-^^^ PRINCETON, N. J. % S/ie//.. BX 955 .M87 1883 Murphy, John Nicholas The chair of Peter .•V'-"; k' >i r"^ ^J . . A », »\ iViSr ;a^ '.i*^^ ^;*^:^L^M ^■ ^i^i^ THE CHAIR OF PETER. THE CHAIR OF PETER, THE PAPACY CONSIDEEED IN ITS INSTITUTION, DEVELOPMENT, AND ORGANIZATION, AND IN THE BENEFITS WHICH, FOE OVEE EIGHTEEN CENTURIES, IT HAS CONFEEEED ON MANKIND. BY JOHN NICHOLAS MURPHY, AlTnOi; OP " TERRA INCOGNITA." " Bcrttitiulini tiu-e, id est, Cathfdr* Petri, commiinione consocior. Super illaiii petram aHlificatam Ecclesiam scio."— Saist Jerome (Letter to Pope Damasus, A.D. 37C). LONDON : KEGAN PAUL, TEENCH & CO., 1, PATERNOSTER SQUARE. 1883. (77i'" f-ijihls nf (ranshiUfm nviJ of reproduction are reserve,!.) TO MY FELLOW-SUBJECTS OF ALL CHRISTIAN COMMUNIONS, I RESPECTFULLY DEDICATE THIS BOOK ON WHAT I BELIEVE TO BE THE MAIN BULWARK OF RELIGION, LAW, AND ORDER, AGAINST THE CONTINUOUS ATTACKS OF INFIDELITY AND SOCIALISM, IN THE PRESENT DAY. fSoPERTTof PEINGETOH ,ll£G.. APR 1883 THSOLOGIGAL^ PREFACE. The scope of this book is fully explained in the Introduction. It will be observed that, throughout, I give my authorities and references accurately in detail ; supplying in a foot-note, in several instances, where it appears necessary, the exact words, in the original Greek or Latin, of quotations introduced in English in the body of the work. It will be observed, further, that I quote largely from Protestant authors — invariably writers of learning and weight. As remarked by Bacon, the worth of evidence very much depends upon the source from which it comes. Accordingly, I subjoin a brief biographical account of each author, on first quoting him, which will enable those readers, who may not have been previously acquainted with his history, to form their own opinion of the value of the testimony adduced. From the first to the last })age, I have carefully endeavoured to avoid uttering a word that might wound the feelings of those whose religious tenets differ from my own; and in this, at least, I trust I have succeeded. Clifton, Cork, Decemhei; 1882. ^AA«j^^ CONTENTS. CHAPTER rAGK I. Introduction ... ... ... ... ... 1 II. ScRiPTUKAii Proofs of the Primacy of Peter ... 5 III. The Early Fathers on the Primacy of Peter ... 25 IV. Saint Peter, Bishop of Pome ... ... ... 44 V. Saint Peter's Successors in the See of Rome ... 66 VI. The Eelations of Popes with Councils ... 80 VII. Appellate Jurisdiction of the Holy See ... ... 109 VIII. The Greek Schism ... ... ... ... 12.3 IX. Origin of the Temporal Power of the Popes ... 127 X. The Growth of the Tf.mporal Power ... ... I.'IO XI. Collapse of the Wkstern Empire ... ... ... 147 XII. Donations of Peptx and Charlemagne... ... 158 XIII. Charlemagne crowned Emperor of the West ... 172 XIV. Diplomas of tiik Emperors Louis, Otho, and Saint Henry ... ... ... ... ... 170 XV. Relations of the Popes and the Emperors ... 182 XVI. Vicissitudes of the Temporal Power in the Middle Ages ... ... ... ... ... 189 XVII. Saint Gregory VII. ... ... ... ... 195 XVIII, The Temporal Power in the Twelfth Century 222 XIX. The Temporal Power — Centuries XIII. to XVIll. ... 2.j0 XX. TiiF. Great Schism of the West ... ... 212 CONTENTiS. PA OK CHATTER XX], LUTUEK AND THE GkEAT rilOTEiSTANT SECESSION ... '-»4 XXII. The Other Leading Reformers ... ... -01 XXIir. Introduction of the Eeformation into England ... 303 XXIY, The Council of Trent ... ... ... 312 XXV. The Symbolic Books of the Protestant.s ... ... 318 XXVI, The FiELKiious Census of Europe ... ... 326 XXVll, Im'fects of the IiEformation in Protestant States 334 XXVIII. Pius VI. ,.. ... ... ... ... 344 XXIX. Pius VII. ... ... ... ... .•• 353 XXX. Pius IX. ... ... ... ... ... 373 XXXI. The Hierarchy .,, ,.. ... ... ... 388 XXXII. Ancient Papal Elections ... ... ... 41G XXXIII. Cardinals ... ... ... ... ... 426 XXXIV. A Modern Papal Election ... ... ... 458 XXXV. Benefits conferred by the Papacy on Mankind ... 475 XXXVI, Papal Infallibility ... ... ... ... 509 XXXVII. Conclusion 530 Index ... ... ... .-. .•■ ^^9 THE CHAIR OF PETER. CHAPTER I. INTEODUCTION. The Papacy just now, for obvious reasons, absorbs a largo amount of public interest, likely to increase with each suc- cessive year: at the same time there is no subject about which, on calm investigation, there will be found to exist more ignorance and misconception, and prejudice, their necessary result. This latter fact is undeniable. Its cause is evident. In the Articles of Schmalkalden, drawn up by Luther and his associates, in the year 1537, as an unalterable basis of the creed of the Eeformation, they declare, that — The Pope is not of Divine right ; that the power usurped by him is full of arrogance and blasphemy ; that all which he has done and does, in virtue of that i)ower, is diabolical; . . . and finally that the Pope is the true anti-Christ. This doctrine has been continuously taught and preached — it may be in more moderate language — by the followers of Luther, down to the present day ; so that it is not only held by the unreflecting multitude, but it is also professed, even against their own kindly nature, by some of the most learned, most sincere, and most pious members of the Protestant com- muuion. 2 THE CHAIR OF PETER. In his Aiwlogia irro vita sua, Cardinal Newman says : — But now, as to the third point on which I stood in 1833, and which I have utterly renounced and trampled upon since, — my then view of the Church of Rome ; — I will speak about it as exactly as I can. When I was young, as I have said already, and after I was grown up, I thought the Pope to be anti-Clirist. At Christmas, 182-1-25, 1 preached a sermon to that effect. In 1827 I accepted eagerly the stanza in the " Christian Tear," which many people thought too charitable, "Speak (jenthj of thy sister's fall." From the time I knew Fronde I got less and less bitter on the subject.! Again, His Eminence says : — As a matter, then, of simple conscience, though it went against my feelings, I felt it to be a duty to protest against the Church of Rome. But besides this, it was a duty, because the prescription of such a protest was a living principle 'of my own Church, as expressed in not simply a cafom, but a consensus of her divines, and the voice of her jieople. More- over, such a protest was necessary, as an integral portion of her contro- versial basis ; for I adopted the argument of Bernard Gilpin, that Protes- tants "were not ahJe to give !inj firm and solid I'eason of the separation, besides this, to wit, that the Pope is anti-Christ." But while 1 thus thought such a protest to be based upon truth, and to be a religious duty, and a rule of Anglicanism, and a necessity of the case, 1 did not at all like the work.2 As these and other mistaken ideas of the kind, regardmg the Holy See and its occupant, still extensively prevail, it may be useful, and certainly it appears more desirable than ever at the present moment, that there should be set forth a clear and explicit statement of the Catholic doctrine of the Primacy of Saint Peter and bis successors, and of the grounds on which that doctrine is based ; together with a review, from a Catholic stand-point, of the Papacy in its institution, development, and organization, and a necessarily condensed history of the Temporal Power of the Popes — all brought down to tho present day.^ 1 "Apologia," p. 121. London, ISGl. « Ibid., p. 128. ' Several able treatises in our language have been puIilisheJ on particular brandies of the subject. Arclibisliop Kcnrick's " Primacy of the Apostolic See," a most valuable work, deals witli the whole question ; but, having been written tliirty-seven j'cars ago, it docs not embrace the ^important events of tliis and the past gcueratiou. INTRODUCTION. 3 Accordingly, as a layman, I venture to contribute my humble share to this work, which I trust will be continued by far abler hands ; and I am encouraged to do so by the circum- stance, that the subject has ever been to me one of peculiar interest, and consequently has engaged much of my attention. To the reflecting Christian there must always be something fascinating in the story of the humble Fisherman of Galilee, chosen by the world's Eedeemer, to be His Vicar and the Visible Head of His Church — that Church which was built upon Peter. The unbroken line of Peter's successors, which Catholics believe will endure to the end of time — that aujri-ist dynasty, continuously assailed, but supernaturally upheld — is a similar instance of the Divine power and wisdom. Every- thing connected with the subject,while abounding with interest, is matter for deep thought and reverent investigation. But, besides the interest and importance of the subject itself, there is an all-sufficient reason why, just now, it should be set in its proper light, and entirely freed from the mists of ignorance and prejudice. And that reason is, that in our day there is being waged an unceasing warfare of unbelief against faith, of materialism against Christianity. Formerly, it was a question of conflicting Christian creeds — Protestant against Catholic. Now, it is, as pre-eminently seen in the proceedings of the French and Italian Chambers, an unrelaxing struggle between those who deny, and those who believe in, the Gospel of Christ. Assuredly all Christian communions should be united in presence of this common danger : and, in order to promote so desirable an end, our separated brethren, instead of misrepresenting or misapprehending the tenets of the Catholic Church, ought loyally to accept her own account of the ftiith which is in her. The devotion of Catholics of all ages and nations to the Successor of Saint Peter, the reverence and filial obedience which they render to him as the Vicar of Christ, and the same devotion, reverence and obedience paid him by so many who 4 THE CHAIR OF TETER. formerly were distinguished members of the Anglican com- munion, are in themselves a standing argument against those writers and preachers who inveigh against the Church of Home and its Chief Pastor. During the last half-century, there has been a movement ■within the bosom of the Anglican Church — a "Rome-ward tendency," which, however some may disapprove of it, all must admit to result from the purest and loftiest motives. Undeni- ably, among the seceders are some of the most highly gifted, most exemplary, and best subjects of the realm — men who, in obedience to the voice of conscience, have severed family ties, cherished friendships, and life-long associations, and, in some instances, heroically leaving all to follow Christ, have resigned valuable Church livings and prospects of preferment, on which their families depended altogether for their maintenance and settlement in life. Surely such men must have clearly seen their way out of the haze through which they had been taught to regard the Catholic Church from their childhood. To join that Church, once they were convinced, they freely sacrificed all that the world had given or could give them ; and thus, in the words of the venerable divine above quoted, they " utterly renounced and trampled upon " the erroneous impressions of their earlier years. Among those impressions, doubtless, not the least was, that " the Pope is the true anti-Christ." CHAPTER II. SCRIPTURAL PROOFS OF THE PRIMACY OF PETER. " Pierre parait le premier en toutes manieres ; le premier a confesser la foi ; lo premier dans I'obligation d'exercer I'amour ; le premier de tons les Apotres, qui vit le Sauveur ressucite des morts, eomme il en avait e'te le premier te'moin devaiit tout le peuple ; le premier quand il fallut remplir le nombre des Aputres ; le premier qui coufirma la foi par un miracle; le premier aconvertir les Juifs; Ic premier a recevoir les Gentils ; le premier partout. Mais je ne puis tout dire ; tout concourt a e'tablir sa primaute' ; oui, tout, jusqu'a ses fautes." — Bossuet. For a long period, the title nainraQ, Pa^a, Pape, or Pope, lias been borne by the Bishop of Rome, who is regarded by Catholics as the successor of Saint Peter, not only as Bishop of Rome, but as Visible Head of the Church, and Yicar on earth of Jesus Christ its Founder.^ The word signifies Father, or, according to some authorities. Father of Fathers,^ and was iu the early ages of Christianity applied to bishops generally ; but, in the commencement of the sixth century, it began to be exclusively ajiplied to tlie Bishop of Rome,, and at the close of the ninth, or early in the tenth century, it had become universally adopted;, as his special designation. * In tlie Greek Cliurch, the iiile udinras is still given to all the clergy — tlie chief priest being styled irpaiToirdinras, or "first father; ' as we use "Father;" the French, Pare; the Italians, Padre, etc.; thus indicating tlie paternal rela- tions of a pastrir to his flock. ^ Some writers would derive Papa from the first syllables of the v/ords Pater Pntrura, Fatlier of Fathers, tlius abbreviated. See Bracci, " La Etimologia del Nome Papa," p. 102 at seq., Rome, 1G30. This derivation, however, seems son.cwliat far-fetched ; although actually it is in this sense that the title was originally given to bishops and patriarclis, and subsequently exclusively attri- buted to the Pope, as we siiall presently sec. b THE CHAIR OF PETER. And this was the case alike in the Eastern and Western Churches. Thus, Ennodius Ticinensis, the learned Bishop of Pavia, Cassiodorus, and Liberatus, " used to call the Bishop of Kome Pope, and the prelates of all other Churches Bisliops, in the sixth century ; and the custom gradually grew, so that, at the close of the ninth, or the commencement of the tenth century, the name of Pope was commonly attributed, not to bishops or patriarchs, but to the Eoman Pontiff alone." ^ To the same effect is the evidence of the learned Maronite, Abraham Ecchelensis,^ treating of the Oriental Churches, in his exhaustive work on the subject, in which he proves, from the writings of "learned and holy" Oriental bishops, that the Easterns followed the same usage as the Western Christians in this regard ; first calling their patriarchs and bishops Ah Aha, that is. Father of Fathers, but, in the course of time, trans- ferring and exclusively assigning the title to the occupant of the See of Kome.* He further observes, that, as early as the middle of the third century, the Egyptian bishops, ordained by Heraclas, Patriarch of Alexandria, began to call their patriarch Ab Aba, which is Father of Fathers, and the name was known from that time.* Afterwards, it was transferred from the See of Alexandria to the Koman See, " because it is the See of the Apostle Peter, the greatest of the disciples, and the Prince of ' Pagi, "Pontificum Eomanorum Gesta," toiii. i. p. 5, Venice, 1730. Fiancia Pagi, a learned Franciscan, wrote the above work, i)ublisheJ in four volumes 4to, giving the lives of tlie Pojjes from St. Peter to Eugenius IV. He was a jjains- takiiig and accurate writer. He died in 1721, aged 67. A fiftli and a sixtli volume were added by liis nephew, a.d. 1748-17.33. 2 Abraliam Eccheleu.sis, a Maronite of Mount Lclianon, and a most accom- plished Oriental scliolar, was, along with otliers, employed by tlic sacred congre- gation De rroiKiganda Fide, in making an Arabic translation of the Scriptures, A.D. 1636. He removed to Rome, for the prosecution of his work, in 1C52 ; and there he becamij Professor of Oriental languages. He died in Rome, in 1601. ^ Abraham Ecchelcn.sis, "Eutycliius Vindicatus; ])ar3 altera Do Origino Nominis Papro ctejusdcm Primatu," pp. 99-101. Rome, 1660. * Heraclas governed tiie Patriarchal See of Alexandria, sixteen years," A.i>. 232- 24b'. See Eusebius, "Ecclesiastical Uislory," book vi., chajis. 26 and 3.5. SCRIPTURAL PROOFS OF THE PRIMACY OF PETER. 7 the Apostles, and Peter was the Patriarch of Kome, and his successor is called Pope to this day." ^ And again : " Papa is a name derived from the Syriac language, and is composed of these two words Ab Aba, and signifies Father of Fathers, that is Grandfather. Formerly it was common to all bishops ; but it was afterwards trans- ferred to the Eoman Pontiff, and became his exclusively, because he is the successor of Peter and the Father of all Fathers." 2 He further quotes an ancient Mahometan writer, who bears testimony to the fact, that the Oriental " bishops, hearing the patriarchs call the Koman Pontiff Aba, said among them- selves, ' It is right that we should call the Eoman Pontiff Ab Aba' (Pope). And thenceforward the Koman Bishop was known by this name, above all others, among all the worship- pers of the Christian religion." ^ In the year 817, the Emperor Louis le Debonnaire, in his Diploma, speaks of Pope Pascal as ''Supreme Pontiff and Universal Pope — Domino Pascliali, Siimmo Pontifici et Uiiiver- sali Papx." Finally, in the year 1074, in a council which he held in Eome, Pope Gregory VII. decreed that the title of Pope should be borne exclusively by the Eoman Pontiff, and that it should not be lawful for any one to assume it, or to attribute it to any other person.* In the sixth century, observes Doctor Dollinger, the name of Pope, Papa, was first applied exclusively to the Bishop of Eome, by certain writers; whilst by others it was given, as late as the tenth age, to all bishops in general. " But," he * Georgiiis Homaidiiis xEgyptius, " Chronici in Nerone," par. i., apud Ecche- Icnsem, " De Origine Nnminis Pap£e," pp. 99, 100. ^ Gabriel Klahi, Aicliiepibcopus Ledreusin, " Liber dc Saccrdotio," cap. iii., dc Sacris Oidiuibus ft Ecclesiasticis Diguitatibus ; apud Ecckeleiiscm, ibid., pp. 101, 102. ^ Abubacrus Ilabbasides, " Apology agiuiist the Christians," par. 2 ; apud Eccl'.clenscin, ibid., pp. 102, 10.3. * Coucilia, in loco. Eechcleusis, p. 101, Bracci, p. 23. 8 THE CHAIR OF PETER. continues, " there were not wanting names and titles, wliicb, in the fourth and fifth centuries, fully expressed the supreme eccelesiastical power and dignity of tlie Tope. He was called father of fathers, the shepherd and the guardian of the flock of Christ, the chief of all bishops, the guardian of the vineyard of Christ. The Church of Eome was named, by pre-eminence, the Apostolic See, the chief of all Churclies, the rock, the foundation of faith, the Church which, as Prosper sings, pos- sessed more by religion than the city had before possessed by arms ; so that Eome had become more powerful by the see of the first bishop than it had been, in the first ages, by the throne of worldly dominion." ^ The topics here referred to will be treated, in their own places, further on. Meanwhile, let us briefly examine what Catholics actually believe about the spiritual supremacy of ►Saint Peter and his successors in the See of Eome, and the reasons, or proofs, on which that doctrine is based. The Catholic belief is, that Saint Peter was not only the head of the College of Apostles, but the divinely constituted chief pastor of the Universal Church ; and that the Bishop of Eome is Peter's successor, and, as such, possesses the same authority and jurisdiction as that Apostle received from Christ ; and that all the faithful, without exception, owe him veneration, and obedience in matters spiritual. The divinely conferred authority and jurisdiction of Saint Peter over the Universal Church arc proved, according to Catholic doctrine, in the following passages of Holy Scripture. In the sixteenth chapter of Saint Matthew, verses 10-19, we read, that, when Peter confessed the Divinity of Christ, our Lord said to him, " Blessed art thou, Simon Bar- Jona : because flesh and blood hath not revealed it to thee, but JMy Father, who is in heaven. And I say to thee : That thou art Peter ; " "History of the Charch," period the second, chap. v. sec. 3. These words of Doctor Dollingcr liavo peculiar interest, owing to the antagonistic jiositioM to the Iluly See, which that learned divine has uui'orLunately taken up biiicc they were written. SCRIPTURAL PROOFS OF THE PRIMACY OF PETER. 9 and upon this rock I will build My Church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. And I will give to thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven. And whatsoever thou shalt bind upon earth, it shall be bound also in heaven : and what- soever thou shalt loose upon earth, it shall be loosed also in heaven." ^ Again, in the twenty-second chapter of Saint Luke, verses 29-32, we read, that our Lord said to His Apostles : " And I appoint to you, as My Father hath appointed to Me, a king- dom : That you may eat and drink at My table, in My kingdom : and may sit upon thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel. And the Lord said : Simon, Simon, behold Satan hath desired to have you, that he may sift you as wheat : But I have prayed for thee, that thy faith fail not : and thou, being once converted, confirm thy brethren." Here, the Divine Founder of the Church alludes to the persecutions and dangers that the powers of darkness would raise up against her, and the various schisms and heresies that would exist from time to time ; and He then individually addresses Peter — the rock on which He will build His Church, and to whom He will give the keys of the kingdom of Heaven — and He says to him ; " But I have prayed for thee, that thj faith fail not : and thou, being once converted, confirm thy brethren." * The full meaning of the text will be best understood in the original, tho Syro-Chaldaic, in which our Lord spoke, and which was the common language of the Jews at the time. It had superseded the old Hebrew, and is called Hebrew in the New Testament, as well as by several ancient writers. Accord- ing to Papias, Origen, Saint Irenasus, Eusebius, Saint Jerome, Saint Epiphanius, and other Fathers, Saint Matthew wrote his Gospel in this language. In it, Peter and rock are expressed by the same word, Cephas ; as, in the French, wo have, "Tu es Pierre, et sur cette pierre je batirai mou eglise." Saint Luke and Saint John wrote their Gospels in Greek, while Saint Mark, who wrote his at Rome, under the eye of Saint Peter, is supposed by some to have written in Latin ; but more probably ho used Greek, which language was quite familiar to the Romans. The Evangelists who wrote in Greek translate Cephas into neVpoy, from Tre'rpa, a rock, as the Latins write Fefrus from petra — the word for rock, in both languages, being feminine, whilst in the Syro-Chaldaic, as wo have seen, there is no such difference of termination. This subject is largely treated in tho learned work already referred to — " Eutychius Vindicatus, pars altera T)o Origiuo Nomiuis I'ajjie et ejusdeni Primatu," by Abraham Ecchclensis, pp. l'J2-20y. 10 THE CHAIR OF PETEE. Thus far, we have the promises of our Lord to Peter. They had reference altogether to the future. They were to take effect after the Resurrection, when Peter was to be exalted to the high office and dignity of Visible Head of the Church, and Vicar of Jesus Christ. As admitted by all divines, non-Catholic as well as Catholic, Peter, in the lifetime of our Lord on earth, held a precedency of rank, and was the first, or chief, of the College of Apostles. In this we must recognize the design of God, preparing "the great Apostle " for the primacy which he was to enjoy after the Ascension. When Peter was introduced to Christ by his brother Andrew, " Jesus, looking at him, said : Thou art Simon the son of Jona : thou shalt be called Cephas, which is in- terpreted Peter." ^ Why He so named the Apostle, our Lord subsequently explained, in the passage already quoted from the Gospel of Saint Matthew, when He told him, that he was the rock on which He would build His Church. When Christ gave power to His twelve disciples to cast out unclean spirits, and to heal all manner of diseases and all manner of sicknesses, Peter is enumerated, in the Gospel, as " the first " — irpCoTog l.ifj.wv 6 Xijofjiavog YltTpog.^ Indeed, in naming the Apostles, the Evangelists, in every instance, place Peter first, the names of the others being placed indifferently, save that of Judas, which is always given last. Moreover, in the New Testament, we frequently meet witli such expressions as " Peter and the rest," " Peter and the Apostles." It is unnecessary to dwell, at length, on the several other occasions on which this precedency of order or rank was enjoyed by Peter, and all which prefigured, and prepared tlie way for, the primacy of authority and jurisdiction which he was afterwards to enjoy. It was Peter whom Christ commanded to walk to Him upou the waters, and stretched out His hand to su])port, when, overcome by fear, he was about to sink.*^ It was from the bark of Peter that Christ taught tlie multitudes, ' Joliu i 1>. * .MuLt. X. 1, 2. ' Matt. xir. 28-31. SCRIPTURAL PROOFS OF THE PRIMACY OF PETER. 11 on the shore of the Lake of Genesareth.^ It was Peter whom he commanded to hxunch out into the deep, and let down his nets ; resulting in the miraculous draught of fishes — typical of the conversion of multitudes to the faith ; ^ and it was to Peter He said, " Fear not ; thou shalt henceforward catch men." ^ For Peter, He paid tribute as well as for Himself.^ Of His Transfiguration, Peter was the principal witness ; ® and when by Peter, James, and John, He was accompanied to tlie Garden of Gethsemane, and found them sleeping while he prayed, He addressed His reproof of the three to one — the principal person — saying, *' Simon, sleepest thou ? Couldst thou not watch with me one hour?"^ Then, after His Kesurrection, He appeared to Peter before the rest of the Apostles,'^ having previously sent to Peter in particular the news of His being risen.^ The lively faith of Peter, too, was pre-eminently manifested on several occasions, on which we find him speaking with decision and authority, not for himself alone, but for all the Apostles, who silently acquiesce in his words. In the notable instance already referred to, we have it on the authority of our Saviour himself, that Peter's clear vision and knowledge of His divinity was a special revelation of the Eternal Father^ — a revelation evidently made to him, as the Prince of the Apostles, as the rock on wliich the Church was to be built, as the future key-bearer of Heaven, and visible Head of the Church, after its Divine Founder should liave ceased to dwell uj)on earth. Another striking example was, when some of the disciples, scandalized at the doctrine of the Blessed Eucharist, deserted Jesus, and He " said to the twelve : Will you also go away ? And Simon Peter answered Him : Lord to whom shall we go ? Thou hast the words of eternal life. And we have believed ' Luke V. 3. 2 Lujje y^ 4_ s L^j-g ^ iq. * Matt. xvii. 23-26. * Matt. xvii. 1-i. « Matt. x^vi. 37-40 ; Mark xiv. 33-37. ' 1 Cor. XV. 5 J Luke xxiv. 31'. * Mark xvi. 7. '•' Matt. xvi. l(3-iy. 12 THE CHAIR OF TETER. and have known that Thou art the Christ the Son of Gotl."