Old Testament. So Jude 9. 14: Rev. 2. 14. 510. (2,) Comparing the narratives of Scripture with pro- fane records, there are several difficulties, most of which, however, have long since yielded additional evidence of its truth. In Luke 2. 2, it is said, that a taxing was first made when CjTenius was governor of Syria. Greswell and Tholuck translate, this enrol- ment took place before Cyrenius was governor ; Bui-ton and others, the enrolment (which was ordered twelve years before), first took effect, i. e. money due in consequence of it was first paid, when Cyrenius was governor. The fact is, that the census or enrolment was ordered by Augustus, three years before the birth of Christ, but the tax was not paid till twelve years afterwards, when Cyrenius was president of Syria, See others in Paley's Evidences, Part h. Chap. 6, Religious Tract Society, p. 260. The works of Lai^dner give the completest view of the accordance of sacred and profane records. Many similar difficulties have arisen and been explained by further inquiry. 348 DIFFICULTIES IN HISTORY. Daniel mentions four kings of Babylon and Persia — Nebuchad- nezzar, Belshazzar, Darius the Mede, and Cyrus. The first is well known, the second is mentioned, though by other names ; Laby- netus, by Herod, ; ISTabonadius, by Berosus : the third was no more than nominal king, and is not mentioned by any, but he is the Cyaxares ii. of Xen., Prid. Con., Book 2. Cyrus was suc- ceeded by Cambyses ; he by Smerdis, and he by Darius Hystasper, Ezi'a 6. I. His successor was Artaxerxes Longimanus, the Arta- xerxes of Nehemiah ; another Artaxerxes, and two other kings of the name of Darius filled the throne before the empire was subdued by Alexander, B, c. 331. The identity of the names and the confu- sion of all Persian and Assyrian chronology, combine to create several difficulties : but careful study reconciles most. See additional examples in Home, 2. 618, in Newton on the Prophecies, and in the connections of Prideaux, Shuckford, and Russell. 511. (5.) There are apparent contradictions in the truths In truths and ^^^ precepts of Scripture, regarding them as precepts as matter of interpretation only. Between a literal interpreta- expression and a figurative one there is sometimes ^^^°- an apparent contradiction which is removed by explaining the two harmoniously. Various kinds («•) Sometimes the words of one passage must classified. j^g explained figuratively. " Ye will not come," John 5, 40 ; " no man can come except the Father draw him," John 6. 44. The first implies, when compared with other passages, that to have eternal life, we must believe that evei-y one who hears the gospel is bound to believe it ; that men are so depraved that they will not believe, and that therefore they are condemned. The second affirms that men cannot come. "V\Tiat, then, does this mean ? Is it want of power, which is the proper sense if they cannot, or is it Avant of will, which is the figurative sense? Both senses are found in Scripture. " Ahi^dih. could not &ee, by reason of age." So, Jonah i. 13. ''Joseph's brethren could not speak peaceably to him." " How can ye, being evil, speak good things ?" where the dominion of a strong propensity is implied. It is to this latter our Lord refers ; nothing less than special Divine agency will subdue this propensity ; and, being in the will, it is our sin. So in all the passages which speak of God in expressions accommo- dated to the weakness of human conceptions. Compare also Matt. 11. 14, with John i. 21. APPARENT CONTRADICTIONS. 349 Or tlie words of both passages need to be explained figu- ratively. See § 262. {k) Sometimes general assertions in one text are to be re- stricted by others. In Liike 16. 18 : Mart ^o. 11, 12, divorce is forbidden absolutely ; but in Matt. 5. 32: 19. 9, it is allowed, though for adulteiy only; Y.'hile in i Cor. 7. 15, the believing party is said to be free to leave the unbelieving husband or wife who is determined to separate. Restrict and explain in the same way Gen. 13. 17 : 23. 17, i3 : Acts 7. 5. (c.) Sometimes the same terms are used in different senses in different texts, and it is difficult to know how to restrict them in each. In Matt. 18. 21, 22, forgiveness is enjoined absolutely: in Luke 17. 3, 4, on repentance; in the latter the word is used in a different sense (Gerard), or the condition of repentance is presupposed in Matt., or the phrase in Luke means, as often as one seeks forgiveness give it. A man is justified by faith without the deeds of the law, Rom. 3. 28 : " by works a man is justified, and not by faith only," James 2. 24. Paul speaks of the justification of the ungodlij in relation to theh acceptance by God ; James of the justification of the godly in relation to their approval by God: Fuller. Or Paul of justification in the sight of God ; James in the sight of man : Hoadley and Taylor. Or Paul speaks of faith Avith its effects, James of mere assent: Grofc. Macknight. Various winters restrict various words of each verse, but all agree that some restriction is necessary. So in I Cor. 10. 33 : Gal. i. 10. Prov. 26. 4, 5. Ex. 20. 5 : Ezek. 18. 2c, "visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children :" "the son shall not bear the iniquity of the father," Either God's plan towards the close of the Jewish dis- pensation was changed : at first the fathers were spared, but at last fathers and sons, and not sons only, were to suffer : Fuller. Or the first description applies only to those "who hate him." If Judah, therefore, in the days of Ezekiel had been righteous, they would not have gone into capti\'ity for the sins of Manasseh. In both passages men are spoken of, not as individuals, but as members of society, and both refer only to this life. (d.) Sometimes the same action is ascribed to different agents, and sometimes different and apparently inconsistent descriptions are given of the same object, in which case either the action is described in terms which are used in 350 DIFFICULTIES IN TRUTHS REVEALED. different senses, or there is a sense in which the terms are true ; but it is sometimes difficult to ascertain which is the correct solution. See pp. 316, 317. Christ intercedes, Rom. 8. 34 : Heb. 7. 25, as does the Spirit, Rom. 8. 26, 27, the one in heaven and the other in our hearts. Christ is called the Comforter (or Advocate) i John 2. i, as is the Spirit, John 16. 7. The one is within, and the other above. The teaching of Scripture on the coming of our Lord in- volves nearly aU the difficulties of interpretation to which we have referred. 512. (6.) After all these difficulties of interpretation have In the things been solvcd, there are others which apply to the revealed. tilings revealed or commanded in Scripture, and it is in objections founded upon those difficulties that men most indulge. (a.) Many passages have been placed under this head which properly involve questions of interpretation only. The creation of the rainbow after the deluge, and of the sunaud stars on the fourth day, are probably difficulties of interpretation only. Most Hebrew scholars affirm that the original means simply that the sun and stars were made or constituted on the fourth day to rule the day and the night, and that the rainbow was made or became after the deluge the sign of the covenant ; both were created by God, but had existed before, and were only then employed for these purposes. Lev. 27. 28, 29, has been quoted as authorizing human sacrifices, as has Jephthah's treatment of his daughter. Judges 11. 34; but human sacrifices were expressly forbidden, Deut. 12. 30, 31 : Ps. 66. 3 : Ps. 106. 37, 38. All who even touched a dead body were im- clean ; and, moreover, no devoted thing could be sacrificed. Jephthah probably devoted his daughter to perpetual virginity ; and, at all events, the act is not commended. Predictions are sometimes stated, through a similar error, to be ftilse, 2 Kings 8. 10. Elisha's answer to Hazael ("j^ not ^ lo). The promise to Josiah, 2 Chron. 34. 28 : 35. 23. The history of Jonah, Some assertions that the last day was near, i Cor. 10. 1 1, etc. Expressions in the Old Testament seem to imply vindictive feel- ing: but some of the expressions are figurative, Ps. 10. 15 ; some are predictions, only the tenses being indicative future rather than imperative; and others are the denunciations of Divine justice against transgressors, Deut. 28. DIFFICULTIES ENUMERATED. 351 Some actions alleged to be done by prophets are said to be lidicu- ious or immoral : but they were either symbolical, or were repre- sented in vision only, or were merely related by the prophet. Is, 20. 3, naked ; i. e., without his upper garment, Lowth ; or in vision, Rosenm. Jer. 13. 4, 6, a vision (Lowth); Eze. 4; Hos. i, 2, Precepts and statements are interpreted without the necessary restriction or explanation: John 6. 5T-58, eatmg Christ's flesh: Matt. 12. 36, "idle words" pernicious, calumnious: Matt. 19. 23, "rich man," "one who trusts in riches:" Mark 10. 24. Matt. 5. 30, cut off a right hand: 5. 39, "Whosoever shall smite thee on the right cheek, tuni to him the other also ;" both spoken comparatively, rather do this than commit evil. All these passages involve important truths and some diflB,culty, but the difficidty refers to interpretation only. (k) Of difficulties in the sense of Scripture the following These ^^^ ^® taken as a sample, difflcuUies i. There are alleged contrarieties between the mumera e . ^^^ Testament and the New, and between the teaching of our Lord and the teaching of his apostles. 2. There is said to be much that is impossible in the his- tory of creation, and in the attempt to trace all mankind to a common origin. 3. Some of the miracles, — the history of the fall, of Balaam, the demoniacal possessions in the New Testament, for example, • — are said to be incredible. 4. Much was wrong in the applauded characters of Old Testament saints. 5. Extraordinary commands were given to them, as to Abraham, and to the Israelites. 6. The punishment of idolatry with death seems to sanction persecution, and many of the institutions of the law are un- accountable. 7. Passages from the Old Testament are quoted in the New in altogether unnatural senses. 8. Some of the moral and spiritual doctrines of the gospel as a remedial system are mysterious. 9. Above all, the existence of difficulties in the Bible is in- consistent with its object as a universal revelation. 513. The last of these objections we proceed to examine first. There are, confessedly, difficulties in the Are they con- / . ... . ... Bisteiit with Bible : are they mconsistent with its inspiration uispiration?' ^^^ authenticity, and do they hinder its usefuhaess 352 CLEARNESS OF SCRIPTURE STATEMENTS. for doctrine or teaching, and for instruction in righteous- ness ? 514. Noticing the latter part of this question first, it is quite clear that the Bible reveals in passages innu- ness of merable and unmistakable, the essential principles Scripture. ^^ ^^.^^^ ^^^ ^l^^y- ^Ye have but to open the New Testament in almost any of its pages to draw forth a scheme of holiness. The spirituality of the Divine nature, and of all acceptable worship (John 4. 24) ; repentance and remission of sins in Christ's name (Luke 24. 47) ; salvation through no other (Acts 4. 12) ; the duty of all men every where to repent and believe (Acts 17. 30 : Mark 1. 15) ; eter- nal hfe through the Son ; eternal death as the consequence of unbelief (John 3) ; the necessity of hohness (Matt. 7. 21) ; the assurance of the help of the Spirit to control our corruption and to aid our infirmities. All these truths are written as v;ith a sunbeam ; that " he may run that readeth." In exerj age, moreover, the great end of the Bible as a religiously instruc- tive book, the repository of saving truth, has been answered, Contrast the creed of the meanest Jew, in relation to God and law, with the errors and uncertainty of the wisest of the heathen, the first Tusculan disputation of Cicero with the commonest Christian treatise- on immortality and the resur- rection, and the difierence will at once appear. The heathen philosopher falters at every step, and dreads the very conclu- sions to which his reasonings lead him ; while the opinion of the Christian is already formed ; his only difficulty being to im- press his own heart and the hearts of others with the truth. By the leading and undoubted precepts of Scripture the guiltiest may be " throughly furnished for every good work," and by its doctrines all men may be made " wise unto sal- vation." 515. But do not these difficulties affect the authority of the Bible, and weaken the evidence of its inspiration ? Can a revelation be of universal authority which all do not under- stand ; and is it really a revelation where so much is con- cealed ? In answering this question it might be said, that whatever we know of the works of God in nature is liable to the same objection. Bishop Butler has shown most conclusively that natural religion, revealed religion, and the providenc^of God, together with every known law of human duty, are allexposed difficulties: tseir object. 35i5 to the same difficulties. There is in all an obscurity of .. . meaning and deficiency of evidence, a mysterious- cuUies in all ness of arrangement and treatment that bespeak Guds works. ^^^ state to be one of incessant discipline. In truth these objections apply much less forcibly to Scripture than to our daily practice ; and the reasoning which seeks to set aside the Bible would, if true, rob God of all his authority, a-nd man of all motives to virtue. ... It might be aaid fui-ther that, so long as customs and language avotdabie change, revelation unless given to each nation and to each age, cannot be free from difficulty. Cus- toms and terms are now obsolete Vv^hich were once familiar ; facts once known are now forgotten ; the connection, therefore, between them and other facts is lost. The result is a degree of ignorance which admits no conceivable remedy, except what all would feel to be inconsistent with our present condition. 516. But we go further. The very difficulties of Scripture, philological and historical, afford cogent internal of theDuTne proof of the genuineness and authenticity of the origin of Bible. No one can now doubt that it was revealed bcnpture. . . , . . to successive generations, and in ancient tongues. The solution of its difficulties, too, has been gradual, and that for the best reasons. Each age has its own temptations to infidelity, and each has its pecuHar evidence. Let any one read the Credibility of Lardner, a work which could not have been written in the age of the apostles, for the facts on which it is founded were later than their times ; or the Horse PauhnaB of Paley, or the Horae Apostohcse and Horse Evangelicae of Birks, on the apparent discrepancies and real agreement be- tween the statements of profane and sacred history, between the Epistles and the Acts of the Apostles, or between the dif- ferent Gospels, and he will at once perceive that the difficulties of Scripture create an internal evidence even more decisive than the external : it is throughout, the apparent discrepancy between the writers themselves, and profane records, and their obvious independence of one another and of everything but truth that forms the argument. We can dispense with nothing, not even difficulties. Every element (the apparent discrepancy among the rest) is essential to the force of the whole. And if it be said that these dii31culties are too numerour:, cr 354 DOCTRINAL DIFFICULTIES. that the solution of them has been too slow, it may be answered that this gradual solution is necessary in order to supply to each age fresh evidence, and to excite continued interest in Scripture, while the fact proves that the evidence of the Bible, like its doctrine is for aU time. 517. From the study of philological and historical diffi- Their culties we procced to investigate the doctrinal, — uaturainoss the great mysteries of godliness and iniquity, " the in other hard things" connected with salvation, and the respects. veiled or dimly disclosed future. How obvious are such remarks as these ; men are fallen ; our nature is depraved ; our intellect is darkened. A revelation just such as our moral taste approved, could not fail to have marks of an origin much lower than heaven. We are finite : what more natural than that an omniscient being, when he speaks on matters which refer to eternal interests should speak occasion- ally what we but partially comprehend : certainly, the absence of difficulty (the thing pleaded for) in a communication from what professed to be infinite wisdom, would have had thrown upon it by that circumstance a strong, if not an unanswerable suspicion. See Objection 8. Let it be added that these difficulties have dignified every kind of human learning by rendering all eligible to the service of religion. Historically, the study of classical literature in modern times began with the study of the Bible ; and ever since, sound religion and true learning have been linked in inseparable bonds. All knowledge is thus sanctified ; and. however individual Christians may have exposed themselves to the charge of being enemies of mental improvement it becomes impossible to include the Christian religion itself in this rebuke. No doubt it may be affirmed in reply to these reasonings, that the existence of Scripture difficulties is attended with one inconvenience : they are liable to excite distrust in the minds even of Christians, that is, they try our faith. But is not this again an evidence in their favour ? AVhat are all the dispensations of God but our discipline ? What is life but a walking by faith ; that is, by habitual rehance on Him whose ways we cannot understand, and in circumstances that require such a trust. Perhaps inspiration mifjlit have re- moved all difficulties from Scripture though we cannot tell HOW SOLVED OH ANSWERED. 355 liow ; but certainly we should have lost much, and gained little by the change. Rules for Instead of answering these objections in detail fohingthem. Jet the following rules be marked and apphed. 518. (i.) We must interpret Scripture, its announcements, and disclosures, in accordance with what it t)ro- Interpret it . . . , , ^ aa written lesses to be ; — an mspu-ed volume designed to set ian^gi^gtbut forth the scheme of salvation by Christ, and to byaDiviue bring men unto God. So far as it is hke other books written in the language of man, it must be interpreted by the same laws as other books ; we must ever look at the words, the context, the speaker and the customs and history of his age ; but so far as it dififers from other books — being inspired and intended for all time, every pai*t of it fore-shadowing or plainly exhibiting the cross, we must give to its phrases and intimations a plenary and spiritual significance. The sacrificial enactments of the law, for example, considered in themselves alone, were sanguinary. They certainly contain no intimation that they prefigured the death of our Lord. Their ultimate purpose, however, is un- questioned ; and in the mean time they taught the great doctrine of substitution, to some probably most plainly ; and they impressed the hearts of men with some of the same sentiments as are now awakened by the cross. The promise to Abraham, again, has no such terms as point exclusively and clearly to the coming of the Messiah ; and such a promise found in Virgil or in Homer could not fairly be interpreted as having such a reference. But the Christian cannot doubt its meaning. If the writers of the Scriptures did not foresee aU the truths which might be drawn from their words, God the Holy Spirit foresaw them ; and the business of interpretation is, to learn his pm-pose and end in what was revealed. To explain, therefore, the inspired Scriptures in all respects as if they were human compositions, with no wider range, and no spiritual rule, is, as Lord Bacon has expressed it, to " dis - honour the Scriptures and injure the church." See Objection 7. 519. (2.) As doctrines are to be interpreted in accordance Jfo solution ^^^^ ^^^ comprehensiveness of Scripture, so no inconsistent solution of a difficulty must be admitted which is tjon to be ad- "ot in accordance with the great fact of inspira- mjtted. tion. Many compare the miracles of Moses with 356 HOW SOLVED OK ANSWERED. the prodigies of Livy, or the writings of Ezekiel with those of iEschylus, or the doctrines of our Lord with the philosophiz- ings of Plato, and the difficulties in each case may be removed in the same way. If it he said that the miracles are incre- dible, and the imagery is extravagant, and the moral reasoning is fallacious or forced ; in that case the difficulties are re- moved on principles which set aside the authority of Scrip- ture. If we deny inspiration it becomes us to examhie the evidence, and to attend to the moral and spiritual truths of the Bible ; but if we admit its inspiration, our solution of its difficulties must leave that glorious characteristic of it un- touched. Most, therefore, of the expressions employed in the preceding objections (2, 3, 9) must be rejected, because incon- sistent with the sj^irit of a devout humble inquirer. 520. (3.) Scripture must be regarded as a system from Bible a beginning to end ; and the different books and whole: sentences must be interpreted as the component and connected parts of a great whole. AU the light which the first page throws upon the last, or the last upon the first, may be freely used for purposes of illustration and defence ; not of course to prove that every passage has the same mean- ing, but to prove that all have the same end. This rule, it will be observed, does for facts and truths what the kindred rule on the analogy of faith or on parallel passages does for the interpretation of the words. " From him that hath not shaU be taken away even that which he hath," for example, is the sentence of our Lord. Separate these words from the context, from the j^araUel passage in another Gospel, from the priuciple of the Divine government which they illustrate, and we miss their sense ; explain them connectedly and the whole is clear. So of Bible truths. The sacrifice and the death of Abel, viewed in themselves, seem not more significant than the good deed and untimely end of any gocd man ; but view his death as the first fruit of sin, and his sacrifice as an evidence of the true nature of every acceptable offering ; as a proof, moreover, how conscious demerit ex- pressed itself in the first age, and how deeply it felt the need of vicarious suffering, and the whole narrative assumes an aspect of importance and dignity. Explain in the same way the ordinances of the law, the personal history of many an- cient saints, and incidents in themselves trivial become fresh HOW SOLVED OR ANSWERED. 357 rfiarks of internal credibility, and even lessons for the instruc- tion of the church throughout every age. 521. (4.) As it is important to study Scripture connectedly, And con- it is even more important to study it in its true nocted. connection, and in that alone. A false system may be more mischievous than no system at all. The plagues of Egypt, for example, may be regarded as in- flicted only for the dehverance of a nation from slavery ; in that hght they may seem excessive, and some of them even absurd. Regarded as manifestations of Divine power, as fore- shadowings of the destiny of the finally impenitent, or of the spoiling of principahties and powers by him who so signally triumphed over them in his cross, as public rebukes of ido- latry, every plague being inflicted upon an idol god, as confir- mations of the faith of the Israehtes, long remembered, their significance is plain. If idolatiy again be regarded as mental error merely, or if the Jews be regarded as an ordinary community, the punish- ment of that sin with death may seem severe. Really it was a penalty inflicted only on the apostate Israelite, who had repeatedly accepted Jehovah as his chosen king. In a theocracy it was civil treason ; and the great purpose, more- over of the whole institution was to redeem our race from the depraved and wretched condition which that sin in- volved. In the same way the truths of Scrij)ture on the person of our Lord derive much of their significance, and aU their con- sistency, from the miion in him of our human nature with the Divine. Explain them on the supposition that he was man only or God only, and they appear contradictory : com- bine both views, and the whole is harmonious and highly consolatory. To find fault with the acts of ancient saints, and to con- clude that the record of their faults is as inconsistent with the Divine origin of the Bible as the acts themselves were derogatory to true rehgion, imphes a false theory. Suppose, for example, that the object of the Bible be — the revelation of God and the improvement of man, and the objections cease. Take, as an instance, the deception of Jacob, Gen. 27, 33-35? 8-^^' mark its lessons in relation to God and to our- selves. His superiority over his brother and his inheritance .358 HOW SOLVED OR ANSWERED. of the promise had been foretold at his birth. Isaac, Ee- becca, and Jacob himself all probably knew of this prediction. In spite of this knowledge, however, Isaac made a favourite of the elder brother, who had connected himself with a heathen family : Jacob had so httle faith, moreover, in the Divine promise, that he needlessly removed the difficulty of his brother's priority by purchase : Rebecca, with no more faith, induced her son to practise the deception which ob- tained him the blessing. The guilt and folly of this whole transaction soon bore then' appropriate fruits. The weakness of Isaac was punished by the ahenation and dispersion of his children. The recklessness and profanity of Esau cost him the blessing ; Rebecca's unbehef ended in her becoming de- pendent upon the son she had wronged : her favourite son she never again saw. Jacob was driven from his home — was himself robbed and defrauded by Laban ; the wife he despised became the mother of the chosen tribe, and in the deception of his own children he learned the grievousness of his sin. Above all, though the promise was ultimately fulfilled, Jacob himself received no blessing from it. Instead of his mother's son bowing down before him, he, in his own person, bowed down before his mother's son, and at the close of his life he was dependent upon his children. The punish- ment, in fact, was complete : nor less so is the lesson. It may be said that, nevertheless, he inherited the blessing ; and this is true : for the gifts of God are without repentance, and his choice of his servants is founded upon no personal merit, but on reasons, which, in most cases, as in this, he has seen it right to conceal. It may be said also, that the blessing was secured by means which no ingenuous mind can commend ; and this is true ; but the objection applies to providential deahngs generally as much as to Scripture. Man's sin is con- stantly overruled for God's glory ; and neither the responsi- bihty of man nor the hohness of God is affected by the arrangement : a revelation, in fact, without such incidents, would be neither just to God nor true to man. 522. (5.) It becomes us to distrust the conclusions of human wisdom and of logical reasoning, whenever of human"" applied to Subjects beyond the reach of our ex- wisdom to be perience, and especially in matters of religioua truth. Even in science we know really little be- HOW SOLVED OR ANSWERED. 35f> youd what we have observed. "What is hght ?" and "What is power ]" are questions which philosophy has not yet an- swered. We speak of the laws of gravitation, and affirm that they keep the planets in their orbits ; but gravitation (it is allowed) is itself nothing but the expression of a uni- form fact. The origin of disease, independently of second causes and symptoms, is entirely unknown ; nor can any one tell how contagion or infection acts upon the frame. The most probable conclusion to which even philosophy is pointing is, that the great forces in this universe are 'put, forth immediately by God. Miracles and mysteries every- where abound, and it is only their regularity and frequency that destroy our surprise. Combine with this fact the fallen condition and inherent littleness of man, and the propriety of the principle of Lord Bacon, when he bids us reverently question nature and not dogmatize on her processes, will ap- pear to be doubly jast when apphed to the Bible. 523. (6.) Let no man attempt or expect the explanation of Expect not every difficulty. " Of the dark parts of Scripture," of\ii diffi-^ says Warburton, " there are two sorts, one which cuUies. rnay be cleared up by the studious apphcation of weU employed talents, the othsr which will always recede within the shadow of God's throne, where it would be impiety to intrude." " The last step of reason," says Pascal, " is to know that there is an infinitude of things which surpass it." After all difficulties have been solved, and every word of the Bible explained, the weightiest difficulties of all will remain. The origin of evil, the mystery of Divine foreknowledge and free-agency, and much of the scheme of redemption will still exercise our faith. We shall say even then, as it is our wisdom to say now, " Oh the depth of the riches, both of the wisdom and knowledge of God ! how unsearchable are his judgments, and his ways past finding out !" On the whole of this Section, see Home " On the Apparent Con- tradictions of Scripture," Davidson's ''Hermeneutics," Gerard's "Biblical Criticism," and, on the latter pai-t especially, Benson's "Huiseau Lectures." 360 rRACTICAL AND INFERENTIAL READING OF THE BIBLE. CHAPTER VII. On TEE Inferential and Practical Reading of the Bible. " All Scripture is practical and intended to minister to our improvement rather than to our curiosity."— Arkold ; Sermons (p. 2jq). " I know not a better rule of reading the Scripture than to read it through from beginuuig to end ; and when we have finished it once, to begin it again, ^Vc shall meet with many passages which we can make little improvement of; but not so many in tlie second readuig as in the first ; and fewer in the third than in the second."— John Newton, (_vi. 418). 524. As the great use of philosophy is the " endowment of man's hfe with commodities," so the great use of of Scripture ^ Scripture is the increase of our wisdom and hoU- is to apply it. jjggg^ To gather the meaning of Scripture, and sum up its doctrines is to accomphsh but part of the purpose for which Scripture was given. Every precept and promise must be apphed. Even from every verse we may gain some accession to our knowledge, some quickened impulse to our feelings, or some encouragement or guide in duty. Meditation on truth wiU reveal its fulness ; and the practical applicability of it on all sides will at once surprise and reward our in- quiries. 525. By the practical and inferential reading of the Bible is meant that study of the sacred page which de- bytheprac- duccs and apphes to ourselves, or to the great ferentM""^' questions of religious character and experience, reading of the truths it contains. It is not distinct from in- ' '^"P ^^'- terpretation, it is rather the continuance and end of it. Interpretation answers the question, What is the meaning of the words of a particular passage ? Systematic theology decides the connection between that meaning and the whole system of truth. The inferential and practical study of Scripture answers the question, What do these words im- ■plj, and what truth or duty do they illustrate or suggest in relation to the Divine life and my personal history ? The foundation of such study is the perpetual harmony of Divine truth, and the practicalness of the whole. Its pre-requisite is a general knowledge of the teaching of Scripture, and a Spirit imbued with " the form of sound words in faith and love which is in Christ Jesus " (2 Tim. 1. 13). With these pre- requisites it will be easy (so closely is one truth connected LESSOXS FROM WORDS, ETC. 361 with auotlier) for a Christian " to diffuse himself," as Francke expressed it, " from one word over the whole Scripture." 526. In drawing such inferences from Scripture we need Inferences ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ which we have already laid down may be for Scripture interpretation. flrawn from _, ^ , ^.^ ,. ,,, various The words — the words m their place m the sources. sentence — the words in connection with the scope of the writer — the words in connection with other parts of Scripture — is the division which includes all the inferences that can be legitimately drawn from the teachings of Divine truth. 527. (i.) Lessons may be drawn from the ^i'ords of Scrip- ture. In Rom. 14. 17, we have a description of the ''kingdom of God:" such is the gospel: it is God's reign; it originates in his gi-ace; it is founded upon his power; it will illustrate his government. In Heb. 3. i, Christ is called the "High Priest and the Apostle of our profession." Each word is significant; he was first selected and ordained of God; he was commissioned and sent by Him. The guilt of rejecting him is propoi-tioned to his dignity. The efficacy of his salvation is secured by Divine appointment. He is High Priest under the gospel; therefore, though it is a dispensation of mercy, we need sacrifice and acceptance, and are dependent for both upon him. 528. (2.) Lessons jnaj he drawn h'om. the icords in their 2)Iace in the sentence. In I Pet. 5. 5, we are commanded to be clothed with humility, for God resisteth the proud. Clearly (1), humility, though despised by the heathen, is a Christian grace. (2). Our truest ornament (for this the Greek word for " be clothed" involves) is a just, that is. a humble estimate of ourselves, and that ornament must be so closely connected with ns as that none shall be able to tear it away (so the Greek implies). (3). Eveiy duty may be enforced by a reference to God's character. (4). Pride is a public conspicuous sin (so the Greek implies). (5). It braves God, and he sets himself in array against it. So in Rom. 14. 1 7, the kingdom of God is described as righteous- ness, peace, and joy in the Holy Ghost. Hence it may be inferred (r), that peace is through righteousness only, (2), and joy is the frviit of righteousness and peace; (3), that a righteousness which brings with it neither peace nor joy is not the righteousness of the kingdom of God. R 362 lesso:ns from scope, etc. 529. (3.) Lessons may be drawn from loords in connection with the context. Thus in Matt. 27. 52, we read that many bodies of the saints which slept arose, but (ver. 53) it was after the resurrection of our liord; he therefore was the first-fruits of them that slept, and whatever his saints received they owed to him. Contrast i Tim. i. 15 with ver. 4, and we shall gather that the legends of the Jews and the stories of the Gentiles are compared to fables, the gospel to undoubted truth. 530. (4.) Lessons may be drawn from the sco;pe either of tlie book or of the i3articular passage. Compare, for example, John 8. 51, "If a man keep mj'- sayings he shall never see death," with John 20. 31, ''These ai-e written that ye might believe . . . and that believing j-e might have life through his name," and it follows that faith in Christ is shoAvn by obedience to his w^ords; that faith receives not only his sacrifice, but his teaching; that whoever has life through his name shall never see death. Comparing this passage with the immediate object of our Lord (which was to prove that he was not possessed of an evil spii'it), it follows that a doctrine which secures eternal life is not likely to be false; that saving truth is to be set forth, even before those Avho calumniate it; and that though Chiist's teaching is foolishness with men, it must be received and obeyed. 531. (5.) Lessons may be drawn from parallel passages. In- j'araiiei stead, liowevcr of multiplying examples, let us take passages. ^ passage and apply the rules now given to illus- trate and expound it. 532. In 2 Tim. i. 8, we read, "Be not thou therefore ashamed of the testimony of oru- Lord, nor of me his prisoner : but be thou partaker of the afflic- tions of the gospel."' The meaning of the verse having been iiscertained ; take first the words : 1. The gospel is called a testimony. It is therefore not an un- supported assertion. 2. Of this gospel the Christian is not to be ashamed. Boldness in giving witness for Christ is often required, especially in tunes of persecution. 3. This boldness is not unfounded presumption, but a rational assurance, "Be not thou therefore ashamed." A. The gospel is the testimony of our Lord; its end is "to be^r INFERENTIAL READING OF THE BIBLE. 363 witness of Christ, who is our Lord." Paul and Timothy were fellow- servants (Phil. I. i), and therefore stood in the same relation to Christ their Lord, whom therefore they were bound to obey. 5. Paul was His prisoner; men had confined him, but he was not in their power, nor did he suffer as an evil doer. Secondly. Take each word in connection with the other words of the sentence, and we gather such inferences as these. 1. Not to partake of the afflictions of the gospel when called upon to share them is to be ashamed of the testimony of our Lord. 2. lie who is ashamed of suffering Christians, who suffer as Christians, is ashamed of Christ himself. 3. Our testimony to Christ must be borne, not only in seasons of prosperity, but in seasons of affliction. 4. Even in his bonds Paul preached the gospel. -, . Paul bore a consistent testimony to the truth, and yet he re- quii-ed the testimony of Timothy, It is therefore necessary that the testimony of God's servants should be multiplied. 6. A timid and distrustful heart is not fit to bear testimony for Chi'ist, nor to endure affliction for his cause. Thirdly. Take the words in connection with the context. The general object of the apostle, in this part of the chapter is, to exhort Timothy to undergo affliction for the cause of Christ, and he enforces this exhortation by cogent arguments. Comparing the passage with the fourth verse, we conclude that the godly, though surrounded by calamity, can rejoice, and have de- lightful communion with one another. With the third verse, that those who are about to suffer for the testimony of Jesus need our prayers " night and day." With the fifth verse, that the remembrance of a pious ancestry may happily increase our boldness and fidelity in seasons of per- secution. With the sixth vei-se, that the gift which a minister has received from God is to be stiiTcd up, in order not only to teach, but to suffer. With the seventh verse, that the gifts of power and of love (to Chi'ist and the souls of men), and of a sound mind, in the discharge of arduous duties, all bind the Christian to fidelity in suffering. With the ninth verse, that the remembrance of our salvation, and of the gi-ace and purpose of God towards us, vnll dispel the fear of temporal affliction. With the teriih verae, that the superioiity of the gospel dispensa- R 2 364 IXFERENTIAL READING OF THE BIBLE. tion, and the confirmation of our faith by the appearance and resurrection of Christ, should make us the more willing to suffer: our sufferings are not for a cunningly-devised fable, but for the truth of God. Comparing the words of the verse with the words of the preceding verses, we gather other lessons. The fear of persecution is one frequent cause of apostasy. Men are ashamed of the testimom" of Christ, because not willing to be partakers of the afflictions of the gospel. A sound mind, or real wisdom, is seen in willingness to endure affliction rather than deny Christ. Mere worldly prudence is tested and discovered by affliction. The spirit of fear is injurious to our steadfastness, and is not God's gift. True power is seen in endurance and fidelity. Love has such influence over the soul that, were we exposed to the severest calamities, or even to death, it will keep us unmoved. Apostasy implies feebleness, coldness, folly; for steadfastness is the fruit of power, prudence, and love. Fourthli/. If we look to the scope of the Epistle, and the circumstances of the writer, we learn other lessons equally important. The general scope of the Epistle is, that Paul, now the prisoner of the Lord, asks Timoth}-^ to come to him, and endeavours, previously, to prepare and fortify his mind against the afflictions which at that period threatened the churches at Ephesus and in Rome. Looking at Paul's circumstances, we learn that one who is im- prisoned for Christ may still, by letter, incite others to sei've him; and that, so far from a Christian losing his consolation through im- prisonment, he may even exhort others to suflfer, and to gather encouragement from himself: that in affliction we should take special care lest others be discouraged by our sufferings : that Ave may ask othei-s to share our sufferings if it be for the furtherance of the gospel, but that we must first fortify their minds for what they may have to bear: that Christians may be tempted to apostasy by calamity, and that therefore they should be kindly Avarned and prayed for by those that see its approach. In looking at Timothy, we may learn that a Christian should neither accelerate his removal from one sphere of duty nor defer going to another through fear of affliction : that he ought to strengthen his own mind for what may befall him : that the danger of others ought not to intimidate him, bvit to render him at once pi-udent, and willing to undergo similar sufferings: that CA^en in the case of eminent Christians, Avhen calling them to the sei-vice of God, it may be important to remove the scruples and difficulties they may feel iu relation to the call IXFERENTIAL READING OF THE BIBLE. 365 In looking generally at the scope of the Epistle, and connecting it with the words of the text, we may learn such lessons as these. In sea,50U3 of persecution, the spiritual boldness of love and of a sound mind is peculiarly required. In such seasons the servants of God may justly stir up each other to promote the common cause; to preserve each other's fidelity in obedience and in suffering. Be- fore v/e bid another to engage in a difficult service, we must, by prayer and exhortation, seek to prepare him for it. The qualifica- tions for service in the kingdom of Christ are gifts of the Holy Spirit. The f/th source of inferential reading is the comparison of a passage with other passages throughout the sacred writings. In this case it is not a merely verbal parallelism which sug- gests the lesson but the parallehsm of thought and truth. Let us take phrase by phi-ase. ''Be not thou therefore ashamed." In Rom. I. i6 and Phil. i. 20, Paul affirms that he is "not aishamed of the gospel of Christ," and it is the same boldness he requires in Timothy. Hence it may be said that faithful teachers requii-e of others what they themselves know is not impossible; and again, he who best inculcates patience manifests it by example befoi'e he enjoins it by precept. " Be thou partaker of the afflictions of the gospel." From I Thess. 3. 2-4, we learn that Timothy had been sent to Thessalonica to establish and comfort the church, that no man might be moved by their afflictions; and from Rom. 8. 17 and 18, we gather that participation in sufferings is essential to participa- tion in glory. Hence we may infer that Timothy was specially bound to observe what he himself taught ; and that the prospect of everlasting blessedness proportioned to our holy and devoted suf- fei-ing may well repress our shame of present affliction. By comparing the second clause of the verse with other passages lessons equally important and interesting may be obtained. See I Cor. 4. 9: 2 Cor. 11. 15-33, where affliction is said by the apostle to be the seal of his apostleship; and i Pet. 4. 13 and Col. i. 24, where Christians are exhorted not only to bear afflictions, but to rejoice in them; and Rev. 12. 11, where the end of affliction is set forth in the blessedness of those who ai-e now before the throne. By a reference to i Pet. 3. 13 and 4. 17, it ^vill be seen that even the ungodly are not free from sufferings, and that the surest way of avoiding afflictions, or, if it cannot be avoided, of having comfort in it, is to cherish fidelity as Christians. 533. These rules are of extensive use. They may be ap- 366 INFEREN'TIAL HEADING OF THE BIBLE. plied to nearly the wliole of the Bible : and as this kind of study is highly instructive it may be well to give another instance or two of the apphcation of them. We take a passage from the history of our Lord. In John ii. 15 we read, "I am glad for your sakes that I was not there to the intent ye may beheve; nevertheless let us go unto him," The meaning of the words we suppose to have been gathered from the general usage of language and from comparison with other parts of Scripture. The obvious facts of the passage are the following. Christ was glad. He was glad for the sake of his disciples : he was glad that he was not there. To the intent that they might believe. He nevertheless loved Lazarus, and determined to restore him, and therefore (said he) ''let us go unto him." 1. Chi'ist was glad. Joy may be at times becoming; on connecting this l;xct with verses 14, 35, 36, we infer that an event, in itself painful, may be a source of joy to the Christian; or, connecting it with similar facts in Scripture, it may be gathered that our Saviour's joy was always foimd in what contributed to the good of his disciples or to the glory of His Father. 2. He was glad /or the sake of his disciples. That a benevolent mind finds happiness in the improvement of others is one obvious inference; that some of the dealings of Christ were prompted by a regard to the welfare of his disciples is another. Both these truths are in the sentence. Looking to the context, we find that one Christian may sometimes suffer for the good of others. Comparing this expression with other parts of Scripture, we gather a conclusion more general still. All that Christ did or suffered was done for the sake of his church. Did he empty himself of glory, and come into our world in circumstances of the deepest humiliation? " Fur our sakes he became poor." Did he here endure sufferings more diversified and intense than human nature had ever known? " He bore our griefs and he carried our sorrows." Did he devote himself to our interests and sanctify himself for the work of mediation? It was for our sakes and that we might be sanctified by the truth (John 17. 19). Did a voice from Heaven comfort Him ? ** This voice came," says he, " not because of me, but for your sakes" (John 12. 30). Did he, after he had suffered, leave the world? It was because it was expedient for us. Is He now at the right hand of the Majesty on high? It is that if any man sin he may have "an Advocate Anth the Father." Even the conduct of his providence is regulated by a regard for the interests of His church. " He rebuked kings for their sakes." He spared aucient I^'FERE^'TIAL READING OP THE BIBLE. 367 Israel, though guilty, and He tells them that they were spared for the sake of his true servants who were found among them, Isa. 65. 8. More comprehensively still, he assures us that all things are for our sokes, that life is oui-s and death, and things present and things to come, Rom. 8. 28: 2 Cor. 4. 15. 3. He was glad that he was not there, i. e., to heal the sick. To \vithhold deliverance may be a blessing. On compaiing this verse with verses 21 and 32, where Martha and Mary expressed their stsrprise that Christ was not there; and again, with verses 44, 45, where it is said that the Jews believed, we infer that Chi-ist's purpose is sometimes accomplished by means which are not con- sistent with the expectations of his disciples. This truth is taught in a limited form by the context. Compai'ing the truth thus ascer- tained with other similar histories, we gather the general conclusion that God's ways are not as otir ways, nor his thoughts as our thoughts. Joseph, for instance, was sold into Egypt in the anguish of his soul, and amidst the lamentations of his father. In Egypt, he endm'ed bitter temptation and imprisonment, yet the whole of his affliction seems now to have been part of the Divine plan, and was certainly the means of preserving his family alive. It proved ad- vantageous, moreover, to his own honour; and the history of his trial suggests many a lesson for the improvement of young men in every age. The sufferings of Job must at fir.st have seemed mysterious. At the close of his history, however, all is explained ; for God blessed his latter end more than his beginning, gave him honour in propor- tion to his previous afflictions, and has handed down his historj' as a permanent lesson of patience and faith. The three Hebrew youths in Babylon were found faithful among the faithless, and for their conscientious obedience to the Divine law were thrown into the fiery furnace. Was God there, and did he interpose on their behalf ? Not in the waj^ we might have hoped; but in his own. He made their sufferings the means of giving to his church a new promise of the Messiah (for a fourth was seen walking 'v\dth them); and they themselves were uninjured, so that even the smell of fire was not upon them. In the end too, not at the beginning, a heathen king was compelled to acknowledge that no god was able to deliver like the God of the Hebrews. In each of these cases the Divine purpose was accomplished by a process very diffex^ent from the expectation of the sufferers. The folly of judging the dispensations of God during their operation, and the wisdom of waiting till the day when all shall be made plain, is equally a lesson, of this part of the verse, and might be illustrated in the same way. 368 INFERENTIAL READING OP THE BIBLE. 4. All this was done to the intent that the disciples might believe, Christ, therefore, is anxious in his dealings to increase ovir faith. His disciples were not credulous, as has been supposed, but the contrary. Their faith was not inclination, but conviction, and the result of evidence. That they believed the things they describe, ought therefore to add to the weight of their testimony. Com- paring this clause with ver. 45, where it is said that, as the result of the miracle, many of the Jews believed, it may be inferred that the same exhibition of Divine power which is adapted to increase a believer's faith is adapted to produce conviction in the undecided. Comparing it with John 20. 31, we gather that the miracles of the gospel should have the same influence upon us as they had upon those that witnessed them; the record of them by credible wit- nesses making them standing miracles. Compai'ing it with passages in which it is implied that the disciples had believed, we gather that faith admits of increase; and comparing it with Eomans 5. i, where Christians are said to be "justified by faith:" and with Acts 26. 18, where they are said to be "sanctified by faith;" and with Gal. 2. 20: 2 Cor. i. 24, where faith is said to be the secret of their life and steadfastness, we gather that this increase of faith is thus pi-eciovxs in the esteem of our Lord, becavxse it brings with it to the Christian an increase both of usefulness and of peace. 5 . Christ had nevertheless resolved to go unto him. His case might seem desperate, but it was not beyond the reach of Divine power. Christ often does above what we think. The extremity of the sufferer was the opportunity of the Redeemer. Comparing this verse with the following, it is plain that the words of our Lord are often misunderstood, and misunderstood through unbelief. Comparing this clause with ver. 8, we learn that Christ is ready to expose himself to personal peril in order to comfort or relieve his disciples. Comparing it with ver. 42-44, we gather that when the purpose of affliction is answered the affliction itself is removed. From the whole verse we gather that God speaks to us in the afflictions of others, and that if we disregard his voice we are the more likely to be chastised ourselves. 534. Sometimes the student of Scripture is anxious to ascertain what it teaches on some one question. In which case he uses each jjassage with a special reference not to all it contains, but to the truth which he is investigating : an ex- ercise which combines the systematic with the inferential study of the Bible. IXFTRENTI^Ui READING OF THE BIBLE. 369 If, for example, he wishes to obtain a full view of what is taught in Scripture on affliction, he examines a few passages, and soon finds that they begin to arrange themselves in his mind. Some treat of affliction generally, some of the afflictions of Christians, and some of the afflictions of the impenitent ; while throughout he finds truths and duties most instructively blended. In the end he ascertains such results as these : — Affliction: — Men born to it. Job 5. 6, 7. Is the conseqiience and a punishment of sin, Gen. 3. 16-19 '• Prov. i, 31 : 2 Sam, 12. 14: Ps. 89. 30-32 : Is. 57. 17 : Jer. 2. 14-17. For which, how- ever, it cannot atone. Is. 5. 25 : Lev. 26. 14-39 '• Lam. 3. 1-22 : Dan. 9. 16-19. Is appointed by God, who regulates the measui-e and continuance of it, Ps. 66. 11 : Job. i. 21 : Lam. l-H : 2 Kings 14. 26, 27: Is. 9. i: Jer. 46. 28: Gen. 15. 13, 14: Jer. 29. 10. Is often deep and sevei'e, Ps. 18. 4, 5 : i Pet. 4. 12. But tempered with mercy and less than we deserve, Ps. 78. 38, 39: Is. 30. 20: Ezra 9. 13. Affliction is often blessed to the Christian — showing him his errors, Xumb. 21. 6, 7: Luke 15, 16, 17. Biinging him back to God and keeping him there, Ps, 78. 34: Hos. 2. 6, 7: Is. 10. 20i Ezek. 14. 10, II. Humbling him, trying and perfecting his pa- tience, faith, and obedience, Eom. 5.3:1 Pet. i. 7: Jud. 3. 4: Heb. II. 17. Testing and exhibiting his sincerity. Job 23. 10 : Prov. 17. 3. Fitting him for greater usefulness : explaining the Bible: pm-ifying the heart, Mai. 3. 23. Tending to the furtherance of the gospel. Acts 8. 3, 4: 2 Tim. 4. 17. Illustrating the power and love of God, 2 Cor. 4. 7-1 1 : John 9. 1-3 : 11. 4. Ending, when rightly endured, in the gi-eater blessedness, 1 Pet. 4. 13, 14, etc. Its influence is exemplified in Joseph's brethren. Gen. 42. 21: in Israel, Deut. 8. 3. 5: Da\id, 2 Sam. 16. 12: Josiah, 2 Kings 22. 19: Hezekiah, 2 Chron. 32. 25, 26: Manasseh, 2 Chron. 33. 12. In the case of the impenitent, affliction is multiplied and often sudden, Ps. 32. 10: 16. 4: Prov. 6. 15 : Is. 30. 13. Is a conse- quence of impenitence, Zech, 7. 11, 12: Prov. i. 24-33. Is of itself ineSectual for conversion, often hardens the heart, or produces slavish fear. Is. i. 5 : Jer. 2. 30: Neh. 9. 27-29; Jer. 49. 5. Is no cause of fear to the righteous, Ps, 90. i, 5. Is a warning to others, 1 Cor. 10. 5-11: 2 Pet. 2. 6, God will be glorified in it, Eze. 28. 22, 23. Its influence exemplified in Pharaoh, Ex. 8. 8-15 : Ahaziah, 2 Kings I. 1-4 : Gehazi, 2 Kings 5. 27 : Jehoram, 2 Chron. 21. 12-19 : Athaliah, 2 Chron. 22. 10 : Uzziah, 2 Chron. 26. 19, 21 : Ahaz, 2 Chron. 28. 5-8, 22. The AFFLICTED CHFtiSTiAN should cxcrcise resignation and pa- R 3 370 INFERENCIS : PARABLES. tience, Ps. 39. 9: James r. 4: i Pet. 2. 20. Acknowledge the just- ness of his chastisements, Mic. 7. 9. Avoid sin, John 5. 14. Trust in God, Ps. 71. 20 : Ps. 56. 11. Praise him, Ps. 35. 18 : Ps. 56. 8-12. Take encouragement from past mercies, Ps. 42. 4, 5 : 2 Cor. i. 10. Remember that God has promised that in time of trouble He will be with him ; will support, comfort, and finally deliver him, Is. 43. 2: Ps. 27. 5, 6: 2 Cor. 7. 6. Ps. 107. 13, The AFFLICTED CHRISTIAN should be visited, pitied, protected, comforted, and I'elieved, James i. 27 : Job 6. 14: Ps. 82. 3 : 1 Thess. 4. 18: I Tim. 5. 10. The character of the afflicted Christian is.ilhistrated in Joseph, Gen. 39. 20-23: Moses, Deut. 9. 18, 19: Job i, 22: Eli, i Sam. 3. 18: Ezra, Ezi'. 9. 5 : Nehemiah, ISTeh. i. i: Daniel, Dan. 9. 3-19 : Paul, Acts 20. 22-24 : 2 Cor. 12. 7-9 : Apostles, i Cor. 4. 9-13 : 2 Cor. 6. 4-10. 535. Sometimes, again the student of Scriptm-e is desirous of investigating the history of Scripture practically with re- ference to some particular fact ; or parables with reference to their scope ; and then the question is what is taught on the subject of inquiry by each phrase or verse. The parable, for example, of the Prodigal Son may be variously regarded ; either with Neauder, as an exhibition of Pharisaism and its opposite, or Avith Lisco, as an exhibition of true penitence, and of the treatment it receives from God and man. Taking the second view, we have the following connection of thoughts : — 1. We have the necessity of repentance, grounded (Luke 15. 11-32)— 1. In the state of preceding sinfulness: — (a.) Its origin, ver. 12. Self-sufficient waywardness: give me, father. (6.) Its nature, ver. 13. And not long after, (c.) Its manifestation, ver. 13. And there wasted. 2. In the misery conseqiient upon sin : — (a.) The man has still a desire after blessedness, ver. 14. (6.) And feels his misery, ver. 14. Began to be in want, (c.) And seeks in vain for relief, ver. 15. Went and joined himself. (d.) And sinks the longer the deeper, ver. 15. Sent to feed swine. (e.) Without finding the longed-for satisfaction, ver. 16. xi. The nature of repentance is described : — I. The sinner comes to a right understanding, ver. 17. INFERENCES : PARABLES. 371 2. Perceives the greatness of his misery, Ter. 1 7. How many, etc. 3. Forms a good resolution, ver. 18. I will arise. 4. Recognises his guilt, ver. 18. Father, I have sinned. 5. Humbles himself, ver. 19. 6. By faith actually returns, ver. 20. He arose and came to hia father. iii. The results of repentance, ver. 20-30. 1. In reference to a compassionate God, ver. 20-24. (a.) God descries the repentant feeling, ver. 20. When yet a great way. (6.) Graciotisly receives the sinner, ver. 20. Had compassion, (c.) Facilitates the execution of his purpose, ver. 21. {d.) Heaps upon him marks of love, and goodness, ver. 22, (^.) And calls for a general expression of joy, ver. 24. 2. In reference to the self-righteous, ver. 25-32. (ci.) Their cold-hearted envy is excited, ver. 28. He was angry. (6.) They accuse God of um-ighteousuess, ver. 29, ^o. (c.) They overlook God's gracious goodness to themselve.'^, V. 31. ((/.) And violate the obligations of mutual love, ver. 32. So, in the parable of the rich man and Lazarus we have worldly ;mbelief, Luke 16. 19-31 — i. In its manifestations — 1. Insatiable thirst for enjoyment, vei-. 19. Clothes in purple, lives sumptuously, (a.) It seeks all sorts of enjoyment. (6). It seeks in these all its satisfaction — eveiy day. (c.) It regards the temporal as its only good. 2. Cold-hearted uucharitableness, ver. 20, 21. (a.) It despises the poor as woii;hles3, ver. 20. (6.) It hardens itself against the rights of misery, ver. 20. (c.) It gives no relief, ver. 21. ii. In its final condition : — 1. It is fearfully undeceived, ver. 22, 23. (cif.) In regard to the value of its enjoyments, ver. 23. (h.) In regard to the value of salvation now imperfectly ap- prehended. (c.) In regai'd to the relation between Lazarus and God, in Abi"aham's bosom. 2. Its sinful misapprehensions remain, ver. 24. (j(.) As to trust in descent from Abraham. Father Abraham. 372 INFERENCES: PARABLES. (6.) As to imaginary hopes of salvation. Have mercy, (c.) As to its unholy preference for personal comfort. Dip the tip, and cool my tongue. 3. It is self-condemned by an evil conscience, ver. 25-31. (a.) As dealt with justly, ver. 25. (b.) As incapable, from its state of mind, of deliverance, ver. 26. (c.) As being without excuse. Because no want of means of grace, ver. 27-29. Because these means sufficient for salvation, ver. 30, 3 r.* 536. The results in these examples (which might be greatly extended) are reached in an order dififerent from the one in which they are now given. Here we have first the result and then the proof passage ; but in investigating a subject we turn first from passage to passage, and then state their import in the form of a general lesson. The text and the lesson is the order of inquiry ; the lesson and the proof is the order of instruction. The exercise of following out truth in this way is one of the most instructive in which a Christian can engage. 537. For the further study of this x^art of the subject see any common-place book of the Bible — especially " Talbot's Bible," and the common-place books of Strutt and Locke. " Scripture Texts arranged,'' is a very useful manual of sub- jects classified under their respective heads and illustrated by Scripture examples. On the subject of this chapter, the inferential reading of Scrip- ture, see llambach's ^' Institutiones Hermeneuticse," lib. iv., c. 3 ; Francke's " Guide to the Study of the Scriptiires ;" Claude's "Essay on the Composition of a Sei-mon;" and especially, for illustrations, the "Commentary" of Matth. Hemy, one of the richest storehouses of evangelical truth. Felicitous examples abound, also, in the writings of Rev, R, Cecil and Rev. W. Jay. " See Lisco on the Parables. THE BOOKS OP THE BIBLE. 373 PART II. The Books of the Bible. Introductory. " Though many other books are comparable to cloth, in which, by a small pat- tern, we may safely judge of the whole piece, j'et the Bible is like a fair suit of arras, of which, though a shred may assure you of the fineness of the colours and richness of the GCUff, yet the liangings ne%-er appear to their true advantage but \vhen they are displayed to their full dimensions and are seen together."— Boyle On the Style of Scripture. 1. We now come to the study of the books of the Bible. Subjects Ah-eady we have considered — already con- The general divisions of Scripture : the two Testaments : the law, the prophets, and the holy writings of the Old : the Gospels, Epistles, and Acts, and the Hevelation of the New : chapters, verses, and other sections : The claims of Scripture as genuine, as authentic, and as inspired, with the evidences of its claims (Chaps, i. ii.) : The pecuharities of Scripture as a revelation of God, of man, and of the plan of salvation reconcihng both, securing at once peace and holiness : a revelation gradually communi- cated, everywhere consistent ; taught, however, without a formally-announced system, though all centring in the cross (Chap. iii. 1-5) : The principles of interpretation, and the use of external helps ; the spirit, above all, in which inquiries into the meaning of Scripture should be conducted (iv. especially § 2) : The systematic study of Scripture ; the best methods of applying it to practical hfe, and the difficulties of various kinds connected with all these questions (v. vi. vii.). Having thus viewed sacred Scripture as a whole, we pro- ceed to examine particular portions and to apply more minutely the rules and principles already discussed. TJie two Parts of the Bible. ^ 2. The Bible is composed of two parts : the Old Testa- The two ment and the New. The second containing a full pans of the revelation of tne Divine will, and a plan of salva- tion addressed to all. The first containing not all 374 USE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. probably that God revealed in early times to our race, but as much as he deemed it necessar}^ to preserve. Every part of what is thus revealed being " profitable for instruc- tion, for reproof, for rectification, and for establishment in righteousness," ' 3. The use of the first Testament is highly important : and Use of the ^ simple statement of the use will show the con- first, nection of the two. 1. Though most of it was addressed to one nation, yet it enjoins much on man as man, and contains principles of morality which are universal and eternal. The precepts which were given to Adam, the decalogue, and the appeals of the whole book illustrate and enforce moral truth. 2. Much of the history of the Old Testament is the history of God's government. In that government he illustrates his own character and ours ; and whatever advantage an inspired record of this kind can give, we derive from this part of the sacred volumes. 3. Further, the hopelessness of salvation by law is clearly taught in this earlier dispensation. The patriarchal faith, with its imme- diate or traditional communications ended in a corruption, which not even the Deluge could check. Solemn legal institutes, with rites and sanctions most instructive and awful, failed to preserve the people from idolatry, though the Great Legislator himself re- peatedly interposed; and when, after the captivity, idolatry ceased, formalism and infidelity extended on every side, and at length pre- vailed (Part ii., Chap, iv,) In the meantime, the power of natural religion was tried among the heathen : and the result of the whole, the result of an experiment carried on under eveiy form of govern- ment, amidst different degrees of civilization, with traditional know- ledge and immediate light, is a demonstration, that in our fallen state, reformation by laic is hopeless, and that unless some other plan bo introduced, our race must perish. The Old Testament was given, therefore, in part to show us our sins, and to shut us up unto the faith (Gal. 3. 23). 4. To this new faith it is also an introduction, teaching to the spiritual and humble under the first dispensation, more or less of the plan of salvation to be revealed under the second. Hence its types, prophecies, sacrifices; hence assurances of pardon to the penitent, and the I'evelation of a God ready to forgive, though the procuring cause of pardon, the provision that was to reconcile justice and mercy is not fully stated, nor was it fully understood till the remedial work of Christ was accomplished. Other purposes also wore no doubt answered by this first dispen- CONNECTION OF DIFFERENT BOOKS. 3/5 satiou. A knowledge of the time God, which might otherwise have diedawayy was preserved; aud the effect of true religion, even in its less perfect foniis was illustrated; but the foregoing are probably the chief. The relation of the New Testament to these purposes of The New the Old is plain. The second, or new covenant, is 'fifrfiuSenTof ^ double completion of the first. As the first was the Old. a covenant of types and predictions, the second fulfils it ; putting the fact in the place of the prophecy, and in the place of the shadow, the substance. As under the first, moreover, the revelation of God and of duty was im- perfect, and holiness was made, or became, ceremonial, na- tional, and contracted, the second filled up the system of truth and of precept which was thus but partially disclosed, developing and explaining it with more of spiritual applica- tion, and securing for it in a richer degree the influence of the Spirit. In a double sense, then, the gospel is the com- pletion (7rX//pwo-ic) of the law. ^ 4. Regarding the whole Bible in its connections, we are Summary of prepared to trace the continual development of the whole. Divine truth in its different parts. In the first eleven chapters of Genesis, and in Job, we have the outlines of the patriarchal religion; in the later chapters of Genesis, the history of the transition from it, to the temporary and typical dispensation of the law. In the other books of the Pentateuch, we have the moral law, illustrative ati once of God's character, and of human duty; the ceremonial, with its foreshadowings of the great atonement; and the ckil, the means of the preservation of the other two. In the settlement of the Jews under Joshua, whether con- sidered in itself, or as an emblem of the future ; in the apostasy of the Jews, their punishment and deliverance under the Judges; in the establishment of the prophetic and kingly offices of later BOOKS, in addition to the priestly ; and in the unchanging yet diver- sified tenor of God's providence to his separated peojjle, we have our knowledge of the Divine character and pui'pose varied and aug- mented. In the PsAJ^MS, we have the utterances of devout hearts, and much that is predictive of Him in whom all devout hearts trust. In the WORDS of Solomon, we learn both the wisdom and the vanity of the world, and are led forward to that world where there is neither vanity nor vexation, and are at the same time conducted beyond the maxims of worldly prudence, to Him who is the eternal wisdom. la his nuptial song,, v/e see God in a new relation to his cliurch, ut> 376 CONNECTION OF DIFFERENT BOOKS. longer lier Lord (Baali), but her husband (Ishi). In Isaiah, wc have Messiah, as prophet, sacrifice and king, gathering from scenes of the captivity descriptions of a double deliverance. In Jeremiah, the same scenes are revealed, though dimly, and as in a cloudy and dai'k day. In Ezekiel, the shadowy priesthood of the Jews is eulai'ged into a more glorious and spiritual worship : and in Daniel we see the termination of all kingly power in the never ending empire of the Messiah. The minor pi'ophets present the same views of the Divine government, either in Providence or in grace, and Malachi closes the old revelation with predictions of the coming appearance of the Sun of righteousness. ~ In the New Testament, Matthew, after a silence of the prophetic spirit for 400 years, connects the ancient Scriptui'es with the more recent, and completes prophecy by pointing out its fulfilment in Christ. Luke reveals Him as a light to lighten the Gentiles; Mark, as the mighty God; John as the everlasting Father, and as the Prince of peace. The Acts continue the illustration of the ful- filment of ancient predictions, and connect the facts of the gospel history with the Epistles. Each Epistle, while giving most of the doctrines of the gospel, embodies distinctly some particular truth. The Epistles to the Thessalonians, exhibit the self-evidencing power of the gospel in the hearts of believers, and set forth the antecedents and result of the second coming. The Epistles to the Corinthians explain Christian unity, and the doctrine of the re- suri-ection. The Epistle to the Eomans gives to those whom Paul had not then visited, a full view of the gospel without reference to any previous communication, enlarging most on the great truth of " justification by faith." The simplicity of that faith, and its in- dependence of the law, in opposition to the legality of Judaizing teachers, is maintained in the Epistle to the Galatians. The Epistle to the Hebrews shows the connection between the Christian faith and the law; James and John (i Ep,), the connection between the Christian faith and practical holiness; while the Epistle to the Ephesians, shows that language is unequal to express the fulness which is communicated in all abounding grace, from the Head to tho body. Other Epistles treat of specific duties or truths, and the system of revelation is completed by the Apocalypse, which unites and closes the prophecies that go before, and introduces the chui'ch after all her ti'ials and changes, first into millennial I'est on earth, and then into never ending blessedness in Heaven.^ The volume that speaks of these topics may be doRcribed lloaily one ^^ Consisting of tico parts ; but they form really book. ,^;^g Iq(j]^ . rj^Y^^ j^i^Q truths it reveals are ever the '^ See Douglas on the " Truths of Religion." BOOKS : HOW CLASSIFIED. 377 same, dimly seen or fully disclosed, according to their position in relation to the cross. 5. It becomes us, then, duly to appreciate both Testaments. Importance Study the Old to see what God has done, and and iiife- what therefore he is. See in it a solemn protest Old j'csta- against idolatry ; a proof that none can be justified ment. -^^ ^]^g deeds of the law ; a gradual disclosure of the Divine will and of the plan of redemption. Prize it for these reasons, but remember also that, as contrasted with the New, inspired writers speak of it in depreciating terms. They call it "darkness," "flesh," "letter," "bondage," "the elements of the world" (Gal. 4. 3), while the gospel is "light," "spirit," "liberty," "a heavenly kingdom." Im- portant principles of interpretation are thus suggested, nor less the peculiar obligations of our position. It is now doubly binding upon us to be complete in all His wiU. Our dispensation is light, let us be wise : it is spirit, let us be holy : it is power, let us be strong. 6. The thirty-nine books of the Old Testament may be Old Testa- arranged on different principles. Sometimes they di^-d'd*^^^ are classed according to their contents : the Pen- tateuch, the historical books, the poetical books, and the prophets. This division is sufficiently accurate, though several of the books belong to two or more classes, and the division has not been uniformly observed. Some- times they are classed in the order of time ; and as much 01 the meaning of Scripture is elicited by the chronological study of the different books, we shall arrange theai in this order, not overlooking, however, the difference of object and of contents on which the other division rests. The importance of specific introductions to each of the importance ^ooks of the Bible must not be disregarded. Such of specific in- introductions will often prove, as Bishop Percy has observed, " the best of commentaries, and fre- quently supersede the want of any. Like an intelligent guide, they direct the reader right at his first setting out, and thereby save him the trouble of much after inquiry ; or, Hke a map of the country through which he is to travel, they give him a general view of his journey, and prevent his being afterwards bewildered and lost." We begin with the Piehtateuch and the book of Job. 373 THE PENTATEUCH. CHAPTER I. The Pentateuch and the Book of Job. Sec. I. Genuineness and Authenticity of the Pentateiicli. 7. All complete copies of Holy Scripture begin with the Pentateuch. It was called by the Jews " the law," or, more fully, "the five-fifths of the law;" or simply, the fifths ; a single book being called " a fifth."* The several books take their names in Hebrew from the first word or words. The English names are taken from the Greek version, and indicate in part the subjects of which they treat. Pentateuch means, in Alexandrian Greek, "the five volumes ;" a name first used, as was probably the divi- sion into five books, by Alexandrian critics.'' 8. That Moses was the author of the Pentateuch is the ^ . testimony of all tradition, both Jewish and heathen ; proved from and this testimony is sustamed by the record it- Scripture and ^^^^ e rpj^^ ^^^^ jg quotcd, moreover, by nearly all the sacred writers as his work,** and is appealed to as genuine and authentic by our Lord and his apostles." The Old Testament quotations begin with Joshua, B.C. 145 1, and ex- tend over more than a thousand years, B. c. 430. Indeed, the coincidences between the Pentateuch and the later books are so numerous and exact, that the sense of the law might have been gathered, if the law itself had perished, from other parts of the Bible ; every allusion in the later books having also its corresponding passage in the Pentateuch.^ " „nr\ ^^D^n n^pn vo^n, and |>E^G)n. '' Havernick. reCxos ordinarily means an implement. «= Deut. 31. 9, 24, 26: Exod. 17. 14: 24. 4-7: 34- 27, 28: Numb. 33. 2: Deut. 28. 58-61. d Josh. I. 7, 8: 23. 6: Comp. 24. 26: 8. 3-, 34: i Kings 2. 3: 2 Kings 22. 8: 2 Chron. 34. 14. ^Matt. 15. 4: 5. 17, 18, etc. f 2 Kings 14. 6, and Deut. 24. 16. 2 Kings 23. 2-25, and Lev. 26. 3-45: Deut. 27. II to 28. 68. Ezra 3. 2-6, and Lev. chaps. 6. 7. Neh. I. 7, 8: and Lev. 26: Deut. 4- 26, 27. Isa. i. 9, a^id Gen. 19. 2-4. Isa. 11, and Exod. 15. 2. Micah 6. 5, and Numb. 22. 5, etc. Amos 2. 9, and Numb. 21. 21-24. Amos 4. ii, and Gen. 19. 24, i-S- GENUINENESS OF THE PENTATEUCH. 37^ The testimony of profane history is, of course, much later From profane than Scripture. Mahomet (a. d. 569) maintained history. ^^igj^ Moses was inspired, and the Jewish law divine. Julian, the apostate (331), acknowledged that per- sons instructed of God once Uved amongst the Israehtes, and maintained both the genuineness and the authenticity of these books. Porphyry (233) admits their genuineness, and contends for the truth of Sanconiathon's accounts, from their accordance with the Mosaic history. Nicolaus of Damascus, an eminent orator, and Strabo, both contem- poraries of Augustus, ascribe the Pentateuch to Moses ; as do Tacitus, Juvenal, and Longinus (a. d. 273). Internal evidence corroborates this view. (i). The books- intornai """^^^^ evidently written by a Hebrew, speaking the evidence of language and cherishing the sentiments of hi& genum ne&s. ^^g^^.-^^^^ ^2). They Were written by a Hebrew acquainted with Egypt and Arabia, their customs and learn- ing -^ But Egj'ptian learning was carefully concealed from foreigners (Her. ii. c. 3, 100, loi, 164, 168). The priests alone, and the royal family, who were reckoned as priests,, had access to it. To this class, therefore, the writer must have belonged. ■ (3). There is, moreover, an exact correspond- ence between the narrative and the institutions, showing that both had one author. The laws are not given in the form of statutes, but are mixed with narrative, and ai'o in- serted as the exigencies requiring them arose. They are often briefly sketched, and afterwards repeated at greater length, with such modifications as were demanded by altered circumstances.'' (4). Xo less remarkable is the agreement between the style of the different books and the circum- stances of Moses. In the earlier narrative of Exodus and Numbers, the style is broken and abrupt. In Deuteronomy^ it is continuous and parental. The history of the antedi- luvians is brief and simple ; of the Jews, full and explicit ; and the whole exhibits the unity of design which bespeaks a single author. ■* See Gen. 13. 10: 40. 11, 16: (see pp. 380-1), 42. 9: 47. 20-6: Deut. ir. id: Numb. 13. 22. ^ Compare Exod. 21. 27, and Deut. 15. 12, 17. Numb. 4. 24-33, :ind 7. 1-9. Lev. 17. 3, 4, and Dout. 12. 5, 6, 21. Exod. 22. 26, aivl Deut. 24. 6, 10-15. 380 AUTHENTICITY OF THE PENTATEUCH . The first doubt expressed on this question in England was by Thomas Hobbes, A. D. 1650, at least three thousand years after the fii'st publication of the Pentateuch. Nor were doubts expressed by any known writer earlier than the 13 th century. 9. The evidence of the authenticity of the Pentateuch is no . , . . less decisive ; though, as many of the events are Authenticity. lu-l- -ii recorded only here, it is necessarily less compre- hensive than similar evidence in the case of ordinary history. Its state- Several of the historical statements of the lirnied »""" Pentateuch are confirmed by the traditions 01 tradition. aiicieiit nations. In proof of its general accuracy, Josephus appeals to various jiublic records, and to books extant in his time (a. d. 70,) confirming in this way the history of the flood, of the delivery from Egypt, and of the expulsion of the Canaanites. Creation completed in six distinct days, or in six distinct periods, the division of time into weeks, the seventh day being hol}^, the state of innocency or the golden age, the promise of a Mighty Deliverer, the flood, the ark — are traditions preserved among nearly all nations, and have been shown to exist in the East, though strangely disguised, in the very age when Moses lived. Faber's Horaj Mosaics, i. 1-136; Graves on the Pentateuch, i.; Sir William Jones's "Works, and Maurice's Hin- dostan. See other traditions in S. Turner's Sacred History, i., and Kitto's Daily Bible 111. Antedil. and Patriarchs. A new kind of proof has sprung up in our own days. It has been said, for example, that the following customs, or allusions, are Asiatic, and not Egyptian, or are later than the exode: building with bricks, Exod. i. 14; keeping asses — animals odious to the Egyptians ; the presence of eunuchs, implied in the name given to the captain of the guard, Gen. 37. 36; the freedom of domestic life implied in Gen. 39; the use of wine, which Herodotus says was not made in Egypt; of rings and other ornaments, 41. 42; the appoint- ment of stewards, 43. 16, 19: 44. r ; the custom of sitting at table, 43. 32. All, howevci', have been confirmed by the discovery of ancient Egyptian monuments. Biicks are still found with ths names of the oldest Egyptian dynasties stamped upon them. To the art of wine-making, llosellini devotes a section of his work; and upon the very monuments whence his ilkistrations are taken appear eunuchs, stewards, oi^naments, and entertainments, exhibiting habits of social intercourse, and modes of sitting, such as the Pentateucli implies. That the Egyptians shaved. Gen. 41. 14, and carried burdens, not authenticity: external evidence. 3S1 ou the shoulder, but on the head, 40. 16; that shepherds were treated with great contempt— the butts of Egyptian wit; that caste existed; that foreigners were natm-alized, by clothing them in the celebrated Egyptian linen, Gen. 41. 42 ; are facts confirmed by ancient sculptures, or expressly mentioned by Herodotus as peculiar to Egypt. See Hengstenberg's ' ' Egypt, and the Books of Moses." The statements of the Pentateuch are confirmed, more- By various over, bj the facts of history (a), ethnography (&), facts. a^Q(j geology (c), so far as these have been clearly ascertained. (a). Ko nation has credible, or even intelligible, records ex- tending earlier than the flood. The dynasties of Egypt run up, ou the largest interpretation, no higher than b. c. 2200 (Champollion), The I'eign of Yoa, the fix'st Chinese emperor mentioned by Con- fucius (B. c. 450), cannot be earlier than b. c. 2500; nor is there any historical certainty till the year B.C. 782 (Klaproth). The cele- brated chronology of India reaches no higher than b. c. 2 25 6, and then we have Buddha himself, the representative, perhaps, of Noah Col. Tod.) Such is the testimony of witnesses who have examined the most ancient chronological systems avowedly without any leaning to the Pentateuch. (6). Ethnogi-aphy in its threefold division, philological, physio- logical, and ethical, is equally in favour of the Mosaic account. The mythological systems of India, China, Greece, and Scandinavia, are really identical (Sir W. Jones) ; while Shemitic nations are all monotheistic, indicating, in each case, identity of origin. All known languages, it is admitted, are reducible to a few families: the Indo-Europrean, the Shemitic, the Ugro -Tartarian, the Malayan, the Transfengetic, which are chiefly monosyllabic; the American, and the African. Chev. Bunsen and Mr. Schtin have already traced the Egyptian, and several of the African dialects, to a Shemitic origin. The American languages are proved to be chiefly Asiatic, and the ablest scholars find, among all, such affinities as bespeak original unity (so Humboldt, Klaproth, F. Schlegel, Balbi, Herder). Philologically and physiologically, "the human race," says the last-named, ''is a progi-essive whole, dependent upon a common origin." "With the increase of knowledge in every direction," is the last testimony of Dr. Pritchard, ''we find continually less and less reason for believing that the diversified races of men are sepa- rated from each other by insuperable barriers." (c). Nor is geology an unimportant witness. One of its clearest 3eseon3 is the recentness of the "last great geological change." 382 AUTHENTICITY : INTERNAL EVIDENCE. The present state of the globe " caiiuot date much farther than five or six thousand years" (Saussure, Cuvier, De Luc.) Independently, even, of external evidence, the internal is Internal itself decisive. The artlessness of the style, the evidence. frequent genealogies, the impartiality of the author in recording the faults of the Jews and his own,^ are all obvious. Add to this, that Judaism is founded upon the supposed truthfulness of these records. They give the history of Jewish institutions, and the reasons for the ob- servance of them. If there be a forgery, when could it have been executed ? Not when the version of the LXX was made (b. c. 275). Not on the return from Babylon (b. c. 536), Ez. 2. 62. Not on the division of the kingdom (975). Not in the days of Samuel (1095). Not in the four hundred years preceding. For at each successive era there were thousands interested in detecting the forgery, and in setting aside the burdensome and pecuhar institutions founded upon it. To suppose that any man could secure the observance of Circum- cision, of the Passover, of the feast of Pentecost, or of Taber- nacles, on the plea that these rules had been observed from the first, and for the reasons assigned, when it must have been known that this statement was untrue, is to suppose a greater miracle than any the record contains. And these institutions had their origin, it will be noticed, not in the ordinary events of the history, but in the miracles : so that by them, not only the history, but each miracle is con- firmed.'' 10. It may be added, that it is supposed by some wTiters ^ra,.;«„c that the author of the Pentateuch used various > a.1 lulls .locuments ancient documents in preparing this volume, emp.oje . jjg^jQ quotations from other books, and hence, perhaps, the different names applied, in different parts, with marked uniformity to God. In Numb. 21. 14, 15, for example, the "book of the wars of Jehovah" is quoted, and in ver. 27-30 is an extract from a war- song of the Amorite.g. So in Gen. 1.-2. 3, the name applied to God " See history of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob; also Deut. 26. 5: Exod, 2. 14: Numb. 20. 10-13. *» Graves has expanded this argument with gi-eat force : " Locturei; en the Pentateuch," i. ii. PENTATEUCH EPITOMIZED. 383 13 uniformly God (QTIPK Elohim). In Gen. 2. 4-3, it is Jehovah- God. In chap. 5, it is God only, except in ver. 29, where a quotation is made. In Gen, 6-9, God and Jehovah are used indiscriminately everywhere, except in 9. 29, where a quotation is made; and iu chaps. 12, 13, Jehovah only. In chap. 14, a new name is introduced, ''God most High," and is used thi-oughout the chapter. This opiuiou was first advanced by Vitringa, Obs. Sac. i. chaj). 4, § 23, and has been advocated by Calmet, Home, Pye Smith, Stuart, and others. The errors and refinements of some modern writers have brought it into, perhaps, unde- served discredit. AndacMi- n^ There are also passages which must have the original been added after the death of Moses. narrative. Deut, 34 records his death and burial. Gen. 36, 31-39 gives a .supplementary list of Edomitish chiefs, and in several passages the later designation of a place has been substituted for, or is given Avith the original name, as in Gen. 14. 14, where Dan is put for Laish (see Josh. 19. 47): so Gen. 13. i3 (Josh. 14. 15): Gen. 13. 3 (Gen. 28. 19): 14. 2, 7, 8: Deut. 3. 9: 4. 48. 12. In tne Jewish canon, the Pentateuch is kept distinct True nature ^^^ ^^^ I'^st of Scripture, as it is the basis of the of thePenta- theocracy. The title "law" describes the prin- teuch. cipal subject of the books, though their true central point is the covenant relation between Jehovah and Israel. The whole of the Old Testament is, indeed, the history of that covenant, of the preparation for it, and of its progressive development, till it gave place to the gospel. Briefly 13- The events recorded in these books may be epitomized, arranged as follows : — ^ Genesis. — The Creation, i, 2: the fall and antediluvian world, 3-6: the deluge, 7, 8, a consequence of wickedness: the blessing of Xoah and the re-peopling of the earth, 9, 10: the dispersion, 11: call and history of Abraham, 12-25: of Isaac, 26, 27: of Jacob, etc., to the death of Joseph, 28-50, — A period of 2369 years (or of 3619, Hales). Exodus. — The Israelites after Joseph's death, i : birth and training of Moses, 2-6: the Exode, 7-15. 21: first year's journey, their covenant, moral and other laws, the tabernacle, 15. 22-40. — A period of 145 yepxs. Leviticus.— Laws on sacrifices, 1-7: on the Letitical px-iesthood. 384 PENTATEUCH, AND THE BOOK OF JOB. 8-10: on purifications, 11-22: on festivals, etc., 23-27. — One month. Numbers. — Events from the ymmbermg of the people, 1-4: in the second year to the thirty-ninth year, several laws, 5-10. 10: and the journeys of the Israelites, 10. 11-36. — Nearly 39 years. Deuteronomy, or the law repeated, has seven parts, giving — 1. A summary of privileges and history of the Isi'aelites, 1-4. 40. 2. A summary of their laws, moral, civil, and ceremonial, 4. 40-26. 3. Directions as to what is to be done after crossing Joixlan, including the blessings and curses, 27, 28. 4. Exhortations to obedience, 29, 30. 5. A narrative of events subsequent, with the song of Moses, 31, 32. 6. The benediction of Moses, 33; and 7. An account of his death, 34. — A period of five or eight weeks. _Jxf Sec. 2. The Booh of Job. 14. This book takes its name from the venerable patriarch whose history it records. Its antiquity, and the brevity of its style, make it confessedly difficult of interpretation. But these difficulties seldom refer to topics of religious im- portance. As Job is mentioned in Scripture in connection with other known saints (Ezek. 14. 14 : Jas. 5.11}, it may be safely concluded that he was a real person, and that the narrative is no fiction. This conclusion is sustained by the details given of persons and places, and by other in- ternal evidence. Uz, the country which he inhabited, was probably in the north-east of Arabia Deserta. The age in which Job lived is a question that has created ■\Mienhe much discussion. The most probable opinion lived. fixes it as earlier than Abraham. The book may be read, therefore, between the nth and 12th chapters of Genesis, as a supplement to the concise record of the early condition of our race, given by Moses. The arguments adduced in support of the latter opinion are as follows, (i.) The long hfe of Job, extending to 200 years. (2.) The absence of any allusion to the Mosaic law, or the wonderful works of God towards Israel in their de- parture from the land of bondage, and their journey to job: date and authobjship. 385 C^anaan ; whicli are constantly referred to by the other sacred writers, as illustrating the character and government of Jehovah. (3.) The absence of any reference to the destruc- tion of Sodom and Gomorrha ; which memorable event oc- curred in the vicinity of the country where Job resided ; and which, as a signal and direct judgment of the Almighty upon the wicked, would hardly have been omitted in an argument of this nature. (4.) The worship of the sun and moon being the only form of idolatry mentioned ; which was, without question, the most ancient, chap.. 31. 26-28. (5.) The man- ners and customs described, which are those of the earliest patriarchs. (6.) The religion of Job is of the same kind as that which prevailed among the patriarchs before the Mosaic economy. It is the religion of sacrifices ; but without any officiating priest, or sacred place. (7.) To these arguments Dr. Hales has added one derived from astronomy, founded on chaps. 9. 9, and 38. 31, 32. He states, that the principal stars there referred to, appear, by a retrograde calculation, to have been the cardinal constellations of spring and autumn about B. c. 2130, or about 184 years before the birth of Abraham. It is worthy of notice, that if Job lived between the deluge and the caU of Abraham, we have an additional i)roof that God has never left the world without witnesses to his truth. On the other hand, some think they detect allusions to the destruction of Sodom, etc. in chap. 15. 34 : 18. 15 : 20. 