^ Here, indeed, was one well suited to rule and teach the flock of his Divine IMaster, to preserve its unity, and to maintain and propagate tlie truth revealed by Him. Immediately after the Kesurrection, our Lord's promises to Peter were fulfilled. For Jesus, on manifesting himself, the tliird time, to His disciples, after He was risen from the dead, constituted Peter pastor of His whole flock. " AVhen therefore tiiey had dined, Jesus saith to Simon Peter: Simon son of John, lovest thou Me more than these ? He saith to Him : Yea, Lord, Thou knowest that I love Thee. He saith to him : Feed my lambs. He saith to him again : Simon son of John, lovest thoii Me ? He saith to Him : Yea, Lord, Thou knowest that I love Thee. He saith to him : Feed my lambs. He saith to him, the third time : Simon son of John, lovest Thou Me ? Peter was grieved, because He had said to him, the third time, Lovest thou Me ? And he saith to Him : Lord, Thou knowest all things : Thou knowest that I love Thee. He saith to him : Feed my sheep." ^ ' John vi. * John xxi. 15-17. The original Greek in this imiwrtant text is given in several ancient MSS., as B6aK€ to api^ia /jlov : Hoi/j.aii'e ra Trpo'/Sara /xov : fiooKi ra TZfyA^aTo. fiov. The Latin Vulgate liovvever has : Patsce agnns meos ; Pasce agnos nreos ; Punce oves meas. Hence the llheims Version, which is a tianslation of the Vulgate, runs thus : " Peed my lambs ; " " Feed my lambs ; " " Feed my sheep." The Authorized Version of theChurcli of England is the same, save that it reads "sheep" for "lambs," in the second part: but the Kevised Version, just published, differs from both, in reading " Tend my sheep," in the second instance, which appears to be the more accurate translation ; but, even so, it ia insufHcient. The Greek, Uoifxaivf is literally, " Bo a shepherd to my sheep ; " that is, "not only feed them, but tend them, take care of them, rule them, govern them." Thus, in Saint Matthew, chapter ii., verse 6, we read, in the llheims Version : "And thou, Bethlehem, the land of Juda, art not the least of the princes of Juda : for out of thee shall come forth the captain that shall rule My people Israel." Here the word translated "shall rule" ia Troi/xavi?. The rendering of the llevised Version is : " For out of thoo shall come forth a governor, which shall be the shepherd of My people Israel." In Homer, wo find tlio same word applied to temporal rulers, where kings are styled Troi^teVer \awi>, " the shepherds of the people." Manifestly, Ilolnati/e, while it comprises, means much more than, fiSffKe. It may Ije well to state here, that the English versions of the Holy Scriptures which 1 follow in this book are, that of the Old Testa- SCKIPTURxVL PROOFS OF THE PRIMACY OF PETER. 13 It is true tliat all the Apostles, in common with Peter, were invested by Christ with the dignity and powers of the priest- hood, of the episcopate, and of the apostolate. From Him they all received the power of binding and loosing — of remitting and retaining sins ; the power of consecration in the holy sacrifice ; and the power of ordaining priests and bishops. Comformably with His promise, they were all replenished with the gifts of the Holy Ghost. By Him, they were commissioned to teach all nations. As His Father sent Him, so He sent them. But to Peter alone He said, " Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build My Church ; " to Peter alone He promised that He would give to him the keys of the kingdom of heaven ; and, further, that He would pray for him, that his faith should fail not, so that he, being once converted, should confirm his brethren. Finally, on Peter, and on him exclusively. He con- ferred the plenitude of power and jurisdiction, commissioning him to feed His lambs, and to feed His sheep — to rule and teach His entire flock, pastors and people, as the one Supreme Pastor of all. The Catholic belief therefore is, that when the other Apostles (themselves commissioned to teach all nations) transmitted their full power and authority to the bishops, in whom the apostolate is continued, there was this difference, that whereas the authority of the Apostles was not confined to any particular place, but extended itself to all parts of the globe, to which they might be led by their universal mission, the authority of the bishops was limited to their several districts or dioceses ; whilst, on the other hand. Saint Peter transmitted to his suc- cessor in the See of Eome, not only the Apostolic office, but all the paramount power and privileges, and all the supreme jurisdiction over the Universal Church, with which he himself had been endowed by Christ. Of this supreme power and jurisdiction over the Universal mcnt first publislied by the English College of Douai, a.d. 1609, and that of tho ^'ew Tcstamcut Qv«t published by the English College of Ehciius, a.d. 1582. 14 THE CHAIR OF PETER. Church, conferred by our Lord on Saint Peter, and by him transmitted to his successors in the See of Rome, the Keys are the symbol. In the book of Isaias, we find the following words dictated by " the Lord God of hosts," to be addressed to Sobna, on his deposition from the oflice of high priest, and the elevation of Eliacim thereto in his stead : " And I will drive thee out from thy station, and depose thee from thy ministry. And it shall come to pass in that day, that I will call My servant Eliacim the son of Helcias, And I will clothe him with thy robe, and will strengthen him witli thy girdle, and will give thy power into his hand : and he shall be as a father to the inhabitants of Jerusalem, and to the house of Juda. And I will lay the key of the house of David upon his shoulder: and he shall open, and none shall shut : and he shall shut, and none shall open." ^ In the Apocalypse, the same words are applied to Our Saviour ; viz. " These things saith the Holy One and the True One, He that hath the key of David ; He that openeth, and no man shutteth ; shutteth, and no man openeth."^ "By the keys given to Peter, we understand the supreme power over the whole Church ; " says Cardinal Bellarmin.^ That Peter began forthwith to exercise the duties of his exalted office, we find recorded in the Acts of the Apostles, chapter i., verses 13-2G ; when, immediately after the Ascen- sion, A.D. 29,^ in the midst of the assembly of the Apostles and ' Isa. xxii. 19—22. 2 Apoc. iii. 7. ' " Per clavcs datas Petro intclligimus summam potostatein in omnem eccle- siam" (Bellarrain, "Do Pontifice," i. 3). * The Cliristian or Vulgar Era is by some considered to have commenced with the Birth of our Lord ; but the more general and more probable opinion fixes its commencement four years later; that is, four years and seven daya after the Nativity. I adopt the latter reckoning, throughout this book. Accord- ingly, with most authorities, I take, as a starting point, the year 29, as the year of the Crucifixion of our Lord ; that is the fifteenth and sixteenth year of Tiberius, from the death of Augustus— the Consuls being Lucius Rubollius Gemiuus and Caius Fufius Geminus. For the chronology of Saints Peter and Paul, all through, I rely principally on Constantius's " Annalcs SS. Petri et Paul!," which form a valuable sequel to Cardinal Cortcsius's able work, "Do SCRIPTURAL PROOFS OF THE PRIMACY OF PETER. 15 disciples, persevering with one accord in prayer, to the number of about one hundred and twenty, Mary the Mother of Jesus being present, Peter rose up, and called on them to elect a successor to Judas ; and so Matthias was numbered with the eleven. Next, after the Descent of the Holy Ghost, Peter, standing up with the eleven, was the first to preach to the Jews, and to announce to them the Eesurrection of Jesus Christ : and they, having heard him, " had compunction in their heart, and they said to Peter and to the rest of the Apostles: what shall we do, men and brethren? But Peter said to them : Do penance, and be baptized every one of you in the name of Jesus Christ, for the remission of your sins : and you shall receive the gift of the Holy Ghost." ^ And we further read, that, with a great many other words, did Peter testify and exhort them, and that they that received his word were baptized, and that there were added to them in that day about three thousand souls.^ Next, we find Peter performing the first miracle wrought by the Apostles after the Ascension (in the cure of the man lame from his birth), and preaching to the people in the porch of the Temple ; ^ and many of them who had heard the word believed ; and the number of the men was made five thousand.'* And, on the following day, the same Apostle, filled with the Holy Ghost, addressed the rulers, ancients, and scribes, gathered together in Jerusalem, and preached to them Jesus of Nazareth, crucified by them, and raised by God from the dead.^ By Peter also were Ananias and Sapphira judged and condemned.^ And, when by the hands of the Apostles many signs and wonders were wrought among the people, "the multitude of men and women, that believed in the Lord, Romano Itinere Gestisqne Principis Apostolorum Libri Duo," both pnblished in one volume, Rome, 1770. I am also indebted to Foggiuiug, " Do Romano Divi Petri Itinere et Episcopatu," Florence, IT-ll. ' Acts ii. 14 ct seq. ; a. d. 29. * Acts ii. 40, 41. ' Acts iii. * Acts iv. 4. " Acts iv. 8 -12. • Acts v. 1-10 ; a.d. 30. 16 THE CHAIR OF PETER. was more increased ; insomuch that they brought out tho sick into the streets, and hiid them on beds and couches, that, when Peter came, his shadow, at the least, might over- shadow any of them, and they might be delivered from their infirmities." ^ \Yhen Simon Magus offered money to the Apostles, ashing them to impart to him the power of conferring the Holy Ghost by the imposition of hands, it was Peter who replied, rebuking him and exhorting him to penance.^ Next, when " the Church had peace throughout all Judea, and Galilee, and Samaria; and was edified, walking in the fear of the Lord, and was filled with the consolation of the Holy Ghost," we read of Peter, " as he passed through, visiting all." -^ At Lydda, he healed .^neas, who had lain on his bed eight years, ill of the palsy ; "and all that dwelt at Lydda and Saron saw him ; and they were converted to the Lord : " ^ and at Joppe he raised Tabitha from the dead, on which many believed in the Lord.^ As Peter was the first to preach Christ Crucified to the Jews ; so was he the first to open the Church to the Gentiles. For we read, that Cornelius the Centurion, a Gentile, was admonished by an angel to send for Peter, who received him into the Church — Peter having learned, in a vision, and by an order from heaven, that Gentiles, as well as Jews, were to be received.^ The call of the Gentiles to the faith having been questioned by some of the brethren of the Circumcision assembled at Jerusalem, Peter, on his arrival there, addressed them, defending the doctrine ; and they, at once, bowed sub- missively to his decision ; for the inspired writer tells us, that, " when they had heard these things, iheij held their i^eace, and ' Acts V. 12-15 ; A.D. 30. * Acts viii. 18-23 ; a.d. 31. Hence, the crime of bnying ox* selling ccclcsi- astical preferment, or tlio corrupt presentation of any one to an ecclesiastical benefice for money or reward, is called Simuny. 3 Acts ix. 31, 32; A.u. 34. * Acts ix, 33-35; a.d. 34. '- Acts ix. 3G-42j a.d. 34. " Acts x.; a.d, 35. SCRIPTURAL PROOFS OF THE PRIMACY OF PETER. 17 glorified God, saying ; God then hath also to the Gentiles given repentance unto life." ^ With reference to this passage, a learned Protestant writer judiciously observes : — The Jews had, for several ages, conceived a radicated and inveterate prejudice against the Gentiles. Indeed the Law of Moses commanded them to be peculiarly kind to their own nation; and the rites and institution of their religion, and the peculiar form of their commonwealth made them diflferent from the fashion of otlier countries; a separation which in after times they drew into a narrower compass. Besides, they were mightily puffed up with their external privileges, that they were the seed of Abraham, the people whom God had peculiarly chosen for Him- self, above all other nations of the world, and therefore with a lofty scorn proudly rejected the Gentiles as dogs and reprobates, utterly refusing to sliow them any office of common kindness and converse.^ Hence, their immediate " holding their peace," on this occasion, their ready submission to the authority of Peter, their sacrificing their " radicated and inveterate prejudices against the Gentiles " to the duty of prompt obedience to his teaching, are all the more striking ; and present a remarkable illustration of how, in the infancy of the Church, the Prince of the Apostles exercised, unquestioned, that primacy of authority and jurisdiction, which is challenged for him and his successors in the Apostolic See, by all the early Fathers, and Catholic Christians in all times. Naturally, the hostility of the unconverted Jews was very strong against the infant Church, and especially against its most prominent member. Therefore, with a view to please them, Herod Agrippa caused Peter to be apprehended, and lodged in prison, delivering him to four files of soldiers, for safe custody, and intending, after the Pasch, to bring him forth to the people. On this, we read, that "prayer was • Ants xi. ; A.D. 36. ^ " Antiquitates ApostoliCcB," by William Cave, D.D., p. 31. London, 1684. Doctor William Cave, a celebrated English divine, was born in 1637, and waa educated in Saint John's College, Cambridge. He was chaplain to Charles II., and a canon of Windsor. He was the author of several learned ecclesiastical works. He died in 1713. C 18 THE CHAIR OF PETER. made, without ceasing, by the Church unto God for him," its visible head and chief teacher ; and those prayers were heard, and an angel of the Lord was sent, to strike ofi his chains and deliver him from captivity.^ Immediately after this, took place the dispersion of the Apostles ; "^ when Saint Peter, " as the head and prince of the Apostolic Senate," entered Rome, to erect there, in the sij^ht of the world, the standard of the Cross, and to form out of the metropolis of the Empire the capital of Christ's spiritual kingdom, the Primatial See, and the centre of Ecclesiastical Unity.3 In the beginning of the year 49, on the expulsion of the Jews from Rome by the Emperor Claudius,^ Saint Peter, being ccmipelled to leave the Imperial city, returned to the East. At that time, certain persons, who had come down from Judea to Antioch, taught the doctrine, that the Gentiles entering the Church should be circumcised, after the manner of Moses ; and the Apostles Paul and Barnabas had no small contest with them, and in vain endeavoured to convince them of their error. Then the question was referred to the Apostles and priests at Jerusalem, " Paul and Barnabas and certain others of the other side " being deputed to attend before them. " xVnd the Apostles and ancients assembled to consider this matter ; and when there had been much disputing, Peter, rising up, said to them : Men, brethren, you know that in former days God made choice among us, that by my mouth the Gentiles should hear the word of the Gospel, and believe. And God, who knoweth the hearts, gave testimony, giving unto them the Holy Ghost, » Acts xii. A.D. 41. • A.D. 41, 42. ' Cuccagni, "Vita di S. Pietro, Principo degli Apostoli," vol. iii. p. 5, Roma, 1781. This important event in the life of Saint Peter will be treated, in its own place, further on. ■♦ Acts xviii. 2; Suctonias, "In Clamlio," cap. 24 (alias 25) ; Orosius, "His- toriarnm," vii. G. Fogginius, in his k^aruod work, " De Romano Divi Petri Itincre et Episcopatu," pages 112, 123, 12i, says, that Saint Peter left Rome for Jerusalem in the beginning of the ninth year of Claudius, and the nineteenth year from the Passion of our Lord. SCRIPTURAL PROOFS OF THE PRIMACY OF PETER. 19 as well as to us ; and put no difference between us and them, purifying their hearts by faith. Now therefore why tempt you God to put a yoke upon the necks of the disciples, which neither our fathers nor we have been able to bear? But by the grace of the Lord Jesus Christ we believe to be saved, in like manner as they also." On this, " all the multitude held their peace," continues the inspired writer. No more contest — no more disputing — all bowed to the authority of Peter. Then Paul and Barnabas were attentively heard, telling what great signs and wonders God had wrought among the Gentiles by them ; and James followed, quoting the Prophets in support of the doctrine laid down by Peter ; and expressed his opinion, that letters in accordance therewith should be written to the Gentiles by whom they had been consulted. Ou this, the council deputed Judas, surnamed Barsabas, and Silas, to accompany Paul and Barnabas back to Antioch, and trans- mitted by them its decree or decision, commencing with the words, "It hath seemed good to the Holy Ghost and to us" — • a formula significant of the Divine aid promised to the Church through all days to the end of the world.^ Speaking of the decision of the Council of Jerusalem, Saint Jerome styles Peter " the chief or principal of this decree ; " and states that, "beyond all doubt, he was the first author of this opinion (or sentence) " — namely, " that, after the Gospel, tlie Law is not to be observed ; " and he further says, that " the Apostle James and all the elders with him acquiesced in Peter's opinion (or sentence)." ^ To the same effect are the observa- tions of Tertullian and other Fathers. Notwithstanding this, some Protestant commentators infer, from the attribution, in the sacred narrative, of the word Kpivto, ' Acts XV. A.D. 49. " Saint Jerome, " Epistola xlv., alias xi, ; " " Principein hnjas decreti." " Nulli ergo dubinm est, quod Petras Apostolus seuteutia3 hujus . . . primus auctor cxtitcrit ; i.e. legem post Evangelium non esse servaadam : " and " Epistola Ixxxix., ad Augnstinum ; " "In senteutiam ejus Jacobus Apostolus omnesque simul prcsbytori transicruut." 20 THE CHAIR OF PETER. "I judge," to Saint James, that he, and not Saint Peter, presided at this council. lUit Kpivw means no less " I think," or "I am of opinion" (Latin sentio or opnor), and is constantly- used in this sense.^ Besides, the leading part taken by Saint Peter on the occasion, and the prompt acquiescence in his decision of all the disputants, who thereupon "held their peace," and listened submissively to Paul and Barnabas, whose doctrine they had previously contested, all prove, that not only was Saint Peter the head and director of that assembly, but that all silently bowed to his teaching. Even, as in our day, when Peter's successor speaks for all, in his official capacity — ex cathedra — and is reverentially heard, all over the Catholic world. The accounts in Holy Writ of the intercourse between Saints Peter and Paul, although scanty, are of peculiar interest. It is generally agreed upon, that Saint Paul's conversion and call to the Apostolate must have taken place a.d. 31-32, of the Vulgar Era, or between two and three years after the Passion of our Lord. Three years after that, as he himself tells us. Saint Paul went to Jerusalem, to see ^ Peter, and stayed with him fifteen days, but of the other Apostles he saw^ none, save James the brother of the Lord.'* " He goes up to him," says Saint John Chrysostom, "as to a superior and a senior." ° " It was meet," says Saint Ambrose, " that he should desire to see Peter, because he was the first among the Apostles, and to him the Lord had delegated the care of the Churches." ^ ' " Verbum ' judico' frequenter in significatione usnrpatur, nfc idem sit quod sentio seu opinor." Canns, " Locorum Thcolngicornm," 1. vi., c. 8. Mclchior Cano, or Canns, the learned Bishop of the Canaries, flourished a.d. 1523-1560. His principal works are " Pra3loctiones de Poenitentia," " do Sacrameutis," and "Locorum Theolojjicorum libri xii.," above quoted. * The word here used, in the Greek, Icrropriffai, means much more than " to see " — viz. " to know," " to become acquainted with." Henco iffropia, " history." • Tho term here is simply eTSor, "saw." ♦ Gal. i. 18, 19. A.n. 35. * "In cap. i., Epist. ad Galat." ' Ibid. "Dignnm fuit ut cuperot vidore Pctrum, quia primus erat inter Apostolos, cui delegavcrat Salvator cui'am ecclesiaruoi." This Conimentary, SCRIPTURAL PROOFS OF THE PRIMACY OF PETER. 21 Fourteen years later, a.d. 49, Saints Peter and Paul met at the Council of Jerusalem.^ About this time, Peter went to Antioch, and there Saint Paul reproved him for withdrawing from the table of the converted Gentiles, lest he should give offence to the Jewish converts.^ That to which Saint Paul took exception was a matter, not of faith, but of conduct. It was simply an act of condescension on the part of Peter. " Clearly," says Ter- tullian, " Paul reproved him, not for any other reason than the change in his mode of living, which he varied according to the condition of persons, fearing those who were of the circum- cision ; and not for any perversion of religion." ^ Saint Cyprian, admiring the humility of Peter on this occasion, observes : " Peter, whom the Lord elected first, and on whom He built His Church, when Paul disputed afterwards with him about circumcision, did not vindicate his own rights proudly or arrogantly, as though he said that he held the Primacy, and should be obeyed by those who were his juni> rs and inferiors ; neither did he despise Paul because he had formerly been a persecutor of the Church ; but he admitted the counsel of truth, and readily acquiesced in the legitimate reason adduced by Paul, affording us, truly, an example of concord and patience, that we should not be obstinately attached to our own ideas, but that we should rather make our formerly considered the work of Saint Ambrose, is latterly attributed to his contemporary, Ambrosiastex'. ' Gal. ii. 1. A.D. 49. * Gal. ii. ] 1-21. a.d. 49. Some of the Fathers and some modern writers think that the Cephas here mentioned by Saint Paul was not Saint Peter, but a disciple named Cephas. Pere Hardouin, in a learned dissertation, written in 1709, supports this view. He argues that, whereas Saint Paul, in his Epistle to the Galatians, calls S.aint Peter " Peter," in chapter i., verse 18, and also in chapter ii., verses 7 and 8, it is very unlikely he would call him Cephas in verses 9 and 11 of the same chapter ii. However the great majority of the Fathers and other wi'iters are of opinion that the Cephas here mentioned ia Saint Peter. ' Tei-tuUian, 1. v. contra Marcion., c. iii. "Plane x-epi"ehondit: non ob aliiid, tamen, quam ob inconstautiam victus, quem pro personarum qualitate variii})at, tiuicus cos qui orant ex ciroumcisione, non ob aliquam diviuitatis perversitatem." 22 THE CHAIR OF PETER. own those things which are sometimes usefully and whole- somely suggested by our brethren and colleagues, provided they be true and lawful." ^ " Behold," says Saint Gregory the Great, " he is reproved by his inferior, and he is not impatient of the reproof : he does not remind him that he has received the keys of the kingdom of heaven." ^ Here, the Prince of the Apostles simply carried out, in practice, that personal humility, and that exemplary modera- tion, which are sometimes such valuable qualities in those who govern others — qualities which, in his First Epistle, he inculcates on bishops, whom, as bishop of bishops, and visible head of the Church, he paternally exhorts to feed the flock of God, taking care of it, not by constraint, but willingly according to God, not lording it over the clergy, but beiug made a pattern from the heart ; so that, when the Prince of Pastors shall appear, they may receive a never-fading crown of glory.^ In reading the above-quoted passages of the New Testa- ment, however obvious may be their import, the Catholic does not interpret them by his own lights only ; but is guided by the authority of the Church, which, from the earliest ages, as we shall presently see, has held the doctrine of the supreme jurisdiction of Peter, conferred on him by our Lord, and by him transmitted to his successors in the See of Eome. Should some of my readers, who may not have studied the question, take the trouble to consult the works of certain leading Protestant divines, they will be in no small degree surprised at the large concessions therein made to the Catholic doctrine of the Supremacy or Primacy of Saint Peter. Of these writers, it will be sufficient to quote one — the ' Cyprian, " Ad Quintain," Epist. Ixxi. " Nee Petrus, quern primum Domiinis elegit, et super quern aodificavit Ecclosiam suam,cuin secum Paulas postuiotluni de circamcisionc dccerptaret, vindicavit sibi aliquid iusolenter, aut arrogant er assumpsit, ut diccret se primatum tenore, et obtomperari a novellis et posteris eibi potius oportere : " etc. * L. ii. in Ezech. horn. xvLii. ' 1 Peter v. 1-t. SCRIPTURAL PROOFS OF THE PRIMACY OF PETER. 23 learned Doctor Barrow,^ who has argued so ably and ex- haustively on the subject. Although his treatise is written to controvert the Catholic doctrine, he frankly admits Saint Peter's ^jn'wac?/ of ivorth, \ih jprimacy of repute, and hi^ primacy of order or hare dignity ; whilst he denies his 'primacy of juris- diction? Having adduced several instances of his personal endowments, capacity, zeal, and affection for our Lord, in which " he did exceed " and " outshine " the rest of the Apostles, he observes : — ■ Upon these premises, we may well admit that Saint Peter ha-i a primacy of worth; or that in per^ODal accomplishments he was most eminent among the twelve Apostles. . . . This is the primacy which Eusebins attributeth to him, when he calleth him " the excellent and great Apostle, who for his virtue was the prolocutor of the rest."^ As to ii primacy of repute ; . . . this advantage cannot be refused him ; being a necessary consequent of those eminent qualities resplendent in him, and of the illustrious performances achieved by him beyond the rest. This may be inferred from that advantageous renown which he hath had projjagated from the beginning to all posterity. This at least those elogies of the fathers (styling him the chief, prince, head of the Apostles) do signify. This also may be collected from his being so constantly ranked in the first place before the rest of his brethren. As to a lyrimacy of ordtr or hare diynity, importing that, commonly, in all ' Isaac Barrow, D.D. This eminent scholar and divine was born in London in 1630. After three years at the Charter House public school, he was admitted a pensioner of Saint Peter's College, and subsequently of Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1660, he was appointed Greek professor in that University. In 1662, he was named to a congenial post — the professorship of Geometry in Gresham College; and, two years later, he was chosen the first professor of the new chair of Mathematics, founded by the executors of Mr. Lucas. In 1669, Dr. Barrow resigned this appointment, in favour of his illustrious pupil. Sir Isaac Newton ; and thenceforward devoted himself exclusively to theological studies. In 16/0, he was made Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, in succession to Dr. Pearson, appointed Bishop of Chester, and in 1675 he became Vice-Chancellor of the University. Doctor Barrow was chaplain to Charles II., who used to speak of him as " the most learned man in England." He was the author of several mathematical treatises, and of sevei-al learned theological ■works. He died in 1677, in his forty-seventh year. * " A Treatise of the Pope's Supremacy," " The Theological Works of Isaac Barrow, D.D.," vol. vii. pp. 64, 65, 67. Oxford University Press, 1830. * 't\iV KapTtphv Koi ixeyav tuiv wnoaT6Kwv, tIv a.piTr\s (vtKa roiv Xonruv airavTwv irpo-i^ycpov (Euoebius, "Hist. Eccles.," ii. 14). 