26 ; and adduce the coincidence of many names occurring in this book, with those of some of Abraham's descendants, through Ishmael and Esau, as indications of a somewhat later age. By some of these writers it is assigned to the earlier period of the sojourn in Egypt. Respecting the author of the book, a difference of opinion prevails. Some ascribe it to Job, others to Elihu ; and others to Moses. Whoever was its author, its canonical authority is proved by its place in the Jewish Scriptures, and the recognition of the whole collection by our Lord and his apostles. 15. The book may be divided into three parts : — Contents i. The historical introduction in prose, i. 2,, giving a aan-ative of sudden and severe affliction, borne with exemplary patience, ii. The argument or controversy, in poetry, in five divisions; S 38G J013 : CONTENTS AND OBJECT. 1. The first series of discussions, comprising Job's complaint, 3.; the speech of Eliphaz, 4, 5.; and Job's answer, 6. 7.; of Bildad, 8.; and Job's answer, 9. 10.; of Zophar, 11.; and Job's answer, 12.-14. 2. The second series, comprising the speech of Eliphaz, 15.; and Job's answer, 16. 17.; of Bildad, 18.; and Job's answer, 19.; of Zophar, 20,; and Job's answer, 21. 3. The ^/a>(i series, comprising the speech of Eliphaz, 22.; and Job's answer, 23. 24,; of Bildad, 25.; and Job's answer. 26.-31. The question discussed thus far is, whether great suffering be not an evidence of great guilt. Job's friends affirm it, and exhort him to repent and reform. Job denies it, appeals to facts, and complains bitterly of his friends for aggravating his distress by false charges. 4. The speech of Elihu, 32.-37. Elihu maintains, that aflBictions are meant for the good of the sufferer; even when not properly the consequences of sin; he reproves Job for justifying himself, rather than God, and vindicates the Divine character and government, 5. The close of the discussion, by the address of the Almighty (not condescending to explain his conduct, but), illus- trating his power and wisdom, 3 8. -4 1.; and Job's response and penitential confession, 42. 1-6. iii. The co«c/hs/oh in prose, 42. 7-17, giving an account of Job's acceptance and prosperity. 16. The precise olyject of the book has given rise to much dis- cussion. Mercenary selfishness was the charge so jec , ]3pQug]^^3 against Job, i. In the end the charge is disproved. Job is assured that the Judge of all the eai-th will do right, and resolves still to trust, though God should slay him, 19. 23-26. The nature and power of faith are thus illustrated, as is the identity of true piety in every age- Such perhaps was one chief object of the inspired waiter in this composition. The book, moreover, displays the Provi- dence of God in its inscrutableness and mercy, and sets forth in unrivalled magnificence the glory of the Divine attributes. It illustrates human depravity." exhibits faith in a coming Iledeemer and a future life,'' speaks of sacrifice as the ap- pointed means of acceptance,'' and shows the benefit of inter- cossory prayer.^ Not all, of course, that even Job said in these discussions, ° 33- 8, 9: 34. 5, 9. 35- ^ i9- 25-29: 33. 23-28. •^ T. 9: 42. 8. ^ 42. 8, 9. JOB : LESSONS : HEBREW POKTRT. 387 is to be commended. The principles advanced are sometimes erroneous, and sometimes also the conclusions. Inspiration describes accurately what was said or done, without neces- sarily sanctioning either. 1 7. The practical lessons suggested by the book, are obvious and important. Copy Elihu's humility. Though able to speak best, he spoke last. Uncharitableness is of the devil (i. 9, 10). Its origin, no less than its unlove- liness, should put us on our guard against it. . , . Perfect and upright men are among the first to confess their vileness (i. I : 40. 4 : 42. 6). Our progress in holiness may be mea- sured by our humihty. . . . What wisdom is needed to con- duct controversy wisely, when even Job failed. . . . How needful is a specific revelation, when even good men, with an accurate knowledge of God, and of many principles of his government, misread the lessons vvTitten upon his works. To correct human misapprehension on such questions, God had himself to interpose. Sec. 3. On Ilehrew Poetry ancC the Poetical Books. 18. As Job is the earhest of the poetical books of the Hebrew Bible, it may be convenient to make here a few pcetry. remarks on the nature of Hebrew poetry. The division of the Holy Scriptures usually called the poetical books comprises Job, Psalms, and Proverbs; some adding Eccle- siastes and the Song of Solomon. In point of date, some portions of them are earlier, and others are latei', than many parts of the historical books; but they are classed by themselves, as being almost wholly composed in Hebrew verse. In the Jewish Canon ot Scripture, they are included in the Hagiographa, or Holy Writings. The writings of the prophets are, for the most part, also in a poetical form. The peculiar excellence of the Hebrew poetry is to be ascribed to the employment of it in the noblest service, that of religion. It presents the loftiest and most precious truths, expressed in the most appropriate language. There is so miich uncertainty respecting the ancient pronunciation of the language, that it is not easy to determine the nature of the ilebrew versification. But much light has been thrown upon the subject, in later times, by Lowth, Jebb, and other scholars. The leading characteristics of Hebrew poetry may be described generally as consisting in the ornate and elevated character of the style, in the use of certain words and fonns of words, in the sententioas s2 388 HEBREV; POETRY. manner of expression, and in certain peculiarities in the structure and combination of the sentences. These peculiarities appear in the following artificial fomns. There is sometimes an alphabetical arrangement of the whole poem; each line commencing with one of the letters of the alphabet, or every altei'nate vei'se beginning with a succeeding letter, or a series of verses with the same initial letter: see Psa. 119 and Lam. j. In Psa. 119, in the original, eight verses in succession begin with the same letter, followed by eight more beginning with the suc;- ceeding letter; and so on, through the alphabet, dividing the whole Psalm into alphabetical strophes. There are twelve of these alpha- betical poems in the Old Testament. Another artificial form of poetry appears to have consisted in the repetition of the same verse or sentiment, at somewhat distant in- tervals, or after a certain number of verses, as in Psa. 42. 5, 11: 43. 5: 107. 8, 15, 21, 31: Isa. 9. 12, 17, 21: 10. 4: Amos i. 3, 6, 9, II, 13: 2. I, 4, 6. But the most striking peculiarity of Hebrew poetxy is what Lowth entitles parallelism; that is, there is a certain correspondence, either as to thought or language, or both, between the members of each period. Sometimes the secondary expression is little more than an echo of the first: sometimes it adds to it a new idea; and often greatly excels it in force and beauty : sometimes, to heighten the impression, the main idea is expressed in contrast Avith some other. It is in a gi'eat measure owing to this structui*e of the sen- tences that our translation of these books has so much of a poetical cast; for being, for the most part, literal, it retains much both of the form and of the simple beauty of the Hebrew. This poetical parallelism admits many varieties, more or less defined. The following classification will illustrate the Parallelism. -, . . subject. 1. Some pai-allelisms are gradational or synonymous. 2. Others are antithetic: see chap, iv., sec. 3, par. 286. Occasionally we meet with a double synonyme and a double antithesis; as in Isa. i. 3, 19, 20. A double antithetical form of the parallelism is not uncommon in the Prophets. A very beautiful parallelism of this kind occurs in Hab. 3.17, 18. See also Isa. 9. 10. 3. A third form of parallelism is the synthetic, or constructive. In this form, word does not answer to word, nor sentence to sentence, either as of an equivalent or as of an opposite meaning; but there is a correspondence and similarity between the difierent propositions in respect of the shape and turn of the whole sentence. This j»pecies of parallels includes such as do not come within the t\v<^ former classes; and its variety is very great. TARALLELISM. 389 In this kind of parallelism, the writer, instead of merely echoing the former sentiment, or placing it in contrast, enforces his thought by accessory ideas and modifications, generally preserving through- out a correspondence of form between the different parts. As ex- amples, see Job 3. 5-9: Psa. 148. 7-13: Isa. i. 5-9: 58. 5-8. Instances of this kind of parallelism are found in abvmdance in tne Scriptures, and especially in the Prophets. Respecting these diffei-ent species of parallelism, Bp. Jebb re- marks, that, separately, ''each kind admits many subordinate varieties; and that, in combinations of verses, the several kinds are perpetually intermingled; circumstances which at once enliven and beautify the composition, and frequently give peculiar distinctness and precision to the train of thought." It may be added that, according to the theme and divisions, Hebrew poetry is lyric, as in the Psalms ; epic, as in Job ; didactic, as in the Proverbs; pastoral, or idyllic, as in Canticles; and pro- phetical, as in the earlier prophets. Occasionally, we have rhyme, though probably not designed by the poet. Gen. 4. 23 : Job 6.4, 7, 9, 13, 22, 29. In reading the Bible, it is very desirable to understand the laws of poetic parallelism; for these often furnish important facilities for interpretation. As one member oi a sentence frequently expresses the same sense as its parallel, difficult words and phrases are thus rendered susceptible of easy explanation. In the Paragraph Bible (Pteligious Tract Society), the poetical parts of Scripture are printed according to the order of the original, in parallelisms. These parallelisms, indeed, are not always indi- cated in the mode of ijrinting the Hebrew text (except in Exod. 15 : Deut. 32: Judges 5: and 2 Sam. 22); but the lines may always be marked by attention to the accents. Sec. 4. The Boohs of the Pentateuch arranged and epitomized with Occasional Helps. 19. In studying the Bible as it ought to be studied for prac- Bibie, how tical purposes, we may advantageously regard it as a regarded, revelation of God, of man, and of salvation, each chap- ter throwing light on one or on all of these themes. Or it may be regarded in other aspects. According to the form into which the different portions of the Bible are thrown, we may describe it as a book of liography, containing the lives of believers and unbelievers, with the history of their influence and example : of history, under its twofold division, of the church and the world : of doctrine, gradually disclosing Divine truth : of ethics^ 390 BIBLE : TA2IOUSLY REGARDED, teaching the whole range of human duty : o[ positive institu- tions, founded on the will of God, and, therefore, mutable, as morality is immutable, being founded in his character : and of practical loisdom, suggesting and illustrating rules of both human and divine prudence. In accordance with this divi- sion we may read the whole, asking everywhere what light is thrown here on personal or national character, on ethics, on spiritual truth, on positive institutions, or on practical wisdom. SimjDler and more practical, however, is the division first suggested. Study the Bible to know God, his nature, perfec- tions, and government ; to know man, his condition and destiny, his duties and privilege ; to know Christ in his office and work ; and it will be found that under one of these three heads we may arrange all that Scripture teaches and reveals. 20. It is an instructive suggestion,'' that, after reading through a book of Scripture, we should read it reference to again with reference to some one subject. Many one subject, illustrations of truth prevent mistakes, teach us to apply it, and deepen its impression upon the mind. If we apply this suggestion, under the guidance of the hints and clearer instruction of the gospel, to the Pentateuch, we shall find it peculiarly useful. No portion of Scripture, indeed, is richer in these three-fold revelations. In reading history (it may be added), our business is so to History: group and compare particular facts as to connect Doctriue. them with the motives and principle from which they spring, and hence to apply the lessons taught in the in- spired narrative, with wisdom and clearness. In reading precept or doctrine, on the other hand, seek rather to illus- trate it, so as to make it more impressive and touching. Let facts lead up to principles ; and let principles be set forth and explained in appropriate facts. For the first, see notes on Genesis ; and for the second, see notes on Proverbs. 21. In the following summary the whole Bible will be found chronologically arranged ; and it is highly foUowing important that it should be studied in this order, arrangement, j^ ^^-^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ divided, for the most part, into sections, according to the sense. The notes at the foot •'' Bishop of London, Lent Sermons on St. John's Gospel, quntod by Nichols. GENESIS : EPITOMIZED AND ARRANGED. 391 of the page are all adapted, as far as they go, to explain the sacred tezt. They are not intended, however, as a com- mentary upon it, but simply as helps to put readers in the luay of making comments for themselves, and so of applying prin- ciples already discussed. It will be remarked that Old Testament pre-intimations of the Messiah — his person, office, and work — are all Preparations • , -, . -r t i • i^ for coming printed in Italics, and m such a form as to catch of :\iessiah. ^YiQ eye at a glance. Though, therefore, these are of the deepest importance, the notes but seldom refer to them. Let them not, however, be overlooked by the reader. For the devotional study of the Bible, the reader may often, with advantage, lay aside all helps, and select a few verses only, marking and applying the truths suggested by each word and sentence (see chap, vii.) Many have found this plan more im- pressive than the more student-like process above described. The two plans of study are in themselves consistent, though human weakness has led us to regard them as opposed. If we could but study devotionalhj — tracing God, and Christ, and ourselves everywhere, and applying the whole as we j)roceed — the mind and the heart would alike gain by the arrangement, 22. (i.) From the Creation, 4004 ; to the Death of Noah, 2006 years. Date and Place Events illustrating the coming and work of the Messiah; ■ I and ordinary Occurrences. B. C. j 4004. The Creation, Gen. i. 2. 4-7. For these Institution of the Sabbath, Gen. 2. 1-5. dates see Creation of Adam and Eve, briefly desci'ibed iu § 355. chap. I, recapitvdated, Gen. 2. '6-2^. 4004. The fall of Man, Gen. 3. 1-13. Eden.* (Connection of the first sin v:ith mni''s subsequent state, Rom. 5.14: I Cor. 15). Eden. First pi-omise of a Saviour • expulsion from Eden, Gen. 3. 14-24. 4003-2, Birth of Cain and Abel, Gen. 4. i, 2. Near Eden. * Eden is supposed to have been either near the head of the Persian Gulf, or in Armenia, near the som'ces of the Tigiis and. Euphrates. 392 GENESIS, 4-9 : LESSONS. Date and Place. Events illustrating the coming and work of the Messiah ; and ordinary Occurrences. B.C. 3B75. 3875. 3875-3504, Nod. 3874, JSTear Eden. 3769. 2468. 2468. 2348. 2347, Armenia, or Ararat, Gen. 8. 4. Togarmali, Ezek. 27. 14. 2247, A. M. I 75 7, B.C. 2233. Shinaar, (Ba- bylonia, or Irak Arabia ) 1998. Sacrifice first vientioned, Abel's accepted, Gen. 4. 3-7. Cain's crime and curse. Gen. 4. 8-15. Cain builds Enoch; his descendants; Lamech's speech, etc., Gen. 4. 16-24. Birth of Seth, and of Enos; world and church dis- tinguished. Gen. 4. 25, 26. Genealogy from Adam to Noah ; the line of the Mes- siah, Gen. 5. "Wickedness of the world ; God determines to des- troy it after a respite of 120 years; Noah preaches (2 Pet. 2. 5), Gen. 6. Covenant renewed with him; he builds an ark as God commanded, Gen. 6. 18. Noah enters the ark; the Deluge, Gen. 7. The waters abate; Noah leaves the ark, Gen. 8. God's covenant i-enewed with Noah, Gen, 9. i -i 7. Noah and his sons; his prediction concerning them [Gen. 9. 18-27]."* Babel ; confusion of tongues ; dispersion. Gen. 11. 1-9. Genealogies of Noah's sons; Nimrod founds Baby- lonian or Assyrian empire, [Gen. 10.] Genealogy from Shem to Terah; the line of the Mes- siah, [Gen. II. 10-26]. Death of Noah, Gen. 9. 28, 29. Gen. I. On this narrative of the creation, see § 224; and the brevity and moral completeness of the whole history, see § 220. The histoi-y of the world before the flood occupies seven chapters. The general history of mankind for more than 400 j'-ears after, four more. The history of Abraham and his descendants, for only 286 years, occupies thirty-nine chapters, and contains details rich in mortil wisdom. Gen. I. 26. Let ns : On the gradual revelation of the Divine nature in the Old Testament, see § 230. Gen. I, 2. Creation is here ascribed to God. All heathen philo- sophers maintained the eternity of matter; even those who taught that God moulded it into its various forms. This chapter teaches more truth on creation than all heathen cosmogonies combined, and '^ Passages marked thus [ ], are either repetitions, genealogical tables, or otherwise less suitable for general, or family reading. GENESIS : LESSONS. 303 it so teaclies it as to prove the folly of idolatry. What God is here said to have made, the Egyptians and others worshipped. See Faber's Orig. of Pag. Idol. Gen. 2. 4. Gives a particular account of what had been briefly recorded in i. 27. Gen. 2. 2, 24. The law of marriage and the law of the sabbath were instituted before man fell. The sabbath was at first con- secrated by the fact that it closed the work of creation. That it continued to be observed is clear from the division of time into weeks, 8. 8-13 : 29. 27, 28; the recognition of the day before the giving of the law, Ex. 16. 22-30; and the form of the pi-ecept, Re- memher! From the exode the sabbath was further consecrated by the deliverance on that day of the Israelites (Ex, 20. andDeut. 5. 15.) Under the gospel we obseiwe the day that commemorates a greater deliverance, and introduces a new creation. The day in the seven is changed ; but a day in seven has been observed from the first, A.cts 20. 7: Rev. I. 10. The day is to be kept as one of rest, of moral improvement, and of joyous holy devotion, Ex. 31. 13: Is. 58. 13, 14. Gen. 3. 6, 7. Mark the history of the first sin (§ 220), and the con- nection of that sin with our fallen condition. Compare ch. 2. 3. with Rom. 5 : i Cor. 15. Xeither add to the inspired explanation, nor take from it. Sound views on this question lie at the founda- tion of all accurate systems of truth. (John 3.) Gen. 3. Study the character and personality of the tempter in the light thrown upon both by inspu-ation, 2 Cor. 2. ri: 11. 3-14: Ei>h. 6. II: Luke 22. 3: Acts 5. 3: Matt. 13. 25. His wiles and influence are described here in terms which prove this history to be no fiction. See § 463, 4. Gen, 3, 15. On the delay of the fulfilment of the first promise, see § 382. Note on this whole narrative the justice of God in punishing sin, and compare the history of Cain, 4; of the flood, 6; of Sodom, 19; and even of the patriarchs, Note also his mercy. The promise before Ihe sentence; the cvirse of labour made a blessing: and compare Xoah's preaching, the delay of the flood, and the promise to save Sodom if ten righteous had been found in it. God "warns that he may not strike." He is long-sviffering, but also just. Gen. 4. 4. The first and second sacrifices mentioned in Scripture were specially accepted. Gen. 4, 4: 8. 20; and in later instances the acceptance of them is implied, 12. 7, 8: 13, 18. The institiition of sacrifice by God himself is expressly recorded in Gen. 14. g. What it meant may be gathered from the Xew Testament. The feehngs it excited and expressed were such as are now excited, though in 83 J94 JOB : GENESIS : LESSONS. an infinitely higher degree, by the sacrifice of the ci'oss, § 231, 245. On " Sacrifice of Divine Origin," see Magee on the Atonement, and Faber's Origin of Pagan Idol., b. 2, ch. viii. Gen. 4. 25. — The proni!f;e of a great deliverer is suspended now, as afterwards, upon a single life — Isaac, Joash, 2 Kings 11. Gen, 5. All the history of Scripture is useful. This chapter de- pcribes, with sad monotony, the character and death of the ante- diluvians; but it fixes the age of the antediluvian world, and it completes the evidence of the descent of our Lord from the first man, at once confirming a prediction, and illustrating a truth. Gen. 5. 24. Mark the three ascensions to heaven, in three suc- cessive stages of the plan of redemption — of Enoch, Elijah, and our Lord; each an evidence of immortality, and the last the foundation of man's title to it. Abel is slain. Enoch translated. Jacob chosen. Elijah taken to heaven without dying. John, his New Testament representative, foully murdered. "Even so, Father !" is the only solution man can give— a solution sanctioned by the Bible. Psa. 135. 6: Ptom. ■9. 20: Dan. 4. 35. Gen. 8. 22. Even nature i^roves God's faithfulness. Gen. II. On chronology, a,» fixed by this chapter, see § 356. Gen. II. 9. Place ch. 10. after 11. 9, because in 11. 1-9 men have one speech; in 10. we find them scattered. 23. (ii.) From the Death of Noah to the Birth of Moses, 417 years. Date and Place. B.C. Uz, in Idu- msea. Event or Nan-ative. 1996, Ur, Edessa, now Orfa. 1922, Ilaran, Char- rcv, Jliimni. I. Job. The exact date of Job is not known. There is good reason, however, for placing his history before that of Abraham, see Introduction to Job, or Town- send's Arrangement, i., p. 28; for analysis, .sea p. 384, etc. Job 1-42. [Chaps. 3-31]: chaps. 19. 25-27: 33. 23-28, are direct references to the work of the Messiah. 2. Abraham. Birth of Abram; marries Sarai; leaves Ur and his idolatrous kindred, (Josh. 24. 2): Gen. 11. 27-3-* Terah, Lot, and Sarai; death of Terah, ^see Acts 7. 2-4). GENESIS, 12-25 : LESSONS. 395 Date and Place. Event or Nan-ative. B. C. 1921, Cauaivu. 1921. 1920. 1918. Hebron. J913, Siddim (El Ghor). 1912^ Hebron. 1910. 1897. 1896, Gerar. Moriah(site of the temple). Machpelah, near Hebron. 1856, Beersheba; Bir-es-Seba. 1850. 1836, ^ Labai-roi. 1821, Beersheba. Leaves Haran at God's command with Sarai and Lot, Gen. 12. 1-9. Great blessings promised him, Gen. 12. 1-9: see Acts 3. 25: Rom. 4: Gal. 3. i5. Visits Egypt; dissimulates. Gen. 12. 10-20. Returns to Canaan; Lot in Sodom, Gen. 13. 1-13. Promises renevced ; goes to Mami'e, Gen. 13. 14-18. Chedorlaomer; Lot taken and rescued. Gen. 14. Melchizedek blesses Abram, Gen. 14. Covenant of God with Abram, Gen. 15. Hagar; Ishmael born, Gen. 16. Covenant renewed- names changed; circumcision. Gen. 17. Abraham entertains angels, one of whom is the angel of the covenant; Sodom; Lot's wife; Lot's incest, Gen. 18: 19. 1-36: [19. 4-1 1, 30-36.1 Abraham leaves Hebron ; dissembles with Abimelech^ Gen. 20. Moab and Ben-ammi born, [Gen. 19. 37, 38.] Isaac bom; Ishmael sent away; covenant with Abi- melech. Gen. 21. 1-34. Trial of Abraham's faith. Gen. 22. 1-19. Death and burial of Sarah, Gen, 23. Accoxmt of Xahor's family, Gen. 22. [20-24], Abraham sends his servant to Haran ; Laban receives him; marriage of Isaac, Gen. 24. Abraham marries Keturah; childi-en by her, Gen. 25. 1-6. Birth of Esau and Jacob; their character. Gen. 25, 19-28. Abraham dies; Isaac and Ishmael bury him. Gen. 25. 7-1 1. Gen. 12. The wanderings of Abraham carried some knowledge of the true religion through a large part of the east. We find the re- sults in the lingering convictions of many families refen-ed to in Scriptxire; and to Abraham many ancient nations profess to trace their religion. See Hales, ii. 124; Witsius, iEgypt,, lib. 3, Gen. 13. 7. Servants. Study on their duties the history of Eliezer (24, 1-60); of Jacob (31. 38-41); of Joseph (39. 1-6); of David (i Sam. 18. 5); of Obadiah (i Kings 18. 3); of Naaman's 3%' GENESIS : LESSONS. servants (2 Kings 5. 2, 3, 13); and compare with these examples the precepts of the New Testament (Eph. 5.6.) Gen. 14. 14. On allegorical interpretation, see ch. iv., Sec. 7. Gen. 14. 16. Brother, i. e., collateral relative ; hero nephew. 277 (/). Gen. 12. The successive covenants of Scripture are subjects of daep interest. The first was made with Adam, the second with Noah, and the third with Abraham. The one with Adam required obedience, and denounced death, legal, spiritual, natural, and (with- out penitence) eternal, as the consequence of sin. The second was without conditions, and is fulfilled to this day, 9. 8-17. The third also was without conditions, Gen. 12. 1-3, 7: 13. 14-17: 15. 17: 28. 10-15: Acts 3. 13-26: Gal. 3. 4: Rom 4. though confirmed in consequence of Abraham's faith, 22. 16-18: 26. 1-5. This last covenant is called by the apostle the covenant of promise in dis- tinction from the law, which is called the covenant of works. The Gospel is called in distinction from both — truth and grace, that is, salvation realized and founded, not on works, but on unmerited favour. That Abraham saw in the covenant made with him the promise of a coming Messiah is clear from the reasonings of both Peter and Paul (Acts 3. 25, 26: Gal. 3. 8). This promise was frequently re- peated; and formed, with the significant truths to which it pointed, the foundation of justifying faith for many ages. The expectation of a coming Saviour founded upon it explains the value of the bii-thright (25. 34), the preservation of family recoi'ds, and many of the institutes of patriarchal religion. Gen. 12. 7. The religious knowledge of the patriarchs was evi- dently very liuiited, but their piety was exemplary. Wherever the patriarchs go, they build their altar, 12. 7: 13. 4. Whatever their emergency, prayer is their resource. Their children they command after them ; and the traditional promise they carefully preserve and transmit; faith sustaining them in all (see § 242). Trace the character of Abraham as the ''fxiend of God," and, again, as the father of those who believe. Gen. 19. The godly are saved, yet so as through fii'e, i Cor. 3. 13. Gen. 21. The seed of the flesh separated from the seed of the promise: the first persecute and despise the second, Gal. 4. 29. Gen. 24. A marriage in the Lord. Note its peculiarities and results. Yet, for twenty years to come, there was no heir of tho promise - GENESIS 25-36. 397 Date and Place. B. C. 1804, Lahai-roi. 1804. 1804, Beersheba. 1796. 1773. 1760. Beersheba. 1760, Padan-aram. 1760, Arabia. 1753- 1752-1745, Padan-arain. Mesopotamia, Al Jczireh. 1745- 1739, Galeed. 1739, Succoth. (See ' Josh. 13, 27;.! 1736, I Shechem. j 173^- I Bethel, Luz, ' Bethaven (Hos. 10. 5), Bcit-in. 1729, Hebron. 1729. Event or Narrative. 3. Isaac and Jacob. Esau sells Jacob his birthright; Isaac leaves Canaan, Gen. 25. 29-35. Covenant confirmed to Isaac at Gerar, Gen. 26. 1-5. Isaac dissembles; covenant with Abimelech, Gen. 26. 6-33. Esau marries two Hittite women, Gen. 26. 34-5. Death of Ishmael ; descendants, Gen. 25. 12-18. Jacob obtains hLs father's blessing, and flees from Esau, Gen. 27: 28. 1-5. Jacob's vision at Luz; the promises continued to him; stays with Laban his uncle, Gen. 28. 10-22: 29. 1-14. Esau marries a daughter of Ishmael, Gen. 28. 6-9. Jacob marries Leah and Rachel, Gen. 29. 15-30 Jacob's children — Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah, by Leah ; Dan* and Naphtali, by Billah, Rachel's maid; Gad and Asher, by Zilpah, Leah's maid; Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah, by Leah ; Joseph, by Rachel, Gen. 29. 31-35: 30. 1-24. Jacob's bargain with Laban; he becomes rich, Gen 30. 23-43. Jacob, retm-ning to Canaan, is pursued by Laban; their covenant. Gen. 31. Jacob's vision at Mahanaim ; wrestles with an angel at Penuel; reconciled to Esau ; settles at Succoth, Gen. 32: 33. 1-17. Jacob removes to Shalem, Gen. 33. 18-20; birth of sons of Judah [Gen. 38. 1-5]. Dinah defiled by Shechem ; slaughter of Shechemites by Simeon and Levi [Gen. 34]. Jacob removes; purges his household of idols; the promises renewed to him; his name changed to Israel, Gen. 35. 1-15. Rachel dies on the birth of Benjamin, Gen. 35. 16-20. Sin of Reuben ; Jacob abides with Isaac, Gen. 35.21-27. Esau's descendants, [Gen. 36.] Gen. 26. Xote the evils of parental favouritism — in Isaac. Gen. 27. 6. Mark how each virtue has its counterfeit. Seek wisdom, but not as Eve sought it. Husbands should love their wives, but not as Adam did, 3. 6. Woi-ship God, but not with Cain, 4. 3, 5. Wives should obey their husbands, but not in sin, r2. II. Children should obey their pai-euts, but not with Jacob, 398 lessons: genesis 37-40. 27. 13, 14. Seek the accomplisliment of God's will^ but not with llebekah, 27. 6. Compassion may be disobedience, as in Ahab, I Kings 20. 34; delight in God's service, selfishness, Isa. 58. 2; and zeal not good, because without knowledge, Eom. 10. 2. There may be even a high sense of duty, without love to Christ, reverence for God, or true obedience: see Acts 26. 9-1 1. Gen. 27. 13, 17. Temptation is sometimes hope, sometimes fear. Gen. 3. 6: 12. 12. Eve was tempted by the devil; Adam, by his wife; Sarah, by her husband; Jacob, by his mother. Gen. 27. Such is life. Isaac's favourite son proves his plague. Isaac was himself the child of the promise (Gen. 21. 22), and yet was a stranger in the land of promise (37. i). Forty yeai-s nearly of his life he was bedridden, had but two children ; one of whom, by his marriage, and the other, by his deceit, embittered the la,st years of their father's life. So Eve hoped to find in Cain a special gift (Gen. 4. i), but he proved a murderer, § 248 (6). Gen. 30. Compare 30. i and 35. 18, and check inordinate desires. Gen. 34. Sin ever deepens and extends. Eve sinned and tempted her husband. Cain envied, complained against God, and then murdered his brother. Esau sold his birthright, and intermarried with the heathen. He was angry with Jacob, and then sought his life. Jacob meant to tell but one lie, but in the end he told several, and blasphemously made God a party to his deception. Gen. 27. 20. In this chap, we have dissipation leading to seduction, seduction to wrath, revenge, treachery, and murder. Fuller. Gen. 31. Potiphar ftivoured for Joseph's sake; Laban for Jacob's, Gen. 30. 27; Zoar for Lot's, 19. 21; as Sodom would have been spared if ten righteous men had been found in it. How God puts honour upon his people, § 248. Date and Place, Event or Narrative. B. C. 1728, Dothan. 1726, Timuath. I7i9> Egypt. 1718. 1716. 4. Joseph, etc. Joseph's two dreams; envy of his brethren; sold to the Ishmeelites and to Potiphar in Egypt, Gen. 3 7. Er and Onan slain by God; incest of Judah and Tamar; Pkarez, a progenitor of Messiah, horn [Gen. 38. 6-30]. Joseph advanced, tempted, falsely accused, and ini- px-isoued. Gen. 39. Pharaoh's butler and baker imprisoned; Joseph in terprets their dreams. Gen. 40. Death of Isaac at Mami-e, Gen. 35. 28, 29. GEXESis 35 : EXODUS 1 : lessons. 399 Date and Placiv I Event or Narrative. B. C. I715. 171:, I7II. 1708. 1707. 1706. 1706. 1704 — 1 70 1, 1689, Egypt. 1689. Machpelah. 1689. 1635, 1577, Egypt. 15 73- Joseph interprets Pharaoh's di'eams; his elevation. Gen. 41. 1-49. Birth of Joseph s two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, Gren. 41. 50-32. Commencement of the seven years' famine. Gen. 41. 53-57. Joseph's ten brethren come to buy corn; Simeon a pledge, ^ Gen. 42. They come again to buy com; Joseph makes himself known to them; sends for his father. Gen. 43-45. Jacob and his family arrive ; settle in Goshen; Jacob meets Pharaoh, Gen. 46: [8-25]: 47. 1-12. Joseph, by gi^dng com to the Egyptians, iucreases the wealth of the king, Gen. 47. 13 -26. Jacob blesses Ephraim and Manasseh, Gen. 47. 27-31: 48. Jacob's predictions concerning his sotis ancl Judah ; his death. Gen. 49. Joseph and his brethren bnrj' tbeir father. Gen. 50. 1-13. Joseph shows kindness to his brethren, Gen. 50. 14-21. Joseph predicts the return to Canaan; charges them to carry up his bones there ; his death, Gen. 50. 22-26. The Israelites multiply; a new king oppresses them, Exod. r. 1-21: [15-21]. Pharaoh orders the male children to be cast into the river, Exod. i. 22. Gen. 42. 21. Affiction is sanctified when it reminds us of our sins. Contrast the tender anxiety of those brothers for their father's feelings now, Gen. 44. 16-34, with their indifference years rtgo (37. 31, 32), and mark another fruit of affliction, when blessed. This book is wonderfully rich in such instances. Gen. 49. 10. Mark the gradual narrowing of the promise of the Messiah. The seed of the woman, through Shem, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Judah, and afterwards David. Gen. 50. 20. Even evil passions are oven'uled for the accomplish- ment of God's purposes. So were the treachery of Judas, the in- justice of Pilate, the persecution of Paul. Acts 4. 28: Phil. i. 12. Gen. 50. 25. " Joseph, it has justly been remarked, is a bright example in every relation. At the age of seventeen years he ap- peal's tmcormpted by the wickedness of his brethren or the partiality of his father; discountenancing the sin of the former, and prompt in his obedience to the latter (37. 2, 13: see 4. 8, 11). 400 JOSEPH : EXODUS 2-6. Unjustly sold as a slave, he is faithful to his mastei- (39. 4-6). He flees youthful lust, though exposed to temptation (39. 9). Per- secuted, he, like Paul, finds in prison oppoi'tunities of usefulness (39. 22: 40. 7). Flattered by Pharaoh, he disclaims all ahility of himself to interpret the dream, and avows, before a heathen court, the power of God (41. 16). At the age of thirty he is suddenly raised to the highest dignity, and yet becomes a pattern of industry and justice (41. 38: 46. 48). Though a courtier, he is truthful, and, with noble simplicity, avows the disreputable employment of Ills connections (46. 31-34). As a brother, he exhibits unabated affection, not only for Benjamin, but to those who had hated him (43. 29, 30: 45.-14: 44.18-34: 45.4-13: 50. 21). As a son, though lord of Eg^/pt, he manifests the most affectionate respect for his aged parent, who was now dependent upon him (46. 29: 47. 7). As a father, his piety appears in the names he gave his children (41. 51, 52); and his earnest desire for God's blessing for them in bringing them to Jacob's dying bed (48. i, etc.). For eighty years he lived in the midst of the greatest worldly gi*andeur, surrounded with every temptation to worldliness and idolatry; but his dying breath testified how enth-ely his heart and ti-easui-e were in God's promises" (50. 25). See also Heb. 11. 22: i John 5. 4. This summaiy (from Nichols) illustrates several rules of inter- pretation (sec § 248). 24. (iii.) From the Birth of Moses, B. c. 1 571, to his Death, 120 years. Date and Place. Event or Narrative. B. C. f5 7^—1532. 15 3 1, Midian. 1531, Egypt. 1491, Horeb (Acts 7. 30). 1 49 1. Egypt (Acts 7. 31). I. To the Exode. Birth, exposure, rescue, and early life of Moses, Exod. 2. I- 10. Moses, having killed an Egyptian, flees; marries Zipporah, daughter of Jethro ; Gershom born, Exod. 2. 11-22. The Israelites groan for their bondage, Exod. 2. 23-25 : Psa. 88. God appears to Moses in a hurning bush ; appoints him and Aaron to bi'ing the Israelites out of Egypt, Exod. 3 : 4. 1-17. Moses leaves Midian; meets Aaron; they deliver their message, Exod. 4. 18-31 Moses and Aaron demand the release of the Israelites; Pharaoh refuses, Exod. 5 . EXODUS 6-12: LESSONS. 401 Date auil I'lace. Event or Narrative. 3. C. 1491. 1491. 1491. 1491. I491. 149 1. 149 1. 149 1. 1491, Rameses. God renews his promise by his name Jehovah, j Exod. 6. 1-13. Descendants of Reuben, Simeon, and of Levi, from ■whom came Moses and Aaron [Exod. 6. 14-27]. i Moses and Aaron again sent; confirm their message I by a miracle ; magicians imitate them, ' Exod. 6. 28-30: 7. 1-13. Pharaoh refuses to let Israel go : eight plagues, Exod. 7. 14-25: 8: 9: 10. 1-20. T/(6^ Passoi-e>' instituted, Exod. 12. 1-20. The 9th. plague, three days darkness, Exod. 10. 21-27. Israelites bidden to ask gold of the Egyptians; Pharaoh threatened A\ith the death of the first- born, Exod. II. 1-8: 10. 28, 29: II. 9, 10. The Passover eaten, the same day of the same month on which Christ our Passover was sacrificed for us (see Hales, ii. 197); the first-born slain, Exod. 12. 21-3C. The exodus, (a.m. 2513), Exod. 12. 31-36, and 40-42. By God's command, Nisan or Abib, on the 14th night of which the exode took place, was made the ist month of the ecclesiastical year, Exod. 12. 2. As the rest of the history of Moses is dated chiefly from this epoch, we shall give the dates from that time. Exod. 2. 25. Lightfoot and Townsend place the 88th Psalm here (see r Chron, 2. 6). Witsius and others refer it to the captivity (i Chron 6. 33). Exod. 3. II. Mark the difiidence of Moses, till his scruples and feiu- are removed by several miraculous proofs of his Divine legation. Israel in Egypt had evidently become contaminated by the idolatry of then* neighbours : hence then' unbeUef and inconstancy. See Josh. 24. 14: Ez. 20. 8: Josh. 5. 9: Lev. 24, 10. Exod. 3 . 14. " The Angel of Jehovah " speaks of himself as ' ' I am that I am." He is the same who delivered Jacob from all evil (Gon. 48. 15); who gave the law (Acts 7. 38: Exod. 19. 20: 20. i); who conducted Israel through the wilderness (Exod. 23. 20, 21); and claimed the homage of Joshua (Josh. 5, 15: 6. 2). Exod. 7. I. ''My/)rq/j7tef," or spokesman (3. 16). To prophesy is in Scripture language to foretell, and also to instruct or speak pub- licly. See Tit. i. 12: Acts 13. i: i Cor. 11. 4, 5 : 14. i: Eph. 2. 20. Exod. 7. 13. Pharaoh hardened. The DiyinQ forbearance seems tr: have produced this result (8. 31, 32;. Exod. 8. These plagues are all significant, proving the power of 402 PLAGUES OF EGYPT: THE PASSOVER. God, and i-ebuking idolatry. i. The Nile— blood; an object of worship turned into an object of abhorx-ence. 2. The sacred frog itself their plague. 3. Lice, which the Egyptians deemed so pol- luting, that to enter a temple with them was a profanation, cover the country like dust. 4. The gad-fly (Zebub), an object of Egyptian reverence, becomes their torture. 5. The cattle, which were objects of Egyptian worship, fall dead before their worshippers. 6. The ashes, which the priests scattered as signs of blessing, be- come boils. 7. Isis and Osiris, the deities of water and fire, are unable to protect Egypt even at a season, when storms and rain were unknown, from the fire and hail of God. 8. Isis and Serapis were supposed to protect the country from locusts. West winds might bring these enemies ; but an east wind the Egyptiim never feared, for the Red Sea defended him. But now Isis fails ; and the very east wind he reverenced becomes his destruction. 9. The heavenly hosts, the objects of worship, are themselves shown to be tmder Divine control. 10. The last plague explains the whole. God's first-born Egypt had oppressed; and now the first-born of Egypt are all destroyed. The first two plagues, it will be noticed, were foretold by Moses, and imitated by the Egyptians. The rest they failed to copy, and confessed that they were wrought by the finger of God. See Bryant and Bishop Gleig's Diss.: Stackliouse, i. p. 472. Exod. 12. 1-20. Contains a command given five days before the Passover, i. e., on or before the loth Nisan. Hence the position of this section. Exod. 12. 21. The Passover victim was selected on the loth, the day Christ entered Jerusalem, John 12. 12-19. Early on the 14th the victim was prepared for the sacrifice, and between the 9th and nth hour— the hour when Christ expired— the victim was slain; its blood sprinkled upon their dwellings; its body a family feast, streugthenmg them for their journey. At midnight, the first-born were slain, and amidst this distress, but with all the calmness of a religious procession, the Israelites leave the land of their bondage. How instructive is this type. Date and Place. B. C. 1491- Succoth, Eccl. y. I. I m. 1 5 day. Etham. Event or Narrative. 2. Tko forty -two Journeys of the Israelites. 1st journey. Passover reinforced. Fh'st-born com- manded to be set apart. Joseph's bones removed, Exod. 12. 37-39, and 43-51: i3- 1-19: Numb. 33. 1-5. 2nd journey. Israel guided by a pillar of cloud and fire, Exod. 13. 20-22: Numb. 33. 6 JOURNEi'S OF ISRAEL : EXODUS 14-40. 403 Dale and Place. B. C. i 149 r, Pihahiroth; J. e., mouth of pass. 1 Mai-ah. ; Elim, ( ^\adi Gha- rendal). lied Sea. 2 m. 15 d. Sin. Exod. 16. I, Dophkah. Alush. Rexjhidim. 3 m. T5 d. Sinai. | 1491. i 3 m. 15 d. I Sinai. Event or Xarrative. 3rd journey. Pharaoh pm-sues, Exod. 14. 1-9; Numb. 33. 7. Eccl. y. I. 6 m. Sinai. 1490. Eccl. y. 2. 7 m. I d. |th journey. Passage of the Bed Sea (see i Cor. 10. I, 2). Destruction of Pharaoh's army. Song of Moses. The bitter waters sweetened, Exod. 14- to: It. ;6: Numb. 33. 8. 5 th journey, Exod. 15 2T. Numb. 33. 9. 6th journey, Numb. 33.1c. 7th journey. People murmui* for bread. Quails and manna. Directions on manna (see John 6. 31, 49. Eev. 2. 17), Exod. 16. 1-36: Numb. 33. 11. 8th journey, Numb. ^^. 12. 9th journey. Numb. ^^. 13. icth journey. Water giccn from the rock in Jloreb (i Cor. 10. 4). Joshua defeats Amalek, while Moses prays, Exod. 17. 116: Numb. 33. 14. nth journey. Preparation for giving of the law, Exod. 19. 1-25: Numb. 33. 15. Moral law given. Divei-s laws (chiefly judicial J en- joined. The an'jel prondscd as a ijuide to the Israelites, Exod. 20. 23. The people promise obedience ; the blood of the covenant sprinkled on them. _Mopcs and others have a vision of God's glory. Moses remains forty days and forty mghts in the mount, Exod. 24. Ceremonial lav: given. The tabernacle and its furnitui'e, the priests and their garments, etc. The sabbath again enjoined. Daily sacrifice and incense, Rom. 8. 3 : Rev. 8. 3. 4. Tables of the law given to Moses, Exod. 2 5.-3 1. Idolatiy of the calf; the tables broken; the people punished ; the tabernacle removed out of the camp. Moses intercedes for the people, and asks to see God's glory, Exod. 32. 33. The tables renewed; the name of the Lord pro- claimed : God makes a covenant with IsraeL Moses stays on the mount forty days and forty nights; his face shines, Exod. 34. Offerings of the people for the tabernacle. Bezaleel and othei-s prepare the tabernacle and its furniture [Exod. 35.-39.] Moses commanded to rear the tabernacle and to anoint it, and to sanctify Aaron and his sons [Exod. 40. 1-16.] (^John i. 14: 2. 19-21 : Col. 2. 9,) 404 JOURNEYS or ISRAEL : LAWS. Date and Place. Kveut or Narrative. B. C. 1490, Eccl. y. 2. r m. I day. I m. 8 d. im. 14 d. 2m. I d. 1491. 2 m. 20 d. ! Wilderness of Parau I Hazaroth. 5 m.-jm. Kadesh Barnea, or En Mishpah. The tabernacle set up. The glory of the Lord fills it. The Israelites directed by the cloud, Exod. 40. 17-38. Laws on various sacrifices and ofFeiings [Lev. 1.-7.] Consecration of Aaron and his sons as priests [Lev. 8. J The ofierings of Aaron. Fire consumes the sacrifice [Lev. 9.] The oflferiugs of the princes accepted, Numb. 7. Destruction of Nadab and Abihu, Lev. 10. Of the great day of atonement, and of the scapegoat, Lev. 16: see Heb. 9.: and 5. i. The second passover celebrated. Some allowed to observe it in the second month, Xumb. 9. 1-14. Laws on meats and purifications [Lev. 11. -15.] Miscellaneous laws, moral, ceremonial, and judicial. Shelomith's son stoned for blasphemy [Lev. 1 7.-22. and 24.] Laws concerning festivals, et(;., Lev. 23. and 24. Proj)hetic promises and threatenings. Lev. 26. LaAvs of vows, devotions, and tithes [Lev. 27.] The tribes numbered; their order [Xumb. i., 2.] The Levites appointed to the service of the tabernacle instead of the first-bom ; their duties [Numb. 3 ., 4.] Institution of various ceremonies. The law of the Nazarites. The form of blessing [Numb. 5., 6.] Consecration of the Levites ; their age and period of service [Numb. 8.] Use of the silver tru.mpets [10. i-ioj. Manner in which the cloud guided the people, 9. 15-23. Arrival of Jethro with Moses' wife and sons. He advises Moses to appoint judges to assist, Exod. 18. 1-26 1 2th journey. Order of the march [Numb, 10. II, 12 (Numb. 33. 16) 28]. Moses entreats Hobub to accompany Israel; Jethro returns to Midian, Numb. 10. 29-32, and Exod. 18. 27. The form of blessing on the removal and resting of the ark. Numb. 10. 33-36. The burning at Taberah. People murmur for flesh; Moses complains of his charge ; seventy elders ap- pointed as a council to assist him; quails given in wi'ath. Numb. 11. 1-34. 13th journey. Miriam smitten with leprosy for sedition. Numb. 11. 35 (Numb. 33. 17) 12. 15. 14th journey. Spies sent to search the laud; ten of them bring an evil report ; Caleb and Joshua faith- ful, Numb. 12. 16 (Numb. ^3- i8): ij. JOURNEYS OF ISRAEL. 405 Date and Place. B. C. Eccl. y. 2 Tm. 6 d. 149C-J452. Eccl. J. 2-40 1452. Eccl. J. 40. I m. 1490. Kadesh. Mount Hor, Zalmonah. Punon, Obotli, lim. Dibon-2rad. Almon- diolathaim. Abarim. Plains of Moab by Jordan. Event or Narrative. Israel murmurs at the report of the spies ; God threatens ; Moses intercedes ; condemned to wan- der forty years, Numb. 14. 1-39: Psa. 90. The people, going up against the -svill of God, are discomfited, Numb. 14. 40-45. Laws of offerings ; the sabbath-breaker stoned [Numb. 15]. The rebellion of Korah, etc.; earthquake, fire, and plague inflicted; Aaron approved as high-priest by the budding of his rod. Numb. 16., 17. The charge and portion of the priests and Levites [Numb. 18]. Water of purification; how to be made and used [Numb. 19]. The next seventeen journeys (15th to 31st) of the Israelites, being their wandering in the wilderness nearly thirty -eight years. Numb. 33. 19-35. 32nd jorimey; death of Miriam, Numb. 20. i: 33. 36. The people murmur for water ; Moses and Aaron transgressing, not to enter Canaan, Numb. 20. 2-13. Edom refuses a passage to the Israelites, Numb. 20. 14-21. 33rd journey; Aaron dies; Arad attacks Israel, and is defeated, Numb. 20. 22-21. 3: 33. 37-40. 34th journey; the people murmur; fieiy serpents are sent; the brazen serpent set up, (see John 3. 14): Numb. 21. 4 (33. 4i)-9. 35th, 36th, and 37th journeys. Numb. 21. 10, 11: 33. 42-44. 38th journey, Numb. 33. 45. The Israelites stop at Zared, Arnon, and Beer, Nvmab. 21. 12-18. Sihon, the Amorite, opposes their passage; defeated. Numb. 21. 21-32. Og, ofBashan, attacks them; defeated. Numb. 2T. 33-35. 39th journey, Numb. 33. 46 40th journey. Numb. 21. 18-20: i^. 47, 41st journey; account of Balaam and Balak, (Luke I. 78: Rev. 22. 16: i Cor. 15. 25): Numb, 22. I (^^. 48)-4i: 23: 24. 42ndjoTimey; idolatry of Baal -Peor; zealofPhinehas, Numb. 25. I (33. 49)-i8. Third numbering of the people, [Numb. 26]. The daughters of Zelophehad; laws of inheritance. Numb. 27. i-ii: 36. Laws of ofierings, vows, etc. Numb. 28.-30. 406 LEVITICUS: NUMBEKS: LESSONS. Date and Place. B. C. Eccl. y. 40. Event or Narrative. The slaughter of Midian; Balaam slain, Numb. 31, Territories given to Reuben, Gad, and part of Ma- nasseh, on the east of Jordan, Numb. 22. Directions for the Israelites on their entering Canaan ; borders of the land described; forty-eight cities for the Levites, of which six are to be cities of refuge ; the laws on murder, Numb. 33. 50-56: 34: 35. Exod. 12. 37. This order of thejournies is taken from Numb. 35. "We see here how God weans his people from idolatry, how he inures them to trial and trains them to obedience. For an inspired, practical comment on the history of the Israelites in the wilderness, see Psa. 78: 105: io5: 136: and i Cor. 10. Lev. What an instructive month's history. Aaron consecrated, in proof of the holiness required in worship; his sons Nadab and Abihu punished for unhallowed contempt of Divine authority (see Exod. 30. 9), shortly after their consecration, which a miracle had confirmed, Exod. 24. 9: Lev. 9. 24; Aaron's i-esignation a touching exhibition of grace, 10. 3; the blasphemer stoned. Lev. II. As the sacrifices of the law point to Christ and his atonement, so do the repeated pur-ifications to man's need of inward pl^rity and of the cleansing influence of the Holy Spirit. The ceremonial law contains rites closely resembling those in use among several heathen nations, but v/ith striking differences (Spencer, de Leg. and Michaelis). Some (as Warburton and Maimonides) think the former borrowed from the latter; others (as Gale and Stillingfleet) think the latter borrowed from the former; others, still (as Calmet and Faber) maintain that both were taken from early patriarchal institutes, which the Gentiles corrupted and which God himself modified, to meet the peculiar condition of the Jews. This last theoiy, the most probable of the three, is con- firmed by the fact that many primitive traditions are preserved in the systems, moral, religious, and philosophical, of many ancient nations. Numb. 9. 1-14. This section is out of its place, see ver. r. Numb. 35. 31, 32. See § 329 (h), on ''satisfaction." When Jacob's family entered Egypt they numbered but seventy Bouls, Gen. 46. 27. Now their descendants number upwards (it may be gathered) of two millions (chap. 26); so richly had God already fulfilled his promise. DEUTERONOMY, 1-34. 40] Date and Place. Event or Narrative. B. C. 145 1. Eccl. y. 40. II m. id. 3. Tlie Review and closing Charge of Moses. Moses reviews the history of the Israelites, intro- ducing some new particiilars, Deut. 1.-4. The moral law repeated and enforced, Deut. 5.-9: 10. 1-5, 10-22: II. The ceremonial law repeated, with inj\anctions against idolatry, etc. [Deut. 12.-16: 17. i.j The judicial law repeated and explained. Christ fore' told as a prophet to whom they are to hearken, Deut. 17. 2-20: [18. -26]. Moses directs Israel, after entering Canaan, to write the law on stones, and to recite its blessings and curses upon Mt. Geriziiu and Mt. Ebal, Deut. 27. Prophetic promises and curses, Deut. 28. Concluding appeal to the Israelites, Deut. 29: 30. Deut. On the importance of comparing the law, as given in Deuteronomy, with the law as given in the earlier books, see Pt. ii. § 8. Date and Place. Event or Narrative. B. C, Eccl, y. 40. II m. 4. Joshuds appointment ; death of Moses. Joshua appointed to s>'cceed Moses, Xumb. 27. 12-23. Moses encourages the people and Joshua; charges the priests to read the law publicly every seventh year, Deut. 31. 1-13. God's charge to Joshua; Moses writes a song of wit- ness ; completes the writing of the law, and delivers it to the Levites, witli a prediction of the dis- obedience of Israel, Deut. 31. 14-29. Moses recites his song, and exhorts Israel to set their hearts upon it, Deut. 31. 30: 32. r-47. Moses ascends Mount Nebo to view the laud of Canaan, and to die, Deut. 32. 48-52. Moses prophetically blesses the tribes, Deut. 33. Moses views the promised land; his death, burial, and character, Deut. 34. Sec. 5. The Design of the Law — Summary of its ReliQtous Institutions. 25. What, then, it may be asked, was the purpose of this ancient dispensation, and to what end must we study it ? There was faith and piety before it vvas given. Faith and 408 THE DESIGN OF THE LAAV. piety .remain, now that it is clone away. As an institute, it was confessedly burdensome ; and if its aim had been either to regulate the worship of God, to give a figurative representation of the gospel, or to separate the Jews from other nations, this aim might have been reached by simpler means. Might not some points, moreover, not forcibly impressed upon the ancient Jews, have been more clearly revealed — the spiritu- ality, for example, of the coming dispensation, and the glories of eternal life ? In reply to these questions, let it be remem- bered, that man has a strong tendency to forget God. Virtue, truth, godliness, submission to the Divine will, conformity to the Divine law, supreme desire for the Divine glory, are things not only not natural — they are things to which man is directly opposed. "Without successive revelations, or some such pro- vision as the Old Testament supphes, the feelings which these terms describe, and the truths on which they are founded, must long since have perished from the earth. This conclu- sion is gained by an induction of particulars as sound as any in science. Let it now be supposed that God has to deal with men who are ever prone to idolatry and barbarism, in a con- dition of intellectual childhood, with no relish for blessings purely spiritual, and so earthly as to be incapable of compre- hending them ; that he desires to impress the minds of such a race with his own infinite perfections, and induce them to worship him with becoming reverence ; to prove to them what is in their heart, and so humble them for their depravity ; to lead them to acknowledge him in all their ways, that they may fear his power and trust his love ; to raise their confi- dence towards the God of their fathers, their covenant-God ; to inchne their hearts towards his holy place, and the privi- lege of communion with him ; — supj)ose that he wishes to distinguish them as his peculiar people (that is, both purchased and separate) ; to prevent needless intercourse with their idolatrous neighbours ; to unite all classes of Israelites as one body, under one king ; to teach them to love one another as brethren ; to check the tendency, in all communities, to the accumulation of extreme wealth in the hands of a few, and the oppression that springs from such accumulation ; to induce honest industry among the people ; to give every man the conviction that he has a name and a place in his country ; to secure competent provision for the fatherless and the widow ; THE DESIGN OF THE LAW. 409 to provide rest and moral training for all servants ; to connect the maintenance of the learned and priestly class, in part at least, with the obedience and piety of the people, thus stimu- lating them to diligence in teaching the law ; — suppose that he seeks to reveal himself with new claims ; to preserve the me- mory of what he had done for them as a nation ; to teach them implicit obedience ; to excite thoughts and feehngs in harmony with the office, and work, and reign of that Messiah whom these various institutions were to introduce ; — and suppose, lastly, that owing to man's guilty depravity, and the power- lessness of ritual observance to cleanse him spiritually from sin, these precepts and rites could not, hy themselves alone, secure more than legal forgiveness, or attain, in any sense, eternal life ; — admit that these suppositions describe the end of the law, and its adaptation to its end will at once appear. Now, these suppositions really do describe its end, though they may be stated variously. Is the law a moral code ? It teaches us our duty both to man and to God. Is it ritual ob- servance ? It teaches us our faults, and God's holiness, point- ing, moreover, to the cross. Is it a civil institute % It regu- lates the worship of an Invisible King, preserves the Jews as a pecuhar people, and enforces brotherly love. Regarded as a revelation of truth (objective religion), all its parts are instruc- tive. Regarded as a shadow of truth afterwards to be revealed, it excites and deepens holy feehng (subjective religion.) Re- garded chiefly as a treasury of earlier traditional knowledge, that knowledge it preserves, adding much of its own, in order to preserve it ; though, of course, a spiritual perception of its truths is still, as before, essential to salvation. However the end of the law be defined, the chief facts remain. It reveals man's sin, God's hohness and love, forgiveness through sa- crifice, and sanctification as its result, Christ's work and reign, ■while it provides for the preservation of these truths in a world ever prone to forget what is spiritual, and deteriorate what is holy. The whole institute is at once a gospel and a church. It preserved and guarded i^iety, union, and happiness ; is every way worthy of its author, and entitled to the com- mendations which pious Jews have bestowed upon it in every age, Psalms 19. 119. 26. In theory, the Jewish constitution was a theocracy, a 410 THE THEOCRACY: THE TABERNACLE. visible representation of the reign of God. Je- Constitudon hovah himself was regarded as king ; the laws were a theocracy, (delivered by him ; the tabernacle (and afterwards the temple) was considered as his palace ; there he gave visible manifestations of his glory ; there he revealed his will ; there was offered " the bread of the presence ;" there he received his ministers, and performed his functions as sove- reign. Hence it is that the land of Palestine is ever repre- sented as held by direct tenure from Jehovah (Lev. 25. 23). To him, peace and war, questions determined under all govern- ments by the supreme authority, were referred (Deut. i. 41, 42 : Josh. 10. 40 : Judg. i. i, 2 : i Kings 12. 24) ; and idolatry was treason. In relation, therefore, to the Jews, Jehovah was both God and king. 27. This twofold character was preserved in all the arrange- ments of the ancient law. 1. The Tabernacle, where public worship was held from the exode till the reign of Solomon, was both the temple The Taber- ^f Qq^ ^^^g^ i]^q palace of the invisible king. It was his "' ' " holy habitation." It was the place where he met the people and communed with them — " the Tabernacle," therefore, " of the Congregation." It v/as an oblong, rectangular erection, 55 feet by 18 feet, built of planks of the acacia, overlaid with gold, united by poles of gold, and resting on bases of silver. The whole shielded by four costly coverings. Exod. 26. 7-13. (See Sliittim.) The eastern end was not boarded, but was closed by a curtain of cotton, suspended from silver rod ;, that were sustained by five pil- lars covered with gold. The interior was divided into two parts by a curtain or veil made of rich stuff, and curiously embroidered with figures of cherubim and other ornaments (Exod. 26. 36, 37). The first apartment was the Holy Place (Heb. 9. 2). The inner and smaller one, the " Holy of Holies." Here was the ark of the Co- venant, an oblong chest of wood, covered mth gold, and sur- mounted by two golden figures of cherubim with outstretched wings. Above them was ''the Glory," the symbol of the Divine presence. It rested between them, and came dowoi to the lid of the ark — "the mercy seat." In or near the ark were the tables of .stone, the book of the law, a pot of manna, and Aaron's rod (Exod. 25. 21: Deut. 31. 26: Heb. 9. 4). In the first or ante-room were placed the goldenaltar of incense (Exod. 30. i-io); the seven handed golden candlestick or lamp (Exod. 25. 31-39); ^^d the table of wood, overlaid with gold, where the shew-bread and wine were placed (Exod. 25. 23-30). THE TABERNACLE. 411 Around the tabernacle -was an extensive court,, about 1 80 feet by- go feet, formed by ciui;ams of linen, suspended by silver hooks from rods of silver, which reached from one column to another. These columns were twenty in all, of acacia, probably supported on bases of brass, and 8 or 9 feet (5 cubits) high. The entrance was on the east side, and was closed by falling tapestry, adorned with figures in blue, purple, and scarlet (Exod. 27. 9-19: 39. 9-20). In this court, which was open at- the top, all the public services of religion were performed, and all sacrifices presented. I«lear the centre was the great brazen altar. (5 cubits square and 3 high), with prominences at the comers called ''horns," Exod. 27. 1-8: Ps. 118. 27. On the south side there was an ascent to it made of earth (Exod. 20. 24 : 38. 1-7). The various instmments of this altar were of brass, as those of the altar of incense were of gold (Exod. 27. 3 : 38. 3 : 25. 31-40). In the court of the tabernacle, between the brazen altar and the tabernacle, stood the brazen laver, at which the priests performed their ablutions before approaching the altar (Exod. 30. 15-21). On the altar a fire burnt continually, at first kindled miraculously, and afterwards kept in by the priests (Lev. 9. 24 : 6. 12 : 10. i). The Temple of Solomon was biiilt after the same plan, and con- tained the same furniture ; but it was much larger, and the materials were more costly and durable. Instead of one court there were tliree, the innermost coiTesponding to the court of the tabernacle. The curtains were supplied by walls and colonnades; the brazen laver being represented by the brazen sea, i Kings 7. 26; and ten smaller vessels, i Kings 7. 27-39. The greater grandeur of the temple service was in harmony both with the extended power of the nation and with the clearer revelation which was then given of God's kingly authority. To a much later date belong the synagogues of the Jews. They were plain and unpretending buildings, in which the i^ynagogu . j^^g j^^^ ^^ ^g-^j, prayers, to hear Moses and the pro- phets read, and to receive instruction. They are often mentioned in the N'ew Testament, and seem to have sprxmg up after the captivity. 28. (2,) As the tabernacle was both the temple of God and . the palace of the Great King, so the Levites were both priests and officers of state. Under the law, the high priesthood was confined to the family of Aaron, and during the purest age of that economy to the first-born of that house ; Nadab, however, his eldest son, perished by his impiety during the high priesthood of his T 2 412 THE LEVITES. father, so that Eleazar succeeded Aaron, and from him the ofQce passed m succession to Eli. From him it was trausfeired to the family of Ithamar (Aaron's fovirth son) ; but in the days of So- lomon it returned to the family of Eleazar, where it remained till the captivity. During the Asmonean dynasty a private Levite family held it, and towards the close of the Hebrew polity the right of succession was wholly disregarded. Aaron was consecrated by Moses, and his sons were priests under him. Into the inner chamber of the tabernacle the high priest alone entered, once a year, on the day of atonement. In the reign of David the descendants of Eleazar and Ithamar were so numerous that they could not all be employed at the same time in their sacred duties ; they Avere, therefore, divided into 24 courses, each serving in weekly rotation twice in the lunar year (i Chron. 24). Each course had its head or chief, and these are probably the chief priests so often referred to in the Gospels. They had the whole care of the sacrifices and religious services of the temple, most of the important functions of their office being as- signed to each by lot. All the pi'iests were Levites, that is, descendants of Levi, through Gershom and Aaron. Levi, however, had other children, and all their descendants were devoted to public busi- ness. They assisted the priests, formed the guard of the taber- nacle, and conveyed it from place to place (Num. 4. 1-20). In David's time the whole body was divided into three classes, each of which was subdivided into 24 courses. The first class attended upon the priests; the second formed the choir of singers in the temple, and the third acted as porters and guards (i Chron. 24. 25, 26) in the temple and at the gates. It seems probable that the Levites all acted, when not engaged in the temple service, as the instructors of the people ; they foi'med, in fact, the learned class. For the support of this large body of men 48 cities, with a belt of land round each, were assigned : a tenth of all the eu suppor . p^^Q^^^g g^jj^j cattle of the country (Lev. 27. ^o: Num. 35. 1-8), of which tenth the j^^'i^sts had a tenth: all shared also iu another tenth of the produce, which the people generally were to expend in feast-offerings, to which the Levites were to be invited (Deut. 14. 22-27). When not engaged in their sacerdotal duties the jiriests dressed as other men; but when so engaged their tunics, gir- theViests^ ^^®^j turbans, &c., were all of white linen (Exod. 39. 27, 28). The dress of the high priest was both splendid aud significant. Over his white tunic he wore a Avoollen robe of THE SACRIFICES OF THE LAW. 413 blue, having on its hem small golden bells (Exod. 28. 31-34)- Over this was a short, sleeveless garment — an ''ephod" of fine linen, inwrought with gold and purple, and having on each shoulder-strap a precious stone, the whole engraven with the name of the tribes (28. 5-12). In front was the breast-plate of judgment, similarly adorned, each stone similarly engraven (28. 15, 21). On his head was a kind of mitre, to the front of which was fastened a plate of gold, inscribed "Holiness unto the Lord." Connected with the breast-plate was the urim and thummim, by which the priest was enabled to ascertain the will of the invisible king. How the response was given is not clearly known. To their ofi&ce all the priests were consecrated with a " holy anointing," and the spiritual significance of the whole institute is plain. 29. (3.) Among the Jews, as among all ancient nations, sac- rifices formed the most essential part of religious worship. The subject, therefore, is of great im- portance, and as the laws in relation to it are scattered over the various books of the Pentateuch, we give the substance of them in a connected form. i. The things offered were taken from both the vegetable and the animal kingdom, those from the former called the blood- Things of- less offerings {-rpoa-ipopeii, niPI^JD, minchoth), and thotje fered. • * from the latter the bloody (D^nZlT, zevachim, Buffiai, slain sacrifices). With both, the mineral salt, an emblem of pm-ity, was used. From the vegetable kingdom were taken the meat-offerings (flour, cakes, parched com, frankincense), and the drink-offerings CSjpJ, nesek, tr-zrovl'^, Phil. 2. 17), of wine, either in its natural or fer- mented state. Both offerings were usually united, and were cou- eidei^ed as an addition to the thank-offerings made by fii-e, Num. 15. 5-1 1 : 28. 7-15: Lev. 14. 10-21. Heathen libations were not unlike the drink-offerings of the law. II, I. 462 : jEn. 6. 254, with characteristic differences however : they consisted of wine and blood, Sail. Cat. sec. 32 : Ps. 14. 4 : Zech. g. 7. The animals offered were oxen, goats, and sheep ; all were to be without blemish, not imder eight days old, nor over three years. Doves were also offered in some cases, Exod. 22. 20 : 12. 5 : Lev. 9. 3. Fishes wei-e never offered, and human sacrifices were ex- pressly forbidden, Lev. 18. 21 : 20. 25. ii. Offerings were pi-esented only in the front court of the sane- 414 KINDS OF SACRIFICES. tuaiy, the tabernacle, that is, and afterwards the Place of temple, Lev. 17. 1-9: Deut. 12. 5-7. Occasionally, however, sacrifices were offered elsewhere, without re- prehension. Judges 2. 5. I Sam. 7. 17: 9. 12: i Kings 18. 19-32. iii. The object of the legal sacrifices was either the expression of gratitude to God or the expiation of sin, Thank- Object of offerings had, as their object, the first: sin-offsrings and trespass-offerings, the second. Sin was expiated, it must be remembered, not by the merit or efi&cacy of the sacrifice offered, but by the great sacrifice of the Son of God, which it typified, and in which the spiritual worshipper believed. A legal or civil expiation, however, was effected by the sacrifices of the law : they freed the offerer from the legal penalty of trans- gression. iv. In the performance of the sacrifice, the offerer himself legally purified (i Sam. 16. 5: Exod. 19. 14), brought How per- ^j^g victim to the altar, and turning towards the sane- formed. ^^ , , ° , . T , tuary (Lev. 2. 3, 4: 3. i : 17. 4)^ laid his hand upon its head (Lev. i. 4: 3.2: 4. 33), implying a transference of his sin and punishment to the victim. He then slew it (Lev. i. 5), an act, however, which the priest might do, and sometimes did (2 Chr. 29. 24: Ezra 6. 24). As the victim was slain the priest received the blood, and sprinkled or poured it near the different offerings, yet apart from them. The victim was cut in pieces by the offerer (Lev. I. 6), and the fat was burnt by the priest. In some sacrifices, be- fore or after the slaying, the victim was heaved or lifted up, and waved towards heaven, a symbol of it^ presentation to Jehovah. V. There were various kinds of sacrifices : ^^"crifices'^^ Burnt-offerings, sin and trespass -offerings, and thank- offerings. 1. Burnt-ofierings, holocausts (H'py, ola, 'oXoKuvrcofia,), con- sisted in the immolation of a male victim, which was ^- ^?™''" entirely consumed in the fire. The sacrifice was slain offcrius-s. on the north of the altar, depiived of the skin (which belonged to the priest. Lev. 7. 8), and then cut in pieces by the offerer. The blood was sprinkled around the altar, and the parts of the victim were laid separately upon the fire, which the priests kept always burning. The design of burnt-offerings was to make atonement for sins in general (Lev. i. 4;. They were presented daily in the name of the nation (Exod. 29. 38-42: Num. 7. 15-17: 8-12), on the great day of atonement (Lev. 16. 3), and on the three great festivalfe. They were also presented by private persons Levitically unclean, viz., by women (Lev. 12. 6-8); by lepers (Lev. 14. •21-31); by Nazarites, BIN AXD THANK-OFFERINGS. 415 (^Numb. 6, ii-r4); and by those referred to iu Lev. 15. 1-15. When two doves were offered, one of them was made a bumt-offering, Lev. 5. 10. Hecatombs of such offerings were sometimes i^rcsented, Ezra 6. 17: i Chron. 29. 21; and in later times, even the heathen sometimes presented them, as did Augustus (Joseph. Bell. Jud. ii. 17.) 2. Trespass-offerings and sin-offerings are not easily distinguished. Trespass and ^^^ ^^^^ were generally presented for a sin of omission, sin offerings, and the second for one of commission (Jahn and others), though this distinction does not always obtain, Lev. 5. 17-19: jSTumb. 6. II : Lev. 15. 25, etc. The trespass has been thought the less guilty; the sin the more guilty; sometimes this nile seems reversed. In fact, the two are distinguished in Scripture, and the cases are prescribed in which each is to be offered. Trespass-offerings are enjoined in Lev. 7. i-io, and also in Numb. 6. i2:see ver. 14: Lev. 14. 12: seever. 19: Lev. 19. 20-22: Ezra 10. 19. The victims offered were an ewe or she-goat, doves or fine flour, a ram or lamb, according to the natiire of the case. Sin-offerings are enjoined. Lev. 4. 6, i^-^o. They were offered by the high- priest when he had committed an offence, and brought guilt upon the nation; when the whole nation had sinned inadvertently, and afterwards repented; and on the great day of atonement. In the first and last cases the high -priest laid his hand on the head of the victim, confessing his sin. In the second case the elders laid their hand on the victim. The transactions of the great day of atonement are exceedingly significant: see Numb. 29. 7-1 1: Lev. 16. 1-34: 23. 26-32; the azazel, or scape-goat, carrying off the sins of the people, and forming, with the second goat, which was sacrificed, a single complete type of the work of our Lord. Sin- offerings were also presented by magistrates and private persons, who had sinned through ignorance, Lev. 4. 22-26; and on various occasions of purification. Lev, 15. 25-30: 15. 2, 14, 15: Numb. 6. 10-14: Lev. 14. 19-31: 9. 23. In all these offerings the idea of substitutionary expiation is in- volved. The blood was "the life;" and the life of the victim waa accepted for the life of the offerer. Lev. 17. i: 5. 18: 14. 19. 3. Thank-offerings consisted of the presentation of a bull, sheep. Thank-offer- o^ goat. It was brought by the offerer, with laying on ings. of hands, and was slain by him on the south side of the altar. The blood was sprinkled round the altar; the fat was burnt. The "heaved" breast and "waved" shoulder belonged to the priest, and the rest was used as a sacrificial feast: see 1 Cor. 10. 18. Thank-offerings for particular blessings were called "sacrifices of praise" (miR oVk', Sucia ojuf \07tas) ; when presented from a feel- 416 JEWISH FESTIVALS, ing of pious devotedness, they were called free-will offerings. Some- times they were offered in fulfilment of a vow, Numb. 6. 3. Peace- offering is the general name for the whole of this kind; and though the expression of gratitude formed part of the offerer's aim, pro- pitiation was also involved, as is proved by the title of peace-offering which was given to them. Everything, therefore, under the law was purified with blood — thanksgivmgs and other religious acts, man's sins, and his coiTupt nature itself. For the first, there was the sprinkling of the blood of the victim ; for the second, there were sin and trespass offerings ; and for the last, there were the whole burnt-offerings of the daily sacrifice and of the great festivals. God thus sought to impress upon the people their guilt and his holiness, and to reveal to them, by line upon line, the only way of access to himself. The repeated purifications enjoined by the law were no less suggestive of the need of practical holiness, and of the sanctifying influence of the Spint. See on this section Winer's Kealworterbuch, or the article on sacri- fice, translated in Dr. Pye Smith's Four Discourses. 30. (4.) The festivals of the Jews were held weekly, monthly, and yearly. Each seventh and fiftieth year, moreover, was kept with peculiar solemnities. The weekly festival was the sabbath, a day consecrated to rest and cheerful devotion (Psa. 68. 25-27, etc.) On this day ^^ ^* additional sacrifices were presented (Lev. 24.8: Numb. 28. 9). Children were instx'ucted; and those who were not far distant visited the temple. Later than the days of the Pentateuch, the people seem to have \dsited the prophets (2 Kings 4. 23); and after the captivity synagogues were erected in many of the towns of Palestine, where the "law and the prophets" were read and expounded (Acts 13. 15). The monthly festival was held " ^' on the day of the new moon, and was announced by the Bound of silver trumpets (Numb. 10. 10). Labour was not inter- dicted, but additional sacrifices were offered. The new moon of the seventh month (Tisri, or Oct.) commenced the civil year. The great annual festivals prescribed by the law were three; and Yearly j tr j when they were celebrated, all the adult males in Israel were required to appear at the sanctuary (Exod. 23. 14-17). They were all intended to be seasons of joyous thanksgiving, and were commemorative of the kindness and favour of God. I. The passover was kept in remembrance of the destruction of the first-born of the Egyptians, of the sparing of the Israelites, and of their departure from Egypt. It begr.u FESTIVAI^. 417 on the eve of the 14th of Abib; i. e., all leaven waa removed froui the house on the 14th day, between the evenings, the feast being reckoned fi-om the i5tli to the 2i8t. Between the evenings, also, the paschal lamb (a ram or a goat of a year old, Exod. 12. 1-16) was slain before the altar (Deut. 16. 2-6). The blood was sprinkled Coriginally on the door-posts, and later) at the bottom of the altar ; the lamb itself was roasted whole, with two spits thxnist transversely through it, and was then eaten with bitter herbs; unleavened bread was broken by the master of the family and distributed to each, not fewer than ten nor more than twenty being admitted to the feast. After the third cup (the ''cup of blessing ") had been drunk, praises were sung, generally, in later times, Psa. 115-118; and sometimes, in addition, Psa, 120-137. It was in connection with this feast, and towards its close, that our Lord instituted the last supper (Matt. 26: i Cor. 10: Mark 14). During every day of the festival additional sacrifices were offered; and on the i6th Abib, the first ripe cars of corn were presented at the sanctuary, and then the han-est commenced (Exod. 12. 1-27: Lev. 23. 9-14). 2. The fiftieth day after the second day of the passover (the 16th), came the feast of pentecost, called also the feast of weeks (t. e., seven clear weeks from the i6th Abib). This was properly the feast of the completed harvest of the ground. Loaves made of the new meal and grain were offered as first-fruits (Lev. 23. 17). Many burnt offerings were now presented (Lev. 23. 18-20), and Jews residing out of Palestine generally chose this occasion for visiting Jeinisalem. 3. In autumn, from the 15 th to the 23rd of Tisri (October), the feast of tahemacles was celebrated, the 23 rd being the Tabernacles, ^i^j^f ^j^y ^^^^^ ^^^^ (L^..^ 23. 34-42; John 7. 23). It commemorated the sojourning of the Israelites in the wilderness, and was intended also as the feast of the ingathering of all the fruits of autumn. Booths were constructed of branches of trees in all parts of the city, and here the people resided for the week. This feast was the most joyous of all; ''the Great Hosanna" it was called; and more public sacrifices were offered than at any other (Numb. 19. 13-37: compare with Lev. 23. 38-40: Numb. 29. 39: Deut. 16. 14, 15). To the ordinary legal services of this festival later Jews added others. Water was drawn from the pool of Siloam, carried with great pomp to the temple, and poured before the altar (see Isa. 12. 3). Priests also ascended the steps which separated the C07irt of the women from the inner court, singing the Psalms of Degrees, Psa. 120-134. These customs, however, are comparatively modem. T 3 418 FESTIVALS. The fifth day before the feast of tabernacles, the loth of Tisri The day of (October), was the great day of atonement; the only p.tonement. fast appointed by the law (Lev. 23, 27-29: 25. 9: Acts 27. 9). The people then bewailed the sins of the year, and cere- monial expiation was made by the high-priest, who on that day alone entered into the holy of holies, where he sprinkled the blood of the goat which had been sacrificed. This goat was one of two which had been appointed by lot to their separate destinations. The other, after the sins of the people had been confessed over it, and so laid upon its head, was sent alive to be lost in the wilder- ness (Lev. 16. 6-10). All this was done to make expiation for the sins of the people (Lev. 16. 11 -19). Other fasts were instituted in later times, connected with the Other and siege of Jerusalem (loth of the loth month), the cap- latcr /«sis. ture of the city (the 1 7th of the 4th month), the burn- ing of the temple (the 9th of the 5 th month), the death of Gedaliah (the 3rd of the 7th month) : see Jer. 52. 6, etc. : Zech. 7. 3, 5: 8. 19. The first day of the moon of Tisri (October) was celebrated as The new the commencement of the civil year. It was introduced, year. -j^y ^j^g blowing of trumpets, Avith unwonted solemnity, and hence its name, the feast of trumpets, Jer. 23. 23-25. Addi- tional off'erings and sacrifices were now presented, Numb. 29. 29; and, unlike the ordinary new moons, it was kept as a festival. There were also two other feasts, though not appointed by law, . which require notice, as they are often mentioned in Jewish history. The first is the feast of Purim ({. e. lots). It falls on the 14th or 15th of Adar (March), and com- memorates the defeat of Haman's plot for the destruction of the Jews (Esth. 3. 7: 9. 26). It is also called Mordecai's day (2 Mac. The dedica- 15. 36). The other is the feast of the dedication, ap- tion. pointed to celebrate the re-establishment of Divine worship in Jerusalem, after Antiochus Epiphanes had been van- quished and the temple purified, B.C. 164, John 10. 22. It was observed for eight days, from the 25 th of Kisleu (December), and was sometimes called the feast of lights, from the illuminations in which, at that season, the Jews indulged. Every seventh year was sabbatic ; and during that year the land The sahbatic was uutilled and fruits ungathered, except by the poor; year. ^j^p people, however, were free to hunt, to feed their flocks, repair their buildings, and engage in commerce. The year began on the ist of Tisri, and the institution was intended to secure rest for the soil, to teach economy and foresight, and probably to impress upon the people their dependence. Special services were FESTIVALS : THEIR USE. 419 held at the temple during the feast of tabernacles, Deut. 31. 10, 13 : Bee Exod. 23, 10, 11: Lev. 25. 1-7: Deut, 26. 33-35. This institute, as Moses predicted (Lev. 26. 34, 35), was long disregarded, 2 Chron. 36. 21; but after the captivity it was observed more carefully. The year after seven sabbatic years, or the fiftieth, was the . jubilee. Lev. 25. 8-1 1. This year was announced on the loth of Tisri, the great day of propitiation. In addition to the regulations of the sabbatic year, there were others quite peculiar. All servants, or slaves, obtained their freedom (Lev. 25. 39-46: Jer. 34. 8, etc.). All the land throughout the country, and the houses in the cities of the Levites, sold during the preceding fifty years were returned to the sellers, except such as had been consecrated to God, and not redeemed (Lev. 25. 10, T3-17, 24-28: 27. 16-21). All mortgaged lands, too, were released without charge. The completeness of the release secm-ed by these arrangements makes the jubilee a type of the gospel (Isa. 61.2: Luke 4. 19). The moral and spiritual uses of these festivals is plain. They all tended to unite the people in a holy brotherhood and to separate them from the heathen. They preserved the memory of past mercies. They illustrated the Divine holiness. They lightened the load of poverty, checked opjjression and covetousness, and were all either types of gospel blessings, or suggestive, to a spiritual mind, of gospel truths. 31 . Let tlie whole law be thus studied ; regard it as a scheme intended to reveal, or suggest, or impress, or preserve, spiri- tual truth, and not only will objections be removed, but the whole will appear a gorgeous, instructive lesson, eminently- suited to the condition of the nation to whom it was addressed. CHAPTER II. Historical and Poetical Books to the Death of Solomon. Sec. I. The Historical Boohs of Scripture generally. 32. The historical books of Scripture — from Joshua to Historical Nehemiah — contain the history of the Jewish ?8h*arraiS- ^hurch and nation from the first settlement in ment of. Canaan to their return after the captivity in Baby- 420 AUTHORS OF THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. Ion. The books, as they are placed iu the Enghsh Bible, are twelve in all, though the Jews reckoned them but six, classing Euth with Judges, Nehemiah with Ezra, and nuro.bering the double books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, respectively, as one. In early times, moreover, they were all placed among the prophets ; and Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings, are still placed in Hebrew Bibles in this list. Taking into account, therefore, the fact that large portions of the Pentateuch and of the Prophets are historical, and that a different arrangement was adopted by the Jews, the modern classification of " his- torical books " is not very appropriate. Having mentioned it, however, it may be weU to give here some information con- cerning the books of which it is composed. 33. The historical books of Scripture claim, like the rest, inspired authority, and the general evidence of their whom writ- inspiration is not different from that of the Pen- *^°" tateuch. Some of these books bear the names of distinguished prophets, and the rest are attributed to writers who had the same high character. The annals of the Hebrew nation were kept only by persons appointed to their ofiice ; and the writers, who are occasionally mentioned in Scripture as the penmen of sacred history, are expressly called prophets or seers. ^ The narrative portion of Scripture, moreover, displays throughout an intimate acquaintance with the secret motives of men, and with the purposes of God ;^ it reveals his mercy and judgment in the clearest predictions ;" it exhibits unexampled impartiality, and enforces everywhere practical hohness. The facts it records are appealed to or quoted throughout the Bible ; the writings which record them were received into the Hebrew canon ; in Ezra's collection they * The history of David, for example, was written by Samuel, iSTathan, and Gad, i Chron. 29. 29: of Solomon, by Nathan, Abijah, and Iddo the prophets, 2 Chron. 9. 29: of Eehoboam, by Shemaiah and Iddo, 2 Chron. 12. 15: of Abijah, by Iddo; of Jehoshaphat, by Jehu the prophet, 2 Chron. 20. 34: 1 Kings 16. i ; and of Uzziali and Hezekiah (including probably the two intermediate kijQgK), by Isaiah, 2 Chron. 26. 22: 32. 32. Even in rebellious Israel, we read of several prophets, and it was no doubt their business to record what occurred in that country. ^ I Kings T2. 26, 23: Esther, chap«. 5: 6. " See chap, on Prophecy, § 45 ^ HISTORICAL BOOKS: THEIR MORAL COMPLETENESS. 421 are placed among the produetions of prophets, and are cited by apostles and by our Lord. That in these writings other documents are named, as the depositories of ampler informa- tion, and that some of them were written or collected long after the events they describe, are facts which create no diffi- culty, and are in accordance with what we know of the economy of inspiration in later times. They account, moreover, for the occasional blending of expressions, evidently contemporane- ous with the events described, with others of clearly a later origin. 34. The Bible is (as we have seen) a selection from the his- Principies on ^^^1 ^^ *^® church, giving just so much as was which the sufficient to teach us our duty, reveal the character Scripture is of God, and prepai'c us for the coming of his Son. written. j^ ^g ^ history, moreover, of the church only, or of the heathen as connected with its sufferings and destiny ; and nowhere is this pecuharity of the Bible more marked than in the portions called historical. During the times it chroni- cles, there were many mighty nations celebrated for learning and valour, for illustrious men and illustrious actions ; yet their records are all lost in silence or in fable, while the his- tory of the Jews, who "dwelt a^Dart," and were "not reckoned among the nations," has been carefully preserved. Such con- cern has God for his church, and so dear are its interests to him, Deut. 32. 8, 9. Another peculiarity is no less marked. Pohtical events of deep interest are passed over ; the history of long reigns is compressed into a few sentences ; national concerns give place to matters of private life, history to biography, a mighty monarch to a poor widow (2 Kings 3 : 4). These omissions and digressions, however, are all explained by the design of the Bible. It aims to reveal the grace and providence of God, to show the workings of human nature, and the blessedness of obedience, while it interweaves with the whole, lessons and truths preparatory to the work and reign of the Messiah. 35. Within these limits, however, the completeness of Scrip- tare history is both characteristic and instructive, complete- It explains at once the law and the prophets, the "^^^" psalms and the gospel, the future and the past. To man, to nations, to the church, every chapter is a lesson ; and the history, studied in the hght of the law and prophets, and J 422 OUTLIKE OF EARLY HISTORICAL BOOKS. applied under the guidance of the gospel, will teach and illus- trate, either by examples of excellence or by contrasts, both our duty and the blessedness of obedience. Sec. 2. Brief outline of these Historical Boohs. 36. Keeping, then, to a chronological division of the books, Books from the second portion of Scripture — Joshua to Solo- deaSf Solo- ^*^^ — ^^ readily divisible into two parts ; the frst mon. extending from the entry into the land of promise to the estabUshment of the monarchy ; and the seco« (breaching to the death of Solomon. The first period contains the history of the conquest and settlement of Canaan ; of the decay of the spirit of obedience after the death of Joshua ; the subse- quent punishment and restorations of tl»e people ; and the second describes the revival of that spirit under Samuel and David. Joshua, Judges, Ruth, and i Sam. i-io, include events extending over 365 years, i and 2 Sam., i Kings to 11, I Chron. 2 Chron. to 9, include the remaining events, which extend over 120 years more ; on the latter period all agree ; on the former, there is much difference of opinion (see § 356.) Briefly epitomized — / Joshua may be divided into three parts : — 1.-12. Giving an accoimt of the conquest of Canaan, with a Epitome of history of the re-estabhshment of Circumcision. Camp Joshua. at Gilgal. Seven years war : thirty-one kings destroyed. 1 3.-22. The distribution of Canaan by lot, each tribe obtaining a portion in agreement with the predictions of Jacob and Moses. Tabernacle at Shiloh. Two half tribes return. 23. 24. Joshua's final admonitions and death. 25 years. Judges contains a histoiy of subsequent conquests imperfectly completed, and ending often in intermarriages with the Canaanites, and subsequent idolatry, 1.-3. 4: 1 7.-22. of seven Servitudes and thirteen Judges, of whom Ehud and Shamgar, Deborah and Barak, are deemed by Usher, contemporaries. Chaps, 1 7. -21 belong to the earlier part of the history, 309 yeai's. Ruth gives the history of events which occurred about the middle of Judges or even earlier, as Obed, the son of Ruth, was '^ ■ grandfather of David. His descent from JudaJi is given, 4. 18. See Gen. 38. 29. Matt. r. 3. I Sam. I. -10 gives the history of the judicature of Eli, 1.-5, JOSHUA: AUTHORSHIP. 423 and of Samuel v.ith subsequent events to the designation Samuel, etc. ^ ^i i of Saul, 5. -10. 21 years. 1 Sam. 10, to 2 Sam. i. 27, and i Chron. 10.-12. give the reign of Saul, the history of his wars and unfaithfulness. 40 years. 2 Sam. 2. I, to r Kings 2. 11 : i Chron. 11. i, to i Chron. 29. 30 give the reign of David, his victories, his afflictions, and their cause : his repentance and i-estoration. 40 years. I Kings 2. 12, to II. 43 : 2 Chi'on. i. i, to 9. 31 give the reign of Solomon, his glory, and the extension of his kingdom. 40 years^^/ PsALSis, Solomon's Song, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes. Sec. 3. The Books of Joshuay Judges, and Paith. Tlie Booh of Joshua. 37. The book of Joshua is composed of materials supplied, in all probability, by Joshua himself, with two or ors ip. ^j^j.gg additions made by a later writer. The first fact may be gathered from the general tenor of the book, Genuineness "^^^^ich is the narrative of a contemporaiy and eye-witness and autben- of the events described (5.1: 6. 25) : from chap. 24. 26, ^^^ ^' from the character of Joshua as an instructor and in- spired prophet (i Kings 16. 34: see Josh. 6. 26, and compare Eccl. 46. i), and from uniform Jewish tradition. That the book must have been written before the days of David or Solomon appears from 15. 63, compared with 2 Sam. 5. 7-9, and from 16. 10, compared with I Kings 9.16. AdcUtions to the oiiginal documents may be seen in 19. 47 (Judges 18. 27-9: 15. 13, 19, see Judges i. 11-16), and 24. 29-33. The facts recorded in this book ai-e repeatedly cited,* and several predictions are foimd in the book itself.^ Joshua, whose victories are described, was anEphraimite (b. 1536), one of the spies, a faithful servant and companion of 18 ory jjQggg elm'ing many years. He was permitted to ascend Sinai with him, just previous to the giving of the law. He seems also to have been intrusted with the special care of the tabernacle, Exod. 33. IT. After the death of Moses he took the command of the Israelites, having been early designated to that office, by God him- self. Originally he was called Oshea, a saviour, or one saved; but afterwards Moses called him Joshua, *'he shall save," or ''the sal- ^ I Chron, 2. 7: 12. 18: Psa. 44. 114- 3, 5: Isa. 28. 21: Hab. 3. 2. *» See Josh. i. 9: 3. 13 (see 4. 18): 6. 26 (see i Kings 16. 34), etc. 424 JOSHUA: lessoxs. vatiou of Jehovah," referring no doubt to the Avork which God was to accomplish by him. In this office he is a type of our Lord. His character and history are highly instructive. The Spirit was andcha- ^^ ^^^j Numb. 27. 18. Having a certain promise of racter. success (chap, i.) he yet prudently used whatever means were likely to secure it. He sent spies and disciplined his forces. Not resting, however, in these, but looking still to God. Thus before attacking the Canaanites he solemnly renewecl the dedication of himself and the people (5.), and in seasons of emergency pought by prayer special blessing and help (lo. 12-14). " Efforts and prayer," ''zeal and dependence" were cjcarly his rule. His piety and devotion are beautifully displayed in his closing appeals, and the spirit of affectionate submission with which the people received them gives us a favourable impression of his influence and of their fidelity (23. 8). The discipline of the v^dlderness had not been unblessed. 38. Mark in Rahab the power and rewards of faith ; she was herself Lessons. saved with her house, and she became — though of the Kahab. race of Canaan — an ancestor of David, and of Christ. (Heb. II. 31). Our victories are of God: Implicitly obey God's commands: Jericho, Detection and punishment follow sin: God is no Achan. respecter of persons — are lessons taught in the history of Jericho and of Achan, 7. The repeated renewals of the covenant recorded in this book, are Covenant re- solemn and instructive, 5: 23: 24. The Israelites were newed. the chosen people of God; they were his too by personal consecration. Often throughout their history, these covenants were renewed. The destruction of the Canaanites is a fearful admonition of Destruction *^® ^^^^ issues of transgression. Compared with the of the Israelites, they were, probably, a disciplined, valiant naani s. people ; but they seem to have made little effoi^t to repel the invaders. Perhaps they trusted to the '' swellings of Jordan," which at the time when Joshua entered Canaan (the vernal equinox), made the stream, as they supposed, impassable; or, perhaps, as one of their number expressed it, " the terror of the God of the He- brews" had fallen upon them. They were certainly fearfully wicked (Lev. 18.24-30: Deut. 9. 4: 18. 10-12^. Their idolatry had, as idolatry ever does, augmented licentiousness and cruelty. The Divine will they had once known, for they were descendants of Noah, and for centuries the light of an early revelation had lingered JOSHUA: LESSONS. 425 among them (Gren. 14). They had been warned— by the deluge, by the history of the cities of the plain, the destruction of Pharaoh, the recent overthi'ow of then- eastern neighbours the Amorites, the passage of the Jordan, the captui'e of Jericho, the preservation of Rahab, and the convictions of their own conscience. Their removal from Palestine, moreover, seems to have been essential for the pre- servation of the Israelites from the contaminating influence of idolatry, and they had the alternative of flight. In fact, many sailed to the distant shores of the Mediterranean, and there founded flouiishing colonies, thus preserving, to comparatively modem times, records of the God who fought against them. Some may object that the war in which they were exterminated was cruel, and that they might have been removed by famine or pesti- lence. But to the first objection it is a sufficient reply that, the cruelties" thus practised were common to the age, and that in exter- minating a very guilty people, God did not direct milder usages than those which generally prevailed (Josh. 8.) The second objec- tion is answered by the fact that no plan could have made clearer or more impressive the power and righteousness of God, his infinite superiority to the idols of those nations, and his righteous hatred of the crimes into which they had fallen. It maybe added that by similar discipline the Israelites themselves were chastised, and the general system involved in these events is strictly analogous to the course of moral government still exercised in the world; with this dif- ference only, that now men act as rods of God's anger by tacit per- mission; then, under his immediate authority. As the triumphs, through faith, of the Israelites may be considered typical of the final triumph of the church, and of every Christian, through Jesus, the Captain of our salvation, the Author and Finisher of our faith (Heb. 2. 10: 12. 2), so the destruction of the Canaanites takes its place with the deluge, and the final overthrow of Jeru- salem, as a signal proof of God's displeasure against sin, and may be considered as an emblem of the judgment of the great day, Psa. 109: Luke 19. 39, And, now, God's promise has been in part fulfilled: the How far is Jews have entered Canaan ; the tabernacle of God S Abraham ^^^ heen Set up in Shiloh ; the law has been pro- fuifiiied. mulgated and accepted. In its morality, it is emi- nently holy ; in its civil institutes, adapted to preserve the people peculiar -and separate, and to set forth the reality of the divine government ; and in its ceremonies, it is a prophetic symbol of the gospel — but only in part. The original promise of a blessing to all nations, ratified to Abraham, and renewed 426 TH2 PENTATEUCH AND JOSHUA. to the other patriarchs, though it included the possession of Canaan, seems too comprehensive to end there. The predic- tion of the coming dignity of the tribe of Judah ; the prophecy of Balaam ; the announcement by Moses of another greater Prophet ; and, especially, the predictions of the 31st of Deut. (see also Lev. 26, and Deut. 28), foretelling the sins of the people, and the consequences of them in the dispersion of their race, aU seemed to direct the attention of the Israelite to an enlarged dispensation. They plainly forbade him to rest altogether in Canaan or his law. Everything implied a coming universal blessing, a kingdom, a revelation not nigh, a prophet from among the people, a country whose inhabitants should no more go out, even for ever. The revelation of these bless- ings was not always clear ; but it was clear enough to excite inquiry and justify faith. The position of the of the*pious° pio^s Israehte, therefore, was not altogether unlike Israelite like our own. From Canaan he looked back on fulfilled predictions, and forward to a glorious future. Much of his future is now past ; and tve also look back on predictions gloriously fulfilled ; others, again, and in some sense, even these, are unfulfilled. AU nations are not, even yet, blessed in Him. A tlnrd point of contemplation for pious Jews and devout Christians remains ; and the certainty of the predic- tions, whose fulfilment is to intervene, is assured to us by the records of the past. 40. No smaU light will be thrown upon Joshua and Judges Joshua and if we study them with the Pentateuch, to which, Penfateuci?^ more than to Samuel, they belong. Between these whatthebook books there is the same connection as between the the Gospels. Gospels and the Acts. The Pentateuch gives the history of the doings of the great law- giver and of the laws on which the ancient economy was to be founded. Joshua gives an account of the establishment of the nation itself, according to the repeated promise of God. The Book of Judges marks the corruption which so early crept into the ancient church. The Gospels give the life of the greater prophet and the laws on which his church was to be established. The book of Acts gives the history of its actual establishment, according to the pronuse of its founder. The history of the Judges has its counterpart in facta referred to in the Epistles. If the various books be read together JUDGES : AUTHORSHIP. 427 and compared, the connection of tlie two dispeusatiou-s, and the differences between them, will more plainly appear. Study the ritual of the law in the incarnation and death of Christ, and com- pare the struggles and victories of the Jews with those of the chm-ch. Contrasts will be heightened by the comparison. The genius and spu-it of the gospel will appear the moi-e gloriovis; nor less glorious will be the character and dignity of our Lord. He combined in his own person the offices of legislator, priest, and leader; offices filled of old by Moses, and Aaron, and Joshua, each of whom was, in his appropriate place, a type of Him. Tl^e Book of Judges. 41. The authorship of Judges is not certainly known, though Jewish tradition ascribes it to Samuel. From the and authenti- book itself, we gather that it was written after the "•^y- commencement of the monarchy, 19. i : 21. 25, and before the accession of David, i. 21 : 2 Sam. 5. 6-8. The " liouse of God " •efers, therefore, as in Joshua, to the taber- nacle, 20. 18 (Jotih. 9. 23), and the " captivity " spoken of in 18. 30, to some contemporary servitude, see Psa. 78. 60, 61, where the same phrase is employed ; mimy of the sacred writers allude to or quote this book, i Sam. 12. 9-11 : 2 Sam. II. 21 : Psa. 83. II : 68 : 89 : Isa. 9. 4 : 10. 26. The judges, whose administrations for about 300 years are hei'e Character of described, were not a regular succession of governors, the judges. but occasional deliverers raised up by God, to rescue Israel from oppression and to administer justice. Without as- suming the state of royal authority, they acted for the time as vicegerents of Jehovah, the invisible king. Then* power seems to have been not unlike that of the suffetes (D''L3D*j') of Cax-thage and Tyre, or of the archons of Athens. The government of the people may be described as a republican confederacy ; the elders and princes having authority in their respective tribes. The moral character of the Israehtes, as described in this book. Moral con- seems to have undergone a sad change, Tlie generation ditionofthe who were contemporaries viith Joshua were both courageou:3 and faithful, and free in a great measure from the weakness and obstinacy which had dishonoured their fathers (Judg. 2. 7). Their first ardour, however, had somewhat cooled, and more than once they fell into a state of indifference which Joshua found it needful to rebuke. Perhaps the whole ter- ritory of Palestine was more than they needed or could usefully 428 RUTH: LESSONS. occup3'. As each ti-ibe received its portion, they became so en- grossed in cultivating it, or so much fonder of ease than of war, that they grew unwilling to help the rest. All found it, moreover, more convenient to make slaves of their subjugated nations than to expel them. This policy was tinwdse. It was also sinful. The results were soon seen. Another generation arose. Living in the immediate neighbourhood of idolaters, and with idolaters even in their country, the Israelites copied their example, intermarried A\dth them, and became contaminated with their abominations, Judg. 2. 13. The Canaanites, moreover, left alone, gathered strength to make head against the chosen race; and in the same degi-ee the latter, yielding to licentiousness, ease, and idolatry, lost the energy and faith of their fathers. So sin multiplies in the world. So sin in this case, as ever, brought with it its punishment. Sinners are but filled " %%'ith their own ways;" and in their punish- ment God illustrates his righteousness and tiaith, Judg. 2. 14-18. The grand moral lesson of the whole narrative is given in the latter half of the second chapter. It is just, however, to add, that the whole p'fiiod must not be regai'ded as an uninterrupted series of idolatries. Some of the disorders mentioned afifected only parts of the country, while the rest was in a better state. The sins which incurred punishment, and the deliverances which followed repentance, are related at length; while long periods, dming which the judges governed, and the people obeyed God, are described in a single verse. In addition to the many who, doubtless, remained faithful amidst all these cor- ruptions, St. Paul reminds us of several illustrious examples of courageous fidelity, Heb, 11. 32. The Booh of Ruth, 42. The book of Kutli maybe considered as a sequel to the Authorship, book of Judges, arid an introduction to the ensuing ^^' history. It contains particulars of the family of Elimelech, and informs us how Ruth, an Moabitess, became the wife of Boaz, an ancestor of David, and thus of Christ. The authors! lixj is not certainly known ; but it is generally ascribed to Samuel. There are several phrases, in the original, identi- cal with expressions which occur elsewhere only in Samuel and Kings (Ruth i. 17 : 4. 6, etc). The book traces the genealogy of David to a source not flattering to that sovereign ; and this fact is one evidence of the truthfulness of the narrative. Its genealogical account is quoted in Matt. i. 5, and Luke 3. 33. The events recorded took place in the time of the Judges, RUTH : SAMUEL. 429 I . I ; but the history was certainly written some time later, 4. :• Brief as this book is^ it is remarkably rich in examples of faith, T, , patience, industry, and kindness, nor less so in intima- Its lessons. \ ' ^ •'Z , , . ■, !^ -, , tions of the special care which God takes of our con- cerns; ''still out of seeming ill educing good." Elimelech's mis- fortunes; his son's sia in marrying a Moabitess; the loss of her husband — all end in her own conversion, and iu the honour of her adopted family. What changes ten years have produced! They have turned Xaomi into Mara. "" She who went out full has come home again empty. Her fortitude and faith, however, sustain her; and in her trouble she shows equal wisdom and tenderness. . . . When her daughters are told what they must expect if they accompany her to Canaan, Orpah weeps, but returns to her idols; and Ruth cleaves to her, indicating therein depth of affection and religious decision, i. 16: 2. 12. Her reward she received *'of the Lord God of Israel, under whose wings she came to trust." It had been foretold to the Jews that the Messiah should be of the tribe of Judah, and it was afterwards further revealed that he should be of the family of David. It was important, therefore, that the history of that family should be written before those promises were delivered. In the adoption of Ruth, a heathen, a Moabitess, into the church of God and the commonwealth of Israel, we see a ray of hope rising upon the Gentile world : and still more in her being taken into the line of the Messiah, we seem to have a pre-intimation of the great mystery that the Gentiles should be sanctified by him, and joined with his people, and that there should be one flock and one Shep- herd. The contents of this book are as follows : — An account of Xaomi, from her departure with her husband from Canaan into Moab, to her retmn into the land of Israel with her daughter-in-law Ruth, chap. i. The interview of Boaz vsith Ruth, and their marriage, 2.-4. 12. The birth of Obed, and genealogy of David, 4. 13-22. Sec. 4. TJie Books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles. The Boohs of Samuel. 43. The relation given in Eutli is a kind of digression in the sacred story, with a particular view. The gene- ral thread of the narrative is now resumed. We ^ Bishon Hall. 430 SAMUEL : AUTHOR. are furnished in the books of Samuel with the history of the two last Judges, Eh and Samuel (who were not, as the rest, men of war, but priests), and of the first kings, Saul and David. These two books were anciently reckoned as one, the pres- ent division being derived from the LXX and Vulgate. In those versions they are called the first and second books of Kings, as they form part of the history of the kings of Israel and Judah. The question of the authorship of the books is not free from hi difficulty; but the decided preponderance of evidence is in favour of the ancient view, that Samuel wrote i Sam, 1.-24, and that the rest was written by Nathan and Gad, i Chron. 29, 29. The narrative was proba- bly written towards the close of Samuels life, 5. 5 : 6. 18. The place of the books in the canon ; the predictions they record f the quotations from them in later books, and in the New Testament,'' supply ample evidence of their authority. Gad was the contemporary of David, and is called his seer. He Gad. was also probably one of his companions in the wilder- Naihan. ness, i Sam. 22. 5. iV^a^/icm was a prominent counsellor of David's, and was repeatedly commissioned to give him Divine messages, 2 Sam. 7. 2 : 12. i : Psa. 51. In Zech. 12. 12, his name occurs as the representative of the great family of the prophets. These books contain also several odes by different writers. The song of Hannah is remai^kable from its similarity to that of Mary (i Sam. 2. 10: Luke i. 46-55). It gives a striking prophecy of Christ, who is here called for the first time Messiah, (the Anointed), and Eling. Samuel, whom we thus conchide to have been the author of a large portion of the first book, was the desired answer (so his name implies) of his mother's prayers, and was dedicated to God from his infancy. Intrusted with supreme power in the state, he ruled Avithout ambition, executed his office with irreproachable integrity, and resigned it without reluctance. He was both feared and respected by Saul, and was allowed by that monarch to judge Israel all the days of his life, i Sam. 7. 15. The revelations he received, and the spiiit that distinguished him, were * See I Sam. 2. 30: 2 Sam. 12. 10-12, etc. '' I Kings II. 26: 2 Kings 2.4-11: i Cluon. 17. 24, 25: see Acts ij. 22: Matt. 12. 3. PROPHECY: REVIVAL AND EXTENSION. 431 siicli, that all Israel, from Dan to Beersheba, knew that Samuel was established to be a prophet of the Lord. Attention to the chronological an-angement of Samuel and later historical books is peculiarly important. 44. To understand the covenant which God gave to David, Nature of securing the perpetual dominion of his seed, read and covenant compai'e 2 Sam. 7: 23. 5: i Chron. 17: Psa. 89: 132. ^ith David j^g partial fulfihnent in Solomon may be gathered from I Chron. 28, 1-7: i Kings 8. 15-26: 11. 9-13. As the temporal grandeur of David's house declined, God sent prophets to announce the stability of this covenant, and to assure Judah of the unprecedented glory of his great descendant, Amos 9. 11-15: Isa. 9.6, 7: 11: Jer. 23. 5,6: 33.14-26. These promises refer to the universal and permanent reign of Messiah, who is now exalted, and waiting till his enemies be made his footstool, Luke I. 31-33, 69: Acts 2. 25^36: 13. 32-37. That David himself understood this covenant to refer to our Lord, and to spiritual blessing to be received through Him, may be gathered from Isa. 55. 3 : Heb. i. 5 : and Acts 2. 30. 45 . In Samuel, we have a revival of the prophetic spu-it. From the days of Joshua to Eli there seems to have been ''no open vision" (i Sam. 3. i: Jer. 15. i: Acts 13. 20: 3. 24). Under the Judges, the original covenant remained as at first. The Jewish Suspension polity and priesthood were unchanged. The law, as of prophecy, given by Moses, was in full force, and supplied, in the fulfilment of its predictions, ample evidence of its authority. In the days of Samuel, however, marked changes were passing over the state. Calamities were becoming more confounding. Success more extraordinary and transient. The priesthood was to be transferred; kingly government to be established. By and by, the kingdom itself will be broken and divided. Idolatiy will be publicly sanctioned, and viill need public authoritative rebukes. Then will follow a long series of afflictions, ending in removal and captivity. Changes so serious needed special interpositian. Hence the Revival and ^^cessity of a revival and enlargement of prophetic enlargement revelation. As Moses requii'ed pec\iliar evidence of a of It. Divine appointment for his mission, so does Samuel. He appears, therefore, as prophet, and commences an age of pro- phecy which continues without any material chasm to the days oi Malachi. A supernatural call and a prophetic vision were granted to him J ^ . at the commencement of his ministry, even in his youth. He was commissioned to repeat to Eli a pre- 432 prophecy: revival and extension. diction whicli a man of God had already announced, and the fulfil- ment of this prediction, with other circumstances, gave early evi- dence of his authority. The people soon sought a king, and as their request implied a distrust of the protection and love which had made them a theocracy, it was opposed by the prophet in God's name. At length, God complied, and it became the business of the prophet to watch over the change, to define the laws of the king- dom, to show whom God had chosen, and ultimately to transfer the kingdom to the person and tribe of David. So far, the predictions and business of the prophet were chiefly civil. In David's person and reign, however, prophecy assumes a new -. ^ .^ character. His kingdom was first confirmed to him In David. ° (2 Sam. 7. 12-17: Psa. 89). The character and king- dom of Solomon are then foretold, and, blended with these, we find revelations of a higher and holier kind. The promise to Abraham was, as we have seen, both temporal and evangelical; so also is now the promise to David. To Abraham, Messiah had been announced, more or less cleai'ly, as the promised seed; to Moses, as the coming prophet ; to all of that age, as the jyriest ; to David, he appears, in addition, as king. He therefore speaks of Messiah's authority, of the hostility of the kings of the earth, of his sceptre of righteoiis- ness, of his unchangeable priesthood, of his exalted nature, of his death, and his victory over death, and of his dominion, including both Israel and the Gentiles (Psa. 2: 16: 45: no, etc.) In little more than a hundred years, the oppressed tribes rule from sea to sea, and the dimness of no open vision yields to what seems the dawn of a cloudless day. It is very worthy of notice, too, that while David receives the promise of the duration of his kingdom from Samuel and Nathan, it is David himself who is instructed to connect this kingdom with the kingdom of his greater Son. The prophets reveal and magnify the type, he passes on the prediction, calls Christ Lord, and pays everywhere willing homage to his person and law (Psa. no). In proportion as the kingdom and character of Christ are thus brought into view, provision is made for deepening the impression of these Christian prophecies upon the hearts of the people, and making them conducive to faith and piety. They are given in Psalms, and thus pass into the devotions of the chux'ch. These Psalms form the most important additions that had yet been made to the Mosaic revelation, and are clearly adapted to inspire ancient worshippers with Christian hopes. Very beau- tiful, too, is the growing distinctness of these pi-edictions. To Abraham a seed was revealed. "When his descendants had become tribes, to Judah the promise was confined; and now, when the KixGS. 433 kingdom appears, it is given to David. Nor can these predictions be ascribed to flattery or selfishness. It is not Da^^d who, in the first instance, receives them. Nor is it to himself, in all their fulness, that he appropriates them. He applies them to another, and the messenger who gives them is Xathan; a prophet who re- buked his son, and severely threatened Solomon with the conse- quences of his apostasy. The faithfulness of these servants of God had other and more immediate ends, but it proves incidentally the truth of their annoimcements. Tlie tivo Boohs of Kings. 46. The two books of Kings (which iu ancient copies of the Hebrew Bible, form but one book) contain the history of Israel and Judah, from the end of David's reign to the Baby- lonish captivity. The present division of the books is taken fi'om the LXX and Vulgate. Nothing certain is known of the authorship ; the most pro- bable opinion is, that as memoirs of their own times were written by several of the prophets, for the use of the kingdom, the present books were compiled from these records by Jeremiah or Ezra ; Jewish tradition is in favour of the first, and Havemich has recently advocated the same view. The events described reach to the liberation of Jehoiachim from prison in Babylon (twenty-six or twenty-eight years only after the destruction of Jerusalem). A late authorship is proved by the frequent use of Chaldaisms (De Wette, § 1 15, 6) ; and there is a remarkable affinity of style between Kings and Jeremiah. (Havern.) . . . The view that the books were drawn up from various documents by one hand is confirmed by the books themselves. The frequent vividness of the narrative bespeaks the work of an eye-wdtness ; and appeals are constantly made to official documents, under the title of Chronicles of the Kings of Judah and Israel — a title given elsewhere to national annals, Est. 2. 23 : 6. i. That the whole was revised by one hand appears from the similarity of style and idiom in various unimportant expressions. Both books contain several prophecies, and other intrinsic Anthenti- niarks of inspiration ; and both are cited as au- c^ty- thentic and canonical by our Lord and his apostles (see Luke 4. 25, 27 : Jas. 5. 17). The comparative dates of Chronicles and Kings explain various tliffex'ences of phraseology'. In Chronicles, we havo Aramsean u 434 CHRONICLES. forms/ later words r,nd expressions, more recent name?,^ and sy- nonyinous expi^essions used for others liable to misconception.*^ Differences in the order of events are explained by the fact that none of the writers profess to give the exact order of time.'^ Addi- tions, omissions, and abbreviations, are in the same way explained, by a reference to the different aim of each naiTative. Other differences, amounting to discrepancies, are occasionally found, and refer chiefly to numbers and names. It is vrell known that the text of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, is in a worse con- dition than that of any other of the inspu-ed writings; nor must we ascribe to the author what is really due to the ei-rors of copyists.® These errors, it may be added, do not affect any article of faith or rule of life, and till we can rectify them they ought to be candidJy ackjiowledged. Both books record several inspired predictions, and are referred to or quoted in the New Testament.' It is remarkable that the inspired acclamation of David to the praise of God is substantially adopted by our Lord, and is ascribed by John to the blessed spirits who celebrate the praises of God in heaven, i Chron. 29. 10, 11: Matt. 6. 13: Rev. 5. 12, 13. The two Boolcs of Clironides. 47. These books were reckoned by the Jews as one, and called the words of Days, i. e., diaries or journals, probably in allusion to the ancient annals, out of which they appear to have been compcsed. In the LXX they are distinguished as the books of " things omitted " (TraprtXetTrojueVwr), and were regarded as a kind of supplement to the preceding books of Scripture, supplying such information as was rendered neces- sary by the alterations consequent upon the captivity; The present title was first given to them by Jerome. 48. The authorship of Chronicles is generally ascribed to Ezra. They certainly record the restoration by ors ip. Q^,^,^^j^^ 2 Chron. 36. 21, 22, and mention the * 2 Chron. 10. 18, ^ i Chron. 14. 2: 19, 12: 21. 2: 2 Chron. 16.4. * I Chron. 19. 4: 2 Chron. 22. 12. ^ gee Tables; i Chron. 14: 2 Chron. i. 14-17: 9. 25, are evidently out of chronological order. * See 2 Chron. 8. 18 (i Kings 9. 28); i Chron. 11. 11 (2 Sam. 23. 8): 21. 5 (2 Sam. 24. 9): i Chron. 18. 4 (2 Sam. 8. 4): 19. 18 (2 Sam. 10. 18). ' 2 Chron. 2. 5, 6, in Acts 7. 48, 49^ 2 Chron. 19. 7, in i Pot. T. 17. SAMUEL, KINGS, AND CHRONICIiES, COilPARED. 435 '^^itings of Jeremiali, 35. 25. The style of Ezra, moreover, bears a marked resemblance to the style of Chronicles, and its history seems a continuation of Kings, Ez. i. 1-3, and 2 Chron. 36. 23. If this view is correct, i Chron. 3. 19-24, gi^^ng an account of the genealogy of Zerubbabel to the time of Alex- ander, must have been added by a later writer. 49. The importance of the fact that these histories were compiled from earlier documents, themselves the work of prophets, is well illustrated in these books. These documents seem to be quoted literally, even when the fact recorded applies rather to the time of the wi-iter than of the compiler; see 2 Chron. 5.9: 8. 8: the pur- pose of the compiler being not to modify these dociiments, but to connect with them his own narrative. Many passages also are identical, or nearly identical, with passages in Kings, both being taken probably from the same annals. The documents referred to or quoted are not less than a dozen, though three or four of these are probably the same docimient. The three double books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, have much in common, though they have also charac- of^Samuel, teristic differences. They treat for the most part of the Kings, and game period, and should be read and compared together. Chromcles. . ^ ' . . ., , ,-, j n r ■ u A comprehensive view may thus be gathered. 01 Jewisn history, and much light will be thrown on brief and obscure ex- pressions. Their differences of aim, however, are as marked as is their substantial identity. Samuel gives the history of the forma- tion of the kingdom, and a biography, even more than a history of the first kings. The Books of Kings, on the other hand, give a history of the theocracy imder regal government, and are rich in brief allusions to the character, sins, and consequent punishment of the inilers and of the people. The Books of Chronicles, again, have special reference to the forms and ministry of religious vv'or- ship, to the genealogies, and consequent possessions of the various families and tribes, and to other topics connected with the return. Hence genealogical tables ; hence, also, the prominence given to tho pious care, in establishing public worship, of David, Solomon, Hezokiah, and Josiah. The genealogical tables of these books, though to \is compara- (Icnealogical tively uninteresting, were highly important among the Tables. Jews, who were made by prophetic promises extremely observant in these pai-ticidars. These tables give the sacred line through which the promise was transmitted for nearly 3500 years; u fact itself unexampled in the history of the human race. u2 43G CHRONICLES : HISTORY OF A THEOCRACY. 50. The most remarkable feature in the historical books of Scripture, and especially of Kings and Chronicles, diM-acter of ^^ their rehgious, theocratic character. Secular these his- history gives the public changes which nations have undergone, with their causes and results. Church history traces the progress of sentiment, and of various influ- ences in relation to the church. But here, king, church, state, are all represented as under God. The character of each king is decided by his fidelity to the rehgious obligations of his office. Of each it is said, He walked in the ways of David his father, and so prospered ; or of Jeroboam, who made Israel to sin, and so failed. These books are valuable as the history of God and his law in the nation — and that nation a monarchy ; as the books of Joshua and Judges are the history of God and his law in an aristocracy or democracy ; or as the earher books are the history of God and his law in the family. In the Prophets, and in the Acts of the Apostles, we have glimpses of what is to be the history of God and his law in the world. Mark, therefore, the prominence given to the erection of the temple ; the numerous references to the ancient law, especially when the two kingdoms were drawing to their end, as if to account for their decay and approaching, fall ; the frequent interposi- tion of prophets, now rebuking the people, and now braving the sovereign ; tlie deposition and succession of kings ; and the connection everywhere traced between what seem to be mere political incidents and the fidehty or idolatry of the age." .... Were nations wise, these records would prove their best instructors ; they are adaj)ted to teach alike the world and the church. 51. The reigns of David and Solomon constitute the golden period of the Jewish state. From the first, David David and showed the utmost anxiety that every step he took his reiga. towards the possession of the kingdom should be directed by God, 2 Sam. 2.1: i Sam. 23. 2, 4. He acted ever as " his servant ;" and when established in his kingdom, it was his first concern to promote the Divine honour and the religious welfare of his people (2 Sam. 0. 1-5 : 7. i, 2). During a war of seven years he never lifted his sword against a subject, and at the end of it he punished no lebel and remembered "See 2 Kings 5.-8.: 10. 31: 17. 13, 15, 37: 18. 4-6. Elijah's history: i Kings 15. 3-5 : 2 Kings 11. 17. DAVID AND SOLOMON. 437 no offeuce but the murder of his rival (2 Sam. 4. 10-12). As a king, therefore, he sought the prosperity of the state, and as the visible representative of Jehovah he took his proper place, aspiring to no other, but conforming strictly to the spirit of the theocracy. It was to this character of his ad- ministration, probably, rather than to his private virtues, that God referred, in describing him " as a man after his own heart" (i Sam. 13. 14: see also Acts 13. 22), who was to " execute all his will." It is, indeed, impossible to vindicate aU his acts, or to regard him as a perfect character. And yet when we look at the piety of his youth, the depth of his contrition, the strength of his faith, the fervour of his devotion, the loftiness- and variety of his genius, the largeness and warmth of his heart, his eminent valour in an age of warriors, his justice and wisdom as a ruler, and, above all, his adherence to the worship and wHl of God, we may weU regard him as a model of kingly authority and spiritual obedience. Solomon continued the pohcy and shared the blessing Character of ^^ ^^^ father. His dominions extended from the Solomon and Mediterranean to the Euplirates, and from the Eed Sea and Arabia to the utmost Lebanon (i Kings 4. 21, etc.) The tributary states, of which it was largely composed, were held in complete subjection, and being still governed by their own princes, Solomon was "king of kings.'* The Canaanites who remained in Palestine became peaceable subjects or useful servants. His treasures also were im- mense, composed chiefly of the spoils won by his father from many nations, and treasured up by him partly for the pur- pose of building a temple to the Lord, but partly also for the purpose of sustaining the power and magnificence of the kingdom. The wisdom of Solomon was even more illustrious than his wealth. It is celebrated both in Scripture and m eastern story. Three thousand proverbs (of which many remain) long gave proof of his virtues and sagacity. A thousand and five songs, of which we have Canticles and the 127th Psalm, placed him among the first Hebrew poets ; while his perfect knowledge of natural history was shown by writings, which were long admired, though they have since perished. His very greatness, however, betrayed him. His treasures, wives, and chariots, were aU contrary to the spirit and precepts 438 DAVID AND SOLOilON. of tlie law (Deut. 17. 16, 17). His exactions alienated tlie affections of his people, and, above all, he was led astray by his wives, and built temples to Chemosh, or Peor, the ob- scene idol of Moab ; to Moloch, the god of Ammon ; and to Ashtaroth, the goddess of the Sidonians. His later days, therefore, were disturbed by "adversaries." Jeroboam did "mischief" in Edom ; Damascus declared its independence under Rezin ; and Ahijah was instructed to announce to Solomon himself that, as he had broken the covenant by •which ho held his crown, the kingdom should be rent from him and part of it given to his servant. There is reason to hope that these just punishments opened his eyes to the enormity of his sins, and that his last days were penitent. His reign, on the whole, was most prosperous. " Judah and Israel were many, as the sand which is by the sea in multi- tude, eating and drinking and making merry." From Dan even to Beersheba, they dwelt safely every man " imder his vine and under his fig-tree." The great event of Solomon's life was the erection of the temple. As this building fulfilled a prophecy (2 Sam. 7. 13), e emp e. ^^^ ^^^ ^ symbol, of God's resting with the people (2 Sam. 7. 6, 10), so it was itself both a prophecy and a type. A type of the Jewish people and of the church, and a prophecy of God's continued presence (Jer. 7). Its history, therefore, is an index to the history of the Jews themselves. When it fell, they were scattered; as it rose from its ruins, they gathered round it again; and history dates the captivity, with equal accui'acy, from the destruction of the temple, or from the first capture of Jeru- salem (see § 450), I Kings 9. 7, 8:2 Chron. 7. 20: all Jer. 7: Isa. 44. 28. Sec. 5. The Poetical Books — Psalms^ Song of Solomon^ Proverls^ and Ecclesiastes. The Psalms. 52. The book of Psalms is a collection of sacred hymns Title of the (v/iJ'oi), composed at different times, and especially book. ^^. David, 2 Sam. 23. i. The Hebrew title means " praises ;" the Enghsh, which is taken from the LXX, means odes adapted to music (;//aXAw, to strike a chord) ; an appropriate name, as most of the pieces were intended not THE PSALMS. 439 only to express religious feeling, but to be sung devotionaliy in public service. 53. The Psalms were collected, and arranged by Ezra and Scnptnrai liis companions (b. c. 450), and in the book itself arrangement, there is evidence of its being formed from several smaller collections. In the Hebrew and LXX the Psalms are divided into five books, each of the first three containing the compositions of some particular author. i. 1-41. Consist chiefly of David's Psalms, collected perhaps by Hezekiah: see Prov. 25. i, and 2 Chron. 29. 30. ii. 42-72, Psalms by the sons of Korah, 42-47, and by David, 51-65:72. iii. 73-89. Psalms by Asaph, 73-83, and Korah, 84-89, mostly. iv. 90-106. iLiturgic, including the Hallelujah Psalms and the v. 107-15 o.i songs of degrees; chiefly collected for the service of the second temple. 54. Of the authors mentioned in the titles, David was the largest composer, though not all to which his name is prefixed in the Hebrew (73), nor the addi- tional ones in the LXX (12), were written by him. Among the former are Psa. 139 and 122 (compare LXX) ; but their Chaldaisms and style point to a later date. On the other hand, Psa. 99 and 104 ascribed to him in the LXX are pro- bably his. Psa. 2 and 95, again, which are not mentioned as his in either text, are ascribed to him in the New Testament, Acts 4. 25, 26 : Heb. 4. 7. The name of Asaph, David's chief musician, or of his descendant's, is connected with twelve, 50. 73.-83. The sons of Korah, another family of choristers, are named as the authors of eleven more : to this family, Hemav, the Ezrahite, and nephew of Samuel, belonged (Psa, 88 : compare i Chron. 6. 22, 33-38) : and Ethan is named as the author of 89, though erroneously, if he were a contem- porary of David's : see ver. 38-44. Solomoifs name is con- nected with 72 and 127 ; but probably he is rather the subject than the author of the former. Moses is reputed to be the author of Psa. 90, and the following ten are ascribed to him by Jewish critics, but without good ground : see 97. 8 and 99. 6. The anonymous Psalms have been ascribed to various authors. The LXX mentions Jeremiah as the author of 137, and Haggai and Zechariah as the authors of 146, 147. 55. The peciihar value of the Psalms is twofold 440 THE PSALMS. I. They are models of acceptable devotion. Other parts of Peculiar revelation represent God as speaking to man. Here, value. man is represented as speaking to God. By this book, of devout therefore, we test the utterances and feelings of our feeling. hearts. Here we have a rule by which we may know whether they are healthy and true; whether the fire that rises fi-om within is of God's kindling or of our own. 2. They contain predictions of the history of our Lord, and describe with wonderful literalness his sufferings and glory: for his sufferings see Psa. 16 : 22 : 40; for his glory, Psa. 2: 45: 72: no. Psa. 132. 11 foretels his connection with David. Psa. 118. 22, his rejection by the Jews. Psa. 68. 18, his ascension, and the gift of the Spirit: and Psa. 117, the call of the Gentiles: see Rom. 15. 11. The Christian church, therefore, takes the Psalms as her own language, or as the language of her Lord. When the writer speaks of his enemies, we understand him as speaking of the enemies of Christ and his church. Generally, however, the feelings of the writer are identical with the ordinary feelings of Christians; as, when he describes the confidence and love which have been common to true believers in all ages: see Arnold's Sermons on Interpreta- tion, p. 143; see, also, the Paragraph Bible, Introduction to the Psalms, and a iSTote appended to them. In a purely literary point of view, the Psalms have been HeiDrew called, not inaptly, the national ballads of the ballads Hebrew race. The contrast which, so regarded, they present to other "national ballads" is sufficiently striking. All classes of writers have delighted to praise these compositions. „ „ . Athanasius, and, after him, Luther, called them an lliXCdl6IlC16S epitome of the Bible ; Basil, and, after him. Bishop Hall, *' a compend of theology." "Not in their Divine arguments alone," says Milton, " but in the very critical art of composition, they may be easily made to appear over all the kinds of lyric poesy incomparable." "In lyric flow and fire," says a more modem authority, "in crushing force and majesty . . . the poetry of the ancient Scriptures is the most superb that ever b\irnt within the breast of man "—Sir D. K. Sandford. To the Christian, however, their highest praise is that they embody the holiest feelings, have supplied utterances to the emotions of the best men of all ages, and were sung by Him who, though "he spake as never man spake/' PSAUvIS : ACCORDING TO THEIR CONTENTS. 441 chose to breathe out his soul, both in praise and in his last agony, in the words of a Psalm. This book is quoted in the New Testament, or clearly referred to, upwards of seventy times. The Psalms thus quoted or referred to are mai'ked in Table (P)), thus. * 56. Various classifications of the Psalms have been pro- Arrangement posed. Tholuck divides them, according to their of Psalms matter, into songs of praise, of thanksgiving, of their sub- complaint, and of instruction. Others arrange jects. them under hymns in honour of God ; hymns of Zion, and the temple ; hymns of the Messiah or King ; plain- tive and supplicatory hymns, and religious odes, as Psa. 23, 91, 119. No very accurate classification can be made, for the contents are often very various. The following (A), however, is practically important.'' 1. Didactic Psnlms ; on the character of good and bad men, their happiness and misery, i, 5, 7, 9-12, 14, 15, 17, 24, 25, 32, 34, 36, 37, 50, 52, 53, 58, 73, 75, 84, 91, 9^, 94, T12, 119, 121, 125, 127, 128, 133; on the excellency of the Divine law, 19, 119; on the vanity of human hfe, 39, 49, 90; on the duty of rulers, 82, loi,. on humility, 131. 2. Psalms of Praise and Adoration; acknowledgements of God's, goodness and mercy, and particularly of his care of good men, 23, 34, 36, 9r, 100, 103, 107, 117, 121, 145, 146; acknowledgements of his power, glory, and attributes generally, 8, 19, 24, 29, 33, 47, 50, 65, 66, 76, 77, 93, 95-97, 99, 104, III, 113-115, 134, 139, 147,. 148, 150. 3. Psalms of Thanhsgiving ; for mercies to individuals, 9, 18, 22, 30, 34, 40, 75, 103, 108, it6, 118, 138, 144; for mercies to the Israelites generally, 46, 48, 65, 66, 68, 76, 81, 85, 98, 105, 124, 126, 129, 135, 136, 149- 4. Devotional Psalms; expressive of penitence, 6, 25, 32, 38, 51, 102, 130, 143; expressive of trust under afflictions, 3, 16, 27, 31, 54, 5^5 57, 61, 62, 71, 86; expressive of extreme dejection, though not without hope, 13, 22, 69, 77, 88, 143. Prayers in time of severe distress, 4, 5, ir, 28, 41, 55, 59, 64, 70, 109, 120, 140, 141, 143. Prayers when deprived of pubhc worship, 42, 43, 63, 84. Prayers asking help in consideration of the uprightness of his cause, 7, 17, 26, 35. Prayers in time of affliction and persecution, 44, 60, 74, 79, 80, 83, 89, 94, 102, 129, 137. Prayers of intercession, 20, 67, 12-2, 132, 144. * Bickersteth's " Christian Truth." u 3 442 psalms: their date akd origin. 5. Fsahns eminently prophetical, 2, 16, 22, 40, 45, 68, 69, 72, 97, no, it8, mostly Messianic. 6. Historical Psalms, 78, 105, 106. Arrangement The following Table (B), sliowing the probable according to occasion when each Psalm was composed, is founded and order, on " Townsend's Harmony of the Old Testament." I'salms. After ^\hat Scripture. Probable occasion on which each Psahn was composed. B.C. Book I., in the Jewish Division. 4 00 - 5 - - 6 - - n - - 9 - - 10 - - 11 - - 12(c) . 13,14.15 16,* - - 17 - - I3* - - 19 (u) - 20, 21 - 22* - - 25(0,24= 2^?, 26, 2", 28, 29 - JO - - JI* - . 32,33 - J4 - - 35 ' - J6,37 - J8 39,| 40*, 41 3 42(c) - Nehem. 13. 3 - 1 Chron. 17. 27 2 Sam. 15. 29 - 2 Sam. 17. 29 - 2 Sam. 17. 29 - 1 Chron. 28. 21- 2 Sam. 16. 14 - I Chron. 28. 21 I Sam. 17. 4, or I Chron. 16. 4 j. Dan. 7. 28 - - 1 Sara. 19. 3. - I Chron. 28. 1 - Dan. 7. 28 - - I Chron. 17. 27, or 1 Sam. 27. 1 Sam. 22. 19 - 2 Sam. 22. 51 - 1 Chron. 28. 2X 2 Sam. 10. 19 - I Chron. 17. 27 I Chron. 28. 21, or I Chron. 16. 4?- Dan. 7. 28 - - 1 Chron. 28. 21 I Chron. 21. 30 1 Sam. 2j. 12 - 2 Sam. 12. 15 - I Sam. 21. 15 - I Sam. 22. 19 - Dan. 7. 28 - - 1 Chron. 28. 21 'W'ritten by David or Ezra, and placed as a pre- face to the Psalms On the delivery of the promise by Nathan to David— a prophecy of Christ's kingdom - On David's flight from Absalom . . . - ■) During the flight from Absalom ---.': During the flight from Absalom . . - . ) Inserted towards the end of David's life - - On the reproaches of Shimei ------ Inserted towards the end of David's life - - On the victory over Goliath During the Babylonish captivity - - - - When David was advised to flee to the moim- tains -..-•-------- Inserted towards the end of David's life - - During the Babylonish captivity- - - - - On the delivery of the promise by Nathan to David On the murder of the priests by Doeg - - - On the conclusion of David' s wars - - - - Inserted towards the end of David's life - - On the war with the Ammonites and Syrians On the delivery of the promise by Nathan ; or in severe persecution ------- Inserted towards the end of David's life - - During the Babylonish captivity - - - - Inserted towards the end of David's life - - On the dedication of the threshing-floor of Araimah- -- -- On Davids persecution by Saul - - - - - On the pardon of David's adultery - - - - On David's leaving the city of Gath - - - On David's persecution by Doeg- - - - - During the Babylonish captivity - - . - Inserted towards the end of David's life - - 2 Sam. 17. 29 - On David's flight from Absalom - 444 1044 I02J IOI5 1023 IOI5 1063 539 1062 IOI5 539 1044a 1060 1019 1015 1036 1044 1015 559 1015 1017 1060 1034 1060 loCo 539 1015 Kotc—The six Psalms marked (m), are regarded by Calmet as of unknown date and authorship. The second passage of Scripture mentioned after five Psalms, Is regarded by him as the proper place of the Psalm. Psalms marked (c) and (r), he thinks, were written respectively in the captivity, and on the return from it. In the other Psalms, he agrees substantially with Townsend. * Applied to our Lord by Peter, Acts 2. 25-31; and by Paul, Acts 13. 35, 3(>- PS ALMS- THEIR DATE AND OEIGES'. 443 Psalias. After what Scripture. Book II. 4Kc) . 2 Sam. 17. 29 - 44* - . 2 Kings 19. 7 - 45* - . I Chron. 17. 27 46 - . 2 Chron. 20. 26 47 - . 2 Chi-on. 7. 10 - 43 - . Ezra 6. 22 - - 49. 50 - Dan. 7. 23 - - 51 - _ 2 Sam. 12. 15 - 52 - . I Sam. 22. 19 - 53 - . Dan. 7. 28 - - 54 - . I Sam. 23. 2j - 55 - , 2 Sam. 17. 29 - 56 - - 1 Sam. 21. 15 - 51 - . I Sam. 24. 22 - 58 - . I Sam. 24; 22 - 59 - . I Sam. 19. 17 - 6i(c) . I Kings II. 20- 61 (r) . I Chron. 28. 21 62 - . 2 Sam. 17. 29 - 6i(r) - I Sam. 24. 22 - 64(c) . I Sam. 22. 19 - 65 - . I Chron. 28. 21 66 - . Ezra J. ij - - 67 - . Dau. 7. 28 - - 68* - . 2Sam. 6. II - 69.(0) - I Chrou. 23. 21 •70. 71 . 2 Sam. 17. 29 - •72 - - I Chron. 29. 19- Book IU. 73(c) 2 Kings 19. 19 - 74 - Jer. J9. 10 - - 75(c). 76 2 Kings 19. 35 - 77* - Dan. 7. 28 - - 78 - I Chron. 28. 21, or 2 Chron. 19. 56. 79 - Jer. i9. 10 - - 80 - Dan. 7. 28 - - 8i* («) - Ezra 6. 22 - - 82 - 2 Chi-on. 19. 7 - 8i - Jer. ;9. 10, or 2 Chron. 20. 84(c) 85(c) Ezra: J. 13 - - Ezra 1.4 - - 86 - I Chron. 28. 21 87 - Ezra J. 7- - - 88(c) Exod. 2. 25 - - 89 - Dan. 7. 28 - - Book IV. 90* (c) - Nufhb. 14. 45 - Qi («) • I Chron. 28. 10 12, 93* . Dan. 7. 23 - - >4 - . Jer. 39. 10 - - 95* - - I Chron. 28. 21 Probable occasion on which each Psalm was composed. On David.'s flight from Absalom . - - - - On the blasphemous message of Eabshakeh - On the delivery of the promise by Xathau - On the victory of Jehoshaphat ----- On the removal of the ark into the temple - On the dedication of the second temple - - During the Babylonish captivity - . - - Confession of David after his adultery- - - On David's persecution by Doeg- - - - - During the Babylonish captivity- - - - - On the treachery of the Ziphims to David- - During the flight from Absalom When David was ^vith the Philistines in Gath On David's refusal to kill Saul in the cave - Continuation of i'sa. 57 On Saul surrounding the town of David - - On the conquest of Edom by Joab - - - - Inserted towards the end of David's life - - In David's persecution by Absalom- - - - I*raj'er of David in the \\ilderness of Engedi- On David s persecution by Saul - - - - - Inserted towards the end of I David's life - - On laying the foundation of the second temple During the Babylonish captivity- - - - - On the lirst removal of the ark Inserted towards the end of David's life - - On Absalom's rebellion ------- On Solomon being made king by his father - On the destruction of Sennacherib - - - - On the destruction of the city and temple - On the destruction of Sennacherib - - - - During tlie Babylonish captivity- - - . - Inserted towards the end of David s life - - On the destruction of the city and temple- - During tlie Babj'lonish captivity - - - . On the dedication of the second temple - - On the appomtmeut of Judges by Jehoshaphat On the desolation caused by the Assyrians - On the foundation of the second temple - - On the decree of Cyrus - - - Inserted towards the end of David's life - - On the return from the Babylonish captivity- During the affliction in Egypt - . - - . During the Babylonish captivity - - - . On the shortening of man's life, &c. - - - After the advice of David to Solomon - - - During the Babylonish captivity - - - - On the destruction of the city and temple- - Inserted tovrards the end of David's life - - a Explained and applied to our Lord, Heb. i. 8, 9: i Pet. j. 22 ; Eph. I. 22. Phil.2.9-11. '' To Asaph, by Eichhom, De "U'ctte, and Eosenmilller. 444 PSALMS : THEIR DATE AND ORIGIN. Psalm? After what Scripture, 96 - - 97*0-) 1 98 w 99C/) 100 (r) J loi - - 102* - - 103 - - 104* (/ ) - 105 (r) I 106 (r) I Book V. 107 - - 108 00 - IC9 - - no* - - iir,ii2*'> iij, "4 3 115(0 - 116, 117 - 118* (r) - 119 120 (c 121 122 I2J - - 124 (r) - 125 - - 126 - - 127, 128 - 129 - - 130 - - 131 (c^ - 132 (c) . 133 (r) - 134 - - 13600 } 137 - - 138 - - 139 00 - 140 - - 141 - - 142 - - 14? - - 144 . - 145 - . 146 to 150 ?! 1 Chron. 16. 43 2 Cbron. 7. 10- 1 Chron. 28. 21 Dan. -9. 27 - - 2 Sam. 12. 15 - I Chron. 28. 21 I Chron. 16. 43 Ezra 3.7 - - I Kings II. 20- I Sam. 22. 19 - 1 Chron. 17. 27 Ezra 3.7 - - 2 Chron. 20. 26 Ezra 3.7 - - I Chron. 17. 27 Neh. 13. 3 - - I Chron. 28. 21 Dan. 7. 28 - - I Chron. 28. 21 Ezra 3.7 - - Ezra 1. 4 - - Ezra 3. 7 - - Ezra 4. 24 - - Dan. 7. 23 - - I Chron. 28. 21 I Chron. 15. 14 1 Chron. 28. 21 Ezra 3- 7 - - 2 Chron. 7. 10 - Dan. 7. 28 - - Ezra 6. 13 - - I Chron, 13. 4 - I Sam. 22. 19 - I Sam. 27. 1 - 1 Sam. 22. I - 2 Sam. 17. 29 - 2 Sam. 17. 29 - I Chron. 28. 10 Ezra 6. 22 - - Probable occasion on which each Psalm was composed. On the removal of the ark from Obed-edom's house --- - On the removal of the ark into the temple - Inserted towards the end of David's life - - On the near termination of the captivity - - On the pardon of David's adultery . - - - Inserted towards the end of David's life - - On the removal of the ark from Obed-edom's house On the return from the captivity - On the conquest of Edom by Joab - On David's persecuti(m by Doeg - - On the promise by Nathan to David On the return from the captivity - On the victory of Jehoshaphat - - On the return from the captivity - On the promise by Nathan to David Manual of devotion by Ezra - - - Inserted towards the end of David's life During the Babylonish captivity Inserted towards the end of David's lil'e - - On the return from the captivity - - - . On the decree of Cj-nis On the return from the captivity - - . „ On the opposition of the Samaritans - - - During the Babylonish captivity Inserted towards the end of David's life - - On the second removal of the ark - - - - Inserted towards the end of David's life - - On the return from the capti\ity - - - - On the removal of the ark into the temple - During the Babylonish captivity On the rebuilding of the temple ----- Pi-ayer of David when made king over all Israel ------------- On David's persecution by Doeg Prayer of David when driven from Judea Prayer of David in the cave of Adullam - - During the war with Absalom - - - - - On the victory over Absalom David, when old, reviewing his past life - - On the dedication of the second temple - - a Cited by our Lord to prove his Divinity, Matt. 22. 14 : by Peter, Acts 2. J2-36 • Paul, I Cor. 15. 25-28 : Heb. 7. 1-28: 8. i. t Cited by our Lord, Matt. 22. 42 : explained by Peter, Acts 4. 11 : i Pet. 2 4, 5 Paul, Rom. 9. 32 : Eph. 2. 20, 21. c Calmet, and most commentators, refer this Psalm to the captivity. Chronological Adopting this arrangement, the P.sahns may ho arrangement, classified chronologically thus : (C). PS alms: their titles. 445 B.C. 1531. Psa. 88, Reman in Bgyi^t. B. c. 1489. Psa. 90, Moses in the Wilderness. B.C. 1063-IC15. David's History and Experience, 9, it, 59, 34, 56, 142, 17, 35, 52, 31, 64, 109, 140, 54, 57, 58, 63, 96, 105, 106, 132, 141, 139, 68, 2,, 16, 22, 45, 118, 60, 108, 20, 21, 3:, 33, 51, 103, 3, 7, 4, 5, 42, 43, 55, 7°, 72, i43, i44- • • • 18, 62, 30, 91, 6, 8, 12, 19, 23, 24, 28, 29, 38, 39, 40, 41, 61, 65, 69, 78, 86, 95, loi, 104, 120, I2T, 122, 124, 131, 133, 72, 145. B. c. 1004. On the removal of the ark to the temple, 47, 97, 98, 99, 100, 135, 136. B. c. 897-710. From Jehoshaphat to Hezekiah, 82, 46, 115, 44, 73, 75, 7^- B. c. 588. On the Invasion of the Assyrians, 74, 79, 83, 94. B.C. 539. In the Captivity, 10, 13, 14, 15, 25, 26, 27, 36, 37, 49, 50, 53, 67, 77, 80, 88, 89, 92, 93, 123, 130, 137. B. c. 538-6. At the close of the captivity, and on the return, 102, 85, 126, 87, 107, 111-114, u6, 117, 125, 127, 128, 134, B. c. 535, At the rehuilding and dedication of the temple, 66, 84, 129, 138, 48, 81, 146, 147-150. B. c. 444. Ezra completes the canon, and adds i, and 119. The date and occasions of these Psalms, it must be observed, are many of them conjectui-al. Townsend's opinion o^ the occasion of the following, is founded on internal evidence alone, 7, 47, 48, 8r, 82, 84, 91, 97-100, 119, 139, 145. For the rest, he follows Light- foot, Calmet, Home, Gray, or Hales. Modem inquiry has added to our kno\\ ledge of the facts on which the dates rest, and have thro"vvu doubts on the acc\iracy of Townsend's arrangement of Psa. 25-27, and several others. See Notes of Annot. Par. Bible, Religious Tract Society, vol. i. 563-662. 57. All tlie Psalms (except 34) have titles, which are as old at least as the version of the LXX, but not of inspired authority. They may be regarded as historically accurate, except where there is internal evidence against them. These titles give either the name of the author (i), or directions Titles of to the musician (2), or the historical occasion (3), or the Psalms, liturgical use (4), or the style of the poetiy (5), or the instrument (6), or the tune (7), to which the Psalm is to be sung. Sometimes all these ai'e combined, Psa. 60. 1. Moses, Psa. 90. David, of 73, to which the LXX add othec twelve Psalms. Solomon, Asaph, Heman, Ethan, and the sons of Korah are also named. 2. To the chief musician, is prefixed to 53. Some suppose that 446 psalms: their titles. the music was by him. Gesenius imd Ewald regard " to " as meaning ''by," and refer *' the musician" to David. 3. Psa. 3, 7, 18, 34, 51, 52, 54, etc. 4. Psa. 17, 86, 90, 102, 145, etc. 5. Psa. 46, 65, 48, 16. For 6, and 7, see below. The following are the terms found at the beginning of Psalms. The meaning is not easily ascertained, and even in the ancient versions there is very great diversity. The authorized version leaves most of them vmtranslated, and Coverdale generally omits them. Lvither preferred to translate them with what accurrxy he could. "We put first the meaning which is most probable. The word translated "upon" or "on," is appropriate, whether it refer to the subject of the Psalm, or to the instrument or clefif, on Vv'hich, or the tune to which the Psalm was sung, Aijeleth Shachar, i. e., hind of the morning (sun or dawn) = to be sung to the tune, beginning -with these words (Jewish critics), or on the Messiah or David, who is supposed to be so called (Luther, Hengstenberg, Tholuck), Psa. 22. Alamoth, i. e., virgins, and so = " for treble voices " (Gesenius, Hengstenberg, Tholuck), Psa. 4&. Al-taschiih, i. e., destroy thou not, = to be sung to the tune of the ode beginning with these words, Psa. 57-59, 75. Degrees, i.e., of the steps, or of ascension, = a pilgrim's song for those going up to Jerusalem, especially from captivity, see Psa. 122-4 (Lowth, Ewald, etc.), or = a song ascending by degrees fi'om clause to clause, as in Psa. 121 (Do Wette, Gesenius), or = a song to be sung in ascending the steps of the inner court of the temple (Jevvish critics) or = a song sung by the upper choir (Luther, Tholuck), Psa. 120-134. Gittith, = a Gath instrument or tune, or the vintage-melody, Psa. 8, Br, 84. Jliggaion, =■ instrumental music, Psa. 9, 16, or = meditation (Hengstenberg, Tholuck). Jeduthun, Psa. 39, 62, 77, see i Chron. 25. 1, 3. Jonath-elcm-rechokim, i. e., the mute dove among strangers, = the time so called, or = the subject of the Psalm, David at Gath, Psa. 56. Leannoth, = to be sung, Psa. 88. Mahalath, = lute, or a tvme so called, or = a danciQg-tune, Psa. 53.88. Itaschil, = a didactic poem (Hengstenberg, Tholuck), or = a skilful poem (Gesenius, De Wette), Psa. 13. Michtam, = a golden or excellent Psalm, or = a mystery, i. e., a PSALMS : THEIK TITLES. 447 Psalm, with a hidden meaning (Hengstenberg), or on hidden, i. e., experimental religion, or = a vjritten poem (michtav), Gesenius, Rosenm., Tholuck, see Isa. 38. 9: Psa. 16, 56-60. Muth-lahhan, = on the death of his son, or of Goliath (Chald.), or = on an instrument, or to a song so called, or with a sHght variation in the vowels = with virgin's voice for boys, i. e., male-trebles: or to Benaiah, i Chron. 15. 18, 20: Psa. 9. Neginotli, = stringed instrnments, Psa. 4, 6, 54, 56, 60, 61, 76. Nehilotli, = wind instruments, or = the lots {i. e., of the good tmd bad), Psa. 5. Selah, = pause, i. e., in vocal mu^ic, or = exalt (the voice), i. e„ foi-te, or = exalt (Jehovah), (Kimchi, Ewald, De Wette), 70 times in Psa. 3, in Habb., or = Da Capo. Sheminith, i. e., an eighth = bass (i Chi-ou. 15. 20, 21), or = an eight-stringed instrument, Psa. 6, 12. SMggaion, = a wandering, or excited song, or = an elegy (Ge- senius, Rosenm., De Wette, Tholuck), Psa. 7. Shushan, i. e., a lily = a very beautiful song, or instrument so called, Psa. 60, 45, 69, 80; with eduth added, i. e., lily of testimony = name of tune or instrument (Gesenius, Tholuck), or = a beau- tiful subject of admitted excellence (Hengstenberg), Psa. 60, 80. 58. In studying the Psalms, two rules of interpretatiou are of prime importance. (i.) Ascertain the author, the historical origin, and the obvious scope of the Psalm. Tables B and C, will give the first two, and Table A, the last. (ii.) Carefully consider the historical meaning of its terms and allusions, and ascertain from jS"ew Testament quotations,^ or from the general tenor of the gospel, how it is to be applied, either to Christ or to the Christian Church. Though, perhaps, every Psalm is connected in its origin and allusions with an economy which was " to vanish away," all are no less closely connected in sentiment and applicability with the economy that " abideth;" and wisely studied, the whole book may be made our own, and become to us the expression of the holiest feelings in the holiest form. The Smg of Solomon, B.C. looi. 59. The universal voice of antiquity ascribes this poem to Solomon, and internal evidence confirms this tes- ^" timony. His songs were a thousand and five^ * See chapter vi. 448 SONG OJ- SOLOMON. I Kings 4. 32 ; and this is called, in Hebrew idiom, the song of songs, the best, that is, of them all. This book has always been ranked among the canonical' writings of the Old Testament. It is not quoted, indeed, in the New, but it formed «part of the Jewish Scriptures (Jos. Antiq. viii. 2-5, and Contr. Ap. i. 8), was translated by the authors of the LXX, is included in all ancient catalogues, and is attested expressly by Melito (2nd century), Origen (d. 2rj3), Jerome (5th century), the Jewish Talmud, and Theodoret of Cyprus (450 a. d.) On what occasion it was ■\\Titten is not certain. The imagery eeems derived from the marriage of Solomon, either with Pharaoh's daughter (i Kings 3. i: 7. 8: 9. 24, compared with Song, i. 9: 6. 12), or with some native of Palestine, espoused some years later (chap. 2. i), of noble birth (7. i), though inferior to her husband (1.6). Whatever the occasion of the poem, we find in reading it, two characters, who speak and act throughout; the one called Shelomoh (the peaceful), and the other by the same name with a feminine ending, Shulamith, like Julius and Julia, i. 6: 3. 11: 6. 13: 8. 12. There is also a chorus of virgins, daughtei-s of Jerusalem, 2. 7: 3.5: 5. 8, 9. Towards the close, two brothers of Shulamith appear, 8. 8, 9, see I. 6. As in all ancient poems, there are no breaks to indicate change of scene or of speakers. In detecting these changes, we are guided partly by the sense, but chiefly by the use in tho original of feminine and masculine pronouns, of the second or tliird person. A neglect of this distinction has much obscured the English version. i. Shulamith speaks, i. 2-6: then in dialogue with Shelomoh; Shul. I. 7: Shel. I. 8-11: Shul. i. 12-14: Shel. i. 15: Shul. i. iG,- 2. i: Shel. 2. 2: Shul. 2. 3. ii. Shulamith now rests, sleeps and dreams (Shelomoh addressing tho daughters of Jerusalem, and charging them not to wake her, 2. 7: 3. 5); 2.4-6, 8.-3.4. iii. The daughters of Jerusalem see a nuptial procession approach- ing, 3. 6-1 1. iv. Dialogue between Shelomeh and Shulamith. Shelomoh speaks 4. 1-16 (as far as "flow out,") Shul. 4. 16: Shel. 5. i. V. A night scene ; Shulamith seeking for Shelomoh ; meets and converses with the daughters of Jerusalem; Shul. 5.2-8: daughters of Jerusalem, 5. 9: Shul. 5. 10-16: daughters of Jeru<3alem, 6. i: Shuh 6. 2, 3. SOXG OF SOLOMON ; CONTENTS. 449 vi. Morning scene ; Shelomoh visits his garden early, and meets Shulamith; Shel. 6. 4-10: Shul. 6. 11, 12; the dialogue Gontinviing to 8. 8. vii. The brothers of Shulamith are introduced; the brothers speak, 8. 8, 9: Shul. answers them, 8. 10-12: Shel. speaks, 8. 13: and Shul. answers, closing the scene, 8. 14. Literally regarded, the whole of this poem is a description of Spiritual wedded love; one of the noblest of our affections, and significancy. one which our Lord has employed as a kind of type of his o-RTi. In this aspect, the book gives a beautiful representation of the sentiments and manners which prevailed among the Israelites, on conjugal and domestic life. But the poem had, no doubt, a higher aim. The names of the two chief characiers, are as signi- ficant as any in "Bunyan's Allegory." The sudden change from the singular pronoun to the plural (i. 4, etc.), indicates that Shulamith must be taken collectively. Both she and Shelomoh, moreover, appear in positions which, literally regarded, are highly improbable, 5. 7: 2, 14-16: 4. 8. And from the earliest times, Jews and Christians have applied the whole to the history of the chosen people of God, and their relation to Him. These views are confirmed by the fact that throughout the Bible, the union of Christ and his Church, or of God and his ancient people, is repre- sented under the same endearing relation as that which tliis book discloses; see especially Psa. 45: Isa. 54. 5, 6: 62. 5 : Jer. 2. 2: 3. i: Ezek. 16. 10, 13: Hos. 2. 14-23: Matt. 9. 15: 22, 2: 25. i-ii: John 3. 29: 2 Cor. II. 2: Eph. 5. 23-27: Eev. 19. 7-9: 21. 2-9: 22. 17. Much of the language of this poem has been misunderstood by Abuse of in- early expositors. Some have erred by adopting a fanci- terpretation. ful method of explanation, and attempting to give a mystical meaning to every minute circumstance of the allegory. In all figurative representations there is always much that is mere costume. It is the general truth only that is to be examined and explained. Others, not understanding the spirit and luxuriancy of eastern poetry, have considered particular passages as defective in delicacy, an impression which the English version has needlessly confirmed, and so have objected to the whole; though the objection does not apply with greater force to this book than to Hesiod and Homer, or even to some of the purest of our own authors. If it be remembered, that the figure employed in this allegory is one of the most frequent in Scripture, that in extant oriental poems it is con- stantly employed to express religious feeling,^ that many expressions ^ See examples in Lowth's Lectures on Hebrew Poetry, 30, 31; Clarke or Rosenmuller on the Song of Solomon. Stuart on the Canon; Sir W. Jones's Works, ii. 469; As. Res., lii. 353; and in Eatto's Bible Readiness. 450 PROVERBS. wliicli are applied in our translation to the person, belong properly to the dress, ^ that every generation has its own notions of delicacy (the most delicate in this sense being by no means the most virtuous), that nothing is described but chaste affection, that Shulamith speaks and is spoken of collectively, and that it is the general truth only which is to be allegorized, the whole will appear to be no unfit representation of the union between Christ and true believers in every age. Properly understood, this portion of Scripture will minister to our holiness. It may be added, however, that it was the practice of the Jews to withhold the book from their children, till their judg- ments were matured. The Booh of Froverls {about B.C. loco). 60. The book of the Proverhs of Solomon contains more than the title indicates, A proverb is a short sentence, conveying some moral truth or practical lesson in a concise, pointed form, and sometimes the name is applied to enigmatical propositions of the same moral or practical tendency. In this book, however, we have, in addition, many exhortations to prudence and virtue, with eulogies on true wisdom. These latter form the subject of the first nine chapters. The last two chapters, moreover, are from the pen of another author. Those that are Solomon's are part, probably, of the 3000 proverbs he is recorded to have spoken, i Kings 4. 32, and formed, besides the Canticles and Ecclesiastes, the only works of his which were undoubtedly inspired. He sought wisdom rather than any other gift, and God honoured his request by granting him a larger measure of it than was enjoyed by any of his contemporaries. To communicate a portion of what he had received for the lasting benefit of others was the aim of this collection. The proverbs, from the 25th to the 29th chapters inclusive, were collected by the men of Hezekiah, among whom were Hosea and Isaiah. Proverbial instruction is common in the early history of most nations, and especially in the east. This style of communication excites attention, exercises ingenuity, is favourable to habits of re- flection, and fastens truth upon the memory in a form at once agreeable and impressive. The elegance and force of the proverbs ^ Chap. 5. 10, 14: 7. 2. proverbs: aim. 451 of Solomon are increased by the poetic parallelisms in which they are wiitten. Neai-ly every sentence is antithetical or explanatory, and attention to corresponding clauses will often fix the reading and determine the sense. The leading aim of the writer is, as stated at the outset, to "give a young man knowledge and discretion." This book is, for practical ethics, what the book of Psalms is for devotion. It has lessons for every age and condition. All may draw from it the most excellent counsels; and the man who, pos- sessed of the sound principles of piety, shall form his life by the rules of this volume cannot fail to attain honour and happiness. The wisest authors have done little more than dilate on the pre- cepts and comment on the wisdom of Solomon. Though most of his r\iles are based chiefly on considerations of prudence, strictly religious motives are either presupposed or ex- pressly enjoined. "The fear of the Lord is," with him, "the be- ginning of wisdom," i. 7: 9. 10. His morality is based on religion. Vice, moreover, is condemned, and virtue enforced, by appeals to the holiest motives; as the authority of God, 16. 6; his exact knowledge of men's hearts and ways, 5. 21: 15. 11; the rewards of righteousness, and the punishment of wickedness, by his just ap- pointment, 19. 29: 23. 17-19: 26.10. Practical wisdom, therefore, resting upon and rising out of religious character, is the aim of thu? portion of the inspired volume. Ponder its lessons, form your opinion of men and things according to them, and treasure them in your memory as the best rules of prudence. The book may be divided into five parts : — i. Containing a connected discourse on the value and Divisions. , , . j_ r ^ • i attainment of true wisdom, 1.-9 ii. Extending from io.-22. 16, comprises proverbs, strictly so called, expressed with much force and simplicity. iii. Peaching from 22. 17-24. contains renewed admonitions on the study of wisdom, as in part i. iv. Containing proverbs selected by the men of Hezekiah ; by those, that is, whom he employed to restore the service of the Jewish church. These are also true proverbs, 25.-29. V. Consisting of chaps. 30 and 31, contains the wise instructions of Agur to his pupUs Ithiel and Ucal, and lessons addressed to Lemuel by his niother. 'Who these persons were is not known. The proverbs of chap. 30 are chiefly enigmatical, and the 31st gives a picture of female excellence adapted to that age and countiy. The description of Wisdom given in chap. i. 20-23: 8.: and 9. 452 TROVERBS : CONTENTS. applies emphatically to the wisdom of God, revealed and embodied in his Son, and to the Son himself, as the eternal Word. Compare John I. i: 14. 10 with chap. 8. Pre -intimations of immortality are also given in chaps. 4. 18: 12. 28: 14. 32: 15. 24. The nature and consequences of sin are implied in the very terms •which describe holiness, i. 20: see also i. 24: 16. 5: 21. 4: 24. 9; and that holiness is a Divine gift, is plainly implied in i. 23. 61. In expounding and applying the maxims of this book there are two crolden rules. Rules for ° *roverbs *^° I. Like all general laws, some of them have occa- sional exceptions. Not all are unlimited or universal. For example, Prov. 10. 27, '' The fear of the Lord prolongeth days, but the years of the wicked shall be shortened." Such is often the rule : but Abel was murdered and the life of Cain prolonged. Jonathan and Saul — the one a very brother of David, the other an apostate — perish in the same battle: "the corn cut doA\ia with the weeds, though to better purpose." Men are less likely to harm us if we be followers of that which is good, and yet persecution, be- catxse of our goodness, is supposed, i Pet. 3. 13. In truth, God has to teach us a double lesson — that he certainly will punish, and that he will pimish hereafter. The shortening of the years of the wicked — present punishment — teaches the first : the lengthening of their years — the postponement of punishment — the second. Hence both the exception and the rule. Prov. 16. 7, "When a man's ways please the Lord, he maketh even his enemies to be at peace Avith him." So it was with Abraham and the Israelites, with Solomon and Jehoshaphat ; so it was not with David, or with Paul. 2. The force and significancy of these maxims will be most clearly seen and felt, if they be studied in the light of Scripture examples. They are comprehensive laws, understood best when examined in particular cases. The following instances are taken from Nichol's Treatise on this book ; an admirable specimen of biblical exposition. Prov. I. 7, " The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge: but fools despise wisdom and instruction." (Rehoboam, i Kings 12. 13; Eli's sons, I Sam. 2. 25; Athenian philosophers. Acts 17. 18.) Pi'ov. I. 10, "My son, if sinners entice thee, consent thou not." (Adam, Gen. 3. 6; Balaam, Numb. 22; Jehoshaphat, i Kings 22. 4; prophet of Judah, i Kings 13. 15-19, 24; Micaiah's firmness, I Kings 22. 13, 14.) proverbs: contents. 4.';3 Prov. I. 32, ''The prosperity of fools shall destroy them." (The Israelites, Deut. 32. 15-25: Hos. 13. 6; Tyre, Ezek. 28. 2, iG, 17; Sodom, Ezek. 16. 49.) Prov. 3.5, 6, " Trust in the Lord with all thine heart; and lean not unto thine own vmderstanding. In all thy ways acknowledge him, and he shall direct thy paths." (Asa, 2 Chron. 14. 9-15 ; Hezekiah, 2 Kings 19. 14, etc.; Abraham's servant. Gen. 24. 12-27: Kehemiah 2. 4: Ezra 8. 21-23; David, i Sam. ^o. 6-8.) Prov. 4. 14, " Enter not into the paths of the wicked." (Lot, Gen. 13. 10-13; David, i Sam. 27. i.) Prov. 4. 18, 19, ''The path of the just is as the shining light." (The wise men, Matt. 2. 1-13 ; Xathanael, John i. 46-51; the eunuch, Acts 8. 27-40; Cornelius, Acts 10.; Paul, 2 Cor. 3. 18.) "The way of the wicked is as darkness; they know not at what they stumble." (Ahab, i Kings 18. 17; the Jews, Ezek. 18. 29: Jer. 5. 19, 25. Also, their ignorance, that the cause of their present miseries is their rejection of the Messiah, Deut. 28. 29.) Prov. 5. 22, "His own iniquities shall take the wicked himself." (Agag, I Sam. 15. 33; Adoni-bezek, Judges i. 7: Haman, Esther 7. 10; Judas, Matt. 27. 3-5.) Prov. 9. 8, " Rebuke a wise man, and he will love thee." (David loved Nathan; Peter loved om-Lord, John 21. 17; the two disciples constrained their reprover to abide with them, Luke 24. 25, 29.) Prov. 10. 2, " Treasures of wickedness profit nothing." (Tyre, Ezek. 26. 15: 27.: 28.; the rich man, Luke 16. 23.) "But righte- ousness delivereth from death." (Noah, Gen. 7. i, with Heb. ir. 7: Dan. 5. 6., Belshazzar contrasted with Daniel.) Prov. 13. 7, "The memoiy of the just is blessed." (Elisha, 2 Kings 13. 21; Jehoiada, 2 Chron. 24, 15, etc.; Dorcas, Acts 9. ^f?, etc.; Mary, Mark 14. 9.) " But the name of the wicked shall i-ot." (Absalom, 2 Sam. 18. 17 ; Jehoiakim, Jer. 22. 18, 19 ; Jezebel, 2 Kings 9. 37; Jeroboam, son of Nebat, 2 Eangs 13. 14. 15.) Prov. 10. 8, "The wise in heart will receive commandments." (David, 2 Sam. 7; the mother of our Lord, John 2. 4, 5; the no- bleman, John 4. 50.) "But a prating fool shall fall." (Amaziah, 2 Kings 14.) Prov. 10. 24, "The fear of the wicked, it shall come upon him." (The Canaanites, Josh, 5; Belshazzar, Dan. 5; Ahab, i Kings 22; Haman, Esther 7. 7-10.) "But the desire of the righteous shall be gi-anted." (Hannah, i Sam. i: Esther 4. 16: 8. 15-17; Simeon, Luke 2. 29, 30: see also Psa. 37. 4: John 16. 23, 24.) Prov. 10. 25, "As the whirlwind passeth, so is the wicked no more." (Elah, i Kings 16. 9; Zimri, i Kings 16. 18, 19.) "But the righteous is an everlasting foimdation." (Abraham, Gou. 17 1-8; David, 2 Sam. 7. 16: see also Matt. 7. 24, 25.) 454 PROVERBS : contents. Pror. Ti. 2, ''When pride cometli, then cometh shame/' (Miriam, Numb. 12. 10; Uzziah, 1 Chron. 26. i6-2i; Nebuchad- nezzar, Dan. 4. -^o, etc.) ''But with the lowly is -svisdom." (Daniel, Dan. 2. 30; Joseph, Gen. 41. 16.) ProT. II. 5, 6, "The righteousness of the perfect shall direct his way: but the wicked shall fall by his o\vn wickedness. The righte- ousness of the upright shall deliver them : but transgressors shall be taken in their own naughtiness." (Haman, Esther 7. 10: 8. 7; Daniel's accusers, Dan. 6. 24, etc.; Ahithophel's death, 2 Sam. 17. 23, contrasted with David's restoration to hLs throne.) Prov. II. 10, "When it goeth well with the righteous, the city rejoiceth." (Mordecai, Esther 8. 16.) "When the wicked perish^ eth, there is shouting." (Sisera, Judges 5; Athaliah, 2 Kings 11. 13, 20: see Rev. 19. i- 3.) Prov. II. 21, "Though hand join in hand, the ^vicked shall not be unpunished." (Tower of Babel, Gen. 11. 4, etc.; the kings who combined together. Josh. 9. i, 2; Adonizedec, Josh. 10.) "But the seed of the righteous shall be delivered." (Mephibosheth, 2 Sam. 21. 7; Solomon, i Kings 11. 12, 34; Abijam, i Kings 15. 4; the Israelites often, Exod. 3. 15, 17: 2 Kings 8. 19.) Prov. II. 25, "The liberal soul shall be made fat, and he that watereth shall be watered also himself." (Abraham, Gen. 13. 9, 14; widow of Zarephath, i Kings 17. 10, etc.; the Shunamite, 2 Kings 4.) Prov. 12. 5, "The counsels of the wicked are deceit." (Geshem, Neh. 6. 2; Ishmael, Jer. 41. 1-7; Daniel's accusers to Darius, Dan. 6. 8; Herod's to the wise men. Matt. 2; the Pharisees respecting the tribute money, Matt. 22. 15; the Jews laying wait for Paul, Acts 23. 15.) Prov. 12. II, "He that folio weth vain persons is void of imder- standing." (Followers of Abimeiech, Judges 9; and of Absalom, 2 Sam. 15; of Theudas and Judas, Acts 5. 36, 37.) Prov. 12. 13, "The wicked is snared by the transgression of his lips: but the just shall come out of trouble." (Adonijah, i Kings 2. 23; Daniel's accusers, Dan. 6. 24; the Jews, Matt. 27. 25.) Prov. 12. 15, "The way of a fool is right in his own eyes." (Lot's sons-in-law. Gen. 19. 14; Pharisees, John 9. 34.) "But he that heai'keneth unto counsel is wise." (Moses, Exod. 18. 19-24; Apollos, Acts 18. 24-26; Pharaoh, Gen. 41. 37-45; Jacob, Gen. 43. 11; Nathanael, John i. 46, 47.) Prov. 12. 19, "The lip of tinith shall be established for ever." (Caleb and Joshua, Numb. 13. 14; Nathan to David, 2 Sam. 7, 12-17, with Luke i. 32.) "But a lying tongue is but for a mo- ment." (Gehazi, 2 Kings 5; Ananias, Acts 5.) Prov. 12. 25, "Heaviness in the heai-t of man maketh it stoop. PROVERBS : ECCLESIASTES. 455 but a good word maketh it glad." (Neliemiah, Neli. 2. i, 2; the ^yoman that was a sinner, Luke 7. 38, 50; Mary Magdalene, John 20. 11-18: see also Luke 24. 17-32.) Prov. 13. 7, ''There is that maketh himself rich, yet hath nothing." (Haman, Esther 5. 13; chiirch of Laodicea contrasted with the church of Smyrna, Eev. 3. 17; 2. 9; Ahab, i Kings 21. 4, 16, 22) "There is that maketh himself poor, yet hath great riches." (]\Iatthcw, Luke 5. 27, 28; Paid, 2 Cor. 6. 10: Phil. 3. 8.) Prov. 13. 24, "He that spareth his rod hateth his son: but he that loveth him chasteneth him betimes." (Eli, i Sam. 3. 13; David, I Kings i. 5, 6.) Prov. 14. 6, "A scomer seeketh wisdom, and findeth it not." (Athenian philosophers, Acts 17. 18; Herod, Luke 23. 8; the Jews looking for the Messiah, and yet rejecting Christ, Acts 13-. 41 ; John 9. 29.) "But knowledge is easy to him that imderstandeth." (Da\'id, Psa. 119. 18, 98-100: see also Jas. i. 5 : Matt. 11. 25.) Prov. 14. 8, ' ' The wisdom of the prudent is to vmderstand his way." (Job 28. 28: Deut. 4. 6: Eccles. 12. 13.) "But the folly of fools is deceit." (Gehazi, 2 Kings 5. 20, 27; Daniel's accusers, Dan. 6. 24; Ananias and Sapphira, Acts 5. i-ii.) Prov. 14. 32, "The wicked is driven away in his wickedness." (Hophni and Phinehas, i Sam. 4. 11.) "But the righteous hath hope in his death." (Jacob, Gen. 49. 18; Stephen, Acts 7. 55-60; Paul, 2 Tim. 4. 6-8; Peter, 2 Pet. i. 14, 16: 3. 13.) Prov. 15. I, "A soft answer tumeth away WTath." (The Reu- benites, Josh. 22. 15, 21-30; Gideon, Judges 8. 1-3 ; Abigail, 1 Sam. 25. 23, etc.) "But grievous words stir up anger." (Reho- boam, 2 Chron. 10. 13, etc.; Paul and Barnabas, Acts 15. 39; Saul and Jonathan, i Sam. 20. 30-34.) Prov. 15. 10, "Correction is grievous to him that foi'saketh the way." (Asa, 2 Chron. 16. 10; the Jews, Isa. i. 5 : Jer. 5. 3: John 8. 40.) "And he that hateth reproof shall die." (Amaziah, 2 Kings 14. 11: 2 Chi'on. 25. 27; the Jews, 2 Chron. 36. 15-17: Luke 19. 42, 43-) Ecclesiastes (b. c. 997). 62. The English name of this book, which is taken from the Greek version, signifies (as does the Hebrew) one who convenes or addresses an assembly, and is, on the whole, accurately expressed by the term " the preacher." The illus- . , , . trious prince, the author of the book, though so Authorship. .,,11., . , , ^ richly endowed with wisdom, turned away from God, and sought happiness in earthly and idolatrous prac- tices, I Kings II. 1-13 ; but in his latter years, being made 456 ECCLESIASTES. sensible of lais folly, he here records his experience. Perhaps the truths here given were " proclaimed " by him in piibhc ; nor was it unbecoming his station or character thus to in- form those who crowded from all parts to his court to bo instructed by his wisdom. The book is further interesting, as it supplies satisfactory evidence of the fact that, towards the close of his life, Solomon repented of his unholy practices and licentious principles, if in such a course, as is probable, he had imbibed them. The gi"eat design of this book is evidently to show the utter in- Designoftbe sufficiency of all earthly pursuits and objects, as the book. chief end of life, to confer solid happiness, and then to draw men off from apparent good to the only real and permanent good — the fear of God and communion with him. "Vanity of vanities, all is vanity," is its first lesson. ''Fear God, and keep his commandments," is its last. In accomplishing this design, the writer gives us a dramatic biography of his own life, not only recording, but reacting the successive scenes of his own search for happiness; reciting past experience, and in his fervour becoming the various phases of his former self. He shows us, moreover (and this is a subordinate design of the book), how men ought to de- mean themselves amidst the various disajDpuintments with which they will have to contend. Hence the wai-nings and counsels with which his descriptions of vanity, and exhortations to make the fear of God and the perfoi-mance of moral and religious duties our chief good, abound. The difficulty and vividness of the naiTative are greatly increased by the form in which it is written. The author appears is- for the to be for the moment what he himself describes. He time what he geems to have (what our older writers call) fvttes of describes. . ^ ^^ ^ -, / ^ study (I. 12-18), of luxury (2. i-ii), of grossness and refinement, of conviviality and misanthropy ; tyttes of building, and of book-making, all ending in collapses of bitterest disappoint- ment. We have in succession the man of science and the man of pleasure becoming fatahst, materialist, epicui-ean, and stoic; speaking in each character much truth, and interposing some earnest en- hghtened interludes, the fruits of his maturer wisdom; and at last we have the noblest style of man — the humble and penitent be- liever. Nor is it, be it observed, that he has given us descriptions merely of these ; he has given us, in his own person, the men themselves. If this fact be kept in view, the meaning of several passages will KCCLESIASTES : ITS TECULIARITIES. 457 This fact te plain. Many of his conclusions are the expressions applied. ^f strong shrewd sense ; others of them are eminently holy and spiritual (5. 1-3: 7. 29: 11. s:-i2. i, 7); others, again, are but partially true, and some are absolutely false (3. 19: 2. 16: 9. 2). Many efforts have been made, in vain, to harmonize these last with other parts of Scripture, or with other sayings of Solomon. But it is nut thus they are to be explained. Each picture is the likeness of a sagacious disappointed worldling, with added lights thrown in from a Divine source. The book is a narrative of fan- tastic hopes and blank failures, with descriptions somewhat stronger than truth, and appropriate to each. The conclusion of the whole matter is, that we are to fear God and keep his commandments. 2'hat conclusion is true, as are many of the incidental warnings and appeals; but much of the matter it includes is not. And on this principle the whole must be explained. A comparison may illus- trate both the argument and the end. As the 45th Psalm is a lesser Canticles, so we have a lesser Ecclesiastes in the 73rd. "While all agree that the main design of the book is to exalt religion as man's "chief end," different views (it may be added) have been taken of the illustrations and arguments. Some have held that the giand lesson is, the vanity of everything earthly apart from godliness, and with such, every illustration and every part is true. Luther, on the other hand, thought the lesson of the book to be — be godly, and concerning everything else, be tranquil; for life is not worth your care. Within certain limits both views are just. Apart from religion, all things are vain, though not cqualhj vain; and with religion nothing can harm us, though even then wisdom and folly are not indifferent ; nor does one thing hap- pen alike to all. Some, again, put the remarks that are imtrue into the mouth of objectors, while others put them as questions. The sounder view of. the whole is certainly the one we have given.* i^Tote, that in Ecclesiastes, icisdom is used in the sense of science. Wisdom, or sagacity; in Proverbs, it is identical vnth piety. >vbat. It is a strange proof of the depravity of our nature that modem infidels (Frederick the Great, Voltaire, and others) have warmly praised those parts of Ecclesiastes in which Solomon records the false principles which his folly had for the moment led him to maintain. The true wisdom of the book they entirely disregard, chap. 12. The canonicity of Ecclesiastes is recognised by the early Christian writers, and though the book is not anonici j. £Q^.j^^jjy quoted by our Lord or his apostles, there are several references to it in the New Testament. ^ Stowe, Stuart, Dr. Hamilton, and others. X 458 JOSHUA 1 — 11 : EPITOMIZED. By the Jews it was not reckoned one of the poetical books, and indeed the whole, except 3. 2-8: 7. 1-14: 11. 17: 12. 7, is written in prose. Sec. 6. The whole Arranged and Epitomizedy with occasional Helps. 63. From the entrance into Canaan to the death of Solomon (475 years). Part I. (25 years). Date and Place. Event or Naxrative. 145 1. Eccl. y. 41. I m. I d. 10 d. 145 1, Gilgal. Gilgal. 145 0-1445. I. Conquest of Canaan (7 years).^ God's charge to Joshua, Josh. i. 1-9. Spies sent to Jericho; Rahab receives them, Josh. 2. Joshua reminds Reuben, etc., of their engagement {cf. Numb. 22); they promise obedience. The Israelites directed concerning the passage of the Jordan. God encourageth Joshua, ^Josh. I. 10-18: 3. 1-13. Passage of the Jordan (a.m. 2553); a memorial erected; the Canaanites alarmed. Josh. 3. J4-17:*' 4:"^ 5. I. Circumcision renewed; the Passover; manna ceases, Josh. 5. 2-12. The Captain of the Lord's host apjyears to Joshua, see 230; miraculous capture of Jericho; a curse on the rebuilder of it, Josh. 6. i:" 5. 13-15: 6. 2-27. The Israelites discomfited through Achan's sin ; he is destroyed. Josh. 7. Capture of Ai by stratagem, Josh. 8. 1-29. The Gibeonites obtain a league with Joshua, Josh. 9.' Conquest of several kings in succession, Josh. lo.^ The rest of the conquests, Josh. 11. '^ Josh. 14. 7, 10. ^ For this order, see Bedford's Scrip. Chron. quoted in Gray, p. 147, or Townsend, i. 495- " 3- ^S't Jordan overflows: see § 404. d 4. 19; 40 years, less five days: § 358 h. * For order, see Faber's Horse Mos. ii. 107. ^ The Gibeonites remained for ages a moniiment of the truth of Jewish history; as are now the Jews. 2 God thus proved his power over the objects of Cauaanitisb iv'orship. JOSHUA 8 — JUDGES : EPITOMIZED. 459 Date and PIac«. Event or Narrative. 1444. Ebal and Geriziin. 1444. Hebron, Kir- jath Arba, Josh. 21. II. 1444. Shiloh. 1427. Shechem, Sjcbar N. T. 1426. Shechem. 1425, Bochim. The law written on a stone altar (c/. Deut. 27) and proclaimed to all the people, Josh, 8. 30-35.* Reuben, etc., return to then* land on the eastern side of Jordan; they erect an altar of memorial; Isi-ael offended, ask an explanation. Josh. 22. 2. General Dkisimi of the Land. Enumeration of conquests, [Josh. 1 2]. Land not yet conquered, [Josh. 13. 1-6]. Joshua diA'ides the land ; the nine tribes and a half. receive their portions by lot;*> the Levites not to receive land, [Josh. 13. 7-14: 14. 1-5]. Inheritance of Reuben, etc., on the eastern side of Jordan, [Josh. 13. 15-33]. Inheritance of Caleb, [Josh. 14. 6-15: 15. 13-19]. Lotof Judah, [Josh. 15. 1-12, 20-63]. Lots of Ephi-aim and half of Manasseh, [Josh. 16 : 17.] The tabernacle set up. Josh. 18. i. Lots of the other tribes; Joshua's inheritance, [Josh. 18. 2-28: 19]- Cities of refuge appointed. Josh. 20. Levitical cities, [Josh. 21]. 3. Last Acts of Joshua, etc. Joshua's chai'ge to the elders of Israel, Josh. 23.* Joshua addresses the tribes and renews the cove- nant, Josh. 24. 1-28. Death and burial of Joshua, Josh. 24. 29-31. Burial of Joseph's bones, etc. Josh. 24. 32, H- 64. (Pai-t II). Jnterregnum and Government of Judges (330 years). Conquests after Joshua's death, Judg. 1. 1-26. Nations not subdued by Israel, Judg. i. 27-36. The angel of the Lord rebukes the Israelites for not driving out the Canaanites, Judg. 2. 1-5. Commencement of idolatry in Israel, Judg. 2. 6-13. ° For order, see Horsley's Bib, Crit. i. 260, and compare chap. I. 14 ; it immediately follows the close of the war. '^ Though these divisions were made by lot, each tribe received such an inheritance as fulfilled the predictions of Jacob and Moses ; thus illusti-ating the faithfulness of God. ^ Ver. 3, mark how God is honoured: see 198. 460 JUDGES 2 — 1 SAMUEL : EPITOMIZED. Date and Place, B.C. 1413. 1406, Gibeali, Jeba. 1402-1394. 1354-1336. 1316-1296. 1256. Bethlehem, Beit-el-lahm. 1249, Shechem. Event or Narrative. Account of Micah and his image, Judg. 17. A party of Danites, having robbed Micah of. his image, establish themselves in Laish (afterwards Dan) and set up idolatry," Judg. 18.'' History of the Levite and his concubine; slaughter of the Benjamites, etc. [J^dg. 19: 20: 21]. The captivities of Israel for idolatry, and their deliverances by Judges, Judg. 2. 14-23: 3. 1-4. Captivity of the eastern Israelites for 8 years to Meso- potamia; Othniel, judge Jvidg, 3. 5-11. Captivity of the eastern Israelites for 18 years to Moab; Ehud, judge, Judg. 3. 12-30. Captivity of the icestern Israelites to the Philistines ; Shamgar, judge, _ Judg. 3. 31.