24 THE CHAIR OF PETER. meetings and proceedings, the other Apostles did yield him the precedence, the Trporiyopia, Or privilege of speaking iirst (whether in propounding matters for debate, or in delivering his advice), in the conduct and moderation of affairs, .... this primacy may be granted, as probable, upon divers accounts of use and convenience ; it might be useful to i)re- serve order and to promote expedition; or to prevent confusion, distraction, and dilatory obstruction in the management of things ; yea, to maintain concord, and to exclude that ambition or affectation to be foremost, which is natural to men.^ Here, we are furnished by Doctor Barrow with a strong argument in favour of the primacy which Catholics attribute to the Chair of Peter, in all ages ; for, if such were necessary in the Apostolic times, "to preserve order and to promote expedition, or to prevent confusion, distraction, and dilatory obstruction in the management of things ; yea, to maintain concord," surely much more would it be necessary as the Church became developed, and gradually extended itself to the utmost bounds of the earth. And so it manifestly entered into the designs of God, when He established His Church, that it should ever have a centre of unity, a principle of concord, a visible Head, whom all Catholics recognize in the successor of Saint Peter in the Apostolic See. For this, a primacy of u'orth, of repute, of order or hare dignity, would never suflfice ; a primacy of authority and juris- diction is required — that primacy which unites more than two hundred millions of Catholic Christians in one common faith, all professing the same tenets, without " change or shadow of alteration," all reverently turning towards the Successor of Saint Peter, as their Father and Teacher in matters spiritual — as Christ's Vicar on earth, and the Visible Head of the Church. • " The Theological Works of Isaac Barrow, D.D.," vol. vii. pp. 6-i-66. CHAPTER III. THE EAKLY FATHERS ON THE PRIMACY OF PETER. " Ubi enim Petrus, ibi Ecclesia." ' — Saint Ambrose. The writings of the early Fathers on the Primacy of Saint Peter and his successors in the Apostolic Chair constitute an interesting and valuable chapter in Ecclesiastical history. The impartial reader by whom they are carefully perused will not hesitate to admit, that the doctrine of the Primacy was firmly maintained and emphatically taught by those venerable men ; and, at the same time, he must be impressed by the evidence, thus afforded, of the Catholic, or universal, belief in that doctrine, in the early ages of Christianity. We have seen how the Primacy was conferred by our Lord on the Prince of the Apostles, and exercised by him in the Apostolic times, as recorded in Holy Scripture. We shall now see, by the tradition of the Church, in the writings of the Fathers, and other authentic ancient documents, how it was recognized and honoured in Peter and his successors, by the hearers of the Apostles, and generations immediately succeeding, and, again, by their successors ; and how it gradu- ally grew and developed itself, with the growth and develop- ment of the Church : so that, as Peter's words were reverentially heard and obeyed, when the faithful dwelt within a small area in Palestine, and numbered between three and four thousand souls,^ the voice of his successor, in our day, is listened to, * " For where Peter is, there is the Church." * Acts ii. 26 THE CHAIR OF TETER. with equal reverence and obedience, by Catholic Christians of every tongue and tribe and people, in all parts of the globe. Tertullian,^ one of the most ancient Latin Ecclesiastical authors, writes as follows, towards the close of the second century : — Was anytliing hidden from Peter, who was called the rock on which the Church was to be built, who obtained the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and the power of loosing and binding, in heaven and on eartli '? ^ And again : — If thou thiukest that heaven is still closed, remember that the Lord left the keys thereof here to Peter, and through him to the Church.^ The same writer, after his lapse into heresy, declaiming against Pope Zephyrinus,^ for condemning the doctrine that sins of adultery and fornication were unpardonable, says : — I hear also that an edict has been published, and indeed a peremptory one; to wit, the Supreme Pontiff, that is, the Bishop of Bishops, jto- claims : " I remit the sins of adultery and fornication to those who have done penance." ^ Here we have evidence, and, coming from a hostile source, it is the more valuable, that, in the beginning of the third century, tbe successor of Saint Peter was known as the Supreme Pontiff and the Bishop of Bishops, and, as such, exercised the authority of his sacred office, and maintained the true doctrine against those who, thus early, had, through heresy, separated themselves from the Church. The Pope's edict was ordered by His Holiness to be read in the Church, and was so read and proclaimed, as was the Epistle of Pope * Tertullian was born of lloman iiaronts at Cartilage, a.d. IGO. About the year 195, he became a con vert to Christiauity. Shortly afterwards, he was ordained a priest, and wrote his celebrated Apology for the Christians. In 204. he visited Kome. The following year he lapsed into the heresy of Moutauus. He died in 215. * " Liber de rrsoscriptionibus," cap. xxii. * " Scorpiace," n. 10. * Saint Zephyrinns presided over the Church, a.d. 202-219. * " Liber de Pudicitia," cap. i. "Audio etiam odictura esse propositum, ct quidem peremptorium ; Pontifex scilicet Maximus, quod est Episcopus Ejtisco. porum, edicit : ' Ego et mcEchiEO, et fornicationis delicta poenitontia f iinctis dimitto.' " Tertullian wrote this book, " De Pudicitia," against the Pope's edict. THE EARLY FATHERS ON THE PRIMACY OF PETER. 27 Clement, over a hundred years before.^ Of this, Tertullian, in no measured language, complains.^ Writing a few years later, Origen^ says : — "When the supreme authority as regards feeding the sheep was delivered to Peter, and upon him, as upon a rock, was founded the Church, the confession of no other virtue than charity was required of him.* Saint Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage,^ writing about the middle of the third century, speaks as follows of Saint Peter's confession of faith : — Tliere speaketh Peter, on whom the Church was built, in the name of the Church, teaching and showing that, although the contumacious and proud multitude of those unwilling to believe should depart, the Church notwithstanding does not withdraw from Christ : and they are the Chnrch, the people united to the priest, the flock adhering to its pastor. Whence you ought to know that the Bishop is in the Church, and the Church in the Bishop.^ Again, writing to Saint Cornelius, Pope,' he says : — Peter, however, on whom the Church was built by our Lord, one * For Pope Clement's Epistle, see Index, " Clement." * Tertullian, " Liber de Pudicitia." " Sed hsec in Ecclesia legitnr, et in Eccle- Bia pronuntiatnr, et virgo est ? Absit, absit a sponsa Christi tale pra^conium." * Origen, a writer of profoimd learning, was born at Alexandria, in the year 185. He was the pupil of Clement of Alexandria, and, like his master, taught in the Christian school of that city. On account of his untiring labours and volu- minous writings, he was surnamed Adamantius, Indefatigable. He was ordained priest by Theoctistus, Bishop of Caesarea in Palestine, a.d. 230 ; and laboured successfully, in confuting heresies, and reclaiming those who had fallen away from the Church. Several of his pujiils became illustrious prelates and chaminous of religion. Origen was accused of errors in his writings, out of which he appears to have risen speedily. This, unhappily, was not the case with his followers, called Origenists. In the Papacy of Zephyrinus, Origen visited Rome, to gratify his anxiety to see that most ancient Church. About the year 248, he sent his written profession of faith to Pope Fabian; and, later in the same year, he visited Rome, to confer with the Pope. He died at Tyre in 254, aged sixty-nine. * Origen, " In Epist. ad. Rom.," cajj. vi. lib, 5. * Saint Cyprian was consecrated Bishop of Carthage, a.d. 248, and suffered martyrdom in the persecution under Valerian and Gallienus ; a.d. 258. His works are numerous and valuable. His controversy with Saint Stephen, Pope, about the validity of baptism conferred by heretics, will be noticed further on. See Index, " Cyprian." ' Cyprian, " Ad Florent.," Epist. G9. ' Saint Cornelius, a Roman, governed the Church, from June 4, 251, to September 14, 252, 28 THE CHAIR OF TETER. speaking for all, and answering -with the voice of the Church, says, " Lord, to whom shall we go ? Thou hast the words of eternal life." i The next extract is from the same Father's book on the Unity of the Church ; and is a clear and emphatic argument in support of the Primacy, on which that Unity is based. In commending it to the attention of the reader, it may be well to remind him that it was written more than sixteen centuries ago. ;•• Tlie Lord speaks to Peter. "I say to thee," He says, "that thou art / Peter, and upon this rock I will build my Church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. And to thee I will give the keys of the kingdom of heaven : and whatsoever thou slialt bind on earth, shall be bound also in heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth, shall be loosed also in heaven." And again He says to him, after His Eesurrcc- tion: "Feed my sheep." Upon that one Ee huilds His Church, and, to him He commits His shetp, to he/ed. And, although after His Eesurrection He gives to all the Apostles equal power, and says, " As the Father hath sent Me I also send you. Eeceivc ye the Holy Ghost : wliose sins you remit, they are remitted them : whose sins you retain, they shall be retained," yet, that He might manifest unity. He established one chair; and He disposed by His authority the origin of the same unity, which begins from one.^ Certainly the other Apostles were what Peter was, being endowed with equal participation of honour and power ; but tlie beginning proceeds from unity. I'he Primncy is given to Peter, that the Church of Christ may be sltoivn to he one, anrl the chair one? And all are pastors, but the flock is shown to be one, which is fed by all the Apostles, with unanimous accord. . . . Does he who does not hold this unity of the Church believe that he holds the faith ? Does he who strives against and resists the Church, who deserts the Chair of Peter, on which the Church is founded, trust that he is in the Church ? * ' Cyprian, ' Ad Comelium," Epist. 55. * " Super unum ilium adijlcat EccJesiam stiam, et illi pascendcis mandat oves suas. Et quamvis Apostolis omuibus post resurrcctiouem Buaui, parein potcstatein tribuat et dicat, 'Sicut misit me I'ater, et ego mitto vos : Accipite Spiritum Sanctum : Si cui remiseritis peccata, remittuutur illi ; si cui retiuu- eritis, retiuebuntur : ' tamen, ut unitatem tnauifetitaret, unam cathedram coa- stituit, et unitatis ejusdem originem ab uno iucipientem, sua auctoritate disposuit." * " Primatus Petro datur, ut una Christi Ecclesia, et cathedra una monstretur." These words of Saint Cyprian are quoted by Pope Pelagius II., in his second Epistle to the bishops of Istria, a.d. 581. See Barouius, " Annates Eccle- eiastici," vii. 678. * Cyprian, " Liber do uuitaie Ecolesiuj," par, iv. " lianc Ecclesiaj uuitaicm THE EARLY FATHERS ON THE PRIMACY OF PETER. 29 The celebrated treatise on the Unity of the Church, from which these words are taken, was written by Saint Cyprian about the year 252, against Novatian, the first anti-pope, who sought to usurp the place of Saint Cornelius.^ In a letter addressed to Antonianus, a bishop of Numidia, Saint Cyprian speaks of the ordination of the same holy Pope, as having occurred " when the place of Fabian, that is, when the place of Peter, and the rank of the sacerdotal chair, was vacant : " ^ and in the same letter he observes : " You have written also, that I should transmit to our colleague Cornelius a copy of your letter, in order that, laying aside all solicitude, he should know, that you are in communion with him, that is, with the Catholic Church." 3 qui non tenet, teuere fidem se credit ? Qui Ecclesife renititnr et resistit, qui Cathedram Petri, super quam fundata est Eccleftia, deserit, in Ecclesia se esse coufidit ?" " Cypi'iani Opera, Nicolai Rigaltii observationibns ad veterum exemplarium fidem recoguita et illustrata," pp. 207, 208, Paris, 1648. In tlie editions of Cyprian's works by Erasmus, and Fell and Baluze, who followed him, as well as in some manuscripts, the words, in Italics, in this and the two preceding notes, are omitted ; whilst, on the other hand, they are found in the edition of Rigault, Paris, 1648, from which I quote, an edition carefully compared with ancient manuscripts, and in those of Pamelius and other editors. More- over, they were quoted by Pope Pelagius II., in his second Epistle to the bishops of Istria, A.D. 581. See Baronius, "Annales Ecclesiastic!," vii. 678. In any case, the substance of the controverted words is to be found, again and again, in undisputed passages of Saint Cyprian's writings. * Novatian was an irregularly ordained priest in Rome, who, a.d. 251, prevailed on three bishops in remote parts of Italy to come to Rome, and con- secrate him bishop of that city, in opposition to the Pope, Saint Cornelius. His principal supporter was Novatus, a schismatical priest of Carthage, who, on being condemned by Saint Cyprian, had left Carthage, and repaired to Rome. Novatian, convicted of heresy and schism, was excommunicated, in the Council of Rome, convened and presided over by Saint Cornelius, A.D. 251, The three bishops who consecrated him were deposed by the Pope, who appointed others to till their sees. One of them, who repented, was admitted by Saint Cornelius to lay communion. " Three bishops, who ordained Novatian the schismatic bishop, wei'e deposed, and others ordained to succeed them, by Cornelius Bishop of Rome, whose proceedings in this matter were generally appi-oved of, all over the world," says Archbishop Potter ("A Discourse of Church Government," page 392). * Cyprian, " Epistola 52, Ad Antoniannm de Cornelii Papa> ordinatione." " Cum Fabiani locus, id est, cuin locus Petri et gradus cathedrae sacerdotalis vacaret." ' Ibid. " Ut, deposita omni solicitudinc, jam sciret te secum, hoc est, cum 30 THE CHAIR OF PETER. Again ; on the occasion of Fortunatus having been chosen bishop by the schismatics at Carthage, they dispatched envoys to Rome, to give the Pope, Saint Cornelius, a false account of his ordination, with a view to His Holiness receiving him into communion. Upon this. Saint Cyprian addressed a letter to the Pope, giving him a correct version of the affair. In this letter, he says : — After these things, moreover, the schismatics, having set up a false bishop for themselves, dare to cross the sea, and to bear letters from pchismatical and profane men to the Chair of Peter, and to the principal Church, the source of sacerdotal unity; and they do not reflect that they are the Romans, whose faith is praised by the Ajjostle preaching, and to whom iuiidclity cannot have access.^ Such clear and conclusive evidence of the Church of Rome having been regarded as " the Chair of Peter," " the principal Church," "the source of sacerdotal unity," and of its com- munion having been sought, as an indispensable condition of orthodoxy, by all, even the most remote. Churches, at this early period, must command at least the respectful attention and serious consideration of those who are conscientiously opposed to the Catholic doctrine of the spiritual supremacy of the Holy See. Saint Cyprian's testimony derives additional weight from the part taken by him in the controversy about the validity of Catholica Ecclesia, comrannicare." The word " Catholic," or Universal (from the Greek Kara, in, through, among, according to, and '6\ovs, the whole), here applied to the Church by Saint Cyprian, was first so used by an Apostolio Father, Saint Ignatius, who was a disciple of Saint John the Evangelist, suc- ceeded Evodius as Bishop of Antioch, and suffered martyrdom in the year 107. Ho says: " Wlierever Christ Jesus is, there is the Catholic Church" — uairep o-rrov &if r\ Xpitrrbs 'liyffoCs, iKei ri KaQoKiKi^ eKK\r]ffla (" Epist. ad Smyrnajos," c. 8). There are extant seven Epistles of Saint Ignatius, inclusive of that to the people of Smyrna, here quoted. ' Cyprian, "Ad Corueliura," Epist. 55. " Et ad Petri Cathedram, atque ad ecclesiam principalem, unde unitas sacerdotalis cxorta est," etc. Several authorities consider that the term "principalem," used here, means more than " principal." The version perhaps ought rather to be — the princely, chief, ruling or governing Church. THE EAELY FATHERS ON THE PRIMACY OF PETER. 31 baptism conferred by heretics. This subject will be spoken of further on.^ Strikingly in accord with the writings of Saint Cyprian, above quoted, are the words of Saint Ireuaeus, second bishop of Lyons, written more than seventy years before.^ Irenoeus in his youth was a hearer of Polycarp, who was himself tlie disciple of Saint John the Evangelist ; and clearly his testi- mony must have especial weight, as coming from one so imme- diately connected with the Apostolic times. In his third book against heresies, he says : — • Since it would be very tedious in such a volume as this to enumerate the successions of all the Churches, we point to the tradition (received from the Apostles) of the greatest, and most ancient, and universally known Church, founded and established at Eome, by the two most glorious Apostles, Peter and Paul, and to her faith announced to men, which, through the successions of bishops, has come down to us ; and thus we confound all those who, in any way, either through self-com- placency, or vain glory, or blindness, or perverse sentiments, hold wrong opinions.^ For with this Church, in which the tradition of the Apostles has always been preserved by the faithful everywhere, it is necessary, on ' See Index, " Cyprian." ^ Saint Ireueeiis, Bishop of Lyons and martyr, was bom in Asia Minor, about the year 120. His parents, who were Christians, placed him under the care of Saint Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna. According to Saint Jerome, ho was also a pupil of Papias, another disciple of the Apostles. He is styled by TertuUian " the most diligent searcher of all doctrine," and by Saint Epipha- nius, " a most eloquent and learned man, endowed with all the gifts of the Holy Ghost." He was sent by Saint Polycarp into Gaul, where he wa3 ordained priest by Saint Pothiuus, first Bishop of Lyotis, in which see he suc- ceeded that prelate, in the year 177. According to Eusebius (Hist. Ecclos. 1. v. c. 4), Irenseus visited Rome, to see PojDe Eleutherius, to whom he bore a dutiful letter from the confessors and martj'rs of Lyons. He suffered martyrdom, along with a multitude of Christians, in the persecution of Severus, a.d. 202. Of Saint Irenajus's principal work, "Against Heresies," in five books, the original Greek has not come down to our day ; only a few fragments having been preserved by Eusebius and other wi'iters. The existing Latin version ia attributed by some to his own time, and by others to the end of the fourth century. Its accuracy is proved by the passages of the Greek original that have been preserved. ^ " Practerquam oportct colligant ; " literally "draw conclusions which they ought not to draw." Thus Cicero says, " Ita cogitatioue et raiioue collcyrit." 32 THE CHAIR OF PETER. account of its more powerful primacy, that every Church, that is, the faitliful on every side, should agree.^ Saint Cyril, Bishop of Jerusalem,^ writing about the year 350, says : — ■ They all remaining silent, for the doctrine was beyond the reach of man, Peter, the Prince of the Apostles, and the supreme herald of the Church, not following his own inventions, nor persuaded by human reasoning, but enlightened in his mind by the Father, says to Him, "Thoii art Christ," not simply this, but " the Son of the living God." ^ And again : — In virtue, therefore, of the same Holy Spirit, Peter, the Prince of the Apostles, and the key-bearer of the kingdom of heaven, in tlie name of Christ, restored to health iEneas, a paralytic, in Lydda, now called Diospolis.* About the same time, Saint Hilary, Bishop of Poitiers,^ writes as follows : — The confession of Peter manifestly obtained a fitting reward, because * Irensetis, "Adversus Hsereses," lib. iii. c. 3; Paris, 1545. "Ad lianc enim Ecclesiiim, j^vopter poteutiorem principalitatem, necesse est omuem con. venire ecclesiam, hoc est, eos qui sunt undique fideles, in qua semper, ab his qui sunt undique, conservata est quae ab Apostolis traditio." The Gi-eek version, given in the Leipsic edition of 1853, runs as follows : Tlphs TavT-qv yap Trjj' iKK\r\aia.v Zih, rriv Sia(pepov(rap -rrpwreiav avayKT} Tranav avfi^aiveiv eKK\r)aiav, rovTfiTTi Tohs iravrax^&iv wtffrovs, ev fi SLairavThs vnh T(5i/ '6nov SijiroTC (rvyrer-l^pTjTai 7] napa rwv 6.iTo(Tr6Kwv SicSSocris. There has been considerable controversy on this passage. Some translate the Greek, Trphs ravrriv tt;;' fKKXrtalav >v ical ttjs eicuAriaiai KOpv(paloS KTipV^, K.T.K. * Catechesis xvii., do Spii'itu Sancto, ii.37. 'O TrpoaraTfjs tuv b.TT0(Tr6Kwv koL TVjS 0a(Tt\elas ruiv oupavCbv KKtiBovxos Tlerpos, k.t.X. ' Saint Hilary was consecrated Bishop of Poitiers, a.d. 353, and died in 368. THE EARLY FATHERS ON THE PRIMACY OF PETER. 33 he Staw in the man the Son of God. Blessed is he who was praised for observing and seeing beyond what human eyes could perceive; not beholding what was of flesh aud blood, but discerning the Son of God by the revelation of the Heavenly Father; and who was deemed worthy to be the first to recognize that which was of God in Christ. 0 thou foun- dation of the Church, happy in thy new name, and rock, worthy of that superstructure which was to destroy the infernal laws, and the gates of hell, and all the bars of death ! 0 blessed gate-keeper of heaven, to whose discretion the keys of the eternal jjorch are delivered, and whose judgment on earth is a prejudged authority in heaven ; so that those things which are either bound or loosed on earth, meet with a similar decision in heaven.^ Saint Epiphanius,^ who also flourished about the middle of the fourth century, writes : — The Lord Himself says, He constituted him the first of the Apostles, the firm rock upon which the Cliurch of God is built, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against her.^ Saint Basil,"* writing at the same time, speaks of Peter, as follows : — The blessed one who was preferred to the other disciples, and who alone received a testimony above all the others, and who was pronounced blessed rather than all the others, and to whom were entrusted the keys of the kingdom of heaven.^ Saint Gregory Nazianzen, ^ a cotemporary and intimate friend of Saint Basil, says: — ' Hilary, " Commentarins in Mafcthcenm, c. xvi." * Saint Epiphauius was bom in the district of Eleatheropolis, in Palestine, A.n. 310, and died in 403. About the year 367, he was chosen Bishop of Con- stautia, now Salamis, in Cyprus. His " Ancorat.e " is written as a stay or anchor, to hold the faithful steady against the winds and waves of heresy. His principal work is the " Panarium," or Antidotes against all heresies. He confutes heresies by tradition as well as by the Scriptures. The best edition of his works is considered that of Pere Petau, in Greek and Latin, 1622, with leurned notes, two volumes folio, ^ " In Ancorat." * Saint Basil the Gi'eat, Archbishop of Caesarea in Oappadocia, and Doctor of the Church, was born in Cajsarea, a.d. 329, was consecrated archbishop in 370, and died in 379. * " Prooem. de judicio Dei." ' Saint Gregory Nazisinzen, Doctor of the Church, and surnamod the Theologian, was consecrated Bishop of Sasima, in Cappadocia, by Saint Basil, D 34 THE CHAIR OF PETER. Do you wish me to adduce another example of order and discipline — • an example illustrious and laudable, and especially worthy of the present commemoration and admonition? You see how out of the disciples of Christ, all certainly great, and exalted, and worthy of election, this one should be called a rock, and have entrusted to his faith the foundations of the Chui-ch.i Saint Gregory of Nyssa ^ writes, about the same time : — The memory of Peter, the head of the Apostles, is celebrated, and together with him the other members of the Church are glorified ; but the Church of God is made solid ia him; for he, according to the prerogative granted him by the Lord, is the firm and most solid rock ou which the Savioui- built His Church.^ Saint Optatiis, Bishop of Milevis in Numidia, towards the end of the fourth century, writing against Parmenian, the successor of Donatus in the schismatical see of Carthage, says : — Therefore you cannot deny, that you know, that in the city of Eome was first established by Peter the Episcopal Chair in which sat Peter, the head of all the Apostles, whence also he is called Cephas ; in order that in this one chair unity might be maintained by all ; lest the other Apostles should, each for himself, defend their several chairs ; but that he should at once be a schismatic and a sinner, who against this one chair should set up another. Therefore in the one chair, which is first by its prerogatives, first sat Peter, to whom succeeded Linus, etc.-* Here he gives the succession of the Bishops of Rome, down to Siricius, the reigning Pope, whom he styles " at this day, our colleague, with whom the whole world as well as we are A.B. 372. His father was Bishop of Nazianzum. Saint Gregory died in 391. His works consist of " orsjtions," or discourses, on faith and morals, and against heresies, panegyrics of martyrs, letters, and poems. • " In Orat. de moderationo servanda." ' Saint Gregory of Kyssa in Cappadocia was the younger brother of Saint Basil the Great. He was consecrated Bishop of Nyssa a.d. 372. He attended the Council of Constantinople in 381. He died about the year 400. ^ " Laudatio altera Sancti Stephani, protoniartyris." * " Optati Milevitani Opera," lib. ii., contra Parinen., p. 48. Paris, 1631. The only work which we have from Optatus are his Seven books against the Doiiatists, here quoted. He is praised by Saints Augustine, Jerome, and Ful- geiitius. Saint Augustine observes, " Optatus might be taken as a prmif of the trutli of the Catholic Church, if she depended ou the virtue of her ministers." Optatus died about a.d. 384. THE EARLY FATHERS ON THE PRIMACY OF PETER. 35 united in communion by the interchange of the usual letters." He then argues that the schismatics are outside the Catholic Church, because none of their bishops communicate with the same Roman Chair ; and he alludes to the saving keys given to Peter, " our chief, to whom Christ said, * I will give to thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against them.' Whence is it, then, that you strive to usurp to yourselves the keys of the kingdom, you who sacrilegiously wage war against the Chair of Peter, by your presumption and audacity ? " ^ Saint Ambrose, Bishop of Milan,^ writing about the year 380, says : — This is Peter, to whom He said, " Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build My Church." Therefore, where Peter is, there is the Church : where the Church is, there is no death ; but eternal life. And therefore He added: "And the gates of hell shall not prevail against it; and I will give to thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven." Blessed Peter, against whom the gates of hell did not prevail, nor the gate of heaven close itself; but, on the contrary, he destroyed the porch of hell, and laid open that of heaven.* Again : — Could He not confirm the faith of him, to whom by His own authority Ho gave the kingdom, whom, when He called him a rock. He pointed out as the foundation of the Church ? ^ Saint Augustine,^ another illustrious Doctor of the Church, * " Optati Milevitani Opera," lib. ii., contra Parmen., p. 49. * Saint Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, and Doctor of tlie Ciiurch, was born a.d. 340, was consecrated Bishop of Milan in 374, and died in 397. The Benedictines of Saiut Maur Lave given an edition of his works, in two volumes folio, A.D. 168G-1690. They principally consist of Treatises on Holy Scriptures. His style is justly admired. ' Ambrose, "In Psalmnm xl. ennaratio," sec. 30. "Ipse est Peti-ns, cui dixit : ' Tu es Petrus, et super hanc petram sedificabo Ecclesiam meam.' Ubi ergo Petrus, ibi Ecclcsia : ubi Ecclesia, ibi nulla mors, sed vita isterna," etc. * Ambrose, " De Fide," 1. iv. c. 5, n. 56. * Saint Augustine, Bishop of Hippo in Numidia, and Doctor of the Church, was born in 351, was consecrated coadjutor bishop of Hippo in December 395, and succeeded to that see, the following year. He died in 430. Saint Augustine was a most voluminous writer. Perhaps the best editiou of his works is that of the Benedictines of St. Maur, in eleven volumes folio, a.d. 1G79-1700. 36 THE CHATR OF PETER. speaks of Peter as " holding the principality of the Apostolate,"^ as " first in the order of the Apostles, the most forward in the love of Christ, frequently answering, one for all," ^ and as one " in whom the Primacy of the Apostles is pre-eminent by so surpassing a grace." ^ Again, writing against Julian, the Pelagian, Saint Augus- tine exclaims : — That part of the globe, I think, ought to suffice for you, in which the Lord was pleased to crown with a most glorious martyrdom the first of His Apostles. If you had desired to hear the blessed Innocent,'* who presides over that Church, you would then immediately have divested your dangerous youth of the snares of Pelagianisra. For what could that holy man have replied to the African councils,^ unless what, as of old time, the Apostolic See and the Eoman Church perseveringly holds with the others ? ^ And further, he speaks of " the Roman Church, in which the Primacy of the Apostolic Chair has always flourished." "^ Next, let us hear Saint Jerome,^ on the same subject: — • But you say (he writes), the Chiu'ch is founded upon Peter; although the same is done elsewhere upon all the Apostles ; and all received the keys of the kingdom of heaven ; and the strength of the Church is * Saint Augustine, Sermo Ixxxvi. cap. 2. " Apostolatnf? principatum tenens." '^ Ibid., cap. 1. " Ipse enim Petrus in Apostolorum ordine pi'imus, in Christi amoro promptissimus, saspe unns respondot pro omnibus." * Saint Augustine, " De Baptism, contra Douat.," lib. ii. n. 2. " Petrum, in quo primatus Apostolorum tam exccllonti gratia praseminct." * Saint Innocent I., a native of Albano, presided over the Church, a.d. 402- 417. * The African councils hci-e referred to were those of Carthage and Milevis, which condemned the errors of Pelagius, and wrote to the Pope against them. The synodal letters of both these councils were drawn up by Saint Augustine. These and the Pope's reply will be fully referred to, further on. * " Contra Julianum Pelagianum, Sancti Augustini," liber i. cap. iv, ' Epistola xliii. " Romana Ecclesia, in qua semper Apostolicao Cathedrae viguit principatns." * Saint Jerome, priest and Doctor of the Church, was born at Stridonium in Pannonia, now Hungary, in 331, and died in 420, aged eighty-uino. The best editions of his works are that of Dom. Martianay, Benedictine of the Con- gregation of Saint Maur, published a.d. 1(593-1706, in five volumes folio, and that of Vallarsi of Verona, eleven volumes folio, 1731. THE EARLY FATHERS ON THE PRIMACY OF PETER. 37 equally consolidated upon them. However among the twelve one is chosen, in order that, a head being established, the occasion of schism may be removed. ^ And again : — As Plato was the prince of philosophers, so of the Apostles was Peter, on whom was founded the Church of the Lord, an enduring fabric.^ Towards the end of the year 376, on account of the schisms prevailing in the East, Saint Jerome wrote to Pope Damasus, requesting his advice on certain controverted points of doc- trine, and asking him with whom he ought to communicate at Antioch. In that letter he says : — Therefore I have considered it my duty, to consult the Chair of Peter, and the faith praised by the mouth of the Apostle, thence now soliciting food for my soul where I formerly a^^sumed the livery of Christ. . . . Although your greatness terrifies me, your humanity, nevertheless, invites me. From the priest I eagerly beg the safety of the victim ; from the shepherd, the protection of the sheep. Away with envy. Let the pomp of the Roman dignity withdraw. I speak with the successor of the fisher- man, with the disciple of the Cross. I, following no leader but Christ, am united in communion with Your Blessedness, that is, with the Chair of Peter. On that rock I know that the Church is built. Whoever eats the lamb out of that house is profane. Whoever may not be in the ark of Noah, will perish in the deluge.^ Saint John Chrysostom,^ writing about the same time, says : — ' " Hieron. Adversus .Toviniannm," 1. i. "Tamen propterea inter duodecim unus eligitur, ut, capite constituto, schismatis tollatur occasio." * " Hieron. Advei'sns Pelagium," 1. i. c. 4. " Sicut ille princeps philosophoram, ita hie Apostolorum f uit, super quem Ecclcsia Domini stabili mole fnndata est." ' " Hieron. Epist. xv., alias Ivii.," Ad Damasum Pajjam, scripta circa finem anni 376. " Ego, nullum primum nisi Christum sequens, Beatitndinaj tuK;, id est Cathedrae Petri, commnnione consocior. Super illam petram ajdificataua Ecclc- siam scio." * Saint John Chrysostom, Archbishop of Constantinople and Doctor of the Church, was born at Antiocli in 344, was consecrated Archbishop in 398, and, having suffered grievous persecution for the faith, died in 407. He was named " Chrysostom" ("golden-mouth," from the Greek), on account of his eloquence. He wrote many important works, of which tliere liave been several editions. They comprise Homilies on the Scriptures, and a number of Treatises, Epiylles, Sermons, and other writings. 38 THE CHAIR OF PETER. And why, passing by the others, does He speak to Peter abont the sheep? He was pre-eminent among the Apostles, the mouth of the disciples, and the head of that assembly. Wherefore, too, Paul went up to see him, above the rest. At the same time He would show him, that he ought henceforward to have confidence ; for, as though thinking no more of his denial, He commits to him the government of the brethren ; ' nor does He reproach him, but He only says to him : " If thou lovest me, preside over the brethren." ^ And again he says : — Thus he washed away that denial, so that he became even the first of the Apostles, and the whole world was committed to him.^ And, further : — But if any one should say, " How then did James receive the see of Jerusalem ? " I shall answer him, that Peter was appointed, by Christ, the teacher not of the see, but of the whole world.* Finally, he styles Peter "the leader of that choir, the mouth of all the Apostles, the head of that assembly, the president of the whole world, the foundation of the Church, the ardent lover of Christ." ^ In the year 449, the celebrated Ecclesiastical historian, Theodoret, Bishop of Cyrus in Syria,^ on the occasion of his ' " rr]v TTpoaraaiav riiov a5i\(pwv." ^ "Chrysost. in Joannem, Homil. Ixxxviii., alias Ixxxvii." " TrpotaraTo twv ii5e\(pa>u." ' " Chrysost. Adversus Jndoeos," viii. 3. Oi;tws airevl\f/aTo t^v &pv7)(Tiv iKilvriv, lis Kat irpinos yeyeaOai tuv airo(rT6\a)i>, koI rijy olKoufj.eirr]i/ eyxfipKTdrjvai airaaav. * " Chrysost. In Joannem, Homil. Ixxxviii., alias Ixxxvii." Ei Se \4yoi rts, irws ovf d 'loLKoiffos rhv dpSvov eKafie tSiv 'IfpvffoAv/xwv ; fK(7vo &v elfTroi/ii, on tovtov ov Tov 6p6vov, aWa tt/s otKovfXfvrjs 6xeipoTo»'77ff6 o XptcTThs SLSdcTKaKov. * " Chrysost. In illud, Hoc scitote quod in novissimis dicbns, etc." 'O o5v TlfTpoi, 6 Kopuy t^jv rjyefioviav Sia iroAAa, k.t.K. ' Saint Leo I., sm-named the Great, a member of a noble Tuscan family, bom in Rome, governed the Church, a.d. 440-46L He rendered great services to religion and mankind during his eventful Pontificate. His saving Rome from the Huns under Attila, and his connection with the General Council of Chal- cedon will be noticed further on. Saint Leo's works extant consist principally of Sermons and Letters. His style is pronounced by one of his biographers to be polished, flowing, of a pure and rich Latinity, and full of dignity and force. Of the several oditious of his works, that of Pere Quosnol is condemned by the Church, as falaifyiug several passages of his writings. 40 THE CHAIR OF PETER. To Peter the Apostle, above the rest, after the Keys of the Kingdom, the care of the Lord's sheep-fold is committed.^ And further : — One man, Peter, is chosen out of tlie whole world, to be placed over the calling of all nations, and over all the Apostles, and all the Fathers of the Church; that, although there are in the people of God many priests and many pastors, Peter however should, in his own i^erson, rule all, as Christ supremely rules them.^ A century and a half later, Saint Gregory the Great,^ writing to the Emperor Maurice, says : — For it is evident to all who know the Gospel, that, by the voice of the Lord, the care of the whole Church was committed to Saint Peter, the Pi-ince of all the Apostles. For to him it is said, " Feed my sheep ; " "Peter, I have prayed for thee ;" "Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build My Church; " etc. Behold he receives the keys of the heavenly kingdom : the power of binding and loosing is given to him. To him is committed the care and government of the whole Church.* These quotations may well be closed by the following extracts from the writings of Saint Bernard.^ On the death of ' Serjno i., De Ascensione Domini. " Petro Apostolo supra csoteros, post regni claves, ovilis Domini cura mandatur." ' Sermo iii., De aniiivers. assumpt. suae ad Pontificatnm. " Unas de toto mundo Petrus eligitur, qui efc universarum gentium vocationi, et omnibus Ajios- tolis, cunctisque Ecclesiao patribns prgeponatur ; ut quamvis in populo Dei multi sacerdotes sint, multique pastorcs, omnes tameu proprie i-eoat Petrus quos principaliter regit et Christus." » Saint Gregory I., suniamed the Great, on account of his illustrious actions and holy life, was born of a senatorial family in Rome, in 540, was consecrated Pope on September 3, 590, and died on March 12, G04. His works consist of twelve books of Letters, his Dialogues, Homilies, Commentaries, and other writinf^s, of all which there have been published several editions. His zeal for the conversion of all England, and his sending over Augustine and his com- panions on that mission, are already familiar to the reader. * " S. Gregorii Magni Epistoho," lib. iv., epist. 32, Ad-Mauritium Augustum. " Cunctis enim Evangelium scientibus liquet, quod voce Dominica sancto et omnium Apostolorum principi Petro Apostolo totius Ecclcsige cura comissa est. . . . Ecce claves regni coelestis accipit; potestas ei ligandi et solvendi tribuitur. Cura ei totius Ecclesise et principatus committitur." * Saint Bernard was the third son of Tescelin and Alice, members of two of the noblest families in Bargundy, and both related to the sovereign dukes. He was born in 101)1, at the Chateau of Fontaines, near Dijon, a lordsliip belonging to his father. In 1113 he entered, as a novice, the austere Cistercian THE EARLY FATHERS ON THE TRIMACY OF PETER. 41 Pope Lucius II., in 1145, one of Saint Bernard's monks, Ber- nard of Pisa, was elected Pope, taking the name of Eugenius III. He was a man of great learning and piety, and had been appointed by Saint Bernard first abbot of his new monastery of Three Fountains, or, as it was more generally called. Saints Vincent and Anastasius, near Kome. On hearing of the eleva- tion of his disciple, Bernard addressed to him a letter of deep feeling, and singular eloquence, styled by Cardinal Baronius " a truly golden letter." ^ In it he says : — Thou hadst indeed chosen to be an abject in the house of thy God, and to sit down iu the lowest place at His banquet : but it pleased Him, who had invited thee, to say, " Friend, go up higher."^ And so thou hast gone up high. Eelish not this heiglit, but fear; lest perchance it may befall thee to utter, later on, these lamentable words : " From the face of Thy wrath and indignation, having lifted me up, Thou hast thrown me down."" For thou hast obtained a liigher place, but not a safer ; more sublime, not more secure. Terrible, truly terrible is this place. The place, I say, in which thou standest is holy ground ; it is the place of Peter, the place of the Prince of the Apostles, where he has stood. It is the place of him, whom the Lord constitiited the lord of His house, and the prince of all His possessions. If perchance thou swervest from the way of the Lord, he is buried in the same place, that he may bear testimony against thee. Worthily, indeed, to such a pastor, to such a governor, was the Church committed when it was as yet young, as yet in its cradle ; instructed by whose teaching, and educated by whose example, it might trample on all monastery of Citeaux, then governed by Saint Stephen Harding, an Englishman, the third abbot. In 1114 Bernard was professed, and the following year Saint Stephen, who entertained a high opinion of his sanctity and extraordinary talents, sent him, with twelve monks, to establish a new monastery in tlie diocese of Langres, in Champagne. They selected, as a site, a desolate valley, sniTounded by forests, eleven leagues from Chalons ; and here arose Saint Bernard's celebrated abbey, afterwards known as Clairvaux, or Clara Vallis, the name given it by the inhabitants of the neighbourhood, on account of tiie sanctity of its monks, and especially of the abbot. Saint Bernard was, for many years, the trusted counsellor of Popes and Kings, and exercised great and wide-spread influence, rendering invaluable services to religion and the State. He died at Clairvaux in 1153, in the sixty-third year of liis age, and the thirty-eighth of his office of abbot. The best edition of Saint Bernard's works is that published by'Mabillon in 1690, re-published iu 1719, in two volumes folio. ' " Aunalos Ecclesiastici," xii. 307. " Has plane aureas litteras dedit." « Luke xiv. 10. » Psu. ci. 11. 42 THE CHAIR OF PETER. earthly things; even as one who had shaken his hands free of every gift, and who used to say, out of a pure heart and a good conscience, " Silver and gold, I have none " (Acts iii. 6). ^ Saint Bernard also addressed to the same Pope his Five Books " of Consideration," in which he impresses on his Holiness the grave responsibilities and duties of his exalted ofiice, and urges the necessity of daily contemplation and self- examination, as the best safeguards of his soul, amidst the weighty cares and distractions pressing upon him. In the second book he says : — Come now, let us still more diligently investigate who thou art ; that is to say, what character thou sustainest for the time, in the Church of God. Who art thou ? The great priest, the supreme pontiff. Thou art the prince of bishojis ; thou art the heir of the Apostles. Thou art Abel in the primacy, Noah in government, Abraham in the patriarchate, Melchisedech in order, Aaron in dignity, Moses in authority, Samuel in judgment, Peter in jjower, Christ in anointment. Thou art he to whom the keys were given, to whom the sheep were entrusted. There are indeed also other gate-keepers of heaven and pastors of flocks : but thou hast inherited both titles, as much more gloriously as differently, in comparison with the others. They have single flocks severally assigned to them : all are entrusted to thee— one flock to one man. Nor of the sheep alone, but of all the shepherds also, thou art the one pastor. Dost thou ask me whence I prove this? From the word of the Lord. For, to whom, I do not say of the bishops, but of the Apostles themselves, were all the sheep committed so absolutely and without distinction? "If thou lovest Me, Peter, feed my sheep." What sheep ? The people of this or that city, or rcjgion, or particular kingdom ? " My sheep," He says. To whom is it not certain that He did not designate some, but assigned all ? Nothing is excepted where no distinction is made.^ ' " Sancti Bemardi Epistola," 237. " Terribilis prorsus, terribilis est locus iste. Locus, inquam, in quo stas, terra sancta est ; locus Petri est, locus Prin- cipis Apostolorum, ubi stetei'ont pedes ejus. Locus illius est, quem constituit Dorainus dominum domus suae, et principem omnis possessionis suae. Si forte doclinaveris a via Domini, sepnltus est in eodem loco, nt sit tibi contra te in testimonium. Merito tali pastori, tali nutritio commissa est Ecclesia, cum adhuc tonera, adhuc in cunabulis esset : cujus docta magisterio, et exemplo educata, omnia terrena calcaret." * " Sancti Bcrnardi De Consideratione Libri Quinque," lib. ii. cap. 8. " Quia es ? Sacordos magnus, summus Pontifex. Tu princeps episcoporuui, tu haDres Apostolorum. . . . Tu cs cui claves traditae, cui oves croditiu sunt. THE EARLY FATHERS ON THE PRIMACY OP PETER. 43 Here, we have the concurrent testimony of holy and learned prelates and doctors, from the East and the West, from every quarter of Christendom at the time, all establishing the historical fact of the primacy of Peter and his successors, and the Catholic belief therein, existing in those early ages. Tertullian and Saint Cyprian speak from Carthage, the capital of Africa, and anciently the rival of Eome ; Origen, from Alexandria, the metropolis of Egypt ; Saint John Chrysostom, from Constantinople, the seat of the Empire of the East; Saint Cyril, from Jerusalem ; Saints Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, and Gregory of Nyssa, from Cappodocia, in Asia Minor ; Saint Augustine, and Saint Optatus, from Numidia in Northern Africa ; Theodoret, from Cyrus in Syria ; Saint Epiphaniiis, from the classical island of Cyprus ; Saint Jerome, now from Hungary, now from Jerusalem, now again from Antioch ; Saint Irenaeus, from Lyons ; Saint Hilary, from Poitiers ; Saint Ambrose, from Milan ; Saints Leo the Great, and Gregory the Great, from Rome ; and, although last not least, several centuries later. Saint Bernard, as it were, sums up, from the venerable abbey of Clairvaux. Much more, to the same effect, might be quoted from these writers : much, again, from other generally accepted authorities. But the extracts given are quite sufficient for the purpose; especially as a considerable amount of collateral corroborative evidence will necessarily occur, as we proceed.^ Sunt qaidem et alii coeli janitorea et gregum pastores : sed tn tanto gloriosiiia quauto et difEerentius utrumque pra3 CcBteris uomen hsereditasti. Habent illi sibi assignatos greges, singuli singulos : tibi universi crediti, uni unus. Non modo ovium, sed et pastorum tu unus omnium pastor. Undo id probem quajris ? Ex verbo Domini," etc. ' The reader desirous of further evidence on this subject is referred to Baronius, " Annales Ecclesiastici," vol. i., and to Panvinius, " De Priraatu Petri et ApostolicsD Sedis Potestate," vol. i., Verona), 1589, where the writings of tho Fathers thereon are quoted at great length. CHAPTER IV. SAINT PETER, BISHOP OF ROME. " Simon Petrns, filias Joannis, frater Aadreae Apostoli, et princeps Apostolo- rum, post episcopatum Antiochonsis ecclesise, efc prasdicationem dispersionia eorutn qui de circumcisioue crediderant, in Ponto, Galatia, Cappodocia, Asia, et Bithynia, secundo Claudii Imperatoris anno, ad expngnandnm Simouem Magum, Romam pergit, ibique viginti quinque annis Cathedram Sacerdotalem tenuit, usque ad ultimum, id est quartum decimum, Neronis annum, a quo aflELxus cruci martyrio coronatus est, capite ad terrani verso." — Saint Jerome. According to Eusebius,^ Saint John Chrysostom,^ Saint Jerome,^ and many other writers, the See of Antioch — the most ancient after that of Jerusalem — was founded by Saint * Eusebius Pamphili, Bishop of Cassarea in Palestine, stylod " the Father of Ecclesiastical History," was born about the year 264, was consecrated bishop in 313, attended the Council of Nice in 325, and died in 340. His Ecclesiastical History, in ten books, comprises the history of the Church, from the Ascension to tlio defeat and death of Licinius, a.d. 32i. His Chronicle, in two parts, gives the distinct succession of the kings and rulers of the principal nations from the beginning of the world down to the twentieth year of the reign of Constantino. Of this, the second part was translated into Latin by Saint Jerome. Eusebius also wrote a highly eulogistic " Life of Constantine," and some minor works. He adopted the name Pamj)hili, through love of his dear friend Pamphilus tlio martyr. Eusebius, all through, inclined to favour the errors of Arius ; but he did not go so far in this direction as his namesake, Eusebius Bishop of Nicomedia, with whom he is not to be confounded. Indeed, he anathematized the Arian heresy at the Council of Nice, and proposed a formula of orthodox faith ; but ho had groat difficulty in subscribing the word " consabstantial," 6fx.oov(rios, which the Fathers added to his formula. The best edition of his " Ecclesias- tical History" is considered that of Heai'i de Valois, Vciledws, in his collection of the Greek Ecclesiastical Historians, published in Paris, in 1069, and again, with a Latin version, in 1677. The Cambridge edition of 1720 is also highly esteemed. Each is in three volumes folio. ^ Chrysostom, " In luscriptioncm Actorum, xi. 26." * Hicrou., In " Catalogo," i. ; et " In Epist. ad Galat. ii." SAINT PETER, BISHOP OF ROME. 45 Peter. The date of its foundation is variously stated ; some fixing it as early as the year 35, and some as late as the year 38, of the Vulgar Era. Antioch was the metropolis of Syria, and of all the E;ist. Moreover, it was the connecting link of the East with the capital of that great Empire which then ruled the world. Here the disciples were first called Christians; and it was fitting, as observed by Saint John Chrysostom, that the city which first gave the faithful the name of Christians, should have for its first pastor the Prince of the Apostles.^ Speaking of Ignatius Bishop of Antioch, Eusebius, writing in the commencement of the fourth century, bears testimony to the fact, that he was celebrated by many, even to that day, as the Successor of Peter at Antioch, and the second who obtained episcopal consecration there ; ^ Evodius, ordained by Peter, having been the first, in succession to the Apostle.^ " We have received the tradition, that Peter was the bishop of the Church of Antioch, and then was translated to Eome," says Saint Jerome, who, lest Saint Luke's silence thereon, in the Acts of the Apostles, should give rise to doubts on the subject, immediately adds : " Nor is it surprising if Luke is silent about this fact, since, with the licence of a historiographer, he omits many things, which Saint Paul relates, as having happened to himself; and it is not incon- sistent, that what one person may consider worthy of being related, another may, among other things, altogether omit." ^ Saint Peter held the See of Antioch, most probably, seven years. " Not that he stayed there all that time," observes Doctor Cave, " but that, having ordered and disposed things to the best advantage, he returned to other afiairs and exigencies of the Church, confirming the new plantations, bringing in Cornelius and his family, and, in him, the first fruits of the ' " In Inscriptionem Actornm, xi. 20." * Eusebius, " Ecclesiastical History," iii. 36. ^ Ibid., iii. 22. Ignatius, Epist. 12. The very ancient feast of " Saint Peter's Chair at Antioch" is celebrated by the Church on the 22nd of February. * Hieronymus, " In Comment. Epist. ad Galat., cap. ii." 46 THE CHATE OF PETER. Gentiles' conversion to the faith of Christ.* He preached the Gospel in Pontus, Galatia, Bithynia, Cappadocia, and Asia Minor, as well as in Judea, before going to Rome.^ He was in Jerusalem in the year 35, when he was visited by Saint Paul, who remained with him fifteen days ; ^ and, again, in 41, when he was imprisoned by Hnrod Agrippa, and was miracu- lously delivered, through the prayers of the Church. * In the partition of " all nations " for the preaching of the Gospel, made by the Apostles, immediately before their dis- persion, A.D. 41, 42, it was, in the overruling designs of Divine Providence, arranged, that Peter should be the one chosen to carry the light of faith to the metropolis of the world,^ Rome had now attained the summit of her greatness. Her legions had subdued every foe. All nations were her tributaries. Towards the city of the Cffisars all mankind turned ; for in that great city were centred the power, the wealth, the civilization of the earth. The geographical position of Rome, too, alike central and accessible, was peculiarly favourable. All these resources, and advantages, material and moral, were, in God's own time, to be made subservient to the work of His Church. Here, then, was fittingly established " the Apostolic See " ^ — » " Antiquitates ApostolicaB," by William Cave, D.D., p. 34. * Ensebius, " Ecclesiastical History," iii. 1 ; Saint Jerome, " Catalogno." Saint Leo the Great, Sermon 80 ; Epiphanius, " Haereses," 7, n. 6 ; also Peter, Epistle I. * Galat. i. 18, 19. Vide supra, chap. ii. * Acts xii. * It is a very ancient tradition of the Church, that Christ desired the Apostles to remain in Jerusalem and Judea for the space of twelve years before they dispersed to fulfil the mission, vvfhich He gave them, to teach all nations. This is stated by Eusebius, " Ecclesiastical History," v. 18 ; as well as by the author of Kripvyfia Tlerpov, " The Preaching of Peter," a work of groat antiquity, quoted by Clement of Alexandria, in his " Stromata," vi. 5. The words quoted are : " Wherefore Peter says, that the Lord said to the Apostles, ' If any one there- fore is willing to bo led out of Israel by penance, and on account of My name to believe in God, his sins will be remitted. After twelve years, go forth into the world, lest any one should say, We have not heard.' " " Mera SiiSeKa frrj e|eA.e€T€ (is Thv k6(T/xou nh tIs ttirr], ouk ^Kouffanff." * Saint Augustine, " Contra Julianutn PclMgiauum," lib. i. c. 4 ; Theodoret, " Ad Leonem, epist. cxiii. ; " and the other early Fathers, passim. SAINT PETEK, BISHOP OF HOME. 47 « the Chair of Peter " i— " the place of Peter " 2_« the place of the Prince of the Apostles " ^ — " the episcopal chair in which sat Peter the head of all the Apostles"^ — " the principal Church, the source of sacerdotal unity ; " ^ and well indeed might Pope Pelagius II. exclaim : " Who ever presumes to say, that Saint Peter the Prince of the Apostles, did not act well, when he changed his see from Antioch to Rome ? " ^ To the same effect are the following remarkable words of another successor of Saint Peter, Saint Leo the Great, writing about the year 450 : — When the twelve Apostles, having received, through the Holy Ghost, the gift of tongues, had undertaken to imbue the world with the Gospel, dis- tributing among themselves the regions of the earth, the most blessed Peter, the Prince of the Apostolic order, was appointed to the capital of the Roman Enapire ; that the light of truth, which was revealed for the salvation of all mankind, might more efficaciously be diffused from the head through the whole body of the world. For of what country would there not be inhabitants in that city ; or what peoples anywhere would be ignorant of what Ei)me taught? Here, the opinions of philosophy were to be trampled under foot ; here, the vanities of worldly wisdom were to be annulled; here, the worship of demons was to be confuted; here, the impiety of all sacrileges was to be overthrown ; where had been collected, by the most diligent superstition, whatever had anywhere been instituted by vain errors. To this city, therefore, most blessed Apostle Peter, thou dost not fear to come ; and, the partner of thy glory, the Apostle Paul, being as yet occupied in the ordaining of other Churches, thou dost enter this forest of raging wild beasts, this ocean of most turbulent depth, more courageous than when thou didst walk upon the waters. Thou dost not fear Rome, the mistress of the world, who wert * Saint Jerome's letter to Pope Daraasus, written about the year 376 ; Epist. XV. alias Ivii. " I am united in communion with Your Holiness, that is, with the Chair of Peter." Also the other early Fathers, passim. * Saint Cyprian, Epist. 