- Captivity of the northern Israelites for 20 years to the Canaanites; Deborah, judge; song of Deborah and Barak, Judg. 4: 5. Captivity of the eastet^n and northern Israelites for 7 years to Midian, Judg. 6. 1-6. The history of Ruth, an ancestress of the Messiah, Ruth 1.-4.*^ Gideon, judge; is visited by the angel of the covenant, and delivers Israel from Midian; refuses to be made king. Judg. 6. 7-40: 7: 8. Usurpation of Abimelech; Jotham's fable, Judg. 9. Tola and Jair, judges, Judg. 10. 1-5. The Pliilistines and Ammonites oppress Israel for 18 years; Jephthah; his vow, Judg. 10. 6-r8: 11. Slaughter ofEphraim by the Gileadites, Judg. 13. 1-6. Ibzan, Elon, and Abdon, judges, Judg, 12. 7-15. The Philistines oppress Isr-ael 40 years, Jvidg. 13. i. Birth of Samson, Judg. 13. 2-25. Birth of Samuel; Hannah's song, i Sam, i; 2. i-ii. The wickedness of Eli's sons,'^ i Sam, 2, 12-21. Call of Samuel, i Sam, 3. 1235-1232. 1232-1188. 1206-1188. 1x87. 1182-1157. 1156-1116. 1156. Shiloh. 1143. ^ This idolatiy continued till the days of Eli, and was resumed by Jeroboam, i Sam. 4, 10, 11. Hence, probably, the omission of Dan from the sealed ones, Rev. 7. ^ That these five chaps, belong to this early age is clear; Dan was not yet settled, 18, i; Phinehas, the grandson of Aaron, was living, 20. 2 3, and the iniquity of Gibeah is mentioned, Hos. 10, g, as the first open sin of Israel in Canaan. " Compare Ruth. i. i wdth Judg. 6. 4, the only famine mentioned in Judges: see, for other reasons. Gray, p. 166. *^ On the chronology of this part of the book of .Jiulges, see Towusend, i. 592, or Calmet. 1 SAMUEL : EPITOMIZED. 461 Date and Place. Event or Narrative. 1096, Eamah. JMizpeh. Gilgal, .E. Jericho. 1094. T080. 1064, Bethlehem 1063. 1062, Gibeah Naioth. B.C. 1136-1117, Marriage of Samson ; his exploits, Shiloh. Judg. 14: 15. 1-19: [16. 1-3] Judgment on Eli's house, i Sam. 2. 22-36, [22-25]. 1 1 16, Capture and death of Samson, Gaza. Judg. [15. 20]: 16. 4-31. 1 1 1 6, Israel twice defeated by the Philistines ; ai k taken and Ebenezer. Eli's sons slain; death of Eli, i Sam, 4: [19-22]. Ashdod, Azo- The ark placed in the house of Dagon; removed' to tus. Acts 8. Ekron {Mir), then to Bethshemesh {Ain Shems), 40; Shdood, thence to Kirjath-jeai-im, where it remains till re- 30W. Jerus. moved by David, Town.i. 612, i Sam. 5: 6: 7. i, 2. 1 1 12, Samuel, judge; he moves the Israelites to repent- Mizpeh. ance; the Philistines discomfited, i Sam. 7. 3-17. 1095, Samuel appoints his sous judges ; their corrupt Kamah, in government ; the Israelites ask for a king ; God Ephraim. bids Samuel heai'ken to them, i Sam. 8. 65. (Part III). The Eeign of Saul (40 years').^ Samuel privately anoints Saul as king, and gives him three signs, i Sam. 9: 10. 1-16. Saul chosen and proclaimed king, i Sam. 10. 17-27. Saul rescues Jabesh-Gilead ; is inaugurated as king; Samuel's address to Israel, i Sam. 11: 12. Saul gathers an ai'my against the Philistines ; he dis- obeys Samuel, and is warned of his rejection from the kingdom, i Sam. 13. 1-15. The Philistines discomfited; Saul's rash oath endan- gers Jonathan; the people rescue him; Saul's vic- tories; his family, i Sam. 13. 16-23: 14. Saul smites the Amalekites ; spai-es Agag and the best of the spoil; denounced by Samuel, i bam. 15. Samuel secretly anoints David, at Bethlehem, as futm-e king, i Sam. 16. 1-13. David's victory over Goliath; Jonathan loves David, I Sam. 17. 1-40, 55, 56, 41-54, 5 7. 58: 18. 1-4: Psa. 9.*" David's victories ; Saul's melancholy ; he attempts to kill DaAdd, i Sam. 18. 5-9: 16. 14-23:'' 18. 10-16. David marries Saul's daughter; Saul makes various attempts to kill him; David flees to Samuel; Saul sends after him, i Sam, 18. 17-30: 19. 1-3: Psa. ii: I Sam. 19. 4-24: Psa. 59, " Acts 13. 21. ^ See Lightfoot and Town. i. 638. ' The order here is fixed by Bishop Horsley. Compare 17. 33, 38, 39, 42, 56, with 16. 18, and it will be seen that 16. 14-23 belongs to a later period than 17, 1-40. 46: 1 SAMUEL: EPITOMIZED AJfD ARRANGED. Date and Place. Event or Narrative. B.C. 1062. I IO61, ISTobandGath. Adullam. Xob. Keilah. 1060, Ziph. 1059, Engedi, Ha- zezon Tamar, 1058. Ziph. 1057. 1056. Gilboa, (Djehel GUbo), Ziklag (16 8.w.Gath?). Hebron, 1056. Acts 13. 21. 1054, David's covenant with Jonathan, i Sam. 20. David flees to Ahimelech (where his lie costs the lives of the priests of the house of Eli), then to Achish; feigns madness, i Sam. 21: Psa. 56: 34. David flees again, joined by several followers, 1 Sam. 22. i: Psa. 142: I Sam. 22. i I. p. and 2: [i Chron. 12. 8-18]: 2 Sam. 23. 13-17: I Chron. 11. 15-19. David goes to Mizpeh, then to Hareth; slaughter of the priests by Saul, I Sam. 22.3-19: Psa. 52: 109: 17: 140: 35: 64. Abiathar joins David; David defeats the Philistines, I Sam. 23. i: 22. 20-23: 23. 6," 2-5, 7-12, Psa. 31. Saul pursvies David; an invasion obliges him to re- turn, I Sam. 23. 13-23; Psa. 54: i Sam. 23.24-28. Saul pursues David; David spares Saul's life; Saul confesses his fault, I Sam. 23.29: 24: Psa. 57: 58: 63. Death of Samuel ; David and ISTabal, i Sam. 25 . David again spares Saul's life, i Sam. 26. David flees to Achish, i Sam. 27. 1-7: Psa. 141 ; several resort to him, [i Chron. 12. 1-7.] David makes an excuision on the Amalekites and repaii's to Gath with the booty, i Sam. 27. 8-12. The Philistines prepare for war, and advance to Shunem ; David accompanies them ; Saul consults the witch of Endor, i Sam. 28. David dismissed from the army of the Philistines; on his way back to Ziklag he is joined by several, I Sam. 29: [i Chron. 12. 19-22]. On his return to Ziklag, David finds that it had been sacked by Amalek, and his family taken; he pursues Amalek, and smites them, i Sam. ^o. Saul, defeated in battle and his sons slain, kills him- self, I Sam. 31: [i Chron. 10. 1-14]. An Amalekite pretends to have slain Saul, and is put to death by David, 2 Sam. i. 1-16. David's lament over Saul and Jonathan, 2 Sam. I. 17-27. 66. (Part IV). The Reign of David (40 years). David acknowledged as king of Judah, 2 Sam. 2. 1-7. Ishbosheth proclaimed king of Israel, 2 Sam. 2. 8-1 1. Civil war ensues; David waxes stronger; Abner and Ishbosheth treacherously slain, 2 Sam. 2. 12-32: 3: 4. " See Townsend on the order. 2 SAilUEL: EPITOMIZED. 463 Date and Place. 1049, Hebron, Jerusalem. 1048. 1046, from Kirjath Jearim to house of Obededom, thence to Zion, Psa. 132, 1041. 1038-103 7, Medeba. i036audio34^ Jerusalem. 1033. 1031. 1028. 1025. 1024. Event or Jfarrative. David made king over all Israel; his troops; he dispossesses the Jebusites of the hill of Zion, and dwells there, 2 Sam. 5. 1-3: 23. 8-12, [18-39]: 5. 4, 5, 6-IO: I Chron. 11. 1-3 : [12. 23-40] : 11. 10-14, 20 [26-47], 4-9- Hiram of Tyre congratulates David ; David's family; he twice defeats the Philistines, 2 Sam. 5. 11-25,^ [13-17]: I Chron. 14. 1-17. David removes the ark ; Uzzah, not being a Levite, smitten for touching the ark (see IsTumb. 4. 15), 2 Sam. 6. i-ii: 6. 12-23: Psa. 68: 132: 105: 96: 106: I Chron. 13. 1-4,^ 5-14: 15. 1-16. 43, [5-24].* David forbidden to build the temple ; great blessings promised him ; his prayer and thanksgiving, 2 Sam. 7: I Chron. 17: Psa. 2 : 45 : 22: 16: 118: no. Victories over Philistia, 31oab, Syria, and Edom, 2 Sam. 8: i Chron. 18: Psa. 60: 108. David's kindness to Mephibosheth, 2 Sam 9.** David defeats Ammon and Syria, [2 Sam. 10]: I Chron. 19: Psa. 20: 21. Siege of Kabbah; David's adultery and murder, 2 Sam. II. I [11. 2-12. 23]: 26-31: I Chron. 20.1,3: Psa. 51: 32: 33: 103.^ Bu*th of Solomon ; Amnon, David's eldest son, forceth his sister Tamar, David's only daughter; David fails to pxinish this injury, 2 Sam. 12, [24, 25: 13. 1-22], Absalom kills Amnon, and flees, 2 Sam. 13. 23-39. Absalom brought back, and restored to his father's presence, 2 Sam. 14. 1-7, 15-17, 8-14,^18-33. Absalom raises a revolt against David, 2 Sam. 15. i-T2.g David and his followers flee ; Zadok and Abiathar sent back with the ark; Hushai desired by David to join himself to Absalom to circumvent Ahitho- phel's coimsels, 2 Sam. 15. 13-37: Psa. 3. ^ Vei\ 24: see 2 Kings 7, 6. ^ Towrf?end, following Chronicles, places the removal of the ark after David's conquest of Zion, and reads 13. 1-4 after 2 Sam. 5.1-3. *^ Ver. 4: see 6. 31. ^ gee i gam. 20. 15. ^ Psa. 51 is David's penitential Psalm, and Psa. 103 his Psalm of thanksgiving on being forgiven. The 2mmsh-inent -wsis remitted ; but as a chastisement, nearly the whole of the remainder of David's life was embittered. f The sense requires this change (Horsley). -15. 7: 40 years, i. e., after David's anointing (Lightfoot), or read 4, as Josephus, Syriac, Hales. 464 2 SAMUEL : 1 CHRO^'ICIiES : ARRANGED. Date and Place. Event or Narrative. B.C. 1024, Bahurim. Jerusalem. Mahanaim, 65 N. E. Jerusalem. Ephraim. 1023. 1021. 1019. 1016, Jerusalem. * David crosses Jordan, Psa. 42. 6. ^ Samuel omits the standing army (j 00,000), which Chronicles includes, and Samuel includes .lerusalem (jo,ooo), Avhich Chronicles omits see Lightfoot. c Ver. 13, i.e., three full addi- tional years : compare i Chron 21. 12. See d On the order, see Townsend, who differs here from Lightfoot. 1016, Gibeon, Jib, 1 7 N. w. Gilgal, Ziba's treachery to Mepbibosheth ; Shimei curses David, 2 Sam. 16. 1-14: Psa. 7. Hushai defeats Ahithophel's counsel ; Ahitnophel hangs himself, 2 Sam. 16. 15-23: 17. 1-26. David furnished with provisions, chiefly by Barzillai, 2 Sam. 17. 27-29: Psa. 42:'' 43: 55: 4: 5: 62: 143: 144: 70: 71. Absalom defeated and slain by Joab, 2 Sam. 18. David returns; Shimei pardoned; Mephibosheth ex- poses Ziba's treachery ; David's gratitude to Barzillai, 2 Sam. 19: 20. 3. Eevolt of Sheba (at Abel), 2 Sam. 20. i, 2, 4-26. The three years' famine, 2 Sam. 21. 1-14. Last wars "with the Philistines ; David's praise for victories, his enemies subdued, 2 Sam. 21. 15-22. i: [22. 2-51]: I Chron. 20. 4-8: Psa. 18. David, in pride, numbers Israel ; the plague, 2 Sam. 24. 1-9:'' 10-25:'^ I Chron. 21. 1-5: 27. 23, 24: 21. 6, 7, 8-30. David prepares materials and instructs Solomon as to the building of the temple, i Chron. 22. Adonijah's rebellion; Solomon anointed and pro- claimed David's successor; Adonijah submits, I Kings I. [1-4].'* David arranges the courses of the priests, etc. [i Chron. 23.-26]. AiTaugement of the state officers, [i Chi'on. 27. 1-22, 25-34]. David calls a solemn assembly, and exhorts both them and Solomon to the work of the temple ; the offerings of the princes and people ; David's thanksgiving; Solomon acknowledged as king, I Chi'on. 28 [11-21]: 29. 1-25: Psa. 72: 91: 145. David's final charge to Solomon ; directs Joab and Shimei to be put to death; David's last words; his death, i Kings 2. 1-9: 2 Sam. 23. 1-7: i Chron. 29. 26-30: I Kings 2. 10, II. Psalms of David, of which the date and occasion are not known, Psa. 6: 8: 12: 19: 23: 24: 28: 29: 38: 39: 40: 41: 61: 65: 69: 78: 86: 95: loi: 104: 120: 121: 122: 124: 131: 133: 139. 67. Part V. The Eeign of Solomon (40 years). Solomon's bui-nt-offcring; God giving him a choice, he asks for wisdom ; wealth and honour added to him, I Kings [2. 12]: 3. 4-15:* 2 Chron i. 1-5,* [6-12]. Passages marked thus (♦; give the fuller narrative. 1 KINGS : 1 CHRONICLES : ARRANGED. 465 Date and Place B.C. IOI5, Jei'iisalem. Tyre, Tsui-, 102 N, Jer. 1012, Jerusalem. 1012-1005, I Kings 6. 1-37. 1005, Jerusalem. 1002. lOOI, Jerusalem. 993, Jerusalem. 980-977. 977- Event or Narrative. * [2 Chron. i. 13]. Abiathar deposed; Solomon's wise judgment, I Kings 3. 15-2? Adonijah and Joab put to death Shimei not to leave Jerusalem, i Kings 2. 13-38. Solomon obtains materials and men for the building of the temple, i Kings 5. 1-18: [2 Chron. 2. 1-18]. Shimei put to death forgoing to Gath, i Kings 2 . 3 9-46. Solomon marries Pharaoh's daughter, i Kings 3. 1-3. The building of the temple, i Kings 6. 1-8, [15-56]: [7. 13-50]: 6. 9-14, 37, 38: 7. 51: [2 Chron. 3. i-9,]\[3, 4, 22], [10-14]: [3- 15-4. 22]: [5. i]. The dedication of the temple, i Kings 8. i-ii, 62-64, 12-61, 65, 66: 2 Chron. [5. 2-14:^ 7. 4-7: 6.-7. 3, 8, 10]: Psa. 47 I*' 97: 98: 99: 100: 135: 136. Other buildings of Solomon ; God makes a covenant with him, i lungs 7. 1-12: [9. 1-9]: 2 Chron. 7. 11-22. Acquisitions of Solomon ; he carries out David's arrangements for the temple sei-vices. 12-16]. I Kings 9. 10-14, 15-25 : [2 Chron. 8. i- Pharaoh's daughter brought by .^olomon to his new- palace, I Kings 9. 24: [: Solomon's song upon the occasion. The greatness of Solomon, i Kings 10. 26: 9. 26-28: 10. 14-25, 27-29: [2 Chron. 9. 2 Chron. 8. 11]. [Cant. i.-8.]d 4. 1-28, [2-19]: 26, 25: I, 9. 27, 28]. 14: 8. i; 9. 13-21, 24: I. 15-17; [2 Chron. The wisdom of Solomon, i Kings 4. 29-33 9.22]: Prov. 1.-3 1 : [5: 6. 24-35: 7]. Solomon's fame : visit of the queen of Sheba, I Kings 4. 34: 10. 1-13 : [2 Chron. 9. 23, 1-12]. Solomon's wives seduce him into idolatry; Hadad and Rezon stirred up against him, 1 Kings 11. 1-25. Ahijah predicts to Jeroboam the division of the kingdom; Solomon seeks to kill Jeroboam, who flees into Egypt, i Bangs 11. 26-40. Solomon writes Ecclesiastes, probably as an expres- sion of repentance, Eccl. or the Preacher, 1.-12: [3.-11. 8]. "^ Ver. 3, of the first measiire, i. e., the larger cubit used before the captivity, nearly a yard. ^ Ver. II, "white raiment" additional to i Kings. The Jews offered the sacrifice, then prayed, and then the fire descended; hence this order (Townsend). *^ Psa. 47. 5 : see 2 Chron. 5. 13. The other Psalms are all appro- priate to this service, and were probably used. The date of their composition is not known. "^ Compai-e 4. 8 : 7. 4, with 2 Chi-ou. 8. 6. X 3 4G6 PROPHETICAL BOOKS. Date and Place. B.C. 976, Jerusalem. 976, Shechem, Event or Narrative. Death of Solomon; Eehoboam his son succeeds, I Kings II. 41-43: [2 Chron. 9. 29-31]. 68. The Division of the Kingdom. On the accession of Eehoboam, the people, headed by Jeroboam, demand a relaxation of bm'dens, I Kings 12. 1-5 : [2 Chron. 10. 1-5]. Acting iTpon the advice of the young men instead of the old men, Eehoboam refuses the request of the people, I Kmgs 12. 6-15: [2 Chron. 10. 6-15]. Ten tribes revolt; Judah and Benjamin adhere to Rehoboam, and form the kingdom of Judah, I Kings 12. 16-19: [2 Chron. 10. 16-19]. The ten tribes make Jeroboam their king, and form the kingdom of Israel, i Kings 12-20. CHAPTER III. The division. Historical and Prophetical Books from the Death of Solomon to the close of the Old Testament Canon. Sec. I. Brief Historical Vieiu of this Period. The Prophets in Connection ivith History. 69. With the reign of Solomon ended the glory of Israel. The kingdom was thenceforth dismembered. Ten tribes, of wliich Ephraim was chief, separated from the rest, and formed the kingdom of Israel ; Judah, with which Benjamin was now united, alone remaining faithful to the house of David. To the latter, however, most of the Levites, and many who feared God out of all the tribes, ulti- mately adhered, 2 Chron. 11. 13-16. 70. The history of these kingdoms presents striking con- Israel from the division to the de- struction of the kingdom trasts and instructive lessons. Jeroboam, the first king of Israel, and himself an Ephraimite, was raised to the throne by God, and a conditional promise was given that his kingdom should be as David's (i Kings 11. 38). But Jeroboam had neither the PROPHECY AND HISTORY. 467 fiiith nor the obedience of David. To preserve the independence of his kingdom, he established a separate priesthood, and set up idol- altars and images at Dan and Bethel. He thus framed a system of idolatry, denied practically the unity and spirituality of God, and perpetuated, in an exaggerated form, the evil for which the kingdom had been rent from Solomon (Deut. 28. 15: i Kings 11. 11). Un- happily, the people shared his feelings, and through his influence idolatry became ever after part of the national religion. He him- self, therefore, is branded inhistoiy as " Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, who made Israel to sin." From the time of Jeroboam, the first king, to Hoshea, the nine- teenth and last . we find no one king free from the charge of general depravity. Of king after king, it is said that he " did that which was evil in the sight of the Lord." Jehu, indeed, destroyed the prophets of Baal, and for his partial obedience was rewarded with enlarged temporal blessing; but he ''took no heed to walk in the law of the Lord, for he departed not from the sin of Jeroboam, who made Lsrael to sin." The nation copied then' kings. There were a few exceptions, but it needed, in Elijah's days, a direct revelation to discover them; and out of the hundreds of thousands of whom Isi-ael was composed, but 7,000 are mentioned as not having bowed the knee unto Baal. This fearful condition was the more guilty because of the warnings which had been given. Jeroboam knew why God had rejected Solomon, and was himself repeatedly rebuked by Ahijah and others. Withm fifty years appeared the prophets Jehu and Micaiah, Elijah and Elisha; the two latter working more miracles than any prophet had wrought since the days of Moses and Joshua. A few years after their proti-acted ministry came Jonah, Hosea, and Amos. All the messages of these prophets were confirmed by Divine chastisements. Jeroboam and his family were cut off, as were Baasha and Zimri. In the 254 years of the monarchy, nine different families occupied the throne, and nearly their entire history is made up of bloodshed and confusion. Zechariah, the son of Jeroboam the second, was slain, after a reign of six months, by Shallum; and he, after a reign of one month, by Menahem, his son and successor. Pekahiah was assassinated by Pekah, and Pekah is put to death by Hoshea; while most of this wickedness is ascribed to an unhallowed adherence to the poHcy and idolatx-ies of theu' first king, r Kings 14. 9, 10: 2 Kings 17. 21-23. Se thought that policy essential to the stability of his throne; it proved the ruin both of himself and of his kingdom. There is, indeed, "a way that seemeth right unto a man, but the end thereof are the ways of death." 468 PROPHECY AND HISTORY. The distrust of Divine power and contempt of Divine law in which these evils originated proved the means as well as the primary cause of the overthrow of the kingdom. Pekah sought an alliance with Rezin of Syria against Ahaz of Judah. Pekah ^vas at first victorious, and Ahaz, copying the sin of his neighbour, applied for help to Tiglath-Pileser, son of Pul, king of Assyria. He came and chastised the Israelites, carrying into Media the two and a half tribes beyond Jordan, and making the rest tributary. This was the beginning of the captivity, and might have proved a salutary warning (738 B. c.) Ten years later, So, king of Egypt, alarmed at the power of Assyria, induced Hezekiah and Hoshea to withhold the tribute which their j)redecessors had engaged to pay. This revolt brought up Shalmaneser, the son of Tiglath-Pileser, with a large host; and in the end Samaria fell; Hoshea was carried to Nineveh, and Israel was annexed to the Assyrian crown. The conquered country was afterwards peopled by settlers from the region of the Tigris and Euphrates. They intermarried with those of the Israelites who had remained, and ultimately took the name of Samaritans. At first, they served the " God of the country" and ''worshipped idols;" but Josiah, having destroyed the altar at Bethel, and carried his reformation even into Zebulon, they rested in a system of belief nearly as pure as that of the Jews, though less regular in some of its observances. What became of the ten tribes is not known. Customs, rites, and features like theirs have been discovered in all parts of the world. Many of them seem to have returned at different periods to their own land. Cyrus addressed his proclamation to all the people of Jehovah (Ez. i. 1-3), and some of the rites connected with the consecration of the temple imply that there were present remnants of all the tribes; while many Israelites seem to have been settled in Galilee and Persea long before the days of our Lord (i Mac. 5. 9-24). 71. Very different were the destinies of Judah. Of twenty History of kings, all descendants of David, who, for 388 years, Judah. occupied the throne, six are mentioned with great praise (Asa, Jehoshaphat, Uzziah, Jotham, Hezekiah, and Josiah), and others are commended. Several, however, were fearfully wicked ; Jehoram, Ahaz, Manasseh, and Amon, in- troducing idolatrous worship into the temple itself, and filling Jerusalem with blood. The fatal error of the Jews, politically and religiously, was tlieir alliance with idolaters, originating, as it did, in woi'ldliness and distrust, and tending to conform them to their idolatrous, neigh- bours. Ahaz sought, ;is we have seen, the aid of Tiglath-Pileser PROPHECY A^-D HISTORY. 469 against the kiugs of Israel and Syi"ia; and though, at first, he was delivered from impending evil, he really received from the Assyrians "no help at all." The payment of a heavy tribute was the first immediate result of this alliance, and other results soon followed. It cost Hezekiah most of his treasure, and but for special interposition would have cost him his throne. Manasseh it cost his libei'ty, and Josiah (who felt himself bound to oppose the progi-ess of Necho eastward to Carchemish), his life. Jehoahaz, his son, was carried captive to Egypt. Jehoiakim (the brother and successor of Jehoahaz), who owed his crown to Necho, was set aside by Nebuchadnezzar. Shortly afterwards, his son Jeconiah was deposed by the same monarch and taken to Babylon; Zede- kiah, the uncle of Jeconiah, and the third sou of Josiah, being made king, after a solemn oath of allegiance, in his room. Tempted by Pharaoh Hophi-a, and against the remonstrance of Jeremiah, he revolted, and a third time Nebuchadnezzai' came against Jerusalem. After a siege of eighteen montlis, the city was taken at midnight; most of the inhabitants were put to death, the children of Zede- kiah were slain, and he himself (his eyes put out) was earned in chains to Babylon. At the same time, or a few months later, Xebuzaradan, the general of Nebuchadnezzar, burned the city, destroyed the temple, and earned off the remainder of the sacred vessels and the greater part of the nation, a few poor only being left to till the soil. It is remarkable that no attempt was made to colonize the country, as had been done in the case of Israel; the providence of God thus keeping it vacant, to be reoccupied by the people on the completion of their captivity. On the first visit of Nebuchadnezzar to Jerusalem (606), he carried off to Babylon Daniel and his com- panions: on the second, when he took away Jeconiah (597), Ezekiel also was taken; Jeremiah and the other prophets of the captivity being left in the laud. 72. Comparing these facts with prophecy, we have some Harmony of instructive conclusions. AU the events thus foSS-'''''^ hastily sketched were foretold, and yet in every ledge with case the fulfilment of prophecy involves a moral dom and re* lesson, and in no case does it supersede the free- Xsfrated^n ^^^ ^^ ^^^^ human agency which accomplished it. this history. Ahijah, for example, foretells the division of the king- dom, the captivity of Israel, and even the place where they were to be scattered (i Kings 14. 15). Isaiah foretells the overthrow of Samaria, as Hosea had done, and the date; the preservation of Judah, and, finally, its destruction by Babylon, then a feeble and 470 PROPHECY AND HISTOEY. friendly state : the catastrophe is hopeless to Samaria, "for Ephraim is to be broken from being a people;" but not to Judah, for a restoration is promised. The person and name of the restorer, hi& coimtry then scarcely known, the restoration effected by the de- struction of Babylon, with the circumstances of the siege, the rebuilding of the city and of the temple— all these events, and many others, are foretold, and we read in Scripture of the accom- plishment of these prophecies; but in every case the moral lesson and the freedom of human agency remain undisturbed. Jeroboam's appointment, for example, was not kindness to him, but chastise- ment to the degenerate family of David; and its immediate cause was the folly of Rehoboam, who acted under the excitement of human passions, irrespective of the Divine prediction. What change a race of pious kings in Israel might have made in the destiny of that people need not be conjectured; but the final ovei-throw of its actual kings, though foretold, was not less a fit consequence of their sins; which sins, however, were repeatedly i-ebuked. The prophecy was still moral, and human agency still free. The failure of Sennacherib in his attack upon Jerusalem was foretold; and it was the fitting result of his defiance '' of the Holy One of Israel" (Isa. 37. 23). Hezekiah's deliverancQ, too, though foretold, was no less a blessing vouchsafed to a humble praying frame. Both Judah and Israel, again, might have been punished immediately by God; but in fact, both nations were suffered to work out their own punishment. Their disobedience was the very agency employed for the fulfilment of the Divine word. Everywhere in prophecy we have, as Davison has remarked, " God's overruling poitcr and man's agency concurring to complete predictions, and that completion a moral end, in conformity to a sentence of the Divine law." In some of the nari-atives of the Bible we have the first and second only; SA when Amon, a wicked prince, called his son Josiah (i Kings 13. 2), not knowing the prediction till he had fulfilled it; or as when Caesar Augustus issued a decree that brought Mary to Bethlehem (Luke 2. 4) ; or as when the cry of " Galilee " by the Jewish crowd sent Jesus to Herod (Luke 23. 5). But in the prophets we have generally the three combined; Divine power, human agency, and such dispositions of heart in all concerned as make the fulfilment of predictions in harmony with the principles of the moral government of God. The fact may involve mystery, but it is not thei-efore the less in- structive or true. See, for examples, i Kings 22. 34: 2 Kings 9. 34-37, and the fulfilment of Jer. 29. 10-15. The books 73- The books of this period may be arranged epitomized and brieflj epitomized as follows. PROPHETS : ARRANGED. 4/1 (i). I Kings 12.-2 Kings 17^ Giving the history of Judah and Israel 2 Chkon. 1 2.-3 1." / frona the division of the kingdom to the captivity of Israel by Shalmaneser : 254 years. Jonah : histoiy of his mission to Nineveh. Joel: the desolation of Judah; the outpouring of the Spirit; judgments against different nations. Amos: prophecies conceming different nations and Israel. Hosea: warns Israel; foretells overthrow, and points to latter days. Isaiah: various predictions and warnings to Israel and Judah; also to various nations, 1.-36.; history, 36.-39.; the return and the latter days, 40-end. Micah: prophecies to Israel and Judah, and on the latter days. Nahum : just after the destruction of Samaria, he foretells the destiniction of Nineveh. (2). 2 Kings 18.-25. "4Gi\Taig the history of the decline and fall of 2 Chron. 32.-36./ the kingdom of Judah, and of the cap- tivity by Nebuchadnezzar: 184 years. Isaiah, Nahum : see above. Zephaniah: warns Judah; prophesies against various nations; speaks of the return and the latter days. JERE3IIAH : in Jerusalem and Egypt, gives predictions conceraing Judah, Israel, and various nations, 1.-39, 46.-50., 40.-45., chiefly historical; 51. not his. Habakkuk: prophecies on the return and on the Chaldees. Daniel: in Babylon, history, 1.-6.; prophecies on various king- doms and Christ, 7.-9. (10.-12.: see under 3). Ob API AH : prophecies of Edom and the latter days. Ezekiel: on the Chehar, gives various predictions on Israel, Judah, heathen nations, and the latter days. (3.) Haggai, Zechariah: at Jerusalem, 536-520,6.0. \ Daniel: 10. -12., at ."Babylon. f Esther : in Babylon : Nehemiah, in Babylon and at Jei-u- [ salem, 457-445, B.C.) Giving an accoimt of successive restorations under Zerub- babel (536, B.C.); Ezra C457, B.C.); and Nehemiah (^/^Sf B.C.); the rebuilding ana nnal completion of the temple, with prophecies of various kingdoms (Dan.) and the latter days. Malachi: rebukes the corruptions of Divine service; foretells the coming of '' Elijah" and of our Lord, 436-397, b.c. * 2 Chron. gives the history of Judah only, not twenty verses being devoted to Israel; both books contain many additional facts. 472 rnopHETs in lsrael. A Table of the Prophets, showing when they prophesied. KlXGSOF M ^ W JUDAH. :2 g ^ B.C. ^ ^ » Daniel. Hose A. Joel. 1 < < < ■< K cs •< < i < Kings of Israel. Amaziah, 839 1 i 1 1 1 Jeroboam 11- 1 1 825 1 ' 1. ! 1 1 Uzziah, 810 1 i 1 \ 1 1 i n 1' 1 790 1 1 1 1 1 Interregnum, 784 1 Menahem, 772 770 1 1 ■ 1 Pekahiah, 761 Jotham. 758 l._L ._ — 1 " Pekahj 759 Ahaz, 742 1 740- . - -- Anarchy, 739 Hezekiah, 727 |T 1 Rosea, 730 720 r 1 — _L 9 2, a" p E! ."1 ^ 1 p 1 n * Malachi, between 4j6 and 420. 710 "Manasseh, 698 1 090 ii ficn 1 ^5°Amon,64J Josiah.64r 1 1 - — = — 610 ! 1 1 1 — T ._!_ — Jehoahaz, 610 1 • • . — 1 '~r — — — Jeconiah, 599 5^^i)est.of Je- ^Q^rusalem588 — — IL 1 — — — efin 1 1 1 -— 1 1 1 — — Zerubbabel,5j6 .... 1 * * * ' ' • "I" 1 - T I * 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I The date after each king's name indicates the commencement of his reign. — Joel is placed twice, as it is doubtful at which period he lived. NATORE OF LATER PROPHECIES. 473 iSoc. 2. The Nature of Projjliecy during this Period. Predictionb arranged. 74. The prophetic spirit which we have seen revived in the l*r(.phets of days of Samuel and David (Pt. ii., § 45), becomes yet this period, more active during the later period of the Jewish history. We have in succession sixteen prophets, whose writings remain, in addition to the authors of some of the Psalms and the large class who appeared in Israel and Judah, such as Elijah and Elisha, without leaving any permanent records of their teaching. Of the prophets whose writings are included in Scripture, Jonah, Amos, and Hosea, addressed the Israelites before the destruction of Samaria, as did both Isaiah and Micah, though these latter jjrophesied to Judah chiefly. After the captivity of the ten tribes, Jeremiah pro- phesied briefly concerning them, as did Ezekiel. ]\Iost of the prophecies, however, are devoted to the destinies of Judah, of heathen nations, and of the church. > 75. A synoptical view of the i:)rophecies of Scripture will be seen in § 76, and though not minutely accu- view of the rate it wiU give a just idea of the topics and con- wrif'n^s^ nection of the whole. Its pai-tial inaccuracy, or, lessons rather, incompleteness, is owing to the fact, that aug J 1 . g^.gj^^g foretold are so closely connected with one another, and predictions so blended with moral instruction, that they can be grouped only according to the aim or general purjDose of each. This has been done, and the lessons taught by this view are both obvious and important. 1. Comparing this table of prophecy with the miracles of the Old Testament, it will be seen that as prophecy gains greater compass and clearness, the evidence of miracles is withdrawn. Before the later era of prophecy begins, in the days, for example, of Elijah, miracles are comparatively fi-equent ; but even then we have nothing equal to those of Moses and Joshua. Xow they cease. Prophetic revelation is enlarged, and having its fulfilment as it enlarges, it supplies the place of all other exudence. How strikingly it illus- trates the infinite importance of the gospel to notice that, to sustain and prove Christ's mission, all forms of ancient evidence combine. He fulfils old predictions and gives new ones ; while his very person and life form a miraculous embodiment of power, wisdom, and love. 2. Prophecy on the subject of heathen nations becomes most copious in the age when these nations seem to triumph the most. 474 KATUEE OP LATER PROPHECIES. Their victories, and tlie boasting idolatrous spirit these A'ictories cherished, severely tried the faith of trtie believers, and seemed to shake the credit of their religion, Psa. 79, 80: Lament. The pride of the conquerors is therefore rebuked, and the faith of the church confirmed by a series of predictions denouncing the overthrow of the vei-y nations whose successes are foretold. See the prophecies of Isaiah to various nations; of Nahum to Assyria; of Habakkuk to the Chaldeans; of Obadiah to Edom; of Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel. 3 . The gradual extension of Divine revelation, so as not only to include a larger range of topics, but to reach various nations, is highly instructive. Jonah and Nahum address, in their writtm prophecies. Gentiles only. Gentiles only are also the theme of the prophecies of Habakkuk and Obadiah, and in most of the other pro]Dhets whole chapters are devoted to them. Plainly, God is not the God of one place or people. His providence rules over the earth, and all people are subject to Him. Heathen nations, it is true, are introduced into Scripture predictions, as into Scripture history, becalise of their connection Vv'ith the church or chosen nation, but the lesson remains. All are within his government, and it is distinctly intimated that all are by and by to become obedient to his law. 4. It will be remarked, also, that the era of tlie decline and fall of the temporal kingdom (both of Israel and Judah) is the veiy era selected for the fullest and most expressive disclosure of a new and spiritual kingdom. As the first dispensation seems hastening to decay, the objects and promises of the second are set forth to our view. All the prophets who speak of the ruin speak also of the restoration, and blend with the restoration predicted blessings, such as had never yet been possessed. This arrangement clearly indicates the unchangeableness of the Divine counsel. And it does more. It displays Divine mercy. In the heart of the devout Jew, under a dispensation which promised temporal blessing as the token of Divine favour, prophecy and recent events must have created the \itmost perplexity. The threatened and actual visitations were all deserved; but in that fact he found no relief. To quiet the agita- tions of his afflicted faith, the evangelical prophecies were inter- posed. By means of them, the hopes of the church were sent on into the more distant future and present anxieties were alleviated. As, therefore, at first, prophecy lightened the darkness of fallen nature, so now it lightens the darkness of misused or neglected grace. How much even inspired prophets needed this consolation may be gathered from the Lamentations of Jeremiah and from several of the Psalms, Psa. 79. 4, 9: 74. 2. 20. 2.'ATURE OF LATER PROPKECT. . 475 In the mean time, also, the spmtuality of ti*ue religioD, and the nature of that work on which it is founded, are more clearly dis- closed. The prophets bring out the true meaning of the ancient law, insisting on the inferiority of ritual worship, and indicating with quite evangelical plainness the great Sacrifice of the cross, the Divine nature, and the ultimate rule of the sufferer, Isa. 5 3 : Dan. 9. How touching, that this clearer revelation of the spirituality of religion should be made at a time when all public religious institu- tions were corrupt, and after the temple itself had been destroyed. 5. The most remarkable lesson remains. While nearly all the prophets point to the gospel and the reign of our Lord, each speaks in language at once appropriate and peculiar. All foretell a glorious future, and the same glorious futiure; but the terms in which they foretell it are taken either from impending evil or contemplated good. That future is the opposite of present calamity, or it is the completion of present blessing. Joel, for example, foresees deso- lating invasions of Judah, but in the end the scene of desolation is Egypt and Edom; while Judah shall dwell for ever, and Jerusalem from generation to generation, 3. 19, 20. Amos foresees the over- throw of both Samaria and Zion; but beyond these calamities he beholds a different scene. "In that day, I will raise up the taber- nacle of David that is fallen . . . and I "will build it as in the days of old," 9. II., And such is the character of all predictions till the end of the captivity. Restoi'ation literally is the first theme; but the predictions that foretell it, borrow from it phi'aseology intended to express the glory of the latter days. After the captivity, the building of the temple is the first theme of inspired predictions. Haggai foretells its coming glory, 2. 6-9; and, under the type of Zerubbabel, the victories of our Lord, 2. 21-23. Zechariah foretells its completion, i. 16, 17; and by the symbolical act of crowning Joshua the priest, connects with this work the coming of him v/hose name is the Branch (Isa. 4. i ; 11. i: Jer. 23. 5), who shall build the temple of the Lord and bear the glory, 6. 10-15. Malachi, again, appears after the temple is built. AVhat was then wantmg was, sincere worship and a holy priesthood, I. 10, 11: 3. 10. He therefore foretells a new covenant, and the coming of a messenger who shall purify the sons of Levi ; so that the offering of Judah and Jerusalem shall "be pleasant unto the Lord, as in the days of old," 3. 4. Here, therefore, as elsewhere, prophecy takes its phraseology from the condition of the people to whom it was addressed. It foretells an early blessing, and in terms which make this blessing a pledge and type of infinitely richer blessings to be bestowed in the more distant future. Important rules of intei-pretation are suggested by this fact. 476 THE PROPHETS ORDER, 76. Tabular View of tlie Prophets, showing the q . 6 Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, i% :■$ •§ % 810-785. 800-725, 765-693. ^t -ioo C CO 00 Passages chiefly ►? S'~ Moral, Devotiokal . 25.-27. II . . To Israel . . 2.-8. 4.-IJ. 9. 8-21 : 28. . n ToJudah . , . 4. 15, etc. : I. -5.: 22. 8, etc.: I. 8- 12.2 29 : 30. 2. 12 HiSTOBICAL . I. -4. • • 36..J9. . . • Prophetic (A) - Israel .... • 2.-9 10 I 5.8-6.J 7. i-25:n4. 24- 8: 9.8:1 28:17. 15. II \ ! 1 Judah .... . c.2,4.5 , 22.1: 24:18.5-9 X:2. I 7. 52. 27 Asssyria, "Nineveh . J 4 9:14: JO : 31. . Babylon. Ghaldiea . • JJ: 14. 24-28: 21. Egypt .... • • 19: 20. Ethiopia . . . , 18. . . . lidom . . . - . I. II 21. II Moab .... 2. I • 15 : 16. Syrians \ I. I.J.5 * 7.1-9: 8: 17. . Tyre .... ^ '. 9 23. . . . Other Nations . Ammon, E'hiiisUa, Arabia, 21. ij, etc. Pbophetic (b)— Our Lord's first 1. 17 . II. I:ij.i4 7.14: 9:40.-63. 2.28 5. coming. Events subsequent. . where— Israel is named . . 9. 11-15 ij. 14 I. 10: 28. 5 : 10. r fic (-2.12 J 2-14- 20, etc. 12. 1 2J <^8. Judah „ 14. 3. 5 1 22. 20: 24. 14 A - etc.: 9: I. -5.: 27.-35. 40. to 2.28- 4-5 i and • Gentiles . , 9.12 . I .66. I 7. See Acts Egypt converted . 15. 17 . 19. I8-2J. Assyria „ . , . 19. 23-25. Moab restored . . , , . . Elam „ • • • • • • A^•D SUEJECTS OP THEIR PROPHECIES, ordei' aud chief subjects of their prophecies. 477 .g" . U.I j . iS igo'! •o ^ 1 .— eo "i d 3r^d If Jeremiah, "^ ?> Daniel, -fn Ezekiel. B.C. £2 'r t^^ u P 628-585. 606-534- u 595-536. «8 ^ 6 lis . . Lam. 1.-5. . 3. • • • • • • • I: 2. 10-19 1.1-7:7. 1:2: 3- 7- 18 • 28: 29: 32. 1-25: 3^.- 43. 7 : 52. 30: 31. 1.6. -' • I. I.-25.: 27: 29: 33-31. 26:33:34: 44:46.26: 50. I. 9- • 9.-24-: 33: 36: 37: 39.-48.? • 1.7-7.: 11. I.-3. 2.13 2. 12 2.9 Ammon, Phiii'stia, 2. 25.12: 37: 50: 51. 43 : 44.29: 46 : 50. 49. 7 : Lam. 4.21 48. . . 49.23 Ammou, 49: Phi- listia, 47 : Arabia, Persia, 49. 2. 2. 36 : 4- 19:5.25 Persia, Grecia, Rome, 11: the four kingd.7. I- 31. 3-18. 29.-3 1. 30. 4-6. 25.-35. 25. • 26.-28. Ammon, 21. 23 : 25 : Philistia, do.: Gog, 33: 39- ■ ■ 31. 22: 30. 9. 24-26 : 7. IJ. 34. 23, etc. 2.7.9 2. 10, II; 9.9:11. 12: 12. 10; 6: 13: I. 7 3: 4* 1-3: - » . • 7 : 12. • f (30: hi: • • I"- 10. <39- , 23.5 , . I 28: 29. 23, 21 : 36. ^etc. J. 4- • 3.8-20 I 3-^3 ' 25 : 34- 2.6, I. 7-7-: 1 20, 21 : 1 "7 8.-14. I 40-48: * L . 7. -12. • * I ^ 48. 47. 1 • 49- 39- 1 478 joxAH. Sec. 3. TJie Books of Jonah, Joel, Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micahy Nahiim. The Booh of Jonah (B.C. 840-784). 77. Jonah succeeded Elisha as the messenger of God to Date and the ten tribes, and flourished between 120 and 180 history. years after the death of Solomon. He probably lived in the reign of Jehoahaz, when Hazael was fulfilling the predictions of Elisha, 2 Kings 8, 12 : 10. 32. He foretold the enlarged territory and brief prosperity of Israel under Jeroboam the second, in whose reign the prophet himself probably lived, 2 Kings 14. ^5. He was a native of Gath- hepher, in Zebulun or Gahlee, and is thus a proof of the falsehood of the statement of the Pharisees, that out of Gahlee cometh no prox3het, John 7. 52, He is certainly the most ancient of the prophets whose writings have come down to us. This book, with the exception of chap. 2, is a simple narrative, „ and relates that Jonah, being sent on a mission to Nineveh (which was at that time the chief city of the Gentile world, and was distinguished equally for its magnificence and its wickedness), attempts to flee to Tarshish; but, being over- taken by a storm, lie is cast into the sea, swallowed by a great fish, and contuiues in its belly three days (chap, i); when, earnestly praying to God, he is delivered, chap. 2. At the renewed command of God, he goes to Nineveh, and announces its destruction; upon Avhich the Ninevites, believing his words, fast, pray, repent, and are graciously spared, chap. 3. Jonah, fearing to be thought a false prophet, peevishly repines at the mercy of God, and wishes for death. Leaving the city, he is sheltered by a gourd, which, however, shortly vithers; and Jonah, manifesting great impatience and rebellion, is shown, by his concern about the gourd, the pro- priety of God's mercy to Nineveh, chap. 4. That this book is a strictly historical narrative is evident, not only from the plain meaning of the language employed, but also from the manner in which the existence and ministry of Jonah, together with the main facts of his history, are referred to by our Lord (Matt, 12. 39-41: 16. 4: Luke 11. 29, 30), who, explicitly re- cognising his prophetical office, as he does that of Elijah, Isaiah, and Daniel, represents his being in the belly of the fish as a real miracle ; grounds upon it as a fact the certainty of a future analo- gous event in his own history; and, after mentioning the prophet's px'eaching at Nineveh, and the repentance of the inhabitants, JOXAH : LESSOXS : JOEL, 479 concludes by declaring respecting himself, ''Behold! a greater than Jonah is here." As Jonah himself has generally been considered the author (a conclusion which the Chaldaisms of the original confirm), the record of the sin of the prophet affords another illustration of that strict regard to truth which characterizes the inspired volxune. The spiiitual lessons in this narrative are highly instructive. The Spiritual prophet is in his own person a prophetic sign of Chi'ist. lessons. The miracle of his deliverance from his thi'ee days of death is "the fvdlest and nearest shadow of Chiist's lying in the grave which the Scripture affords" (Cradock). The first image, thei-efore, which meets us in the opening of the prophetic canon is one that shadows forth, though dimly, the great fact of the resur- rection of our Lord (Davison). The whole nai-rative presents, too, the most striking contrast between the tender mercy of God, and the rebellion, impatience, and selfishness of his sers'ant; and further, between the readiness with which the Ninevites repented, at the preaching of a prophet who visited them as a stranger, and the manner in which the Israelites treated the sei'vants of Jehovah, who lived and labom-ed amongst them. At the same time, it might serve to teach the people of Israel that the Divine regard and compassion were not confined to them alone, but were extended to other subjects of God's government; also to intimate to them then- high destiny, in cai-rying the tidings of salvation to the pagan world, and to keep up the expectation of that happy period, when repentance and the forgiveness of sins should be preached in the name of Christ to all nations. If not a formal type, the history is a real example of the genius of the gospel. To all, the book furnishes encom^gement to humiliation and prayer; to faithfulness in publishing God's word to the guilty, and to implicit resignation to his will. TJie Booh of Joel, b. c, 810-795. 78. We have no account in the Bible of the personal his- tory of Joel, nor does tradition give much light in relation to hhn. He was the son of Pethuel (Joel i. i), and it is said, of the tribe of Reuben. It is inferred from his wi'itings, that he lived in Judah, probably not later than the reign of Uzziah, ■which extended from 810 b. c, to 758 b. c. : for when he mentions the enemies of his country, he names the Phoe- nicians, Philistines, Idumeans, and Egyptians, chap. 3. 4-19 ; 480 JOEL. but makes no reference to the Assyrians and Babylonians ; which he probably would have done, had those two empires been already formidable to the Jews. The whole book indi- cates, moreover, that the prophet lived at a time, when the people of Judah had not fallen into that extreme depravity, which, in later times, drew down upon them such heavy chastisements. Uzziah had indeed begun to hft up his heart, 2 Chron. 26. 16 : -but the evil seems as yet rather a subject of prophecy than of history, though given in historical form. He was contemporary with Hosea and Amos ; and as they addressed Israel, so he addressed Judah. In the first chapter, (1-2. 11), the prophet delineates, with most graphic force, an impending devastation, succes- sive armies of locusts (i. 4), and burning drought (ver. 18, 19), representing in this form, probably, the calamities conse- quent on coming invasions. He then exhorts to penitence, fasting, and prayer (2. 12-17), pro- mising the removal of these evils, and rich evangelical blessing. He foretells in the clearest terms, the effusion of the Holy Spirit (2. 18-31: Acts 2. 1-21: 10. 41), and the destruction of Jerusalem, a prediction given with such force, as to be in some measure, des- criptive of the final judgment (2. 30: Matt. 24. 29;. In chap. 3, he foretells the assemblmg of the nations in the valley of the Judgment of the Lord (Jehoshaphat), and their des- truction, the establishment of Jerusalem as the holy city, and the glorious state of peace and prosperity to be enjoyed by the church in the days of the Messiah. His style is remarkably clear and elegant; obscure only towards the close, where its beauties are shaded by allusions to Style. events not yet accomplished. The double destruction foretold in chaps. 1-2. 11, the first by the locusts, the second, by the enemies of whom they were harbingers, is painted in terms that are reciprocally metaphorical, and admirably adapted to the two- fold character of the description. (Gi'ay.) Joel was held in great reverence by the ancient Jews, and is quoted by both Peter and Paul, Acts 2: Eom. 10. 13. 79. There are dififerent views, it may be added, on the meaning of the description given in chaps. 1-2. 12. Some regard the whole as literal, and apply it either to the famine Meaning of ^^^ drought, of which Amos speaks, 4. 7, 8 ; or to the chaps. I, 2. seven years of famine, that desolated Juda3a in the days of Joram, 2 I^ngs 8. 1-3. Others regard the description as figura- JOEL: AMOS. 481 tive, and apply it to the invasion by Tiglatli-Pileser, Shalmaue.sfcr, Sennacherib, and Nebuchadnezzar, or to the subjugation of the country by Assyiians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. Others, as Olshausen, combine these views, and deem it a description of im- pending calamity generally, both literal and figiirative. ' ' Locust " is certainly used with this double reference in Scripture (see symbols), and in the second chapter, expre-ssions are used with apparently a double aspect, as like expressions were afterwards used by our Lord, Matt. 24, referring to an earlier and a final visita- tion. Indeed, as all great and Divine deliverances prefigure or represent the deliverance of the Cross, so all gi-eat punitive visita- tions supply figm-es for describing the Judgment. The Booh of Amos, B. c. 810-785. 80. Amos appears to have been contemporary with Hosea, and hke him, was sent to the ten tribes. Both prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah and Jero- boam II., and Amos saw his first vision " two years before the earthquake," which happened, as we learn from Zechariah, in the days of Uzziah (Zech. 14. 5, see also Isa. 5. 25). He appears to have prophesied in Bethel (7. 10-13), ^^^ ^^ did not belong to the kingdom of Israel, being an inhabitant, and probably a native, of Tekoa, a city south of Jerusalem, and on the borders of the vast open pastures (" wilderness "), of the hill country of Judah. By profession he was a herdsman, and a dresser of sycamore trees (7. 14) : " Not a prophet, or a prophet's son," L e., not trained to that office, but called by an irresistible Divine commission (3. 8 : 7. 15), to prophesy unto Israel. To this fact he alludes, when Amaziah, the idola- trous priest in Bethel, charged him with conspiring against Jeroboam. His previous occupation ought to have removed all suspicion of pohtical connection with the house of David, and to us it illustrates the grace which selects its ministers " from the tents of the shepherd, as well as from the palace of the sovereign," quahfying each for the duties to which Iig is called, see i Cor. i. 27, 29. Amos speaks of himself as the author of these prophecies (7. 8: 8. I, 2), and his prophetic character is established by the testimony of Stephen the first martyr, and James (Acts 7. 42, 43: 15. 15-17). and by the exact fulfilment of his predictions. This book is enu- merated in all the early lists of canonical authors (see Part i. § ifio). The style of Amos is simple, but by no means deficient in pic- Y 482 AMOS : HOSEA. turesque beauty. liis manner of life may be traced in the illustra- tions he selects; ■which are taken mostly from rural employments: many of them are original and striking, while all have the life and freshness of nature. His knowledge of the events of remote antiquity (9. 7), and of others more recent, not elsewhere recorded (6. 2), the regular com'se of his thoughts, and the correctness of his language, all tend to show that the responsible and often dangerous (3. 12), occupation of a shepherd was still as favourable to mental culture, as in the days of Moses and David. The people of Israel were now rapidly filling up the measure of their sins. The mission of Amos was, therefore, rather to thi-eaten chan to console. He rebukes, among other things, the corruption of their mannei"s, which kept pace vnih. their prosperity: he charges the great men with partiality as judges, and violence towards the poor: and he foretells, as a punisliment from God, the captivity of the ten tribes in a foreign country; a prediction accomplished about sixty yeai's afterwards, when Shalmaneser, the king of Assyria^ des- troyed the kingdom. This book begins with aunouncijig Divine judgments against the states around Juda?a, and against the two Hebrew nations themselves^ (r, 2), The prophet then sets before the Ephraimites their sins in detail : what God had done to bring them back to himself; how they may return to God; and the chastisements which were in reserve for their obduracy (3-6). This is followed by symbolical visions, representing successive punishments to be inflicted on the Israelites, each more severe than the preceding. The certainty and the near approach of their ruin is declared (8. 9- J 4). But, beyond this calamity, the prophet is commissioned to foi-etell new things in the distant future. And he concludes, with assurances that God will not utterly destroy the house of Israel ; but, after sifting and cleansing it among the nations, will raise it again to more than its former glory, in the kingdom of the Messiah, (9. 11-15). In the blessings of this kingdom, the Gentiles are also to share (see Acts 15. 16, 17). The Book of Hosea, B. C. 800-725. 81. Ilosea was probably a native and inhabitant of Israel. He lived during the reigns of the last six or seven of its kings, fi'om Jeroboam 11. to Hoshea, a period of about sixty years. He was contemporary with Isaiah, though he began to prophesy some time before him (Isa. i. i : Hos. i. i). The prophecies of Hosoa are directed almost exclusively to the " Fulfilled in the victories of Assyi-ia and Babylon. HOSEA. 483 ten tribes. He addresses them under the title of Israel, of Samaria, which, had been, since the days of Omri, their capital, of Ephraim, the most distingmshed of the tribes, to which Jeroboam, their first king belonged. The idolatry which commenced in his days at Dan and Bethel, had now been continued for more than 150 years, and had diffused every form of vice among all classes. The last short interval of outward prosperity under Jeroboam 11., was soon fol- lowed by general anarchy and decay. The kings and princes were miirderers and profligates (7. 3-7): the idolatrous priests had spread their shameful festivals and their deceitful oracles all over the land (4. 12-14: 10: 12: 13. 2): the gi-eat parties in the state resorted for help sometimes to Assyria, at other times to Egypt (2 Kings 15. 19: 17. 4): while the whole nation relied entirely on human help (5. 13: 7. 8-12: 8. 9, 10: 10. 13, etc.): worldly and sinful objects were pursued with the same eagerness by Ephraim as by Canaan (12. 7, 8): a listless security blinded all minds (5.4: 12. 8) : giving place in the moment of danger to a repentance merely of the lips (7. 16): and, what was the root of all the other evils, God and his word were forgotten (4. 1-6: 8. 12.) This condition the prophet most earnestly condemns, using the expressive figures of adultery to reprove then- idolatry; figures which imply the violation of a solenm covenant, and the alienation of the affections of the people from God. These lessons were illus- trated in the assassination of four kings successively, and in the general disorders of the state. For sixty years, these wanaings and appeals were continued, with- out success:— a bright example of persevering fidelity under the greatest discouragements. As Hosea speaks in these prophecies in the first person (3. i, 2, 3), no doubt he compiled them himself. They contain many specific predictions, literally fulfilled, and the book is cited by Matthew, by Paul, and by our Lord, Matt. 2. 13: Rom. 9. 25, 26: i Cor. 15. 35: Matt. 9. 12, 13: 12. 7. Considering the long peiiod to which the ministry of Hosea ex- tended, it may appear surprising that his writings are comprised within so small a compass: but it must be remembered, that, as in the case of others of the prophets, there is no reason to suppose that this book contains all that he ever uttered. Such portions only of his inspired communications are recorded, as the Holy Spirit saw fit to preserve for the benefit of the Jews, and of the world. The language of Hosea is to us peculiarly difficult. His style is very concise, and abrupt, abounding with figures and metaphors, which are often much intermixed; and the transitions from one subject and figure to another, are frequent and Y 2 484 HOSEA. Buddeu. The particular occasions ou which his prophecies were delivered, are in themselves rarely obviouf?, and are never specified by the author. Some parts of them, however, are peculiarly pa- thetic, animated, and sublime. Among the more remarkable of his predictions, are those in which he foretells the captivities and sufferings of Israel;** the deliverance of Judah from Sennacherib, a figure of salvation by Christ;'' the punishment of Judah and her cities;'^ the present state of the Jews;^ their future conversion and union with the Gentiles imder the Messiah;^ and the call of our Saviour out of Egypt;*' while the final ransom of his people from death and the gi'ave, is celebrated in the loftiest strains." All these predictions are not equally clear: but the evangelical tenor of most, nothing can exceed. These predictions are blended in the original with a form of phraseology closely allied to the phraseology of the ancient law (Hengstenbei'g). Chaps. 6, 13, 14, are peculiarly rich in statements adapted to awaken those feelings of penitence and faith which become the Christian and the church in every age. This book may be divided into two parts, comprising, ist. A symbolical narrative, chaps. 1-3; and, 2udly. Prophetic discourses , chaps. 4-14. 1. The first part gives a symbolical representation of the past, present, and future history of the people of God. It describes their adoption, their rebellion and infidelities, their chastisement and rejection, the conversion of the Gentiles, and the future re- pentance and restoi-ation of Israel. These three chapters ai-e an abridgement of the whole book; and the gracious promises which they contain, and which are not noticed in the seven following chapters, re-appear in the eleventh, and close the book. 2. In the second part, containing several prophetic discourses delivered at different times, the things which have been before revealed under a symbolical form, are further illustrated by the most vivid images. It begins with i-ebukes and threatenings, which present to view in the fore-ground, various frightful calamities; but by degrees the horizon becomes clear, and the glory of the latter time shines forth with unclouded lustre. Various attempts have been made to classify the latter chapters " 5- 5-7: 9- 3, <^-ii: I0-5, 6, 15: 13. 16. '" 1. 7, compare 2 Kings 19. 35. '^ 5. 10: 8. 14. 'I 3. 4. " I. 10: 2. 23: I. 11: 3. 5: 14- 4> 8. f II. I (see Matt. 2. 15): 6. 2 (see i Cor. 15. 4). 8 I?. 14 (see I Cor. 15. 55). HOSEA : ISAIAE. 485 of the book chronologically, but without success. Tl:e general diift is clear, but the writer has given us no other i:iclication of the order of the several prophecies than their place in the book itself. The narrative of Hosea's marriage we have described cs sym- bolical. Some (Augustine, Grotius, Horsley), regard it as literal history; others suppose that a marriage with an Israelitish woman is all that is intended; but most (Jerome, Rosenm., Louth, Hengs.), regard it as allegory only, or as a vision. It may be added, that the narrative-exactness of the whole, and the use of names, are aa consistent %vith the supposition that it is a parable or vision, as with the supposition that it is a real occmrrence which is described, Ezek. 23: Luke 16. 20-31. The Book of Isaiah, B. C. 765-698. 82. Though Isaiah has given incidentally, decisive evidences of his humility, his pity for his countrymen, and for the nations whose desolations he announced,"* he has told us very little of his own history. He was called to the prophetic office in the reign of Uzziah, king of Judah, and he continued to prophesy during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, perhaps also during a portion of the reign of Manasseh. Of nis parentage nothing is known, though, as his father's name is mentioned, the Jews conclude that he was a prophet. They add, that Isaiah belonged to the royal house, and that he was father-in-law of Manasseh, by whom they say he was put tc death, being sawn asunder for contradicting or adding to the Mosaic law '' (Isa. 6. i, compare with Exod, 33. 20). His wife is styled a prophetess (8. 3), and he had two sons, whose names and history were intended to illustrate and enforce his predictions (7. 3 : 8. 3, 4). His name means " salvation of Jehovah," and is, in a large degree, descriptive of his character and writings. In the New Testament it is spelt (from the Lxx and Vulgate), Esaias. His father was often confounded with Amos, the prophet, whose name (DIDV, Amos), the Septuagint writes in the same way as the name of Amos (f^?OK, Amotz), the father of Isaiah, "A/itas-, The duration of his ministry is not known. The whole of the reigns of Uzziah, etc., to Hezekiah, amount to 112 years. From the last year of Uzziah to the 14th of Hezekiah, when we last find traces of Isaiah in history (2 Kings 20. i : Isa. ^ 6. 5: G6. 2: 21. 3: 16. 9. ^ SeeEeb. ir. 37. 486 ISAIAH. 38. i), is forty-seven years, and if, according to Jewish tra- dition, he survived till the days of Manasseh, he must have been more than 100 years old. When Isaiah entered on his office, the throne was occupied by Uzziah, or Azariah. Ilis general character was that of integrity and piety; and niider his reign the nation enjoyed great temporal prosperity. He was a worshipper of the true God; though he failed to remove the groves and high places established for idolatrous worship. Uzziah was succeeded by his son Jotham, whose general character was like that of his father; but the idolatrous altars were still allowed to remain, and o\\ing to the increase of luxury and sensual indulgence, true piety declined more and more. The next king, Ahaz, was a very wicked and idolatrous prince ; and his reign was very disastrous. The law of God was broken in the most reck- less manner, and the temple not only defaced and plundered, but at last, shut up. During this period, Isaiah came forward publicly, as a reprover of sin; but his counsels and warnings were disregarded. HezekiaKs character was the reverse of that of his father. He abo- hshed idolatry, restored the temple and woi'ship of Jehovah, and relieved the people from foreign oppression. He treated Isaiah with great respect, and during the agitating occurrences of his reign, the prophet had an important part in directing the public counsels. 83. The hfe of Isaiah includes the last years of the kingdom of Israel. Under Jeroboam li. the contemporary of Uzziah, Samaria had flourished, but for several years it had been ruled by usurpers, and at length, in the sixth year of Hezekiah, the kingdom was overthrown, and its inhabitants removed. His prophecies, however, have little reference to the condition of Israel, and are directed chiefly to Judah. The relation of Judah to neighbouring nations it is important to remember. With Moab, Edom, and the Philistines, Judah had repeated conflicts. Though within the boundaries of Judah, and subdued by David, they were constantly endeavouring to maintain an independent position, and during the reign of godless, feeble kings, their efforts were generally successful. Assyria had increased in strength, and was extending her conquests on all sides. Egypt had been subdued by Ethiopia, and both countries were united vmder one dynasty. Assyria and Egypt were both preparing for a coming struggle, and each in succession sought the alliance of both Judah and Israel. The safest policy, whether we regard the tem- poral interests, or the religious character of the Jewish kingdoms, was clearly to stand aloof from both. Babylon, as Havernick has ISAIAH: GENDIXEXISS. 487 shown, was at this tune an inferior kingdom, struggling against Assyi'ia for independence, and rising slowly into importance. Hence the wisdom of Merodach-Bidadan in sending an embassy to Heze- kiah: hence, also, the need of Divine teaching, to foretell the future power of Babylon, and the subjugation by it of the kingdom of Judah. The two most remarkable events of thLs period, are the invasion of Judah by the combined forces of Syria and Israel, followed by the destruction of the kingdom of the ten tribes ; and the Assyrian invasion of Judah in the fourteenth yeai' of Kezekiah, ending in the defeat of Sennacherib. "Within the same period, and twenty or tMrty yeai's earlier than the last-mentioned facts, fall the two most remarkable epochs of chi'onology ; A. u. c, 753 b. c, and the era of Nabonassar, 747 b. c. Just before the days of Isaiah, is the date of the first Olym., 776 B.C. 84. The genuineness of Isaiah has been much discussed in modern times, and especially the latter portion of his pro- phecies, chaps. 40-66. The objections to the genuineness of this portion of his book, are founded chiefly on alleged peculiaiities of style, such as Chaldaisms, and differences in expression between the earlier and later divisions of his writings. All these objections, however, have been met by facts, taken from the book itself," and the genuineness of the whole is attested by universal antiquity, and by the Xew Testament. Of the sixty -six chapters, forty-seven ai-e dkectly or indirectly quoted by our Lord or his apostles; and out of the twenty-one cases in which Isaiah is expressly named, we find quotations from chaps, i, 6, 9, 10, ir, 29, 40, 42, 53, 61, 65. The view, therefore, that the whole of Isaiah (the later and eai'lier portions), had one author, is sanctioned by inspired teachers. 85. This book may be divided into two principal parts. (i.) The first part 1-39, contains prophetic addresses and writings of different dates, most of them bearing immediately on the morals, piety, and welfare of the nation. Of these there are four sections : — I. Reproofs, warnings, and promises addressed to Judah and * There are, for example, Chaldaisms in Isaiah, and this fact was made one reason for ascribing the book to different authors. Hirzel, however (De Chal. Bib. Origine, 1830), has shown that, in all the poetical pai-ts of Scripture especially, there are Chaldaisms, that in Isaiah there are but four true Chaldaisms, and that thase are all found in the part which is admitted to be genuine, 7. 14 (?), 29. i; 18. 7: 21. 12. 488 ISAIAH : CONTENTS. Israel, chiefly during the early part of the prophet's ministxy, with prophecies of the success of the gospel, and the coming of the Messiah to judgment, 1-12. 2. Predictions respecting neighboui-ing hostile nations, inwhicb are described the sins and destruction of Assyria, Babylon, Moab, Egypt, Philistia, Syria, Edom, and Tyre, 13-23. 3. Writings probably of the time of Ahaz and Hezekiah, des- cribing the sins and misery of the people, pictming the Assyrian invasion; the destruction of Samai-ia; the alarm, distress, and final deliverance of Jerusalem, with many re- ferences also, to the conversion of the Jews under the gespel, and the destruction of all the enemies of the church, 24-35. 4. History of the invasion of Sennacherib, of the destruction of his army, in answer to Hezekiah's prayer. Hezekiah's sick- ness, his miraculous recovery, and the prolongation of his life for fifteen years, 36-39. (ii.) The predictions which form the second part of the book (40-66), relate chiefly to more distant events, and embrace the whole period, from the captivity to the end of the Christian dispensation. The delivery from Babylon is employed as an image of an infinitely greater redemption; the prophet so connecting these two events, as seldom to treat of the first without pointing to the second. The design of the whole of this portion of the book is expressed in chap. 40. I, 2. The subjects particularly foretold, are, the deliverance of the Jews by Cyrus (above 200 years before his birth), and the overthrow of their o];)pressors, ^ the return to Judrea, and the establishment of their ancient polity;'' the coiaing, character, appointment, suffer- ings, death, and glory of the Messiah;*^ the downfall of idolatry, the call of the Gentile w^orld;'^ the wickedness of the Jews con- summated in their rejection of the Messiah, and the consequent rejection of them by God, their future conversion and recovery,* and the final triumphant perfection of the church. ^ These subjects are often blended together, and sometimes there is a rapid tran- sition from one to another. The ofiice of the Holy Spirit is also distinctly noticed, though it is implied that the full manifestation of his influence is reserved for the times of the gospel, 63. 10-14: 44. 3. The numbers and distinctness of predictions that refer to the »44. 28: 45- 1-5: 47. ^44- 28. '40. 3,4: 42. I, 6, 7: 49. i: 55. 4, 5: 53- 12: 61. I, 2: 50. 6: 53.4-12. **49. 5-12: 65. I. * 52. 3: 65: 62. ' 59. 19: 65, etc. ISAIAH: MICAH. 489 gospel, are indeed so striking, that Isaiah has acquired the title cf " the Evangelical Prophet," and his -vvi'itings may be almost classed among the historical books of the inspired volume. In the writings of Isaiah, we find several prophecies which had an early or immediate fulfilment, and these, as they were fulfilled, confirmed the faith of the people ia the more remote. Syria and Isi'ael, for example, were to be conquered by Assyria, before the infant son of the prophet could say " my father.'"* The glory of Kedar was to fail in one year,'' that of Moab in three years, "^ that of Ephraim in 65 years, '^ that of Tyre in 70 years;® while the pre- dicted prolongation of Hezekiah's life^ must have established the authority of the prophet, and illustrated the providence of God. Prophecies which were thvis instructive as evidence, were no less so as moral lessons. The Jews were proud of Egypt, " their glory," and trusted in Ethiopia " their expectation." God denounced both, and thus taught the folly of fleeing to them for protection or help. The predictions against Edom and Babylon were also rich in in- struction. They comforted pious Jews in the prospect of the calamities their nation was about to suflFer, and they teach what the sins are which have brought down God's indignation in every age. The cruelties and oppression of the heathen are sufficiently notorious, and these are everywhere condemned. We notice, also, the condemnation of pride in Babylon and Moab, in Tyre and Ephraim,^ of covetousness, and the confounding of moral distinc- tions in Judah,** of a heart set on worldly pleasure, in Jerusalem and Babylon,' of self-conceit and unbelief everywhere. Predictions apart, therefore, these prophetic writings are among the most in- structive of the revelations with which God has favoured om' race. The Book of Micah, b. c. 758-699. 86. Micah calls himself a Morasthite, and was a native of Morasthi, near Gath, or (if the two places be the same), Mareshah, a place of some importance, in the south of Judah (i. I, 15). He seems to have been commissioned not long after Hosea, Amos, and Isaiah had begun their ministry, and reiterates the reproofs and warnings which they had addressed to both Israel and Judah. Greek writers (Epiphanius and others), say he was slain by Jehoram, son of Ahab ; but they confound him with IVIicaiah, the son of Imlah, i Kings 22. " Isa. 8. 4. ^ 21. 16. ° 16. 14. ^ 7. 8. " 23. 15. ^38. 59. e 14. 13: 16. 6: 23. 9: 28. 3- "5.8, 20. i22. 15: 47.8. y3 490 MICAH : CONTENTS. 8-28 ; Micah, moreover, does not appear to have suffered martyrdom, but died in peace in the days of Hezekiah, Jer. 26. 18, 19. One of his predictions saved the hfe of Jere- miah, who would have been put to death for foretelhng the destruction of the temple, had it not appeared that Micah had foretold the same thing above a hundred years before. He, himself, wrote his predictions (3. i, 8), and is referred to as a prophet by Jeremiah, and in the New Testament, Matt. 2. 5 : John 7. 42. His language seems also quoted by Zephaniah (3. 19) : Ezekiel (22. 27), perhaps by Isaiah, (2. 2-4 : 41. 15), and by our Lord, Matt. 10. 35, 36. His predictions may be divided into three sections. He first describes the approaching ruin of both kingdoms; par- ticularizing several of the towns and villages of Judah in his own neighbourhood, chap. i. He then rebukes and threatens the princes, prophets, and people, for their prevailing sins ; introducing, however, an intimation of mercy, (2. 3). In the second section, he proceeds to unfold the future and better destinies of the people; dwelling at length upon the happiness and glory of the chm-ch, under the reign of Christ, in a prophecy which presents a beautiful epitome of the latter parts of Isaiah ; and then reverting to the nearer deli- verance of the Jews, and the destruction of the Assyrian power, (4, 5). The third division exhibits the reasonableness, purity, and justice of the Divine requirements, in contrast with the ingratitude, injustice, and superstition of the people, which caused their ruin. From the contemplation of this catastrophe, the prophet turns for encouragement, to the unchanging triith and mercy of Jehovah, which he sets before the people, as the most powerful inducement to hearty repentance, (6, 7). Micah has much of the poetic beauty of Isaiah, and of the vigour of Hosea. His style is, however, occasionally obscure, through con- ciseness and sudden transitions from one subject to another. He foretells, in clear terms, the invasions of Shalmaneser * and Sennacherib;^ the dispersion of Israel; "^ the cessation of prophecy;** the utter destruction of Jerusalem;^ nor less clearly, the deliverance of Israel; ' the destruction of Assyria, and of the enemies Assyria represents;^ the birth-place of Christ, and his Divine nature, for bis goings forth are " from everlasting ;"*> the promulgation of his • I. 6-8 (2 Kings 17. 4, 6). ^ i. 9-16 (2 Ivings 18. 13). « 5. 7, 8. d 3, 6^ y. e 3^ j2. f 2. 12: 4. 10: 5. 8. «f 5. 5, 6: 7. 8, 10. »> 5. 2 (Matt. 2. 6). micah: nahum. 491 gospel from Mount Zion, and its results," and the exaltation of liia kingdom over all nations.^ The Book of Nahum^ b. C. 720-698. 87. The Book of JSTahum is a striking illustration of the moral use of prophecy, of its fitness to console (so the name of the prophet imphes) the behever, and strengthen him for jjresent duties. Of Nahum himself, nothing is known, except that he be- longed to Elkosh, a place now unrecognised, but which Jerome (who lived a thousand years afterwards) asserts to have belonged to Gahlee (Pref. to Com.) He probably prophesied in Judah, after the ten tribes had been carried captive, and between the two invasions of Sen- nacherib. At this period of perplexity, when the ovei-throw of Samaria must have suggested to Judah many fears for her own safety, when Jerusalem, had been drained of its treasure by Hezekiah, in the vain hope of turning away the fury of Sennacherib, and when distant rumours of the conquest of part of Egypt, added still more to the general dismay, the prophet is raised up to reveal the power and tenderness of Jehovah (i. 1-8), to foretell the subversion of the Assyrian empire (i. 9-12), the death of Sennacherib, and the dehverance of Hezekiah (i. 13-15). The destruction of Nineveh is then predicted in the most glowing colours, and with singular minuteness ; and profane history tells us, that these predic- tions have been hterally fulfilled (see § 190). Eightly to understand Nahum, compare it with Jonah, of which it is a continuation and supplement. The two prophecies form connected parts of the same moral history; the remission of God's judgments being illustrated in Jonah, and the execution of them in Nahum. The devoted city had one denunciation more given a few years later, by Zephaniah (2. 11), and shortly afterwards (606 B, c), the whole were fulfilled. Nineveh, the destruction of which is foretold by the prophet, was at that time the capital of a great and flourishing empire. It was a city of vast extent and population ; and was the centre of the principal commerce of the world. Its wealth, however, was not altogether derived from trade. It was a " bloody city," " full of * 4. 1-8 (Isa. 2. 2-4). ^ 4. 1-7, compare Luke i. 33: 5. 5, com- pare Eph. 2. 14; 7. 17. 18, compare Luke i. 72, 73. 492 nahum: zephakiah. lies aud robbery," (3. i). It plundered the neighbouring natiou!» ; and is coropai-ed by the prophet to a family of lions, which " fill then' holes with prey and their dens with ravin," (2. 11, 12). At the same time it was strongly fortified; its colossal walls, a himdred feet high, with their fifteen hundred towers, bidding defiance to all enemies. Yet, so totally was it destroyed, that, in the second cen- tury after Christ, not a vestige remained of it; and its very site was long a matter of uncertainty. This book is surpassed by none in sublimity of description. It consists 01 a single poem; which opens with a solemn description of the attributes and operations of Jehovah, (i. 2-8). Then follows (i. 9-14 1, an address to the Assyrians, describing their pei-plexity and overthrow; verses 12 and 13 beirg thrown in parenthetically, to console the Israelites with promises of future rest and relief from oppression. Chapter 2 depicts the siege and capture of Nineveh, and the consternation of the inhabitants. Chapter 3 describes the utter ruin of the city, and the various causes contributing to it. The example of No-Ammon (or Thebes), a great and strong city of Egypt, which fell under the judgments of God, is introduced (3. 8-10), to illustrate the similar punishment coming on the Assyrians. Sec. 4. The Boohs of Zephaniah, JeremiaJi, Hdbakkuk, Daniel^ Ezekielj and Ohadiah. The Book of Zephaniah^ B.C. 640-609. 88. Between the cessation of the prophecies of Isaiah, Micah, and Nahum, and the days of Zephaniah, Jeremiah, and the other later prophets, an interval of fifty years elapses, during which there was no prophet whose writings have reached us, unless Joel belong to this period. The lessons taught by the destruction of Samaria, and by earlier prophets, especially Isaiah, seem to have been left to produce their proper effects on the minds of the people. The wicked reign 01 Mauasseh, moreover, occupied nearly all this interval, and seemed to render reformation by prophetic teaching hopeless. With Josiah, however, the prophetic spirit revived, and Zephaniah ("Jehovah hath guarded") is the earliest of the prophets of his age. He seems to have prophesied near the (Tommencement of Josiah's reign, and at all events before the eighteenth year, when the altars of Baal were destroyed. He probably assisted Josiah in his efforts to restore the I ZEPHANIAH. 493 worship of the true God. Of the prophet personally nothing is known, but from the title of this book. As he traces back his pedigree for four generations, he was probably of noble birth. Some of the Jews, and Eichhorn, suppose him to have been a descendant of king Hezekiah ; but this con- clusion is hardly justified by the text, and a hundred years (the time between Hezekiah and the projihet) is scarcely sufficient to admit three intermediate ancestors. The first chapter contains a general demmciation of vengeance against Judah and those who practised idolatrous rites; Baal, his olack-robed priests (Chemarin), and Malcham (Moloch), being all condemned; and declares " the great day of trouble and distress " to be at hand, (1.-2. 3). The second chapter predicts the judgments about to fall on the PhiHstines, those especially of the sea-coasts (Cherethites), the Moabites, Ammonites, and Ethiopians; and describes in terms wonderfully accurate the desolation of Nineveh : prophecies which began to be accomplished in the conquests of Nebuchadnezzar. In the third chapter, the prophet arraigns Jeinisalem, rebukes her sins, and concludes with the most animating promises of her future restoration, and of the happy state of the people of God in the latter days (3. 1-7: 3. 8-20). Coincidences of expression between Isaiah and Zephaniah are frequent, and still more between Zephaniah and Jeremiah. It may be added that the predictions of Jeremiah complete the view here given of the devastations to be efiected by Chaldsea in Philistia and Judah. 89. Dr. Keith has noticed the minute discrimination with which Zephaniah, Amos, and Zechariah, foretell the destinies of the four chief cities of Phihstia — Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod, and Ekron. Comparing Amos i. 6, 7, 8: Zech. 9. 5 : and Zeph. 2. 4-6, it will be seen, that of Gaza it is declai*ed that baldness shall come upon it, and that it should be bereaved of its king. At present, amid ruins of white marble indicating its former magnificence, a few villages of dry mud are the only abode of its inhabitants. Of Ashkelon and Ashdod it is said that both shall be "without in- habitants ;" and so they are. Gaza is inhabited ; Ashkelon and Ashdod are not, though their ruins remain. Different from the destiny of each was to be the end of Ekron: "it shall be rooted up." Now its very name is lost, nor is the spot known on which it 494 JEREMIAH. stood. . . . Clearly, prophscy and providence — predictions and the events that fulfil them— are guided by the same hand. The Book of Jeremiah, B.C. 628-585. 90. Jeremiah was the son of Hilkiah, a priest of Anathoth, in Benjamin. He was called to the prophetic office about seventy years after the death of Isaiah, in the thirteenth year of king Josiah, whilst he was very young (i. 6) and still living at Anathoth. It would seem that he remamed in his native place for several years ; but at length, probably in consequence of the persecution of his fellow-townsmen, and even of his own family (11. 21: 12. 6), as weU as, under the Divine direction, to have a wider field for his labours, he left Anathoth, and came to Jerusalem. He also visited the cities of Judah, and prophesied altogether upwards of forty years, (II. 6). During the reign of Josiah, he was, doubtless, a valuable coadjutor to that pious monarch in the reformation of re- ligion. From his notice of Jehoahaz (22. 10-12), he pro- bably prophesied without hindrance during his reign. But when Jehoiakim came to the throne he was interrupted in his ministry ; " the priests and prophets " becoming his accusers, and demanding, in conjunction with the populace, that he should be put to death (26), The princes did not dare to defy God thus openly ; but Jeremiah was either placed under restraint, or deterred by his adversaries from appearing in public. Under these circumstances, he received a command from God to commit his predictions to writing ; and having done so, sent Baruch to read them in the temple on a fast day. The princes were alarmed, and endeavoured to rouse the king by reading out to him the prophetic roll. But it was in vain : the reckless monarch, after hearing three or four pages, cut the roll in pieces, and cast it into the fire, giving immediate orders for the apprehension of Jeremiah and Baruch. God, however, preserved them ; and Jeremiah soon afterwards, by Divine direction, wrote the same mes- sages again, with some addditions (36). In the short reign of the next king, Jehoiachin, we find him still uttering the voice of warning (see 13. 18 ; compare 2 Kings 24. 12 and chap. 22. 24-30), though without efiect. In the reign of Zedekiah, when Nebuchadnezzar's army JEREMIAH. 495 laid siege to Jenisalem, and then withdrew upon the report of help coming from Egypt, Jeremiah was commissioned by God to declare that the Chaldteans should come again, aiid take the city, and bum it with j&re. Departing from Jeru- salem, he was accused of deserting to the Chaldceans, and way cast into prison, where he remained until the city was taken. Xebuchadnezzar, who had formed a more just estimate of his character, gave a special charge to his captain, Nebuzar-adan, not only to provide for him, but to follow his advice. The choice being given to the prophet, either to go to Babylon, where doubtless he would have been held in honour at the royal court, or to remain with his own peo^^le ; he preferred the latter. He subsequently endeavoured to persuade the leaders of the people not to go to Egypt, but to remain in the land ; assuring them, by a Divine message, that if they did so God would build them up. The people refused tp obey, aad went to Egypt, taking Jeremiah and Baruch with them (43. 6). In Egypt, he still sought to turn the people to the Lord (44.) ; but his writings give no information respecting his subsequent history. Ancient historians, however, assert that the Jews, offended hy his faithful remonstrances, put him to death in Egypt : Jerome says at Tahpanhes. Jeremiah was contemporary with Zephaniah, Habakkuk, Ezekiel, and Daniel. Between his writings and those of Ezekiel there are many interesting points both of resem- blance and of contrast. Both prophets were labouring for the same object, at nearly the same time. One prophesied in Palestine, the other in Chaldsea ; yet the substance of both- messages is the same. In the modes of expression adopted by the prophets, however, and in their jDcrsonal character, they widely differed. The history of Jeremiah brings be- fore us a man forced, as it were, in spite of himself, from obscurity and retirement into the pubhcity and peril which attended the prophetical office. Naturally mild, susceptible, and inchned rather to mourn in secret for the iniquity which surrounded him than to brave and denounce the wrong-doers, he stood forth at the call of God, and proved himself a faithful, fearless champion of the truth, amidst reproaches, insidts, and threats. This combination of quahties is so marked, that Havernick regards it as a proof of the Divine origin of his mission. In Ezekiel, on the other hand, we see 496 JEREMIAH: co>;texts. the power of Divine inspiration acting on a mind naturally of the firmest texture, and absorbing all the powers of the soul. The style of Jeremiah corresponds with this view of the character of his mind. It is peculiarly marked by pathos. He delights in expressions of tenderness, and gives touching descriptions of the miseries of his people. The prophecies of this book do not appear to stand in respect to time as they were delivered. Why they are not so arranged, and how they are to be reduced to chronological order, it is not easy to gay. Blayneij proposes the following arrangement: the prophecies delivered (i), in the reign of Josiah, comprising 1.-12.; (2), in the reign of Jehoiakim, 13. -20.: 22.: 23.: 25.: 26,: 35.: 36.: 45.-48.: 49' 1-33; (3)^ ill the time of Zedekiab, 21.: 24.: 27,-34.: 37.-39.: 49' 34-39: 50--52.; (4), during the administration of Gedaliah, and in Egypt, 40.-44. Chap. 52 seems made up from the later chaps, of Kings, (see 24. 18-25. 25), and repeats part of chaps, 39 and 40. From chap. 51. 34, and the later date of some of the facts, the whole chapter may be regarded as the work of a later wi'iter, and probably of Ezra. Ewald proposes divisions founded upon the present order of the chapters, and endeavours to discover the plan upon which they have been aiTanged. He remarks that various portions are prefaced by the expression, ''The word which came to Jeremiah from the Lord," 7. 1: i-i. i: 18. i: 21. i: 25. i: 30. i: 32. i: 34. i, 8: 35. i: 40. i: 44. I ; or, "The word of the Lord which came to Jere- miah," 14. i: 46. t: 47. i: 49. 34; that some other divisions, chiefly historical, are plainly mai'ked by notices of time prefixed, 26. i: 27. i: 36. i: 37. 1; and that two other portions are in themselves sufficiently distinct, 29. i: 45. i; thus forming five books, namely: i. The introduction, i. ii. Reproofs of the sins of the Jews, 2.-24., consisting of seven sections, namely, 2.: 3.-6.: 7. -10.: 11. -13.: 14.-17. 18: 17. 19-20.: and 21.-24. iii. A general view of all nations, Che heathen as well as the people of Israel, consisting of two sections, 25. and 26.-49., ^^'ith a historical appendix of three sections, 26., 27., and 28., 29. iv. Two sections picturing the hopes of brighter times, 30., 31,, and 32,, 33,; to wliich, as in the last book, is added a historical appendix in three sections, 34. 1-7: 34. 8-22: and 35. V. The conclusion, in two sections, 36. and 45. All this Ewald sup- poses to have been arranged in Palestine during the short interva. of rest between the taking of the city and the departure of Jeremiali into Egypt; in which country, after some interval, he considers '- JEREMIAH : CO^'TE^-TS. 497 and 44., together with 46. 13-26, completing his earlier prophecy respecting Eipt ; and to have made, perhaps, some additions to other parts previously written. Jeremiah professes to be the author of all these predictions, but some of them were written by his disciple, i. i, 4, 6, 9: 25. 13: 29. i: 30. 2: 51. 60: 45, T. He has sometimes been regarded as a prophet to the Gentiles (r. 5-10). He certainly delivered many predictions that refer to foreign nations, and his predictions were published to those nations themselves (27. 3); but it is to Jerusalem chiefly he was sent. He foretold the fate of Zedekiah, ^ the precise time of the Baby- lonish captivity,^ and the return of the Jews.*^ The downfall of Babylon^ and of many nations^ is also foretold in predictions, the successive completion of which kept up the faith of the Jews in those that refer to the Messiah. ^ He foretells very clearly the abro- gation of the Mosaic law; speaks of the ark as no more remembered; foretells the propagation of a more spiritual religion than the old; the mediatorial kingdom of the Messiah, whom he calls " Jehovaii our righteousness;" describes the efl&cacy of his atonement; the excellence of the gospel in giving holiness as well as pardon; the call of the Gentiles; and the final salvation of Isi-ael.° The Lamentations of Jeremiali. This book is a kind of appendix to the prophecies of Jeremiah, of which, in the original Scriptures, it formed part. It expresses with pathetic tenderness the prophet's grief for the desolation of the city and temple of Jerusalem, the capti^^ty of the people, the miseries of famine, the cessation of public worship, and the other calamities with which his countrymen had been visited for their sins. The leading object was, to teach the suffering Jews neither to despise " the chastening of the Lord," nor to "faint" when " re- buked of him," but to tiirn to God with deep repentance, to confess their sin's, and humbly look to him alone for pardon and deliverance. No book of Scripture is more rich in expressions of patriotic feeling, or of the penitence and trust which become an aflSicted Christian. The form of these poems is strictly regular. With the exception " 34. 2, 3: compare 2 Chron. 36. 19: 2 Kings 25. 5 : Jer. 52. 11. ^ 25. II, 12 (see Dan. 9. 2). " 29. ic-14 (Ez. i. i). ^ Jer. 25. 12. * See (^Pt. ii. § 77). f 23. 3-8: 30. 9: 31. 15: 32. 36: 33. 26. e 3. 15-18: 31. 3i-34(see Heb. 10. 15): 23. 5, 6: 31. 31-34: 33- 8 (Heb. 8. 8-13): jO. 4, 5: 19. 20. 498 JEREMIAH: HABAKKUK. of the last (chap, 5), they are in the original Hebrew alphabetical acrostics, in which every stanza begins with a new letter. The third has this further peculiarity, that all the three lines in each stanza have the same letter at the commencement. As a composition, this book is remarkable for the great variety of pathetic images it contains ; expressive of the deepest sorrow, and worthy of the subject which they are designed to illustrate. The Booh of Ilahahkuh, B.C. 612-598. 91. Nothing is known with certainty of the parentage and life of Habakkuk ; but from the fact that he makes no men- tion of Assyria, and speaks of the Chaldsean invasion as just at hand, it is concluded that he prophesied in Judah during the reign of Jehoahaz and Jehoiakim, shortly before the invasion of Nebuchadnezzar (i, 5: 2. 3 : 3. 2, 16-19). He was therefore contemporary with Jeremiah, and it is said that he remained amidst the desolation of his country rather than follow his brethren into captivity. In the days of Eusebius, his tomb was shown at Bela in Judwh. This book was evidently composed by him (i. i: 2, i, 2), and is quoted as the work of an inspired prophet by the evangelical writers, Heb. 10. 37, 38: Rom. i. 17: Gal. 3. 11: Acts 13. 41. Of all the nations who afflicted the Jews, and in them the church of God, the chief were the Assyrians, the Chaldaoans, and the Edomites; and three of the prophets were commissioned specially to pronounce their destruction. Nahum foretells the destruction of the Assyrians; Habakkuk, that of the Chalda^ans; and pi-esently we shall find Obadiah foretelling the destruction of Edom. The prophet begins by lamenting the iniquities and lawless violence that prevailed among the Jews. God then declares that he will work a strange work in their days, and raise up the Chald scans, then probably a friendly nation, who should march through the breadth of then* land and take possession of its dwellings. In this description, the prophet gives the history of the three invasions (in the reigns of Jehoiakim, Jeconiah, and Zedekiah) ; foretells the fierceness of their attack and the rapidity of their victories ; he then briefly contrasts the scene ; points to the pride and false confidence of the victors, and indicates clearly "the change" and insanity of Nebuchadnezzar; the prophet humbly expostulating with God for inflicting such judgments upon his people by a nation more wicked than themselves. He then receives and communicates God's answer to his expos- tulation, to the effecfthat the vision, though it tarry, shall surely I HABAKKUK : DANIEL. 499 come: that the just shall live by their faith, and are to wait for it. He theu predicts the judgments that are to befall the Chaldseans for their cruelty and idolatry; their gi^aven images cannot profit; but the Lord only "in his holy temple" ('2). The prophet, hearing these promises and threatenings, concludes his book with a sublime song, both of praise and of prayer. He celebrates past displays of the power and grace of Jehovah,^ suppH- cates God for the speedy deliverance of his people, and closes by expressing a confidence in God which no change can destroy. This psalm, which was evidently intended for use in public worship, was designed to afford consolation to the pious Jews vmder their approaching calamities. Ancient Jewish writers apply 2. 3 to the times of the Messiah, and the apostle regards it as ha\Tiig a still future fulfilment, Heb. 10. 37, 38. In fact, as faith — patient waiting for God, and trust in him — is the great principle of the di\-ine life, so, in every age, complete salvation has been a matter of faith rather than of sight. The Christian chai-acter is, that "he lives by faith;" and in relation to the promised deliverance from sin and all its fruits his attitude is, "that he waits for it." See Rom. i. 17: Gal. 3. 2: Rom. 5.1-3: i Cor. i. 7. The Book of Daniel (e.g. 606-534). 92. Of Daniel, little is known beyond what may be gathered Daniel's from his own writings. He was not a j)riest, like history, Jeremiah and Ezekiel ; but, like Isaiah, of the tribe of Judah, and probably of the royal house, Dan. i. 6, 3. He was carried to Babylon in the fourth year of Jehoiakim {i. e., B. c. 606), eight years before Ezekiel, and probably be- tween the twelfth (Ignatius) or the eighteenth year (Chry- sostom) of his age, i. 4. There he was placed in the court of Nebuchadnezzar, and became acquainted with the science of the Chaldees, compared with whom, however, God gave him, as he records, superior wisdom. By Nebuchadnezzar he was raised to high rank and great power ; a position he re- tained, though not uninterruptedly, under both the Baby- lonish and Persian dynasties. He died at an advanced age, having prophesied during the whole of the captivity (i. 21) ; and his last prophecy being delivered two years later, in the third year of the reign of Cyrus. * Teman is Edom ; Cushan, part of Arabia (Chusistan) : see also Numb. 13, 15: Exod. 15. 15: Numb. 31. 2-ri: Judg. 3. 10: 7. i. 600 DANIEL. The first event wliicli gained Daniel influence in the couii, of Chronology Babylon was the disclosure and explanation of the of his book, dream of Nebuchadnezzar. This occurred in the second year of the sole reign of that monax'ch, i. e., in 603. Three and twenty years later, as Usher thinks (B.C. 580), his companions were delivered from the burning furnace (3); Daniel himself being probably engaged elsewhere at the time in the aflfaii'S of the empire. Ten years later occm-red the second dream of Nebuchadnezzar (4.) ; and during the seven years of his madness Daniel, it is thought, acted as viceroy. The date of the events recorded in chap. 5 is B.C. 538, towards the close of the reign of Belshazzar, when it appears Daniel was in private life, ver. 12, 13. That night the king was slain and the dynasty changed. The dignity which Belshazzar conferred on Daniel in the last horns of his monarchy was confirmed by Darius and Cyrus. The book, it will be seen, is divided into two parts; the histoincal, ^. . . I. -6., and the prophetic, 7.-12. Chaps. 2. 4:-7, ai-ewi'itten in Chaldee; the rest in Hebrew. The latter half of the book is avowedly written by Daniel. In the former part he is spoken of in the third person; but he is generally admitted to have been the author of the whole, Ezekiel speaks of him (B.C. 584) as a shhiing example of upiightness and wisdom, ranking him with Noah and Job, 14. 14, 18, 20: 28. 23. Our Loi'd quotes him as a prophet, Matt. 24. 15. Paul alludes to him in Heb. 11. 33, 34; and in the Apocalypse, John takes his language as the model of his own. The fullest discussion of the genuineness of this book may be seen in the Treatise of Hengstenberg on Daniel, and in the general Introduction of Havernick; the foi-mer of which has been published in English, and is epitomized in Home (Introd.) The later portion of the book is divisible, hke the earlier, into periods. The first prophetic vision occurred in the first year of Belshazzar (555 B.C.), 7.; the second, two years later (553), 8.; the third, in the first year of Darius the Mede (538), 9.; and the last, in the third year of Cyrus (534), 10. -12. The dream of Nebu- chadnezzar (2.) is also prophetic. The predictions of this book have much of the distinctness of , history, and have long formed an important part of the evidence of Scripture. From Porphyry downwards, indeed, the only resource of infidelity has been to maintain that they were written after the events they describe; a subterfuge, entirely unfounded in fact. Chap. 2 contains a brief history of the kingdoms which form the chief subject of the book. The image represents the Babylonian monai'chy und«r tlie dynasty of Nebuchadnezzai-, the Medo- DANIEL : PREDICTIONS. 50i Pci-sian empire, the Grecian, and the Eoman. The last is seen divided into ten kingdoms, and gives way to the kingdom of the Messiah, represented by a stone cut out without hands— of mean, yet mii'aculous origin; mighty as a moimtain, and, finally superior to the finest metals, the most splendid earthly thrones. In later chapters, one or other of these kingdoms again and again appears. In chap. 7, the first four of these kingdoms are represented by beasts, all highly significant. Of the ten kingdoms into which the fourth is divided, three are subdued by a little horn, or the papal power, ver. 8. That power (of which we read again subsequently) exercises its tyranny for 1260 years, and then comes the triumph of the saints. This view of the four empires has special reference to their religious connexions, as the former view had to their political. In chap. 8, we have the history of the Medo-Persian and Grecian empires, beginning Avith Cyrus and Alexander : the ram with two horns, the one greater than the other, representing the Persian and Median dynasty, with its conquests, ver. 4, and overthrow by Alexander, the notable horn: his conquests, and the division of his kingdom into four parts, out of which comes a little horn, probably Antiochus Epiphanes, a false crafty tyrant. This view of the " little horn," of chap. 3, is sustained by nearly all antiquity; but there are also reasons for concluding that this application of it was precursive and partial, the complete fulfilment of the pre- diction taking place \mder the Roman power. Chap. 9 foretells the coming of the Messiah. In seven weeks, i.e. forty-nine years, reckoning from the decree of Artaxerxes, Ezr. 7. 8-1 1, B. c. 457; the walls and the city were to be rebuilt, though m troublous times. In sixty-two weeks (434 years), Christ was to appeal', in his ministry, and in the midst of one week, i. e., about three and a-half years, he was to be cut off. Chap. 10 represents the opposition of the prince of Persia to the decree of Cyrus, in favour of the Jews, and the successful struggle against him of Michael, the prince, see Rev. 12. 7. In chap. II, the history of Persia and Greece is resumed — with important additions. Four kings of Persia (Cambyses, son of Cyrus, Smerdis, Darius, and Xerxes), are foretold, and the rise of Alex- ander. Then follows the history of his kingdom, and of his suc- cessors in Egypt (the south), andSyria (the north), till the times of Antiochus Epiphanes, and Ptolemy Philometer, ver. 25. Their character and destinies are clearly defined. In ver. 30, the conquest of Syria by the Romans is foretold; and thence to the end of the book we have a series of predictions, of which the fulfilment is found by some few in the history of Antiochus, but by most in the history of tl;e church of Christ, and of the papacy till the end of time. The 502 DANIEL: EZEKIEL. later verses of chap, ii, are certainly applied in 2 Thess. 2, to Antichrist, and the 1260 years of chap. 12, are referred to in the Apocah^pse, as the time after which a great deliverance is to be effected for the church. For the fullest literal and restricted exposition of the Book of Daniel, see Moses Stuart's Commentary, and Dr. Lee's " Events and Times of the Visions of Daniel." For an extended discussion of its application to the events of the gospel economy, with a full examination of its references to early profane history, see Birks on the ''-first two," and on the " two later" visions of Daniel. For a popular and striking exhibition of the visions and their fulfilment, see Bp. Newton, Diss. 13-17, and Dr. Keith's Evidence of Prophecy. To tmderstand much of the phraseology of the Book, and, as most hold, of its facts, compare Rev. chaps. 11-20. Quite apart from the significancy of these predictions, are many Spiritual °^ ^^® moral and spiritual lessons of this portion of lessons. inspired truth. It was written in the darkness of the most terrible captivity which the people of God had ever known, and yet it contains some of the grandest revelations of the future glories of the church, . . . Everywhere, moreover, the providence of God is seen, working or oveiTuling all for her good. . . . The predictions of the book extend from the establishment of the Medo- Persian monarchy to the general resurrection, the faith of believers being confirmed by the fulfilment of intermediate predictions, fore- telling the speedy punishment of two proud and impious kings, and the rebuilding of Jerusalem The history of the temptations of 'Daniel and his companions, their constancy and deliverance, is highly instructive, illustrating at once the mystery of the Divine dispensations, and the spirit of fidelity and patience with which good men submit to them. . . . The promise of the rebuilding of the temple was given to a penitent and prayerful prophet, the promise more comprehensive than the prayer he presented. He asked con- cerning Jerusalem: the answer told also of Messiah the Piincc. The clear announcement of Chiist's atonement, and of the time when he was to appear (9. 24-26) ; his future dignity, and his coming in the clouds of heaven (see Acts i. 11), make this poi-tion of the book of the deepest interest to the church. TJie Booh of the Prophet EzeJciel, B.C. 595-574. 93. Ezekiel (Ood will strengthen, or prevail) was, like Jere- miah, a priest as well as a prophet. He was carried captive with Jehoiakim by Nebuchadnezzar, B.C. 599, eleven years before the destruction of Jerusalem. All his prophecies were delivered in Chaklcea, on the river Chebar (Khabur)^ EZEKIEL, 603 which falls into the Euphrates at Carchemish, about 200 miles north of Babylon. Here he resided (i . 1:8. i), and here his wife died (24. 18). Tradition says that he was put to death by one of his fellow-exiles, a leader among them, whose idolatries he had rebuked ; and in the middle ages what was called his tomb was shown, not far from Bagdad. Ezekiel commenced prophesying in the fifth year after the cap- tivity of Jehoiakim (i, 2), that is, in Zedekiah's reign, and con- tinued till at least the twenty-seventh year of his own captivity (29. 17). The year of his first prophesying was also the thirtieth from the commencement of the reign of Nabopolassar and from the era of Josiah's reform. To. one of these facts, or perhaps to his own age (see Numb. 4. 3), he refers in chap, i. His influence with the people is obvious, from the numerous visits paid to him by the elders, who came to inquire what message God had sent through him (8. i: 14. i: 20. r, etc.) His w-ritings show remarkable vigour, and he was evidently well fitted to oppose "the people of stubborn front and hard heart," to whom he was sent. His characteristic, however, was the subordi- nation of his whole life to his work. He ever thinks and feels as the prophet. In this respect his writings contrast remarkably with those of his contemporary Jeremiah, whose personal history and feelings are frequently recorded. That he was, nevertheless, a man of strong feehng is clear fi*om the brief record he has given of his wife's death (24. 15-18). The central point of his predictions is the destruction of Jeru- salem. Ezekiel's predictions were dehvered partly before, and partly after, the destruction of Jerusalem. Before this event, his chief object was to call to repentance those living in careless security; to warn them against indulging the hope that, by the help of the Egyptians, the Babylonian yoke would be shaken off (17. 15-17: compare Jer. 37. 7) ; and to assure them that the destruction of their city and temple was inevitable and fast approaching. After this event, his principal care was to console the exiled Jews by promises of future deliverance and restoration to their own land; and to encourage them by assiuances of future blessings. His pre- dictions against foreign nations come between these two great divisions; having been for the most part uttered during the in- terval between the Divine intimation that Nebuchadnezzar was besieging Jerusalem (24. 2) and the arrival of the news that he had taken it (33. 21). The periods at which the predictions on these different subjects were delivered are frequently noted. 504 ezekiel: divisioxs. The book is divided by Havernick into nine sections, and it seems probable that the arrangement was made by Ezekiel himself. r. Ezekiei's call to the prophetic office, 1.-3. 21. Here God appears, in a cloxid, and from between the cherubim gives the prophet a commission ; shows him a roll inscribed with prophetical characters, and bids him eat it, that is, digest its contents. 2. Predictions and symbolical representations, foretelling the approaching destruction of Judah and Jerusalem, 3. 22-7. The 390 years of Israel's defection, and the forty yeai's dm-ing which Judah had been specially rebellious, are set forth in the typical siege of chap. 4. The threefold judgments of pestilence, sword, and dispersion, are set forth by the symbolical representations of chap. 5. 3. Visions presented to the prophet a year and two months later than the former, in which he is shown the temple polluted by the worship of Tbammuz (afterwards Adonis) ; the worshippers turning, like Persian idolaters, to the east: the consequent judgment on Jerusalem and the priests, a few faithful being marked for ex- emption (9.) ; and closing with promises of happier times and a purer worship, 8. -11. — Mark how the symbol of the Divine presence is gradually withdrawn : it moves from the temple first, and then from the city. 4. Specific reproofs and warnings, 12. -19. Here he shows the captives by two signs (12.) what was about to be the fate of the people ; exposes the false prophets who, at Jerusalem and at Babylon (Jer. 23. 16: 29. 8), spoke of peace and rest, Ezek. 13. 18; repeats his threatenings to some elders who visited him in the hope of getting something from him. that might contradict Jeremiah, 14.; sets forth Israel as a fruitless vine (15.)^ aiid as a base adulteress (16). "He showsby one eagle (Nebuchadnezzar), who had taken away the top of the cedar (Jehoiakim), and by another eagle (Pharaoh), to whom the vine that was left (Zedekiah) was turning, the uprooting of the whole; and, digressing to upbraid Zedekiah for the oath which he was now breaking (compare ver. 15 with 2 Chron. 36. 13), he predicts the replanting and flounshing of the whole under Messiah the Branch""' (17). He shows that this suf- fering is the consequence of their own acts (18.), and not only of the acts of their fathers. 5. Another series of warnings, given about a year later, when Zedekiah had revolted to Egypt: Zedekiah to be overthrown, Jehoiakim to be raised (21. 26: see 17. 15), and all future changes preparing for Christ (21. 27), 20.-23. 6. Predictions uttered two yeai's and five months later, on the * Leifchild. EZEKIEL : OBADIAH. 505 very day wlien the siege of Jerusalem commenced (24. i: compare 2 Kings 25. i), announcing its complete overthrow (24). His own wife removed on that day; he weeps not, as a sign to them that the fall of Jerusalem would be to them a hardening calamity, leaving no time or opportunity for mourning. 7. Predictions against foreign nations (25.-32.), extending over a period of three years, during which time Jerusalem was besieged, and no prophecy was delivered against Israel: see 24. 27. The speedy accomplishment of many of these predictions, besides giving evidence to all ages of the truth of Scripture, assured the Israelites of the certain accomplishment of the rest, 8. His predictions concerning Israel renewed; the promised sign (a refugee from Jerusalem) having come (compare 24. 26 and 33. 21). Exhortations to repentance; a prophecy against Edom; the triumph of Israel and the progress of the kingdom of God on earth foretold (33.-39)- 9. Symbolic representations of the Messianic times ; the grandeur and beauty of the new city and temple (40.-48). These closing chapters are confessedly obscm-e. Some regard them as descriptive of what Solomon's temple was; others, of what the second temple should be ; and others, still, of a glorious building hereafter to be reared. From the description itself, from the analo- gous language of the last chapters of Revelation, and from the general tenor of prophetic language, the whole is deemed by most authorities (Havernick, Fairbaim, and others) to be descriptive of the vastness, glory, and certain prosperity of the kingdom of God. Tlie Booh of Oladiah, B.C. 588-583. 94. The time when Obadiah delivered his prophecy is somewhat uncertain, but it was probably between the de- struction of Jerusalem by the Chaldaeans under Nebuchad- nezzar (588 B.C.) and the conquest of Edom, which took place five years afterwards. Others give an earlier date to this book (time of Hezekiah), though with less reason. The personal history of the prophet is not known, but several eminent persons of his name are mentioned in Scripture. A contemporary of Jeremiah and Ezekiel, he treats of the same subjects. Between the writings of the three there is an occa- sional resemblance.* * Obad. I. -4.: Jer. 49. 14-16: Obad. 6. 8: Jer. 49.9, 10: Obad. 9: Ezek. 25. 13, ver. 12, and Ezek. 35. 15. Z 506 obadiah: the captivity. Israel had no gi'eater enemy than the Edomites. They were proud of their wisdom, ver. 8, and of their rocky and impregnable position, ver. 3. But the prophet foretells the uncovering of their treasures, and rebukes their unkind treatment of the Jews, their kinsmen, in rejoicing over their calamities and encouraging Nebu- chadnezzar utterly to exterminate them (Psa. 137. 7); for all which an early day of retribution was to come: "As thou hast done it shall be done unto thee," ver. 15. But the chosen race themselves had just been carried into cap- tivity; the holy land was deserted; and the chastisement denounced against the Edomites might therefore appear not to differ from that which had already been inflicted upon the seed of Jacob. The prophet therefore goes on to declare that Edom should be as though it had never been, and should be swallowed up for ever (a prophecy which has been remarkably fulfilled_) ; v/hile Israel should rise again from her present fall ; should repossess not only her ovm land, but also Philistia and Edom; and finally rejoice in the holy reign of the promised Messiah. See Pt. i. § 188. Compare Amos i. 11, 12; 9. 11-15: Joel 3, 19, 20: Ezek. 35. The Captivity. The Babylonish captivity was a remarkable, and, at the ticQe it occurred, an unexampled dispensation of Providence. The people of Israel, in the time of the judges, had often been brought under their enemies ; and the ark, the symbol of God's presence, had once forsaken the tabernacle of Shiloh, and had been carried away into the land of the Philistines ; but the captivity was attended with much heavier calamities. The whole land was now desolated, the ark destroyed, the temple burned to the ground, and the city of Jerusalem laid waste; while the body of the people were delivered into the hands of bar- barous enemies, and taken out of their own into a distant country. It is not easy to describe tho feelings of distress and amazement of the faithful servants of God whose lot was cast in these dark and calamitous times. But in the short book of the "Lamentations" of the prophet Jeremiah, who lived in the midst of these scenes, there is a heart-touching memorial of them, which gives a faithful delineation of this visitation and of its results. Yet, painful as these events were, they were remarkably over- ruled for tlie further development of tlie pui-poses of God and the advancement of true religion. The captivity of the Jews in Babylon tended gi'catly to cure tnem of the sin of idolatry, to which they had been addicted for so many ages; a result which all their THE CAPTIVITY. 507 previous warnings, corrections, and judgments, had failed to pro- duce. It diffused the fear of Jehovah among the heathen, and elicited from Cyrus, from Nebuchadnezzar, from Darius, acknow- ledgments of his perfections and claims. It also prepared the way for the coming of Christ and the dispensation of the gospel, by taking away many of those things wherein consisted the glory of the Jewish dispensation, and by causing the dispersion of the Jews throughout a great part of the known world. Those dispersed Jews, carrying with them the holy Scriptures containing the pro- phecies of the Messiah, became the means of diffusing some know- ledge of the true religion, and of raising, to some extent, a general expectation of the coming of the Saviour. These events were also of gi'eat importance, as presenting a striking fulfilment of prophecy. Long before the desolation and captivity of the two kingdoms of Israel and Judah, their relative destinies had been foretold. "N^Tien these two kingdoms stood up together at the time of their separation, no human calculation could have determined which would be the more stable or pros- perous of the two. That of Samaria seemed rather to have the advantage, considering her greater territory and numbers. But the voice of prophecy decided the question. The earliest three prophets who refer to this subject, Hosea, Amos, and Isaiah, all announce the earlier downfal and the utter desolation of Israel. Israel was to be "broken within threescore and five years," and to ''cease from being a people," Isa. 7. 6-8; and the Assyrian power was fore- shown, by Hosea's prediction, to be the instrument of the Divine judgment, Hos. ii. 5, etc. The captivity of Judah was first expressly foretold in the reign of Hezekiah, upon the occasion of his displaying to the ambassadors from Babylon his treasures, and the wealth and splendour of his kingdom, Isa. 39. 2: 2 Chron. 32. 27, And the fulness of the pre- dictions on the subject of the Babylonish captivity is vex-y remark- able. They not only describe the calamity which was about to overwhelm the Jewish people, but they disclose tlie reasons and Ijurposes of God's providence in bringing it to pass. They represent it as a judicial visitation for an extent of sin and corruption not otherwise to be purged away; and as designed, not for punishment to their destruction, but for discipline to repentance and humilia- tion. They foretell, also, the time of its continuance, which they limit to seventy years, and its issue, together with the penitent state of heart and the course of events on which that issue was to depend. The restoration of Judah, an event so little to be expected in the ordinary course of things, was foretold as plainly as the captivity. See Isa. 14, 3: 44. 26-28: 45- i-4, I3: Jer. 25. 9-135 z2 ■308 iHE restoration: ezra. 29. 10-14; 50. 4, 5: 51.: Ezek. II. 16, 17: 12. 15: 20. 34, and other passages. The characteristic pecuharities of prophecy during this period have been already noticed (Part ii.) Its extended range and expHcit denunciations against the heathen, its cvangehcal disclosures of a coming kingdom, the growing spirituality of its precepts, are all deeply instructive, and are rendered appropriate, if not necessary, by the depressed con- dition of the Jewish church. The Bestoraticyn. Babylon had now fallen, as had been foretold, and Daniel, there is reason to beheve, stood high in the esteem of the conqueror Cyrus. To that monarch he j)robably showed the predictions of Isaiah, and now that at the end of seventy years of captivity Cyrus found the sovereign power in his hands, he issued a decree, in which, after acknowledging the supremacy of Jehovah, he gave permission to the Jews in any part of his dominions to return to their own land, and to rebuild the city and temple of Jerusalem. The results of this decree, and the subsequent history of the Jews till the close of the Old Testament canon, are found in the remaining books of the Bible. Attention to the chronological order of the books is important. The arrangement wiU be found in Pt. ii. § 6. Sec. 5. The Boohs of Ezra^ Haggai, Zechariah, Esther^ Nehemiahf Malachi. The Booh of Ezra, b. c. 536-457. 95. Ezra was one of the captives at Babylon, where he was probably born. He was the grandson of Seraiah, the chief priest, who was slain at the taking of Jerusalem (2 Kings 25, 1 8-2 1 ), and therefore a descendant of Aaron. He was a " ready scribe," or rather instructor, in the law of God. He was a man of deep humihty (9. 10-15), of fervent zeal for God's honour (7. 10 : 8. 21-23), deeply grieving over the sins of the people, and sparing no pains to bring them to repentance (9. 3 : 10. 6, 10). He joined the Jews at Jerusalem many years after their return, going up thither with the second large company. EZR-V. 509 Part of the book (4. 8-6. 19: 7. I--2 7, is wi-itten iu CLaldee, and consists chiefly cf conversations or decrees in that tongue. Ezra speaks of himself as the author, in 7. 27, 28: 8. i, 25-29: 9. 5. The whole period comprehended in the book, extends from 536 to 45 7 B. c, or about seventy-nine years. The history in this book consists of two portions, separated from each other by a considerable interval of time. The frst contains the history of the returning exiles, and of the rebuild- ing of the temple, which had been decreed by Cyrus, in the year S36 B. c, and completed in the reign of Darius Hystaspes, in the year 515 B. c. The second portion contains the personal history of Ezra's journey to Jerusalem, with commission from Artaxerxes, in the year 45 7 B. c. ; and his exertions for the reformation of the people. The contents of the book may be divided as follows : (i. ) The return of the Jews from their captivity in Babylon, and the rebuilding of the temple. The proclamation of Cyrus for the rebuilding of Jenisalem and the temple, chap. i. The people who returned with Zerubbabel, the grandson of king Jehoiachin, and Joshua, the grandson of Josedek, with then* offerings for the temple, 2. Erection of the altar of burnt-offering; and laying the foundation of the temple, 3. Opposition of the Samaritans, and suspension of the bmlding, 4. Prophecies of Haggai and Zechariah; recommencement of the build- ing; letter of the Samaritans to Darius, 5. Decree of Darius; com- pletion and dedication of the temple, 6 . (ii.) Ezra's journey to Jerusalem, and the reformations which ho effected. Ezra's commission from Artaxerxes; and his journey from Babylon to Jerusalem, with his companions, 7, 8. Ezra's mourning for the sins of the people; and confession and prayer, 9. Repentance and reformation of the people, ic. The book of Ezra should be read in connection with the prophecie.^} of Haggai and Zechariah. In the return of the Jews from Babylon, we see the fulfilment of the prophecies of Isaiah (44. 28), and Jeremiah (25. 12: 29. 10); the foi-mer had predicted the name of then- deliverer, and the latter the exact time of their deliverance, as well as the state of heart witli which it should be accompanied. This restoration of the Jewish church, temple, and worship, was an event of the highest conse- quence, as tending to preserve true religion in the world, and pre- paring the way for the appearance of the Great Deliverer, an ancestor of whom, Zerubbabel, or Sheshbazzar, was appointed in the provi- dence of God to lead his people from Babylon. 510 EZRA : HAGGAI. This deliveraxice of the Jewish people is much spoken of by the prophets as a most glorious display of the providence of God; and, like the redemption of their forefathers out of Egypt, it may be viewed as a type of the great salvation of Christ, and of the joui'ney of his redeemed people to the heavenly Canaan, under the care and guidance of God their Saviour, Isa. 32. 2: 42. 16: 51. 11. Among the remarkable dispensations of Providence recorded in this history, we may notice especially how wonderfully God inclined the hearts of several heathen princes, Cyrus, Darius, and Artaxerxes, to favour and protect his people, and to aid them in the work of rebuilding their city and temple, 1:4: 6: 7. Mark, too, how God overruled the opposition of the Samaritans, the decree of Darius being much more favourable than that of Cyrus (Ezr. i. and 5: 6.) There is also another display of God's special and discriminating providence in fulfilment of his promises to his people. Whilst in the land of Samaria, colonies of strangers had been planted, which filled the territory of Israel with a heathen race, so as to prevent the return of the ancient inhabitants; it appears that, in the land of Jiuddh, full room was left for the return and restoration of the Jews. Unlike Nehemiah, Ezra seems to have remained at Jeru- salem. He is said to have lived to the same age as Moses, 120 years; and is esteemed by the Jews as next to him for the services he rendered to their religion. He appears to have exercised civil authority for nearly twelve years. ' We read of him in the next book as emj^loyed in his sacred duties, and zealously co-operating with Nehemiah, who succeeded him in the government, in promoting the reformation of the people. The Booh of Ilafjgai, B.C. 520-518. 96. Haggai is generally thought to have been bora in the captivity, and to have returned from Babylon with Zerub- babel (Ezr. 2. 2). He is the first of the three prophets who flourished among the Jews after their return to Judaea, and was raised up by God to encourage Zerubbabel and Joshua the high priest to resume the building of the temple, which had been interrupted for nearly fourteen years by the Samaritans and others artfully attempting to defeat the edict of Cyrus (Ezr. 4. 24). Though this interraption was now removed, the Jews showed no desire to recommence the work. The time they said was not come to build the house HAGGAI. 511 of the Lord. They were more anxious to build and adorn their own houses, to cultivate their fields, and multiply their flocks. This worldhness, however, brought its own punish- ment. They "looked for much," and "it came to httle." Drought and mildew were sent to rebuke their neglect of what ought to have been their first work, and Haggai and Zecliariah were raised up to reform and encourage them, i. 4-II : 2. 15-19 : Zech. 8. 9-12. This book contains four prophetic messages (r. i: 2. i, 10, 20), all delivered in about four months. They are so brief, that they are supposed to be only a summary of the original prophecies. In the first, Haggai reproves the Jews for neglecting the temple, and promises that the Divine favom* shtill attend its erection. Twenty four days after this prophecy, Zerubbabel and Joshua, and all the people, resumed their work, and were encouraged by a gracious message from God, chap. i. About four weeks afterwards, the zeal of the people appears to have cooled; and many doubts arose in their minds. To remove these, Haggai declares that the Lord of hosts is with them; and that the glory of the new temple shall be gi-eater than that of the formez", 2. 1-9. Two months afterwards. Haggai addresses them a third time, rebuking their hstlessness, and promising them the Divine blessing from the time the foundation of the Lord's house was laid, 2. 10-19. And on the same day another prophecy was delivered, addressed to Zerubbabel, the head and representative of the family of David, and the individual with whom the genealogy of the Messiah (through both Joseph and Mary: see Matt. i. 12: Luke 3.27) began after the captivity, promising the preservation of the people of God, amidst the fall and ruin of the kingdoms of the v\'orld, 2. 20-2?. These signal predictions, which gained for Haggai the character of a prophet (Ez. 5. i: 6. 14), were both referred by the Jews to the time of the Messiah, Eph. 2. 14: Heb. 12. 26, 27 (Grotius). The second temple was to witness the presence of the Gi-eat Teacher himself; and though that temple was nearly wholly rebuilt by Herod, this was a very gi-adual work, occupying more than forty- ;nx years; nor did Jewish writers ever speak of Herod's temple in other terms than as the second. In the closing prediction, Christ himself is spoken of under the type of Zerubbabel ; and the tem- poral commotions which preceded his first coming, and are to pre- cede his second, are represented by the shaking and overthi-ow of earthly kingdoms. 612 ZECHARIAH. The Boole of ZecJiariaJi, B.C. 520-510. 97. Zechariah, the son of Barachiali and grandson of Tddo, was probably of the priestly tribe (see Neh. 12. 4), and re- turned from Babylon, when quite a youth, with Zerubbabel and Joshua. Whether Iddo was himself a prophet is not clear (compare Hebrew and LXX). His grandson, Zechariah. began to prophesy about two months after Haggai (i. i : Ezr. 5. I : 6. 14: Hag. i. i), in the second year of Darius Hystaspes, and continued to prophesy for two years, 7. i. He had the same general object as Haggai, to encourage and urge the Jews to rebuild the temple. The Jews, we are told^ "prospered through the prophesying" (Ez. 6. 14), and in about six years the temple was finished. Zechariah collected his own prophecies (i. 9: 2. 2), and is very frequently quoted in the New Testament. Indeed, next to Isaiah, Zechariah has the most frequent allusions to the chai'acter and coming of our Lord. The genuineness of the closing chps., 9. -14., has been doubted. Mede and others refer them to Jeremiah, deeming the reading in Matt. 27. 9, 10, and internal evidence, in favour of this view. Jahn, Blayney, Hengstenberg, and others, refer the whole to Zechariah, and suppose the reading to be, as it easily might be, an error of copyists.'* While the immediate object of Zechariah was to encourage the Jews in the restoration of public worship, he has other objects more remote and important. His prophecies, like those of Daniel, extend to the ''times of the Gentiles;" but in Zechariah, the history of the chosen people occupies the centre of his predictions; and that history is set forth both in direct pi-ophecy and in sym- bolical acts or visions. As Zechariah aboimds in symbolical imagery, we shall give, instead of a brief summary, an outline of his diflferent visions, with such interpretations as are approved by eminent commentators. 98. The book of Zechariah may be divided into three parts: — 1. Chaps. 1-6, containing nine visions, in addition to the warnings given in i. i-6. The first showing that, though seventy years had elapsed since the ninth of Zedekiah, shortly after which time the temple was burned, and all the rest of the earth had rest, the Jews * The name is wanting in some Mss. and in the Syriac ; Z«;^;ag.-» is found in othex's: and to confound Zg<« with l^/» is easy enough. zechariah: exposition. 513 were still molested; the angel of God {i.e., either Messiah or the church 1 asks how long; and good and comfortable words are spoken in reply in the hearing of the prophet, i. 7-17. The prophet then sees the horns, or four kingdoms, by whom the Jews had been, or were yet to be scattered; and also four carpentere, or helpers, by whose aid the horns are to be cast out, 1. 18-21. The prophet has now a third ^^sion, of a man with a measuring line, to imply the rebuilding and enlargement of Jei'usalem: she shall overflow, or break down her walls, and Jehovah will be at once a wall of fire round about her and the glory in the midst. He exhorts the Jews still in Babylon to return, and foretells yet larger accessions, 2. I -1 3. He then predicts the mcreased pui-ity of the priesthood in the person of Joshua,- thence he passes to the office of Christ, as a Branch out of David's root (Isa. 4. 2 : Jer. 23.5:33,15); a Stone for a foundation, having seven eyes, to indicate his perfect intelligence, and Divinely engraven or adorned. In his day all shall dwell safely and in peace, 3. i-io. In the fifth vision, the prophet sees a golden candlestick, supplied by two olive-trees dropping their oil into it; and these show how, by the Spirit of the Lord in Zerubbabel and Joshua, the temple and the church should be completed, without external help (ver. 6), and against all opposition (ver. 7), 4. 1-14: compai"e ver. 12 and Rev. 11. 4. He is then taught, by the vision of a flying I'oll, the swift judgments that are to fall upon thieves and false-swearers : by another, of an ephah, or measure, and a woman sitting upon it with a talent of lead upon her, and two winged women carrying the whole to Shinaar, he is taught the heavy judgment of some nation that has flUed up the measure of her iniquity and is to be established and settled in the East, 5. 1-4, 5-11. In the eighth vision, mountains— fixed Divine purposes — are seen to send out chariots and horses, instrximents of Divine providence. They quiet the spirit of the prophet (ver, 8 : compare Judg, 8. 3), by inflicting punishment upon Babylon (ver. 8: compare Jer. i. 14).* In the closing vision, •> Joshua is seen crowned with two crowns of silver and gold, and becomes in that condition a type of Christ, the Branch, who vmiting in himself the priestly and kingly offices, is to build the temple and bear the glory, 6, 1-15. 2. Chaps. 7, 8. In the second part, messengers from Babylon ^ Pi'obably the four chariots denote the four empires of Daniel'a vision; the red horses, the Babylonians; the black, the Persians, who overthrew Babylon; the white, the Macedonians, who were peaceful to the Jews ; and the spotted ba!y, the Romans. The general import is at least clear. *> Or Bvmbolical action. z 3 614 zechariah: exposition. come to learn from the prophet whether God had sanctioned tlie new fasts instituted at the commencement of the captivity for the destruction of the city and temple. The pi'ophet replies that God had not sanctioned them, and that what he requires is a return to obedience, which the me.ssengers, or people, i*efuse, 7. 1-14, Pro- phecies, intermixed with warnings, follow: fasting seasons are to become cheerful feasts, and the Jews are to be a universal blessincr, 8. 1-23: ver. 13, 23. 3. Chaps. 9-14. The third part contains the history of the Jews, and of the church, to the end of time. Syria, Tyre, and Sidon, are to be conquered, though the house of the Lord will be preserved, even while heathen armies, and Alexander (9. 6), pass through the land: and at length Messiah is to come and establish a peaceful kingdom, which shall finally extend over the earth (ver, 9 : Matt. 21. 4, 3): 9. 1-17. Idols are to be everywhere abandoned, Judah, and even Ephraim restored, (ver. 7): 10. 1-12. A sad scene, how- ever, is to intervene. The destruction of Jerusalem is again fox'c- told, in terms taken probably from the history of her first over- throw, the prophetic office is to be in the lowest repute (ver. 1 2), the wands or crooks, S3^mbolical of the shepherd's office, are broken, and false hireling shepherds are honoured : all which has its fulfil- ment in the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans, in the impious rejection of Christ by the Jews, the mean undervaluation of him by Judas, and the powerlessness and ignorance of the Jewish rulers ; "the arm dried up, and the right eye darkened," (ver. 17): 11. 1-17. Nevertheless, Jerusalem shall be a burdensome stone to all nations. The Jews shall mourn over their sins, and especially over the sin that destroyed them, the crucifixion of om* Lord (John 19. 37), and all shall be forgiven, 12. 1,-13. i. The idols shall be cut ofl"; false prophets shall cease; the prophetic office itself, shall bring persecii- tion; the shepherd being smitten, the sheep shall be scattered, though a remnant of them shall survive the overthrow of the Jewish state, 13. 2-9. Jerusalem, howevei', will be destroyed, and the people scattered, Christ shall ascend from Olivet, and thaice shall Jewish Christians be forced out by persecutions, and extend the church on all sides, the barriers which surrounded the Jewish people and state being removed.* Then, and for long after, the church is to remain in a state of mingled prosperity and aufiering, and at the close, not night, but day more glorious than ever, shall * Some, however, regard this prediction on the clearing of Mount Olivet, as referring to the coming of our Lord, in his premillenial gloiy (see Pt. i. § 447). The view given above, is taken cliiefly from Leifchild's Help, ESTHER. 515 shine over all the earth, and the world shall become " Holiness unto the Lord," 14. It may be added that, in the version of the LXX, several Psalms are ascribed to Haggai and Zechariah (13S, 146-148) ; and though nothing can be decided Avith certainty as to these particular Psalms, it is highly probable that both prophets were concerned in the composition of some of those which were produced after the retui'n from captivity. Tlie Booh of Esther, B.C. 462-452. 99. But few comparatively of the Jews availed themselves of the privilege to return to the land of their fathers. Most of the existing race had been born in Babylonia ; they had made that country their home, and had gathered around them comforts which were not easily abandoned. Not more than 50,000 persons had gone up under Zerubbabel ; and the second band, under Ezra, more than seventy years later, numbered in all about 6,000 persons. Yet later, other bands probably sought the city and temple of God, but even still the great bulk of the people remained in the land of their exile. Some suppose that this book was written by Mordecai; but the more probable opinion (and one which may account for the omission of the name of God) is, that it is an extract from the records of Persia. The Asiatic sovereigns, it is well known, caused annals of their reigns to be kept. Numerous passages in the Books of Kings and Chronicles, prove that the kings of Israel and Judah had such annals. And this book itself attests, that Ahasuerus had similar histoi^ical records, 2. 23: 6. i; from which it appear.? probable that this his- tory of the Jews, under queen Esther, might be derived, see chap. 10. 2. This supposition accounts for the retaining of the Persian word Purim, 9. 24-32; for the details given concerning the empire of Ahasuerus : and for the exactness with which the names of his ministers, and of Haman's sons are recorded; also for the Jews being mentioned only in the third person, and Esther being fre- qiiently designated by the title of '^ the queen," and Mordecai by the epithet of " the Jew," It would also account for those pa- rentheses which occur in the course of the narrative; the object of which appears to have been to give illustrations necessary for a Jewish reader; and for the abrupt termination of the narrative, by one sentence relative to the power of Ahasuerus, and another con- cerning Mordecai's greatness. 516 ESTHER : XEHEMIAH. The facts here related, come in between the sixth and seventh chapters of Ezra. The institution of the festival of Purirn, and its continued observance to the present time, is an evidence of the truth of this book. It has always been received as canonical by the Jews, who hold it in the highest veneration. The contents of this book may be thus stated : It relates the royal feast of Ahasuerus, and the divorce of Vashti, chap. I. The elevation of Esther to the Persian throne, and the service rendered to the king by Mordecai, in detecting a plot against his life, 2, The promotion of Haman, and his purposed destruc- tion of the Jews, 3. The consequent aflliction of the Jews, and the measures taken by them, 4. The defeat of Haman's plot against Mordecai, through the instrumentality of Esther; the honour done to Mordecai; and the execution of Haman, 5, 6, 7. The defeat of Haman's general plot against the Jews; the institution of the fes- tival of Purim, in commemoration of this dehverance; and Mor- decai's advancement, 8, 9, 10. The book of Esther shows how these Jews, though scattered among the heathen, were preserved, even when doomed by others to destruction. Though the name of God is not found in the book, his hand is plainly seen, anticipating threatened evil, de- feating and overriding it to the greater good of the Jews, and even of the heathen, i, 2, 4-10. Nor was it the safety of the Jews in Babylon only that was in peril; if Haman had succeeded, as the power of Persia was then supreme at Jerusalem, and throughout Asia, the Jews, throughout the world, must have perished, and •with them, the whole of the visible church of God. Mark and admire the providence of God, using what seems the most trifling circumstance to accomplish his will (6). Mark also the faith of Mordecai, whose fear of the imalterable Persian decree was less than his tnist in the faithfulness of God (4. 14). Though he knew not how, he foresaw indemnity to Israel ; and he asks the aid of Esther, rather for ?ier honour, than for their delivei'ance. The Book of Nehemiah, B.C. 445-428. 100. This book was anciently united with Ezra, thougn written or compiled by Nehemiah. Chap. 7. 6-73 was pro- bably compiled, vcr. 5; as was 12. 1-26 (ver. 23). In the rest there are clear proofs of Nehemiah's authorship (see I. -7. and 12. 27-43 : 13. 6-31. The book of Nehemiah takes up the history of the Jews, about twelve yeai-s after the close cf the book of Ezi*a; and it .gives an NEHEMIAH. 517 account of the improvements in the city af Jerusalem^ and of the reformations among the people, which were carried on by Nehemiah. Though the temple had been rebuilt under the administration of Ezra, the walls and gates of the city were yet in the state of ruin in which the ChaMseans had left them; and consequently, the in- habitants were exposed to the assault of every enemy, Nehemiah was the instrument raised up for their protection. Though a Jew and a captive, he had been, through the overruling pro\'idence of God, appointed cup-bearer to the king of Persia; an office which was one of the most honourable and confidential at the court. Though thus in the midst of ease and wealth, yet when he heard of the mournful condition of his countrymen, he was deeply afflicted by it. He made it the subject of earnest prayer; and after four months, the sadness of his countenance having revealed to the king his sorrow of heart, an opportunity was given him of petitioning for leave to go to Jerusalem. The king (probably influenced by Esther, his queen), appointed Nehemiah governor of Jerusalem, with a commission to rebuild the walls, and protect the people, i : 2. 1-8. The rebuilding of the city wall was accomplished in fifty-two days, notwithstanding the difficulties created by Sanballat and Tobiah, who were leading men in the rival colony of Samaria; they first scofied at the attempt, then threatened to attack the workmen, and finally used various stratagems to weaken Nehemiah's authority, and even to take his life. In addition to these dangers from with- out, Nehemiah encountered hindrances from his own people, arising out of the general distress, which was aggravated by the cruel exactions of the nobles and rulers. These grievances were redressed on the earnest remonstrance of Nehemiah, who had himself set a striking example of economy in his office. It appears, also, that some of the chief men in Jerusalem were at that time in conspiracy with Tobiah against Nehemiah, 2. 9-20: 5.-6. Thus the wall was built in "troublous times," Dan. 9. 23; and its completion was joyously celebrated by a solemn dedication under Nehemiah's direction, 12. 27-43. Nehemiah next turned his attention to other measures for the public good. He appointed various officers, 7. 1-3: 12. 44-47; and excited among the people more interest in religion, by the public exposition of the law; by an unexampled celebration of the feast of tabernacles, and the observance of a national fast; and by inducing the people to enter into a solemn covenant " to walk in God's law," 8.- 10. The inhabitants of the city being as yet too few to insure it? prosperity, Nehemiah brought one out of every ten in the country 618 nehemiah: malachi. to take up his abode in the ancient capital, which then presented 80 few inducements to the settler, that " the people blessed all the men that willingly offered themselves to dwell at Jerusalem," 7. 4: ir. 1-19. In all these important public proceedings, Nehe- miah appears to have enjoyed the assistance of Ezra. After about twelve years (5. 14), Nehemiah returned to Babylonia; he subsequently went back to Jerusalem, and exerted himself to promote the fm-ther reformation of his countiymen, particularly in the correction of those abuses which had crept in during his absence, 13. The whole administration of Nehemiah is supposed to have lasted about thu*ty-six years, and with this book closes the Ilistonj of the Old Testament, Nehemiah presents a noble example of true patriotism, founded on the fear of God (5. 15), and seeking the religious ^'*°^* welfare of the state. His respect for the Divine law, his reverence for the sabbath (13. 18), his devout acknowledge- ment of God in all things (i. 11: 2. 18), his practical perception of God's character (4. 14: 9. 6-53), his union of watchfulness and prayer (4. g, 20), his humility in ascribing all good in himself to the gi-ace of God (2. 12: 7. 5), are all highly commendable. In the ninth chapter, we have an instructive summary of the history of the Jews, in its most important light, showing at once what God is, and what men are. Few books, indeed, of the Bible, contain a I'icher illustration of Divine philosophy — that is, of true religion taught by example. The Booh of Malachi, B.C. 420-397. loi. Malachi ("my messenger") is the last of the Old Testa- ment prophets, as Nehemiah is the last of the historians ; and the time of his ministry nearly coincides with Nehemiah's administration. The second temple was now built, and the service of the altar, with its offerings and sacrifices, was established ; for it is a profane and insincere spirit in that service, especially among the priests, which he labours to correct. He complains also that divorces and intermarriages with idolaters have greatly multiplied — the very evils Avhich Nehemiah so earnestly condemns.'" He lived between the years 436 and 397 b. c. Malachi begins his message by reminding the Jews how God had preferred them to Edcm, and upbraids them with their ungrateful ■ Mai, 2. II, compare Neh. 13. 23-27: Mai. 2. 8: 3. 8, 10: Neh. ij. 10, II, 29. REIG^'S OF REHOBOAM A^^D JEROBOAM. 519 retui'us; be reproves the priests (i. 6: 2. i), and the people (2. 11); alludes to the Divine institution that made two one flesh, ver. 15, that the seed might be holy; threatens all with punishment and rejection, declaring, that God will " make his name great among the Gentiles," for that he was wearied with the impiety of Israel, i: 2. He then proclaims the approach of Christ to that temple, and his puiification by doctrine, judgment, and mercy, of both service and worshippers, marking the happiness of the select few, who in corrupt times, take counsel together for religious ends, whom God will preserve, manifesting at last to all men, that they are his own, 3.-4. 1. He closes the book, with an assui-ancc of approaching salvation, predicts the coming of the harbinger of the Sun of righteousness, and enjoins, till that day, the observance of the law, Luke i. 17. 102. The last predictions of Scripture, therefore, are like the earliest. They rebuke corruption and promise deliverance. They uphold the authority of the first dispensation and reveal the second. The prophet is still the teacher ; and his last words are of the law and spiritual obedience, and again of the gospel and its healing glory, 4. 2. Sec. 6. The whole Arranrjed and Epitomized. From the Death of Solomon till the dose of the Canoji. 103. (i.) History of the Tico Kingdoms. Jldah. j B.C. Israel. Kehoboa?!, king (17 years), 976 Jeroboam, king (22 years); 1 Kings 14. 2i,/./>. (/!<(ZaA);! [975, he establishes himself at 2 Chi-ou. 12. 13, f.p. Usher] Shechem, i Kings 12. 25. {reigned). Rehoboam, preparing to at- tack the ten ti'ibes, is for- ])idden by Shemaiah, I Kings 12, 21-24: 2 Chron. 11. 1-4. Rehoboam fortifies his king- 974 dom ; the priests and Le- vites of Israel resort to him, Rehoboam' s family, [2 Chron. 11. 5-23]. Xotc. — The names of prophets are here piinted in bold type, cf new kings in Roman cajtitals, and of the first kings of new dynasties in Italic capitals. Jeroboam, having set up golden calves at Dan and Bethel, is reproved by a Man of God, i Kings 12. 26-33: 13. I-IO. 520 ABU AH : ASA : NADAB : BAASHA. JUDAH. Kehoboam's and Judah's idolatry, i Kings 14. 22-24: 2 Chron. 12. i. Shishak plunders Jeinisalem, I Kings 14. 25-28: 2 Chron. 12. 2-12. Character and death of Reho- boam, I Kings 14. 21, I. p. 29-31: 2 Chron. 12. 13, I. p. 14-16. Abijah, or Abijam, king (3 years), i Kings 15. i, 2, 6: 2 Chron, 13. i, 2. Abijah defeats Jeroboam in battle, 2 Chron, 13, 3-21. His heart uot perfect. Character and death of Abijah. Asa, king (41 years), I Kings 15. 3-10: 2 Chron. 13. 22: 14. I. Asa puts away idolatry and strengthens Ids kingdom, I Kings 15. 1B-15 : 2 Chron. 14. 2-8: 15. 16-18. Asa's victory over the Ethi- opians, 2 Chron. 14. 9-15. Moved by Azariah, Asa makes a solemn covenant with God, 2 Chron, 15. r-15, 19. Asa bribes Ben-hadad, king of Syria, to attack Baasha, 1 Kings 15. 16-22. Asa, reproved by Hanani for applying to Ben-hadad, puts him in prison, 2 Chron, 16. 7-10. Hi-.: idolatrous alliance with Syria, and his imprisoiiinent of the pro- B. C. 973 972 [970, Usher] 959 [95 «, Usher] 959 [958, Usher] 958 957 956 955 953 951 944 942 941 Israel. Seduced by an old prophet of Bethel, the Man of God dis- obeys the woi"d of the Lord, and is slain by a lion, I Kings 13. 11-32. These calves boirowed from Egypt, where Jeroboam had resided. Twice warned, by the Man of God and by Ahijah, yet persisting in his idolatry. The step seemed politic. It seemed a form of Morship something like that established at Jenisaleiu, and attracted the tribes, but in the end it proved the niin of the kingdom. Ahijah denounces Jeroboam, ] Kings 13. 33, 54: 14. 1-18. Very touching is the narrative of the visit of the wife of the king ol Israel to Ahijah, to learn the fate of her sick, but pious son, 14, Jeroboam's death. Nadab, king (2 years), i Kings 14. 19, 20: 15. 25, 26. Nadab slain at Gibbethon. Baasha, king (24 years), 1 Kings 15. 27-34. Baasha, attempting to build Ramah, is attacked by the king of SjTia, 2 Chron. 16. i-6. Ver. I, I.e., the j6th year of Asa's kingdom (Lft.), or read 24tb (Hales). ASA : JEHOSHAPHAT : ZIMRI : AHAZIAH. 521 JCDAH. phet, after all his reformations, prove his ruin. In his sickness, I he trusts not in God, but in his I r)hvsicians. Asa's death. Jehoshaphat, king (25 years;; his piety and prosperity, I Kings 15. 23, 24: 22. 41- 47; 2 Chron. 16. ir-14: 17. 1:20.31-3,: 17. 2-iq: eom- pai*e ver. 6 and 20. 33. His great error is his alliance with Ahab, whose daughter, Athaliah, his son Jehovam marries. Hence his expedition to Rauioth, which nearly cost him his life. Jehoshaphat visits Ahab, and joins with him in battle against the Syrians, 2 Chron. 18. Jehoshaphat reproved by Jehu for joining with Ahab. He visits his kingdom, and ex- hortb the judges, etc., to be faithful, 2 Chron. 19 : Psa.82. Overthrow of Moab, etc. Je- horam regent, 2 Chron. 20. 1-30: Psa. 115 : 46. Jehoshaphat joins Abaziah. Being reproved, and his ships wrecked, he refuses to join in a subsequent ex- pedition, I Kings 22. 48, j 49: 2 Chron. 20. 35, 37. | Afterwards joins Joram a- { gauist Moab, and is saved j only by a miracle, 2 Kin^ 3. j B. c. 93i 930 926 917 915 L914 to 912, Usher 910 to 906 902 and 901 900 Israel. Baasha denounced by Jehu: his death. Elah, king (2 years), i Bangs 16. 1-8. Elah slain. Zimri, king (7 days) ; destroys Baasha'& house. Omri elected king. Zimri destroys himself, I Kings 16. 9-20. Omri, king (12 ^years, in- cluding 6 years' civil war withTibni). Samaria built, I Kings 16. 21-26. Omri dies. Ahab, king (22 years). Jericho rebuilt by Hiel, who reaps Joshua't* curse, I Kings 16. 27-34. I Kings i5 25, comp. Mic. 6. 26: 1 Ivings 16. j4 : Josh. 6. 26. Elijali prophesies a famine; raises the widow's son; his trial with the prophets of Baal. Elisha a prophet, I Kings 17.-19. Ben-hadad besieges Samaria. The Syrians twice defeated. Ahab denounced, i Kings 20. Ahab seizes Xaboth's \'ine- yard. Elijah denounce.^ him, I Kings 21. Ahab makes war on Sj'ria, and is slain, as Micaiah pre- dicted. Ahaziah, king, I Kings 22. 1-35, 36-40, 5^-53- [Ver. 59: see Amos i. 15.} Psa. 82 placed here from internal evidence, (Towns.) Psa. 115 and 46 ("Wells, Eosenmnl). The schools of the prophets (Naioth), 1 Sam. 10. 10 : 19. 20 : 2 ivings 2. 2» seem to have trained at this time a large number of religious teachers. Ahaziah falling sick and send- ing to inquire of Baalzebub, is denounced by Elijah, 522 JEHORAM : AHAZIAH : JORAM. JUDAH. On the trade between Judaea and India, see IMd. Con. i. p. 7. [On 2 Chron. 20. ij: see Joel 2. 16,] 2 Kings 9. 2, I j. Read, therefore, in I Kings ig. 16, grandson ; and by Elijah anointing Jehu, understand, ordering Elisha to do it. Jehu was anointed to exterminate the house of Ahab. Jehoram begins to reign in consort with Jehoshaphat, 2 Kings 8. 16. 2 Chron. 21. 5. Three dates are given for the beginning of Jehoram's reign ; b. o. 897, when he was re- gent durhig his fathers absence '(2King6i.i7 J. I); 891, (2 Kings 8. 16) ; and 889, (Lit.) Death of Jehoshaphat. Je- horam, or JoRAM, king (8 years); his wicked and troubled reign. Elijah's let- ter, written before his trans- lation, brought to him, I Kings 22. 45, 50: 2 Kings 8. 17-22: 2 Chron. 20. 34: 21. 1-18. Ahaziah begins to reign as viceroy to his father, 2 Kings 9. 29. Death of Jehoram. Aha- ziah, king (i year) ; his evil reign, 2 Kings 8.23, 24, 25-27: 2 Chron. 21. 19, 20: 22. 1-4 Ahaziah joins Joram against Hazael, and afterwards visits liim at Jezreel, 2 Kings 8. 28, 29. Ahaziah slain by Jehu, 2 ('hrou. 22. 7-9. 894 893 891 890 889 to 887 886 885 884 Israel. Jehoraji, or Joram, his brothel', king (12 years), 2 Kings 1 : 3. 1-3 EKjah translated. Elisha ac- knowledged as his successor; his miracles, 2 Kings 2. Joram, joined by Jehoshaphat and the king of Edom, de- feats Moab, 2 Kings 3. 4-27. Elisha multiplies the widow's oil; promises a son to the Shunamte., 2 Kings 4. 1-17. Naaman healed, 2 Kings 5 . Elisha causes iron to swim; discloses the Syrian king's purpose, and smites his army with blindness, 2 Kings f-i. r-23. Ben-hadad besieges Samaria; severe famine ensues ; plenty restored by the sudden flight of the Syrians, 2 Kings 6. 24-33 : 7. Elisha raises to life the wi- dow's son : other miracles, 2 Ivings 4. 18-44: 8. I, 2. 2 Ivings 4.44. This is Eliaha,' s^tudftk miracle, Elijah having wrought six. Townsend place.^s 4. 18 alter 4. 17 ; but there is clearly an in- terval of two years or so between them. 2 Chron. 21. 12. Elijali's letter, Lft. I thinks, was sent to Jehoram in I 897. Hales reads Jilistia. Wall I supposes another- Elijah. Patrick ! and others take the view given I in the opposite colmnn. Return of the Shunammite. Hazael kills Ben hadad and becomes, as Elisha pre- dicted, king of Syria, 2 Kings 8. 3-15. Joram, being wounded in bat- tle by the Sjrrians, retires to Jezreel, 2 Chrun. 22. 5, 6. Jehu anointed, 2 Kings 9. 1-13 Joram slain by Jehu, 2 Kings 9. 14-28. JOASH: A3IAZIAH: JEHU: JOASH. 523 JUDAH. [Athaiiah usurps the throJie (6 years). Joash, the son of Ahaziah, rescued], 2 Kings ir. i-j: 2 Chron. 22. IO-I2. Jehoash, or Joash. king (40 years). Athaliah slain, 2 Kings 1 1. 4-12. 2 : 2 Chron. 23.-24. 3. Joash repairs the temple, 2 Kings 13. 4-. 6: 2 Chron. 24. 4-14. Death of Jehoiada, 2 Chron. 24. 15, 16. Joash and the people fall into idolatry ; Zechariah, re- proving them, is slain in the temple-com't (cf. Matt. 23.35). The Syrians invade Joash, 2 Chron. 24. 17-22, 23, 24: 2 Kings 12. 17, 18. Joash slain by his servants. Amaziah, king (29 years), 2 Kings 12. 19-21: 14. 1-6: 2 Chron. 24. 25-27: 25. 1-4. Amaziah hires an army of Is- raelites to assist liim against Edom, but at a prophet's command he sends them back, 2 Chron. 35. 5-10. Amaziah smites the Edomites and worships their gods, 2 Chron. 25. 11 : 2 Kings 14. 7: 2 Chron. 25. 12, 14-16. Amaziah provokes the king of 877 860 855 850 849 842 841 840 838 836 827 826 Israel. Jehu, king (28 years); slays Jezebel, Ahab's sons, Aha- ziah's brethren, and Baal's worshippers, 2 Kings 9. 30-37: 10. 1-3 1. Hazael oppresses Israel, 2 Kings 10, 32, 33. Death of Jehu. Jehoahaz, king (17 years), 2 Kings 10, 34-36: 13, I, 2. History of Jonah, Jon. I. -4.? [See 808]. Israel given over by God to Hazael and Ben-hadad and delivered, 2 Kings 13. r-7. Jehoash begins to reign in consort with Jehoahaz, 2 Kings 13. 10. Death of Jehoahaz. Jeho- ash, or Joash, king (16 yeai's). He visits Elisha, who promises three vic- tories. Hazael dies, 2 Kings 13. 8, 9, ir, 14-19, 22-24. Elisha dies. A corpse thrown into Elisha's sepulchre re- vives, 2 Kings 13. 20, 21. Jehoash thrice beats the Syrians, 2 Kings 13. 25. The Israelites, who had been dismissed by Amaziah, plunder the cities of Judah as they return, 2 Chron. 25. 13. Jehoash defeats the king of 524 UZZIAH : JEROBOAM II. : PEKAH. JUDAH. Israel to battle, aud is taken prisoner by him, 2 Kings 14. 8-14- Amaziah slain. Uzziah, or AzARiAH, king (52 years). During the days of Zecha- riah he reigns well, 2 Kings 14. 17-22 : 15. 1-4: 2 Chron. 25. 25: 26. 15. Amos 7. 10-19, Liglitfoot and others place after 2 Kings 14. 28. On the increase of Uzziah's army, Joel foretells the over- throw of Judah, Joel I. -3. Hos. 1 : 2 : J. So Ligbtfoot, Gray, and others: see i. i. The three children liave names given to them, indicating the place of the ■wickedness of the house of Ahab (ver. 4: see i Ivings 21. i); their punishment, vot Jindivg mercy in calamity, and their rejection, no longer the people, of God. They are, however, to lie gathered again under Messiah, tlieir one Head, ver. II ; ver. -j, see 2 Kings 19. 35, Uzziah struck with leprosy for invading the priest's office. Jotham, regent, 2 Kings 15. 5 : 2 Chron. 26. 16-20, 21. 2 Ivings 15. 5, several, i.e., lone or separate, see 120. B.C. 823 822 808 to 800 801 793 787 783 771 770 769 765 761 759 Israel. Judah, and plunders the temple, 2 Chron, 25. 17-24. Death of Jehoash. Jero- boam II., king (41 years); he reigns wickedly, 2 Kings 13. 12, 13: 14. 15, 16, 23,24. Jeroboam restores the coast of Israel according to the word of Jonah, 2 Kings 14. 25-27. [Jonah I. -4.?] See B.C. 850. Hosea makes his first appeal to the teu tribes, [Hos. 1.-3.] Amos denounces judgment a- gainst the surrounding na- tions, and against Israel and Judah, [Amos. 1.-9.] I. 3. see 2 Kings 16. 9 ; ver. 6, see 2 Kings 18. 8 ; 1.8, see 2 Chr. 26. 6; ver. 11, see Numb. 20. 14; 5. 27, see 2 Kings 10. 32 : 17. 6. Death of Jeroboam, 2 Kings 14 28, 29. An interregnum for eleven years. State of Israel during the interregnum , Hosea de- nounces judgment, [Hos. 4]. Zechariah, fourth from Jehu, king (6 months). Shallum slaj'-s him, 2 Kings 15. 8-12. Shallum, king (r month). Menahem slays him, 2 Kings 15. 13-15. Menaiiem, king (10 years); 2 Kings 15. 16-18. Pul, of Assyria, coming a- gainst Israel, is bribed to return, 2 Kings 15. 19, 20. Death of Menahem. Peka- HiAH, king ( 2 years), 2 Kings 15. 21-24. Pckahiah slain by Pekah. Pekah, king (20 years), 2 Kings 15. 25-28. JOTHAM : HEZEKIAH : HOSHILV. »25 JUDAH. Isaiah designated in a vision to the prophetic office. He prophesies of Christ's king- dom, and of judgment on the people for their slas, Isa. I, I : 6: 2: 3: 4; 5. Death of Uzziah. Jotham, king (16 years); his pros- perity, 2 Kings 15. 6, 7, 3^-35: 2 Chron. 26. 22, 23: 27. 1-6. Micah reproves the wicked- ness of Jxidah, Mic i: 2. Judah begins to be afflicted by Syria and Israel. Death of Jotham, 2 Kings 15. 36-38: 2 Chron. 27. 7-9. Ahaz, king (16 years), 2 Kings 16. I, 2-4: 2 Chron. 28. r-4. Invasion of Pekah and Rezin. Isaiah prophesies on the oc- casion, deuovmciug Ahaz's intended alliance with As- syria, 2 Kings r6. 5 : Isa. 7.-9.: 10. 1-4. Isaiah prophesies the ruin of Damascus and of the ten tribes, Isa. 17. Judah devastated by Syria and Israel ; the latter restore their captives, by advice of Oded, 2 Chron. 28. 5-15. Ahaz, being assailed by ene- mies, hires Tiglath-pileser, the king of Assyria, against them. Obadiah and Isaiah, 2 Kings 16. 6-8, 9: 2 Chron. 28. 16, 21, 17-19, 20: Obad.: Isa. i. 2-31: 28. Sacrilege and idolatry of Ahaz, 2 Chron. 28. 22, 23-25 : 2 Kings 16. 10-18: Hos. 5 : 6. Obad. On order, see 2 Chron. 28. 17. Death of Ahaz, 2 Elings 16. 19, 2c: 2 Chron. 28. 26, 27: Isa. 14. 28-32. Hezekiah, king (29 years), 2 Kings 18. I, 2: 2 Chron. 29.1. B. C. 757 756 753 742 740 740 738 730 726 Israel. [Isa. I.I. On this order, see Town- send, 2. 230. Isa. 7. -10. 4. On the order, compare 7. I with 2 Kings 16. 5. Isa. I. 2-ji. On order, see ver. 7, 8, comp. with 2 Chron. 28. 6-9. Isa. 6. I, see John 12. 41. Isa. 6. I J, see 2 Kings 25. 12. Isa. 2 19, see Rev. 6. 1 5. 2 Chron. 27. 2, see chap 26. 19. Isa. 7. 8, sec 2 Kings 17. 24. Reign of Ahaz. . 15 „ Hezekiah, 29 „ 2nd Manas. 21 65 years. Isa. 7. 16, see 2 Kings 15. 29. Isa. 8. 1, a Ttuin's pen, i.e., common writing; see Rev. ij. 18 : 21. 17. Mic. I. s, see i Kings 16. j2. Mic. I. IJ, see Jer. }.\. 7.] Isa. 17., see 2 Kings 16. 9: 18. 11. Tiglath-pileser ravages Gilead, Galilee, and Naphtali, and carries captive their in- habitants to Assyiia, 2 Kings 15. 29. Isa. 5. 21, see 2 Sam. 5. 20.' Pekah slain by Hoshea, 2 Kings 15. 30, 31. [Oa date, see J58 c]. Anarchy for nine years. HosBKA, king (9 years). Shalmaneser, king of As- sjTia, invades his territory and makes him a tributary, 2 Kings 17. 1-3. Isa. 14. 28-J2, against Philistia, soe 2 Cliron. 26. 6. Ahab, who sub- dued them, was dead ; but a cock- 526 CAPTIVITY OF ISRAEL, JVDAU. Reformation by Hezekiah, 2 Kings i8. 3, 4-6: 2 Chron. 29. 2, 3-36: 30: 31 Moab deuotmced, Isa. 15: 16. Micah supports Hezekiah's re- formation, Mic. 3.-7. Sec Jer. 26. 18 : Mic. Hezekiah's prosperity, 2 Kings 18. 7, 8. Prophecy of the restoration of the ten tribes, of the punishuieut of Egypt, and conversion of Egypt and Ass>Tia, Isa. 18: 19. 723 723 721 Israel. atrice ont of that nest, Hezekiab, was still to bite them, 2 Kings 18. 8. Isa. 15. The destruction of Moab by Shalmaneser foretold. They are exhorted to renew their tdbutc, 16. I ; see 2 Kings j. 4. Hoshea attacked and impri- soned by Shalmaneser for not giving the tribute. Hosea predicts the captivity of the ten tribes, and ex- horts to repentance, 2 Kings 17. 4: Hos. 7.-14. Corap. on order Hos. 12. i. Shalmaneser besieges Samaria, 2 Kings 17. 5 : 18 9. The ten tribes carried into captivity unto Assyria, 2 Kings 17. 6-23 : 18. 10-12. History of Judah.from the overthrow of Israel to tJie end of the Captivity, B. C 720 to E. c. 536 ; 184 years. 104. (2.) History of Judah to the Captivity, 114 years. Date and Place. B. C. 715. 714. Judasa. « For date, see Tcr. 16. Jerusalem. b On order, see Towns. 2. 547. I Event or Narrative. Tyre denounced, Isa. 23 . Prophecy concerning the invasion by Assyria, Isa. 10. 5 :i4. 27. The desolation and recovery of Judaea predicted, etc. Isa. 24 [26. 17, i8]:-27. Isaiah predicts the invasion by Assyria and the des- truction of Babylon. Sennacherib comes up against Judah, but being pacified by a tribute, retires. Isaiah denounces Egypt, and warns Jerusalem, Isa. 22. 1-14: 2i:-* 2 Kings 18. 13-16: 2 ChJron. 32. 1-8: Isa. 36. i: 20: 29:-3i. Sickness of Hezekiah; his song of thanksgiving. Isaiah predicts the blessings of Christ's kingdom, and judgments of the enemies of Zion, 2 Kings 20, 1-6, 8, 9-1 1, 7: Isa. 38. 1-6, 22, "j, 8, 21; 0-20: 2 Chron. 32. 24: Isa. }2:-35.*' JUDAH, B.C. 713-612. 627 Date and Place. B. C. 713, 712, Jeinisalem. 711, Judsea. 710-699. 697, Jerusalem. a Towns. 2. 427, 678, Samaria. 677, Babylon. 642, Jerusalem. 640. 628. 628. 623, Jerusalem. 623. G22, Jerusalem. 612. b For order, see Ter. 6, Event or Narrative. Nineveh denounced by Nahum, Nah. 1.-3. Hezekiab showing in pride to the Ambassadors from Babylon his treasures, Isaiah predicts the Baby- lonian captivity, 2 Kings 20. 12-19: Isa. 39: 2 Chron. 32. 25, 26. Second invasion of Sennacherib; destruction of his army, 2 Kings 18. 17-37 [26-28]: 19. 1-37: Psa. 44, 73, 75, 76: Isa. 36. 2 [11, i2]-22 : 37. 1-38: 2 Chron. 32. 9-21, 22, 23. V\rious prophecies of Isaiah, Isa. 4o:-66 [57. 3-9], Hezekiah's wealth; his death. Manasseh, king (55 years); his scwful impiety; judgment denounced by God's prophets, 2 Kings 20. 20, 21: 21. T-16: 2 Chron. 32, 27-31. 32, 33: 33, i-io- Isaiah predicts the captivity of Shebna, Isa. 22. 15-25.* The heathen nations, who had been transplanted to Samaria in place of the Israelites, being plagued by lions, make a mixture of religions, 2 Kings 1 7. 24-41. Manasseh taken captive by the king of Assyria ; his conversion and restoration ; he puts down idolatry, 2 Chron. 33. 11-17.* Death of Manasseh. Amon, king (2 years); his im- piety, 2 Kings 21. 17-22: 2 Chron. ^^. 18-23. Amon slain by his servants. Josiah, king (31 years), 2 Kings 21. 23-26: 22. I, 2: 2 Chron. 33 24, 25: 34. I, 2_. Josiah vigorously puts down idolatry, 2 Chron. 34. 3-7. Jeremiah called; he expostulates with the Jews, on account of their sins, Jer. i. 2 [3. 1-5]. Josiah provides for the repair of the temple. The Book of the Law having been found, Josiah con- sults Huldah; he causes it to be read publicly, and renews the Covenant, 2 Kings 22. 3-20 : 23. 1-3, 4-20; 2 Chi'on. 34. 8, 28, 29-32,t 33. Zephaniah exhorts to repentance, [Zeph. i, 2, 3]. A most solemn celebration of the Passover by Josiah, 2 Kings 23. 21-23, 24-27: 2 Chron. 35. 1-19. Jeremiah reproves the backsliding of the people, and bewails the coming captivity, Jer. 3.^ [6-11], 12-25: 4:-6. ♦ In Kings, no account is given of Manasseh's repentance, t With qualification, see 2 Kings 23. 26, and Jer. 3. 10, the change was chiefly external. etc. 628 JUDAH, B.C. 612-606. Date and Place. B.C. 6l2. Cii. 6io. 609, Megiddo and Jerusalem. Riblah. b Jer. 1.-12., in Josiah's days ; Towns. 2. 434 -g- 608. 606. c For order, see ver. 2. Comp. Ez. 29. 17. . Jerusalem. 606. Event or Narrative. Habakknk predicts judgment, [Hab. i:-3], Jeremiah exhorts the people to repentance, and la- ments their approaching calami^-ies, Jer. 7:-io. Jeremiah reminds the people of the Covenant of Josiah, Jer, 11: [15], 12. Josiah slain in battle with the king of Egypt. Jeremiah and the people lament him. Jeeoahaz king (3 months), 2 Kings 23. 29, 30, 28, 30 I. p., 31, 32: 2 Chron. 35. 20-27: 36. I, 2. Jehoahaz deposed and imprisoned by Pharaoh-Necho and subsequently taken to Egypt. Jehoiakim, king (i r years), 2 Kings 23. 33, 34, 35, 36, 37: 2 Chron. 36. 3, 4, 5. Jeremiah delivers various predictions and appeals to the Jews respecting the captivity and destruction of Jerusalem, Jer. I3:-I9.''» Jeremiah predicts the fate of Pashur, Jer. 20.; of Shallum, i. e., Jehoahaz, and Jehoiakim, 22. 1-23. Apprehension and arraignment of Jeremiah, Jer. 26. Jeremiah predicts the overthrow of the army of Pharaoh-Necho, king of Egypt, by Nebuchad- nezzar, Jer. 45. "^ I -1 2. The obedience of the Rechabites to their father con- trasted with the disobedience of the Jews, Jei\ 35. Jeremiah predicts the captivity of the Jews for seventy years, and the subsequent judgment on Babylon, Jer. 25. Jeremiah desires Baruch to write his prophecies on a roll, aud then to read it publicly in the temple, Jer. 36. 1-8: 4$. Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem, and puts Jehoiakim in fetters, intending to take him to Babylon, but afterwards releasing him, makes. him a tributary, and spoils the temple, 2 Kings 24. 1 : 2 Chron. 36. 6, 7: Dan. i. i, 2. Nebuchadnezzar orders the master of his eunuchs to select and send to Babylon some of the royal family and nobility, to stand in the king's palace. Daniel, Hauaniah, Mishael, and Azariah (otherwise called Belteshazzar, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego), are taken there, Dan. i. 3, 4, 6, 7. PERIOD OF THE CAPTIVITY, B. C. 605-590. 529 1^5- (3-) From the first capture of Jerusalem, B.C. 6o6, to the decree of Cyrus, for the restoration of the Jews, b. c. 536 ; 70 years. Date ar,d Place. Babylon. 603. 603. Babylon. 599. 597' 595. Babylon, a On order, see Towns, vol. ii. 594- Babylon. 595. Jerusalem. Event or Narrative. 590. Events at Jerusalem, v:ith contemporaneous events at Babylon. Daniel meets with kindly treatment, Dan. i. 5, 8-17. Bariich again reads the Prophetic Eoll; Jehoiakim bums it, Jer. 36. 9-32. Jehoiakim rebels against Xebuchadnezzar, 2 Kings 24. I I. p., 24. Daniel before Nebuchadnezzar, Dan. i. 18-21. Interprets Nebuchadnezzar's dream, Dan. 2.; des- cribing the Babylonian, 32; Medo-Persian, 32-39; Macedo-Grccian. 32-39; and Rom-ini EmpAres, ^^, 40-43; -mth. Jfessiah's Kingdoyn, 34, 35, 44, 45. Death of Jehoiakim. Jehoiachin or Jeconiah, king (3 months), 2 Kings 24. 3-9: 2 Chron. 36. 8, 9: Jer. 22. 24-30: 23. Second capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. Jehoiachin is earned to Babylon, with many of hi.9 subjects. Zedekiah or Mattamah, king (11 years), 2 Kings 24. 10-19: 2 Chron. 36. 10-12: Jer. 52. r, 2: 24. Predictions of the diu-atiou of the captivity, Jer. 29. 1-14, 16-20, 15, 21-32. Of the restoration of the Jews, Jer. 30., 31. Predictions against the surrounding nations, Ha- naniah the false prophet denounced, Jer. 27, 28, 48, 49. Prophecies against Babylon, Jer. 50:51. Ezekiel's vision in Babylon; his commission,* Ezek. I, 2, 3.. 1-2 1. He prophesies of the miseries of Jerusalem, Ezek. 3. 22-27 [4:-7]- Visions of the idolatries which occasioned the cap- tivity, Ezek. 8, 10 [iij. "Various predictions against the false prophets, Jeini- salem, and the Jewish nation. Ezek. 12. -19 [16, 18. 5-18]. Prophecies addressed to the Elders of the Jews, Ezek. 20: [2i:-23]. Zedekiah's rebellion and wickedness, Jer. 37. j, 2: 2 Kings 24. 20: 2 Chron. 36. 13: Jer. 52. 3, The wickedness of priests and people (the cause of the captivity, v. 15, 16), with a summary account of the judgments that followed, 2 Chron. 36. 14-21. Nebuchadnezzar lays siege to Jerusalem for the third time, 2 Kings 25. i: Jer. 39. i: 52. 4; 37. 5, 4, 2 A PERIOD OF THE CArTIVITT, B. C. 589-587. Date and Place. Event or Narrative. B. C. Babylon. Jerusalem, a See 1 owns, ii. 559- 589. Babylon. Jerusalem. b For order, see J 2, 2. 587. c On order, compare 29. i, and 26. I ; ver. 17-21 -written sixteen years later. Ezekiel foretells tlie destruction of Jerusalem, Ezek. 24. Capture of the city foretold. The people, at Jere- miah's word, release their Hebrew bond-servants, Jer. 34. i-io.* Jeremiali shut up in prison; his predictions there, Jer. 32: 33.^ Ezekiel in Babylon, prophesies against Egypt, Ezek. 29. 1-16;'^ and against Tyre, Ezek. 26.: see Isa, 23. The Chaldseans raise the siege to march against the approaching Egyptian army. Jeremiah predicta the destruction of the Philistines, Jer. 3 7. 5 : 47. On the departure of the Chaldajan army, the people recall their bond -servants, for which Jeremiah denounces them, and predicts the speedy return of the Chaldseans, Jer. 34. 11-22: 37. 6-10. Jeremiah again imprisoned, Jer. 37. 11-21; continues to denounce Zedekiah, 21: he is put into the dungeon of Malchiah, 38: 39. 15-18. Ezekiel in Babylon, again prophesies against Egypt and Mneveh, Ezek. 30. 20-26: 31. (1 On order, comp. 30. 20, and 29.1. e Comp. ver. 5, 7 ; Town. ii. 579. Jerusalem finally taken. Zedekiah carried to Baby- lon. Jeremiah delivered, 2 Kings 25. 2, 4-7: Jer. 52. 5-7: 39. 2-7, 11-14. Nebuzaradan burns the temple, and carries aAvay the people, leaving a few poor persons to till the land, 2 Kings 25. 8-21: Jer. 52. 12 30: 39. 8-10: Psa. 74:^ 79: 83: 94. Jeremiah bewails the desolation of his country. Lamentations i:-5. Gedaliah appointed governor. Jeremiah and many others attach themselves to him, 2 Kings 25. 22-24: Jer. 40. 1-16. Ishmael slays Gedaliah, and attempts to cai-ry away the people to the Ammonites ; Johanan intercepts him; the people, fearing the ChaldDeaus, flee into Egypt, contrary to the command of God, 2 Kings 25. 25, 26: Jer. 41: 42: 43. 1-7. Jeremiah prophesies against Egypt and the idola- trous Jews, ' Jer. 43. 8-13: 46. 13-28: 44. Brief summary of the captivities, by Nebuchadnezzar, Jer. 52. 28-30, jRcmainder of the Ilistonj of the Jews in Captivity — Bah'jlon. Babylon. Ezekiel predicts the utter desolation of Judiua, i Ezek. II. :i-33. FEEIOD OF THE CAPTIVITY, B. C. 587-536. 531 Date and Place. Event or Xarrative. B.C. 587. 573- 572. 570. 569. 568-563. 561. 558. 538. 537. .'136. Jerusalem and Babylon. Predictions? a;^inst Ammon, Moab, Edom, Philistia, Tyre, and Egypt, Ezek. 25:27: 28: 32. Ezekiel appeals to the captives, Ezek. 33. 1-20. Evil nilers denounced; restoration of the Jews pro- mised; predictions of 2Iessia/i's kingdom, Ezek. 34:-3 7 [17, last clause]. Prophecies of tlie church and its enemies, and of the conversion of the Jews, Ezek. 38: 39. Ezekiel's vision of the future temple, Ezek. 40:-48. Last prediction against Egypt, Ezek. 29. 17-21: ^o. 1-19. Nebuchadnezzar sets up an image, Dan. 3, Daniel interprets Nebuchadnezzar's second dream, Dan. 4. 1-27. The fulfilment of Nebuchadnezzar's dream, in hia madness, and subsequent recovery, Dan. 4. 28-37, Evil-Mei'odach, king of Babylon, releases Jehoiachin, 2 Kings 25. 27-30: Jer. 52. 31-34. Daniel's first vision of the Living Creatures, Dan. 7 Belshazzar's Feast. Babylon taken, Dan. 5 Daniel's vision of the Ram and He-goat, Dan. 8 Daniel's prayer for the restoration of Jerusalem Proj>hecy of the Seventy Weeks, Dan 9. : Psa. 102 Daniel cast into the den of lions, Dan. 6 Decree of Cyrus for the rebuilding of the temple, and restoration of the Jews to their own country, 2 Chron. 36. 22, 23: Ezra i. 1-4: Psa. 126: 85. Psalms written during the distresses and afflictions of the churcli, chiefly in the Babylonish captivity, Psa. 10, 13, 14, 15, 25, 26, 27, 36, 37, 49. 50> 53, 67, 77, 80, 89, 92, 93, 123, 130, 137. 106. (4.) From the decree of Cyrus, B. c. 536, to the final ■prop]iecy of the Old Testament, B. c. 420-397 ; about 139 years. Date and Place. Event or Xarrative. I. From the return of the Jeics, to the Dcdixdion of the Second Temple. Return of the Jews. Cyrus restores the vessels of the temple. An altar set up, Ezra 1. 5-11: [2:], 3. 1-7: Psa.87, 107, III, 112, 113, 114, 116, 117, 125, 127, 128, 134. 536, Jerusalem. 532 THE RESTORATION, B. C. 535-445. Date and I'laoe. Event or Narrative. B. C. 535, Jerusalem. 534. Babylon. 520, Jerusalem. 519. 516. 486. 464. Susa. 458. 457. Jerusalem. Susa. 45 3> 452. 445, Susa. Jerusalem. Susa. Foundation of the second temple, under the direc- tion of Zerubbabel, Ezra 3. 8-13; Psa. 84, 66. The building of the temple interrupted by the Sa- maritans, Ezra 4. 1-5, 24: Psa. 129. The last vision of Daniel, Dan. 10.-12. Building of the temple resumed. Haggai and Zechariah incite tlie people to the work, and ex- hort them to repentance, Ezra 4, 24: 5. i: Hag. i. i-ii: Ezra 5. 2: Hag. r. 12-15: 2. 1-9: Zech. i. 1-6: Hag. 2. 10-23: Zech. I. 7-21: 2:-6 [2. 5]. The Ijuilding of the temple again interrupted, and resumed, Ezra 5, 3-17:6. 1-13 : Psa. 138: Zech. 7: 8. Dedication of the second temple, Ezra 6. 14-22: Psa. 48, 81, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150. 2. From the opposition to the Jews in the rcijn of Xerxes, to the Death of Haman. Opposition in the reign of Xerxes, Ezra 4. 6. Opposition in the reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus, Ezra 4. 7-23. Artaxerxes (or Ahasuerus) divorces Vashti, his queen, Esth. i. Ezra commissioned tb visit Jerusalem, Ezra 7 [2-14], Artaxerxes makes Esther queen, Esth. 2. 1-20. Ezra comes to Jerusalem ; causes the people to put aAvay their heathen wives, Ezra 8 :-io [18-44]. Concluding prophecies of Zechariah, Zech. 9:-i4. Mordecai discovers the conspu-acy against Ahasuerus, Esth. 2. 21-23. Plot of Haman to destroy the Jews, and its defeat. The feast of Purim, Esth. 3 :-io. 3. From the first commission of Nehemiah, to the closing of the Canon, Nehemiah receives a commission from Artaxerxes to visit it, and rebuild the wall, Neh. i : 2. 1-8, Nehemiah ariives at Jerusalem. Sanballat strives to hinder the work; the builders Avork under arms, Neh. 2. 9-20: [3:], 4. Nohemiah relieves the Jews oppressed by usury; his own generosity, Neh. 5 , The wall completed by the Jews and dedicated, Neh. 6: [12. 27-43]. Nehemiah returns to Persia, Neh. 7. 1-4. THE RESTORATION, B.C. 444-397, 533 Date and Place. B. C. 444, Jerusalem. 433. 428. 397- Event or Narrative. Second cominissioii of Xehemiali, and reformation^ Neh. 7 [6-73]: 8: 9: [10:], n [12. 1-9, 44-47]: 13. 1-3: Psa. I. 119. Malachi prophesies against the corruptions intro- duced dui-ing the second absence of Nehemiah, Mai. 1:2:3. 1-15. Further reformation by Nehemiah, Neh. 13. 4-31- Final prophecy of the Old Testament, Mai. 3. 16-18: 4. Detached Genealogies, etc., inserted probably at the completion of the Canon, I Chron. i:-9: Neh. 12. 10-26. Sec. 7. Chronolcrjy of Scrijjture, and early prof ane History. IC7. The chronology of the earlier history of Assyria and Egj-pt,— the most „ , , ancient of the nations mentioned in Scripture, involves difficulties, iLarly cnro- y^^.^^i^]^^ i,j ^i^g present state of our knowledge are inextricable. Ctesijis nology: aim- ^^^^ Herodotus (the two profane historians on whom we rely for in- culties. formaiion on Aisyria), diO'er in chronology by 800 years, and prupor- tionably in their dynasties ; Herodotus fixing the duration of the Assyrian dominion in .Upper Asia at 520 j-ears ; and Ctesias (wliose historical authority is very low), at 1305 (Diod. Sic. ii. 21). Semiramis is supposed, in one account, to have lived B.C. 2oi'7, and in another (Dr. Hales), B.C. 747. The mode of solving these, and some other difficulties, Is to asstune the existence of two Assyrian empires ; an a.s- sumption supported by some passages m Herodotus (i. c. 95, 102, 106, 185). The difficulties in the case of Egyptian History, arise from the fact, that many contem- poraneous dynasties are given by ancient authorities, and the same king has often several names. In the Tables of Egyptian History, we adopt the chronology of the English Bible. . ,, ... For the"facts, we use the Tabies of Mr. Cory, published by Pickering ; f II °"ri for Assyrian History, the Tables of Dr. Russell, tollowca. jj^ jjj^y ^ observed, that from the date of Solomon's temple (b.c. 1012), downwards, there are no serious discrepancies between competent authorities, o.\cept in relation to Assyria (1012 to 771). For the whole of this later period, we adopt the dates of " Clinton's Fasti," which seldom differ more than a year from those of the authorized version. Tabular History of Egypt^ etc., from the Deluge to the days of Solomon. — From Csher. B.C. 2J43 2192 Egypt. The Peluge. Foimdation of kingdom of Egypt.* i6th, or 1st earthly dynasty. Palestine, etc B.C. 22J4 Nimrod estabhshes regal government (Hales 2554)- * In this Table the following abbreviations are used :— (D.) Diodorus .SiculuK. (E.) Eratosthenes. (H.) Herodotus. (M.) Manetho. (M. J.) Manetho according to Josephus. (M. JI. and M. T.^ Memphite and Thinite list of :Manetho. (S.) Sanchoniatho. (S. S.) Bible. Champollion, Wilkinson, Syncellus, and ancient classic authors are also quoted. 534 EARLY PROFANE HISTORY; EGYPT, ETC. Tabular History of Egypt, etc. — continued. Egypt. ' Palestine, etc. B.C. B.C. 2192 I. 3fenai. Menes (H.), Misor (S.), Mizraim Babylon foiuided. (S. S.) 1 2147 Asshur (or Nimrcd? 2130 2. Thoth I. Athothes (E.), Tosortlius or Ninus?) founds (l\r. M.), inventor of letters iind medicine, jl Nineveh. jEsculap. |l 2124 Death of Nimrod. 2071 3. Thoth u. Athothes (E.),Kenkeres(M.T.) | Ninus.? or Belus? 2o;9 4. Biabies (E.), Messocbris (JI. M.) 2069 Ninus, the beautiiJer 2021 5. Femphos (E.), Sonthis (M.M). of Nineveh. Pyramids hegiiii ? 2C59 The Assyrian empire. 2002 Invasion of shepherds : not fully expelled for Babylon taken. 511 years. 2017 Semiramis succeeds Native kings, 1 7th dyu. Shepherd kings. Ninus. 2002 I. Sulatis. 1906 Abraham born. 1983 2. Beov. 1978 Victories of Semi- I9?9 3. Apachnas. ramis. I9j6 6. Kercs. 1975 Ninyas succeeds Se- 1920 7. Osirtesen i. Tosertasis (?>!. M.), Misar- miramis. tesen (Pliny) ; several obelisks and monu- Abrah. visits Egyjit. ments left by him. Now follow the reigns 190J 4. Apophis. of three-and-thirty I89T Osirtesen breaks the power of the shepherds. kings, according to 1877 8. Amun Muthah r. Eusebius, or six- 1861 9. Amun JIuthah 11. and-thirty according 1845 10. Osirtesen 11. to Sjoicellus, ending 1842 5. Janias. with Sardanapalus (see p. 5JJ, 5J6). T829 II. Osirtesen in. ]8ij 12. Amun Muthah m., left several monuments. i8j6 Jacob bom. 1792 6 Kurtos. 1772 13. Hakor? Acheres (M. M.), Alisphragmu- thosisCM.J.) 1768 7. Aseth. 1755 14. Amos. Siege of shepherds in Avaris. 1748 Expulsion of shepherds ; death of Azeth. 1748 14. Avws alone. 18th dyn., Amosis (M.), Cheops (.? Her.) 17 JO 15. Amenoph r. 1728 Joseph sold; inter- 1715 Regency till Thothmos irr. Joseph (S. S.), pret' s Pharaoh's Chebron {Hebrew ? M.), Ameuenthe dream; his eleva- (Champ), Amun-neit-gori (Wilk.), Amnuth tion. (Hierogl.) Appearance of the Phoenix, or 2nd Hermes, supposed to be Joseph the Hebrew. 1710 16. Thothmos i., and Amesse. Maoris (H.), Mephres (IH. J.) Jacob goes to Egypt 1706 Regulation of Calendar. Phccnix. 1688 Thothmos alone. 1676 17. Thothmos ir. IVTephra Muthosis (M. J.) 1649 18. Thothmos m. M«ris(H.), Thmosis(M..J.) i6i5 Cessation of Regency; great architectural works. Joseph dies. 1610 19. Amevoph n. (M.) Anouphis (E.) 1579 20. Thothmos IV. Orus (M. J.), Soris (M.) ; 1577 Israelites multiply. Persecution of Israelites. 1571- Birth, and early life I54J Regent Mhencheres. Chnubus Gneurus (E.) 32 of jMcses. 1543 21. Amenoph in., and Ajnun Toohn. Rathek (Hierog.), Danaus (Gr.), Rathoti's (M. J.) I5JO Danaus expelled by Amenoph. 153 1 Moses in Midian. 1504 Danaus and his son drive Amenoph into Ethiopia. 1504 22. AmunmeAvameJi. Achenchcresii.(M. J.), Choncheres (Syn.), Bocchoris (Tac), Bu- Biris (Grks.) EARLY PROFANE HISTORY : EGYPT, ASSYRIA, ETC, 535 Tabular History of Egypt, etc. — continued. B.C. 1492 1491 1491 1490 1486 1418 i}66 1J2J I26J 1223 1222 1209 1 194 II79 1 164 1149 II19 IIOI 971 Egypt. Death of Ameuoph. Final expulsion of shepherds and Danaus ; the mLxod multitude (M.); Exode ; Bocchoris dro-mied. Syn. says this occurred 700 years after Menes, and after twenty-five reigns. 23. Banicsses i. Sethos (T.), Suphis (M.M.) 24. Amuii, or PhtJiah me Fhoeniduen, or Armeen. Armais (M.), Herma^us (M. J.) 25. Hamessesn. Sethos (T.),Souphi3(;\I.iM.), Sesostris (Grks.), Scsoosis (D.), Great war- rior. 26. Amenoph iv. Phthahmen flVilk.), JIc- nephtha (Champ.), Mencheres (]M. jM.) 27. I9tii dynastv. I'hthahmen Se riithah, Sethos (M.), Musthis (E.) 28. OsM men Phthah. Rapsaces (^I.), Phius (M. M.) 29. Osiri ta Remerrer. Ammenemes (JM.) JO. Bamrsses in. Aphrops (M.), Sesousis ir. (IX), Sesostris ir. (M.),IMaeris (Her.) adonis Thebes. The Cycle of Jla^ris begins. 31. Pamesses IV. Ammenephthes (M.) 32. Jiamesses v. Menthe Suphis (M. INI.) 33. Xitocris and Eamesses \i. Nitocris and Thuoris (M. M.), Nitocris (E.), Proteus (D.), 20th Dyn. 34. Harnesses vii. (Syn.), Ehemphis (D.) 3^. Pamesses vin. Ousiomares (Syn.) 36. Harnesses ix. Ilhamsinitus (H.), Nileus (D.), Sethos Nilus (E.) 37. Harnesses x. (Sjni.), Semphucrates (E.) 38. Haviesses xi. (Syn.), Chuthen Taurus (E.) 39. Amun Mai Fouee, Rhamesse Jubasse (Syn.) 40. Amunmeses. Rhamesse Vaphris (Syn.) The sceptre now jjasses to Lower Eg^-pt. There are in the 21st djoi., nine Theban kings, and seven known Tanite, reigning 130 years. 22nd dj-nasty. Shcshook or Shisbak. PALESTrSE, ETC. 1491- 51 1466 I45I 1444 i4?3 ? 1402 1383 I 1283? 1261 1225: 1213 1198 1192 1183 1176 1116 1112 1 106 1056 1045 1044 1016 The Exode. Israel in the wilder- ness. Danaus (Eratos.) Charge to Joshua. Conquest of Canaan completed. DeucaUon (Eratos). Judges. Othnicl. Ehud. Erectheus (Eratos.) Shamgar. Iieborah. Cadmus (Eratos.) Pelops (Eratos.) Hercules (Eratos). Gideon. Argonauts f Eratos). ist Theljan war. 2nd Theban war. Jephthah. Troy besieged (Erat.) Trojan war ends. Orestes at Argos. Death of Samson. Samuel. Heraclidfc. David king. Death of Codrus. Ionic migration. Solomon king. 976 Division of kingdom. ASSTEIA. From 841-773. Thonus Concholerus and Sardanapalus reign. In 800, Jonah visits Nineveh; in 773, the governors of Media and besieged, and in 771, Sardanapalus Three kingdoms are formed, of v,hich. Babylon rebel. Xineveh is perishes in his palace by fire, at first, Assyria is chief. Assyria. 1 Babylon. Media. Pul reigns over all ; makes Israelites pay tribute, 769. Gives his kingdom to B. c. I B. c. 747 Tiglath Pilcser. 766 Belesis, or ^40 Victories in 747 Nabonassar. B. c. I 776 Arbaces, who consj)ired I against Sar- Egtft, etc B. C. 972 812 Shishak (Sesos- tris ?) invades Judaea, 2 Chron. 12.9. Bocchoris. [Era of Olynip. So (or see below .J 536 EARLY PROFANE HISTORY: EGYPT, ASSYRIA, ETC. Chronology of Scripture, etc. — continued. Assyria . | Egypt, etc. Assyria. Bahylon. Media. | ..0.1 " 75J [Decennial At* B.C. B.C. B.C. 1 choas at Ath.] TJS 2 Kings 16. 7JJ Nadius. danapalus, | •JjO Sbahnanezer, in Porus. forms a Me- 1 2 Kings 17. 726 JUgffiUS. dian republic, 725 So, the Ethio- 721 Samaria subdued 721 Merodach Bal., Phraortes pian, invades TH Sennacherib. Isa. 39. chief. 1 1 Judaea, 2 Kings 71J Sennacherib in- 753 [Rome foimded.] 1 17- 4- vades Judaea. 743 [First Messe- 71J Usurpation of 712 Sennacherib in- nian war.] Sevechus, the vades Judajaa 720 [First recorded priest. second time, eclipse of the 2 Kings 19. moon, 19th 711 Sennacherib as- saseinated in the temple of Nisroch. March.] 711 Tiraca, the last Ethiopian, fights with Sen- nacherib. 2 Kgs. 710 Esarhaddon. Other kuigs 710 Babylon inde- pendent imder 710 Dejoces king, ' slain. 19.9: Isa. J7. 