52, addressed to Antonianus, about the ordination of Pope Cornelius, a.d. 251. * Saint Bernard, Epist. 237, addressed to Pope Eugenius III. '• Saint Optatus, against Parmenian, book ii. written about a.d. 370. * Saint Cyprian, Epist. 55, addressed to Pope Cornelius, a.d. 252. * Pelagii II. Epist. i. " Quis enim unquam audet dicere. Sanctum Pctrum, Apostolorum principem, non bene egisse, quando mutavit sedeiu de Antiocliia in Rouiam ? " Pope Pelagius II., a Roman, governed the Church, a.d. 578- 590. 48 THE CHAIE OF PETER. afraid of the maid-servant of the high priest, in the house of Caiaphas. Was the power of Chxudins or the cruelty of Nero less than the judgment of Pilate or the fierce hostility of the Jews? The force of love, then, conquered the occasion of fear ; nor didst thou deem it right that thou shouldst yield to terror, whilst consulting the salvation of those whom thou hadst undertaken to sustain. When the profession of thy love for our Lord was confirmed by the mystery of the triple interrogation, then indeed it was that thou didst conceive this disposition of intrepid cliarity. Nor was anything else sought for by this earnest disjiosition of thy mind than that, in feeding the sheep of Him whom thou didst love, thou shouldst bestow upon them the food with which thou hadst thyself been enriched. Thy confidence, too, was increased by so many prodigies of miracles, so many gifts of graces, and experiences of virtues. Already, thou hadst instructed the nations of the circumcision, who had believed ; already, thou hadst founded the Church of Antioch, where first arose the dignity of the Christian name ; already, thou hadst filled Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia with the laws of the preaching of tho Gospel ; and, neither doubtful of the advancement of the work, nor ignorant of the term of thy life, thou didst bear the trophy of the Cross of Christ to the Roman capital, whither by Divine pre-ordination, thou wert ijreceded by the honour of power, and the glory of suffering.^ Having appointed Evodius (previously his vicar) his suc- cessor at Antioch, Saint Peter removed to Rome, to establish his see there, a.d. 42, the second year of the Emperor Claudius.^ In the words of the most ancient Ecclesiastical historian, " Immediately under the reign of Claudius, by the benign and gracious providence of God, Peter, that powerful and great one of the Apostles, who by his courage took the lead of all the the rest, was conducted to Rome," and, " like a noble com- mander of God, strengthened with Divine armour, bore the priceless treasure of the revealed light from the East to those in the West, announcing the light itself, and the soul-saving word — the proclamation of the kingdom of heaven." ^ ' Leo, " Seniio 1, in Natal. Apostolorum Petri et T'auli." * Eusebins, in " Clironico ; " Saint Jerome, in " Catalogo," ubi de Petro. •* Eiisebius, " Ecclesiastical History," ii. 14. Eusebins liere speaks of the com- plete discomfiture of Simon Magus by Saint Peter at Rome, and the tragical death of tho impostor. Tho story is doubted by some writers ; but, besides Eusobius, several of the Fathers allnde to it — notably, Justin, Ironsous, Cyril of Jerusalem, Epiphanius, Sulpitius Scvcrus, Isidore, and Pi-osper. SAINT PETER, BISHOP OF ROME. 49 Another very ancient Christian historian, writing in the year 416, says, "Ghiudius obtained the Empire, the fourth from Augustus, and remained in it fourteen years. In the beginning of his reign, Peter, the Apostle of our Lord Jesus Christ, came to Rome, and with faithful word taught the saving faith to all . believers, and approved it by most sublime virtues." ^ On Saint Peter's arrival in Rome, he first joined his fellow- countrymen the Jews, who, since the reign of Augustus, had dwelt in the quarter beyond the Tiber. Of these he converted many ; but, ere long, with a view to entering on his mission of preaching the Gospel to the Gentiles, he took up his abode with Pudens, a Roman of high social position, and a convert to Christianity.'-^ The house of Pudens stood in the valley between the Viminal and Esquiline hills ; and here the Apostle resided seven years, a.d. 43-49, baptizing vast numbers of converts,^ and preaching the religion of Christ. The house of Pudens was thrown open to the Christians for their religious assemblies ; and ultimately it was converted by Saint Peter into a church, known afterwards as the Title, or parish church, of the Pastor.^ On the same site now stands * Orosius, " Historiarnm Libri Septem," cap. vi. Panlus Orosins, a learned Spanish priest, was born at Tarragona in the latter part of the fourth century. Ho was the cotemporary and friend of Saint Augustine. His principal work is his-" Seven Books of Histories, against the Pagans," above quoted, completed A.D. 416. He also wrote an " Apology of Free Will against Pelagius." * Some are of opinion that this Pudens was the Christian in Rome mentioned by Saint Paul, in 2 Tim. iv. 21. Aacient writers speak of him as Pudens the Senator ; but modern critics incline to the belief that he was not of senatorial rank, and that he was the ancestor of Pudens the Senator, who lived about one hundred years later, and whose daughters. Saints Praxedes and Pudentiana, are venerated by the Church. See Constantius, " Annales SS. Petri et Pauli, apud Cortesium," pp. 334; et seq. ^ TertuUian, writing towards the close of the second century, makes allusion, as follows, to Saint Peter's baptizing in Rome : " Quos Joannes in Jordane, et quos Petrus in Tiberi tinxit" (" De Baptis.," c. iv.). * Baronius, " Annales Ecclesiastici," i. 593. " Domus (Pudentis), ad radicem Viniinalis posita, prope Exquilinum, patuit omnibus Christianis, nbi et sacrae agebantur synaxes ; conversa deinde penitns in ecclesiara, eadeni Pastoris Titnliis dicta est." For " Title," Titulus, see Index. E 50 THE CHAIR OF TETER. the very ancient cliurcli of Saint Pudentiana, first erected by- Saint Pius I., A.D. 145.^ Notwithstanding- the gigantic evils with which he had to grapple, the widely spread and deep-rooted prejudices whicii he had to eradicate, the effects of the Apostle's zeal were immediate ; the harvest of his labours was most abundant. In describing these, the historian already quoted observes : " So greatly did the splendours of piety enlighten the minds of Peter's hearers, that, not content with hearing but once, or with receiving the unwritten Gospel of God, they perseveringly entreated Mark, as the follower of Peter, to leave them in writing, a monument of the doctrine thus orally communi- cated. Nor did their solicitations cease until their object was attained ; and thus it is that we have that sacred writing whicli is called 'the Gospel according to Mark.' It is said also, that the Apostle (Peter), knowing what was done, by the revelation of the Holy Spirit, was delighted with the ardent zeal of these men, and that the history was confirmed by his authority for the purpose of being read in the Churches. This is related by Clement in the sixth book of his Institutions/ ' The church of Saint Pudentiana, several times x'cbnilt or restored, is said to be the most ancient of the churches of Rome — omnium ecclesiaruni urbis vetustissima. Cardinal Wiseman, on receiving the purple, took his title from this church ; viz. " Nicholas, by the grace of God and favour of the Apostolic See, Cardinal Priest of the Title of Saint Pudentiana, Archbishop of West- minster." Some writei's say, that the present venerable church of Saint Peter Ad Vincula occupies the site of the first church erected in Rome by the Apostle. The weight of probability however inclines in favour of the church of Saint Pudentiana. All appear to agree, that the first two churches erected in Rome by tlie Apostle stood on the sites now occupied by these two churches. In the most ancient martyrologies, we find mention made of " the feast of the first churcli erected and consecrated in Rome by Saint Peter." See Fogginius, " De Romano Divi Petri Itincre et Episcopatu," p. 281. ^ The Clement here spoken of is Saint Clement of Alexandria, a native of Athens, and a Platonic philosopher before his conversion. He was a very learned man, and succeeded Pautaiuus, in tlie celebrated catechetical school of Alexandria. Here, he had as pui)ils Origen and Saint Alexander, Bishop of Jerusalem and martyr. He was ordained priest about the year IJJo. Ilia principal works are, his " Exhortation to the Gentiles," jiointing out to tiiem the follies of idolatry, his " Stromata " (literally Hangings, or Tapestry), com- SAINT PETER, BISHOP OF ROME. 51 to w'liich is added the testimony of Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis." ^ Saint Mark is styled, by some of the most ancient Avriters, " the interpreter of Peter." ^ Papias, a disciple of the Apostles, Bishop of Hierapolis, and, according to Irenaeus, "the hearer of John and the associate of Polycarp," ^ tells us, that " Mark, being the interpreter of Peter, whatsoever he recorded, he wrote with great accuracy, but not however in the order in which it was spoken or done by the Lord, for he never heard or followed the Lord ; but afterwards, as I have said, he was a follower of Peter, who spoke for the purposes of instruction, and not as giving a consecutive history of the words of the Lord."^ In the year 44, Saint Peter, having firmly established the floman See, being mindful of the Churches which he had founded in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Bithynia, and Asia Minor, addressed to them his First Epistle.^ In that sacred letter, "sparing in words, but replete with instruction," Erasmus, Grotius, and other commentators recognize "a full- prising eight books of miscellaneous writings, his "Pedagogue," in three books, intended to lead his spiritual children in the way of heaven, and his " Hypo- typoses," or " Institutions," above alluded to. His works were published by Doctor Potter, in Oxford, in 1715. This edition is considered superior to those of Paris, 1616, and Venice, 1757. * Eusebius, " Ecclesiastical History," ii. 15. See also Saint Jerome, " De viris illnstribus," in Marco. ^ Saiut Jerome, in "Catalogo;" also "De viris illustribus ; " Athanasius, " De Libris SacriB Scriptnra? ; " Papias, apud Eusebium ; Iren^us, as presently quoted; Tertullian, "contra Marcionem," iv. 5. 2 Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis in Phrygia, flourished in the beginning of the second century. A few fragments of his writings are preserved in the works of Eusebius, Saint Irenaeus, and other ancient writers. * Papias, apud Eusebium, " Hist. Eccles.," iii. 39. Saint Ircnoens, Bishop of Lyons, writing on this subject, about the close of the second century, says, " ]\[atthew, among the Hebrews, published the work of the Gospel in their language, whilst Peter and Paul were evangelizing in Rome, and founding the Church ; and, after its publication, Mark, the disciple and interpreter of Peter, banded down to us those things which Peter used to preach" ("Contra Hasreses," lib. iii. c. i.). A Greek ti-anslation of the Gospel of St. Matthew was made in the Apostolic times — some say, under his own supervision. * 1 Pet. i. 1. Bai'onius, "Annales Ecclcsiastici," i. 343. 52 THE CHAIR OF PETER. ness of authority and Apostolic majesty, worthy of the Prince of the Apostles." ^ The same observations may well be applied to Saint Peter's Second Epistle also, which Avas written in the year 6G, immediately before his martyrdom.^ Clearly, the First Epistle was written in Eome, " which," says Eusebius, " by a trope he calls Babylon " ^ — a name commonly given to Rome by Christians, at the time, according to Tertiillian, Saint Jerome, Saint Augustine, Orosius, and other writers.'* It is generally supposed to have been written in the year 44, as Saint Mark was then in Eome.^ A few authors however fix its date some years later. About the year 45, Saint Peter sent Mark to found the See of Aquileia, which, of the Western cities, was next to Rome in importance, at that time.^ Mark also preached the Gospel in several other parts of Italy. It was probably two years later, that the Apostle sent Mark to establish, and preside over, the See of Alexandria,' which then took rank as the second city of the Empire.^ The success of Mark's mission in the metropolis ' " Prsefat. in banc Petri Epistolam." Erasmus : " Est autem Epistola profecto digna Apostolorum Principe, plena auctoritatis et majestatis Apos- tolicai ; verbis parca, sententiis referta." Grotiua : " Conveniens Priucipi Apostolorum." * 2 Pet. i. 14. " Being assured that the laying awaj of this my tabernacle is at hand, according as our Lord Jesus Christ hath signified to me." In those words the Apostle evidently alludes to his vision of his Divine Master, as he passed out through the Porta Capena; which will presently be more fully referred to. * Eusebius, " Ecclesiastical History," ii. 15. * Tertullian, " Adversus Judoeos," c. 9, et " Contra Marcion," iii.l3. Hieron. in "prasf. de Spiritu Sancto." Augustin. " De Civitate Dei," lib. xviii. c. 22. Orosius, " Histor. lib." vii. c. 2. See also Gibbon's " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," chap. xv. * 1 Pet. V. 13. « Martyrol. Usuard. et Adon. sub die iv. Idus Jnnii. "Marcus Evaugelista Evangelium quod llomaj scripserat, Petro mittcuto, primum Aquileiaj pra3- dicavit." ' Eusebius in " Chronico." Baronius, " Annales Ecclesiastic)," i. 344. * Ilerodianus, lib. vii. : also Eusebius. Saint Mark founded many other Churches in Egypt, and finally suffered martyi-dom there, about three years after the death of Saints Peter and Paul. " But the second Sec," says Pope Gelasius, in his decree concerning the Apocryphal books, " was consecrated, in SAINT TETEE, BISHOP OF ROIME. 53 of Egypt was signal and immediate ; for we are told, that " so great a multitude of believers, both of men and women, were collected there at the very outset, that in consequence of their extreme philosophical discipline and austerity, Philo con- sidered their pursuits, their assemblies and entertainments, and, in short, their whole manner of life, deserving a place in his descriptions."^ This Philo was a celebrated Jewish philosopher, a native of Alexandria, in the Apostolic times.^ About the year 40, he was sent by the Jews of Alexandria, to Kome, at the head of an embassy to Caius Caligula, to refute the charge that they neglected the honours due to Caesar. On the occasion of his second visit, in the reign of Claudius, a.d. 44, " he had familiar intercourse with Saint Peter at Eome, whilst he was proclaiming the Gospel to the inhabitants of that city."^ Besides Saint Mark, Saint Peter ordained numbers of his disciples Bishops, and sent them to found Churches in various countries. Even down to our remote times, the names of several of these sees and of their first bishops have been preserved. A long list of these in Italy, Sicily, France, Spain, and Germany, is given by Cardinal Baronius,^ as taken from the name of Blessed Peter, by Mark his disciple and the Evangelist ; for he, being sent by the AjDOstle Peter into Egypt, preached the word of truth there, and suffered martyrdom," * Eusebias, " Ecclesiastical History," ii. 16. ^ Philo Judajus was so thoroughly imbued with the principles, and so closely imitated the style, of Plato, that it used to be said, Aut Plato philonizat, aut Philo platonizat. The general opinion is, that he did not become a Christian ; although it is stated, by some writers, that he was converted by Saint Peter in Rome. ' Eusebius " Ecclesiastical History," ii. 17; and Saint Jerome, " De Scrijst. Eccles. in Philone." * Coosar Baronius, distinguished alike for his learning and piety, was born at Sora, in the kingdom of Naples, a.d. 1538. At the age of eighteen, he entered the Congregation of the Oratory at Rome, under Saint Philip Neri, whom he succeeded as father superior, in 1593. In 1596, he received the Cardinal's hat from Pope Clement VIII. He was shortly afterwards appointed liibrarian of the Vatican, for which important office he was well qualified by his learning. At the age of thirty, in obedience to his sujierior. Saint Philip Neri^ Baronius entered ou his great work, " Aniiales Ecclcsiastici," ranging fi'om the year of our Lord 1 to 1197 ; and published in Rome, a.d. loSy to 1593, in 54 THE CHAIR OF TETER. the most ancient martyrologies.^ These it is unnecessary, as it would be tedious, to enumerate here. The Jews having raised several tumults in Rome, through their jealousy of the daily increasing body of Christians, the Emperor Claudius, by an edict, a.d. 49, banished both Jews and Christians from the Imperial city.^ On this, Saint Peter re-visited the East, and was present at the Council of Jerusalem which was held the same year, and in which he took the leading part.^ About this time, he also visited the Church of Antioch, on which occasion he met Saint Paul there. This remarkable interview of the Apostles has already been alluded to.^ As during the seven years that he presided at Antioch, so during the five and twenty years that he filled the See of Eome, Saint Peter travelled much, founding Churches, visiting those already established, and propagating and confirming the faith in various countries.^ According to some authorities, he penetrated as far as the British Isles; but the evidence twelve volumes folio. This work was nnclertakeTi, to oppose the compilation of the Centuriators of Magdeburg, whose main objects were, to attack the Church of Rome, to establish the doctrines of Luther, and to decry the Catholic Fathers and Theologians. Baronius's Annals wore continued by his brother Oratoriaiis, Raynaldi for the years 1198 to 1565, and Laderchi for 15fi0 to 1571, and they have been brought down from 1572 to our times by Fr. Theiner, Priest of the Oratory, Rome. Some faults, unavoidable in a voluminous work, the first of its kind, and some inaccuracies in chronology, exist in the Annals of Baronius, and have been pointed out by F. Pagi, and other critics. All their remarks will bo found in an edition of the Anuals, published in Lucca, in 1740. Notwithstand- ing these blemishes, the work will ever stand forth, as a grand monument of learning, research, and perseverance, such as we look for in vain in the present day. ' Baronius, " Annales Ecclesiastici," vol. i. p. 356 ; and Fogginius, " De Romano Divi Petri Itinere et Episcopatu," p. 287. "^ Acts of the Apostles, xviii. 2. Orosius, " Historiarum," lib. vii. c. 6. Sue- tonius, " in Claudio," cap. xxv. This edict, directed against the Jews, operated extensively against the Christians, who were confounded with them. Its date is generally supposed to have been a.d. 49, " the beginning of ninth of Claudius." ^ Acts XV. Vide supra, chap. ii. ^ Gal. ii. 11-14. Vide supra, chap. ii. * This visitation of all the Chui-ches Ijy Saint Peter, at a still earlier period, A.D. 34, is alluded to in the Acts of the Apostles, ix. 31, 32. SAINT rETEE, BISIIOr OF ROME. 55 adduced to establish this fact appears rather vague and uureliable.-^ Occupied as he thus was with the care of the Universal Church, Saint Peter appointed auxiliary bishops, to govern the Church of Eome, during the frequent and protracted periods of his absence, and to attend to those who came from a dis- tance to consult the Apostolic See. According to some writers, this office was filled by Linus and Cletus, his immediate suc- C'ssors; according to others, by Clement, whom Saint Peter ordained and appointed to succeed himself, but who declined the weighty charge of presiding over the Church until after the pontificate of Cletus.^ Again, according to the Liberian Catalogue, the duties were discharged by Linus alone. The wide-spread and rapid progress of the faith in Rome,^ numbering adherents even within the walls of the Imperial palace,'* and the preaching of the Apostles Saints Peter and l^iul, especially the former, inculcating temperance, chastity, and other virtues, diametrically opposed to the lives of the Emperor and his court, greatly exasperated Nero, and were the main cause of his sanguinary persecution of the Christians, which commenced in the year 64. A large portion of the city had been wantonly burned down by the Emperor, with the intent, according to some historians, of its being rebuilt on a scale of unexampled magnificence. This conflcigration was laid to the charge of the Christians. The details of the barbarous persecution they endured, the refinements of cruelty * Vide Usher, " Brifcanniarum Ecclcsiarum Antiquitates," pp. 7-9. Dublin, 1639. 2 Baronius, " Annalcs Ecclesiastici," i. 673, 67 i. Tertullian, "De Prsescrip- tiouibns," c. 32. Epiphauius, " Haereses," 27. " Concilia," Labbei et Cossai'tii, i. 63 : " Hie ordinavlt duos episcopos, Linumet Cletum, qui prassentialiter omne ininisterium sacerdotale, inurbe Roma, populo vel ad se veuieutibus, exliiberent.'' ' About this time, Tacitus speaks of tlie Christians condemned by Nero at Rome, as "a huge multitude," ingens multitudo. Annales xv. 44. a.d. 65. * This we learn from Saint Paul, writing from Rome, whither he had been convoyed a prisoner, a.d. 64 : " All the saints salute you : especially they that are uf Caesar'.'? household" (IMiil. iv. 22). 56 THE CHAIR OF PETER. invented for their extirpation, and tlie unwavering faith and heroic constancy of their martyrs, are recorded in history.^ Meanwhile, the two Apostles unceasingly ministered to the afflicted flock, and fearlessly preached the truths and maxims of the proscribed religion. In the height of the persecution, Peter, considering that it was not the Church of Kome alone, but the entire flock of Christ, which demanded his pastoral care, wrote his Second Epistle.^ In it, he remiuds the faithful of the precious gifts they have received from God ; counsels them to join the practice of all virtues with their faith ; strongly cautions them against false teachers ; and gives an eloquent description of the dissolution of the world, and of tlie final judgment. Here, as in several other instances already enumerated, we recognize the Magisterium, or ofiice of universal teacher, by Divine appointment, devolving on Saint Peter, and his successors in the Apostolic See. It was towtirds the close of the year 66, that the Emperor's rage against the Christians was brought to a climax by the vast number of proselytes who professed the new doctrines, notwithstanding the persecution.^ By his orders, the Apostles, Saints Peter and Paul, were arrested, and lodged in the IMamertine prison, in the month of October that year. Here, they continued to preach, not only to the prisoners, but to the faithful, who came in crowds to see them. They also healed the sick, and wrought many other miracles. Among the guards were two soldiers. Processus and Martinianus, who ■ Tacitus, "Annales," xv. 44. " A huge multitude of Christians were con- demned, not indeed upon evidence of tlieir having set the city on fire, but rather on account of the hatred of the whole human race. To their sufferings N(.'ro added mockery and derision. Some were covered with the skhis of wild beasts, to make dogs devour them ; others were crucified ; and many, covered with inflammable matter, were lighted up, when the day declined, to serve as torches during the night." 2 Vide supra, chap. ii. 3 Several of the Fathers allege, as an additional cause, the final discomfiture of Simon Magus by Saint Peter, and the miserable death of the impostor, who stood high in tlie Emperor's favour. SAINT TETER, BISHOP OF ROME. 57 were converted and baj^tized by Saint Peter.^ These two converts and forty-seven others of the guards and prisoners eventually fell victims to the sword of Nero. The martyrdom of the former is celebrated by the Church on the 2nd of July ; and of the latter, on the 14th of March. As at any moment the mandate for the execution of the Apostles might arrive, the faithful strongly urged Peter, with prayers and tears, to escape from prison, and thus preserve a life of so much consequence to the Church. At first, the Apostle refused to leave ; but ultimately he yielded to their earnest solicitations. Having joined in prayer with the brethren, and wished them farewell, he escaped by night, getting over the prison wall. It is related, that, going out through the Porta Capena, the ancient gate at which the Appian Way commenced, he had a vision of our Lord entering. " Lord, whither art thou going?" said he. Christ answered, " I am coming to Rome, to be crucified again." ^ These words Peter considered as a reproof of his flight; and he inferred from them, moreover, that it was his Divine Master's wish to be crucified again, in him. His servant. Accordingly, he im- mediately returned to the prison, and surrendered himself to the guard. On the 29th of June following, after an imprison- ment of close on nine months, the Apostles were led out to execution. Saint Peter having first taken a most affectionate leave of the brethren, especially of Saint Paul. It was arranged that the executions should take place in different quarters. Saint Paul, whose quality of a Roman citizen saved him from the degradation of crucifixion, was beheaded at the Salvian Waters, now Tre Fontane, on the Ostian Road, while Saint Peter was crucified on the Jauiculum, where now stands ' The fountain is still shown, which, according to ancient tradition, miracu- lously sprang up in the lloor of the prison, to supply Saint Peter with water for the ceremony. * " Domine quo vadis ? " " Venio Roraam itcrum crucifigi." The Church of " Domino quo vadis" now <)ccui)iL'S the spot cousecrated by this tra- dition. 58 THE CHATR OF TETEE. the Churcli of S. Pietro in Moutorio.