9. mentioned, but Merodach who 672 [TuUus Hos- 685 1 Egypt govern- 1 doubtful. sends to He- tiUus.] ed by twelve 699 Esarhaddon zekiah; again 657 [Byzantium kinp;s, for fif- takes Babylon. dependent built.] teen or twenty- 677 Esarhaddon car- ries Manasseh till Phraortes. five years. to Babylon. 670 1 Psammitichua r. 6C7 Ninus III., or overthrows Saosduchinus. 641 Cyaxares i. them, and rules; 050 [ Cliiiialadanus, 625 Nabopola?sar, takes Ashdod, 1 Nabuchadono- father of Ne- see Isa. 20. or 1 ser, or Sarda- buchadnezzar 647 Memphis made 6;o { napalus xi. the Great. capital; Psam- niitichus in- troduces Greek. rharaoh -Necbc Babylon and Persia. Media and Persia. 6x6 B. C. B. C. II., 2 Chron. J5, 625 Nabopolassar, king of 641 Dynasty of the Kaianites, 36. Babylon, asserts indepen- Kair-Kobad or Cya.xares i., 610 Navy; canal tc dence of Assyria. subject to Scythians, ex- connect ]\Iedit 623 Nebuchadnezzar, his son, pels them, and takes and Red Seas at- marries the daughter of Nineveh. tempted, fails. Cyaxares of Media. Previous to this time. C08 Nineveh besieged by Ba- there is no credible his- 609 Necho invaacsi bylon and ]\Iedia, under tory of Persia, Kai-Kans, 1 Asia. ^ 1 Nebuchadnezzar. or Astyages. 606 " ■ " " Defeated by ^c• 606 Taken and added to Media. 621 [Draco, Athens.] i Ijuchadnezzar. 606 Takes Jerusalem. 619 [Tarquin i., Rome.] ■ 600 Psanimis suc- C06 Nebuchadnezzar defeatc i ceeds Necho. Necho. 1 594 Apries, or P. 604 Nebuchadnezzar reigns 6oi Birth of Kai-IChosru 1 Hophra, con- spires Avith Zedekiah, against Nebu- chadnezzar. 537 alone ; founds Babylonian empire, etc. Nebuchadnezzar conquers .Tuda'a. 595 (Cyi-us). [Sappho. Solon, Thnles.] 532 Neliuchadnezzar takes ! Shusim. Dan., Ezek. \y.^ Apries deposed by Nebuchad- 575 i Nebuchafhiezz^r takes 1 Tvrf , after thirteen years 572 [yEsop flou.] nezzar. Jer. 44. 30: 46-. Ezok 1 Bicge. 29» JO; J2. i EARLY PROFAXE HISTORY : EGYPT, ASSYRIA, ETC. 537 Chronology of Scriptm*e, etc. — continued. Assyria, Egti'T, etc. Babylon and Persia. Media and Persia. B.C. \ 1 569 Amasis made B.C. B.C. king by Nebu- 'iio Golden image set up. 1 1 chadnezzar ; 561 Evil-Merodach succeeds. 560 [Peisistratus, Athens.] ! Egypt very 559 Evil-Merodach slain by 559 Cyaxarcs 11. (Darius). i prosperous. Cyras. Cyras general, and rules. 554 Solon visits 558 Neriglassar (Belsh.), sue. Persian monarchy founded 1 Egj-pt. 556 Babylon besieged ; the " writing on the wall." by Cyrus. 1 J55 Darius, king of Babylon and Media. 551 or 553 1 Nabonadius niles ; aspires J to be independent. 55^ Zoroaster. Cyaxares dies. CjTus reigns alone. 1536 535 Pythagoras visits Egypt. Egyjit made tri- 540 Babylon again besieged. 546 Conquers Croesus and Asia butary by Cy- 538 Babylon taken by Cyrus, Muior. ras. and annexed to Persian 5J8 Takes Babylon. 525 Psammeuitus empire. 5J5 And Egypt. revolts, and is defeated, Isa. 529 Death of Cyrus in battle (Her.), in peace (Xen.) 19; Egypt a 525 Cambyses, his son, succeeds ; conquers Egypt. Persian pro- 522 Smerdis the Magian. vince; end of 521 Slain, and succeeded by Darius Hytaspes, Dan. 11. 2. dynasty of 518 Babylon revolts, and is destroyed. Pharaoh. 508 Eg}T)tiau canal completed (see 610, Egypt.) 436 Egypt revolts 499 Macedon and Thrace tributary. lonians revolt, and Athenians (and is again) assist. "War against Greece. 484 Subdued. 492 Two expeditions against Greece defeated. 460 Again rebels 490 Egypt revolts. under Inarius, 484 Xerxes succeeds Darius; subdues Egypt, Dan. 11. 2. aided by Athens- 480 Expedition against Greece fails. 448 Herodotus visitB 465 Xerxes murdered ; Artaxerxcs i. ; Longim. succeeds, Xeh. 2. 6 ; ligypt. Themistocles in Persia, 414 Indep. Amyr- 457 Esther queen. tajus ; nine 454 Ezra visits Jeiusalem. kings succeed j. 445 Xehemiah. Pausiris, Psam- 425 Xerxes 11. succeeds, and is assassinated; Sogdianus. mitichus n., etc. 424 Darius II. ; Nothus. 350 Subdued by Oo 414 Egypt regains her independence. hus the Per- 405 Artaxerxes Mnemon. See p. 538. sian. See p. 5 J 8. CHAPTER TV. Civil axd Moral History of the Jews from Malachi to JoHX THE Baptist. Sec. I. Sketch of the Civil History of the Jews during the Period hetween the Old and Neiu Testaments. 108. Although we have no account of this period in Scrip- ture, its events are frequently referred to in prophecy, and many of them throw light upon the New Testament. The? following sketch is founded chiefly on Josephus and the books of the Maccabees. 2 A 3 538 OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS CONNECTED. 1 Euclid. llelrcat of Tou Thousand. Zeuxis, Plato. ]\Iantinea, death of Epami- nondas. Birth of Alexander. Aristotle. Demosthenes. Apelles. Epicurus. Theocritus. Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, enters Italy. [Berosus. Manetho, Egj-ptians.] Eirst Punic war. Eeg-uius prisoner. Archimedes. Plautus. Colossus of Rhodes overthrown. Hannibal. Second Punic war. Battle of Cannffi. Zeno. Hannibal defeated in Africa by Sclpio Africanus. , Scipio Asiaticus. .; -t-w r-O-^ O >r-co -M/Mi O oo w fco O O ^ O ooo O m O Persia, unger. •sia. crsians. ^ rsia. ia on the Granicus, ; at Arbela, the t. from Antioch to built, 'rmiues solar year. Syria. Antiochus i. Ant. II. Theos. Sel. 11. Callinic. Sel. III. Keraun. Ant. III. the Great. Scl. IV. Philop. Ant. IV. Epiph. Ant. V. Eup. Demetr. Soler de- feated and slain Artaxerxcs Mncmon, Death of Cyrus the yo Artaxerxes Ochus, Pe Egypt recovered by P Darius Codomanus, Pe Alexander defeats Pers iJ4; at Issus, m Persian empire ends Ptolemy Lagus, Egyp Seleucus i.; Nicator, i Empire of Seleucus India. Selencus on the Tigris Dionysius (Alex.) det Egypt. B.C. P. Philadelph. 280 261 P. Eucrgotes I. 246 226 P. Philopatcr. 223 P. Epiphanes. Eirst Roman army in 187 P. Philometh. 164 i ^'iit^^'^S S^^ g^^ ^ S^ SsS^ ^ Jehoiada high priest.] Jokman high priest. Ochus, king of Per^-ia, plants Jews near the Caspian. Jaddua high priest. Alexander, having destroyed Tyre, visits Jeru- salem ; plants Jews in Alexandria. Alexander dies ; his kingdom divided. Onias high priest. Ptolemy Lagus captures Jerusalem ; plants Jews in Alexandria and Cyrene. Seleucus obtains Syria ; era of the Selcucid;B. The dominions of Alexander formed into four kingiloms, as foretold by Daniel. Simon the Just high priest. Eleazar high priest. Version of the LXX commenced at Alexandria. Onias 11. high priest. Ptolemy Eucrgotes offers sacrifices at Jerusalem. Ptolemy Philopatcr, prevented from entering the holy of holies, attempts to destroy the Jews in Alexandria, but is miraculously prevented. Antiochus the Great obtains Palestine. The sect of the Sadducees founded. Scopas, an Egyptian general, recovers Judaja to the king of Egypt. Antiochus regains Juda>a. Onias in. high priest. Heliodorus, attempting to plimdcr the temple, is prevented by an angel. Antiochus Epiphanes takes Jerusalem, slays 40,000 personsi, aud profanes the temple. Wi-r-ir\ -T '^ MMM «-0 0 OM t^-^i-i 000 0(^r^ r~ 1 «^.^ .. ... .. .M..MM .M. .-_- « 1 OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS CONNECTED, 539 ^ ^-s S ca • 2 3 ^ £§• • S o •^ 1^ S2 ^ ^"^^ 5 -^^ 2 bird I years, arlhage orinth ^ H OO c2.- •-5 »^oy IP «y •a <5 b5, 1^1 • T- O d .. < l; ^^ yphon. It. VII. met. Nl exander it. viir. .;b1I £.3-: S 2 "S ^ it. I it. -v ilip met 115 C*=5 H^s<^<; <,1^ BibuUts Q. M. S S. Ca^sa Cassius Ventidi Partliia Syria arefi pcllc i-^ G, Eg gg tiMT, T^ tT ^-, OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS CONNECTED. 5-il 110. After Nehemiah (B.C. 420), Judsca continued subject to the The Jews kings of Persia for nearly a hundred years. It ceased, ander the however, to form a distinct government, and was annexed to the satrapy of Syria ; the administration of aflfairs being intrusted to the high priest, subject only to the control of the Syrian governor. This union of the civil government and the pontificate soon made the ofB.ce one of high ambition to the different members of the family of Aaron, and gave occasion to many violent and disgraceful contests. 111. Upon the overthrow of the Persian army by Alexander, Syria Alexander, fell under his power; and Tyre was taken after an ob- B.c. J3I- stinate resistance. Alexander then marched into Judaea, to punish the Jews, who, out of respect for their oath to the king of Persia, had granted the Tyrians supplies of provisions and refused them to him. But (it is related) as he approached Jerusalem, and saw a solemn procession of the people coming to meet him, headed by the high priest Jaddua, and all the priestly i-ace, in their robes of office, God turned his heart to spare and favour them. He con- tinued to them the free enjoyment of their laws and religion; granted them exemption from tribute during their sabbatical years ; and when he built the city of Alexandria, placed a great number of Jews there, and gave them the same privileges as his Greek subjects. On the division of Alexander's empire, Judaea ultimately fell to the Tlie share of Ptolemy Lagus, and formed part of the Egyptians. monarchy of Egypt. That prince removed many of the people to Alexandria, confirmed their privileges, and even advanced some of them to offices of authority and trust. By successive de- portations and volvrntaiy removals, Egypt became, and long con- tinued, an important seat of the Jewish population. The moral influence of this change will be noticed below. During the time of Ptolemy Lagus, the prosperity of the Jews was much promoted by the internal administration of an excellent high priest, Simon the Just. He repaired and fortified their city and temple with strong and lofty walls, and made a spacious reservoir of water, "in compass as a sea." He is said to have completed the canon of the Old Testament by the addition of the books of Ezra, Haggai, Zechariah, Nehemiah, Esther, and Malachi. The Jews also affirm that Simon was "the last of the great synagogue," which is described as having consisted of 120 individuals, among whom were Ezra, Haggai, Zechariah, Nehemiah, and Malachi. They appear to have been ; r^id CO 00 . .A d o c^ ^» d d ^ "S ■S d d d d d (^ O "S -r ir\ r^ ^ r;- n 5 C" 2" 1 '-' >i ■S^ <-l w *1 i-< «s ?< r< .s w M « 1 -e -^ j 1 22 S o 1 i ^2 t 11 1 go .a 1 a a B c Si g .5 .5 a 1 "3 1 1 ■n o 1^ .2 .2 c [3 1 s 1 w C ^ o 1^ -^ 1!_ W H < H dn <5 i-s o <1 3 t> s w o Jilatth. t + + i I I I 1 1 1 X it u X I i!i I I 1 I . it . it t JMark . + + + . I I I I . I . . I I I I I . it Luke i and . Acts) + i + • I I I I it * • I I I I I I + it it t John • • it 1 • I • I • • I .!r • I I I + it it The testimonies marked % are less decisive than those marked i or ], though most of them would be deemed quite satisfactory in a case of ordinary criticism. A few other passages may be seen in the works of Davidson and Lardner. They are not included above, because not decisive. Evidences of authenticit)j may be seen in Part i,. Sec. 4. These testimonies on the genuineness of the Gospels apply to the whole, with slight exceptions. The ist and 2nd chaps, of Matt., the la.st eleven verses of Mark, the ist and 2ud chaps, of Luke, the last two verses of John, John 7. 53:-8. i, and John 5. 34, have been ques- tioned; though now they are all generally admitted to be genuine. The least certain are the last two passages. Sec. 3. Introductions to the Gospels. The Oospd according to Mattheiv. 138. Matthew was a native of Galilee, and held the office THE GOSPEL BY MATTHEW. 557 Mattiicw, his of receiver of customs under the Roman govern- iii.story. ' ii^ent at the sea of Tiberias (A{^tt. 9. 9). By Mark and Luke he is called Levi (Mark 2. 14 : Luke 5. 27-32), which was probably his Hebrew name, as Matthew was pro- bably the name he assumed on obtaining a Roman oiB&ce. At the call of Christ, he left his business, and became one of the disciples a short time before the dehvery of the sermon on the mount. In enumerating the apostles, he speaks of himself as Matthew the publican (10. 3), anxious to magnify the grace of God in his call. The language in which he de- scribes the abandonment of his worldly prospects for Christ is a remarkable instance of humiUty, and illustrates one prin- ciple on which the Gospels are composed. The writers never make themselves prominent, nor do they give any details respecting their personal history. Their theme is — not themselves, but Christ Jesus their Lord. The exact date of this Gospel is not known. By some it is placed P as early as A. D. 37;* by others, as late as 63. The weight of evidence, however, is in favour of a few years later than the earlier date (i. e., ahont A. d. 42), and it was cei*- tainly wi-itten before the destruction of Jerusalem. It was a general tradition in the early church that there was a Ji wh t Gospel, Avritten by Matthew, in Syro-Chaldaic. That language he did write some notices of our Lord's life in the ver- written. nacular language of Palestine is probable. But the originality and genuineness of the Gi-eek Gospel are sustained by the strongest evidence. No trace of any Hebrew Gospel now re- mains. In Palestine, moreover, Greek was the language of books, of business, and of common life. Looking, therefore, to the habits of his countrymen, and to the approaching dissolution of the Jewish state, he had every inducement to employ that tongixe. His Gospel may be thus divided : p. Chaps. I, 2. Contain a brief notice of the infancy and childhood of our Lord. Chaps. 3.-4. 12. A record of his entrance on his public ministiy, and of events preparatory to it. Chaps. 5.-7. An exhibition of Christ as a public teacher, illus- trated in the sermon on the mount. Chaps. 8, 9. An exhibition of Christ as a worker of miracles, giving in one view several miracles of different kinds per- formed in various places. ^ Tillemont, Owen, and Tomline, 38: Irenseus, later than 60, 558 THE GOSPEL BY MARK. Chap. 13. An exhibition of Christ as a teacher by parables, ir. some of which there are also prophetic intimations. Chaps. 10.-20. We have instruction, miracle, and narrative, in more regular order, and in Chaps. 20.-28. We have a record of the last sufferings, death, and resurrection of oiir Lord. The intention of the writer is clearly, by a simple record of what Aim of this our Lord did and suffered, to redeem his Master's Gospel. memory from reproach, to disarm the prejudices of his countrymen, and to set forth for future ages the true character of the Messiah. Hence his frequent appeals to the prophets (r. 23: 2. 6, 15, 18: 3. 3: 4. 15 : 8. 17, etc.), his accounts of the refutation of the various Jewish sects, his care in narrating such parts of our Lord's discourses as were best suited to awaken his own nation to a sense of their sins, to correct their hopes of an earthly kingdom, and to prepare them for the admission of the Gentiles to the church. For the special instruction of Jewish Christians, he gives the predictions of om* Lord in relation to Jerusalem, and the argu- ments by which he sought to reconcile his disciples to opposition and persecution for their adherence to him. Tlie Gospel according to Marh. 139. Mark, who, besides his Latin name of Marcus, appears Mark's his- 'to have had the Hebrew name of John, was the '^^'i'- son of Mary, a pious woman at Jerusalem, who re- ceived in her house the assemblies of the primitive church, and welcomed the apostle Peter after his deliverance out of prison by the angel, Acts 12. 12. Mark was the nephew of Barnabas, Paul's companion in his travels, Col. 4. 10. These two, being at Jerusalem about the time of Peter's deliverance, took Mark w^ith them upon their mission, Acts 12. 25, He accompanied them to Antioch ; and thence, on their first journey, as far as Perga in Pamphylia ; where he left them, and returned to Jerusalem, Acts 13. 5, 13. We afterwards find him at Antioch, with Paul and Barnabas, desiring to ac- comj)any them on a second journey ; but Paul, regarding him as unfit for the work, since he had left them on the former occasion, was unwilling to take him. This decision caused a warm dispute and a temporary separation between the two apostles ; and Barnabas, influenced probably by his affec- tion for his kinsman, " took Mark, and sailed unto Cyprus." There can be no doubt that Mark afterwards acknowledged THE GOSPEL BY MARK. 559 his error, whatever it was — whether he was wanting in the courageous self-denial of the missionary, or had misgivings on the extension of the gospel to the heathen — for the apofctle Paul appears to have given him his confidence and ajBfection, and commends him to the churches. See Col. 4. lo : 2 Tim, 4. II : Philem. 24. To these notices, gathered from the sacred writers, others add that Mark afterwards went to Egypt ; and, having planted a church at Alexandria, died there. Thus it appears that Mark, though not himself one of the twelve, was a friend and companion of the apostles ; and, living at Jerusalem, was upon the spot where the most im- portant events in our Lord's hfe occurred, and where many of his miracles were performed. But, in addition to these means of knowledge, it is the concurrent testimony of the early Christian writers that Mark attended Peter (by whom he was probably brought to a knowledge of the truth, see I Pet. 5. 13), dm-ing a considerable portion of his ministry ; and having for some years enjoyed the intimate friendship of that apostle, wrote this account of our Lord's life under his immediate direction. So that Justin calls his Gospel " the Gospel of St, Peter." Some commentators sux^pose this fact to be referred to in 2 Pet. i. 15, 16. The internal evidence is in favour of Peter's superinten- dence. Scarcely an action or a work of Christ is related, at which Peter was not present ; and those events in our Sa- viour's life are related in detail which must have made the deepest impression upon Peter. Many things honourable to Peter are omitted by Mark, which are mentioned by the other evangehsts ; whilst, on the other hand, the faihngs of Peter are fully recorded. Comp. Mark 8. 29, with Matt. 16. 17. See also Mark 8. 33 : 14. 31-71. The time when this Gospel was wi'itten is uncertain. Various dates have been assigned to it, between a. d. 48 and 65. Date ^ -» ' Some suppose it written at Rome, others at Csesarea; but all agree that it was intended for Roman converts. The chief peculiarities of Mark as a writer are, (i.) That he relates rather the works than the discourses of oui Lord. His descriptions are more graphic than those of Matthew and Luke. He frequently employs the present tense, intro- duces persons as speakers, and is often minute in his descriptions of 660 THE GOSPEL BY LUKE. persons and localities. In many instances where the same events are related by Matthew and Mark, the latter fills up the outline of the former, giving gi'eater distinctness to the picture. Compare Mark 5, 22-43, and Matt. 9. 18-26: Mark 9. 14-29, and Matt. 17. 14-21. Tlie Gospel according to Luke. 140. Luke, the writer of the Gospel which bears his name, Luke's his- is generally allowed to have been the " beloved tory. physician " mentioned by Paul, Col. 4. 14. Ac- cording to the testimony of some of the Fathers, liu was a native of Antioch. He would ajjpear, from his intimate ac- quaintance with the Greek language, as well as from his Greek name, Kovms, to have been of Gentile extraction. But, from the Hebrew terms occurring in his writings, and from his ac- curate knowledge of the Jewish religion, ceremonies, and customs, it is highly probable that he was in early life a Jewish proselyte ; and, having afterwards embraced the gos- pel, he became a faithful and zealous companion of Paul in many of his labours and travels, Acts 16. 10: 20. 5, etc. We learn from Acts 28. 15, and Philem. 24, that he was with the apostle at the time of his first captivity at Rome ; and from 2 Tim. 4. II, that, during his second imprisonment, Luke alone remained by his side. Luke is generally supposed to have been a scholar. His style is more classical than that of the other evangelists. Being a physician, his description of diseases, and his accounts of cures wrought by the Saviour and his apostles, have more of technical definiteness than the other Gospels. "With regard to the questions when and lohere this Gospel was written, there is no certain information. Some suppose that it was written during the time that Luke was in Paul's company, probably during his confinement at Eome, about the year 62 or 63, a. d. Others give it an earlier date, and suppose it to have been written at Philippi, about 5 7, a. d., see 2 Cor. 8. 18-21. But, however that may be, it is evident that it was originally written for Gentile readers, as that of Matthew Avas originally de- signed for Jews. He has always before his eyes the ecu an les. <, salvation prepared for all people;" — " a light to lighten the Gentiles" (2. 31, 32), and, as writing for heathen who had departed so widely from God, he has been careful to record THE GOSPEL BY JOHX. o6l the Lord's declarations concerning the free mercy of God to the greatest sinners (7. 36-50: 15,: 18. 10-14: 19. 5-10: 23. 40-43, etc.) The Gospel of Luke is generally considered to be more of a re- gular biography than any of the others. He appears to have pre- served the chronological order of his main facts; closing the vaalous periods of his history with a number of incidental circumstances and discourses, which belong to that division of time, but the exact sequence of which he is not careful to specify. The numerous and important additional facts which Luke has supplied, give to his Gospel a peculiar value. He relates with remarkable cleai-ness the conversations of Jesus, with the incidents which gave rise to them, the remarks of those who were present, and their results. Though containing information supplementary t. that given by Matthew, his Gospel has not the character of a sup- plemental document; but is evidently an independent and original work. Generalh', the parables and discom-ses of Luke's Gospel, are less full than those of Matthew. Tlie Gospel according to John. 141. John, the younger brother of James, who with him Johns his- was called to the apostleship, was the son of Zebe- toiy. dee and of Salome. His father was a fisherman, living at Bethsaida in Galilee, on the borders of the lake of Gennesareth. The family appear to have been in easy cir- cumstances ; at least, we find that Zebedee employed hired servants, Mark i. 20 ; and that Salome was among the wo- men who contributed to the maintenance of Jesus, Matt. 27. 56. Having been brought up in the knowledge and the love of the true God by a pious mother, he appears to have early become a disciple of our Lords forerunner ; and to have been directed by him to Jesus, whom he followed ; it being generally considered that he was one of the two disciples mentioned in chap. I. 37-41. He was soon admitted, with his brother James, and Peter, to particular intimacy with the Saviour, who selected them as witnesses of the most important and solemn events of his life, Mark 5. 37 : Matt. 18. i : 26. 37. It appears that, of all the apostles, John was especially favoured with our Lord's regard and confidence, so as to be called " the disciple whom Jesus loved." He was devotedly attached to his Master ; and though he fled, like the other apostles, when Jesus was apprehended, he recovered his firm- ■ 2 B 3 562 THE GOSPEL BY JOHN. ness, was present during the trial and crucifixion of our Saviour ; and was intrusted by Him with the care of his mother (19. 26, 27). John is said to have remained at Jerusalem till the death of Mary, about the year a. d. 48. After Paul had left Asia Minor, John went to labour there, residing chiefly at Ephesus, and founding several churches in that country. Shortly afterwards, during the persecution under Domitian (or accord- ing to others, towards the end of the reign of Nero), he was banished to Patmos, an island in the iEgean Sea ; where he received the visions of the Apocalypse. On the accession of Nerva he was liberated, and returned to Ephesus ; where he continued to labour during the rest of his life. He died in the hundredth year of his age, about a. d. 100. According to the general testimony of antiquity, John wrote his Gospel at Ephesus, about the year 97, long after the destruction of Jerusalem. He therefore makes no men- tion of our Lord's predictions of that event, and the dispersion of the Jews ; those prophecies having at that time received their ac- complishment. It is generally considered that John had the other three Gospels before him when he wrote; inasmuch as he omits all J, ' that had been described in them with sufficient minute- ness. He supposes the great events of our Saviour's life and his principal instructions, to be already known to his readers. If at any time he relates what had been mentioned by the other evange- lists, it is generally with a view to introduce some important dis- coiirse of our Lord; or because it was particularly connected with the main object of his Gospel. The object which this evangelist had in view is very clearly stated in chaps, i. 1-18: 20. 31. His design appears to have been to convey to the world just and adequate notions of the real nature, office, and character of the Divine Eedeemer. For this purpose aro especially recorded those passages of our Saviour's life, which most clearly displayed his Divine power and authority; and those of his discourses in which he spoke most plainly of his own nature, of the work given to him by the Father, and the efficacy of his death as an atonement for the sins of the world. And it is from this Gospel that the most numerous and decisive proofs of our Lord's deity are derived. Yet no evangelist has portrayed the softer lineaments of our Lord's humanity with more delicacy and beauty, or disclosed more of the inmost affections and feelings CHRONOLOGY OF THE GOSPELS. 563 of the Saviour's heart. The other evangelists give the history of our Lord in Galilee chiefly; in John he is seen generally in Judaea. Here we find him attending three passovers at least, the others giving the history of but one. Two-thirds of this Gospel are new; the most important additions being in chaps. 13-17, and in chap. 11. He records but six miracles, and omits most of the parables, and the sermon on the mount. This Gospel was probably the last written of all the books of the Bible; and while proving the Divine nature of Christ, it corrected several of the heresies which sprang up in the first age of Chris- tianity, and supplies an answer to some that prevail in our own. Sec. 4. TTie Chronology of the Gospels. 142. The chronology of the Gospels is a subject of much interest and considerable difficulty. It will be sufficient to indicate the evidence and results which have been ascertained by recent and protracted inquiry. I. The present Christian era a. d. i, is A. u. c. 754, and was fixed in the 6th centmy by Dionysius Exiguvis. It came into use in the 8th century, and was adopted by Bede. Shortly afterwards we find it employed in public transactions by Pepin and Charlemagne. Now Herod the Great died A. u. c. 750, just before the Passover (/. e. between the latter part of March, and the latter part of April) : a statement made by Josephus, and confirmed by astronomy, which shows that an echpse of the moon, said to have taken place just before his death, did take place in that year. Allowing then, four or six months for the visit of the Magi, and the flight into Egypt, the birth of our Lord cannot be later than January, 750, or October, 749, see Matt. 2. 1-6: Jos. Antiq. xvii., xviii. i: xvii., 9, 3. The Christian era, therefore, is wrong by at least four years, and in this decision nearly all chronologers agree. The conclusion to which the testimony of Josephus leads us, is confirmed by other evidence. . . . From Luke 3. i, 2, 23, we learn that John entered vipon his ministry in the 15th year of Tiberius, and that Christ was about thirty years of age at his bap- tism. Both probably entered upon their work when they were thirty (see Num. 4. 3, 35, 39, 43, 47). Tiberius was associated with Augustus (and the original of Luke impHes that he dates from that time), A. u. c. 764; so that the 15 th year of Tiberias begins A. u. c. 779. Christ, therefore, was born in A. u. c. 750, or 749. . . Again, from John 2. 20, we learn that then the temple had been forty-six years in building (Greek). Josephus states that Herod began this work in the i8th year of his reign (which is reckoned from the death of Antigonus, A. u. c. 714). Hence, when our Lord 564 HARMONIES OF THE GOSPEIA spoke (the time being the date of his first Passover, when he was probably thirty and a-half years old), the 65 th year from the com- mencement of Herod's reign was in progress, or a. u. c. 779. On this reckoning, therefore, Christ must have been born a. u. c. 749. The Latin fathers, moreover, had a tradition, that Christ was put to death in the consulate of the Gemini, Rubellius and Fufius, i. c, A. u. c. 782-3, and reckoning his ministry at three and a-half yeai's, we are again brought to a. u. c. 749, as the date of his birth. 2. This view represents our Lord as entering upon his ministry when he was thii"ty. Usher, overlooking part of the evidence, and misunderstanding Luke 3, supposes our Lord to have commenced his ministry in his 34th year, i. c, A. D. 10. This conclusion is now generally admitted to be an error. 3. On the duration of his ministrj^, there is also a difference of opinion. The first three evangelists seem to give events connected with only one Passover; the last mentions three, and probably four (see next Sec). Usher supposes that three only are mentioned, and hence he makes the duration of our Lord's ministry two and a-half yeai's. Greswell and Robinson suppose that four are men- tioned, and make his ministry three, or three and a-half years. 4. The date of our Lord's death is of course known;, the day of his birth can be only conjectured. Lardner reckons that Christ was born between August and Xovember, 748, or 749 ; and Gres- well maintains that he was born April 5, 750. As early as the 3rd and 4th centuries, the 6th of January and the 25 th of December were celebrated as the festival of his birth and baptism, by the two chief sections of the church. Sec. 5. The Gospels Harmonized. 143. While the Gospels as they lie before us are a i^recious Importance record of our Saviour's life, it is highly interest- «f a^synopti- ^j^g ^q compare them, and to ascertain the chrono- the Gospels, logical order of the events they describe. The ShroSofogicai cvangelists are their own best interpreters. Each harmony. narrative is supplementary to the rest, in minute as well as in important particulars. The characteristic of their testimony is unity in diversity. And these advantages appear only on comparison of the narratives themselves. 144. This process is easy. Kirrecise chronological arrangement ,. , ofthe events and discourses is more diflacult, though A Bynoptical ■ 1 • r xt_ n 1c .iew easy : also mstructivc. A synoptical view 01 the Uospeis arrangimenf may be framed by all ; a chronological harmony difli.uit. requires much learned research. The order adopted CHRONOLOGY OF THE GOSPELS. 565 in the Harmony of the ReHgious Tract Society, which is founded on Dr. Robinson's, carefully compared with the Harmonies of Greswell and Wieseler, is perhaps the best. 145. In fixing the order of the events of the Gospels, the ilrst ques- tion to be decided is, the number of passovers that 00- tion • nuro- curred during our Lord's ministry. One only is mentioned ber of pass- by the first three evangelists; three at least by the last (John 2. 13: 6, 4: 13, i), and probably four (5. i).* Some, as Sir I. Newton, and Dr. Macknight, have supposed even a fifth, but of this there is no satisfactory evidence. A few, main- tain but one ; many, as Lardner, Bengel, Benson, three ; but most, iucludiug Grotius, Lightfoot, Newcome, Hengstenberg, four. 146. An extreme view, in opposition to all attempts to frame a har- mony of the Gospels, was once common on the continent, and vras maintained by Osiander (1537), ^^^ other Lutherans. In this view, each Gospel was held to preserve a strictly chronological order, and all events, however appai'ently identical, which occupied in any two Gospels difierent places, were deemed distixict. Elsewhere, and in later times, sounder views prevailed, especially through the ex- positions of Calvin and Bengel. It is now generally admitted tLr.t Which Gos- ^^^ evangelists do not profess to adhere to a chronolo- pel is on the gical order, and that no harmony can be made without most chrouo- some transposition. In this principle, all modern har- losrxal. monists concur, and they differ only in the importance which each attaches to the order of some one evangelist. In the chronological Tables, given by Dr. Robinson, the order of John is never altered, though between the events he records, large portions of the other evangelists are introduced. Mark's order is only twice inverted, Luke's not much oftener, Matthew's most of all ; though in no case are the alterations very serious. The first three Gospels are sometimes called synoptical, from the fact, that theh narratives are parallel to a much larger extent than those of John. 147. Two things are very obvious on comparing the Gospels. Verbal They contain many verbal agreements so marked as not ments be- to admit the supposition that they are accidental ;^ and Gospels'-^ they contain some apparent discrepancies. The first oiigm of fact has been variously explained. A common opinion them. ^,g^^ ^Vig^^ ^j^Q Gospel first written was freely used by ** See on the Grammar of this passage, if read without the article, Winer, § 19. 4, Matt. 27. 15: Mark 15, 16: and on the whole question, The Harmony of the Gospels, Religious Tract Society. b The English version does not always give a full idea of the remarkable sameness of expression to be found in the different Gospels: see Dr. Stroud's Harmony of the Gospels. 568 CHRONOLOGY OF THE GOSPELS. subsequent writers; and each of the first three Gospels has been regarded as the Gospel which was used in this way. Now, how- ever, this theory has few advocates. The inspired writers them- selves say nothing of such dependence as this practice would imply. The passages and expressions in common, moreover, are few, com- pared with those which are peculiar; so that this theory creates more difficulties than it explains. A second opinion maintains that all the evangelists used some common Gospel now lost; but the absence of all traditional support for such a theory, and the diffi- culty of applying it so as to explain the admitted facts, have in- duced most critics to reject it. The latest suggestion is, that all the Gospels are founded on narratives already familiar, through frequent repetition, to the inspired writers. The chief facts of our Lord's life and teaching had certainly been promulgated for many years before the Gospels were written, and many expressions and descriptions must have been, from this circumstance, familiar to the inspired writers. Olshausen combines the first and the last of these views; Matthevi^ and Luke were wi-itten, as he thinks, inde- pendently, and Mark had the Gospel of Matthew before him. These theories are important chiefly as they serve to remove ob- jections founded on the marked verbal agreement of the inspired writers. The last theory, it will be noticed, explains the facts, without adding materially to the difficulties. 148. The apparent discrepancies of the Gospels are not numerous, but they are obvious, and have probably created more Apparent •' ' r j discrepan- difficulty than their marked agreement. Examples are cics: hovv thefolloAving: reconciled. " The genealogies, Matt. i. 1-17: Luke 3. 23-32. The solution of the difficulty is found in the fact, that Matthew traces our Lord's descent through Joseph, and Luke, through Mary. The call of Peter, Matt. 4. 18-22: Mark i. 16-20: Luke 5. i-ii. Greswell supposes two transactions; Eobinson, but one, main- taining, with Spanheim, that one evangelist supplies what another omits, and that there is no discrepancy. The sermon on the mount, Matt. 5. i : Luke 6. 20. Greswell thinks the sermon was delivered twice; Robinson, but once, the narrative of Luke ending 6. 19. A third solution explains "in the plain" (eVi, 6. 17) as meaning on a level spot upon the mountain, Matt. 5. I. The two demoniacs, Matt. 8. 28: Luke 8. 26: Mark 5.2. Matthew says there were two; Mark and Luke mention but one. Le Clerc remarks that the fuller account includes the briefer, and the briefer does not contradict the fuller. Matthew reads Gergesenes, though there is a difference of reading. Gergesa, however, was compre- hended in the district of G.ndara. CHKONOLOGY OF THE GOSPELS. 567 T}ie centurion's servant, Matt. 8. 5-12: Luke 7. i-io. Some sup- pose these to have been two transactions, but they occurred in the same city and about the same time. What Matthew says the cen- turion did, Luke says was done by the elders of the Jews and his friends; not an vmcommon mode of speech: compare Mark 10. 35 and Matt. 20. 20. A third explanation supposes both the cen- turion and the elders to have gone to Christ; he later than they. The two blind men near Jericho, Matt. 20. 29-34: Mark 10. 46-52: Luke 18. 35-43. Here are several dijfficulties. Matthew speaks of two, Mark and Luke, of one. Matthew and Mark say the occurrence took place as Christ departed from Jericho; Luke says it took place when he was come nigh.. Greswell, after Lightfoot, regards these mii-acles as distinct ; the one occurring as Christ entered Jericho, the other, as he left it. The word used by Luke, how- ever, may mean (hellenistically) to be near, answering to our phrase ''in the neighbourhood," i Kings 21, 2: Deut. 21. 3: Euth 2. 20: Phil. 2. 30. De TV'ette and several others translate, when Christ was dra-wing neaj- to Jerusalem, at Jericho, etc., see ver. 3 1 : 19. 29, 41. These instances illustrate the difficulties of the narrative, and explain the various modes adopted in removing them. On any in- terpretation, the moral lessons of the narrative are unimpaired. 149. The study of the Gospels sjnoptically, and in the order of time, will often suggest important lessons. Importance ' °° ^ ofstiidj'ing Look, for example, at the record of Christ's early in this way: life- The first act of worship was paid to him by illustrated in Gentiles, whose gifts proved a providential supply to his family when escaping from the jealous hatred of Herod. The history of the subsequent youth of oiu- Lord, till he was twelve years old, is given in one sentence: ^'he grew, and waxed strong in spirit, filled with wisdom, and the grace of God was upon him." He was not in haste to enter upon the more public duties of his office. After his baptism even, there is an interval of several months before he reveals himself (at the Passover at Jerusalem) as a ''Teacher sent from God." That interval he spent (in part) in the wilderness, conquering temptation, and enduring mysterioiLS suffering. He thus learned, at the outset, to succour the temoted. These temptations preceded his public ministry, and followed the pubKc recognition of him by the Father, at his baptism. The same voice was again heard on the eve of the crucifixion. Tokens of peculiar favour often precede severe suffermg, and both prepare for the discharge of onerous duties. 568 CHRONOLOGY : LESSONS. The threefold recognition of sonship is instructive : first, at his birth, to indicate his Divine nature (Luke i. 35); the second, at his baptism, to indicate the divinity of his mission; the third, at his transfigm-ation, to indicate his regal dignity and authority, "Hear ye him." At his resurrection all were confirmed, and he "was declared to be the Son of God with power." The first announcement of Christ refers to his kingdom. Matt. 3. 2; the second, to his sacrifice, John i. 29. The first miracle of our Lord was performed in Galilee, and taught that, in his official character, no earthly relationship could be acknowledged (John 2, 4); that he came, not as John, austere and unsocial, but sympathizing with man in every condition of joy as well as of sorrow. It taught also that the water of purifying under the law was to give place to the wine of his kingdom; the richest revelation being I'eserved to the close. The first of his public acts (John 2. 15), and one of the last, was to purify the temple, showing that he was its Lord, and fulfilling a prophecy of Malachi (chap. 3. i). He also intimated that thence- foi'th his own body (as afterwards his church) was to be the true temple (John 2. 21), wherein God himself would dwell. His first recorded discourse was with Nicodemus, on regeneration, on salvation by faith, on God's love to the world in the gift of his Son. He announced at the same time that he was son of God and son of man; that his kingdom was to be established in human hearts; that he himself was to be lifted up, not on an earthly throne, but on the cross. The first scenes of his life, therefore, in Jerusalem, shadowed forth the truths which were embodied in terrible reality in the last. His second discourse was with the Samaritan woman, and ended in the convei'sion of many of the Samaritans. The earliest extensive success of our Lord's mission Avas witnessed in a district that was the most despised, and where he had wrought no miracles. He was first i*ejected at Xazareth. How instructive to observe, that though " the whole multitude of the disciples" had rejoiced and praised God, on their way to Jerusalem, "for all the mighty works which they had seen," within a week, one had denied our Lord, others had slept dui-ing his agony, and all had forsaken him. "He trod the wine-press alone," though, but a few days before, that prophecy did not seem likely to be fulfilled. The day after, he delivered the parable of the wicked husband- men, asserting his own dignity as "the son," and foretelling his death. The contention among the disciples who should be greatest seem a to have been settled by our Lord taking a towel, gii'ding himself, chronology: lessons. 5Gi) and washing theii' feet; thus teaching them that the chief among them was to be as he that did serve. Compare Luke 22. 24-30 and John 13. 1-20. Careful attention to the order of the narrative will show that, while Pilate declared that he found no fault in Him, and Herod acknowledged that there was no charge against him worthy of death, he was crucified on the charge of olasphemy, making him- self equal with God. That was his true character, or he was justly condemned. It will be seen that it was after Judas Iscariot had left the com- pany that our Lord gave his disciples the new commandment, in- stituted the last supper, and delivered the tender farewell discourse recorded in John 14.-16. Nearly one-third of the Gospels is occupied with the events of the last seven days of onv Saviom-'s life, including his crucifixion. The prominence given to these scenes he himself explains. " The hour is come when the Son of Man shall be glorified. Verily, verily, I say unto you, except a corn of wheat fall into the ground and die, it abideth alone ; but if it die, it briugeth forth much fruit." 150. The connection of miracles and parables is no less In parables instructive. and miracles. ^^^ parables, see Part i. § 41 8. For miracles, we may take the 8th and 9th of Matthew. Christ first heals with a touch the man whom the law had pronounced unclean (8. 2-4), and then proceeds to assert practically his power over disease (14-17), over devils themselves (16), over physical nature (23-27), and over even brute creatures (28-34). What can be more complete than thi^ view of his reign? Li chap. 9, we see him in his spiritual kingdom, forgiving sin (1-8), and answering prayer, direct (20-22), inter- cessory (23-26), united (27-31), unuttered (32, 33). Whether these are precisely the characteristic features of this group may admit of a question, but thei'e are characteristic features, and our ^visdom is to ascertain and examine them. So, again, of the cases in which Christ raised the dead. Thi-ee only are given, but each is characteristic. In the case of Jairus' daughter, the spirit had but just quitted the body; the son of the widow of Nain was being carried to the gi-ave; and the summons to Lazarus was addressed to one who had been dead "four days already." Christ therefore raised the dead from the couch, the bier, and the sepulchre; an ascending series of difficulties, but all possible with him. Each miracle, moreover, had in other respects its appropriate lessons. 570 TOPICS IN READING THE GOSPELS. Sec. 6. Topics to he Noticed in Reading the Gospels. 151. In the study of the New Testament, and of the Gos- pels especially, we need to inquire and compare. The in- spired writings are infinitely rich in truth, and each verse is so connected with the rest that an intelhgent inquirer may easily extend his investigations from one passage over the whole of Scripture. Without attempting to exhaust topics of inquiry, we mention the following. The letters may be prefixed to each verse, or not, according to the taste of the reader. A. ^Yha.t analogies between sensible and. spiritual things may be here traced ? a. What prophecy is here accomplished f where found? when written? what rule of interpretation is illustrated ? B. What blessing is. here sought or ac- knowledged, or promised, and why ? C. What custom is here referred to? c. What trait of character is here given? good or had? belonging to our na- tural or our renewed state? what advantages are coimected with H? D. What doctrine is here taught? how illustrated? what its practical in- fluence ? d. What duty is here enforced, and how? from what motives? D. What difficulty is here found in history or in doctrine? how ex- plained? E. What evangelical or other expei-ience is here recorded ? e. What cxainj/lc is here placed before us? of sin or of holhicss? lessons? /'. What facts are here related? what doctiine or duty do they illustrate? do you commend or blame them, and why? G. What is the geographical position of this country, or place? and what its history? n. What facts of natural history or of general history are here referred to or illustrated? /. What institution or ordinance is here mentioned? on whom bind- ing? what its design? what its cotmection with other institutions? i. What instructions may be gathered froni this fact, or parable, or miracle ? K, WTiat Jinou-ledge of human nature, or want of knowledge, is here dis- played ? L. What lofty expressions of devotional fervour ? I. What Levitieal institute is here men- tioned? why appointed? M. What miracle is here recorded? by whom wrought? in whose name? what were its results? what taught? N. What is worthy of notice in this name ? P. What pi-ohxbition is here given ? is it word, or thought, or deed, it con- demns? p. What is the meaning of the parable here given ? wliat truth as to God, Christ, man, "the kingdom," is taught ? P. What promise is here given? to whom ? E. "What prophecy is here recorded ? is it fulfilled? how? when? S. What sin is here exposed ? s. What sect is here introduced? men- tion its tenets. T. What type is here traced ? t. \^\idX Uireatening? when inflicted? U. What nnjnstiftable action of a good man ? what unusual excellence in one not pious? Tr. What vo is here denounced? what naming given? agaiust whom, and why ? X. What is here taught of the work, character, person of Christ ? X. What sublimity of thought or of lan- guage is here? what inference follows? Lessons to he gathered from a Comparison of Passages. 152. Sometimes, instead of marking the lessons taught in single verses, it is useful to compare, in order to ascertain GOSPELS : METHOD OF STUDY. 571 and contrast the duties or truths involved. The following (taken from Nichols' Help) are specimens. Many more might be added. Give instances of our Lord's attendance on public worship, at th(^ temple, and in the synagogue; his submission to the rites and cere- monies of the Mosaic law (Luke 4. i6: John 7. 37); his retirement for private prayer, and under what circumstances (Matt. 14. 23. 26. 36: Mark i. 3?: Luke 6. 12); his prayers for others (Luke 22. 32, for Peter: John 17, for his church: Luke 23. 34, for his enemies); his prayer with others (Luke 9. 28). Give instances of his submission to the will of his heavenly Father (John 4. 34: 5- 30: t8. ii); his zeal (John 2. 17: 4. 31- 34: Luke 9. 51, etc.); his giving an improving turn to events and circumstances (Matt. 9. 27: Luke 12. 15: John 4. 32: 6. 27: 7. 37); his humility (John 8. 50: 13. i, etc.); and his self-denial. Give illustrations how oxu- Lord acted as a son (Luke 2.51: Johu 19. 26); as a friend (^John 11); as a subject (Matt. 17. 24); as a teacher (Matt. 11. 29). Give instances of his reproof, and show the grounds of it in the following cases (his apostles, as Peter, Matt. 16. 23: Luke 22. 61: Jolm 21; James and John, Luke 9. 55; Thomas, John 20. 27; Judas, John 12. 7, 8; other disciples, Luke 24. 25). What sins seemed to call forth his severest reproof (John 8. 44: Matt. 23)? What does our Lord say of unbehef (Matt. 11. 21: John 3. 36); of covetousness and other vices; and of particular virtues ? Who were particularly the objects of our Lord's commendation, and for what (Matt. 8. 10: 15. 28: 26. 13: Luke 10. 42: 21. 3)? When did our Lord give offence, and what occasioned it (Mark 6. 3: John 6. 66; 19. 7)? What charges were brought against ovu: Lord? By what oppro- brious names was he called? Collect the different reasons which were given by individuals for not following, or for rejecting him (Mark 6. 3: 10. 22: John 7. 41). What reason does he give ? Give instances of our Lord's command of temper under circum- stances calculated greatly to irritate it (Matt. 27. 14: Luke 22: John 13); and of his condescension to the infirmities of others (John 20. 27: Matt. 26. 41). Under what circumstances did our Lord tm-n away from those who applied to him, or refuse to comply with their request (Mark 8. II, 12: 10. 35, etc.: Luke 23. 8), or seem to check their coming (Matt. 8. 19, 20: Mark 5. 19: Luke 14. 25, etc.)? Isa. 52. 13, speaks of his dealing prudently. Observe his pru- dence in declining all interference with civil affairs (Luke 12. 13: 572 THE GOSPEL AND THE GENTILES. John 6. 15); and in the vise of means for the presei'vation of his life (Matt. 4. 12: Mark 3. 6, 7: John 7. i-io: 10. 39: 11. 53, 54); as also his wisdom in suiting his instructions to his hearers. I'Vhat does our Lord say as to the great principle which influenced him in all he did (John 4. 34)? also as to his object in coming into the world (Matt. 20. 28: Luke 19. 10: John 9. 39: 10. 10: 18. 37)? How does our Lord describe a future state of happiness and of misery? How does he describe his kingdom and his second coming? CHAPTEE VI. The Book of Acts. Sec. I. The Gospel and the Gentiles. 153. And now the gospel is about to be diflfused among the na- tions. The Book of Acts gives us the history of its progress in Judsea (1.-7)^ in Samaria (8), and then " to the uttermost parts of the earth" (10.-28). How far did the Gentiles need the gospel? and what new truths did it reveal to them ? are therefore instructive questions. Some reply, by affirming, that to the Gentile world, the gospel What is the ^^'^^ welcome chiefly as a code of pei"fect morality; gospel to others affirm with Paley, that its chief excellence was the Gentiles. -^^ revelation of eternal life; and others still, that it is essentially a revelation of religion, the morality of the heathen being political or secular, not spiritual or religious. It tells nothing, they say, of man's relation to God, nor did it base moral sentiment on his character or will. This peculiarity, it is added, Josephus pointedly marks. Other nations, says he, have a morality without religion; among the Jews alone is religion made the basis of virtue. Unsatisfactory as these statements are, each of them contains a portion of the truth. The whole truth we reach only by combining them, and adding others which they do not include. It may in- deed be summed up in one sentence — the gospel is the revelation of Jesus Christ, and of God in him, —but this summary involves particulars, which must be stated in detail, before we can under- stand its significancy and beauty. 154. (i.) Apart from the gospel, men had a very imperfect Man ignorant knowledge of their nature and guilt. The fact that they of the extent iccre sinners was obvious to all. But the extent of their IS gui . gj^^ needing as it did to be compared with a perfect lav/; the aggravation of it, springing from a depraved nature ; the guilt of STATE OF THE GENTILES. . 573 that very depravity, itself the result, not of chance or of circum- stances, or of any corrupt tendency in the matter {vkr]), of which man was formed, least of all of an act of God, but of man's own voluntary transgression, they did not know, or had forgotten. A la^v to test the measure of our guilt, a history to trace our ruin to ourselves, and evidence to prove that man's nature is not better than his practice, are therefore strictly revelations; and thev seem as essential to our penitence as to our restoration. Once, ai men possessed the knowledge of these truths, but now it can be regained from the Bible alone. ^55- (-•) Of God himself, the heathen were no less lamentably Of God's ignorant. Whether he were one or many, or as most character. held, both many and one : whether, as the Stoics main- tained, God was everything, and everything God, matter itself being but the remotest emanation of Deity; or, as the Platonists limited the doctrine, God was all spirit, and all spirits were God, emanating from him, and ultimately absorbed into him; or, whether he were not a being who took no interest in earthly concerns, as Epicurus taught, none knew. All did know, however, that the objects of popular worship embodied the vices of their worshippers, and that easy indifference, virtuous contempt, or guilty fear, were the feelings with which they were regai'ded. A God of holiness, of providence, and of love, guided by integrity, was either alto- gether unknown, or if made the theme of discussion, was re- garded with dismay. " This, " says Cicero, " is the common principle of all philosophies, that the Deity is never displeased, nor does he ... inflict injury upon men," a principle involved no less in the moral character asci-ibed to the divinities, than in the apathetic indifference thought essential to their dignity. 156. (3.) The influence of the evils already named on the moral ,%f r ^ sj'-stems of the heathen, is obvious. The relations and Of a perfect -^ ' • n ■, system of truths on which morality is based, were imperfectly morality. perceived, and the obligations thence arising, still more imperfectly felt. In Greece, religion was devotion to external na- ture, and at last to art: in Rome, devotion to country, and then to power: in each respectively, it was energy and taste. Political virtues both recognised; and at first, Rome prized as the highest political virtue, domestic fidelity; but in neither nation had religion any good moral tendency, and in both, religion became the chief servant of licentiousness and vice. 15 7- (4-) Nor was this tendency checked by any belief of a per- „.,, sonal conscious immortality, A resurrection of the Or the cer- . -^ . . , . • tainty of a dead was universally rejected as ridiculous. An im- ♦"uturo life. mortality of the soul, properly so called, none admitted. 574 STATE OF THE GENTILES. That the souls of men might survive, in some shadowy semi, conscious state, or even enjoy for a time the company of their deities, a few were disposed to maintain; but the evidence was so faint, and the difficulties were so serious, that even the greatest of heathen philosophers, Socrates, was constrained to confess, that whether it were better to live or die, was known only to the gods, 158. (5.) It is not intended by these statements, to deny that there may not be found in the writings of some ancient a system that philosophers, both classic and oriental, glimpses of shall recon- di\dner truth, moral and speculative. Such glimpses and fears,^ there are. Plato attempted, as the founder of Buddhism himself and did, to bring back the faith of man from innumerable visible deities {B^oi yevTjroi), to the Great Invisible (civ), Socrates discourses eloquently on '' the good," ** the beautiful." But on the other hand, both Plato and Socrates, when speaking most justly, confess that they are but guessing at truth, and that whether their conclusions are sound, cannot be told till some Divine teacher appear The real difficulty in all these inqumes remained, a difficulty that drew thousands to results which their better principles condemned. If man is thus guilty; if this be ^ ..^ virtue : if God is just; if another life be a ideality: how Can guilty . '' "^ man be just IS man to attam the purity and blessedness of which we with God? ti^ug dream? In the absence of light, they de7ued the truths they dreaded ; or in spite of light, followed the evil they loved, till they reaped the fruit of their practice, in diminished knowledge and grosser sin. 159. (6.) The moral condition of the nations to whom the gospel Man's moral ca-^^^, was just such as their ignorance and the cnr- condition. rupt tendencies in which that ignorance originated might lead us to expect. Paul has described it in the Epistle to the Romans; and Wetstein, Tholuck, and others, have shown from ancient authorities, that the pictm-e of the apostle has not one touch too many, or too dark. These were the evils with which the gospel had to contend; and these evils it subdued. To the wants which these e\'ils indicated, the gospel was adapted. The^e wants it relieved, and these wants it will at length for ever i-emove. 160. Such everyT\'here is nature without revelation, man without These evils God. The evils thus traced in Greece, re -appear in universal. India, and in the midst of our western civilization. Man without the Bible, and man rejecting the Bible, tend (the latter most rapidly), to the same condition; and it is that condition which the gospel is intended to relieve. Its essence is the life and GOSPEL ADAPTED TO THE GENTILES. o7o How re- work of our Lord. He was Man; sinless and holy, moved by as man once was. He obeyed the law which we had the gospeL broken, and in obeying, expounds and enforces it. He died in our stead, shewing what our sins deserved, and how they all may be cancelled. In our nature, and as our representative, he conquered death and ascended to God, a pledge and proof of our ascension. In heaven, he forms the bond cf union between God and man, blending with his DiA-ine nature, our own, and ready to employ the fruits of his ministry, both his power with God, and his fellow- feeling with our infirmities for our profit He was God, the brightness of the Father's glory, the express image of Ids person, the Eternal God in human form, thtis realizing the yearnings of many for some object of reverence and of love. In his acts, he showed what God is, how tender, how holy; revealed those rela- tions which we already know that he sustains to man, and disclosed others even more adapted to impress our hearts. That he was Creator and Preserver, men had gathered from his works ; that he might become Judge they feared. But here he is seen as our Brother, our Redeemer, our Friend. The Law-giver becomes obedient to his own law, and bears its penalty; his position assuring to us the sufficiency of his sacrifice. Xone knew so well man's gmlt, and none knew so well the requirements of his own govern- ment: the first is cancelled; the second honoured by his suffering. In effecting the great end of this mission, he has moreover per- formed a work, that has in it the elements of all power; over man and with God. "Lifted up," he ''draws all" unto him; and ascending on high he receives gifts for men, repentance and remis- sion of sins, holiness and eternal life. The gospel is, in one word, a revelation of man, and of God; of new relations, and of a perfect morality; of eternal life, demonstrated not by argument, but by facts, and above all, of a system of reconciliation, which harmonizes, enforces, and explains all its other disclosures, and fits it to become " glad tidings of great joy, unto all people." It is the utterance at once of infinite sufficiency, holiness, and love. i6r. It may be convenient to mark here the distinction between Relation of "the different books of the New Testament. In the Gospels, Evangelists we have the gospel incarnate : Christ came Acts and ox Epistles, to to be the gospel, and to do what should form the. basis one another. Qf jjjg church. In the Gospels, therefore, though much is revealed, much is wrapped up in dark sayings. His death, his resitrrection, the gift of his Spirit, the nature of his king- dom, the call of the Gentiles, his second coming, are all hinted at, or foretold, or done; but in the Gospels, we look rather for the facts which are to give significance to some future disclosures on 57(. THE BOOK OF ACTS. tliese topics, than for explicit teaching. There is no spiritual truth which may not be found in the narrative, but for the full meaning of that narrative we need the later revelations of the Spirit In the Book of Acts, we learn the meaning of much of our Saviour's teaching from the characters and lives of Christians, and the deal- ings of the providence of God. In the Epistles, we see doctrine and duty in their connections and tendencies, the whole explained and enforced as completely as the Spirit of God has deemed it necessary for our present state. In Eevelation, we trace the history of these doctrines embodied in the church, till the end of time. The Epistles explain and apphj what the Gospels describe; Revelation completes what the Book of Acts begins; and each part is the com- plement of the rest, the facts of the life of our Lord being the foun- dation of the whole. Sec. 2. Introduction to the Booh of Acts. 162. This book continues the early history of the Christian church, in two pi'incipal sections: the first relating the spread of Christianity in Palestine, chiefly by the instrumentality of Peter, chaps. 1-12; and the second, its diffusion through other counti'ies, mostly by the labours of Paul (13-28). While the book is thus divisible into two portions, it desci'ibes a threefold condition in the church. The ^rs^ described in chaps, i.-ii. 18, in which the church is entirely Jewish, though at Csesarea, a Roman convert had been baptized by Peter, a. d. 30-41. The second period is found in chap. II. 19, to chap. 15. The Jewish element still prevails, but Gentile converts are numerous, a. D. 42-50. The third is given in chaps. 16-28, and here we find the position of the Gentiles defined, and many churches formed from among the heathen, A. D. 51-63. It is not, however, to be considered as a regvdar or complete his- tory of the church. Many important transactions, refeiTed to else- where, are omitted. It gives no account of the church at Jeinisalem after the imprisonment and deliverance of Peter, or of the intro- duction of the gospel at Rome, or of many of Paul's voyages and shipwrecks mentioned in 2 Cor. 11. 25; while, respecting the extensive labours of the other apostles, besides Peter and Paul, there is hardly any information. As the Gospels are far from being a full account of all that our blessed Lord said and did, but are rather histories describing his character, works, and the chief events of his life, and the first introduction of the Christian dispensation; so the Acts are not a complete recoi'd of the labours of his apostles, but I'ather a naiTative of facts, confirming the truth of the Christian religion, and illus- ACTS : LESSONS. o77 tmtiug its power and operation: and proving the claim of the Gentiles to admission into the church, objections to which were interposed by the Jewish converts. Some account of Luke, the author of this book, has been given in the preface to his Gospel, of which this book is evidently a continua- tion, as both are inscribed to the same person, and the history is taken up at the very point to which it had been conducted in the Gospel. From his frequent use of the word tee, it is clear that he was present at many of the transactions which he relates. He accompanied Paul from Troas to Philippi (i6. ii); and probably remained there till the apostle's second visit, two years afterwards, when he left that city in his company (20. 6); and from that time to the close of the narrative he appears as the companion of the apostle. He went with him to Jei'usalem, and afterwards to Eome; where he remained with him during at least the first pai't of his confinement, cU5 appears from two Epistles written by Paul from that city. Col. 4. 14; Philem. 24. As his name does not appear in the Epistle to the Philippians, written not very long afterwards, it has been sup- posed that he had then quitted Rome. But on Paul's second imprisonment at Rome, Luke is again by his side, 2 Tim. 4. 1 1 . Where, or at what time precisely, this book was written, is not cei'tainly known. As, however, the history is continued to the second year of Paul's first imprisonment at Rome, and there breaks off, without mentioning the issue of his trial, or his release, it may be supposed that it was written about a. d. 63; and the concluding words of the narrative would rather indicate that the wiiter wa.s then at a distance from the apostle, and not in du-ect commimica- tion with him. Antioch has therefore been assigned as the place where it was written, and Theophilus has been supposed, with much reason, to be a resident in that place (see Birks' Horse Evan.) The narrative of this book is highly instructive. 163. ( I .) Mark how the Divine nature of our Lord is acknowledged. Prayer is offered to him by Stephen (7. 59, 60), and such prayer is afi&rmed by Peter and Ananias, to be descriptive of a Christian (2. 21: 9. 14; see I Cor. i. 2). Peter speaks of Christ as Lord of all (10. 36, so again 14. 23: 20. 35), and this title is applied indis- criminately throughout the book, to the Father, and to the Son (10. 36: 9. 34, 35, 42: II. 16. 20-23: 13. 2, 7, 10-12, 48). Such is the teaching of a system which denounces idolatry, and claims for God alone, supreme regard. His office and work are no less clearly revealed. He formed the theme of apostohc teaching. Immediately after the ascension, Peter pointed to him as fulfilling the promise made to the fathei-s, aa the seed in whom the nations were to be blessed (3. 20-26). And 2c o<8 acts: lessoxs. this truth they proclaimed daihj from house to house (5. 42). When Paul was converted " straightway he preached Christ." Five- and-twenty years later, the last recoro which the book contains, is, that he taught "those things which concern the Lord Jesus" (9. 20: 28. 31). See also 2. 22-40: 10. 34-43: 13. 16-41: 17. 18, 22-31. .... Examining the inspired narrative on this topic more closely, we find that everywhere, at Jerusalem to the Jews, in the desert to the Ethiopian, to the benevolent and devout Cornelius at Csesarea, to the proud Greeks at Athens, there is but one message, and everywhere it is delivered fully, and without reserve (compare 2: 8. 35: 10. 42, 43: 17. 31), faith in it being essential to salvatioa (4. II, 12). Salvation involves the remission of sin, full justifica- tion before God, and holiness (2. 38: 13. 39: 26. 18), the whole purchased by the sufferings and death of Christ (17. 3: 20. 28), and given through the Spirit (5.31: i. 4: 2. 33); and as Christ is their Saviour and Lord, so is he Judge (10. 42: 17. 31). . . . If these be called Pauline doctrines, and not Peter's or Christ's, we answer the misrepresentation by appealing to the facts recorded especially in this book (10. 43: John 3. 16, etc.). (2.) Nor less clearly is the nature and ofiice of the Holy Spii'ifc revealed. Peter calls him God (5. 3, 4), and regards the sin of Ananias as a denial of his omniscience. He who is called by Isaiah, Jehovah, is called by Paul the Holy Ghost (28. 25: Isa. 6. 8, 9)^ while his personality (that is, his existence as an individual intelli- gent agent), is distinctly and repeatedly implied (8. 29: 10. 19: 13. 2: 16. 7: 20. 28). His office was either miraculous, communicating gifts of healing, of tongues, etc. (2. 17 : i Cor. 12. 10), or ordinary. On the apostles, his power was seen in opening their minds, removing their preju- dices, emboldening them for their work, and enabling them to con- firm their testimony, with miracles such as none could question or explain (3. i-ii: 4. 31: 5. 12-16). On the Jews who heard the gospel, he displayed his power, by convincing them of sin (2. 36, 37; see John 16. 8), and changing the very murderers of our Lord into patterns of excellence. To the same power we ai'e taught to ascribe the union of the first Christians (4. 31, 32); their consecra- tion and liberality (2. 45); their joy in the conversion of the Gentiles, though it seemed a mysterious arrangement (11. 23, 24); their stedfastness and faith. Stephen's wisdom and love, his zeal and peace, had the same origin; " he was full of the Holy Ghost" (7. 55), and even whole churches shared the blessing (13. 52)- How instructive and consolatory, that the dispensation of the Spirit should be introduced, not only with peculiar promises (Luke r I. 13. John 16), but with a history of rich manifestations of grace. THE EARLY CHURCH. 079 If in the Gospels we see the wox'k of our Lord ; in the Acts v,e see the work of that blessed Agent, to whom, so far as man is concerned, the first owes all its success. We need but more of His influence, to complete the triumphs which this history begins. (3,) As we have the characters of individual believers described in this book, so we gather from it the character and order of the first churches of Christ. As the apostles gained converts, they taught them to meet statedly in Christ's name, on the first day of the week, instructed them in Christian ordinances, and appointed suitable ministers to feed and guard the flock. Acts 2. 42: 6. 1-6: 14. 23: 20. 7, 18, 28-32. Compare on the character of those who were to compose the churches, the descriptions given of them in each Epistle, and on the character of the officers, the pastoral Epistles to Timothy and Titus. The church, it must never be forgotten, is a Divine institution, and combines the advantages of every form of society into which men have been gathered. It is not a caste, for it despises none, and rejects none; yet like caste, it preserves amidst human change a sacred order; all, kings and priests tmto God. It is not a secret society, for it makes no reserve, and yet its members have a hidden life, and a joy with which the stranger intermeddleth not. It is not a nation, for it selects individual persons from among each of the nations, and will ulti- mately include all; yet is it as clearly defined, though more extensive. It is not a family, and yet its bonds are equally tender, only they are incomparably more expansive. One design of the gospel was to reveal Christ; another design, no less marked, was to form a people for his praise. Both designs illustrate the wisdom and love of God. (4.) Mark, as the gospel extends, the influences that oppose it, and the excuses framed to justify opposition. The Jews resisted it as '' contrary to their law." Among the Gentiles, as at Thessa- lonica, they affirmed it to be unfriendly to Csesar. Elsewhere they charged it with tiu-ning the world upside down. And though all of these charges were excuses only, they had in some measure the colouring of truth. The real reason of the opposition — of the Jew, was that the gospel taught a righteousness, not of works, but of faith, Rom. 10. 3: i Cor. i. 21-25; — of ^^^ Greek, that it pro- nounced the folly of much, and the insufficiency of all, his boasted wisdom; — of the Roman that it claimed exclusive homage, revealing not many gods, but one ; and of all, that it requu-ed humility and holiness. These influences, alas, differ but in form from those with wiiich the gospel h9,s still to contend. 2 c 2 580 CHRONOLOGY OF THE ACTS, In the Epistles, as in our own day, we trace them at work, not only in opposing the gospel, but in corrupting and perverting it (Pt. ii. chap. 7). Sec. 3. The Chronology of the Acts and Epistles. Arrangement of the whole. 164. The chronology of the Acts and Epistles is second in interest only to that of the Gospels. The whole period included of the Acts in the Acts is about thirty-three yeai's; a reckoning in of the which Winer, De Wette, Eichhorn, Davidson, and I'eriodin- Birks, concur. Usher and Michaelis make it thirty" bli^'^ ^^^^ *^°' Greswell and Schott, thirty-one; and a few, two, or even four years less. The evidence, however, is strongly in favour of the highest number; though, as the dates depend chiefly on facts of profane history and minute coincidences, to which different weight Avill be given by different inquirers, cer- tainty can scarcely be attained. From Gal. i. 18 : 2. i : Acts 9. 26, we gather that there elapsed between Paul's conversion and his first visit to Jerusalem a period of three fall years (see Greek), and that in the fourteenth year (see Greek), after the same event probably, he visited it a thinl time (Acts 15. 2); a second visit being paid just before the death of Herod Agrippa, (11. 30: 12. 23). After the third visit, we read of other two visits (18. 18, 22: 20. 6). In the interval, he had spent nearly thi'ee years in Ephesus (20. 31), a year and a half at Corinth (18. II,) three months in Greece (20. 3), and twice he had gone through a large part of Asia Minor, Macedonia, and Greece. After the fifth visit to Jerusalem, he was imprisoned tico years. Felix was then recalled, and Paul was sent to Rome, where he lived and preached two whole years in his own hired house, "no man forbidding him" (28. 30, 31). These facts, with others of a minute and apparently trivial kind. Dates how fix the dates of the whole narrative. Herod Agi'ippa fixed. dxQdi, as Josephus states, A. D. 44- Felix lost his pro- curatorship, as may be gathered from the narrative of Josephus, in A. D. 60. Paul, moreover, must have reached Rome about the year 61; for in A. D. 64 the persecution of the Christiaais, under Nero, began (Tac. An. xiv. 65); and after that time no such security as Luke speaks of could have been possible. p ^ 165. Reckoning backward, therefore, from A. P. Gf we obtain the following results : — CHRONOLOGY OF THE ACTS. >81 n t-^ -M- n h ^ v. Si Time M 1 S ■^ M of 'r. ra C3 ■^ •0 % i- Year. t:i .^ ? »^ -=? 5 a.dJ a.d. A.D. A.D. A.D A.D. A.D. 6j 61 6l 61 61 6l 61 Spring . Paul reaches PiOme, leaving Syria in 60. Paul visits Jerusalem, Acts 24. 27, 60 58 53 58 58 58 58 Pent. . being at Philippi at the Passover, 20.6. 59 57 57 57 5(> 57 57 • Paul spends the close of the year in Greece, 20. j, after leaving Ephesue, 20. I. Paul spends nearly three years in 56 . * 54 54 55 Januarj-. Ephesus (two years three months. or more), 19. 8, 10: 20. ji. 5-5 53 53 54 53 50 53 52 54 52 51 M&j . . Paul visits Jerusalem, 18. 22. Paul spends a year and a half at Corinth, 18. 11. Paul makes a second jouraey through Asia and Greece. 52 51 50 50 50 45 51 50 45 Summer. Paul visits Jerusalem, 15. 2. Paul's first journey to the Gentiles, 13. 14. Paul at Antioch and at Jerusalem, 44 44 44 4? 43 -'A 44 Passover II. JO: 12. • • • 42 41 • 43 : 41 Paul at Antioch a year, 11. 26. Paul at Tarsus. /s 37 39 43 40 41 40 • Paul visits Jerusalem for the first time, 9. 26: Gal. i. 18. 33 i4 36 40 37 33 37 Paul converted, Gal. 2. i. Sec above. A.D. 50 ?? . . ?9 37 . 36 Death of Stephen. 33 33 • JO 30 30 1 Passover The Crucifixion. The last of these columns, which we deem on the whole the most satisfactoiy, is taken from the Horco Evangelicce, and does not ma- terially differ from Davidson and the author of the Literary History of the Xew Testament. The two principal dates, 44 a.d. and 61, are agreed in very generally; the other dates are dependent on the governorship of Aretas (9. 24, 25), the presence of Gallio at Corinth (18. 12), the decree of Claudius (18. 2), and other similar ques- tions; the whole too minute for specific inquiry in this place. The e\-idence may be seen briefly stated in Davidson's Introd., vol. ii. ; and more fully in the Literary History of the Xew Test., chap. vi. ; or in Birks' Horce Evan., p. 146. The general results are given in the dates of the appended Tables. 166. Chronology of the New Testament from the crucifixion of our Lord (30 a. d.) to the close of the canon (97 A. D.), sixty-seven ve;irG. 582 CHRONOLOGY OF ACTS AND EPISTLES. Year of Eome, of Emperor, and A. D. 783-8. Caligula 4-7- Claudius 10-14. Nero, 1-6. 814-6. Nero, 6-9. 30. 30-35 ? 35-40. 40-4J. 43-46. 46-54. 55-60. 60-63. 61, Jerusalem. 62, Rome. 63, Rome. 63, Italy, while waiting for Timothy. 63, Babylon. 64. Syria. Rome. 65. 66, Rome. Syria. Patmos. 97. Ephesus. Events. Introduction to the Acts, i. 1-14. Events till the appointment of deacons, i. 15-6. 6. Events till the conversion of Cornelius, 6. 7 10. Events till the spread of the gospel in Antioch, 11. 1-26. Events till the end of first missionary journey, 11. 27-14. 28. Events till the end of second missionarj'- journey, 15. i :-i8. 22 I Thess. (a.d. 52), 2 Thess. (53), (ial. (53, so Tate, etc.), written during this journey. Events till end of thu-d missionary journey and Paul's appeal to Casar, 18. 23 :-26. i Cor. (57), 2 Cor., Gal. (57, so Hug, etc.), Rom. (58), written during this journey. Paul's voyage to Rome, and residence there, 27, 28. James writes to Jewish Christians generally, 1.-5. Paul writes his Epistle to the Ephesians, 1.-6. Shortly after this Epistle was written, Timothy and Epaphroditus arrive at Rome ; the latter bringing tidings from Colosse. See CoL 1. 1-7. Paul writes to the Colossians, 1.-4. Paul writes to Philemon on behalf of Oneshnus, w-ho, fleeing from his master to Rome, had been converted, Philem. Paul writes to the Philippians, 1.-4. Paul writes his key to the Old Testament, the Epistle to the Hebrews, 1.-13. Timothy liberated, Heb. 13. Paul visits Crete, 63, and leaving Titus there, goes to Macedonia, 64. Peter writes his first Epistle to Jew^s and Gentiles, scattered, and persecuted, i Pet. 1.-5. Paul writes to Timothy at Ephesus, i Tim. 1.-6. Paul^ writes to Titus, 1.-3. Paul winters at Nicopolis, in Dalmatia, and Troas, Jude writes his Epistle (see below). Peter, in expectation of martyrdom, writes to Jewish ar.d Gentile converts scattered throughout Pontus, etc. Mar- tyrdom of Peter. Paul arrives at Eome, a prisoner, and is brought before Nero, 65. Paul writes second Epistle to Timothy, 2 Tim. 1.-3. Mar- tyred at Rome (Usher, 67). Destruction of Jerusalem (a.d. 70). John writes his first Epistle, 1.-5. (or 68 a.d.) John writes his second Epistle (or 63 a.d.) John writes his third Epistle (or 68 a.d.) Jude writer, his Epistle (see 64 a.d., and Intro, to Jude). John writes the Apocalypse to supply the place of a succes- sion of prophots, 1.-22. John closes the canon by writing his Gospel (some think, be- fore his Epistles). a Those in 64 A.D., plai who question Paul's second imprisonment, and suppose him put to death place I Tim. after Acts 19. 41 or 20. i, and Tit. after 2 Cor. See a.d. 57. STUDY OF THE EPISTLES. 583 CHAPTER VII. The Epistles axd the Book of Revelatiox. Sec. I. On the Study of the Epistles. 167. In the first fifteen chapters of Acts we have seen the gospel extend throughout the known world. In fire and twenty yeara after the death of our Lord, churches seem to have been formed in Asia and Palestine, in Babylon and Egypt, in Greece and Italy; " so mightily grew the word of God and prevailed." Wherever the Aim of the truth had gone, it had found the same opposition, Epistles. though under different forms, and had produced the same peaceful and sanctifying results. A more permanent record of truth, however, than the '' winged words" of speech could sup- ply was wanting. The spirit which had hitherto opposed the gospel had begun to pervert it; and evil seducers have a strong tendency to wax worse and worse. To explain in writing, there- fore, what had been in a great measure taught orally, to preserve these lessons in "everlasting remembrance," and to give such in- direct corrections of incipient error as might, if prayerfully studied, keep the church from subsequent heresy, is th6 aim of the Epistles. To ascertain their meaning — 168. (i). Observe by whom, and for whom, they were written. J. , This rule is not so essential in the case of history or and for ' epistles as in the case of prophecy; for the former are whom, they generally self-interpretative ; bub it is nevertheless im- were written. ° J ^ ' portant. Of the one and twenty Epistles, thirteen at least were written by Paul, and bear his name. As he was emphatically the apostle of the Gentiles, he treats largely of the mystery of their call to equal privileges with the believing Jews. He maintains their freedom from the Mosaic yoke, \arges them to stand fast in it, and proves their subjection to the great law of faith and love. In defence of this doctrine, he resisted Peter to the face, endvired the offence of the cross (Gal. 5, 11), falling at last a martjr to his attachment to this and kindred truths (see Introd. to 2nd Ep. to Tim.) His sentences are often long and intricate. His style is full of thought, prone to digression, but highly accurate, well guarded, and rich in allusion to the Old Testament, His Epistles should be illustrated from each other and from his history. In the Hebrews, he hos filiOAvn most impressively how of the laic, as elsewhere of law, Christ is the completion and end. Peter, the author of two Epistles, writes chiefly as the apostle of the circumcision. His writings also should be read in connection with those parts of the Old Testament to which, in almost every •:84 STUDY OF THE EPISTLES. Eentence, ue referred. James, pastor of the church at Jerusalein, Avrote after the fervour of its first love had begun to subside. A cold negative faith seemed to threaten the destruction of all spi- iitual obedience. Hence the strain of his Epistle. Not dissimilar was the condition of the churches John addressed. His style is rich in aphorisms, and his strong affirmations need r.o be guarded by other parts either of his writings or by Paul's. Jude wrote but one Epistle, and that resembles the second of Peter, by which it may be illustrated. The Revelation, again, speaks in language taken very largely from the Old Testament, and needs to be com pared with Ezekiel, Daniel, and the discourses of our Lord. For whom was each book written ? is also an important questioa. The Gospels were intended for the instruction of all classes, and much of what they contain was addressed to all. The Epistles, it must be noted, were addressed primarily to pi"ofessing Christians exclusively, called out of the world and vmited in spiritual com- munion. Three are addressed to private disciples; three to evan- gelists; two, Hebrews and James, to Jewish converts exclusively j two more, ist and 2nd Peter, to Jewish converts chiefly; two more, ist John and Jude, to the disciples of Christ in general; the last five being called catholic or general Epistles ; the remaining nine are addressed to various churches, consisting chiefly of converted Gen- tiles. In each case, the author and the occasion often exj^lain or illustrate the statements of an Epistle ; though, as we have but one gospel for Jew and Gentile, the help thus afforded is in this respect less important than elsewhere. (2.) Mark the special design of each Epistle. It has pleased the Divine Spirit to instruct mankind not iu 'Hie design formal treatises, but in letters written under his of each guidance, and so as to meet peculiar emei'gencies; Lpistle. ^^^ ^^ ^j^g emergency of each case each Epistle is ad- dressed. Asceiiiain, therefore, what the obvious design of each Epistle is — the obviom design, for it is an abuse of learning to seek for some hidden design, and then to interpret each part in sub- ordination to it in violation of the natural meaning. For this pur- pose, the plan of Mr. Locke is deserving of all praise. Read through an Epistle at a sitting, and observe its drift and aim. " If the first reading (says he) gave some light, the second gave me more; and so I persisted on, reading constantly the Avhole Epistle over at once, till I came to have a good general view of the- 'writer's purpose,' the chief branches of his discourse, the argu- ments he used, and the disposition of the whole. This, I confess,. is not to be obtained by one or two hasty readings; it must bo- repeated again and again, with a close attention to the tenor of tlie STUDY OF THE EPISTLES. 585- fliscourse, and a perfect neglect of the divisions into chapters and verses. The safest way is to suppose the Epistle but one business and one aim, until, by a frequent perusal of it, you are forced to see in it distinct independent mattei-s which will forwardly enough show themselves." Let this plan be adopted by any humble pray- erful Christian, by one, that is, whose heart is on the whole in unison with the writer's, and the meaning of the whole will gene- rally appear. In the mean time, and as a present blessing, he will feel and appreciate individual promises and truths to an extent unknown before. Scripture is in fact a tree of life; its matured fruits infinitely precious, and its very leaves for the healing of tlio nations. To aid the reader in ascertaining the design of the Epistles, we have indicated the paragraphs and principal sections of each. In paragraph Bibles, the reader will find these sections indicated in the mode of printing. In the absence of such a help, an ordinary copy of the Bible may be marked, so as to indicate them with great advantage. (3.) Mark the prevailing errors against which the truths of the Th-. errors S^^pel are specially directed. against which The first of these errors sprang out of the formalist Vvf t^7f ^^^ superstitious notions of the Jews. They still clung to their ritual law, and concluded that, if Gentiles were to be aduiitted to equal privileges, it must be through circumcision. "Except ye be circumcised," was their statement, "ye cannot be .saved," Acts 15. i. Out of this question, a serious conti'oversy arose at Antioch, and though it was decided under the special di- rection of the Holy Ghost in the negative, it sprang up again and again, impeded the progress of the gospel, alienated and often divided the church. From the first, Paul took a bold decisive stand. He maintained that, while a Jew might, and probably ought to submit to that rite so long as the ancient law remained, for a Gentile to submit to it Avas to relinquish his liberty and deny both the universality of the gospel and the sufficiency of the Cross. Throughout his preaching, and in nearly all his Epistles, this viev/ is maintained, Acts 15. 1-31: 2r. 17-25: 2 Cor. 11. 3: Gal. 2. 4: 3.-5: 6. 12: Col. 2. 4, 8, 16: Phil. 3. 2: Tit. i. 10-14, etc. While the Judaizing tendency of early believers did mischief in one direction, the spirit of xmhallowed philosophy did mischief in another ; proving moi-e fatal to Christianity, as Burton ha i re- marked, than persecution itself. This spirit appeared under dif- ferent forms, but the essence v.as for the most part a proud ration- alism, tliat refused to receive as true any doctrine which could not be made to agree with a previous system, or that moulded into its cvin 9 r 3 f)36 HERESIES OP THE EARLY CHURCH. system wliatever it received. The Greeks sought after wisdom. This tendency showed itself early in the various Gnostic (yvSxns, knowledge) sects which sprang iip in the church ; a name very loosely applied, and including the advocates of very different vicAvs. One sect included under this general name were called, also, Docetse, or the Seemers; as they could not comprehend how a Divine person (which they maintained our Lord to be) could unite himself Avith that which was human. They contended that his body was an appearance only, and that he only seemed to live upon earth. This heresy denied both his brotherhood with our race and the reality of his atonement: see i John, Introd., and 4. 23. Another sect, called (from Cerinthus, their founder) Gerinthians, drew from the same principle an opposite conclusion. They denied the Divinity of Jesus, and supposed that the Christ was an emana- tion of the Godhead, who descended on the man Jesus at his bap- tism, and so continued with him till his death, when the Christ left him and ascended to heaven, i John 2. 22: 4, 15: Gospel of John. In later times, and after the canon of Scripture was closed, these tendencies took even a more decided form. The school of Alex- findria, applying the doctrines of Plato to the gospel, broached the crudest notions on the Divine nature, on Christ, and on man. Later still, the schoolmen applied to the teachings of Scripture the logic of Aristotle, and claimed for their deductions (see Pt. i. § 463-5)^ the same authority as was claimed for the express statements of the Bible. All these attempts sprang from the same principle — that our reason is the measure of religious truth, and led to the same results, the corruption of truth and the division of the chiirch. To us, they teach the wisdom of bringing up our faith to the level of God's revelation and the folly of bringing down his revela- tion to the level of our understanding. The world, by wisdom, knows not God. A third error prevailed among all sects, Jewish and Gentile —the formalist and the philosophic , It assumed various phases, though representing but one principle. Ritualism without spirituality, knowledge (gnosis) without practice, justification by faith without holiness. This was the creed which the apostles rebuke, and was received in their day with favour by the Jews. Many of the Gnostics held it, and in the persons of the Nicolaitanes it called forth the severe condemnation of the latest of the apostles. It is, in fact, the principle of li.-.entious religionism in every age, and several portions of the Epistles are directed against it. The followers of Balaam (equivalent to Nicolaitanes), mentioned by Peter and Judo, were of the same cla-ss. STUDY OF THE EPISTLES. 587 The names of these sects (except the last) are not mentioned in Scriptui-e, but their principles are. And herein is a double advan- tage. We are taught not to restrict the teaching of inspired men to their own times, and we are supplied with letters in which not sects, but principles — self-righteous formalism, rationalistic pride, and practical immorality — are for ever condemned, A knowledge of these sects, however, illustrates human nature, proves our need of a revelation, and of humility in studying it, and gives clearnesfj and force to the teaching of the Bible. What a proof of human depravity is the history of Divine truth in the world. God's first revelation ended in the wicked imagina- tions that preceded the deluge ; his second, in the idolatry of Israel and Judah, and again in the formalism and overthrow of the nation; his thu'd met with the bitterest opposition at the outset, and ever since, the world has sought, under various influences, to con-upt what it cannot otherwise subdue. 