^ At his own request, he was crucified with his head downwards, considering hinjself unworthy to suffer as his Divine Master had suffered. Over his remains, interred near the same spot, now stands the magnificent basilica which bears his name : — " the vast aud wondrous dome, To which Diana's marvel was a cell — Christ's mighty shrine, above His martyr's tomb ! " * Tims (observes Euscbius, writing in the early part of the fourtli century) Nero, proclaimiug himself, above all others, the chief enemy of God, was incited by his rage to murder the Apostles. Paul is related to have been beheaded at Eome, in his reign, and Peter to have been crucified likewise. And this account is confirmed by the fact, that the names of Peter and Paul still remain in the cemeteries of that city, even to this day. But likewise a certain Ecclesiastical writer, Caius by name, who was born about the time of Zephyrinus, Bishop of Eome,^ disputing with Proclus, the leader of the Phrygian sect, gives the following statement respecting the places where the sacred tabernacles of the aforesaid Apostles are laid. " But, I can show," says he, " the trophies of the Apostles. For, if you go to the Vatican, or to the Ostian Eoad, you will find the trophies of those who have laid the foundation of this church. And that both suffered martyrdom about the same time, Dionysius, Bishop of Corinth^ bears testimony, as follows, in his discourse written to tlie Eomans:° ' Thus, likewise, you, by means of an admonition of this kind, have mingled the seed that has been planted by Poter and Paul at Eome and Corinth. For both of these, having planted in our city of Corinth, instructing us, as they did likewise in Italy, suffered martyrdom about tlie same time.' " This testimony I have added, in order that the truth of the history may be more confirmed.'' ' It is the opinion of some writers, that Saint Peter was crucified in the valley between the Janiculum and Vatican hills. * The body of Saint Peter was enbalmed and interred, by the brothers Marcellus aud Apnleius, in the Vatican, not far from the Via Triumphalis, at the gardens of Nero, where, under Constantine the Great, a largo temple was erected, and subsequently by the pontitt's the present glorious church. Saiufc Paul's body was entombed by Lucina, a matron of senatorial rank, in her land ou tlie Ostian Road, where a magnificent chui'ch is erected in his honour. Cou- stantius, "Annales SS. Petri et Pauli," apud Cortesiujn, p. 301. ' Saint Zephyrinus presided over the Chui-ch, a.d. 202-219. * Saint Dionysius, Bishop of Corinth, flourished ahont tlie middle of the second century. ^ Thi.s letter was written in reply to tliat of Pope Sotor, alluded to in (he next chapter. ' Euscbius, " Ecclesiastical History," ii. 25. SAINT PETEE, BISHOP OF PvOME. 59 There is a variety of opinions amongst the learned as to the year of Saint Peter's death. Some would ascribe it to the year 65; others to G6 ; and others again to 67, of the Vulgar Era. To those who carefully weigh all the arguments, the year 67 is likely to appear the most probable. As we have seen, the disper- sion of the Apostles took place a.d. 41-42; or twelve years after our Lord's Ascension. On this, Saint Peter, led by Divine Providence, immediately journeyed to Rome, arriving there iu the year 42, " the second of Claudius." If we add twenty-five years for his pontificate at Rome, we arrive at the 29th of Juno, 67, " the fourteenth of Nero," as the date of his martyrdom ; and thus we have thirty-eight years and nearly tv/o months, as the time that he governed the Church.^ This view is confirmed by the following words of Saint Jerome : " Simon Peter, after presiding as bishop of the Church of Autioch, and preaching to those of the Circumcision dispersed in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia, in the second year of Claudius, went to Rome to vanquish Simon Magus, and there, for five and twenty years, he held his Sacerdotal Chair, until the last, that is the fourteenth, year of Nero, by whom being crucified, with his head dow^nwards, he was crowned with martyrdom." ^ The foundation of the Church of Rome, and the establish- ment of his pontifical chair there by Saint Peter, has been celebrated as a festival by the Universal Church, from the earliest ages of Christianity. The day of celebration is the 18th of January — the feast of " Saint Peter's Chair at Rome." ' Claudius reigned a.d. 41-51' ; and Nero 54-68. According to the learned Jesuit, Denis Patau, Latinized Petavius, a high authority on all matters of chronology, the reigns of the Eoman Emperors were always counted fi'om the beginning of the first year and not from the day on which they commenced to reign. Petavius, " Rationarinm Tempoi'um." Leyden, 1710. - " In Catalogo Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum," in S. Paulo. The original is given in the heading of this chapter. Eusebius, in his Chronicle, says, " Peter, by nation a Galilean, the first pontiff of the Christians, having first founded tiie Church of Antioch, set out for Home, where, preaching the Gospel, he continued for five and twenty years the bishop of that city." 60 THE CflATR OF PETER. In the martyrologies of Bede, Ado, and Usuard, this festival is mentioned ; and in the most ancient Roman rituals is to be found the following prayer, to be recited on the day : — 0 Almighty and Eternal God, who, by an ineffable Sacrament, didst confer on thy Apostle Peter the primacy of the city of Eome, whence Evangelical truth might diffuse itself through all the kingdoms of the world, grant, we beseech thee, that universal Christendom may devoutly follow that which from his preaching has spread all over the globe. There are no data from which to infer the exact day of the foundation of his see at Rome by Saint Peter, beyond the fact of its ancient celebration by the Church on the IStli of January. Some writers hold, that it is by no means likely that it was that day in the year 42 — the year of the Apostle's arrival in Rome ; inasmuch as he is generally supposed to have arrived there later in the year. Some again would refer it to the IStli of January in the following year.^ Baronius, Onuphriiis Pan- vinius, and others set forth the duration of Saint Peter's pontificate at Rome as twenty-four years, five months, and twelve days ; ^ which would accord with a period ranging from the 18th of January 43 to the 29th of June 67. In this case, following the ancient usage, and reckoning the first and last, although incomplete, as whole years, we have the five and twenty years mentioned by Saint Jerome, Eusebius and other writers. Again, Blanchinius and other authorities compute the time twenty-five years and some months and days over ; and this agrees with the modern Roman Directory, which, in its list of Popes, states that Saint Peter suffered martyrdom in Rome on the 29th of June of the year G7, of the Vulgar Era, having governed the Church from that city twenty-five years, two months, and seven days.^ ' Cuccagni, "Vita di S. Piotro, Principe dogli Apostoli," vol. iii. pp. 17 and 284. His authorities are set forth in the latter page hero indicated. * Baronius, " Aunales Ecclesiastici," i. 670. Panvinius, " Chronicon," i. apud Platinam. * " La Gerarchia Cattolica, per I'anno 1882," p. 3. Rome, May, 1882. The whole subject is fully treated by Foggiuius, " De Koiiiauo Divi I'elri Itiiiere ot Episcopatu," pp. 1-15 ct scq. SAINT PETER, BISHOP OF ROME. Gl Here, it may be well to notice the assertion of some Protes- tant writers — assuredly more zealous than learned — tliat Saint Peter never was at Rome ! This strange assertion, it is hardly necessary to observe, is directly at variance with the testimony of all the Fathers, and ecclesiastical historians — not to speak of the ancient councils of the Church, and the Popes of the early ages. Of these authorities, Greek and Latin, we have a long list furnished by the learned Cardinal Baronius, with full particulars for reference ; ^ but it is unnecessary to cite them here ; as the purpose is abundantly served by the following testimony of English Protestant divines, distinguished no less for their learning than for the esteem in which their opinions are held by the members of their own communion. Many have argued him to have never been at Kome (says Doctor 13arrow) ; which opinion I shall not avow, as bearing a more civil respect to ancient testimonies and traditions.^ But to deny that Saint Peter ever was at Eome (says Doctor Cave), contrary to the whole stream and current of antiquity, and to the unani- mous consent of the most early writers, and that merely upon little sur- mises, and trifling cavils ; and, in order thereunto, to treat the Reverend Fathers, whose memories have ever been dear and sacred in the Christian Church, with rude reflections and spiteful insinuations, is a course, I confess, not over ingenuous, and might give too much occasion to our adversaries of the Church of Kome, to charge us (as they sometimes do falsely enough) with a neglect of antiquity and contempt of the Fathers ; but that it is notoriously known, that all the great names of the Protestant party, men most celebrated for learning and piety, have always paid a most just deference and veneration to antiquity, and on that account have freely allowed the story of Saint Peter's going to Eome, our author, who opposes it, is forced to grant.^ Doctor Cave here quotes the following Protestant authorities in support of his views : — All the Fathers, with great unanimity, have asserted (says Chamier) > Baronius "Annales Ecclesiastici," i. 318. Several of these authorities have already been quoted in these pages. * "The Theolof^ical Works of Isaac Barrow," D.D., vol. vii. p. 175. Oxford University Press, 1830. * " Antiquitates Alpostolicsc," by William Cave, D.D., p. 49. London, 1684. 02 THE CHAIK OF PETETl. tliat Peter went to Rome, and administered that Church. And indeed to me so great a unanimity does not appear to be one that may easily be impeached.^ To me those appear to have no shame (says Vossius), who deny these things, in contradiction to all antiquity ; as if, in history, we could know anything from any other source than the writiugs of the ancients.'^ To these may be added the following observations of Mr. Whiston^ on the subject : — Mr. Bower, with some weak Protestants before him, almost pretends to deny that Saint Peter ever was at Eome ; concerning which matter take my own former words, out of my three Tracts, p. 53. Mr. Baratier ■* proves 1 Chamier, Daniel, " Panstratia Catholica, de E. Pontif.," 1. 13, c. 4, p. 4S3. " Omnes patres magno consensu asseruerunt Petrnm Eomam esse profectum, eamqne Ecclesiam aclministrasse. Et mihi quidem non facile vellicandua videtur tantns consensus." Daniel Chamier was an eminent Protestant divine, a native of Dauphiny. In 1612, he was promoted to the chair of divinity at Montanbou, during the siege of which place he was killed, in 1621. 2 Vossius, G. J., " Harm. Evangel.," 1. 3., c. 4, p. 407. " Non habere mihi frontem videntur, qui hcec negant, repugnaute onini antiquitate : quasi in historia aliunde sapere possimus, quam ex antiquorum monumentis." Gerard John Vossius, a learned writer, was born near Heidelburg, a.d. 1577. Through the favour of Archbishop Land, he obtained a prebend at Canterbury, in which he was installed on his visit to England, in 1829. He was also made LL.D. of Oxford. He died in 1649. All his works were published at Amsterdam, in six volumes, folio, in 1701. * William Whiston, an English divine, was born at Norton in Loicestershii-e, in 1667. In 1693, he took his degree of A.M., and became a fellow of Cam- bridge. He succeeded Sir Isaac Newton in the Lucasian professorship of Mathematics in that University. He published several scientific and theological works. In 1708, he began to entertain doubts of the dogma of the Trinity, and thenceforward he professed Arianism. Consequently, he lost his profes- soi'ship, and was expelled from the University. He joined the Baptists, five years before his death, which took place in 1752. •• John Philip Baratier, or Baratifere, was born January 10, 1721, at Schwabach, near Nuremberg, where his father was a French Protestant minister. He was a singular instance of precocious genius. It is stated that before the completion of his ninth year, he was master of the Frencli, High Dutch, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages. He soon afterwards ajiplicd himself to the acquisition of the Syriac, Chaldaic and Arabic. He also engaged in mathematical and metaphysical studies. Ho was honoured by the notice of the King of Prussia, and of several leanied societies. He died on the 5tli October, 1740, towards the close of his twentieth year. Among his several Es.says and Treatises, is that here referred to — " A Chronologic;il Iiu|iiiry about the Succession of the llomau Bishops from Peter to Victor," published iu Latin at Utrecht, in 1740. SAINT PETER, BISHOP OF HOME. 63 most thoroughly, as Bishop Pearson ^ has done before him, that Saint Peter was at Rome. This is so clear in Christian antiquity, that it is a shame for a Protestant to confess that any Protestant ever denied it. This partial procedure demonstrates, that Mr. Bower has by no means got clear of the prejudices of some Protestants, as an impartial writer of history, which he strongly pretends to be, ought to do, and he has in this case greatly hurt the Protestant cause, instead of helping it.''^ Although hxst not least, may be cited the authorities referred to by Mr. Whiston : — All the ancients formerly and the great majority of moderns (says If. Baratier) have undertaken to derive the succession of the Bishops of Eome from the Apostle Peter. So great in this matter has been the agreement of all, tliat in truth it ought to be deemed a miracle, that certain persons born in our day have presumed to deny a fact so manifest. ^ Bishop Pearson, in the heading of the seventh chapter of his first dissertation on the subject, says : — That Saint Peter was at Rome, is proved from Ignatius, Papias, the very ancient author of Kripvyfia u^rpov, Dionysius of Corintli, Irena3us, Cains, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Origen, Cyprian, Lactantiua, Eusebius, Athanasius, Epiphanius, Julian the Apostate, Augustirt^, Palladius. Therefore it is wonderful that those can be found who deny that Peter ever was at Rome.* Towards the close of the same chapter, he observes : — When with such great unanimity, it is handed down to us by * John Pearson, D.D., distinguished for his great learning, was born in tlio county of Norfolk, in 1613. He was a fellow, and professor of Divinity, in tlio University of Cambridge. In 1672, he was apjjointed Bishop of Chester. Ho died in 1686. Bishop Pearson was the aufchoi* of several able works. Amoncj these, were " Two Dissertations on the series and succession of the First Bishojis of Rome," above referred to, published by Henry Dodwell among his " Posthu- mous Woi'ks," in 1688. ^ " Memoii'S of his own Life and Writings," by William Whiston, M.A., p. 599. * "Disquisitio Chronologica de Successione Episcoporum Romanorum, indo a Peti"o usque ad Victorem," Auctorc Johanne Philijipo Baraterio, A.M., p. 2. Ultra jccti, 1740. * " .Tohannis Pearsonii, Cestrensis mipor Episcopi, Opera Posthnma Chrono- logic.n, viz. Do serio ct successione I'rimurimi Romx Episcoporum," p. 3^. Loudon, 16S8. 04 . THE CHAIR OF PETER. inulition, from almost the beginning, that Saint Peter preached the Gospel at Rome, and suffered there; and when no one has ever said that either Peter or Paul was crowued with martyrdom anywhere else; when in fine Christ himself plainly enough signified that Peter was to be crucified ; I think we may safely attach our faith to this history. For who would believe, that so great an Apostle could die so obscurely that no one should ever remember the place in which he died ? Who would believe, that, while other regions claim their Apostles, no city, no region, no Church should aflSrm, that it had been ennobled by the blood of Peter?! To the same effect are the story of the Catacombs, tlie testimony of many a venerable monument in the Eternal City, and the cogent evidence of modern exploiations.^ Then there is the undeniable fact, that here, for more than eighteen centuries, has centered the interest of the Christian world. "Like Thebes, or Babylon, or Carthage, the name of Eome might have been erased from the earth, if the city had not been animated by a vital principle, which again restored her to honour and dominion." ^ That principle found expression in the tradition of the martyrdom of the Apostles. " One hundred and fifty years after the glorious deaths of Saints Peter and Paul, the Vatican and the Ostiau Eoad were distinguished by the tombs, or rather by the trophies, of those spiritual heroes. In the age which followed the conversion of Constantine, the emperors, the consuls, and the generals of armies, devoutly visited the sepulchres of a tent-maker and a fisherman, and their venerable bones were deposited under the altars of Christ, on which the bishops of the royal city continually offered the unbloody sacrifice." ^ Then, we are told how, some two centuries later, "the pilgrims from the East and the West ' "Johanuis Poarsonii Opera Posthnma Chronologica," p. 42. A number of other Protestant authorities might be quoted to the same purport ; but those above given are sufficient. * " See G. B. De Rossi's " Roma Sotterranea Cristiana," two volumes folio, Rome, 18154-67 ; and the very Reverend Dr. Northcote's able and most interesting work, on the same subject, two volumes octavo, 1879. ^ Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," chap. xlv. * Ibid., cliap. xxviii. SAINT PETER, BISHOP OF ROME. (55 resorted to the holy threshold." ^ And so it has been down to our day. When on the 29th of Jnne, in the year of our Lord 67, the life-blood of the Prince of the Apostles was poured out on the Janiculum, who could have foreseen the signal triumph of the persecuted religion ? " On the same spot a temple, which far surpasses the glories of the Capitol, has been since erected by the Christian pontiffs, who, deriving their claim of universal dominion from a humble fisherman of Galilee, have succeeded to the throne of the Caesars, given laws to the barbarian conquerors of Eome, and extended their spiritual jurisdiction from the coast of the Baltic to the shores of the Pacific Ocean." ^ In all this there is manifestly more than human power could effect, or human wisdom devise. Here we have a spiritual empire, supernaturally upheld — a rule which has now subsisted for close on nineteen hundred years, and which every Catholic Christian feels assured will continue to subsist until time shall be no more. ' Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," chap. xlv. ' Ibid., chap. xvi. CHAPTER V. SAINT Peter's successors in the see of eome. " Quis es ? Sacerdos magnns, snmmns pontifex. Tu princeps episcopomm, tn hasres Apostolorum. . . . Tu es cui clares traditse, cui oves creditEe sixnt." ' — Saint Bernard {Letter to Pope Eugenius III.). We have seen that the Catholic belief is, that the successors of Saint Peter in the Apostolic Chair, down to our day, have inherited from him all the power, privileges, and jurisdiction over the Universal Church, which he received from Christ, and that their successors will continuously inherit the same until the end of the world. That this belief, derived from Holy Scripture, and sup- ported by the writings of the Fathers, has steadily developed itself, with the growth of the Church, is a universally accepted historical fact. Without entering into minute details, which, however important the subject, would be tedious to my readers, I now purpose briefly referring to some of the prominent instances, in the early ages, of the beneficial exercise of this primatial authority by the Apostolic See, and of its general recognition by the faithful. About the year of our Lord 96, there arose in the Church of Corinth "an impious and detestable division,"^ when an attempt was made to depose the priests of that Church, men who were distinguished by the purity of their lives and the ' "Who art thou? The great priest, the supreme pontiff. Thou art the prince of bishops ; thou art the heir of the Apostles. . . . Thou art he to whom the keys were delivered, to whom the sheep were entrusted." * Saint Clemeut's Epistle to the Corinthians. SAINT PETER'S SUCCESSOKS IN THE SEE OF EOME. 67 integrity of their doctrine, and who had been appointed by the Apostles and Apostolic men, with the general consent. Certain persons were deputed by the faithful at Corinth to represent the condition of affairs to the Koman Church, and to request its interposition, to put an end to the schism. And it is especially deserving of note, that, although Saint John the Apostle and Evangelist was then living, the people of Corinth did not apply to him ; but they rather appealed to the Eomau Apostolic See, to exercise its authority, in allaying the disturb- ances by which they were distracted, and restoring peace to their Church. The Church w^as then presided over by Saint Clement,^ of whom St. Paul speaks, as one of those " whose names are in the book of life." ^ Clement immediately, in compliance with their request,^ wrote " a most powerful ^ letter from the Church which is at Rome to the Corinthians, reuniting them in peace, and re-establishing their faith, and the tradition which it had ' Saint Peter was succeeded by Saint Linus, a.d. 67. Linus is spoken of by- Saint Paul, in 2 Timothy iv. 21 ; and, according to Eusebius (" Hist. Eccles.," iii. 2, 4), he was " the first after Peter that obtained the episcopate at Rome." He suffered martyi-dom in the year 78, and was succeeded that year by Cletus, who, on his martyrdom in 90, was succeeded by Clement. Saint Clement governed the Church from a.d. 90 to 100. He is named, as are Linus and Cletus, in the canon of the Mass. There is some confusion in the ancient lists, as to the first four successors of Saint Peter. In some, Clement is placed before Linus and Cletus ; but this may have arisen from the fact, already noted, that Saint Peter destined Clement as his own successor, but that the latter declined the heavy charge of governing the Chm'ch until after the pontificate of Cletus. Again, in some lists, Cletus and Anacletus are treated as one and the same, whereas they were two distinct persons, as enumerated by Baronius, Platina, Panvinius, and others, including Anastasius the Librarian, whose " Lives of the Popes " was written in the ninth centmy. The correct rotation, as most generally accepted, is Peter, Linus, Cletus, Clement, Anacletus. ^ Phil. iv. 3. ' It is the general opinion of writers and commentators, that Clement or the Roman Church was consulted in this crisis by the presbyters of Corinth, either by letter or messenger, as may be inferred from the character and context of this letter. * " lKavoiTaTt]v ypacpriv." This is generally translated " a most powerful letter," epistola potentissima ; but to some the more literal rendering, " fully adequate," or " sufficient," may appear preferable. 08 THE CHAIR OF PETER. recently received from the Apostles,"^ This epistle was " universally accepted," and read in the Churches for a very long period.^ "Of this Clement," says Eusebius,^ "there is one epistle extant, acknowledged as genuine,^ of great length and very remarkable, which he wrote in the name of the Church of the Eomans to that of the Corinthians, when there was a dissension in Corinth. This we know to have been publicly read, for the common benefit, in most of the Churches, both in former times and in our own ; and that at the time mentioned a sedi- tion did take place at Corinth, is abundantly attested by Hegesippus." ^ To the same effect is the evidence of Saint Dionysius, Bishop of Corinth, m a letter to the Romans, which he ad- * Irenaeus, " Adversus Haereses," iii. 3. Ensebius, " Hist. Eccles.," v. 6. " Eusebins, " Hist. Eccles.," iii. 38, avoifioXoy-q^ivi] irapa iraatu. ' Ibid., iii. 16. * The genuineness of Saint Clement's First Epistle to the Corinthians is universally admitted ; but that of the Second is controverted. These two Epistles, in modern times, nntil about seven years ago, were extant, in only an imperfect form, in the ancient Alexandrian manuscript. About one-tenth part of the First, and all the Second, save a few fragments, were wanting. However, recently, Philotheus Bryennius, the Metropolitan of Serres, discovered, in the library of a monastery at Constantinople, a manuscript, written by the notary Leo in the year 1056, in which the parts wanting are supplied : and thus he was enabled to publish the two Epistles of Clement complete, in 1875. About the same time, a..d. 1876, was discovered a Syriac manuscript, containing the whole of the New Testament, except the Apocalypse, and also giving the two Epistles of Clement. In the portions of Clement's First Epistle thus supplied, there is a marked tone of authority obscL-vable, whore he alludes to the dangers that would be incurred by the Corinthians, should they " disobey the words spoken by God through us," and where he calls on them to obey " what is MTitten by us through the Holy Spirit." Vide Jungmanu, " Dissertationes in Hist. Eccle?.," i. 126, RatisbonK, 1880. * Saint Hegesippus, a primitive Father immediately succeeding the Apostolic times, was by birth a Jew, and was a member of the Chm'ch of Jerusalem. He visited Rome, and remained there about twenty years ; viz. a.d. 157-177, from the pontificate of Anicetus to that of Elentherius, as he himself iuforais us (apud Eusebium, " Hist. Eccles.," iv. 22). In the year 133, Hegesippus wrote a History of the Church, down to his own times, unfortunately not extant. The little that remains of his writings has been preserved by Eusebius and others by whom he is quoted. It will be necessary to refer to this Father again, further on. SAINT PETER'S SUCCESSORS IN THE SEE OF ROME. 69 dressed to Pope Soter,^ about the year 175, and in which he alluded to the Epistle of Clement to the Coriuthians, " showing that it was the practice to read it in the Churches, even from the earliest times : ' To-day,' he says, ' we have passed the Lord's holy day, in which we have read your epistle, which we shall always read, in order to have our minds instructed, as we shall also read that previously written to us by Clement.' " ^ Even at this early period, notwithstanding the difficulties and dangers of travelling, it was customary for the clergy of remote Churches to visit Rome and to confer with the Popes, on points of doctrine and discipline. By these means, uniformity was preserved. Thus Hegesippus informs us, that, in making his long journey from Jerusalem, to visit Pope Anicetus, about A.D. 157, he "conversed with most of the bishops when he travelled to Eome, and received the same doctrine from all." ^ Having alluded to the Epistle of Pope Clement to the Corinthians, and its beneficial effects, he adds : " And the Church ot Corinth continued in the true faith, until Primus was bishop there, with whom I had familiar conversation (as I passed many days at Corinth), when I was on the point of sailing to Rome, during which time also we were mutually T' freshed in the true doctrine."^ He then continues : "After coming to Rome, I made my stay with Anicetus, whose deacon was Eleutherius. After Anicetus, Soter succeeded, and after him Eleutherius.