4. The most important rule remains. Carefully compare the Comparison various parts of the New Testament, and especially the ofNewTes- Epistles, and gather from the whole a consistent and greatest im- comprehensive view both of truth and duty, portance. tj^q necessity of such comparison in the case of the New Testament will appear on comparing it as a composition witli the law. The whole of the first dispensation was revealed through one person — Moses, and to one congregation assembled to receive it. The New Testament was composed by eight different authors, and was addressed to many congregations and individuals scattered over the earth. The law was written in the plainest style, with systematic fulness, was adapted to the weakest capacity, and re- quired submission only to such commands as were expressly en- joined. The New Testament, on the other hand, is composed of detached instructions, many of them given incidentally and indi- rectly, nearly all addressed to those who were already called out of the world, and had witnessed the ordinances or believed the truths they were directed to maintain. Obedience, moreover, is required to whatever was taught by word and example, as well as by Epistles;'* and the whole, though sufficiently plain that all may understand and be saved, is so rich and profound as to afford opportunity for the exercise of the holiest spkitual discernment. We may conclude, therefore, that to make the New Testament our standard of faith and practice, it must be compared and studied with the utmost attention. The facts of our Lord's life, the prac- tical influence of them on the early chm-ch, and the inspired com ments of apostles, must all be examined; the principles and duties " I Cor. 4. 16, 17: II. 2: Gal. t. 6-9: Phil, 4. 9. 588 TRUTHS DISCUSSED IN THE EPISTLES. tiiey involve, explained ; and the whole cordially believed and prac- tised, in preference to all the suggestions and inventions of man. 169. The following are among the more important of the truths discussed in the Epistles. The passages in which they ax^e most fully discussed may be found at the close of the introductions to the Epistles named. These passages must be carefully compared, and particular phrases in them, with similar phrases elsewhere, such as may be found in any Bible with marginal i-eferences. Man's need of salvation, Rom. Justification by faith, Rom. The fruits of faith in Christian experience, Rom. The fruits of faith in Christian character, Heh. The fruits of faith through the Gosxxl, i Pet. The fruits of justification and its consequent blessings, Rom. Man's connection with Christ, and man's connection with Adam, Rom. The source of redemption, i?07?i.; and the peculiar grace bestowed therein on the Gentiles, Eph. The relation of the gospel to the Jews, Rom. (see Eeh.) Morality, its true nature and vast importance, Rom. Morality, evangelic motives to, Rom. ; peculiar motives justly binding on the Jew, Heb.; and on heathen converts, Eph. Principal duties of Christians to God, Rom., Eph.; to themselves, Rom.; to relatives, Cor.; to fellow-men, Rom.; to civil government, Titus; and to fellow-believers. Cor. Holiness essential to true religion, i John. Eminent holiness its appropriate fruit and best security, 2 Pet. T'ae spiritual warfare, Eph. Perscicution, its comforts and lessons, Phil. Apostasj', its danger and signs Heb., 2 Pet. Apostolic character and authority. Cor. False teachers, their character aivi end. Cor. Christian ministers, their character, qualifications, and duties, Tim. Christian ministers, duties of the church to them, Tim. Deacons, etc., their character and duties, Tim. The church, its members, discipline, divisions, ordinances, Cor. The chmxh, its members, their duties, their gifts, the excellence of love, Cor. Christ's dignity, essential and mediatorial, Heb. Christ's uicarnation and its end, Heb. The superiority of his ofiBce, as prophet, leader, and priest, Heb. The superiority of his sacrifice, Heb. The significancy and inferiority of the ancient economy, Heb. Our spiritual liberty in relation to it, Heb. The corruption of Christianity and prevalence of infidelity in " Ihc last, time," Tim. How met, Tim. The resurrection of the body, Cor. The second coming of the Lord, 2 Tluss. The judgment and its issues— eternal life, eternal death, 2 Pet GEXUIXENESS OF THE EPISTLES. 58& Sec. 2. Tlie Genuineness of the Ejpistles. 170. The general evidence of the genuineness of the Epistles has Ijeen already given. So far as particular Epistles are concerned, the evidence maybe given in a brief tabular form. For an explanation, pee chap, v., § 137. El'ISTLES. ■* i A >> p J 1 •r 1 c 1 ■- 6 + 1 • n 1 1 I't If 1 1 1 1 1 I * + • • to •■5 g I • • I It I .2 It ; 1 3. I I I i I I I I I i't I I 1 •3 s £b 0 I t't + 1 Is llomans .... J i>x Corimbians. 2nd Corinihians Galatians . . . Ephesians . . . I'bilippians . . Cclossians . . . ist Thes<. . . . 2ndThe^s. . . 1st Timothy . . •.mcl Timothy . Ti[us Philemon . . . Hebrews . . . ; .Jam?s . . . . j 1st Peter . . . 2nd Peter . . . j istJuhn . . . 2n«I and 3rd John Judo Revelation 4^. u t '. t '- + + I I + + + + i * 1 1 ; • :. I I [ I 1 I r> I I I I I t I I I AIL Most. All. Most. All. Most. Sec. 3. Helps to 1st ThessdloniaYis^ etc., to Jude. The First Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Thessalonians. Corinth, A.D. 52. 171. Thessalonica was the capital of one of the four districts of ]\[acedonia, and the seat of a Roman governor. Its position on the great Egnatian road, and at the head of an excellent harboux% aug- mented its trade and wealth ; and brought to it a mixed population of Greek^j, Komans, and Jews. It is still, as it has ever been, a flourishing commercial town, bearing the slightly varied name of Saloniki. Its geographical position and maritime importance fitted it to become one of the starting points of the gospel in Europe, and explain the fact that from this city the word of the Lord had sounded forth *'in every place," (i. 8). The go.-pel was first preached here by Paul and Silas, shortly 590 FIPuST EPISTLE TO THESSALONIANS. after their release from imprisonment at Philippi, Acts 17. i-io. Paul addressed himself fii'st, agreeably to his constant practice, to the Jews, and afterwards, with still more success, to the Gentiles. What time he spent here does not distinctly appear; but it was evidently more than the three weeks during which he reasoned with the Jews in the synagogue on the sabbaths. Compare Acts 17. 4, 5 : I Thes. 2. 9: 2 Thes, 3. 8: and Phil. 4. 16. The church which he formed during this period was composed partly of Jews and Jewish proselytes, many of whom were women of rank and influence (Acts 17. 4), but chiefly of converts from idolatry (i. 9). Being driven away by the violence of the Jews, Paul left the newly-planted church in such difficulties as excited his anxiety respecting them, and led him to send Timothy from Athens, to encourage and comfort them under the persecutions to which they were exposed (3. i, 2). Timothy returned to Paul at Corinth (whither the latter had gone in the mean time), and brought him so good an account of the stedfastness of the Thessalonian Christians as filled him with joy and gratitude (3. 6-9), and reawakened his desire to visit them. But, having been repeatedly disappointed in his plans for that purpose (2. 17, 18), he wrote this letter from Corinth, a.d. 52. This, being the earliest of Paul's Epistles, was accompanied by a solemn charge that it should be read publicly in the church (5. 27). i. In the first portion of this Epistle (i :-3.), the apostle expresses his gi-atitude and joy on account of the manner in which the Thes- salonians had received the gospel, and for their fidelity and con- stancy in the midst of persecutions and afflictions; vindicates the condvict of himself and his fellow-labourers in preaching the gospel; and declares his afiectionate concern for their welfare. ii. The remainder of the Epistle is taken up with practical admo- nitions ; warning them against the sin for which their city was notorious; and exhorting them to the cultivation of all Christian ■virtues, and particularly to a watchful, sober, and holy life, be- coming their happy condition and exalted hopes (4. 1-12 : 5). Special words of consolation are addressed to those who had been bereaved, who seem to have imagined that their departed friends would lose some important advantages, which those would enjoy who should sui-vive to the Lord's coming (which they expected speedily), and who had therefore indulged in excessive grief on their account. Speaking by express Divine authoiity, he assm-es them of the resun-ection of the pious dead on Christ's coming, to be followed by a glorious transformation of the living; and exhoi-ts them to take the comfort of this glorious hope, 4. 13-18. SECOND EPISTLE TO THESSALONIANS. 5S1 Connect and read 1. 1, 2: 2. i, 13, 17: 3. i, 6, 11: 4. i, 9, 13: 5. I. 4, 12, 14, 15, 16, 19, 23, 25, 27, 28. yote.— The modern figm-es here and subsequently indicate prin- cipal divisions; the others, smaller ones. The former may be re- garded as marking the beginning of new subjects. The Second Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Thessalonians. Corinth, a.d. 53. 172. This Epistle was probably written, like the former, from Corinth, and not long afterwards Cearly in a.d. 53); Silas and Timothy being still in Paul's company (i. i). Its chief object ap- pears to have been to correct an erroneous notion which had begun to prevail among the Christians at Thessalouica, that the appearance of the Saviour and the end of the world were at hand. This had been gi'otmded in part upon a misconstruction of expressions in the former Epistle, and appears to have been supported by some who laid claim to inspiration. There were also persons who, on religious pretences, neglected theu' secular employments, and were guilty of disorderly conduct. The commencement and conclusion of the Epistle are occupied with affectionate commendations, mingled with encouragements to perseverance, exhortations to holiness, and du-ections for the main- tenance of discipline with regard to idle and disorderly members, i: 2. 13-17: 3. In chap. 2. 1-12, Paul exposes the error of antici- pating the near approach of the day of the Lord. Reminding the Thessalonian Christians of what he had said when he was with them, he tells them that he had spoken rather of the unexpected- ness of the event than of its nearness, and that it must be preceded by a great apostasy, and by the temporary ascendency of the ''man of sin," the spiritual usurper (which, however, could not take place until certain obstacles were removed), establishing a system of error and delusion by which many would be carried away. The agreement between the little horn of Daniel's prophecy and the man of sin in this Epistle is very striking. In Daniel, he does not rise till the Roman emph-e is broken; in Paul, he is not re- vealed till that empire — that which hindereth (2 . 7) — is taken out of the way. In Daniel, he weareth out the saints; in Paul, he opposeth, or persecuteth. In Daniel, he magnifieth himself above every god; in Paul, he exalteth himself above all that is called God. In Daniel, he changes times and laws ; in Paul, he is the lawless (ver. 8, Greek) one. In Daniel, he causeth craft, through his policy, to prosper; and in Paul, he comes with lying wonders and all de- ceivableness, which many will believe, Dan. 8. 25: 11. 36. Ho\7 692 MAN OF SIN : EPISTLE TO GALATIANS. remai'kable the connection of prophecy ! six hundred years before. Daniel foretold the rise of this power; Paul adds a few touches ; auil by John, its history is to be more fully revealed. This prediction deserves grateful attention on another ground. It tells us tliat, while the coming of our Lord was then near, it was also remote : many events were to intervene ; and with all the light of prophecy it must ever be, as to the precise time, unknowi;. Comparing this passage Vvdth others, the servants of Christ are taught to contemplate the revolution of many succeeding centuries, without being stumbled by the delay of his appearance or dis- couraged by the prevalence of wickedness and delusion under the pi-ofession of his name, i Tim. 4. 1-3; 2 Tim. 3. 1-8: 2 Pet. 2: Eev. II. -13.: 17: 22. Connect and read as follows: 1. 1, 3, 11: 2. i, 5, 13, 15, 16: 3. I, 6, 16, 17, 18. The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Galatians. . Ephesus or Corinth, A. D. 53 or 5 7. .173. Galatia was a large province in the centre of Asia Minor. It derived its name from the Gauls, who conquered the country and settled in it, about 280 B.C.: it was also called Gallo-Grrccia, on account of the Greek colonists who afterwards became intermingled with them. About 189 B. c. it fell under the power of Rome: and became a Roman province, 26 b. c. The inhabitants were but par- tially civilized, and their system of idolatry was extremely gross and debasing. Paul and Silas travelled through this region about A. D. 5 1, and formed churches in it, which Paul visited again in his second journey three years afterwards. This Epistle was probably written soon after his first visit: see Acts 16. 5: 18. 23: Gal. i. 6, 8: 4. 13, 19. It appears that, after having received the gospel with great joy and readiness from the apostle's lips, many of these converts, amongst whom were not a few Jews and proselytes, had been per- verted by some Judaizing teachers, who had taught them that the observance of the ceremonial req\iirements of the law of Moses waa essential to salvation. This party seem, also, to have questioned Paul's authority; insinuating that he was infex'ior to Peter and the other apostles at Jerusalem, from whom they professed to have derived their views and authority. To settle these important matters, in v»^hich the apostle evidently considered that the very life and soul of Christianity were at stake, he wrote this Epistle with his own hand (6. 11), contrary to his usual practice of dictating his letters. It may be divided into three parts. i. After his usual salutation, Paul asserts his full and inde- pendent authority as an apostle of Christ: he relates the histoiy of EPISTLE TO GALATIAXS. 693 his conversion and introduction into the ministry; showing that he had received his knowledge of Christian truth, not by any human teaching, but by immediate revelation ; and that the other apostles had recognised his Divine commission, and treated him as their equal (i: 2.) ii. In support of his doctrine, that men are accepted of Grod by faith alone, and not by the rites and ceremonies of the law, he ajDpeals to the experience of the Galatians since their conversion to Christianity, and to the case of Abraham, who had been justified and saved by faith, and shows that the design of the law was not to supersede the Divine covenant of promise previously made with Abraham, but to prepare the way, and to exhibit the necessity for the gospel (3.) He draws a contrast between the state of pupilage and the subjection of the people of God under the law, and their happier condition vmder the gospel, when, by the redemption of the Son of God, they were put into possession of the privileges and blessings of sonship : and addressing that portion of the Galatians who had been heathen, he reminds them that, having been rescued from the far more degrading bondage of idolatiy, it was especially deplorable that they should fall back into the slav'erj'- of superstition (4. i-ii). He tenderly appeals to them as his spiritual children, reminding them of then- former attachment to him: and then, addressing those who relied upon the law and the letter of the Old Testament, shows them that the history of Abraham's two sons afforded an emphatic illustration of the relative position and spirit of the two contending parties ; and of the rejection of the one, and the bles- sedness of the other (4. 11-31). iii. He exhorts the believers to stand firm in their Christian liberty, but not to abuse it; shows them that holiness of heart and life is secured under the gospel by the authority of Christ and th€ grace of the Holy Spirit (5.); and enjoins upon them mutual for- bearance, tenderness, love, and liberality ; and, after again con demning the doctrine of the false teachers, closes his Epistle with z declaration which may be regarded as the stun of the whole (6). This Epistle resembles both the Epistles to the Corinthians and tho.t addi-essed to the Romans, Like the first it defends Paul's apostolic authority, and shows that he was taught immediately by Christ. Like the last it treats of justification by faith alone, from which the Galatians very soon after Paul left them, and greatly to his surprise, had been seduced by false teachers, who insisted on submission to the Mosaic law as essential to salvation, and probably insinuated that elsewhere Paul himself had urged the same doctiine. 3Iark the sharpness and tenderness of his rebuke (3. i: 4. 19; : the p!f..^e assigned to holiness, not as the gi-ound but as the fruit of 594 FIRyT EnSTLE TO CORINTHIAXa. salvation, and inseparable from it (5. 6, 22). Mark also how little we can depend on ardour of religious feeling as proof of the strength of religious principle (4. 15, 20). It is interesting to remai-k that the persons to whom this Epistle was addi-essed were Gauls (whose name in Greek is Oalatians), both in name and in character."^ They manifest all the susceptibility of impression and fondness for change which authors from Csosar to ThieiTy have ascribed to that race. They received the apostle as an angel, and would have plucked out their eyes and given them to liini; but were ''soon removed" by false teachers "to another gospel," and then under the influence of the same ardour began to " bite and devom- one another" (4, 14, 15 : 5. 15). Connect and read as follows, 1. 1, 6, 11: 2. 15: 3. 1, 6, 10, 15, 19, 24: 4. I, 8, 12, 17, 21: bJ° I, 7_, 13, 16, 19, 22: 6. 1, 2, 6, 11, 17, 18. The First Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Corinthians. Ephesus, A. D. 5 7. 1 74. Corinth was a large city, the capital of the Roman province of Achaia, in the southern part of Greece. Its situation on the narrow isthmus between Peloponnesus (now called the Morea) and northern Greece, gave it the command of the land traf&c from north to south : whilst, by its two ports on the Ionian and ^gean Seas, it received, on the one hand, the rich merchandise of Asia, and, on the other, that of Italy and the West. Possessing these advantages, Corintb became a place of very extensive commerce. It was also distin- guished for its sumptuous public edifices, and for the cultivation of the elegant arts and of polite learning. The Isthmian games also, (probably alluded to in chap. 9. 24-27), which were held near the city, had attained great celebrity, and attracted a vast concourse of strangers from all parts. From these causes, Corinth became re- markable for wealth and luxviry; and equally so for profligacy and licentiousness, which were greatly fostered by the worship of Venus established there ; so that it became ultimately the most corrupt and effeminate city in Greece. The first entrance of the Christian religion into this stronghold of vice, is related in Acts, chap. 18. Paul was then on his way from Macedonia to Jerusalem. After passing some time at Athens, he came to Corinth ; and was there joined by Silas and Timothy. He * See Conybeare and Howson's Life and Epistles of Paul, i. 261. *> On the maintenance of spiritual liberty, against those who taught that ritual observance was essential to salvation, and those who taught that, "will worship" was acceptable obedience, see 3. 5, 6: Eom. 7. 1-6: Col. 2. 16-23. FIRST EPISTLE TO CORINTHIANS. 595 preached the gospel in that citj, first to the Jews; but, when they " opposed themselves and blasphemed/' he renounced all fellow- ship with them, and tvirned to the Greeks. Some, however, of the principal Jews believed. His fears and discouragements, while en- gaged in this work (see chap. 2. 3: Acts 18. 9, 10), were met by a special revelation, assuring him of the Lord's presence with him, and of his purpose to collect a chiirch there. Paul continued hLs labours at Corinth more than a year and a half : and they were afterwards followed up by the teaching of ApoUos, Acts 18. 27, 28. Thus a numerous and flourishing chm-ch was formed; teachers were set over them; and the ordinances of Christ were regularly ob- served. It appears, however, that, ere long, their peace was disturbed by certain individuals, who sought to ingraft on the doctrines of Christ the refinements of human philosophy. The factious teachers attempted to depreciate the apostle, representing him as deficient in the graces of style and the arts of oratory, and even calling in question his apostolic authority: they also pleaded for a licentious manner of life, under pretence of Christian liberty. Hence arose divisions and irregularities; and the church was fast declining from its original faith, purity, and love. This Epistle seems to have been written from Ephesus, after Paul had made one visit to Corinth, and when he was about to make another : see chaps. 2. i: 4. 19: 16. 5. We learn from Acts 18. i, and 20. 1-3, that Paul visited Achaia, and doubtless Corinth, twice; and that, on the second occasion, he went thither from Ephesus, after having spent two years in that city. That this Epistle was writtec during that period is further confirmed by various incidental re- ferences. See chaps. 15. 32: 16, 8; and chap. 16. 9 compared with Acts 19. 20-41: also the salutation from the churches of Asia in chap. 16. 19 (see Pt. i. sec. 398); and, further, the salutation from Priscilla and Aquila, who were at Ephesus at that time, Acts t8. 26. The object of this Epistle seems to have been, partly, to reply to one which Paul had received from the church, requesting his advice and insti'uction on some points (see chap. 7. i); and, partly, to correct some disorders prevailing among them, of which he had heard from some of their members (i. 11: 5. i: 11. 18), which had occasioned him deep concern, and led him to send Timothy to Corinth (4. 1 7). The evils which Paul sought to correct among the Corinthians related to the following subjects: — Fariy-divisions (^i. 10-16: 3,4-6). A fondness for philosophy and eloquence (i. 17, etc.) Notorious immorality was tolerated amongst 596 FIRST EPISTLE TO CORINTHIANS: CONTENTS. them (5.) Lawsuits were carried on by one against another before heathen judges, contrary to the rules of Christian v/isdom and love, and sometimes even to the principles of justice (6. 1-8). Licentious indulgence (6. 9-20). In their religious assemblies, the female mem- bers of the church, in the exercise of their spiritual gifts, had mani- fested an unfeminine deportment, laying aside the veil, the distin- guishing mai-k of their sex (11. 3-10). The Lord's supper had been perverted by the manner in which it was celebrated (i r . 20-34) ; some having made it an occasion of jovialty, and a source of humiliation to their poorer brethi-en, ver. 20, 21. Miraculous gifts, especially the gift of tongues, had been misused (14). And the momentous doctrine of the resurrection had been denied or questioned (15. 12). The matters upon which the Corinthians had requested Paul's instructions are, i. Marriage, and the duties in regax'd to it in their circumstances (7.); 2. the efiect which their conversion to Christianity produced upon a prior state of circumcision or of slavery (7. 17-24); and 3 . their duty with reference to eating things offered in sacrifice to idols (8.). They had, probably, also addressed some questions to him respecting the employment of spiritual gifts, and the order to be observed in their religious assemblies. In no Epistle does Paul's own character appear more illustrious than in this. The assertion of his apostolic authority is beautifully blended with humility and godly jealousy of himself (2.3:9.16.2 7). Means he diligently employs, yet is profoundly dependent (3. 6, 9: 15. 10). Fidelity he combines wdth the utmost tendei'ness (3. 2: 6. 12: 4. 14); and with the noblest gifts, he prefers love to them all (13. i). Herein he is a pattern not only to ministers, but to private Christians of every age. For those who profess to have no sympathy with superstition and little respect for authority, these Epistles are peculiarly instructive. They combine, in the most striking way, the utterances of a liberal manly spirit with doctrines the most humbling. They cherish the loftiest hopes for man, and for truth, and they tell us how alone these hopes may be fuliilled. In other respects, moreover, these Epistles are of great interest. In their contents they are the most diversified of all the apostle's writings; and more than any other they throw light on the state of the early church, and on the evil tendencies with which the gospel had to struggle even among good men. Connect and read as follows, 1. 1, 4, 10, 13, 17, 26: 2. i: 3. I, 10, 16, 18: 4. I, 6, 8, 14: 5. 1, 9: G. I, 9, i2:-7. i, 17, 25, 29: 8.1: 9, I, 24: 11. 14, 23:-ll. 2, 17, 23, 27: V2. i, 31: 13. i. 13: 14. 1, 34, 56:-15. I, i2-:c, 35, 5i:-16. i, 5, 10, 12, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, 23. SECOND EPISTLE TO CORINTHIAIsS. 597 TJie Second Epistle of Paul the Ajooslle to the Corinthians. Macedonia, A. D. 57. 1 75 . Xot very long after -writing the former Epistle, Paul left Ephe- 6U3, and went to Troas. Here he expected to meet Titus (wliom he had sent to Corinth) ; and to receive from him intelligence of the state of the church, and of the elFects of his former Epistle (2. 12), But, not finding him there, he crossed over to Macedonia, where his anxiety was relieved by the arrival and report of Titus. From him Paul learned that his faithful reproofs had awahened in the minds of the Corinthian Christians a godly sorrow, and a practical regard for the proper discipline of the church. But, with these pleasing symptoms, there vrere others of a painful kind. The faction con- nected A\ith the false teachers was still depreciating his apostolic authority, and misrepresenting his motives and conduct ; even using liis former letter to bring new charges against him, as ha\dng failed to keep his promise of coming to see them, and having adopted an authoritative style of Aviiting, little in unison, as they alleged, with the contemptibleness of his person and speech. Under the strong and mingled emotions caused by this intelli- gence, the apostle %vrote this second Epistle ; in which the language of commendation and love is blended with that of censure, and even of threatening; and sent it by Titus and others, intending speedily to follow them, as it appears that he did. It was designed to carry forv/ard the work of reformation, to establish still further liis authority against the objections and pretensions of false teachers, and to prepare the Corinthians for his intended visit, when he desu-ed to find their disorders rectified, and their promised contri- butions for their afflicted brethren ready (8. 18: 9. 3, 5 : 10. 2, 11: 13. I, 2, 10). Although this and the preceding Epistle are full of references to the peculiar circumstances of the Corinthian church, they are not the less important or instructive on that account. For they contain directions and admonitions suited to many of the ordinary circum- stances of life which could not have been so advantageously intro- duced in a more general discourse on the great doctrines and duties of Christianity. Principles and rules are laid doTVTi which are of general application, especially in opposing dissensions and other evils arising in the church, and in promoting the important duty of Christian liberality. The principal contents of this Epistle are as follows : — i. The apostle, after expressing his gratitude for the Divine con- solation gi'anted to him under his sufierings for Christ, states the reasons of his delay in visiting Corinth : and refers to the ease of the guilty person upon whom discipline had been exercised ; whom. 598 SECOND EPISTLE TO CORIXTHIANS : CONTENTS. being penitent, lie exhorts them to restore to their communion (I. i2:-2. 13). ii. He alludes to his labours in the service of the gospel and their success, and to his own personal relation to the Corintliians ; and is thereby led to speak of the diflFerences between the ministry under the Old Covenant and under the N'ew; showing the superior glory of the latter (3). He describes the principles and motives by which he and his brethren were actuated in fulfilling their ministiy in the midst of great trials and afflictions; and exhorts the Corinth- ians not to frustrate the great objects of the gospel by the neglect of Christian discipline and purity (4 :-7). iii. Then, resuming a subject referred to in his former Epistle, with persuasive earnestness he recommends to them the collection for the poor among the saints at Jerusalem; and shows the manifold advantages of such services (8 : 9). iv. He vindicates his apostolic authority against the insiauations of false teachers; and (though with evident reluctance) contrasts his own gifts, labours, and sufferings, with the character and con- duct of those pretenders who opposed him (10 : 11): he refers, in proof of the Divine approval, to some extraordinary visions and revelations with which he had been favoured (12. i-ii): shows the openness, sincerity, and disinterestedness of his whole conduct: and, after a few afiectionate admonitions to self-examination, and to love and holiness, closes the Epistle with prayer and benediction 12. 11-21: 13). Connect and read as follows, 1. i, 3, 8, 12, 15, 23: 2. 5, 12, 14: 3. I, 4, 12: 4- I, 3, 7, 12: 5. 5, II, 16, 20: 6. I, II, 14: 7- i> 2, 5,11, 13: 8.1, 16: 9. I, 6: 10, 1, 7, 12: 11. 1,5, 13, 16: 12. 1, 14, 19: 13. I, 5, 11, 14- 176. (i.) Not the least instructive part of these Epistles is the light they throw on the motives and spirit of the ai.ithorityand apostles. In I Cor., Paul shows that not man but character. CJi^igt alone is the centre of union to the church, that ministers are but fellow-labourers employed and endowed by God, to whom all their success is owing. They are therefore neither to be overrated nor despised. The true minister of Christ may be known by his patience, his self-denial, his holiness, and the spirit in which he exalts his Lord, i Cor. i. io:-4. 21: 2 Cor. 4:-7: i Thess. 2.1-12: 3. 2 Tim. Elsewhere, however, he insists largely on the dignity and authority of his office, 2 Cor. 10-12: Gal. 1:2:1 Cor. 15. 9, 10: Eph. 3.8. In the whole of these passages the object seems three- fold; to confirm and prove his doctrine, and to refute false teachers, 2 Cor. II. 3: to exhibit to Chi-istians and to Christian ministers an eminent example, Phil. 3. i ■.■4. 9: Heb, 13. 7-14; and above all to CORINTHIANS : THE CHURCH. 599 illustrate the power of Divine grace, 2 Cor. 12. 9; Gal. i. 24: 1 Tim. I. 16. The whole supplies also important evidence of the tnxth of the gospel.* (ii.) The character of false teachers, against whom the chm'ch of Character of ^^^^^t is often warned, may be gathered from many- false passages. Some were Judaizers, denying the sufficiency teac ers. of the cross and the liberty of the church; some philo- sophizing teachers, corrupting the simplicity of the truth; and others, '' dogs", ttuming the grace of God into licentiousness, i Cor. 1. io:-4: 2 Cor. 11: Gal. i. 1-12: 4. 9-20: 5. 7-15: Col. 2. 16-23: Acts 15. i3-3i:-2 Thess. 2. 1-12: 2 Pet. 3: Jude4-i9: i Tim. 6. 20. 2 Tim. 2. 16: I John 2. 18-24: 4. 1-6: 2 and 3 John. (iii.) The church is many and one, i Cor. 11. 16 : 14. 33 : Gal. i. 22 : I Thess. 2. 14: Acts 16. 5: i Cor. 12. 12-27: Eph. 4. The church. ^ , „ ^ , o -n/r x/ ^ n 3-5: 5-25-32: Coll. 18-24: Gal. 3. 28: Matt. 16. 28: — chosen (Eph. i. 4: i Pet. 5. 13) : loved (Eph. 5. 25: Eev. i. 5): — redeemed by Christ (Heb. 9. 12 : i Pet. i. 18, 19), and subject to him (Rom. 7. 4: Eph. 5. 24). Christ is its Foundation and Head (Eph. 2. 20: I Pet. 2. 4, 6 : Eph. i. 22 : 5. 23 : Col. 1. 18). The church is his body and bride (Eph. 1.23: Col. i. 24: Eev. 21. 9 : 22. 7). (iv.) For the general character of its members, see the descrip- tions given at the beginning of each Epistle, and espe- smem ers. ^jg^jj^. ^ q^^^ ^^ 9-17: 2 Cor. 6. 14-17: I Thess. i. 2-10: 2. 13, 14: 3. 6: 4. 9, 10: Eph. 2. 13-22: Phil. i. 7: Col. i. 3-8: I John. The whole and each member ought to be the image of Christ, 2 Cor. 3. 18: Eom. 8. 14, 29: Eph. i. 4, 5: 4. 23, 24: I Pet. 4. I; and the temple of the Spirit, i Cor. 3. 16, 17: 2 Cor. 6.16: I Tim. 3. 15 : i John 3, 24: 4. 12, 15: John 14. 23: 17. 21-23. (v.) On the duties which Christians owe one to another Scripture is Their duties beautifully explicit. The justice and benevolence which raotives, and as men they owe to their fellows (see Romans, Pt. ii. ^^^^ ' §179)? tbey owe also to their brethren, but to them they owe other duties besides, and all are enforced by motives peculiar to Christians, being taken, in fact, from their mutual relation to one another through the love and grace of their Lord, i Cor. 16. 13-16: 2 Cor. 13. 11: Rom. 12. 3-10: Gal. 6. 2: Eph. 4. i-j6: Col. 3. 12-15: Phil. 2. 1-16: I Thess. 4. 9: 5. ir-21: i Pet. i. 22: 4. 8-11 : 5. 1-7: 2 Tim. 2. 22: James 2. 1-18: Heb. 10. 25 : 13. 7,17: I John 3. 13-23: 4. 7, II, 21: 5. 16, 17. (vi.) Relative duties of Christians. In relation to mai-riage, ** It illustrates both the humility of the apostles and the priest- hood of the whole church to notice how they ask the prayers of their converts, 2 Cor. i. 11: Rom. 15. 30: Eph. 6, 19: Col, 4. 3, 4: I Thess. 5. 25: 2 Thess. 3 i. 600 CORINTHIANS : CHRISTIAN DUTIES. Rflative I Cor. 7: Gal. 3- 28: Epli. 5. 22-33: Col. 3. 16-19: ilmk's. J i^et. 3. 1-7: Heb. 13. 4: Tit. 2. 4, 5. On the true di"-nity and becoming behaviour of Christian women, previous pas- Kiges, and i Cor. 11. 1-16 14. 34, 35 : i Tim. 2. 9-15. As parents, Eph. 6. 4: Col. 3. 21: I Tim. 5.8: 3. 4, 5: Tit. 2. 4: 2 John. As children, Eph. 6. J, 2: Col. 3. 20: Heb. 12. 9: i Tim. 5. i: r Pet. 5. 5 (see Job 32. 6, 7). As masters, Eph. 6. 9: Col. 4. i: Philem, 16: James 5. 4. As servants, i Cor. 4. 2: 7. 22: Gal. 3. 28: Eph. 6, 5, 6: Col. 3. 22, 23: I Tim. 6.1, 2: Tit. 2.9, 10: Philem. 11 : Luke 12. 41-43: 16. 10-12. As men, seeEom. Examples: Parents, Gen. 18. 19: 42. 4. 2 Tim. I. 5. Children, Kuth i. 14: Esth. 2. 20: 2 Tim. 3. 15, Masters, Gen. 17. 23: Josh, 24. 15: 2 Sam. 6. 20: Acts 10. 2. Ser- vrtnts, 2 Kings 5. 2: Acts 10. 7. (vii.) Liberality; its motives, and measure, i Cor. 16. i, 2 : 2 Cor. 8: 9 : Rom. 12. 13 : 15. 26, 27: i Tim. 6. 17-19: i John 3. 17-19 : James i. 27 : 2.8: Heb. 6. 6 : in receiving fellow Christians, Rom. 12. 13 : Heb. 13. i, 2 : i Tim. 5. 10 : Tit. i. 7, 8 : 3 John. Hence it appears that though at first, the members of the church at Jerusalem "sold their possessions and had all things common," this was not intended as the rule; though all are enjoined to give as the Lord has prospered them. (viii.) That the love and comfort which this relation involves mav be secure the church of Christ must be kept free Its discipline. .•'. ., ■,-,.-, -i-,ii . from impurity and disorder. Rebuke, encouragement, censure, exclusion, restoration — all are to be exercised for the good ofthebody. i Cor. 5: 2 Cor. 6. 14-18: 3-17: lO- 8: 13. 10: Gal. 6. 1 : 2 Thess. 3. 6-15 : i Tim. 5:6:2 Tim. 3. 1-5 : 4. 2 : Tit. I. io:-3, 10: Jude 22: Rev. 2. 14-16, 20- 23. (ix.) The sin and cure of divisions, i Cor. i. 10: 4. 21 : 2 Cor. ci : Sin and cure P^om. 16. 17,18: I Tim. I. 3-7 : 6. SS, 20 : Tit. 3. 9-15 : of divisions. Heb. 13. 8, 9. See on Christian forbearance, (x,) The duty of Christian forbearance in relation to matters on which there may be difi'erence of opinion among good men, i Cor. 8:-ro: Rom. 14. i:-i5. 7 : Matt. 18. 10: Phil. 2. 1-7: James 4. ii, 12: Acts 15. 8, 9 : II, 17 : i Pet. 3, 8, (xi.) The right use of miraculous gifts, as prophecy, etc., is M-raculous ^^^S^^J explained in these Epistles. These gifts were and other intended to confirm the truth of the gospel, promote its ^'^''*' rapid dissemination, and were essential to prove a new revelation. Note, we are referred for evidence and for spiritual knowledge to the Scriptm-es. Outward instruction, personal expe- lience, careful study, and a spirit of devout dependence on God'.-i teaching in his word occupy the place of miraculous endowments. 2 Tim. 2-1: 3. 3, 15, 16: 2 Thess. 2. 15: 2 Pet i. 15-21: 3. r-4: 14-17- CORINTHIANS: VARIOUS TRUTHS. 601 James i, 5, In these passages, however, we learn that the church of Christ ought to be edified by the "willing and combined ser\dce, according to their gifts, of all its members, i Cor. 12: 14: Rom. 12. 4-8: Gal, 3. 1-5: Eph. 4. 7-13 : Heb. 2. 1-4. (xii.) Mark the nature, and superlative excellence of Christian On Christian love. I Cor. 13: Col. 3. 12, 14: Gal. 5 : 6: i Tim. ''^^'^- I. 5: I Johns. 10-24. (xiii.) Mark the importance and consolation of the doctrine of the On the resurrection of the dead, and how it is insured by the resurrection, resurrection of our Lord. 1 Cor. 15 : Rom. 8. 11, 19-25 : I Thess. 4. 13-17: Rev. 20. 11-13: John 5. 21, 28. (xiv.) Mark also with what order and devotedness the Lord's On observ- supper is to be observed, and mark that it is not sacri- anceofthe ficial but only commemorative, i Cor. 11. 17-34: suppen 10. 15-18: Matt. 26. 26-30: Acts 2. 42-47: 20. 7. The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Romans. Corinth, a.D. 58. 177. The Epistle to the Romans was addressed to the Christians residing in the metropolis of that great empire, whose dominion then extended over almost the whole known world. The way had been prepared by Divine Pi'ovidence for the intro- duction of the gospel into Rome by the extensive settlement of Jews there. That the establishment of the Jewish worship at Rome had produced considerable effect on the general commvmity, is clear from the statements of heathen writers. Ovid speaks of the syna- gogues as places of general resoi-t : and, still later, Juvenal ridicules his countrymen for becoming Jews, At what time or by whom the gospel was first preached in the imperial city is unknown. That it was at an early period may be inferred from the cuxumstance that, when Paul wrote this Epistle, the faith of the Roman Christians "was spoken of throughout the whole world," chap. i. 8. It is probable that some of those "strangers of Rome, Jews and proselytes," who were present at Jerusalem on the gi'eat day of Pentecost (Acts 2. 10), carried back to that city the knowledge of the gospel. And it is not improbable, also, considering the constant intercourse between Rome and the provinces, that some of the numerous converts to Christianity in Judcea, Asia Minor, and Greece, might soon have found their way to the capital. That some of the persons concerned in the establish- ment of the church of Rome (two of whom Patd mentions as having been converted earlier than himself) were Paul's particular friends, with whom he had met while preaching in Asia and in Greece, is evident from the form of the salutations in chap. 16. 3-16. 2 D 602 EPISTLE TO ROMANS. The traditions of some of the ancient fathers, that Peter was the founder of the church at Rome, appeal's plainly inconsistent vnth the evidence derived from this Epistle, as well as from the book of the Acts, which shows him to have been at Jerusalem at the very time Avhen he is alleged to have been at Rome. In this whole Epistle there is no mention of Peter as ever having been at Rome. Now, if Peter had not only been there, but had actually founded the church, and had presided over it, it is impossible to suppose that Paul could have failed to advert to that fact. And, further, had Peter been at Rome when Paul wrote this Epistle, he would certainly have been included in the particular enumeration of persons to whom salutations are sent, in chap. i6. The date of this Epistle is very precisely fixed by the following facts, Paul had not yet been to Rome (i. ii, 13, 15). He was intending to visit it, after first visiting Jerusalem (15. 23-28), and this was his purpose during his three months' residence at Corinth, Acts 19. 21. He was about to carry a collection from Macedonia and Achaia to Jerusalem (15. 26, 31): and this he did carry from Corinth to Jerusalem at the close of his visit. Acts 24. 17. When he wrote the Epistle, Timothy, Sosipater, Gains, and Erastus were vfith. him (16. 21, 23). Gains was his host, and resided at Corinth, I Cor. I. 14. Erastus was himself a Corinthian, and had been sent shortly before from Ephesus with Timothy on their way through Corinth to Macedonia, Acts 19. 22: i Cor. 16. 10, 11 ; and the first three are expressly mentioned in Acts (20. 4) as being with Paul at Corinth. Phoebe, moreover, the bearer of the Epistle, was a member of the church at the Corinthian port of Cenchrea (16. i). As Paul, therefore, was preparing to visit Jerusalem one of his con- verts was also departing from Corinth in an opposite direction, for Rome, and by her this Epistle was taken to that city. Its date is thus fixed, A. D. 58. The character of the Roman church may be gathered from the Epistle itself. It contained several converts from Judaism (3. 4, 14. etc.); but the majority were clearly of Gentile origin (i. 13: 15. 14,15). To all it was important that they should have a full and inspired exhibition of Divine truth ; and this is given. The doctrine of justification by faith had been employed to justify immoral practices (3. 8), and moreover dissensions had sprung up between Jewish converts and Gentile Chx'istians (11. 17, 18: 14). The Jewish believer was unwilling to I'egard his uncircumcised Gentile brother as his equal in Christ's kingdom (3. 9: 15. 7-11); and, on the other hand, the more enlightened Gentile convert was inclined to treat the lingering scruples of the Jew with contempt (14. 3 J. Here, therefore, the doctrine of justification is shown to produce ROMANS: OUTUNE. 603 iioliuess. To the Jewish Christian, truth and its claims are re- vealed; to the Gentile Christian, love and its claims; and both are taught that faith in Christ and subjection to him are the only con- ditions of a place in the church and of an interest in the covenant. In the whole of this discussion principles are laid down of the greatest value to the church in every age. The Epistle may be divided as follows (see § 171, note.) I. I, 8, 13, 16, 18, 24: 2. 1, 17, 25: 3. I, 5, 9, 21, 27, 29, 31: 4. I, 6, 9, 10, 13, 18, 23: 5. 1, 3, 6, II, 12: 6.1, 12, 15: 7.1,7, 13: 8. I, 12, 18, 26, 28, 31 : 9. I, 6, 10, 14, 19, 30: 10. I, 14, 18 : ir. I, 7, II, 16, 22, 25, 33: 12. I, 3, 6, 9, 14: 13. I, 11: 14- I, 13: 15. I, 5, 8, 14: 16. I, 17, 21, 25. 178. As the Epistle to the Romans treats of the doctrine which has been regarded as the test of a time church, and is moreover the most full and systematic of all the apostle's writings, we append an analysis of the whole, showing the course of argument and illustra- tration. The significance of particular passages depends in a gi-eat degree, as will be readily seen, on their connection and tendency. (i.) Introductimi (i. 1-17). (i.) The salutation (i. 1-7). (2.) Introduction, and Paul's estimate of the gospel (8-17), (11.) Doctrinal Exposition (i. 18 :-ii. 36). (a.) Sinfulness of the human race, (i.) Condition of the heathen, — In relation to God (i. 18-23). In relation to human duty (24-32). (2.) Condition of the Jews, — Mere knowledge will not save (2. i-ii). It even aggravates guilt (12-29). (3.) Comparison of Jews and Gentiles, — Value of Old Testament dispensation not lowered (3. i-8;. Both guilty, and needing salvation (9-20). (b.) The gospel-plan of salvation explained, in iteelf, and in its results. (i.) This plan explained, a revelation of Divine justice and mercy excludes — All boasting (3. 21, 26-28), and — Saves all on the same terms (29-31). f 2.) Holy men of old justified by faith,— Illustrated, Abraham (4, 1-5): David (6-8). 2 D 2 604 ROMA^^s: outline. Circumcision the sign (9-12), and the theocracy (13-1)-), the result of the covenant : the result, therefore, of justification, rather than subservient to it. (3.) Abraham's faith described. Its results (4. 18-25). (4.) The fruits of faith in Christian experience, in imparting peace, joy, and hope (5. i-ii). (5). The excellence of faith shown by a comparison between Adam, the head of the fallen race, and Christ, the author of spiritual life, to all who are united to Him (5. 12-21). (c.) This way of salvation {xap^s, diKaiocrivT]), favom-able to holiness. (See 3. 8). (i.) We cannot go on in sin, that grace may abound; for we are one with Christ our Head, in his baptism, death, and life (6. 1-14); verses 12-14 illustrating the idea that Christ is our King, as well as Head. (2.) Nor can we go on in sin, because under grace and not under law. For the servants of another ai'e bound to obey their master, and moreover — Men are increasingly swayed by that authority, which they heartily acknowledge. It becomes a yoke, which, however, if it be righteousness, is free, and has a glorious issue, (6. 15-23). (3.) He illustrates the same truth as in 6. 2, by an example founded on law (7. 1-7). Hence a twofold objection : (4). Either the law is sin — No ; for it reveals sin, and impresses it on the conscience (7. 7-12): (5.) Or being itself good, it has become death (7. 13-25). No; for we, (" our inner man,") admit it to be spiritual, even when not obeying it ; a fact admitted by the awakened and regenerate. Eoth facts meet the objection, and show our need of a new system. (d.) The laio having failed to justify and sanctify, he repeats and expands the truth, that Christ for its, and Christ in us, is our justification and holiness. ([.) Christians justified in Christ and sanctified in Him, through the Spiiit; which sanctificatoon will be complete (8. i-ii). (2.) Christian's duty and privilege (8. 12-17.) (3.) The connection between the perfection of creation, and that cf the children of God (8. 18-25). (4.) Other blessings (8. 26-27, 28-30, 31-39"). ROMANS: OUTLINE. 605 (e.) As in chap, i. i8:-3. 20, the apostle has explained the relation of Jews and Gentiles to the law, so in chap. 9. I :-ii. 36, he explains the relation of both to the gospel. That salvation is by Christ, and for all that believe, is the con- clusion to which the apostle has come; but if so, the great majority of the Jews perish, and the Gentiles have taken their place ; a result apparently severe, and to the Jew particularly stax^tling. The apostle meets this feeling. (i.) He aflB.x'ms, that he is himself greatly distressed at then* state of rejection (9. 1-6). (2.) It cannot be said, however, that the promise is unfulfilled, or that this difference of treatment is without precedent; for — The promise did not extend to all the children of Abraham, but only to the descendants of Sarah ; nor to all her descendants, but only to Jacob (7-13), the ground of the difference being, not the actual'merit of the persons, but the election of God. Least of all does it follow that God is lonjust, for all mercy on God's part is evidence of kindness, and is altogether undeserved. That God has a right to make distinctions in his dealings, .and does make them, is further shown in the case of Pharaoh (14-18). (3.) But does not this idea of purpose on God's part, free us from blarae? To which the apostle replies by affirming, first, that God has a right to do as he will ; suggesting, that in the exercise of that right, there can be no wrong; and secondly, that in exercising that \n\\, both the justice and the mercy of God will be the more illustrioxisly revealed (19-24;, saving all on the same conditions, both Jews and Gentiles (24). (4.) Both this call of the Gentiles, and the salvation of a remnant only of the Jews, are foretold, or have their precedents in the Old Testament (25-29). (5.) The failure and rejection of the Jews, though in one sense in accordance with the Divine purpose, are really results of un- belief (30-33). Chap. 10. This last thought is expanded in chap. 10. After again expressing his distress at the unbelief of the Jews, he shows that their rejection is the result of unbelief; and that all who call on the name of the Lord, Jews or Gentiles, shall be saved (1-13). It is then objected, that the Jews coiild not call upon one of whom they had not heard (14-17), and the apostle answers by showing that they have heard, and that their rejection of truth was not owing to ignorance, but to disobedient imbelief : a fact, which, in all aspects of it, their own prophets foretold (18-21). Chap. II. The apostle proceeds to explain his statements. 606 ROMANS : OUTLINE. (6). It must not be supposed that Israel, as a wliole, have beeir rejected. It is not Jews, as Jews; but Jews as unbelievers; for*' I myself,' says he, ''am an Israelite" (i), and, as in Elijah's days, there were thousands who had not bowed to Baal, so now there is a remnant according to the election of grace, chosen not for their works, but from free favour; while the rest have missed the blessing through unbelief (2-10), Nor, speaking of the Jews as a nation, is this utter rejection: Their unbelief gave occasion for the proclamation of the truth to the Gentiles, and their conversion will be connected with the general diffusion of the truth (11-15), of all which the faith of theii? fathers is a kind of earnest (16). (7.) Humility, faith, adoring reverence of the justice and mercy of God, with hope in this general issue, become all Gentile converts (17-24), and — (8.) By-and-by, Israel as a whole, shall be converted to God (25-32). (9.) The whole scheme of salvation, an evidence of the unfathom- able wisdom and love of God (33-36), to whose praise all ^vill vdti- mately redound. (ill.) Ethical development of Truth (12. -15. 14). (i.) In relation to general behaviour, (i.) All previous doctrine points to consecration of the whole life as the appropriate result, and with this consecration all holiness begins (12. i, 2). This founded in humility, ». e., in a true and healthy view of our- selves, and of our position (12. 3). This consecration will include — (2,) The Christian's relation to the church (12, 4-13), includ- ing love, faith, and hope; and — (3.) The Christian's relation to the world (12. 14-21). (4.) Chap. 13. Especially is this spirit of consecration seen in submission to the ruling power, which has the force of a Divine law (1-7).— Obedience in such cases, is another form of the great law of love (8-10), which is especially incumbent imder the gospel, as is all spiritual holiness, (II- 14). (ii,) In relation to our behaviour in things indifferent (14. x:-i5- 7)- Here, forbearance is our rule. He who regards things indifferent as binding, may be the weaker Christian, but God has received him; he does all to Christ who is his judge; and in accordance with liis own conscience, which is, subordinately, his law. ROMANS : VARIOUS TRUTHS. 60T Therefore, neither is he the less welcome, nor is he to be tempted by ridicule or rebuke to violate what he himself believes (14. 2-23). The example of Chiist, and the ultimate design of the Scriptures, teach this duty on even more comprehensive grounds — the common good (15. 1-7). The lesson is repeated, that Gentiles and Jews are one body, and that the salvation of each illustrates the faithfulness and mercy of God (15. 8-13). (iv.) Personal Communications. (r.) Explanation of the apostle's relation to the Gentiles, and of his earnestness on their behalf (15. 14-21). (2.) Notice of his proposed journeys (15. 22-23). (3.) Salutations (16. 1-23), with cautions in reference to such as caused divisions (17-20). (4.) Conclusion (24-27). 179. iMark in this Epistle the following truths, doctrinal and moral. (i.) Man's extreme need of salvation, in consequence of liis guilt, depravity, and wretchedness (i. iS.-j. 20, compare 6. 19-21 : 8. 6-8): Gal. j. 10-22 ; Eph. 2. i-j: 4. 18, 19 : Col. 3. 5-10 : Heb. 9. 1-9 : 10. i-ii : x Pet. 4. 3 : Tit. j. 3 : Psa. ijo. j : 14?- 2. (ii.) The only way of justification— by the free favour of God through faith in the lishtcousness of Christ ; explained and illustrated by reference to the history of Abraham and David (3. 21 1-4. 25 : 5. 16 : 8. i) : Gal. 3. 6-29 : Eph. 2. 8-10 : Phil. 3. "j-io : Titus 3. 4-7 : Heb. 10. 11-18 : Psa. 22. lo, 31 ; Isa.42. 21 : Jer. 23. 5, 6. This faith is sanctifying, see James and Acts 26. 18. (iii.) Peace and reconciliation, hope and joy, the fruits of faith (5. i-ii : 10. 15 : 14. 17) : 2 Cor. 5. i8-2i : Eph. 2. 11-20 : Col. i. 19-27 : i Pet. i. 18-21 : Isa. 32. 71 : Psa. 85. 8-10 : 16. 9-11. (iv.) As by the disobedience of one all are sinners, so are righteousness and eternal life through the obedience of Christ (5. 12-31) : i Cor. 15. 20-23, 45-49 : I Tun. 1-14: Gen. 3. 6 : 5. 3 : Isa. 53. 10-12. (v ) The evangelic motives of obedience ; deliverance from the dominion and condemnation of ancient law, living union with Christ, and submission to his authority, the constraining influence of his love, the efiBcacy of his death and resur rection, the transforming power of his example, the promised aid of his Spirit, and the hope of an eternal reward ; in one word, all the affections and desires of our new life (6. i :-7. 25) : 2 Cor. 5. 14-17 : 6. 14-18 : Gal. 2. 19, 20 : 5. 24 : 6. 14 : Eph. 2. 4-10 : Col. 2. 6-17 : 3- 1-3 : Tit. 2. 10-14 : I Pet. 2. 20-25 : 4. I, 2 : 2 Pet. i. 4-9 : Phil. 3. 17, 18 : Psa. 116. 16 : Jer. 31. 31-34 : Acts 26. 18. (vi.) The privileges consequent on justification— adoption, the inward presence, testimony and help of the Spirit, the certainty of complete salvation and a glorious inheritance (8. 1-27 : 5. 5) : 2 Cor. i. 21, 22 : Gal. 4. 1-7 : Eph. i. 14 : 6. 18 : i Pet. X. 3-9 : I John 3. 1-3, 19-21. (vii.) The source of redemption — God's sovereign love and eternal piirpose (8. 28-39) : Eph. I. 3-10 : 2 Thess. 2. 13-17 : i Pet. i. 2-5 : 2. 7.10 : 2 Tim. i. 9-12 John 17, 9-24. 608 ROilANS : VARIOUS TRUTHS. (viii.) The principal duty of Cliristians, individually, socially, as members of the church of Christ, and as subjects of civil government (12. i :-i5. 7). Christian morality requires imivcrsal and peiTuanent rectitude," must proceed from a renewed heart,!' be based on religion, i. e., on the consecration of man in all his powers and affections unto God.c needs the sanctifying influence of the Spirit,^ and can be offered with acceptance only through the mediation of Christ.* This morality is the beUever's chief concern ; for his justification is complete, while his sanctification is not ; and the attaimnent of it is the business of the Christian's life, as it was one end of the coming of our Lord.f a Compare the foUowhig passages, which all treat of morality, and it will be seen that no sin is excused, nor is any branch of righteousness excepted in the Christian code. Rom. 12. i :-i5. 1 : i Cor. 6 : 11. 1-16 : 2 Cor 4 : 6. 14-18 : Gal. 5:6: Eph* 4.-6: Phil. I. 27:-2. 16: J. 18: Col. j. i :-4. 6: 1 Thess. 4: 2 Thess. j. 6-15: I Tun. 2. 9-15 : 6 : 2 Tim. j. 1-9 : Tit. i. 12 :-j. 8 : Philem. : Heb. 13 : James all (see 2. 10) : i Pet. i. 22 :-2. j : 2. 11 ;-j. 17 : 4. 8-1 1 ; 5. 1-7 ; 2 Pet. 2 ; j. 11-14; I John 2. j-ii, 15-17, 29: I. 3-18, 24; Jude. b Eph. 4. 22-24 : Col. I. 22, 2 j : Phil. 2. j-5 ; Rom. 12. 2. All the passages which speak of motives to obedience, and the very structm-e of the ]']pistles, addressed as they are to Christians, and basing precepts on doctrines, obedience on faith, Psa. 51. 10 ; Ezek. j6. 25, 27. 0 Rom. 12. I : I Cor. 6. 20 : 2 Cor. 5. 15 : 6. 14-18 : 7. i : 8. 5 : Phil. i. 20 : i Pet. 2. 24 : 4. 2 : Eph. 5. 25-27 : i Thess. 5. 2j, 24 : i John 3. 3. d Rom. 15. 16 : Phil. 4. 13 ; Heb. 9. 14 : i Pet. i. 22. e Eph. I. 6 : Phil. i. 9-11 : i Pet. 2. 5 : i John 3- 6-10 : Col. 3. 17. 1 Eph. 4. 11-13 ; 5. 25-27 : Phil. 2. I2 ; 3- i3 : Titus 2. 11-14. The various duties of morality are easily arranged. They refer to God — to our- . selves— to others. All indeed, are enjoined by a Divme law, and r . f Lj must be perfonned from religious motives. Yet is the distinction ' ° ' convenient and Scriptural. We find it recognised in the 12th of Romans, and elsewhere. Living devotedness to God is first enjoined, ver. i, 2 ; then the personal virtue of humility, ver. 3, and lastly, the duties we owe to the church of Christ, and to the world. (ix.) In relation to God, it is incumbent upon us— to ascertain his character and will, especially as revealed in his Son ;g to exercise appropriate faith and Jn relation to ^^^,^^ submission, and reverence ;h to imitate his moral perfections, to obey his commands,! and to express our feelings in acts of accep- table worship.] The smn of our affection is reverential love, and of our service, living consecration.^ g 2 Cor. 4. 6 : 2 Pet. i. 2, 3 : i John 5. 20: John 17. 3 ; Psa. 9. 10. h I John 5. 10-12 : I Cor. 8. 3; i John 4. 9 : Heb. 12. 9: i Pet. i. 10-21 : 5. 6 : James 4. 7, 10 : 2 Cor. 7. i : Eph. 5. 21 : Heb. 12. 28 : Examples, Heb. 11 : Matt. 8. 10 : Psa. 18. I : John 21 : Job 2. 10 : 2 Sam. 15. 26. i 2 Cor. 3- 18 : Eph. 4. 32 : 5- i : Col. 3- U : Matt. 5. 44, 45, 48 : i John 4. 11 ; I John 2. 3-5 : John 14. 23 : Rom 16. 19 : Examples, our Lord, Eph. 5. 2 ; 1 Pet. 2. 21 : Abraham, 12. 1-4. j Rom. 10. 9, 10 : Heb. 10. 25 ; Phil. 4. 6 : James i. 5, 6 : i John 3. 22 ; John 14. 13 : Eph. 5. 19, 20 : Col. 3. 16, 17 : Mark 14. 26 : Ex., Acts 1. 14 : 2. i, 2 : 4. 24-Ji : Luke 4. 15, 16: Acts 18. 4. k I John 5. 2-5 : Mark 12. 29, 30 : Deut. 6. 5 : 10. 12 : }o. 6: Rom. 12. i : i Cor. 6. 20 : 2 Chron. 30. 8. ROMANS: CHRIHTIAX DUTIES. 609 (x.) In relation to ourselves, it becomes us to be bumble, never thinking more highly of our gifts than we ought, and ever remembering that they ourselves!^ '" ^^^ 6'i/' contented with our lot,c temperate,'! self-denying,e careful in preserving for God's service, our health and life.f diligent,g and pure.** a Rom. 12. J : I Cor. 4. "J : 2 Cor. 12. 7 : Gal. 6. j : Phil. 7.3,4: Eph. 4. 2 : Col. ». 12: James 4. 6: i Pet. 5. 5, 6. Ex., Gen. 18. 27 : 32. 10: 18. ij : i Cor. 15.9: Phil. 2. 5-8. False humility condemned. Col. 2. 18-23 : 2 Chron. 12. 6 : i lOngs 21. 29. 0 Eph. 4. 2 : Col. 3. 12 : Tit. 3. 2 : Gal. 5. 23 : James 3. 13, 17 : i Pet. 3. 4-15 : Ex., Numb. 12. 2 : Psa. ijr. i : i Thess. 2. 7 : Christ, 2 Cor. 10. i : Matt. 11. 29. c Heb. 13. 5 : Phil. 4- 6 : i Tun. 6. 6-8 : Matt. 6. 25 : Ex., Paul, Phil. 4. 11, 12. commentary on the other." Both, more- over, ai-e exceedingly rich in exhibitions of the glory of the gospel. This Epistle was to be sent to Laodicea, and the Colossians were to receive from Laodicea the Epistle he had du-ected to be sent on to them, probably the present Epistle to the Ephesians. The Epistle may be divided into two parts— doctrinal and prac- tical. i. After the usual salutation, the apostle expresses his thankful- ness for the effects of the gospel among the Colossians, and his prayerful anxiety that they might continue to advance in spiritual knowledge and in Christian virtues (i. 1-14) ; he sets forth the divine and the mediatorial gloi-ies of the Redeemer, and gives a sublime view of the whole doctrine of reconciliation by Christ, both in its amplitude, as affecting all created beings, and in its individual application to believers in their personal conversion to God (i. 14- 21). He then speaks of his own labours and sufferings as the apostle of the Gentiles, and expresses his intense solicitiide for their sta- bility and perseverance (1.21: 2. 5). He cautions them against particular errors; showing that no philosophical speculations, no human ordinances or traditions, no ascetic austerities, could raise the soul above gross pursuits, or enable it to realize unseen and eternal objects. But that, on the other hand, in Christ is perfect salvation; faith in him not only re- conciling us to God, but, by connecting us with an ascended Re- deemer, leading our thoughts and desires to things above (2. 6: 3. 4). ii. He then expands the application of the foregoing doctrine, points out the operation of this vitalizing faith, in subduing the propensities of the old sinful nature, and producing and sustaining the varied holiness of the new man ; and, above all, brotherly love, wliich is to be exei'cised in social worship and mutual edification (3. 4-16). He gives brief directions for the fulfilment of domestic duties (3. 18-25: 4. i) ; exhorts the Colossians to constancy 111 618 coLOSSiANs: Philemon. prayer and thanksgiving, and to consistent conduct before the world (4. 1-6) ; and, in conclusion, mentions Tychicus and Onesimus, who would give them full information of all his circumstances ; and sends salutations from his fellow labourers and from himself, among others, to their minister : adding a touching injxmction, at the moment of signing the letter, to remember his bonds (4. 6-18). Connect and read as follows : — 1. 1, 3, 9, 19, 21, 24: 2. i, 6, 8> i6, 20: 3. I, 5, 12, 16, 18, 20, 22: 4. I, 2, 5, 7, 10, 15, 18. The Epistle of Paul to Philemon. Rome, A. D. 62. 184. This inspired model of private Christian correspondence was addressed by the apostle Paul to Philemon, one of his converts residing at Colosse (compare ver. 2, 10, 19, with Col. 4. 9, 17), of whom nothing more is knowoi than may be gathered from the letter. From this it has been supposed that Philemon was an elder or deacon in the church, and that Appia was his mfe. Archippus seems to have been pastor at Colosse, Col. 4. 17. This Epistle was evidently written (see ver. i, 10, 23), and sent at the same time as that to the Colossians (see Col. 4. 8 ; compare also ver. 23, 24, with Col. 4. 10-14). Onesimus, the subject of this Epistle and the bearer of both, was a slave Cprobably a domestic servant) of Philemon, who, having fled from his master, had foimd his way to Eome ; and, while there, had been converted by the insti-umentality of Paul, ver. 10. After a time, Paul, thinking it right that he should return to his master, wrote this elegant and persuasive letter in order to secure for him a kind reception. After an affectionate salutation from himself and Timothy, the apostle expresses his thankfulness at hearing of the good reputation which Philemon as a Christian enjoyed: and then gi-acefully intro- duces the main subject of his letter: requesting as " Paul the aged,'' now a prisoner for their common faith, what he might as an apostle have commanded. Acknowledging the fault of Onesimus, he men- tions the happy change which had taken place in him : and hints that his flight had been overruled for his master's benefit as well as his own; and entreats that he may be received back, no longer as a slave, but as a beloved Christian brother. He then delicately proposes to make good any loss Philemon might have sustained; whilst he intimates how great were his friend's obligations to himself. This short letter is invaluable, as oflFering an example of humility, courteousness, and freedom, in the intercourse of Christian friend- ship : and we cannot but suppose that the gentleness and address of the apostle's pleading were effectual. PHILIPPIANS. 61 g Connect and read, 1. 1, 4, 8, 21, 23, 25. Compare on the whole spirit of this Epistle, i Tim. 6. i, 2: James i. 9-11: Philip. 2. 3-8. The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Philippiam. Rome, A. D. 63. 185. Phiiippi was a city of Macedonia, enlarged by Philip of Macedon, and afterwards colonized by Julius Casar, who gave the people the pri\'ileges of a Roman city; and it is distinguished as having been the first place in Eui-ope which received the gospel. Paul having been specially directed thither by the Holy Spirit, in opposition to his previous plans, Acts 16. On arriving at Phiiippi, Paul followed his usual custom of addi-essing himself fii^st to the Jews; who appear, however, to have been few in number. Those who met for worship at a place of prayer outside the city were chiefly women; one of whom, a pious stranger from Asia, was the first con- vert to Christianity. The successful labours of Paul and Silas, and the persecution raised against them, which led to theii- suddea de- pariure from it, are related in Acts, chap. 16. That Paul visited Phiiippi again, before his first imprisonment at Rome, is plain from Acts 20. I, 2, 6. On his first visit he seems to have left Luke behind him (16. 12: 17. i). Luke also, who was with him at the earlier part of his imprisonment (Acts 27: Col. 4. 14), seems now to have left him (2. 20, 21). This Epistle was manifestly written at Rome (see chap. i. 12-14: 4. 22), and, probably, during the latter part of the apostle's first captivity in that city. For Paul, at the time of writing it, antici- pated a speedy decision of his case, and hoped to obtain his release, (i. 25, 27: 2. 23, 24). It appears to have been written on the occasion of the retvu-n of Epaphroditus, whom the Philippian church had sent to Rome with a pecuniary contribution for the apostle's relief during his imprisonment, and who, while zealously performing this service, had fallen dangerously ill: the tidings of which so afflicted the Philippians, that the apostle was induced, upon his recoveiy, to send him back sooner than he had intended (2. 24-30). The church at Phiiippi appears to have been one of the most pure and generous of that age. Its members showed the tenderest regard for Paul. Twice while he was at Thessalonica, and once when at Corinth, they had generously sent him contributions for his support, which he accepted, to prevent the gospel being burden- some to more recent converts (4. 15, 16: 2 Cor. 11. 9). They had also cheerfully borne many sufferings for their adherence to the Saviour (i. 28-30). Their conduct had been uniformly so exem- plary that he had only to rejoice over them. Accordingly, in this 620 ■PH1LI^PIA^'S, Epistle, he pours forth his heart in expressions of devout thankful- ness and hearty commendations, not unmingled, however, with exhortations and counsel. The Epistle may be divided into three parts : — i. After an affectionate introduction, Paul expresses his gratitude to God for the Philippians, and his earnest desire for the increase of their knowledge and holiness (i. i-ii). That they might not be dejected on his account he assures them that his imprisonment had not hindered but promoted the gospel ; some gathering bold- ness from his bonds, and others preaching Christ of contention. If Christ be but preached and magnified, whether it be by Paul's labours or by his martyrdom, he himself is more than content. The former he thinks most probable; and exhorts the Philippians at all events to maintain a conduct worthy of the gospel ; to be stedfast and com-ageous, united, generous, and humble, copying the example of their blessed Lord, and reminds them that their consistency and usefulness are his oAvn highest rewards. He pro- mises to send Timothy to them, gives his reason for sending Epaphroditus, and adds the character of each (i. 12 : 2).* ii. He exhorts them to rejoice in their Christian privileges; and to be on their guard against Judaizing teachers, who prided them- selves upon distinctions in which he himself could more than com- pete with them; but v/hich, however he once valued, he now regarded as utterly worthless, in comparison with the surpassing excellency of the knowledge of Chi'ist; and then, referring to his own holy ambition to strive after perfection, urges upon the Phi- lippians a similar spirit ; contrasting with this the conduct of some false professors, against whom he had previously warned them (3-4. I). iii. Admonitions are addressed to individual members of the church; followed by exhortations to holy joy, moderation, prayer, and thanksgiving ; and to the study and practice of all that is true, just, pure, amiable, and praiseworthy (4. 2-9). The Epistle con- cludes with grateful acknowledgments of the i-epeated proofs of affection, care, and sympathy, which he had received from the Phi- lippians, in which he rejoiced for their sakes; intimating, however, with noble delicacy, his contentment with either poverty or abund- ance, and closes with salutations and a benediction (4. 10-23). Connect and read as follows: 1. 1, 12, 15, 21, 27: 2. i, 5, 12, 17, 19, 25: 3. I, 2, 12, 15: 4. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 15, 20, 21, 23. « Terseaition endured with stedfastncss conforms us to Christ, and is a token of coining judgment, i. i-j : 2 Thess. i. 5, 6 : i Pet. i. 6-10: 3. i^i-^. 7, 12-18: i John J. 13. HEBREWS : AUTHORSHIP. 621 The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Hebrews, Rome, A. D. 63. 1 86. As the Holy Spirit did not direct the author of this Epistle to insert his own name, or to specify the persons to whom it was addressed, the determination of these questions cannot be essential to its right use : nor is it sm-prising that there should have been much diSerence of opinion upon them. Whilst, however, many both in former and in later times have thought otherwise, it has always been the prevailing belief that the apostle Paul was its author. The follo^ving remarks will show how strong is the evi- dence in favour of this decision. (i.) Those to whom the Epistle was sent must have known the writer (see chap. to. 34: 13. 18, 19, 23): and in preserving and cir- culating it could hardly fail to communicate their knowledge. Now the earhj fathers of the Eastern and Alexandrian churches, in the second and third centuries, tell vis that the ''ancients" (who must have been contemporary with, if not the same persons as those who received the original) had handed it down to them as a writing of Paul's. And the most learned among them, Clement of Alexan- dria, Origen, and Eusebius, though sensible of some difl&culties and doubts on the point, i-egarded this testimony as conclusive. — (2.) This is corroborated by the author's intimate acquaintance with the Jewish system — so worthy of the disciple of Gamaliel; and his sympathizing interest in the salvation of the Jewish people — so like that which is expressed in Rom. 9. 10. 11., and Phil. 3, — (3.) The few personal allusions found in the Epistle, are all perfectly com- patible with what we know of the history of Paul. — (4.) Nor is there anything in the peculiarities of style and treatment of the subject that cannot be satisfactorily I'econciled with Paul's other Epistles. If it differ from them in the rhetorical length of words and finish of sentences, it is only the more like his speeches re- corded by Luke. So regular a composition would naturally vary in manner from letters of a difierent character, ^vritten under dif- ferent circumstances. Yet the careful reader may sometimes find the concise expressions, abrupt transition, reasonings addressed to the latent thoughts and objections of the readers, and the occasional involutions and long parentheses resulting from the kindling of soul and exuberance of feeling, which characterize the apostle's other writings. So that the internal as well as external evidence appears to support the opinion of the early fathers, that the Epistle is sub- stantially Paul's ; though he may have adopted occasionally, as some critics suppose, the phraseology of his companion Luke. €22 HEBREWS . CONTENTS. "Why this Epistle, like the First of John, was anonymous, it is impossible to say. Perhaps the apostle wished that its first hearers or readers should feel the force of its contents before knomng from whom it came, as the Jews generally were greatly prejudiced against him The Epistle was clearly addressed to Hebrew Christians: who appear to have been inhabitants of some particular city or region (aee chap. 13. 23): and to have formed an organized society or church which had existed some time ; having had pastors who had been removed by death (13. 7): and having now teachers, whom they are exhorted to obey (13. 17). It has been generally supposed that they wei'e resident in Palestine, either at Jenisalem or Crcsai'ea. To this class the Epistle is ijeculiai-ly adapted: exposed as they were to the danger of falling back into Judaism, or of attaching too much importance to the ancient law. The writer sets befoi-e them the supreme authority, the peculiar sanctions, and the transcendent glory of the Christian dispensation, as concurring to render unbelief the more inexcusable, and apostasy the more cri- minal and fatal. It is worthy of remark, how the whole reasoning was fitted to those for whom the Epistle was written. Addressing Jews, the writer exhibits with due prominence all that they justly venerated; and draws all his illustrations (12. 16, 18: 13. 2, 10, 12, 14:) and ex- amples of what is noble and excellent (11.) from their own records and history. When about to make a statement at variance with JevTish views and feelings, he cautiously prepares their minds for it (5. 11); and he constantly reasons upon their own principles. The Jews had looked upon themselves as especially favoured, in pos- sessing a Divine revelation which appointed Moses as the lawgiver, Aaron and his race as the priests, and all the temple rites as the worship of God. The apostle does not overlook this peculiarity; but, accommodating to it his line of proof, shows that the Christian faith is but the completion of their own. This Epistle may be divided into two principal parts : the first, intended to explain the meaning, and prove the infei'ioi'ity of the Jewish dispensation: the second, to confirm and comfort Jewish believers in their religious profession. i. Having noticed that the Mosaic and the Christian dispensation both proceed from the same Divine author, the sacred writer shows the surpassing excellency of the latter, as being introduced by the Messiah. — i. Greater than prophets, and even angels; notwith- standing his humiliation unto death, which, so far from diminishing liis glory, was the very means of accomplishing his great work of redemption (i. 2). — 2. Superior to Moses, their venerated law- HEBREWS: CONTENTS. 623 giver, who nevertheless was but a servant. Here the apostle solemnly warns the Hebrew Christians, lest they should lose through unbelief that present rest and final glory, of which the Canaan into which Joshua had led their forefathers was but a type (3. : 4. 1-13). — 3. Then, as the Jews rightly attached the highest im- portance to their priesthood and sacrifices, he expatiates at length upon the superior excellence and efl6.cacy of the priesthood and sacrifice <>f Christ ; shows that the necessary qualifications of a high priest, namely, that he should be appointed by God and able to sympathize with men, wei-e found in the Lord Jesus (4. 16: 5. 10): and having cited from the prophetic Scriptures a declaration concerning the supreme and eternal priesthood of the Messiah as typified by Mel- chisedec, he interrupts his argument with a reproof to those whom he addressed for their small proficiency in Christian knowledge; adding warnings and encouragements (5. ii:-6). Then, return- ing from this digression, he compares the priesthood of Christ with that of the Je%^ash high priests in several particulars (7.: 8). He next illustrates the emblematical and temporary nature of the Levitical services, which are realized in Christ ; compares the ministrations of the high priest in the worldly sanctuary with the intercession of Christ in the presence of God above ; and contrasts the merely typical virtue of the oft-repeated Jewish sacrifices with the intrinsic and perpetual efl&cacy of the one perfect and all-suffi- cient propitiation (9.: 10, I -I 8). ii. Upon this reasoning the apostle grounds his practical applica- tion. After a general exhortation to stedfastness in faith, hope, and mutual encouragement, he points out the aggravated guilt and awful issue of apostasy. Then, having reminded the Hebrew be- lievers of their fortitude and faithful adherence under former trials, he points out the indispensable necessity, in order to their perse- verance and salvation, of maintaining the life of faith (10. 19-25). After describing the nature of faith, he shows it to have been the main principle of religion in every age; and illustrates its pow- erful operation and triumphant efficacy in a long line of heroes, martyrs, and confessors, from Abel to the close of the Old Testa- ment dispensation; and above all in Jesus Christ himself, whose temptations and sufferings were far beyond theirs (11.: 12, 1-3). He further encourages them by reminding them that their afflictions were but the discipline of a Father's hand, and designed for their ultimate good (12. 4-1 1): enjoins upon them tender mutual consi- deration and watchfulness ; warns them against bartering, like Esau, spiritual prixdleges for present gratifications (12. 12-17): stimulates them, by contrasting the terrific material splendours of the Mosaic law ■Nrith the solemn but cheering spiritual glories of 624 HEBREWS: VARIOUS TRUTHS. the gospel; and infers that, in proportion to the magnitude of their privileges, would be the danger of neglecting them (12. 18-29). In conclusion, he gives specific precepts on various practical duties, and closes with salutations and a benediction (13. 1-25). 187. Mark in this Epistle the following lessons: — The dignity of Christ, as the express image of the Father, the Creator of all things, the restorer of fallen man, the righteous King, the object of angelic worship: 1. i:-2. 9: Col. I. 13-19: 2. 10: 2 Cor. 4. 6: i Pet. 3. 22: i John 1. I, 2: Rev. 4. 11: 5. 6-13: 19. 11-21: John i. 1-18: 3. 13-21, 31, 36: Zech. 9. 9: Psa. 2.: Isa. 12. 2: Acts 10. 40-2. His incarnation and its objects: He gives a complete revelation. Buffers, sympathizes, aids ; and as Captain of our salvation conducts to glory. The plea that men need saintly intercession is mere than met by the humanity and sympathy of our Lord : 2. 10-18: 4. 15: 5.: 2 Cor. 5. 18-21: Phil. I. 5-11: 2. 7, 8: Gal. 4. 4-7: Rom. 8. 3: Gen. 3. 15: Isa. 7. 14: John i. 14. His superiority over Moses, Joshua, and Aaron; and the conse- quent duty of hearkening to his voice, -svith the fearful sin of imbe- lief and apostasy : 3. T:-4. 13: see Numb. 12. i-io: Josh. 11. 15-23: Rev. 7. 9-17: Isa. 9. 6, 7: John 6. 32-58. 4. i4:-6.,2o: 2. 17, 18: 10. 19-23: Eph. 2. 18: 3. 12: Exod. 28: 29.: Psa. no. Compare 2 Pet. 2. 15-22. The peculiar excellence of Christ's priesthood,^ of the new cove- nant, and of Christ as Mediator,'' and of the sacrifice offered by our Lord,*^ with the sentiments and responsibilities appropriate to each."^ The apostle gives the significance of the ancient economy and its various ordinances. The ichole was a shadow or type of good things to come (10. i): but the significance of particular parts only is here explained. The holy of holies, as entered by the high priest, may represent heaven into which Christ enters, 9. 1-14, 21: Lev. 16. The sanc- tuary, as dwelt in by God, may represent our Lord (John 2. 21: Col. 2. 9), or the church, Eph. 2. 19-22: i Pet. 2. 5, 9: the golden '^ 7. i:-8. 6: Rev. 5. 6-13: i. 5, 6: Eph. i. 7: CoL i. 14: i John 2. 2: Matt. 20. 28. '' 8. 7: 9. 1-22: 2 Cor.'3.: i Cor. 11. 25: Rom. 3. 19 31: 5. 2: 6, John 14. 6: Exod. 34. 28: 20. 1-17, * 9. 23:-io. 18: Eph. 5. 2: Tit. 2. 14. «i 10. 19-37: 2. i-r8: 4. 16: Rom. 8. 28-39: 15-17: i Cor. 10. 1-12: Rev. 3. 1-4: Rom. 11. 21. HEBREWS : i TETER. 625 candlestick, the church as enlightened by the word and Spirit of God, Rev. I. :o: 4. 5: Phil. 2. 15, 16: Matt. 5. 14-16: the incense, the prayers and praises of saints, Heb. 13. 15 : Rev. 8. 3, 4: Exod. ^o. 1-8, 34-36: the second vail, Christ's flesh, rent to allow access xinto God, 10. 19, 20: Mark 15. 37, 38: Exod. 26.31-33: the pot ofmanna, the true bread. Rev. 2. 17: Johu6. 48-51: Exod. 16. 32-34: and the mercy-seat, the throne of grace, to which the penitents have free access by the blood of Christ who is the propitiation for sin, 9. 5, compared with 4. 16: Col. 2. 10-17: Rom. 3. 25: Psa. 40. 6-8: Exod. 25. 10-22. The inferiority of this ancient dispensation is repeatedly an nounced, Heb, 7. 22: 9. 9: Gal. 3. 1-5: 4. 9, 10: 2 Cor. 3.: John i. As faith is the grand duty of the gospel, enforced by the facts already examined, so here the apostle illusti-ates it by Old Testa- ment examples. In spite of mysteiy, difficulties, trials, and delay, ancient saints confided in the Divine word, and acted in accordance not with what they saw biit with what they believed. So must we. Faith is the principle both of our pardon and of our stedfastness. II. i:-i2. 13: Rom. 4. 13-25: 5. I, 2: 8. 24: 2 Cor. 4. i3:-5. 8: 1 Pet. I. 8. The practical lessons of this Epistle are remarkable for the peculiarly appropriate motives to which the inspired writer appeals. Be thankful, stedfast, and obedient, for the darkness and teiTor of the ancient law have ceased, and a kingdom that cannot be moved is revealed, 12, 18-29: i Pet. 2. 4-10. Be content, though no earthly inheritance is set before you. There still remain .Toshua's promise and the care of Joshua's God, 13. 5, 6. Note the beauty, to a Jew especially, of the reason given for exercising hospitality, 13. i. Follow faithful teachers, hold fast the unchangeable doctiine of Christ, discountenance vain traditions and ritual observance, joinin<; Chinst without the camp, and look for the Xew Jerusalem, in retm-n for what is lost, 13. 7-14. The closing benediction (ver. 20, 21) is beautifully comprehensive and rich in allusions to the chief doctrine of the Epistle, the New Covenant, and the dignity and grace of the Mediator. The First Epistle General of Peter. Babylon, a.d. 63. 188. Peter, whose original name was Simeon or Simon, was a na- tive ot Bethsaida, on the sea of Galilee ; and the son of Jonas /whence he is called Bar-jona, Matt. 16. 17.) At the time of his first appearance in the gospel history he was max'zied, and living at Capernaum, Mark r. 29, 30; and, like tie sons of Zebedee, fol- 'Z E 626 1 PETER. lowed the occupation of a fisherman. He was hrougut to Jesus by his brother Andrew, who had been a disciple of John the Baptist, but was led by his master's testimony to attach himself to the Di- vine Teacher. For some time after this, the two brothers continued to follow theu' business, until they were summoned by our Lord to be in constant attendance upon him, Matt. 4. 18-20; after which they were his devoted followers. The numerous facts related of Peter during his attendance upon our Saviour, throw much light upon his character at that period. His sincere piety, ardent attachment to his Master, and zeal for his honour, seem to have been blended with some measui-e of rashness and inconstancy ; but, after his fall and restoration, and when ''endued with power from on high," a great change is observable in him. So that he fully justifies the appellation which our Lord had prophetically bestowed on him, calling him Cephas or Petros ; the former a Sjn-iac, the latter a Greek word, both signifying a stone or rock. Immediately after the out-pouring of the Holy Spii'it, Peter was honom-ed by being commissioned to open the gates of the kingdom of heaven first to the Jews, and aftei'wards, in the case of Cornelius and his family, to the Gentiles. These facts do not imply that he had any supreme dignity; while Matt. 23, 8: Gal. 2. 2, plainly prove that he had not — a conclusion which the testimony of antiquity confirms. Of the latter part of Peter's life nothing is known with certainty; but it is supposed that, after his visit to Antioch, mentioned Gal. 2. 1 1, he remained at Jerusalem for some years, and then visited Syria and the countries mentioned in the inscription of this Epistle, which he A\T:ote when he had gone into the Parthian empire. It is said by some that he afterwards went to Rome, and was there put to death by crucifixion, in fulfilment of the prophecy of our Lord respect- ing him, John- 21. 18, 19. Others maintain that he died in Baby- lonia.'^ Both parties, however, agree that he was put to death early in Nero's reign, probably A. D. 64 or 65, and in the persecutions excited by that Emperor. The alleged visit of Peter to Rome in the days of Claudius is altogether without satisfactory foundation (see Introduction to Romans.) This Epistle is generally assigned to a.d. 63, though some give it an earlier date. It is certain that Mark, who was now with Peter (5. 13), was thinking of leaving Paul in 62 a.d., when the Epistle to the Colossians was written, Col. 4. 10, and was absent from him in 64 A.D., 2 Tim. 4. 11. These facts favour the later date. ** See on -the one side, Gieseler's Eccl. History, i. § 27, Philadel- phia; and, on the other, Simon's Mission and Martyrdom of St, Peter, Lond., 1852. 1 PETER : co^'TE^'TS. 627 This Epistle was addressed to the Jewish Christians scattered throughout the diflferent provinces of Asia Minor; yet not altoge- ther without reference to the numerous Gentile converts w^hich those churches contained (i. 14: 4. 3). It appears to have been wi'itten from Babylon (5. 13), which some have supposed to be a mystical name for Eome. This notion has been favoured by winters of the church of Eome, in order to prove the contested point of Peter's residence in the imperial city. But there is no evidence that, at that early period, the name Babylon was ever given to Rome; nor can any reason be assigned "^fhy such a name should at that time be applied to it; or why Peter should choose a figurative name, which, thoxigh adapted to a symbolical style, is plainly unsuited to episto- lary writing. It appeal's, therefore, most reasonable to take the name in its obvious and natural signification, like all the other names mentioned in the apostolic Epistles, and to refer it either to the region of Babylonia, to Babylon, or to Seleucia, which had been built out of the ruins of the ancient city, and in its immediate neighbourhood. The Jews were very numerous in that district, and were not likely to be overlooked by the " apostle of the cir- cumcision ;" and among them it is probable that a Christian chui-ch had been planted. It is well described by Leighton, as " a brief and yet very clear summary, both of the consolations and instructions needful for the encouragement and direction of a Christian in his journey to heaven ; elevating his thoughts and desires to that happiness, and strengthening him against all opposition in the way, both that of corruption within, and temptation and afifiictions from without. The heads of doctrine contained in it are many; but the main that are most insisted on are these thi-ee, /ca'M, obedience, and patience ; — to establish in believing, to direct in doing, and to comfort in sufier- ing; often setting before those to whom he wrote the matchless ex- ample of the Lord Jesus, and the greatness of their engagements to follow him." The general object of the Epistle is stated in 5. 12, and the whole may be divided into two parts, exclusive of the salutation (i. I, 2), introduction (3-12), and conclusion (5. 13, 14). i. General exhortations to love and holiness (i. 13 :-2. 10). ii. Particular exhortations on specific duties (2, 11 -.-5. 12). While the Epistle has thus a practical design, it is as evangelical as if it had been chiefly doctrinal. It points everywhere to Christ ; to his atonement foretold by prophets, contemplated by angels appointed before the foundation of the world ; to his resurrection, ascension, ^md gift of the Spirit ; his example as a suffering Saviour, and the awful solemnities of the last judgment. Like his beloved brother Paul, he urges the doctrines of the gospel as the great motives to 2 E 2 628 1 peter: 1 timothy. lioliness and patience; like liim he descends to the eufoi'ceraent of every relative duty, while giving the most exalted view of ovu' pri- vileges as believers in Christ. His humility, as illustrated by the Gospel of Mark, has been no- ticed already. His honourable notice of Paul, 2 Pet. 3, who had publicly reproved him, and then recorded that reproof in his Epistle to the Galatians, to whom Peter himself was now writmg. Gal. 2. 11: I Pet. I. i: 2 Pet. 3. i, is a fi-esh manifestation of the same spirit. He illustrates in this way his own precept, i Pet. 5.5, and had clearly not forgotten the lessons of the last days of our Lord. 189, Mark that the incorruptible word is the appointed means of the Christian's growth in holiness, i Peter 2. 3: Col. i. 5^ 6: 2 Pet. I. 8: 3. 18: John 17. 17: Psalm 119. Connect and i-ead, 1. 1, 3, 10, 17: 2. 13, 17, 18: 3. i, 7, 8, 18: 4. I, 7, 12: 5.1, 5, 8, 10, II, 14. The First Epistle of Paul the Apostle to Timothy. Macedonia, a.d. 64 or 5 7. 1 90. The tAVO Epistles to Timothy and the Epistle to Titus have been called pastoral Epistles. Thej^ abound in instruction relative to the oversight of the church and other duties of the Christian ministry. They also abound in instruction suited for the churches themselves. Timothy was an inhabitant, perhaps a native, of Lydia, Acts 16. I, 2. His father was a Greek, his mother and grandmother pious Jewesses, by whom he was carefully trained in a knowledge of the Scriptures, 2 Tim. 3. 14. He was probably converted by Paid on his first visit to Lydia, Acts 14. 6 (see i Tim. i, 2: 2 Tim. i, 2: I Cor. 4. 17); and on his second visit was chosen to be the com- panion of the apostle in his journeys and labours. He is every- where spoken of in terms of high praise, i Thes. 3. 2: Phil. 2. 20, and is a noble instance of eminent gifts and grace in one young in years and feeble in health (4. 12: 5. 23). It is difficult, perhaps impossible, to determine when this Epistle was wi-itten. It was evidently addressed to Timothy at Ephesus, and when Paul was either in Macedonia or on his way thither (see I. 3). From Acts 20. i, we learn that Paul left Ephesus after the uproar caused by Demetrius, and went to Macedonia ; and some learned critics have supposed that this Epistle was AATitten at that time. There are, however, several serious difficulties in the way of tliat supposition. (i.) Before Paul left Ephesus, be bad sent Timothy and Erastus before him into IMacedonia, proposing to follow them (Acts 19. 22), and it is verj- unlikely that Timothy returned from this long journey before Paul left Ephesus. 1 timothy: truths. 629 (2.) About the period supposed Timotby was -with Paul in ^Macedonia (see 2 Cor. X. i) ; whereas, when Paul wrote this Epistle, it appears that not only was Timothy at Ephesus, but Paul expected him to remain there for some time (see chap. j. 15: 4. 13). Timothy was also with the apostle at Coiinth afterwards, when he wrote the Epistle to the Romans. (Rom. 16. 21), and when he left Greece to return to Syiia, Acts 20. 4. Although Paul may have remained some time in Macedonia, and have written the Second Epistle to the Corinthians shortly before his departure from that country, yet it can hardly be supposed that he could have been joined there by Timothy so soon if he had given him a charge to abide at Ephesus. (See chap. I. i). (j.) Further, in this Epistle, Paul expresses his intention of coming to Ephesus shortly (j. 15). But, at the jjeriod now in quesion, it appears from Acts 19.21, and 20. J, that Paul liad intended, after passing through Macedonia and Achaia, to pro- ceed to Jerusalem, and to go, not by the circuitous route of Troas and Ejihesus, but direct from Greece to Syria. 'J'liesc and other considerations, have led many to the conclu.-ion that this Epistle mr.st have been written at a later period, after the apostle's fiist imprisonment at Rome, ^\ hile upon a journey which he is supposed to have undertaken shortly before his final imprisonment. The chief diflBculty in this hypothesis is the declaration of I'anl to the elders of the church at Ephesus, when he met them at IMiletus, Acts 20. 25 ; but that this was an inference of his own appears from verses 22, 23, where he says that he does not know what shall befall him, only that he is assured by the Holy Spirit that " bonds and afflictions abide him. ' (See also Phil. i. 25, compared with chap. 2. 17, 23, 24). Upon the whole, this question must be considered as still (ioubtful. But the difBculties attending the later date appear less than those con- nected ^^■ith the earlier. The Epistle appears to liave two chief objects : (i.) To counteract the false doctrines of Jewish teachers, who, whilst professing adherence to the Law, taught doctrines at variance with its holy requirements. Their fallacies, and the contrary truths are forcibly exlubited in chap, i : 4. 