^ In every succession however, and in every city, the doctrine prevails, according to what is declared by the Law, and the Prophets, and the Lord." ^ It was about the year 158, that the venerable Poly carp,'' ' Saint Soter, a native of Campania, governed the Church, a.d. 168-177. « Eusebius, " Eccles. Hist.," iv. 23. * Apud Easeb., " Hist. Eccles.," iv. 22. * Ibid. * Pope Anicetus presided over the Church, a.d. 157-168; Soter, 168-177; and Eleutherius, 177-193. * Apud Euseb., "Hist. Eccles.," iv. 22. ' Saint Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, and martyr, became a Christian in his youth— about the year 80. He was the disciple of Saint John the P>augelist, by whom he was appointed Bishop of Saiyrua, about a.jj. U6. Uu lived Lo a 70 THE CHAIR OF PETER. Bishop of Smyrna, a disciple of Saint John the Evangelist, travelled to Rome, in his extreme old age, to confer with Pope Anicetus, about the time of celebrating Easter. The feast of Easter was then observed in the Asiatic Churches, on the four- teenth day of the vernal equinoctial moon, or lunar month, on whatever day of the week it fell (on which day the Jews were formerly commanded to sacrifice the Paschal lamb) ; whereas in all other parts of the world it was observed on the Sunday immediately following ; such, says Eusebius, being, " the practice that has prevailed from Apostolic tradition until the present time, so that it would not be proper to terminate our fast on any other but the day of the Resurrection of our Saviour." ^ After much discussion between the Pope and Bishop Polycarp, it was agreed that each might keep the feast on the day on which he had hitherto kept it ; and Anicetus, further, in order to testify his respect for his venerable visitor, allowed him to celebrate the Eucharistic sacrifice, in his place, in his own church.^ In the time of Pope Victor, who governed the Church a.d. 193-202, the controversy was renewed, with much warmth. The Pope was desirous that Easter day should be universally observed on the Sunday ; and, to insure this object, the Asiatic bishops were convened in council, in obedience to his wishes, A.D. 193. They however decided to persevere in following the tradition handed down to them by their fathers^ who, they alleged, had received it from the Apostle Philip and Saint John the Evangelist; and Polycrates, Bishop of Ephesus, who presided at the council, wrote to the Pope, to that effect.^ In very advanced age ; and suffered martyrdom at Smyrna, in the year 166. For Polycarp's visit to Pope Anicetus, see Eusebius, " Ecclesiastical History," iv. 14. ' Eusebius, *' Ecclesiastical History," book v. chap. 23. The vernal equi- noctial moon is that of which the fourteenth day falls on, or next follows, the Vernal Equinox or 21st March. Thus, in the j'car 1882, the vernal equinoctial moon commenced on the 20th March; its foui'teeuth day was Sunday, 2nd April; and Easter Sunday fell on the Sunday after; viz. 9th April. * Eusebius, " Eccles. Hist.," v. 24. * Ibid. SAINT PETER'S SUCCESSORS IN THE SEE OF ROME. 71 his letter, he says ; " I could also mention the bishops that were present, whom you requested me to summon, and whom I did call — whose names, did I write them, would represent a great number." ^ Victor, thereupon, proceeded to excommunicate the Asiatic Churches, but was dissuaded from doing so by Saint Ireneeus, Bishop of Lyons, and other prelates of the West.^ In his letter, Irenaeus reminds the Pope of the forbearance of his predecessors, especially Anicetus, in dealing with those who followed the Asiatic mode of keeping the festival.^ " And those bishops," he continues, " who governed the Church before Soter,^ and over wliich you now preside, I mean Anicetus, and Pius, Hyginus, with Telesphorus and Xystus, neither did themselves observe it, nor did they permit those with them to do so. And yet, though they themselves did not keep it, they were not the less in peace with those from Churches where it was kept, when- ever they came to them." ^ A little before the conclusion of this (the second) century, Victor, Bishop of Eome, cast Theodotus out of the Church, for denying our Lord's divinity (observes Archbishop Potter). And tlie same person excommuni- cated the bishops of Asia and their Churches, for observing Easter at the same time as the Jews, wherein he pretended they deviated from the Apostolical rule. This indeed was an unjust act, and blamed by Ireneeus and other bishops of that age, who rightly thought that Churches might differ from one another in things of this kind, without any breach of Catholic communion or charity. However, it is a good evidence, that excommunication was used at this time in the Church." • Ensebius, " Eccles. Hist.," v. 24. ^ Barouias and others infer, from Eusebius's account, that the sentence of excommunication was actually pronounced by Pope Victor; while Natalis Alexander, Thomassin, and other writers, are of opinion that he confined himself merely to a threat. In either case, it is certain that the sentence was not proceeded with, in deference to the dissuasion of Saint Irenseus and other Western l)relatos. ' Eusebius, " Ecclesiastical History," v. 24. * Anicetus permitted the Asiatics to follow their own mode of observing Easter, even in Rome. But his immediate successor, Pope Soter, obliged them to observe the custom of the place, where they might be. ^ Eusebios, " Ecclesiastical History," v. 24. " "A Discourse of Church Goverumeut," by John Potter, D.D., p. 3/0, 72 THE CHAIR OF PETER. Here, the Protestant Archbishop, while blaming the course pursued by Pope Victor, as " unjust," admits that it is good evidence that excommunication prevailed at that time in the Church ; and, in this instance, and the others which he alludes to, he bears testimony, at least indirectly, to the authority claimed by the Popes, at that early period, and their vigilance and firmness, not only in defending and preserving the deposit of faith especially entrusted to their guardianship, but in strictly insisting upon uniformity of discipline and ritualistic observance, where they deemed it essential to the welfare of the Church. The question was finally settled, in accordance with the views of the Popes, at the Council of Nice, a.d. 325, as we shall presently see.^ In an earlier page, has been quoted a passage from the works of Saint Irenseus, Bishop of Lyons, written about the year 180, in which he alludes to the Koman See, as "the greatest, and most ancient and universally known Church, . . . in which the tradition of the Apostles has always been pre- served, and with which, on account of its more powerful primacy, it is necessary that every Church, that is, the faithful on every side, should agree." ^ He then enumerates the Popes from Saint Peter down to Eleutherius, who presided over the Church in his day — a succession which, he argues, is a confuta- tion of all heretics, that is of all those who are not in com- munion with the successor of Saint Peter. With the same intent. Saint Optatus, an African bishop, some two centuries later, gives the list, from Peter to Siricius, London 1711. John Potter was born at "Wakefield in Yorksliire, in 1G74. lie was an accomplished scholar, and the author of several theological and other learned works. In 1708, he became regius professor of divinity, and canon of Christ's Charch, Oxford. In 1715, he was named Bishop of Oxford ; and in 1737 he was promoted to the Archiepiscopal See of Cantei-burj, by George II. He died in 1747. ' The same decision had been arrived at by the Council of Ai'les, a.d. 314; and confirmed by Pope Sylvester. '■' " Divi Ireuciei Opera," CouLia Hajreses, p. 211. Paris, 1545. SAINT PETER'S SUCCESSORS IN THE SEE OF ROME, 73 the Pope of his time ; ^ and Saint Augustine, writing about the year 400, enumerates all the Roman Pontiffs from Peter to Anastasius, who then governed the Church. " If," says he, " the order of the succession of bishops is to be considered, how much more certainly and how salutarily do we reckon from Peter himself, to whom, bearing the scheme of the whole Church, our Lord says, ' Upon this rock I will build My Church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against her ' (Matt. xvi. 18). For to Peter succeeded Linus. ... To Siricius succeeded Anastasius. In this order of succession no Donatist bishop is found." ^ At the same early j)eriod in which Irenseus flourished, we find those who M'ere outside tlie pale of the Church, and were desirous to become Christians, either visiting Rome, or apply- ing to the Pope for missionaries, to instruct and baptize them. An interesting case in point is that of Lucius, the first Christian British king, called by the Welsh Llewer Mawr, or tlie Great Light, who, about the year ]77, sent an embassy to Rome, to Pope Eleutherius, entreating that, " by his command, he might be made a Christian." The Pope, thereupon, sent missionaries, who baptized the king and great numbers of his subjects ; " and the Britons preserved the faith which they had received, uncorrupted and entire, in peace and tranquillity, until the time of the Emperor Dioclesian." ^ It was in the year 429 that Saint Celestine, who then governed the Church, sent Germanus, Bishop of Auxerre, as his Vicar, to Britain, to counteract the diffusion by Pelagius of ' " Optati Milevitani Opera," lib. ii. contra Pai-men, p. 48. Paris, 1631. * " Aagustini Epistola," 165, alias 53. " Si enim ordo episcoporum sibi succe- dentium consideranclus est, quanto certins et vero salubriter ab ipso Pctro niimei'amus, cui, totias Ecclesi-« fignram gerenti, Dominus ait : super banc petram a3dificabo Ecclesiam meam, et ports3 iriferorum non viucent earn (Matt, xvi. 18). Petro enim successit Linus. . . . Siricio Anastasius. In hoc ordiue sucocssionis nullus Donatista episcopus invenitur." ' Bede, " Ecclesiastical History," book i. chap. 4 ; and " Anglo-Saxon Clironicle," A.D. 167. Bedc evidently commits an error of ten years in this date ; as Eleutherius did not commeuce his reign, as Pope, uutil a.d. 177. 74 THE CHAIR OF PETER. liis heresy among his fellow countrymen.^ Germanus was accompanied by Saint Lupus, Bishop of Troyes ; and these two prelates, succeeded by their preaching, prayers, and miracles, in freeing the inhabitants from the taint of false doctrines. Three years later, Celestine ordained Patrick, for the conversion of all Ireland ; ^ and in the year 596 Saint Gregory the Great dispatched Augustine and his companions, to confer a similar blessing on England. So also the Gauls, the Germans, and many another race, have reason to look back with joy and gratitude to remote periods, now enveloped in the mists of antiquity, when the light of faith was diffused among their ancestors by devoted missionaries appointed to the work by the successors of Saint Peter. Here, the in- habitants had to be rescued from the darkness of Paganism. Here, the faith, already planted, had to be confirmed and extended. Here, again, the evils of schism and heresy had to be eradicated. Thus, from the Prince of the Apostles down to Leo XIIL, might each Pontiff, in his turn, exclaim, in the words in which Pope Celestine commenced his letter to the Bishops of Vienne and Narbonne in Gaul, a.d. 432, " By no limits of place is my pastoral vigilance confined : it extendeth itself to all places where Christ is adored." In the pages of Bede and other early historians, we find accounts of the close connection of our Saxon and Celtic ancestors, in these islands, with the Holy See. Thus, in the year 688, Ciedwalla, King of the West Saxons, went to Eome, " at the time that Sergius was Pope," in order to be baptized in the church of the blessed Apostles ; and his successor Ina, after a reign of thirty-seven years, " gave up his kingdom in like manner to younger persons, and went away to Rome, a.d. 728, when Gregory was Pope, to visit the blessed Apostles, ' Prosper, " Chronicon," arl aim. 429. " Papa Coelcstinus GerrnaTiuni, Autissiodorenscm Episcopuin, vice sua, mittit, et deturbatis hoercticis Britauuoa ad Catholicam fidem dirigit." ^ A.D. 432. Long before this, parts of Ireland had been evangelized by luissiouarics from Koine. SAINT PETER'S SUCCESSORS IN THE SEE OF ROME. 75 being desirous to spend some time of his pilgrimage upon earth in the neighbourhood of the holy place, that he might be more easily received by the saints into heaven. The same thing was done, about the same time, by many of the fervent English nation, noble and ignoble, laity and clergy, men and women." ^ The institution of Peter's Pence, or Romescot, by Ina is another proof of tlie intimate relations subsisting at this period between the Saxon princes and the Apostolic See.^ We have seen how, about the year 251, the schismatics at Carthage, endeavouring to intrude a false bishop into that see, sent a messenger to Rome, praying that their candidate Fortunatus might be received into communion by the Pope, Saint Cornelius — a notable proof, that, as early as the middle * Bede's "Ecclesiastical History," book v. chap. 7. * Peter's Pence, or Rome-Scot, was a tax instituted, in the early part of the eighth century, by Ina, King of the West Saxons, for tlie support of the Pope, and, as some writers allege, in return for a house for the reception of English pilgrims, erected in Rome. Ina abdicated in favour of his relative Ethelhei-d, A.D. 728, and made a pilgrimage to Rome, where he entered a monastery. His wife, Ethelbuvga, who had accompanied him, took the habit in a house of religious women, at the same time. Offa II., King of the Mercians, who reigned a.d. 755-796, following Ina's example, established Peter's Pence among his subjects ; and, in the course of time, the payment became general all over England j so that every 'family, possessing twenty pence worth of goods of any kind, was liable to this tax of one penny in the year. The payment of Peter's Pence in England continued until the time of Henry VIII., when it was prohibited by statute, 25th Henry VIII., cap. 21 in England, and 28th Henry VIIL, cap. 19 in Ireland. Cardinal Garampi, writing towards the end of the last century, alleges that Peter's Pence were originated by Offa, and not by Ina. To this allegation is opposed the evidence of Ranulph Higden, the Monk, of Chester, who writes in his Chronicle, concerning Ina, as follows : " Qui primus omnium regum denarium ex singulis domibus regni sni Beato Petro fertur concessise, quod din ab Anglis Romescot, Latine vero Denarius Petri vocabatur." Ranulph Higden was a Benedictine monk of Saint Werberg's, in the county of Cliester, and died, close on his hundredth year, a.d. 1363. His Chronicle, written in Latin, was styled " Ranulpiii Higdeui Polychronici Libi'i Septem," and was translated into English, by John of Trevisa, in 1387. This translation was retouched in 1482 by Caxton, who added an eighth book, bringing it down to 1460. Caxton's version of the passage above quoted is : " Ina bytoke his kyngedome of West Saxons to his cosyn ethelardus and wente to rome hyt is sayd that he was the fyrst of kynges that graunted to seynt peter of every hous of his kyngedome a peny that longtime by englyssheraen was callyd Rome scott but in Latyn it is callyd petres pcny " (" Cronica Ranulphi Cestrcnsis Monachi," lib. v. cap. 24. Westminster, Caxton, 1482). 70 THE CHAIR OF PETER. of the third century, in the remote capital of Africa, com- munion with the See of Rome was deemed, not only by the faithful, but even by schismatics, an essential condition of the legitimacy of bishops. We have also seen how, on that occasion, the legitimate bishop. Saint Cyprian, writing to Cornelius, against "those schismatical and profane men," speaks of the Roman See as " the Chair of Peter," " the principal Church," and " the source of sacerdotal unity," and how, in a letter to Antonianus, an African bishop, Cyprian speaks of Cornelius, as holding "the phice of Peter," and l)romises to inform His Holiness that Antonianus is " in com- liiimion with him, that is, with the Catholic Church." ^ We have further seen how Saint Optatus, Bishop of ]\Iilevis in Numidia, writing against the Donatists, a.d. 370, tolls them, that they are outside the Church, because their bishops are not in communion with the successor of Saint Peter.^ We have read the touching language of Saint Jerome, in his letter to Pope Damasus, whom he consults on certain points of doctrine, and whose advice he requests, as to wdiom he ought to communicate with, at Antioch ; a.d. 376 : — " I am united in communion with Your Holiness, that is, with the Chair of Peter. On that rock I know the Church is built." ^ We have also heard Saint Augustine, on the primacy of Innocent L, " presiding over that Church in which the Lord was pleased to crown with a most glorious martyrdom the first of His Apostles."^ We have further listened to the learned Eccle- siastical historian, Theodoret, Bishop of Cyrus in Syria, a])pealing to Saint Leo the Great, that, out of his paternal solicitude, he would furnish " remedies for the wounds of the Churches," even as " Paul, the herald of truth and the trum})ot of the Holy Ghost, had recourse to the great Peter, in order that he might convey from him a solution of the question to those who were disputing at Antioch about the legal observances." ^ ' Vido suina, cliap. iii. ^ Ibid. ' Ibid. * Ibid. •' Ibid. SAINT PETER'S SUCCESSOES IN THE SEE OF ROME. 77 This chain of evidence might be traced, link by link, in the reign of every Pope, down to the present day ; but it would be tedious to follow it further. Besides, it is quite unnecessary to do so ; for even the most inveterate enemies of the Papacy admit — nay, they adduce many a familiar instance to prove — that, with the growth and development of the Church, the assertion of their supremacy by the Sovereign Pontiffs grew apace ; and it is a fact well deserving the con- sideration of our separated brethren, that, although continu- ously protested against and assailed by the great ones of this world, that supremacy has survived, in full potency, now over eighteen centuries and a half; which is in itself an earnest (wholly irrespective of the Divine promise to Peter and his successors) that it will continue to flourish, and exert its influence for good, until the consummation of the world. Before closing this chapter, it may not be amiss to refer to the controversy about the validity of baptism conferred by heretics, that arose between Saint Cyprian and the Pope, Saint Stephen;^ especially as it is sometimes used by non- Catholics, as an argument against the actual authority of the Holy See, at that early period. This controversy arose, about the year 255. Cyprian pronounced baptism conferred by heretics invalid and null ; whilst, against this opinion, which he condemned, Stephen upheld the ancient doctrine of the Church, that baptism given in the Evangelical words, that is, in the name of the three persons of the Holy Trinity, is valid, although conferred by a heretic. Even in the African Churches, this had been the doctrine, until it was changed by Agrippiims, Bishop of Carthage, about fifty years before Cyprian. To the more recent tradition of his Church Cyprinn adhered, confirming it, in a synod of seventy-two bishops, which he convened at Carthage. In acting thus, he and his colleagues maintained, that the question was one which might well be left to the discretion of each bishop in his own * Saiut Stephen presided over the Chnrch, a.d, 253-257. 78 THE CHAIR OF PETER. diocese ; but, clearly, tliey did not thereby intend to dispute the authority generally of the Holy See. On the contrary, as is evident from the extracts I have given from his works, and from the whole tenor of his writings, Cyprian was one of the most strenuous champions of the primacy of the Chair of Peter. On the arrival at Kome of the messengers of the African bishops, bearing the decision of the synod to Saint Stephen, the Pope refused to receive them ; but it does not appear that he proceeded to the extreme measure of excom- munication, which, according to Saint Augustine, he at one time contemplated. Indeed, all through, he exhibited singular forbearance, being confident of the ultimate triumph of truth, and clearly foreseeing the submission which the Oriental bishops soon afterwards made to the Church. " Stephen," says Saint Augustine, " had thought that those who were endeavour- ing to overturn the ancient custom of the Church, about receiving heretics, should be excommunicated ; but, being influenced by the difficulty of that question, and endowed with holy charity, he deemed it better to remain in union with those who had thought differently. Thus, although he was extremely, but fraternally, moved by anger, nevertheless the peace of Christ prevailed in their hearts, so that, in the debate, no evil of schism arose among them." ^ "When all cried out against the novelty," says Saint Vincent of Lerins,^ "and the priests everywhere opposed it, according to each one's zeal, then Pope Stephen, of blessed memory. Bishop of the Apostolic See, stood up with his other colleagues against it ; but he in a signal manner ' Augustine, " De Baptism, contra Donat.," lib. v. cap. 25. * Saint Vincent of Lerins flourished towards tlie middle of the fifth century. He dwelt in the celebrated monastery of Lerins, in one of the isles, so named, in the Mediterranean, oil the coast of France, department of Var. His Com- monitory against heretics was written in the year 434. Ills style is remarkable for clearness, eloquence, and close reasoning. Uo gives the following definition of Catholic truth : — " Quod ubiquc, quod semper, quod ab omnibus creditnm est, hoc est etenim vere proprieque Catholicum." " That which is everywhere, always, and by all believed, is consequently truly and properly Catholic." SAINT PETER'S SUCCESSORS IN THE SEE OF ROME. 79 above the rest, thinking (as I believe) that he should surpass them all in the devotion of his faith, as much as he excelled them in the authority of his place. Finally, in the epistle wliich he sent to Africa, he decreed the same in these words : ' Let there be no innovation, but let that which is handed down to us by tradition be observed.' . . . What then was the end of the entire affair ? What but that which is usual and customary? Antiquity was retained and novelty was exploded." ^ Thus, throughout the whole course of Ecclesiastical history, even from the earliest ages, we find the Popes continuously engaged in the work of remonstrance, exhortation, and instruc- tion, addressing their letters, and sending their legates, to distant Churches, about the several subjects of controversy that, from time to time, arose. In not a few instances, we meet with the same spirit of zeal tempered by discretion, which characterized Saint Stephen, in his bearing towards the African bishops, and which, happily, tended to lead them eventually to bow to the decision of the Church, without " any evil of schism arising among them." ^ This holy Pope's martyrdom took place in the persecution of Valerian, in the year 257 ; and Saint Cyprian gained the martyr's crown, the following year. If, in the warmth of this controversy, Cyprian carried his opposition too far, he effaced the offence by his glorious martyrdom, as observed by Saint Augustine. ' Vincentii Lerinensis " Commonitorium contra Hsoreses," cap. ix. " Tunc beatsB memoriEe Papa Stephanas, ApostolicEO sedis antistes, cum caeteris quidem collegis suis, sed tanien prae ca3teris, restitit ; diguum (ut opinor) existimans, Bi reliqnos omne3 tantum fidei devotione vinceret, quantum loci auctoritate supcrabat. Denique in epistola, qua3 tunc ad Africam missa est, idem his verbis sanxit : Nihil novandnm : nisi qnod traditum est (uempe servetur). .... Quis ergo tunc universi negotii exitus ? Quia utique, nisi usitatus et solitns ? Retenta est scilicet antiquitas, et explosa novitas." These words were written a.d. 434. * Accox'ding to Saint Jerome, the African bishops conformed to the decisioa of the Church, on this question, a.d. 2G2, or foui- years after Saint Cyprian's death. CHAPTER VI. THE RELATIONS OF POPES WITH COUNCILS. " Catholici omnes id mnnus proprium esse docent Summi Pontificis, ut per se vel per legates pi-Eesideat, et tamquam supremus judex omnia moderetur." — Bellarmin {De ConciUis). In the relations of Popes with Councils, in the early ages, we may also discern the doctrine of the Primacy of the Chair of Peter, gradually developing itself with the growth and development of the Church. In the commencement, as we have seen, the several bishops used to communicate with each other, either personally or by letter, on various points of doctrine — the Bishop of Rome being especially consulted.^ Thus was uniformity of doctrine maintained.^ Then, in time, as the necessity arose, with the extension of the Church, and the opportunity occurred, in the intermission of persecution, councils were held.^ At first, owing to the difficulties of travelling and inter- communication, the representative area of these councils was necessarily circumscribed; but the assembled Fathers took care, by letters and messengers, to communicate the result of their deliberations to distant Churches; especially to that of ' Vide supra, chap. v. * According to Hegesippus, speaking of his journey from Jerusalem to Rome, to visit Pope Anicetus, a.d. 157. Vide supra, ibid. * Besides the Council of the Apostles at Jerusalem, a.d. 49, referred to in a former chapter, there were more than twenty councils hold, down to the end of the third century. Particnlai's of these will be found in the Collections of Councils of Labbe and Cossart, Ilardouin and others. THE KELATIONS OF POPES WITH COUNCILS. 81 Kome. In fact, from a very early period, the sanction of their proceedings by the Bishop of Rome was clearly deemed indis- pensable, as communion with the Apostolic See was universally regarded as an essential condition of orthodoxy. Moreover, it was by all considered to be the special office of the Roman Pontiff to communicate the decrees of councils, ratified by him, to all the Churches. In this, we cannot but recognize the hand of God — the over-ruling providence of Him, who had promised to remain with His Church for ever. Necessarily, with the extension of Christianity, questions of doctrine would constantly arise, heretical opinions would be broached, from time to time — the former requiring accurate definition ; the latter, immediate exposure and confutation. But how, under the circumstances, was uniformity of belief to be insured ? A. council might be held at Antioch, or at Alexandria, or at Constantinople, or at Lyons. How were the decisions of such a council to be made generally known — how rendered acceptable to other Churches ? How were the opinions, possibly conflicting, of remotely divided provinces to be reduced to complete uniformity? How were points of doctrine to be decided, that might be controverted between them? Was Antioch to yield to Con- stantinople, or Alexandria to Lyons ? Or, again, was each provincial or national Church to hold its own independent opinions ? Was there no court of final appeal — no supreme tribunal, to decide all controversies — no central authority, to give the stamp of its sanction to the decisions arrived at, and to communicate those decisions, thus ratified, to all the Churches ? In reply, Saint Irenoeus, Saint Cyprian, Saint Jerome, Saint xVugustiue — all the Fathers — point to the Chair of Peter, the Apostolic See, as the centre of unity, the keystone of the arch of Catholic faith, the divinely constituted authority, to whose arbitrament all should submissively bow, whose ruling all should unhesitatingly accept ; and, accord- ingly, this doctrine has governed and shaped the proceedings G 82 THE CHAIR OF PETER. of councils, from the early ages of Christianity clown to our times. Councils are either Provincial — those of the bishops of a province, presided over by the metropolitan ; or National, composed of all tlie bishops of a nation, presided over by the patriarch, primate, or other chief ecclesiastical authority ; or Oecumenical — those of the Universal Church, convened by the Supreme Pontiff, and presided over by him, either personally, or through his legates. The last are so named from the Greek olKov/nevY], "the habitable world," or what was at one time deemed equivalent to it, " the Koman Empire." National and fficumeuical, or General, Councils were, in the commencement, convened by the Christian Emperors ; for it was only out of the Imperial treasury the heavy charges incidental thereto could be defrayed, and through the Imperial power and resources the necessary arrangements could be carried out. Generally, they were convened at the request, and invariably with the concurrence, or subsequent aj)proval, of the Popes — such approval being, from the earliest period, an essential condition of their validity.