7-10 : 6. j-5, 20, 21. Compare Acts 20. 27-32 : 2 Cor. 4. 1-7. (ii.) To guide and encourage Timothy in the duties of his ofiBce ; directing him as to ( I,) public devotions, chap. 2. 1-8; (2,) the duties and behaviour of Christian women, chap. 2. 9, 12: compare i Cor. 11. 3-16: 14.34-40: i Pet. 3. 1-6; (3,) church officers, chap. 3. 1-13 ; (4,) his own teaching, chap. 3- 14 :-4 ; (5.) liis per- sonal holmess, chap. 4. 11-16 ; and (6,) his church administration in the treatment of offenders, of widows, of good elders and bad, of slaves, of the rich ; and the duties of those several classes of persons, chap. 5, 6 ; compare Titus i. 10 i-j. 10. ■\Vitli these are mingled many iirgent and affectionate appeals, tender references to Pauls own conversion, and solenm anticipations of the coming of Christ. The object of the Epistle is stated in the following passages: — 1, 3, 4: 3. 15: 6. 20, 21. Connect and read together: — 1. 1, 3, 5, 18 : 2, 1, 9: 3. 1, 8, 14: •i. 1, 6, 12: 5. 1, 3, 17, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24: 6. I, 3, 6, ir, 17, 2c. 191. In the Epistles to Timothy and Titus— the pastoral Epistlee— we have the „, . , clearest revelation given in Scripture of the character («), qualifica- and duty of tions (fj), and duties (c), of the Christian minister. Though the Christian whole are often described in the same passage, they may be thus ministers. arranged : (a.) I Tim. i : 2 Tim. i. 6-8 : 2. i-8, 14-26 : 2 Cor. 4. 1-7 : Acts 20. 27 32. (b.) I Tim. 3.1-7: Tit. i. 5-1 1 : i Pet. 5. 1-3. (:■.) I Tim. 4. 6:-6. 21 : Tit. i. 13; 2. i:-3. 11 (see Rom. 16. 17, 18): 2 Tim. 3. 14 :-4- 5- 630 1 TIMOTHY : TITUS. AVith all these passages compare Paul's description of his own experience, motive^ Rod labours (see Cor.) ; a model of the gospel ministry. The qualifications of deacons are described in i Tim. 3. 8-15 ; Acts 6. 2-6 : see also Phil. I. I, where ministers and deacons are addressed with all Deacons. ^j^^ ^^5^^^^ On the other hand, churches owe to their ministers support (a), affection and Corresnond- ^'^^P^^'' (P)' °^^ within proper limits, obedience (c). iiig duties of (a.) i Tim. 5. 17, 18 : Gal. 5. 6, 7 : i Cor. 9. 4-14 : 2 Thess. 3. 8. churches. 9; Matt. 10. 10: Luke 10. 7. (b.) I Tim. 5. 17 : i Thess. 5. 12, 13. (c.) Heb. 13. 17 ; for the limits see i Cor. 11. i : Phil. 3. 17 : Heb. 13. 7 : i Pet. 5. 3. These Epistles contain also the fullest account of the approaching corruption of Annroachinc Christianity (a), and of the extensive prevalence of infidelity (6), in corruption of what Scripture calls the last times. Christianity. ^^^ ^ ^j^^^ ^_ ^ ^. ^ ^.^^ ,_ ^.j^ , ^ jiiess. 2. 1-12 : 2 Pet. 2: Jude 17, 18. (p.) I Thess. 5. 2 : 2 Pet. 3 : Ptev. 13. 11. 14 : Luke 12. 35-33 : 18. 8. To con-ect these eiTors, inspired writers direct us to appeal to apostolic doctrine and example, and to the Scriptures generally, i Tim. 4. 6-1 1 : 2 Tim. How met. , i4:-4.-5: 2 Thess. 2. 13-17 : 2 Pet. i. 12-21 : Jude 20, 21. This Scriptural plan of checking error is highly instructive. TIte Ejnstle of Fend to Titus. Macedonia, a.d. 64 or 5 7. 192. Of Titus nothing more is certainly known than we find in the Epistles of Paul. From incidental allusions to him we learn that he was a Greek by birth, Gal. 2. 3, who had been eonverted to Christianity by the instrumentality of Paul, Gal. 1.4. He went up with Paul and Barnabas to Jerusalem, Gal. 2. i, and afterwards accompanied Paul on his travels ; and Is repeatedly mentioned by him in terms of approbation and affection, 2 Cor. 2. i, 2, 13 : 7. 5, 7 : 8. 16-24 : 12. 17-21. Being the son of Gentile parents, and therefore in different cir- cumstances from Timothy, he was not circumcised. Circumcision in his case would have involved, as Paul reasoned, a compromise of principle. Gal. 2. 5. At the time when this Epistle was written, Titus had been left by the apostle in the island of Crete, that he might establish and regu- late the churches there (i. 5). It is not easy to determine when this occurred; no opportunity for it having been afforded by the only visit to Crete, recorded in Acts 27. 7, 8; for he was then on his way to Rome as a prisoner, his stay Avas short, nor could he then expect to spend the ensuing winter in Nicopolis (see 3. 12.) Some have supposed that Paul may have been at Crete on his voyage from Corinth to Ephesus, mentioned in Acts 18. 18; and liave written this Epistle subsequentlj' from Ephesus, having formed the intention of spending the winter at a town named Nicopolis, between Antioch and Tarsus (see 3. 12). Others have placed Paul's visit to Crete between his leaving Ephesus for Macedonia and his TITUS : CONTENTS. 631 second visit to Corinth, mentioned in Acts 20. 2. But the more general opinion is that the visit to Crete here referred to was upon a journey which Paul took after his first imprisonment at Rome, when he sailed to Asia, taking Crete in his way, and leaving Titus there ; and that he wrote this Epistle from Macedonia, when on hi3 way to Nicopohs, It is further supposed that Titus, according to Paul's desire, joined the apostle at XicopoHs, and afterwards accompanied him on his last journey to Rome, being with him there during part of hia second imprisonment, 2 Tim. 4. 10; and having then gone into Dal- matia, probably to preach the gospel, or to visit churches already formed there. What became of him aftens^ards we are not informed. The tradition is that he returned to Crete, and died there at the age of 94. We know nothing of the first introduction of the gospel into Crete, but as there were Jews from that island among Peter's au- dience on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2. 11), and they were nume- rous there (Philo), it is probable that the Christian faith was carried thither by converts from among them. It appears also from this Epistle that Paul had laboured there, and probably with consider- able success ; but that by some means he had been hurried thence before he could order the state of the churches in a regular manner. The commission intrasted to Titus in Crete appears to have been peculiaxiy difficult. Although nature had endowed this island with all that could tend to render man happy, and the inhabitants had formerly been renowned for the wisdom of their constitution and their laws, long before this time the state of law and of morals had sunk very low. The character of the people was unsteady, insin- cere, and quarrelsome : they were notoriously given to licentious- ness and intemperance. Some of the Jews who had settled among them seem to have been regarded by the apostle as more dangerous in many respects than the natives themselves. There is a striking resemblance between this Epistle and the First to Timothy; and they are generally supposed to have been written about the same time. This Epistle is particularly remarkable, as compressing into a very short compass a large amount of instruc- tion, embracing doctrine, morals, and discipline. Its contents are as follows : — After an apostolic salutation, declaring the object for which Paul had invested Titus with special aiithority, he describes the qualifi- cations required in those who were to be ordained to the ministry ; and which were the more necessaiy on account of the dangerous principles of the false teachers whom they had to oppose, and the 632 TITUS: 2 rETEU. general character of the Cretans (i). He next describes the in- structions which were to be given to various classes of persons, enjoining upon the aged and the young the Airtues which ought se- verally to distinguish them; exhorting Titus (himself a young man) to set a pattern, in his own conduct, of the -vdrtues he was to inculcate; teaching servants to be obedient and faithful; for the salvation of the gospel was designed for all orders and classes of mankind ; making them holy in this life, and preparing them for a liigher and better (2). Titus is then instructed to enjoin obedience to rulers, and a peaceable and gentle behaviour to all men ; remem- bering their own former sinfulness, and their salvation through the free grace of God. The indispensable obligation which believers ai-e under to excel in good works is insisted upon; cautions are given against engaging in frivolous inquiries and un^jrofitable disputations; and after some other brief directions to Titus/ the Epistle is closed with salutations and a benediction (3). It is very observable in ibis Epistle, tbat those of tlie humblest rank are exhorted to adorn tbc gospel (2. 10), and that while our salvation is ascribed exclusively to grace .(2. ii), to the " kindness and love of God our Saviour" (}. 4), this fact is made the ground of most urgent exhortations to holiness (2. 14 : j. 8> On the duties Christians owe to civil government, Tit. 3.1: See Kom. 13. i-io: i Pet. 2. 13-17: 2 Pet. :. 10: Jvide 8. The Second Epistle General of I'eter. a.d. 64 or 65. 193. The Epistle is addressed to ail believers (i. i), and espe- cially to the same persons as the former (3 . 1 ). It was ^Titten not long' before the apostle's martyrdom (r. 14), a circumstance that gives it a solemn interest. As in the earlier Epistle he exliorts to patience under persecution, so here he exhorts to perseverance in truth amidst prevailing error and practical infidelity. The best preservative is, as he tells them, progi'essive piety (i. 3-xi): decisive evidence of the truth of j^cripture doctrine being given also by irrefragable testimony, and fulfilled prophecy (i. 16-21). In terms most energetic and awful he warns false teachers, and those who were beginning to yield to their seductions, of their .guilt and danger (2 . 1-2 2), and assures them that the second coming of the Lord, though long delayed, through long-suffering, is as certain as the fact of the deluge (3. 1-3.) He then exhibits the bright side of the same truth, and bids Christians be diligent and holy (3. 14-18). Appealing to Paul's teaching, in confirmation of liis views, he marks how men had wrested his teach- ing so as to make it countenance most pernicious practices, an evil to be remedied not by neglecting those Scriptures, but by increased teachableness and humility (5. 15, \h). teter's last words : 2 timothy. 633 What sect of heretics is here condemned is not cei-tainly kno\vn Their licentious practices (2. 10-15), their covetousness, their denial of the Lord (2. i), their promises of freedom (2. 19) are clearly defined, and serve to connect the advocates of such views with those mentioned (in nearly the same terms throughout), by Jude and by John, Rev. 2. 14, etc. On the genuineness of this Epistle, and of the other antilego- mena (questioned Epistles), see § 170, and Pai-t i. § 153, 155. How prone men seem to be to pervert truth ! The Thessalonians supposed that our Lord's coming was to be immediate; those of whom Peter Avrites supposed it to be indefinitely delayed. Amidst such tendencies nothing less than the Divine Spii'it could have pre- served apostles in a watchful patient frame, nor could anything less than the energy of the same Spirit have taught poor fishermen to speak as they do of God, of sin, and of coming judgment. The sublimity, spirituality, and harmony of these revelations are among the most decisive evidences of a Divine inspu-ation. We treasure up the last words of great men. In the immediate prospect of mai-tyrdom, holiness appears to Peter of the last im- portance, and stedfastness the greatest blessing. His last precept 13 " Grow in grace and in the knowledge of our Lord and Saviour, .Tesus Christ," and his last testimony is to the Divinity of his Lord, '' To Him be gloiy both now and for ever. Amen," 2 Pet. 3. 18. Diligence and eminent piety enjoined from various considerations, I. 5-ri: Heb. 3. 14: 4. 11 : G. 7-18: Gal, 6. 9: Col. i. 23: Rev. 5. 11: I John 3. 10-24. On the final judgment and its issues, see 3. 10-13: Rom. 2. 16: 3.5,6: 14. 10-12 : I Cor. 4. 5 : 2 Cor. 5. 10 : i Thess. 3. 13 : 2Thess. T. 7-10: Phil. i. 10: 2. 16: Heb. 9. 27: 2 Tim. 4. i: Jude 24 : Rev. 20. 11-15 : Matt. 13. 40: 16. 27 : 25. 31-46 : John 5. 22-29 • Acts 10. 42: 17. 30, 31: Psalm 96. 13: Ecc. 12. 14. Connect and read, 1. 1, 3, 12, 16, 19: 2. 1, 4: 3. 3, 5, 8, ir, 14, 17. TJie Second Epistle of Pau the Apostle to Timothy. Borne, A. D. 65 or 66. 1 94. This Epistle was apparently Avritten when Paul was a prisoner at Rome (see chap, i, 8, 16: 4. 6); and probably during his second captivity, not long befox-e his martyrdom. That it was not written during his first imprisonment may be gathered in part from the absence of several who were with him then (see Phil. i. i : Col. i. i : Philem. ver. i: Heb. 13. 23: compare also chap. 4. 10, ir, -svith Col. 4. 10, 14); and from the difference in the apostle's expecta- tions, which were now fixed upon a speedy decease (compare chap. 4. 6, with Phil. I. 25: 2. 24: Philem. ver, 22: Heb. 13. 23); as 2 E 3 634 PAUL'S LAST WORDS : 2 TIMOTHY. well as from his circumstances of increased restriction and greater solitude (compare chap. i. 17, 18, with Acts 28. 30, 31, and Phil. I. 13). But more decisive evidence is afforded by several incidental allusions to events which had clearly occurred not long before this letter was written. Mention is made of a cloak and books left at Troas (4. 13), which Paul had not visited for five years before his first imprisonment at Rome; of Trophimus, who had been left sick at Miletus (4. 20), but who had been with the apostle at Jerusalem at the time of his first apprehension, Acts 21. 29: of Erastus as having stayed at Corinth (4. 20), where Paul had not been since his visit there five years before, accompanied by Timothy, Acts 20. 4. All these circumstances seem to show that this Epistle must have had a later date, probably about the year 65 or 66 : two years later than his Fii^t Epistle. The interval between his two imprisonments he seems to have spent in Asia, Philem. 22: Phil. 2. 24: i. 25: Mace- donia, I Tim. I, 3: wintering in jSTicopolis, Tit. 3. 12. Why he i-eturned to Eome we are not told, but he was soon imprisoned as an evil-doer, 2 Tim. 2. 9; and among his accusers was Alexander the Judaizing teacher of Ephesus, ''who did him much evil," 4. 14. If this view be correct, and this Epistle was the last which the ai:)ostle wrote before his martyrdom, it is invested with peculiar interest, as containing the dying counsels of one who was not *' behind the chiefest of the apostles." One object of writing this Epistle, was to request Timothy to come to him speedily (4. 9) ; because his other friends had left him (see 4 10-12). He desired the presence of Timothy and Mark, that they might both cheer him in his trials, and aid him in the work of the ministry (see ver. 11). The absence of all allusion to Peter throws light on the question raised (on p. 626), in reference to the place of his martyrdom. Commencing with strong expressions of affectionate regard, he addresses to his son Timothy a series of earnest exhortations ta stedfastness, diligence, and patience in his work; to courage and constancy under persecutions; and to the exercise of all personal virtues : encouraging him by calling to mind his early training in piety and in the knowledge of the Scriptures: reminding him of some who had proved unfaithful in the hour of trial : warning both Timothy and his flock against false teachers, vain controversies, and false professors, the increase of whom is predicted : foretelling the gi'ievous times which were yet to come : and enforcing his solemn charge to Timothy to be vigilant, faithful, and zealous in the dis- charge of his ministry, by the consideration that his ovrn com'se was uearly run, and the time of his departure was at hand , PAUL'S LAST WORDS : JUDE. 635 Throughout this letter to his beloved friend, Paul manifests a strong conviction of the truth of the principles he had embraced, a happy superiority to all his past or future sufferings in support of them, and a triumphant assurance of his great Master's approbation and reward. Connect and read, 1. 1, 3, 6, 8, 13, 15: 2. 1, 8, 14, 19, 22: 3. i, 10, 14: 4. I, 6, 9, 14, 16, 19, 22. This Epistle contains a noble view of the consolation which Chris- tians enjoy in the midst of suffering, and in the prospect of death, I. 9-18: 2. 9-13: 4. 6-8, 16-18. The holiest spii-itual affection to God and Christ is not only consistent with human friendships, but productive of them, i. 2-5: 4. 9, 21. No where are privilege and duty, gi'ace and holiness more closely combined, 2 Tim. 2.19, In the approaching coiTuption of Christianity, Paul directs Timothy to the true conservative principle of its purity; not miracles nor a fresh revelation, but the doctrine in which Timothy had been in- structed, and those Scriptures which make the man of God perfect, thoroughly furnished unto all good works, 3. 14-17: 2 Thess. 2.: 2 Pet. I. 15-21: 3. 1-4, 14-17. How instructive that in the last writings of both Peter and Paul, nor less in the writings of John, (Rev. 22), and in the prospect of the heresies that were to prevail in the chm-ch, we should be dh-ected to the study of the Bible, and that we are thus led to expect no additional disclosux'e of the Divine will. The Cross — our hope, our model, our motive : The Crown — its purity, certainty, blessedness : The Word — its promise, pre- cept, doctrine all complete — are among the last words of the sacred page. Only let these continue to be set forth, and the chm-ch need not fear. The General Epistle of Jude. Syria, A. D. 75 or 64. 195. Jude, the author of this Epistle, was called also Lebbseus and Thaddseus, Matt. 10. 3 : Luke 6. 15. He was the brother or near relation of our Lord, and one of the twelve apostles. We read little more of him in the Gospels than that he inquired of our Lord how he intended to manifest himself to his disciples and not to the world, John 14. 22. His Epistle is supposed to have been vmtten to Jewish Christians in Syria and Arabia where he is reported to have laboured: as Peter's Second Epistle was written to persons of the same character in Asia. It is highly probable that one had seen the writings of the other. Compare 2 Pet. 2. Those who think that Peter had seen Jude's Epistle give to the latter the date of 64 or 65 A. D., as does Lardner, or even an earlier date: while others conclude that it was written about 75 a. d., or even later. 636 1st epistle of johx. The design of the Epistle is clearly to guuid the ChrLstiau church against those false teachers, who resolved all religion into .snecula- tive belief and outward profession, and sought to allure the disciples into insubordination and licentiousness. The whole may be divided into two parts: the first, descriptive of tlie punishment, 5-7: the second, of the character of these seducei"s, 8-19, To guard the disci- ples against being led astray by them, the apostle refers to the Israelites who had perished in the wilderness, to the angels who had fallen from their original dignity, and the cities of the plain which had been made an example of Divine vengeance; and shows that a similar fate awaited those wicked seducers. He reminds them that it had been predicted that such persons should arise in the last period of the world ; exhoi-ts them to stedfastness and prayer, and to efforts for the salvation of others; and concludes with an ascrip- tion of praise to Him who alone could preserve them from falling. See 2 Pet. 2. 3.: 2 Thess. 2.: 2 Tim. 3. Ungodly men have many pleas to urge in arrest of judgment. ''They had experienced deliverance:" but so had Israel, ver. 3. " They had lived near to God, and his favour had exalted them:" so had the lost angels, 6. '' They but yielded to natural propensity:" 80 did Sodom, 7. Thus may the Old Testament be used to illus- trate the New, and facts to prove principles. Sec. 4. Helps to i. 2. and 3. Joint cud Hevelation, The First Epistle of John. Towards the close of the \st Century or 68. 196. This sacred Avriting, though called an Epistle, has more of the character of a discourse on the doctrines and duties of Christianity. It appears to have been addressed to believers generally, especially to Gentiles and I'esidents in Asia Minor, among whom John himself had laboured (2. 7: 2. 12-14, 20-27). The writer has not deemed it necessary to prefix his name; but its remarkable similarity, both in matter and expressions, to the other writings of the apostle John, confirms the testimony of the early Christians, and aSbrds satis- factory evidence that he was its author. It Avas certainly written by an eye-witness of the person and labouis of our Lord (1. 1-4: 4. 14). It is commonly supposed to have been written from EphesuK, Ijut at what precise date is uncertain; a late date is highl}' probable from the errors which are here condemned. It was evidently one object of this Epistle to counteract errors already prevalent. Some (Questioned the Dii-iac dignity of our Lord, and denied him to be the Son of God. 'I'hoso the apostle calls de- 1 JOHN : LESSOXS. C37 ceivers aud autichrist^ (2. 22: 4, 15: 5, i). Others denied bis hunuoiitij, thiis contradicting the real fellowship of Christ with men (Heb. 2. 16: 4. 15), and the reality of his death and propitiation. His incarnation was, as they held, but an appearance, and the story of his life, a myth. This delusion the apostle strongly denounces (4. 3), and declai-es that he had himself felt with his hand the body of his Lord (i. i). A third party seem to have held that it was enough to worship God with the spirit, and that the body might have all possible indulgence. This immoral creed the apostle refutes by sho^\dng that every sin is real transgi'ession (3. 4); that fellowshi^D with God purifies the Christian, and that by this purity only can we be recognised as His (3. 8-10: 2. 5: 4. 13: 5. 11). The errors which are thus rebuked early ripened into heresy, and their advocates were known by diSerent names (see § 191 (3),). Whether they had made such progress as to have formed defined sects at the time this Epistle was wx'ittisn is doubtful; but its con- tents are such as refute these and similar errors, both of ancient and modern times, and in this respect it possesses peculiar value. While the correction of prevalent error was clearly one aim of this Epistle, it was not the only, perhaps not the chief aim. Other topics are introduced and discussed of the deepest interest, and to these the correction of error seems regarded as subordinate. i. We are taught the true natux-e of fellowship with God (i. 3''). He is Light (1.5) and Love; and fellowship implies conformity to Him: light, and therefore man must be purified and redeemed (r. 7:-2. 2): light, and therefore man must be holy (2. 3-7): love, aud thei-efore we must love one another (2. 27). Let, however, Christ be denied, and all these blessings are lost (2. 22-24). ii. We are taught the blessedness and duties of sonship. Not a The word Antichrist occurs onlj' in these Epistles. It means either one who claims to be Christ, or one opposed to him ; and such are all who deny that Jesus is ::^[essiah (or Christ), or that the Messiah has come in the flesh. When the word ig applied to the Great Apostasy (2 Thess. 2. 5-10), as it is in modern discussions, it means that that apostasy is supremely opposed to our Lord in his teaching and office. b Note the revelation here given of the theme of apostolic teachiug (r. 1,2), and its result (j). (i.) Christ's eternity and union with the Father, John i. i : 16. 28 : 17- 5- 24- (2-) Christ's manifestation m the flesh, and to each Clu-istlan, John i. 14.. ( J ) Eternal life in him, John 10. 28: i John 5. 11. In its results, this message brings fellowship with apostles, with God, and with our Lord ; with apostles, for we share, i.e., have "in common" with them (Acts 4. 32), forgiveness, love, and parental discipline, Rom. 5. i : Rev. i. 9; with God, for we share his holiness (2 I'et. 1 : 2 John 2. 29 : 5. 18), and blessedness; with Christ, for we share his jus- tification— sin has no more dominion over him, — his resurrection, adojjtion, and glory. This idea of " fellowship," of which pecuniaiy contribution is one and a lower form, b?ing expressed by the same word, KOivavia, explains manj' passages. 638 1 AND 2 JOHN. only fellowship, but adoption is our privilege in Christ : and again we are led to the same results. God is righteous : as his children we too must be righteous (2. 2<):-^. 3). Christ came to take away sin; and in him is no sin; to him we must be conformed (3. 4-10). He gave his life for us, and herein his love is our model (11 -18). Having his spirit we shall share his other blessings (19-24). Again, let Christ be denied, in his human nature especially, and these blessings are lost (3. i9:-4. 6). iii. He had begun with the truth that God is light ; and thence shown what fellowship with him and sonship involve; now he gives another view. God is love (4. 7, 8). Love is his essence, was mani- fested in the mission and character of his Son, and is the necessary condition of sonship (5. 21). Love to God and one anothei", faith in Christ, such confidence as casts out fear, are all among the results which this revelation secures. Only let us truly believe that God gives eternal life, and that life in his Son (5. 11 -13), and we become holy and happy; we are forgiven and sanctified. Reject this truth or any part of it, and we are left without hope. Like the world we lie in wickedness (5. 18). Very beautiful is it to mark how from the holiness (light) and love of God he gathers the doctrine of propitiation, and proves the necessity of holiness. Compare i. 5 :-2. ii; and 4. 7-13. 197. The general character of this Epistle probably gave occasion to the opinion early entei-tained that John was of a peculiarly afiec- tionate disposition ; and this opinion seems just. Yet none has spoken of false doctrine more sharply. The gentlest Christian may be a son of thunder (Luke 3. 13-19) when Chi-ist's honour is at stake, and charity may be exercised in denouncing sin as well as in loving the brethren. The truth most largely insisted upon in this Epistle is the neces- sity of holiness, as the evidence and fruit of faith, i. 6: 2. 3-11, 29: 3- 3-15, 39:, 21, 24: 5. 18: Rom. 8. 16: James 2. 17-26: Tit. I. 16: 2. II, 12: Eph. 2. 10: John 15. 2. The Second Epistle of John. 198. Of the thirteen verses of this Epistle, eight are in substance found in the first, and it is concluded from the similarity of style and subject that both were written about the same time, and in refei'ence to the same topics. It is addressed to a Chxistian lady and her children for the purpose of encouraging them to continue in the truth, and avoid giving any countenance to deceivers. He calls her Electa, possibly from her name, but more probably (see ver. 13), on account of the eminence of her piety. The opinion 2 AND 3 JOHN : REVELATION. 639 that some chiirch or the church at large is addressed vinder this title can scarcely be maintained. An Epistle so addressed shows with what vigilant affection the ministers of the gospel ought to cherish the piety of those whom they have gained, and it shows no less the importance in the sight of God of the station of a Christian mother, and the earnestness with which she should interest hei'self in the religious welfare of her children. Tlie Third Epistle of John. 199. That the Gaim or Cuius, to whom this Epistle is addressed, was the person mentioned inRom. 16. 23, and i Cor. i. 14, though not cex*tain, is highly probable ; as he appears to have been an eminent Christian, particularly distinguished for his hospitality to Christian evangelists or missionaries. The apostle expresses his affectionate joy at this and other evidences of his piety; cautions him against one Diotrephes, noted for his ambition and tui'bulence ; and recom- mends Demetrius to his friendship; deferring other matters to a personal interview. '* The Elder," the name assumed by the author of this and the preceding Epistle, might probably be applied to John, when all the other apostles were dead, as a title of honourable distinction; for he was the senior of the whole church ; or he might modestly, yet as claiming authority, use it upon this occasion. Comparing these two Epistles with Philemon, it is evident that the apostles wrote as apostles even in then- private letters, and that whatever the theme of their communications, they imparted to each a savour of Christ. Tlie Eevelation of John. Patmos, a.d. 96. 200. This book is styled the Apocalypse^ or Revelation (i. e. the re- vealing or unveiling of that which had been hidden), as consisting of matters chiefly prophetical, which were revealed to John by our Lord Jesus Christ. This took place when he was in the isle of Patmos, in the ^gean Sea, -^rhither he was banished, as is generally supposed, by the emperor Domitian, a.d. 94 or 95. Some, indeed, are of opinion that this happened much earlier, during the persecu- tion of Nero, A. D. 67 or 68; but the arguments adduced in support of this opinion are by no means conclusive. Irenseus, Eusebius, and in the 3rd century Yictorinus expressly refer the book to the age of Domitian ; a view favoured by the testimony of Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and Jerome, nor is there any other tradition in the early church. Internal evidence also confirms it, such as the prevalence of persecution, and the great declension which appears 640 REVELATION : OrTLlNE. to have takeu. place in the Ephesiau chr.i-ch, which as late as a. d. 62 was warmly commended by Paul, for the fidelity and love ofits members. ISTo book, it may be added, was earlier commented upon, nor is it surpassed in dignity and sviblimity of composition. This book greatly resembles those of Ezekiel and of Daniel both in form and in substance. It appears, indeed, to be a continuation of the prophecies of Daniel ; but given with greater fulness of detail ; the pi-incipal topics being the same, and the termination exactly identical. It consists of two principal divisions: — Pai't i. (i.-3.) relates to "the things which are;" comprising a preparatoiy vision exhibiting the Divine perfections and the human sympathy of the Redeemer, and the Addresses or Epistles to the Seven Churches ; each of Avhich consists of three parts : i . The introduction, referring in each case to some of the attributes of Him who addresses the church, taken from the preceding vision, in which a progressive order is observable, and an appropriateness to the general tenor of the epistle which follows; 2. A description of the characteristics of the church, with suitable encouragement, admoni- tion, or reproof; and 3 . Promises of reicard to those who overcome, which are addressed to all the churches. ii. The remainder of the book (4.-22.) is occupied with the pro- phecy of " the things which shall be hereafter." It consists of a series of visions, showing forth, by means of symbolical imagery and figurative language, the conflicts and sufferings of the people of God, and liis judgments upon their enemies; and concluding vdth a re- presentation of the church of Christ, the ISTew Jerusalem, after the final judgment. The principal contents of this prophecy are as follows : — An introductor)^ vision, representing the Divine glory (4.), the .sealed scroll, and the Lamb who alone is worthy to open it (5). The opening of the first six seals (6). The sealing of the 144,000 of the tribes of Israel; the appearance and worshij? of the innu- merable multitude from all nations ; and the opening of the seventh t^eal (7. 8. i). The vision of an angel offering incense at the altar; followed by the sounding of the first six trumpets (8, 2-13 : 9). The vision of a mighty angel, with a little scroll open in his hand; which, after the seven thunders, and the angel's proclamation, John is directed to take and eat (10). The measuring of the temple and altar; the two witnesses; their prophesying, death, resurrec- tion, and ascension; the sounding of the seventh trumpet (11). The vision of the woman persecuted by the drngou; the conflict between Michael and his angels, and the dragon and his angels; preservation of the woman in the wilderness (12). Tlie beast rising up out of the sea, and the second beast coming up oiit of the earth REVELATIOX : OUTLIXE. G4T (13). The vision of the Lamb and the 144,000 ou Moiiut Siou; the pi'oclamations of the three angels; the hai-vest, and the vintage (15). The pouring out of the seven vials of plagues (16). The angel's description of the woman sitting upon the beast (17). Another angel's proclamation of Babylon's fall and destruction (18.), fol- lowed by songs of praise and exultation (18.: 19. i-io). "The Word of God" attended by his faithful followers, by whom, the beast and the false prophet, and the confederate kings, are over- thi'own and destroyed (19. ii-2r). The binding of the dragon, and ills imprisonment for a thousand years, during which the saints live and reign with Chiist; and at the end of which, Satan being again loosed, gathers the nations once more to battle against " the beloved city," when he and his rebellious hosts are finally overthrown and cast into the lake of fire (20. i-io). Visions of the last judgment, the new heaven and the new earth, and the heavenly Jerusalem (20. io:-22. 3): followed by final addi-esses from the angel, from Christ,* and from the apostle, declaring the Divine origin, the abso- lute certainty, and the speedy accomplishment of these predictions (22.6-21). More briefly the whole has been summed up thus : — We have first, seven epistles to the seven churches (1.-3); and scvcntJiljj, towards the close, the !Jsew or heavenly Jenisalem (21.-22), We have sccmdly, seven seals (4.1 :-8. i). thirdhj, seven trumpets soimded (8. 2:-ii). foirrtlilii, three enemies, Satan, the beast, and the false prophet warring against the church (12. -14). fifthly, seven vials are poured out (15. 16}. sixthly, the three enemies of the church are overthrown (i 7.-20). With these central objects, seals, trumpets, vials, Satan, the beast, and the false prophet and other visions are intei'Avoven as iutvoductor}' and concluding scenes. :oi. In the interpretation of Revelation we meet with many difficulties. The general meaning of the symbols is indeed com- monly clear, foimded as they often are on resemblance, and used with imiformity, but the application of symbols to specific events is by no means obvious. A principle adopted by Dean Woodhouse seems desening of general acceptance, namely, that unless the lan- guage and symbols of the Apocalyi^se reqviu-e another mode of ap- plication, its predictions are to be applied to events occurx-ing in the progi-essive kingdom of Christ, or the history of the Christian church from the apostolic age to the end of time. The Bible is the history of the chiu'ch, and of other nations only so far as they are connected with it. And it seems but reasonable to look in revela- 642 REVELATIOX : MODES OF INTERPRETATIOX. tion for the same general trutli which we find elsewhere. The whole analogy of Scripture is in favour of this view. On the Prophetic Visions of the Revelation. As no other portion of sacred Scripture is more difficult ; bo of none have the explanations been more various. The different theories may be arranged under three heads. I. Some consider the greater part of these prophecies to have had their fulfilment in the early ages of the church. In this view Grotius, Hammond, Wetstein, Eichhorn, De Wette, Lee, Stuart, and Hug concur, and of course maintain the earlier date of the book. This is the preterist interpretation.^ Professor Stuart, who advocates this view, divides the whole into three great catastrophes: the fii'st (chap. 6-11), describing the des- truction of Jerusalem and the overthrow of the Jewish persecutinrj power by a series of Divine judgments; and, at the same time, the deliverance of the Christians: — second (chap. 11-19), the destruction of the Roman persecuting power and the triumph of Christianity over Paganism: — and third (chap. 20-22), the last great efforts (still future), of heathen antichristian powers, issuing in their entire over- throw; followed by the general judgment, the everlasting punish- ment of the wicked, and the glorified state of the righteous. II. A second class of expositors, comprising the gi'eater number of Protestant writers, regard these prophecies as a delineation of the great features in the history of the world, or of the church, from the apostolic age to the end of time. This interpretation regards the narrative as a continuous historj' reaching on to the end of time, though some parts of the book are treated as synchronological. Its advocates ai'e Mede, Sir I. Kewton, Vitringa, Bishop Newton, Scott, Forbes, Frere, Cuninghame, "Wood- house, Elliott, Keith, and Birks. "VV^hile agreeing, however, in this general view, they display the utmost diversity of opinion as to the application of the different" symbols; some extending them more or less to the events of secular histoiy, while others restrict them entirely to the affairs of the church. According to the scheme of interpretation adopted by the late T. Scott, the first six seals (chap. 6), predict, first, the early progress of Christianity, and then the gradual undermining of the Pagan persecuting Roman Empire by successive judgments, till it was terminated by the conversion of the emperors to Christianity. In « These outlines are taken, as are portions of the introductions to several of th? Epistles, from the Pocket Taragraph Bible, published by the Religious Tract Society. REVELATION : MODES OF INTERPRETATION. G43 the first f<)iir trumpets (chap. 8), is foretold the gi-adual subversion of the Roman empire by the Goths, Huns, Moors, and Vandals; and in the fifth and sixth (chap. 9), the spread of Mohammedanism, first vmder the Saracens and then under the Turks. Chap. 11 is interpreted as predicting the corrupt state of the nominal Christian church, for a period of 1260 years; during the whole of which, however, there is a competent number of suffering witnesses for the truth who protest against these coiTuptions, till at length they are slain, and their testimony is silenced for a very short time. These last circumstances are considered as future. Chap. 12 refers again, in more detail than before, to the revolution by which the Roman empire became professedly Christian. Chap, 13 predicts the rise, establishment, and dominion of the pctpal Roman empire as the ten- horned beast ; the Eomish clergy as the two-homed beast; and the pope as the image of the beast. (These are supposed to be afterwards more fully described in chap. 17). Chap. 14 refers to the opposition made by true believers to this antichristian power. The seven vials (chap. 16), jjredict a succession of judgments (the whole, or by far the greater part, being yet unfulfilled), by which the papal empire and Rome itself will be utterly desolated, as declared in chap. 18. The elaborate work of Mr. Elliot {Horce Apocalyptica;), proceeds upon similar principles, though in gi'eater detail, and with many , important differences in application. He supposes the first six SEALS (chap. 6), to depict six successive periods in the history of the Roman empire, between about A. D. 96 and 324 ; namely, ist, an era of conquest and prosperity: — 2nd, Civil war and bloodshed : — 3rd, Fiscal oppression and giievous distress : — 4th,Wide-spread desolation: — 5th, Persecution and maii;yrdom of Christians : — 6th, Overthrow of paganism by Constantine. The " sealing of the sei-vants of God" (chap. 7. 1-8), denotes the preservation of a faithful remnant during the long apostasy. The first six trumpets (chap, 8, 9), describe successive scoiirges upon the Roman empire, by the invasions of the Goths, Vandals, Huns, Saracens, and Turks. The " little book," and the following visions (chap, 10.: it, 1-13), are a supplementary revelation, having reference chiefly to the era of the Reformation; the measuring of the Temple denoting a separation of the true from the apostate church; and the tico vcitnessess (chap. 11. 3-13), signify- ing the twofold succession of faithful Christian churches in Eastern and Western Christendom. In chap. 11. 14-19, the prophetic his- tory IS resumed with the sounding of the seventh trumpet ; but is again interrupted by a distinct series of visions in chap. 12, 13; tnat of " the woman clothed ^vith the sun" (chap, 12), describing the struggle between the Christian church and the pagan dragon' the first beast with ten horns (chap. 13. i-io), denoting the Roman 644 REVELATION : 3I0DES OP INTERPRETATION. power under its papal head; the second fico-horned beast (chap. 13. 11-18), rei^resenting the Romish hierarchy, with its two orders ot clergy; and the " image of the beast " signifying the general coun- cils of the papal church. After another series of intermediate visions in chap. 14, the prophetic history is carried on in chap. J4-r6, by the pouring out of the seven vials, which are applied to events arising out of the French Revolution, commencing in 1789. The sixth, which is interpreted as signifjdng judgments upon the Turkish empire, forms, according to this scheme, the boundary line, separating the past from the future. Dr. Keith intei-prets the fii'st six seals (chap, 6), as representing the church of Christ, and the various forms of false faith by which it was to be assailed; namely, istseal, Descriptive of the Lord Jesus Christ and the Christian religion; 2nd, Mohammedanism ; 3rd, Popery in the dark ages; 4th, Infidelity; 5th, The depressed and l)ersecuted state of the true church in past ages; 6th, " The great day of the wratli of the Lord," yet unfulfilled. The first six TRUMPETS (chap. 8, 9), he explains as describing the series of events v.-hich ended in the extmction of the Roman empire. The visions in chap. 10, he refers to events in Eui-ope, at and after the period of the Reformation. The two m'tnesscs (chap. 1 1), he considers to be faithful churches of Christ; and their pi'ophesying in sackcloth for I 2 Co years not to have yet ceased. The woman clothed with the sun,, etc. (chap. 12), represents the history of Christianity, and the con- liict of the church with its pagan and papal enemies. The first and second beasts (chap. 13), are imperial and papal Rome. The seven VIALS (chap. 14, 15), are the judgments of God on the papacy; the first five of which were fulfilled in the French Revolution and the wars which followed it; the sixth vial signifying the wasting away and dissokition of the Turkish empire, now in progress of ac- complishment. Beau Woodhouse, adopting as a fundamental principle, the religious icference of all the symbols, views the seals as giving a general outline of the history of the Christian church; — the first three veach.- ing to the middle ages; the fourth representing the papal tj'ranny; the fifth, the martyi-s of the whole period; and the sixth, the tiiumphs of the Reformed churches, and the approaching over- throw of all the enemies of God. The trumpets, he supposes to go over the same ground, in more detail; describing attacks of here- tics and antichristian coriiipters on the Christian religion; the first four relating to those to which it wtxs subjected in its early ages from Jewish and pagan enemies, and from false teachers ; the fifth to the iiercsy of the Gnostics, and the sixth to the Mohammedan powers. The VIALS, he i-egards as designating successive inflictions of Divine REVELATION I MODES OF IXTERrRETATION. C-t.', vengeance upon the enemies and perseciitora of the church, not yet fulfilled. Another scheme of interpretation, proceeding on the same genei-al principle as the preceding, but differing considerably in its applica- tion, proposed in a work entitled " The Book of the Unveiling, with Notes," is as follows: — That the seals (chap. 6), represent different periods in the history of the church; namely, ist. The early triumphs of the gospel; 2nd, Severe persecution; 3rd, Affliction, famine, and general distress, both temporal and spiritual; fulfilled m the invasions of the Roman empire by the Northern nations, and in the darkness and decay of the church; 4th, Awful corruption, apostasy, and persecution; comprising the period from the esta- blishment of the papacy to the Reformation; 5th, A period of com- parative repose and revival, commencing with the Reformation and extending to the present time; 6th, Shaking among the nations, imiversal revolution, and great terror, still future, but near at hand. As, according to this scheme, the seveyith seal, and the seven trumpets, and seven vials are still in futurity, no attempt is made to explain them; but the series of visions in chap. 12. -16. 16, are considered to be illustrative of, and to synchronize with those in chap. 6-9 : — chap. 6, being parallel with chap. 12, 13 ; chap. 7, with chap. 14, 15 ; chap. 8, 9, with chap. 16. 1-16; and chap. 11. 15-19, with chap. 16. 17-21. According to another view taken of the plan of this Book, a more general meaning is given to many of the symbols; and the subjects are considered as not being arranged in strictly chronological order. For example, the scenes presented at the sounding of the first four trumpets (chap. 8. 7-12), are supposed not to refer exclusively to any particular places, times, or persons, but to predict scenes of devas- tation, each rising above the preceding in fearful signs of woe ; the country, with its fertile fields, first suffei-ing; then the maritime dis- tricts -with the sea, then the rivers with the cities upon their banks, and lastly, the luminaries of heaven. It is urged that the presen- tation in these symbols of different departments of creation, the progi-ess of the series to a climax, and the recun-ence, in each, of the statement, that a third part of each was affected, indicate the general nature of the prophecy. In like manner, when, upon the pouring out oi the first four vials (chap, 16. 2-9), the land, the sea, the rivers^ and the sun, are in succession affected by the judgments of God, in a still more dreadful and extensive manner, those visions ai'e re- garded as having no restricted or exclusive application; but as representing generally, in conjunction with those which follow (chap. 16. 12-21), the judgments of God, as coming with increasing terribleness upon such as persist in rebellion against him. 646 REVELATIOX : MODES OF IXTERPRETATIO]^ Oue scheme which has been proposed {Biblical Review, 1847), W^' ceeding upon these principles, is in substance as follows : — That the first six SEALS (chap. 6), exhibit successive judgments of God on the Jewish nation, ending in its complete ovei-throw, on accoimt of its opposition to the kingdom of Christ, and persecution of his people; while the -visions in chap. 7, signify the presei'vation of the servants of God, first among the Jewish people, and then among the Gen- tiles:— That the trumpets (chap. 8, 9), which form the central subject of the next series of visions, are general symbols of universal devastation and of severe and extensive calamities upon heathen and idolatrous nations (see chap. 9. 20), which were fulfilled in part by the disasters which came upon the Roman empire, and led to its fall: — That the visions which follow (chap. 10., 11. 1-13), are de- signed to direct the mind foi-wai-d from the judgments on the wicked, to the time when God's promises to his people shall be accomplished : — That the two visions of the temple and altar, and the tv:o witnesses, present a general sketch of the office, condition, and pi'ospects of the Christian church, — this series of visions being closed with the sounding of the seventh trumpet, when the judgments of God are completed, and the world is subjected to his government, chap. 11. 14-1^; — That with chap. 12, commences anew series, the visions in chap. 13, representing two chief agencies employed by Satan in his opposition to Christ; the first beast (ver. i-io), denoting tyrannical earthly power, opposed to the government of God, and persecuting his people; and the second beast (ver. 11-18), which supports the first, representing the power of false priesthoods, founded on delu- sion, and exercised by means of social privation and popular vio- lence : — That, after introductory visions in chap. 14, 15, the seven VIALS, or vessels of plagues, in chap. 16, exhibit severe and exten- sive calamities on the votaries of the world, and of power and su- perstition amongst professed Christians; and that the woman sitting vpon the beast (chap. 17), and Babylon (chap. 18), are a twofold representation of the same object, signifying all antichristian and persecuting systems, usurping the name and the place of the true church of Christ, supported by worldly power, and governed by earthly principles ; and thus referring clearly to Rome and the papacy, but not to them only. III. Another class of interpreters, taking an entirely diflferent view from any of those already mentioned, consider the greater part, if not the whole, of this series of prophecies, to belong, in its strictest and fullest sense, to the last days. This interpretation is the futurist, and has been advocated by Maitland, Burgh, and others. According to this scheme, all the prophetical part of the Apo- REVELATION : MODES OF INTEEPKETATIOX. 647 C'llypse is viewed as a representation of events, Avhich ai-e to take place shortly before the second advent of Christ, and the consum- mation of all things; the Israel spoken of here being the literal Israel, — the " two witnesses " being two individuals, probably Moses and Elijah, — the days in the chronological periods, literal days,— and the antichrist or apocalyptic heast, under his last head, a personal infidel antichrist, who is to reign over the whole extent of the old Eoman empire, and to pei-secute and triumph over the saints for just three yeai-s and a half, until Chi'ist's coming to des- troy him. Mr. Burgh considers the " sealed book " (chap. 5, 6), to be the book, or title-deed of Christ's inheritance which has been purchased (Eph. i. 14), but is not yet recovered out of the hands of the usurper; — the opening of the seals being the imfolding of the acts of Chi-ist, when he shall vindicate his inheritance, and assume his throne, — and the whole of the visions which follow being occu- pied with the events of that last great crisis. 202. If in consequence of the difficulties of this book any are tempted to treat lightly all the prophetic Scriptures, let it be re- membered that ancient prophecy was probably as mysterious to a Jew as is Revelation to us. That a son of David should not see corruption, that that son should be numbered with malefactors, be put to an ignominious death, and yet sit for ever upon his throne, seemed profound mysteries. All, however, were fulfilled, and they served the meanwhile to sustain the hopes of those who were waiting •' for the consolation of Israel:" so of this book. 203. Whatever difference of opinion may exist among interpreters with respect to the precise times and countries, events, and persons, to which it is supposed these visions refer, they are mostly agreed both as to its general character and design, and as to the lessons to be deduced from it — lessons more or less appropriate to every age of the church.'* Thus all have learned from these symbolical repre- sentations that Chmt is exalted to the highest dignity in heaven, and exercises universal dominion on earth — that the state of the church of Chiist is for a long time to be one of trouble and conflict — that stedfastness and fidelity are our duty — that after the over- throw of its first adversaries the Jews, the gi-eat enemy would employ against it other agents — that worldly power and policy, the persecutor and the false prophet, would be allied in seeking to de- stroy or to corrupt it— that the marks of this unhallowed combi- nation are pride, worldly pomp, a persecuting spirit, a careless and luxurious life (13. 7: 18. 3-24) — that while exposed to the assaults of these foes, it woidd ever be under Divine protection — that what- " See Delta on Revelation, Nisbet, 1850. 648 REVELATION : THE MAN OF SIN. ever was opposed to the kingdom of Christ would certainly be overthrown — that even now there is a constant and most intimate connection between the visible and the invisible world, prayer and praise ascending continually to the throne of God, and messengers of wrath and mercy descending thence — that the providence and "■overnment of God comprehend all subjects and events, and render them subservient to the best ends — that the church, after passing through a condition of abasement, warfare, and tribulation, will be brought to a state of honour, peace, and felicity — that the Saviour who redeemed his people by the sacrifice of himself, ever regards them with infinite tenderness and benignity, aids and defends them by his almighty power, and will receive them at last to his heavenly kingdom — and, finally, that the unholy being excluded, all the fol- lowers of Chi-ist, of every age and country, will be united in one glorious society, exhibiting perfect holiness, and enjoying everlast- ing happiness, in the presence of their God and Saviour. These are some of the most important truths contained in this book ; they are presented with peculiar vividness and power; and they have contributed much to the faith and love, the fortitude and patience, the hope and joy, of all the followers of the Lord. 204. Among the prophetic visions of the Apocalypse, there is one which appears peculiarly prominent (17. 18); and which acquires the greater importance, as Avell as clearness from other prophetic intimations evidently referring to the same subject, 2 Thess. 2. 3-12: I Tim. 4. 1-5. There is unusual agreement among the greater number of the best expositors in explaining these combined pro ■ phecies ; although some consider them to refer to events still future. They are regarded as predicting the rise and temporary ascendency of a great apostate power, in the midst of the Christian church, which should be distinguished by the following character- istics : — ist. Eminent coi-ruption of religion, which corruption, by fraud as well as force, it spreads and maintains throughout the world, 2 Thessi. 2. 3, 8-10: I Tim. 4. I, 2: Eev. 17. 2-5 : 18. 3-5 : 19. 2. 2nd. Gross immorality and licentiousness, combined with hypocritical and self- righteous asceticism, i Tim. 4. 2, 3. 3rd. AiTOgant and blasphemous pretensions, usurpation of Divine prerogatives, opposition against God, and persecution of his people, 2 Thes. 2. 4, 5 : Eev. 17. 6-14: 18.6-20: 19.2. 4th. Great wealth, magnificence, and lux- ury, Rev. 17. 4: 18. 7, 8, 11-19. 5th. Eeliance upon the support and aid of worldly powers, whose tyraimy it sanctions and upholds, Eev. 17. I, 2, 15, 17: 18. 3, 9. Such is the picture drawn by the hand of prophecy, of tliis rival and enemy of God, seated in his temple; and its counterpart is but REVELATION : ADMITTED TRUTHS. 649 too clearly seen in the history of a great portion of Christendom. Oat of the abundant proofs furnished by the i-ecords of the church during the long dark night through which she has passed, and even by the present state of the world, it is sufficient to mention a few leading traits of character which mark that system of iniquity in which the fulfilment of these predictions is pre-eminently seen. Gross corruptions of Christian doctrine and worship; — compulsory celibacy and-uncommanded austerities, combined with meretricious splendour and a counterfeit Jewish ritual ; — blasphemous assump- tions of Divine titles and honours, claims of infallibility and supreme authority over the conscience, — disi^ensations and absolution of sins, pretended prophecies and miracles, — oppression and persecu- tion of the people of God, carried on with the concm-rence and aid of eart.hly rulers ; — all these have been found more or less de- veloped in those antichristiau systems which have so greatly pre- vailed both in Eastern and Western Europe, to the hindrance of the spread of Divine truth, and the ruinous delusion of myriads, who, being blinded by error, peiish in their sin. The fearful errors of this apostasy are not, however, the closing scenes of this book. The "wicked" or " lawless one" ''the Lord shall consume with the spirit of his mouth," 2 Thes. 2. 8. She that did corrupt the eai-th shall be judged. Rev. 19. 2. And this great event, which will cause mourning to some on earth, will occa- sion great joy and thanksgiving in heaven. Rev. 18. 9-19: 19. 1-6. Again, and again, and again, the cry is heard there, " Alleluia ;" and the servants of God on earth are summoned to join in the song. 205. Our work is done. The first chapters of Matthew show us Christ in his weakness ; of royal descent indeed, and receiving the profoundest homage, yet poor and persecuted ; the last of Eevelation show him with memorials of his suffer- ing—for he is a Lamb still — but triumphant, " reigning for ever and ever." In Genesis we see Paradise lost, and man driven forth from the presence of God ; in Revelation mm-e than Paradise is regained, men are once more in fellowship with God (22, 3, 4, 5), a fellowship that shall know no end. Malachi had ended with " a curse," the last words of John are of blessing (22. 21). So characteristic are the various portions of the Inspired Volume throughout : so complete the whole. 2 F ( 650 ) INDEX. Abimelech, kings so called, 154. Abner more righteous than Joab, ex- plained, 164. Abraham, his wanderings, 395 ; pro- mise made to him, 396, 425 ; justified by faith, 3^7, 59J, 603-4; how to share his blessing, 324. Acts, book t)f, 576-7 ; illustrates the deity and offices of the Son and of the Spirit, 577-9. A.D., the precise date of, 563. Adam, effect of his sin, 313, 39J. Adoption, two kinds of, 251 ; privileges connected with, 637-8. Adultery, figurative meaning of, 305. Advocate, meaning of, 57. Affliction, 363; sanctified, 367-99; teaching of ycripture on, with exam- ples, 36q. Agag, different kings so called, 154. Alexander on the two economies, 109. Alexander s conquests, 541. Alexandrian Platonists, their influence, 586. Allegory, kinds of, 146 ; rules for inter- pretmg, 273 -8 ; Jewish modes of allego- rizing on words and letters ; rational- istic mode, on facts so as to deny them, 283 ; works on allegorical inter- pretation, 295. (See Figures, Types, Parables.) Almond, a symbol, meaning of, 223. Alphabetical psahn, 388, 498. Ambiguous words in English version, 55. Ammon, prophecies on, 476. Ammonian sections, 23. Amos, book of, 481. Analogy, the source of most language on spiritual tnith, 140; use of, in fixing meaning of words, 186-7. Analogy of faith, meanmg of, and rules on, 174-9. Ancestors for posterity, 152. Angel of Jehovah, 125, 401. Ananias, sin and death of, 578. Anselm, on knowledge and experience, 148. Antichrist, origin and meaning of, 6?7. Antilegomena, 10, 77 ; Gamliier on, 6y. Antioch, different cities so called, 155 Antiochus subdues Judsea, 542 ; foretold liy Daniel, 501. Apis, the Egyptian idol, 402, 520. Apocrj'pha, nou-canouicity of, 82 ; his'.o- rical value of, 83 ; when declareO canonical by Rome, 208 ; Augustine on, 65. Apostles, their sulferings and travels, 91, 207-8 ; their candour, 104. Arabia, divisions of, 254 ; prophecies on, 476. Arabic language, 15 ; versions, 37 ; words in modern maps, 267. Arama?an dialect, 14 ; words in New Tes- tament, 20. Aristeas, story of, 31-2. Arnold on the progressive love of Scrip- ture, 116; on the practical reading of Scripture, 360. Ascensions to heaven under different dispensations, 394. Asia, meaning of, in New Testament, 266. Asmona'ans, their liistory, 542. Ass in the east, passages explained, 221. Astronomy aids chronology, 218. Assyrian empire, silence of Scripture on, 119; its historj^ 533; prophecies concerning, 476. Atheism springs from the heart, 611. Athens, idolatry in, 207. Atont-mcnt, idea of, how imparted, 144 ; meaning of, i9:>-6; importance of, 315 ; day of, 418. A ugustus, who ; different kings so called, 154. Authenticity of the Scriptures, what, 65 ; proofs of its claim, 66-9 ,■ evi- dences of, 85, ct seq. (See Gcnuinenees ; PiVidences.) Authority, double meaning of, 180. Azazel, meaning of, 415. Babylon, prophecies fulfilled, 99 ; cap- tivity in, 506-8 ; deliverance from, a type of redemption, 291 ; its condi tion in the days of Isaiah, 487 ; pro phecies concerning, 476. Bacon, on seeking philosophy in Scrip- ture, 116; on interpretation, 273. Balaam, his character, 171. Balm of Gilcad, 222. Baptism, its signification, 166. Barnabas, history of, 110; his conduct towards Mark, in Baxter's rule for the removal of doubts, 115. Beasts, their symbolical meanings, 305. INDEX. 651 Beersheba, lessons connected with, 256. Belief, how controlled, I2J. Benson on Scripture difficulties, 359. Bereans, their study of Scripture and its results, 124 (ref. Acts 17.) Average, eastern, vinegar, etc. ; affect- ing illustration of our Lord s firmness, 244-5. Bible, reasons for studjing it, i ; spirit in which it should be studied, 2, 148-9 ; meaning of the word, 2; Scriptural names of, j ; scope of. 167 ; writers of, circumstances in which it was written, 139; how to be studied, 356; its great purpose ; influence of, on holiness, 106; harmonies of, 109, 112; pecu- liarities of, as a revelation, 116; gene- ral view of its books, J75-6 ; how di- vided, 377 ; as a history, biography, 389; its threefold revelation, J90; to be studied by all; opinion of early Christians, 208 ; has Divine authority ; the only Divine authority, 69 ; tlie book for the young, 1 j8. (See Testa- ment, Division, Evidence, Interpreta- tion, Genuineness, Authenticity, Ca- non.) Bible or Testament, editions of, by Alter, 25 ; Athias, jo ; Bengel, 25 ; Bcza, 5 ; Birch, 25 ; Boothroj'd, ^o ; Curcellaius, 25 ; Dc Ko?si, jo ; Elzevir, 5 ; Erasmus, 5, 24 ; Fell, Gricsbach, 25 ; Ilooght (Van der), Houbigant, jo; J;djn, jo-i ; Keuuicott, 5, JO- 1 ; Koppe, 204; Lach- mami, 26 ; Matthaei, Mill, 25 ; Scholz, 26 ; Stephens, 5 ; Tregelles, etc., 26. Bickcrsteths View of Scripture I'ro- phecy, 299. Bind and loose, 203. Birch's Auctarium, 84. Birks on the Chronology of the Acts, 581 ; on the harmony of different parts of the Gospels, 109-11. Bishop, universal, when applied to the pope, 208. Bitumen, what, 23J. Blood, different meanings of, 158 ; why offered in sacrifice, 415. Boldness in the faith, j62. Bomberg's Bible, 547. Bom again, 20}, Botany of Scripture ; list of all plants, Bottles, eastern, 25 j. Boyle on Scripture, i ; on Scripture de- velopment, 129. Bridges on Systematic Divinity, J09. Browns Harmony of the Sciijpture Pro- phecies, J04. Burial, eastern, 252. Burnt-offerings, 414. Burtons Bampton Lectures, 546. Btishe on Evidences, 65. Business not to interfere with holiness, J29; Xehemiah an example, 518. Butler's Analogy, 109; on Scripture diffi- culties, J52-3 ; on tie account of Crea- tion, 117 ; on moral and posi^ve pre- cepts, 320. Cabala, 548. Cabalists, 546-8. Ca?sarea, 155. Caiaphas, a Sadducee, 548. Cainan, his place in genealogies, 21J. Calendar of the Jews, lessons taught by, 270-2. Canaan, meaning of, 152; its divisions, 257 ; woman of, called a Greek, 266. Canaanites, their punishment, its lessons 424 ; some spared, 428 ; the curse on them did not affect the righteous, 152. Candour of inspired writers illustrated, lOi. Canon, meaning of; books of, 4; how preserved, 81 ; how settled, 75, 76,79; catalogues of the books, 78, 80 ; Deu- tero-canonical, 77; or anlilegomena ID. (See Apocrypha.) Capellus, his services m Bibl. Crit., jo. Capernaum, its geographical position, 109. Captivity, its causes and results, 506; prophecies on, 507 ; return from, 508. Cecil and Jay, models of practical expo- sition, 372. Cecil on the Connection of the Two Cove- nants, 116 ; on the systematic study of Scripture, 127; on the richness of Scripture, 202. Cedar, a symbol of the righteous, 220. Celiljacy, when made compulsory, 209. Ceremonial law, its origin and object, 406-9. Cerinthians, 586. Chaldajans, prophecies concerning, 495-8. Chaldee, 14 ; chapters in, 500-9. Chariots, meaning of, in visions, 51 j. Cherubim, jo6. Christ, a chief theme of Scripture, 117; of prophecy, 295 ; his work, how fore- told, 287 ; particulars foretold, 95 ; preparations made for his coming, J91 ; his death and resurrection, J15 ; psalms on his character, 340 ; gradual revelations of, 125 ; mysteries con- nected with, 120; physical cause of his death, no; joumeyings on the night of his betraj'al, 265 ; his Divi- nity, the doctrine of the early church, 208 ; proved from Old Testament, JJ7 (see Angel) ; his incarnation and dig- nity, 624; his superiority to Moses and Aaron, 624 ; all truth in him, 552 ; in the Gospels, 555 ; his teaching, 551 ; his atonement, 515 ; duration of his ministry, 564 ; his sonship recognised ; hisdea'h; his first miracle, discourse, and public act, 568. Christians, peculiar names in New Testa- ment, no ; their excellencies, how sot forth in Scripture, 135 ; bound to spread the gospel, 328. 652 INDEX. Chronicleg, books of, 4J4-5 ; relations to Kings and Samuel, 435. Chronology, peculiar difficulty in, from modes of writing, 54 ; of reckoning, lie-i-j ; of Old Testament, 212-15 ; comparative claim of Hebrew, Septua- gint, and Samaritan, 215 ; utility of, in teaching moral truth, 209 ; different epochs of, 211; niles for framing a system, 218 ; difficulties in, 344-5 ; an- cient, confirms the truth of the Penta- teuch, 381 ; of the Gospels, 563-9; of the Acts and Epistles, 580-2. (See As- syria, Egypt, Pentateuch.) Chronological arrangement of Scripture, 127, 390-407 ; 458-60. Church, its character and members; its discipline, 579; described histori- cally in the Acts, 576 ; duty to minis- ters, 630; the Bible, a history of, 118; Abrahams seed, 289. Classic usage as to New Testament words, 188-9. Claude's Essay, 372. Clunate of Judaea, 267-9. Coasts, meaning of, 266. Codex, Code, meaning of, 21 ; Cod. Alex. Vati, etc., 6, 21, 27 ; readings of Cod. Alex,, 32, 42. Cognate languages of Scripture, 13 ; use of, ill interpretation, 187. Colossians, Epistle to, 167, 616-17. Coming One, the, 192, 296, 301. Coming (second), of Christ, 301. Commandments, the ten, rules for inter- preting, 319 ; moral and positive, 320-2. Comparison, how expressed in Heb., 152 ; of Scripture with Scripture (see Paral- lels). Complutensian New Testament, 5. Concordance, Hebrew and Greek, 197. Conjectural readings and emendations, 48. Connection (historical), of the two Tes- taments, 53 7-44. Constitution, the Jewish, described, 410. Context, use of, in fixing sense, 159-62, 178 ; in suggesting lessons, 363-4. Contradictions (apparent), of Scripture, their origin, 54, 14J, 153, 156, 169, 172, 216-17,250,316; how rpf-onciled (the foregoing pages, etc.), 345-50. Controversy, difficulty of conducting, 387. Conversation, carriage, charity, meaning ^ of, 55-7- Corinth, its character and importance, 594- Corinthians (the), Epistles to, 594-601. Corruptions of Christianity, how met, 630-5-6 ; whence originating, 585-99. ! Cosmogonies, ancient, compared witli Scripture, examples of, 121. Counsel of God agrees with his promisee, 322. Covenant, meaning of, 2 ; the new the old miveiled and completed, 375. Covenants, different, mentioned in Scrip- ture, 396 ; with David ; himself refers them to the Messiah, 431. Covetousness condemned, IJ4. 249, 453. Creation, lessons in history of, 392-3. Cretans, their character, 632. Cush, 156. Customs explain texts, 238, 251 ; diffi- culties in, 344. Damascus, its character, 254. Daniel, book of, 376, 499 ; chronology, divisions, and spiritual lessons, 500-2 ; Daniel an example to young men, 502. Dates of English Bible, whence taken, 2x2 ; discrepancies of, origin of, 216. Daubuz on symbolical language, 304. David, a man after God's own heart, 170; his righteousness explamed, 164; his prophecies of Christ, 432; Christ spo- ken of under his name, 288 ; his cha- racter and reign, 436; his sin and its chastisement, 210. Davidsons Biblical Crit., 31, etc. Davison on prophecy, 97. Day, Jewish, how divided, 249. Deacons, their qualifications and duties, 630. Dead Sea, 156. Dedication, feast of, 418. Deductions from Scripture, authority of, 313-14- Delta on Revelation, 647. Depravity, human, 11 1, 131, 209, 314. Deuteronomy, 384. Development in Scripture,- 1 24-9 ; abuse of, 129. Devils, meaning of, 56; the devil, his personality, 393. (See Satan.) Difficulties of Scripture, how far to be studied, origin of, 332; in words and scope, 342-50; in truths, revealed, 351 ; utility of, 354 ; not all to be re- moved, 359. Discrepancies, apparent, of Chronicle? and Kings, 433-4 ; of tbe Gospels, 566-7 (See Contradictions.) Dispensations, successive, character and duration of each, 125-8. Divisions of Old Testament, 3, 61 ; of New Testament; Eutbalian sections, 23 ; into chapters and verses, 60 ; occasional inaccuracy and rule, 61. (See Anmionian, Eiisebiau.) Divisions among Christians, Uie sin and cure of, 600. Docetae 586. Doctrine, how illustrated by example, 390. Doctruies of Scripture, the foundation of morality, 317 ; to be held consistently, 312 ; comparative value of, 314-15 ; es- sential doctrines the same in all ages, i?o-3 ; interwoven with precepts, 137 ; surnames, 150 ; passages proving (sec P.,om.) how systems arc framed, 311. Dogmatic theology, what, 311. Domestic usages among the Jews, 240-i Co3 Dres3, eastern, " fiaked ' explained, 241 . Dulies of Christians to God, to man, to themselves, 608-9; duties of justice, veracity, and love, 609 ; relative du- ties, 610. Eagle, bubits of, illustrate Divine teach- ing, 220. Earths mentioned in Scripture, 233-4. Ebioniles, 205-6. Ecclesiastos, book of, true key to, 455-7. Ecclesiastical writers, their testimony on the genuineness of Scripture, 7 ; of the first four centuries arranged, 86. Edom, prophecies on, 4';6 ; fulfilment of, 93. Economy, the old, 624-5. Egypt, history of, 119, 535 ; prophecies on, 4';6; its climate, 268; plagues of, 204, 402; customs of, 380; tendency of Jews to rely on, 486-95. Egyptian words in Pentateuch, 17 ; in New Testament, 20; Egyptian ver- sions, 34. Ekron, prophecies on, 493. Election, how taught, 312. Eli, how piuiished, 209-10. Elihu's humility, 387. Elijah's miracles, 93, 522. Elisha's miracles, 93, 522 ; disinterested- ness, 248. Eminent piety enforced, 632-3. English VL-rsions : authorized, what, 6j ; general accuracy of, 50; corrections of, 51-9; history of, 62-3 ; Wycliffe's, Tyudalcs, Coverdale's, 62 ; Genevan, Douay, Rhemish, etc., 63. Englishmaus Hebrew and Greek Con- cordances, 197. Ephesians, Epistle to, 167-8, 614 ; warn- ings suggested by history of the Ephe- sian church, 616. Epicureans, 205, 545. Epistles, how to be studied, 583-7. Era of Xabonassar, 487 ; various eras or epochs, 211. Error, its progress downwards, 398, 611 ; errors of the early church, 585. Esdraelon, valley of, 255. Essenes, 545, 549. Essential truths, what, 150, 315. Esther, book of, 515-16. Ethics, how taught in Scripture, 123- Ethiopic langtiage, 15 ; and versions, 33. Ethnography, use of, 381. Etymology, how far a guide, 186. Eusebian canons, 23 . Euthalian sections, 23. Evangelists, meaning of name, 554; candour of, 104. Evidences of the truth of Scripture clas- sified, 87-8 ; external and internal, 89 ; moral, 100; literary, 109; spiritual, iiii want of faith in, how removed, 115. (See Authenticity, Ecclesiastical, Genuineness, Pentateuch.) Evil, how overruled, 399. Examples of Scriptm-e, how to be used, 325 ; applied to iUus irate principles, 390; intended to promote holiness, 329. Excuses of the ungodly, 636. Exodus, book of, 383. ; Expiation, 193 ; how taught under the law, 414-15. I Ezekiel, book of, 502-5. j Ezra, book of, 508-10. I Fables of Scripture, 146. Fabricii Codex Pseud., 84. Faith, defined, 160 ; various uses of the word, 157 ; produces good works, 169, 317; the gift of God, 124; man's responsibility for, 312 ; how produced, 124; the principle of obedience and success, 103 ; examples of, 135, 337 ; admits increase, 368 ; taught in Old Testament, 337. Fall, history of, its moral completeness, 118. False teachers, three kinds of, 637. Fanciful interpretations, 150, 28 2-^. Fasts, Jewish, 4x8. Felix, his character, 135, 207. Fellowship with Christ, 637. Festivals, Jewish, 270-1 ; 416-17. Figurative language, origin of, 140; cautions on, 142-3, 175 ; general nature of, 145-59; rules for inter- preting, 158-66-75. (See Allegories, Prophecy.) Flesh, meaning of, 157. Food, eastern, 244-5. Forelcnowledge, consistent with human freedom, 469. Forty, peculiar use of, 153. Francke on practical reading of Scripture, 361. Furniture, eastern, 240. Fiirsfs Concordance, 197. Galatians, the, their origin and cha- racter, 592 ; Epistle to, 593 ; com- pared with other epistles, 168 ; various readings of, 11; ijcope of, 168-9; Galiiieans, 548. Gaza, prophecy on, 493. Gehenna, origin of the name, 265. i Gemara, 546. i Genealogies of Scripture, use of, 394, : 435- Genesis, book of, 383. j Gentiles, effect of Jewish nile, 544; ! their need of the gospel, 572-5 ; how > met by the gospel, 572 ; preparation i for receiving them into the church, 474-6-84. 1 Genuineness explained, 4; effect of printing on question of, 5 ; evidences I of, 5-13, 85 ; of Pentateuch. 378 ; of j Isaiah, 487; of Gospels and Epistles, 555-6. I Geography, utility of, 253 ; difficulties I explained by, 266 ; outline of, 253-64. 654 INDEX. Geology, j8i. Gerard s Institutes, i88. Gibbon on the effects of the gospel, io8. Gifts improved are increased, 315. Gilgal, lessons connected with, 256. Gill s Commentary, 204. Glory, the, 410. Glossaries, on Scripture, 191. Gnostics, 586. God, his nature, how revealed, 124; a Spirit, 174 ; his character ; his govern- ment, 134 ; alone honoured in Scrip- ture, 103 ; illustrated in Genesis, 395. Gospel adapted to man's wants, 112; agreement between it and experience of Christians, 1 12-13 ; contrasted with false systems, ijo ; its chief excellence, 133; influence of, among heathen na- tions, 107-8. Gospels, the, their canonicity, 76 ; authority, 66-7 ; meaning of, con- nection of the four, 554-5 ; chronology, 563-4 ; verbal agreement, 565 6 : harmony of, 564 ; apparent dis- crepancies, 566-7 ; topics to be noticed in studying, 570. Government, Christian duty to, 632. Gradual disclosure of truth in Old and New Testaments, 552. Graves on the Pentateuch, argument of, 382. Grecian, 266. Greece, most civilized and most idola- trous, 107, 207. Greek language, its elements, 19 ; Hel- lenistic, 18 ; Lexicons and Grammars with special reference to New Testa- ment, 20, 182; Greek article, import- ance of, 52; rules of, 198; books on, 202. Greek Scriptures, earliest versions of; the Septuagint, 9; history and com- parative value of; chief editions of; versions made from, 32 ; MSS. of, 5, 27 ; quotations from, in Fathers, 6, 7 ; use of, in interpretation, 191 ; history of the text of New Testament, 25 ; textas receptus, 5. (See Aristeas, Origeu, Various readings.) Greeks, peculiar meaning of, 266. Grotius on Scripture Evidence a test of character, 115. Groves, worship in, 321. Growth, Christian, through the word, 628. Habakkuk, book of, 498-9. Habit, power of, 135. Habitations, eastern, described, 238-40. Hagenbach on the spirit in which the Scriptu'-es must be studied, 148. Haggai, book of, 510; prophecies con- cerning Christ, 511 Hagiographa, what, 3. Hales' Chronology, 219. Hall, Bishop, on virtue, 321 ; on Ruth's history, 429. Hand-book, aim of, i, 2. Hands placed on sacrifice, meaning o^ 414. Harmony of the Gospels, how framed, 565 Hatred, in what sense enjoined, 152. Head-dress, 242. Heathenism, influence of, 108 ; ignorance of man's guilt, God's character, and future life, 572-4. Hebraisms of Scripture, 151. Hebrew language, name, character, and histoiy, 13, 16, 17 ; helps to the study of, 181. Hebrew Scriptures, earliest printed editions, 5 ; MSS. of, 5, 6 ; critical editions of, 30 ; Hebrew text modified by passages in the New Testament, 334; difiBculties in, 341-4. (See Targums, Masora.) Hebrews, Epistle to, 621. Hell, meaning of. 56. Hellenisms of New Testament, 18, 192. Hellenistic New Testament, 196. Herculanevmi, MSS. found at, 22. Heresies in the early church, 586. Herod, persons so called, 155 ; date of death of Herod Agrippa, 580 ; Herod the Great, 543. Herodians, 548. High piiest, 411. History, how to be studied, 390; pro- fane, its use in interpretation, 206 ; ecclesiastical, its use, 207. History, natural, its iise, 219. History of the Bible, on what principle written, 116; regarded as allegorical, 144, 281 ; difficulties, 345-8. Historical books of Scripture, Jewish, an arrangement of, 419 ; by whom writ- ten, 420 ; on what principles, 421 ; religious character of Old Testament history, 4?6 ; chronological order of, 422-3, 458-66. Hody on the LXX., 9. Holiness, idea of, how taught, 143-4; su- preme importance, loi, 315 ; promoted by the gospel, 107 ; the fruit of faith, 103. Holy vSpirit, needed in reading the Bible, 148 ; how revealed in Old Testament, 125 ; his personality and office, 578-9. Homologoumena. 10. Horeb and Sinai, 156. Horn, the little, of Daniel's pi-ophecy 501-91. Home's Introduction, 31, etc, Horsley on the English Bible, 150. Hosea, book of, 482-4; marriage of the prophet, meaning of, 485. Hotiscs, eastern, 239. Human nature. Scripture teaching on 1 16-31 ; portraits of, 131; its tenden cies SI en in Jewish sects, 551. Humility, idea of, new to the Greeks, 144 ; Peter an example of, 628 ; Eiihn, 387 ; honour put upon, 3i5-6[ ; how taught by i^urLord, 315, 568. INDEX. 655 Idiom, Hebrew and Greek, importance of attending to, 5^. Idolatry, under tlie law, treason, 410. Iduma-a (See Edom). Immortality believed in by Old Testa- ment saints, JJ7 ; doubted by heathen, 513- Importance of truths, how ascertained, Incense, 185. Inns, eastern, 252. Inspiration, Scripture teaching on, 7; ; theories of, 73 ; what it allows, 74 ; how it modifies interpretation, 355. Insults, different kinds, 251-2. Interpretation, rules of, 150-79 ; sanc- tioned by quotations in New I'esta- ment, 388 ; helps to, 202 ; of Psalms, 447 ; Song of Solomon, 448 ; Proverbs, 452 ; Ecclesiastes, 456 ; Joel, 480 ; Zechariah, 515. (See particular books). Intoxication, meaning of, in figures, 175. Introduction to books of Scripture, best expositors, 377. (See different books.) Irony, examples of, 164. IsaiaJj, book of, 485. Israel and Jiidah, different histories of, 466 ; spiritual meaning of " Israel," 289. Isthmian games, 594. Italic, the old version, 32. Italics, meaning of, in Scripture, 59. 'Iva, meaning of, J43. Jacob's conduct to Esau and its results, 357-8- Jahn's Archeology, 249. James, Epistle of; his history-, 612 ; re- lation of his Epistle to other Epistles, 169. Japheth, prophecy on, 96. Jehoshaphat, 521. Jephthah's vow, 350. Jeremiah, book of, 494-7 ; different ar- rangement of his predictions, 496-7. Jericho, prophecy concerning, 423-4 ; its history, 256. Jeroboam, his character, 466-7. Jerusalem, history of, 262-6. Jethro, his different names, 156. Jews, prophecies on, 97-8 ; their history and riles typical, 144, 289 ; Gods pur- pose in relation to, 610 Job, book of, 384 ; lessons taught by, 387 ; prophecies of Christ in, 394; dif- ficulties of, 343 ; peculiar words in, 17. Joel, book of, 479-81. John, Gospel of, 561-3 ; Epistles of, 636-9 Jonah, book of, 478-9. Jones on the canon, 84. Jordan, 255. Joseph, his history and character, 367, 399- Josephus on the canon, 3 : his account of "Felix, 207 ; use of, in interpreta- tion, 189. Joshua, the high priest, 513. Joshua, book of, 423 ; relation to the Pentateuch, 426; lessons taught in the life of, 424. Jubilee, year of, 419. Judcea, heat, seasons of, 267-71. Judaiziug teachers, their character, 585. Jude, Epistle of; connection with 2 Pot., 635- Judges, book of, 427 ; moral condition of the Israelites imder, 428. Julian era, 563. Judgment, the last, 633 ; qualities needed in, 315 ; shadowed forth in Old Testa- ment, 301. Justification by faith. Scripture view of, 607 ; Paul and James compared, 167-9 » blessings consequent on, 607. Karaites, 546. Keith on prophecy, 98, etc. Kennicott, his labours, 5, 30-1. Kingdom of heaven, or of God, 203. 361. Kingdoms received from Piome, 253. Kings, books of, 433-4 ; to be compared with Chronicles, 435-64, 527. Kings, comparative view of reigiis of those of Israel and Judah, 467-8. Lajikktations, book of, 497-8. Lamy's Apparatus Biblicus, 272. Lardner, 109. Latin words in New Testament, 20. Law, the, its true puipose, 383 ; outline of its provisions, 410-19 ; origin of ce- remonial, 406 ; how to be interpreted, 319- Lebanon, 254-60-1 ; smell of, 220. Leighton's summary of i Pet., 627. Leland on Eevelation, 108. Leslie on ]Miracles, 92. Letters, how to be written, 639 ; pecu- liar, in Hebrew Scriptures, 547. Levites, 411-13. Leviticus, book of, 383. Lexicons, authority of; Hebrew, 181; Greelc, 182. Liberality, 328 ; its motives and mea« sure, foo. Liberty, spuitual, in things indifferent, 594. 606. Light, meaning of, 143-59; God ig light, 637. Lightfoot's Hor£B Heb., 204. Lion, habits of, 222. Lisco on the Parables, 280; on the Prodigal Son, and the rich man, 371-2. Locke on Theology, 147 ; on general ; truth, 311; his Common-place Book, ■ 372 ; on the Epistles, 584. Lord's Supper, commemorative not sacri- ficial, 601 ; of two kinds, 173 ; primi- tive practices m, 331 ; how to be observed, 601. Love constraining motive of obedience; 601 ; sum of the law, 610 ; ChriiUian, iiS supremacy, 601 ; God is love, 638. G56 INDllX. Luke, Gospel of, 560-1. Luther, his version, i8j ; on studying Scripture history, jjo. Maccahkes, 54J. Magog, 15;. Malachi, book of, 518-19. Malice, 57. Man, how revcalod, 116, IJ4-5. Man of Bin, 210; 591. ManasHoli, his repentan e, 527. Manuscripts, oldest known, 212; age, how hxed, 20-4; niatx;rials of, 21; of classic authors, 6 ; number of, 5, 29, }i ; circumslaiiccu favourable to ac- curacy of Scriptures, 10; comparative value of, 25, 29 ; classifi<;ation of He- brew, ji ; of Ureek, by Bentley, Tre- gclles, etc., 25-6; uncial and cursive, 27-9. (See Cod(;x, Genuineness, Ureek, Hebrew, Masora.) Marginal glusnes, 41 ; readings, 59. Mark, Gosiiel of, 558-9. Marks of the Lord Jcjsus, 171. Marriage, J9?-6; ungodly, mischief of, ij{; its duties, 599; meaning of, in symbols, }o8. Marsh's iiiblical Criticism, }i, 1J9. Masora, 547 ; Masoretic text, 29, ji. Matthew, Gospel of, 556-8. Meals, eastern, 24}. Measures. Scriptural, 247. Media, history of, 555-7. Mediterranean Sea, 156, 254. Melchisedec, ij. Messiah, preparations for his coming, 391 . Mesopotamia, 254. Metals, 2j6-8. Metaphor, 145. Metonymy, 145. Micah, book of, 489-90. Michaelis' Jntroduction, 24. Mills Symbology, J04. Minerals, 2? 1-4. Mhiister, 185; Christian ministers, their qualifications and duties, 629. Miracles, evidence of, 89 ; number of, 90 ; books on, 89 ; of our rx>rd, 569 ; of Elijah, 522. Miraculous gifts, their use, 600. (See Leslie,) Mishna, 546. Mizpeh, 155. Money, early, 218-48. Montfaucon's I'alaographia Gra.>ca, 24. Months, .Jewi;,h, tjibles of, 270. Morality. Christian, its peculiarities, 608 ; founded on doctrines, jio. Moriah, Mount, 262. Moses, his candour, 104 ; how he honours God, loj. Mothers, their influence, 6J9. Mourning, eastern, 252. Myrrh, 222-9. Mysteiy, 58, 161. KiHDM, book of, 491-2. Naked, meaning of, 241. Names, proper, their importance, 171 185. Nathan, his character, 4J0. Nations taught their duties in the Old 'J'estament,4j6 ; heathen, how noticeil in Scripture, 118. Natural history, utility of, 219 ; Botany, 2Zi-ii ; mineralo(,'y of Scripiure, 2JJ-8 ; particular examples, 220-2. Neander on the J 'arables, 279-80; on church history, j jo ; his motto, 148. Nebuchadnezzar, his dreams, 529-ji. Nehemiah, book of, 516 ; a model of patriotism and piety, 516-18. Nero, by what name called in Scripture, 154 ; honour due to him, 210 ; Paul Ixrheaded by his order, 6jj. New Testament, books of, 376 ; the ful- filment of the Old, {j8-75; set forth, in Christ, 551 ; to be studied with com- parison, 570-1 ; sense of doctiine. 314. (Si-e Testament.) NewUjn, bisnop, on prophecy, 89. Newton, J no., on systems of theology, 455 ; on the practical reading of the IJible, 524. Newton, sir I., on times of prophecy JOJ. Xicolaifanes, some account of, 586. Night, how divided among the Jews, Z49. Nile, 156. Nineveh, its liistory, 534; predictions concerning, 100, 476 ; state, m the days of Nahum, 491. Numbers, book of; t^xjpe and contents, J 84. Numl)ers, mis-translations of, 54 ; liable to errors, 54 ; peculiarity in use of, Oaths, how far allowed, 327. Obadiah, book of, 505-6. Obedience, evangelical, motives to, 608. Obsolete words of Englii-h Scriptures, 57-8. Offerings under the law, 413. Oii, value of; how used as mediciiia 222; at feasts, 245. Old Testament— meaning of name, 2; various readings of, 12 ; our l^ord's testimony to, 63, 74 ; a moral history, 117; still instructive, 132; outline of, 375; use of, 374; its importance and inferiority to the New Testament, 377 ; is the New unveiled, 282 ; its temporal promises how far applicable, J2i. Olives, Mount of, 265-7, Oracles of God, what, 3. Ordain, various meanings of, 56. Origen'fl Hexapla, 32. Palestink, its names, 257 ; extent and divisions, 25H-9; climate, 261 ; moim- t'tins, 260 ; puiiulatioii in ancient and modern times, 261. INDEX. 657 Paley on the Evidences, 86 ; his Iloras Paulinas, i lo ; on devotional virtues, ij6. Palm-tree, an emblem of the Christian, 219. Papyrus, 22. ParableS; defined, 146 ; how differ from tigures, 273 ; when used, 274 ; how far interpretation may be pushed, 277 ; scope, 276 ; of Old Testament, 279; of New Testament classified, 279-8 T ; of Good Samaritan and Prodigal Son, 276 ; rules on, 275-9 5 books on, 285 ; why used in our Lord's teaching, 552. (See Lisco, Neander, Allegory.) Paradise, meaning of, 20. Paragraph Bible, 389; Paragraphs, im- portance of noting, 61. Parallel passages, importance of com- paring ; verbal parallels, 170-2 ; paral- lels of icicas, 173; influence on text, text, 42 ; suggest important lessons, 362 ; importance of studying, illus- trated, 170. Parallelism, use of, in interpretation, i6j ; sj-nonymous, 162 ; antithetic, i6j ; constructive, j88. Parchment, 21. Parentheses, 165. Parents, their duties ; examples of godly, 600. Pascal on the study of Scripture, 148 ; on Scriptiu-e difficulties, 359. I'articles, importance of, 165 ; different meaning of, 51. Passover, 402-16-17 ; when held, 218 ; customs at, 251 ; type of Christ, 272-8. Patience involved in faith, 625. Patriarchs, their dispensation, 128 ; piety of, J96 ; their regard for a future life, 331. Paul, his character, apostolic authoritj', 598 ; last words, 635 ; his Epistles — authority and canonicity of, 67, 76. (See Felix.) Peace, the fruit of faith, 607 ; how culti- vated, 610. Peace offering, 416. Penance, 209. Penny, 58. Pentateuch, its titles ; genuineness, 378- 80; first questioned by Hobbes, j8c; authenticity, 380-4; various docimaents used in preparing, 382 ; peculiar words in, 17. Pentecost, 417. Perfection, meaning of, 160. Persian words in Scripture, 20 ; version, 37 ; doctrine of evil, 205. Peter, honoured as the instrument of earliest conversions, 173 ; his humility, 628 ; his last written words, 633. Petra, history of, 267. Pharaoh hardened by mercy, 316, 401 ; kings so called, 154. Pharisees, — Pharisaism, 545-6-8. Philemon, Epistle to, 618. Philippians, Epistle to, 619. Philistia, prophecy against, 476-7. Philosophy, its influence, 585-95; evU influence on the early church, 585-6. Phauiciau language, 13 ; customs, 205. Pingre's tables, 219. Plagues of Egypt, 357 ; their siguifi- cance, 401-2, Platonism, its influence, 586. Plaj-fairs chronology, 219. Plural, how used, 152. Poetry, peculiarities of, 387-9. Policy, worldly, often destructive, 467. Polyglot, Complutensian, 5 ; London, 25, 30. Popery, novelties of, 209; false interpre- tations of, 166-73, etc. ; adds to Scripture, 129 ; mischievous influence of, 136. Porter, Scott, 31, 50. Powels siunmary of prophecies, 298. Practical reading of Scripture, suggestions on, 360-91 ; theclogj% what, 311. Prstorium, what, 265. Prayer of Christians asked for by apostles, 599 ; how offered under the gospel, 615 ; promoted by promise, 321- Precepts, peculiarity of Scripture, 101-4, 198; based on doctrines, 317; moral and positive, 320 ; rules on, 321. (See I^w.) Precious stones of Scripture, 235-6. Presumptive evidence, 87. Priests, meaning of, 185 ; their duties, support, etc., 411-13. Promises, a revelation of Gods counsel, 322 ; universal and particular, absolute and conditional, 323; differ from invitations, 324; ought to guide to prayer and holiness, 325. l^roper meaning of words, what, 145. Prophecy, revives in Samuel, 431 • gradual disclosures of, 432 ; moral les- sons of, 119, 303 ; peculiarities of, as to time and language, 286-9 ; the last of Old Testament, 519 ; last of the New, 649 ; nature of, as evidence, 92 ; per- vades Scripture, 9} ; all subordinate to one end, 94 ; prophecies concerning Christ, 95, 295 ; pagan nations, 96 ; moral and evangelical, 119 ; double or repeated applications of, 291-2, 339 ; rules of interpretation, 293-5 ; sanc- tioned by New Testament, 339 ; two systems, 296; agreement, 301, dif- ference, 297 ; prophecies in historical books, 304 ; symbols of, 305 ; time in, 302 ; books as evidence, 89. Prophetical books, epitomized, 471-2; tabular view of 472-6. Propitiation, what, 193. Proselytes, 549. Proverbs, book of, 450-5 ; rules for study of, 452 ; examples of exposition, 452-5. Providence,— of God illustrated, 386, 516; lessons of, 538 ; mystery of, 367 ; God 658 INDEX. in history, loj ; requires submission, 367. Psabiis, name, Jewish division of, 439; value, 440 ; authorship, 4J9 ; arrange- ment of Townsend, Tholuck, etc., 441 ; chronological arrangement, 442-5 ; their titles, 446-7 ; rules for studying, 447 ; a manual of devotion, 127, 4J2; arranged as such, 441. Ptolemy, common name, 154. Publicans, 246. Purgatory, on what passage it is sup- posed to rest, 167. Purification under the law, spiritual significance of, 416. I'urim, feast of, 418. Qualities, how expressed in Hebrew, 151. Questions in reading the New Testa- ment, 570. Quotations in the fathers, 7 ; influence of, on the text of LXX. 42 ; in New Testament classified, 332 ; number of, from Pentateuch, ja; variations in, reasons for, 335 ; omissions in, 336 ; in Revelation, 336 ; truths taught in, 3J7- Kahab, her faith ; an ancestress of the Messiah, 424. Rain under God's control, 269 ; imusual in harvest, 271 ; early and latter, 272. Uarabach's, " Institutiones Hermeueu- ticffi," 372. Rather, meaning of, 165. nationalism, its evils, 546. Rebecca, lessons taught in her history, J58. Reconciliation, meaning of, 19^. Redemption, meaning of, 194 ; its source God's love, 607. Relative duties, how taught and en- forced, 552, 600. Religion, objective and subjective, 133 ; meaning of the word in Scripture, 58 ; a natural necessity, 611. Repentance, two meanings of, 55 ; ap- plied to God, 142-J ; a gift and a duty, 311; needed but not efRcacious, illus- trated by examples, 278, 329 ; by pa- rables, J70. Resurrection, doctrine of, 601 ; of Christ, its significance and importance, 315 ; an Old Testament type ; the first fruits, 272. Revelation progressive, 1 24 ; unity of, 150. Itevelation, date and contents, 6j9 ; its chief theme ; tlirce theories of ujtor- pretation, 642-? ; lessons revealed in, 647 ; dosine chapters of, compared with other cliapters of Scripture, 649. Revenue of Judjea in our Lord's day, 260 ; different kinds of, how collecte