^ " In ancient times," says Hincmar of Rheims, writing a.d. 850, " councils always were assembled by command of the Apostolic See, and the convocation of the Emperor." ^ After the fall of the Empire, when Christian States were subject to many different rulers, Ql^cnmenical Councils were necessarily convoked by the successor of Saint Peter. The decrees of all councils — provincial and national, as well as oecumenical — require the Pope's sanction, to become * The Greek Emperors, who were restless aud ofBcioas, in interfering in Ecclesiastical affairs, in some cases convoked councils, which tho Popes deemed unnecessary. Any councils, so convoked, unless subsequently coulirmed by tho Supreme Pontiff, wei'e null and void. ' Epistle 33. " Concilia ApostoHcte sedis jussione, et Impcriali convocatione, semper dim fieri consuevisse." Hincmar, a learned monk of Saint J3enys, was appointed Archbisliop of lUicims, A.D. 815. Uc died in 882. His works (ill three volumes folio. THE RKLATIONR OF POPES WITH COUNCILS. 83 valid. That this was an established law of the Church, in the early part of the fourth century, will be seen further on. When the Fathers of the great Western Council of Arles,^ A.D. 314, transmitted their decrees to the Pope, for his approval and communication thereof to all the Churches, they inscribed their letter, ''To the most beloved Pope Sylvester," saying, "We salute thee with all due reverence, most glorious Pope." Having alluded to all that they had suffered from the errors and excesses of the Donatists,^ whom they had assembled to condemn, they continued : " Would that you were present at this great spectacle, most beloved brother, for, we truly believe, a more severe sentence would have been pronounced, and, you sitting in judgment with us, our assembly * The Council of Aries was convoked by Constautine, a.d. Sit, the first year of the Pontificato of Saint Sylvester. According to the letters of the Emperor to Chrestus Bishop of Syracuse, and to Ablavius Vicar of Africa, bishops were invited to attend from places most various and remote, and tho governors of provinces were ordered to provide them with food and all requisites for their journey, out of the Imperial treasury. Two hundred bishops assembled. Twenty-two canons were enacted. In the eighth, it was decreed, against the Donatists, that baptism conferred with due form and matter by heretics is valid, and is not to be repeated — viz. haptismus ab hcereticis cum debita forma et materia noil repefatur. ' Donatism. This schism arose about the year 306. It was so called after Donatus of Casaa Nigrae, a Namidian bishoj"), and again after another Donatns, who iutraded into the See of Carthage in the year 315. It originated in a party who were opposed to Mensm'ius, Bishop of Carthage, and his deacon and successor Cecilian, on account of their lenity towards those penitents who had been " Traditores," or betrayers — that is, who, through fear of death in times of persecution, had delivered up the Scriptui'es to the Pagan officers, by whom they were burned. The Donatists were supported by fanatical and violent mobs, who committed great excesses. With a view to justifying their proceedings dogmatically, they broached the doctrine, that their sect was the true Church, as the Catholics, by admitting Cecilian and others like him to communion, had thereby separated themselves from the Church ; that, as the validity of the sacraments depended on the sanctity of the minister, all sacraments confei-red by those outside their sect were invalid ; and, conse- quently, that those joining them should be re-baptized. Constantino passed enactments against those disturbers of the peace of the Church, and convoked tho Council of Aries, by which they were condemned ; and his successors also endeavoured to repress them. But their own divisions tended principally to effect their extinction. Among their ablest opponents, wore Saint Optatus Bishop of Milevis, and Saint Augustine. 84 THE CHAIR OF PETER. would have exulted with greater joy. But as you could by no means leave those p:irts in which the Apostles sit daily, and their blood attests the glory of God," we have taken counsel, etc. They then proceeded to lay their canons before him, in order that through him, " most specially, as holding the greater dioceses, they may be communicated to all." ^ " In all these proceedings," remarks Cardinal B ironius, " it is most worthy of observation, that it was the ancient custom of the Catholic Church, that when Ecclesiastical laws were enacted, in a general assembly of the Fathers, they used to send them to the Eoman Pontiff, in order that, approved by his authority, they might be promulgated by him to all the Churches." ^ At the First (Ecumenical Council, that of Nice, the capital of Bithynia in Asia Minor, held a.d. 325, we find the primacy of the Chair of Peter no less fully recognized. The object of that council, composed of 318 bishops, was, to condemn the heresy of Arius, who denied the divinity of Christ.^ It was ' " Sacrosanta Concilia," Labbei et Cossartii, i. 1425, Paris 1671. " Epistola Synodi Arelatensis ad Silvestrnoi Papam de rebus in ea gestis, et canonibus in ea constitutis." ' Baronius, " Annales Ecclesiastici," iii. 140. ' Arius, a priest of Alexandria, published ids heresy a.d. 319. He main- tained that the Son of God, or the Divine Word, was a creature, drawn from nothing, whom God the Father had produced before all ages, and of whom He made use to create the world : consequently that the Son of God was of a nature and dignity very inferior to the Father, and, properly speaking, could not be called God. Ho further taught that the Son of God was not of the same essence as the Father {ofxoovcnos, consubstantial), but only of lihe essence {dfioiovaios) . These errors were vigorously opposed and condemned by Saints Alexander and Athanasius, successively Patriarchs of Alexandria, and by several councils, especially by the General Council of Nice. At this last council, the doctrine of the Church was set forth in the following words, which are em- bodied in the Nicene Creed : " And in one Lord Jesus Christ the Son of God, born only-bcgotton of the Father, that is, of the substance of the Father ; God of God, light of light, true God of true God, born not made, consubstantial to the Father, by whom all things were made, both those in heaven and those on earlh." Arius, who persisted in his errors, died a.d. 336. Notwith- standing his condemnation by the Cliurch, his heresy, favoured by some of the emperors, and several of the Gotbic ami Lombard kings, flourished for more than thiec hundred years after his death. On its being legislated against by THE RELATIONS OF POPES WITH COUNCILS 85 convened by the Emperor Constantine, at the request of Pope Sylvester, according to some authorities, but, according to t' e Acts of the third Council of Constantinople, by the Emperor and Saint Sylvester conjointly.^ The Pope, being unable to travel, on account of his great age,^ presided by his legates, Osius Bishop of Cordova in Spain, one of the most illustrious prelates of the West, high in the Emperor's favour, and Vitus, or Vito, and Vinceutius, two priests of Rome.^ " The right of presiding was conceded without contradic- tion by all the general councils to the Pope, in the persons of his legates," says Dr. Ddlliuger. " That, at Nice, Osius Bishop of Cordova, and the priests Vitus and Vinceutius, presided as the legates of the Pope, is clear from the order in which Socrates names those who were present, and from the testimony of Eusebius, cited by Gelasius." ^ This leading principle, consecrated by usage from the earliest period, is clearly stated by Cardinal Bellarmiu, in his work on Councils, in the following words : " All Catholics teach, that it is the special office of the Sovereign Pontiff, that, Theodosins, a.d. 384, it greatly diminished in the Roman Empire ; bnt it ex- tensively prevailed in the East, and in France and Spain, being professed by the Goths, Visigoths, Lombards, Yaudals, and Bnrgundians. But, like all heresies, it became " a house divided against itself." The principal divisions were the Arians and Semi-Arians. One of the chief supporters of Arius was Eusebius, Bishop of Nicomedia, after whom the sect were sometimes called Eusebians. Arianism, as a distinct heresy, expired towards the end of the eighth century ; but it may be said to exist in modern times, under the Unitarian, Sucinian, and other forms of error. It is generally regarded as having been the most extensive and most powerful heresy, that ever afflicted the Church, except perhaps the great Protestant movement in the sixteentli century. ' " Concilia," vi. 10i9. " Constantinus et Silvester magnam in Nicaea synodum congregabant " (Concil. Constantinop. Tertium, Act 18). ^ Socrates, "Hist. Eccles.," i. 8; and Sozomen, "Hist. Eccles." i. 17. ' " Ipse ctiam Osius ex Hispanis, nominis et famse celebritate insignis, qui Silvestri Episcopi Maximse Romae locum obtinebat, una cum Romanis presby- teris Vitone et Vincentio, cum aliis multis, in cousessu illo adfuit " (Gelasius of Cyzicna, " Concilii Niciuni Historin," HI), ii. c. 5). ♦ Dollinger, " History of the Church," period ii. chap. v. sec. 3. See al.so Socrates, " Ecclesiastical History," i. 13. 86 THE CHAIR OF PETER. by himself or by his legates, he should preside, and, as the supreme judge, govern all things." ^ Besides the condemnation of Arianism, the Council of Nice finally decided the controversy about the keeping of Easter, in accordance with the previous ruling of the Popes, already re- ferred to ; namely, that thenceforward the celebration of Easter should be observed by the Universal Church on the Sunday immediately following the full moon that happens on, or next after, the day of the vernal equinox ; and, as Alexandria then was pre-eminently advanced in the cultivation of astronomical science, the Fathers ordered, that the bishop of that Church " should have the necessary calculations completed, each year, and should forward the same to the Bishop of Kome, in order that the Universal Church, throughout the world, should be informed, by the authority of the Apostolic See, of the definite day of Easter, all discrepancy being thus excluded." ^ As to the formal confirmation of the Acts of the Council of Nice, by Saint Sylvester, the direct evidence thereof adduced in the ancient histories of councils,^ is by many of the learned regarded as questionable, if not spurious ; but the indirect evidence appears, in itself, quite conclusive. Let us examine the latter. First, the Papal legates, who presided at the council, signed the Acts before all the other Fathers, in- cluding the Bishops of Alexandria and Antioch, whoso sig- natures came next. Secondly, in the pontificate of Saint Julius, which commeucod only three years after the death of Sylvester, it was an csiahlishcd law of the Clairch, vo/uiov hpuTiKov, that the approval of the Pope is indispensable to the validity of tlie ordinances of councils.^ Thirdly, the Council of Nice is cited ' Bcliarmin, " Do Conciliin," i. 19. Sco the licadiug of tliis chapter. ' Saint Cyril, I'titi-iarcli of Alexandria, " I'rologus raschalis," written A.n. '137 : alHo Saint Leo the Great, " Epistula ad Jlartianuni Auyustuin." * Sco Labbe, " Concilia," ii. '112, and the learned notes of Sevcrinu.s BiiiniuH ihcrcou. This historical fact aud it.s proofa will be found, fully bot forth iu tJic next chai)tcr. THE RELATIONS OF POPES WITH COUNCILS. 87 and adhered to, as of authority, through the approval of the Apostolic See, by all the Fathers, all the councils, and all the Popes of its own and succeeding centuries. Finally, we have the following plain statement of the fact in the fourth epistle of Pope Felix III., who governed the Church, a.d. 483-492 : " The Lord having said to Peter, ' Thou art Peter and upon this rock I will build My Church,' the 318 holy fathers as- sembled at Nice, following this voice, referred the confirmation and authority of their Acts to the holy Roman Church." The Second General Council was that of Constantinople, convened by the Emperor Theodosius, a.d. 381, to condemn the heresy of Macedonius, who denied the divinity of the Holy Ghost.^ It was composed of 153 orthodox bishops, prin- cipally Orientals, besides whom there were present thirty-six bishops who held the doctriae of Macedonius. Besides con- demning this heresy, it confirmed the decrees of the Council of Nice, elected Nectarius to the vacant See of Constantinople, and enacted several disciplinary canons. The Pope, Saint Damasus,^ was not present at this council, nor was he repre- sented at it by his legates. Nevertheless, by his subsequent approval of its dogmatic canons^ and its consequent acceptation by the Church, it acquired the character of a general council. Damasus however refused to confirm the remainder of its canons, especially the fourteenth, which enacted, "that the Bishop of Constantinople should take rank next after the Bishop of Eome, because the former was the New Rome." ^ ' Macedonius was elected by the Arian sect to the See of Constantinople, in opposition to the orthodox Patriarch Paul, in the year 341. This led to groat tumults and bloodshed. Macedonius for a long time usurped the See, and violently persecuted the Catholics, several of whom were put to death. He refused to subscribe to the docti-iue that God the Son was consubstantial to the Father, u/xoovsios, and ho denied the divinity of the Holy Ghost. His Ibllowers wi-rc called rneumatnmachi, or " fighters against the Spirit," as well as Macedonians. - Saint Damasus, a Spaniard, governed the Church, a.ij. 3G6-3Si. •* The subject of the live great Patriarchal Churches will be fully treated in Iho chapter on " The Hierarchy," further ou. 88 THE CHAIR OF PETER. The Fathers of Nice had simply used in their symbol the words, " We believe in the Holy Ghost." It now became necessary to define more fully the doctrine of the Church, and the following words were added : " the Lord and Giver of Life, who proceeds from the Father, and together with the Father and the Son is adored and glorified, who spoke by the pro- phets." At the Fourteenth General Council, the second of Lyons, held a.d. 1274, it was found necessary still further to define the faith of the Church ; and the words Filioque were added, declaring that the Holy Ghost proceeds "from the Father and the Son." Thus, from time to time, as contro- versies arose, or heresies were put forth, the doctrine of the Church was affirmed and explicitly defined, to meet the neces- sity of the occasion ; and this was done, generally with the initiative, and invariably with the approval and confirmation, of the Pi'pe, as the Supreme Guardian and Teacher of Faith.^ It may be useful, here, to examine the Creed or Symbol ^ of the Council of Nice, side by side with that of Constantinople. The latter is the complement of the former. It does not contain the Filioque, which, as we have seen, was afterwards inserted, in order still further to express the faith of the Church. It is the Creed now recited after the first Gospel in the Mass, with the Filioque inserted,^ and a few verbal variations ' For further particulars, the reader is referred to chap, viii., on the Greek Schism. ^ Symbol, from the Greek avf together, and PdWw to throw, being a col- lection, or putting togethcx, of the principal articles of faith. The four great Symbols, or Creeds of the Church, are, the Apostles' Creed, said to have been drawn up by the Apostles, immediately before their dispersion, a.d. 41-42; that of the Council of Nice, a.d. 325; that of the Council of Constantinople, a.d. 381, which is the complement of that of Nice ; and that of Saint Athanasius. This last, although it bears the name and contains the doctrine of Saint Athanasius, is bv many supposed not to have been written by him ; and is ascribed to Saint Hilary, Archbishop of Aries, in the fifth century. There is also the Creed of I'upo rius IV., drawn up by tbe Council of Trent, in obedience to that Pontiff, which will be fully spoken of, in the chapter on the Council of Trent. •■ The article on the Holy Ghost in the Creed of Constantinople ran as follows, in the Latin : " Credimus in Spiritum Sanctum, Domiuum et vivili- cantcm, ex I'utrc procedentem, el cum Patrc ct Filio adoraudum et glorilican- THE RELATIONS OF POPES WITH COUNCILS. 8'J made, which do not in the least degree affect the sense,^ as settled by the Council of Treut.^ The Ni'-ene Creed, a.d. 325. We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, the Maker of all things, visible and invisible. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, born only- begotten of the Father, that is, of the subsstance of the Father; God of God, light of light, true God of true God ; born not made, consubstantial to the Father, by whom all things were made, both those in heaven and those on earth. Who for us men aiid for our salvation descended, and became incarnate, w^as made man, suffered, and rose again the third day, ascended into heaven, and will come to judge the living and the dead. And in the Holy Ghost.3 The CoiistantinopoJitan Creed, a.d. 381. We believe in one God, the Father Ahhighty, the Maker of heaven and earth, of all things visible and invisible. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-be- gotten Son of God, born of the Father before all ages ; God of God, light of light, true God of true God ; born not made ; consub- stantial to the Father, by whom all things were made. Who for as men and for our salvation de- scended from heaven and became incarnate by the Holy Ghost of the "Virgin Mary, and was made man. He was crucified also for us under Pontius Pilate, suffered, and was buried. And the third day He rose again according to the Scrip- tures, ascended into heaven; sits at the right hand of the Father, and He will come again with glory, to judge the living and the dead ; of whose kingdom there shall be no end. And in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and giver of life, proceed- cbim," etc. As now settled, it runs : " Et in Spiritnm S.inctnm, Dominum cb viviticauteiu, qui ex Patre Filioque procedit, qui cum Pati-e et Filio siuiul iuUiratur et congloiificatur," etc. ' The verbal variations are : " Credimus," " we believe," is changed into " Credo," " I believe ; " " natum uon factum " into " genitum uon factum," that is "begotten" is substituted for "born;" and " homoousion Patri, hoc est ejn.*dem cum Patre substantias," is altered from the Greek term to its Latin equivalent, " consubstantialem Patri." - This Creed is styled in our prayer books the Nicene Creed. Strictly speak- ing, it would be more accurate to call it the Niccno-Constantinopolitan Creed, as settled by the Council of Trent. ^ Thus far, tiie articles of faith are set forth. Then ft)llows an anathema agaiust those who hold the opinions of Arius, which are specitically stated. 90 THE CHAIR OF TETER. iiig from the Father,^ and with the Father and the Sou to be adored and glorified; who spoke by tlic prophets. And One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. We confess one baptism for the remission of sins. "We exi:)ect the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen. lu the year 416, were held the African councils of Carthage and Milevis, to condemn the heresy of Pehigius^ and his disciple Cojlestius, who denied the necessity of Divine grace, and the existence of original sin. The letters of these councils to the Pope, Saint Innocent I., ^ laying before him their proceedings, and requesting his confirmation thereof, were drawn up by Saint Augustine. In their letter, the Fathers of Carthage say : " We have decreed, that Pelagius and Cojlestius, the authors of these opinions, should be anathe- matized." They do not proceed further, but leave the execu- tion of the sentence, they suggest, to the Supreme See ; continuing as follows : " Therefore, Lord brother, we have deemed, that this affair should be made known to Your Blessedness, in order that the authority of the xVpostolic See may be applied to our humble statutes, to secure the salvation of many, as well as to correct the perversity of some." ■* The letter of the Council of Milevis no less clearly sots ' Here, Filioquc, " and from the Son," has since been adiled, when the true belief of tho Church regarding this tenet was assailed by heretics. * I'elagius, by birth a Briton, and a monk of Bangor in Wales, visited Italy at tlio close of tho fourth century, and dwelt for a long time in Rome, where he g.ained a great reputation for sanctity. There, unfortunately, he met Rnlinus, a disciiile of Theodore of Mopsueste, and imbibed his errors, the principal of which was, that Divine grace is not necessary to man. About tho year iOD, Pelagius travelled into Africa, wlierc his heresy was vigorously opposed and refuted by Saint Augustine. He was coudenmcd by several councils, especially by tho General Council of Ephesus,"A.D. '1'31. He died about the year 1432. ' Saint Innocent I., a native of Albuuo, presided over the Charuli, A.u. 'W2-117. * Apud. Sauct. August., Lpist. UO. THE RELATIONS OF POPES WITH COUNCILS. 91 forth the principle, then long established, that all grave causes should be referred to the Eoman Pontiff. It proceeds thus : " Because the Lord, by the special gift of His grace, hath placed you in the Apostolic Chair, and hath given such a one to our times, that, were we to remain silent before Your Holiness, with respect to those things to be suggested for the Church, it would be ratlier the fault of our negligence than the result of your hearing them disdainfully or indifferently, we beg you will vouchsafe to apply your pastoral care to the grave perils of the weak members of Christ." ^ In his reply. Saint Innocent commends the action taken by these Fathers, in which, he tells them, " you have followed the ancient rule which you know, with me, has been always observed by the whole world ; namely, that all Ecclesiastical affairs throughout the world are, by Divine right, to be referred to the Apostolic See ; that is, to Saint Peter, the author of its name and honour." ^ It is with reference to the confirmation of the decrees of these two councils that Saint Augustine observes : " The decisions of the two councils have already been sent to the Apostolic See, whence, moreover, the rescripts have arrived. The cause is finished. Would that error at last were also at an end."^ The "rescript" or reply of the Pope, thus confirming the proceedings of councils, had then, and long before, all the force and effect of an edict or law of the Church. The Third General Council, that of Ephesus, composed at first of one hundred and ninety-eight bishops, subsei^uently increased to two hundred and fifty, was held a.d. 431. Its object was, to condemn the heresy of Nestorius,* who denied • Apud. Sanct. August., Epist. 92 ; ct Epist. Eom. Toutif. iu loco. » Ibid. ' Saint Augnstino, Sermo 132, n. 10 : " Jam enim de causa duo concilia mist^a sunt ad sedem apostolicam. lude ctiam rescripta vencruut. Causa liiiita est : utinaui aliquaudo (iuiatur ciTor." ■• Nestorius, a uionk and priest of AiiLioch, was made rati-iarcli of Coustau- tiiioplo ill 128. Immediately on his elevation, he commenced persecuting the Avians, Macedonians, and other heretics with great severity : and at the same 92 THE CHAIR OF PETER. the Incarnation, and consequently asserted that Mary was not the Mother of God — OtoroKog. It also renewed the condemna- tion of Pelagius. The Pope, Saint Celestine,^ deputed Saint Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria,^ to preside in his stead, at this council, assigning to him the authority of his See, and his place and power, for the occasion.^ In his letter to Cyril, he prescribes the sentence to be carried into effect by the council against Nestorins, in the following words: " Wherefore, assuming the authority of our See, and, in our stead, using our place and power, you will carry out, not without the required severity, the following sentence ; namely, that unless within the interval of ten days, to be numbered from this our admonition, he shall anathematize his nefarious doctrine, in written terms, and pled*hops Arcadius and Projectus, and Philip our priest, well- proved men, and of one mind with us ; in order that they may take part in the proceedings, carrying out that which has already been decreed by us, to which, we doubt not, assent will be given by your holy assembly, when that which is done may seem decreed for the security of the Universal Church." ^ In these letters of Celestiue, we have a conclusive proof of the supreme authority exercised by the Popes in the pro- ceedings of councils, at this early period, confirmed, as it is, by the declaration of the assembled Fathers, in their judgment of Nestorius, that they condemn him, "constrained to do so by the canons and the letter of our most holy father and fellow- priest Celestiue, Bishop of the Church of Rome." ^ Here it is deserving of note, that as far back as the Council of Ephesus, A.D. 431, " it was customary that a decree of the Apostolic See should precede the dogmatical decisions of general councils, and this decree was the authority and guide of the council." '^ It may perhaps be not uninteresting to the reader to peruse the following additional particulars of the proceedings, taken from the Acts of this council, held more than fourteen ' " Concilia Gcnoralia Ecclesia?," i. 274. * Ibid., 405. ^ Ibid., 3G6. * DoUiugcr, " History of the Church," period ii. chap. v. sec. 3. 94 THE niATT^ of peter. luuKlrod years ago. When the Pope's letter, conclcmning, and passing sentence on, Ncstorius, had been read, it was hailed by the acclamations of " all the most reverend bishops, who cried out, with one voice, ' This is a just judgment.' " They then rendered thanks, by acclaim, to " Celcstine, the guardian of tlie faith, to Celestine in accord with the synod," as well as to Cyril, who presided in his name, adding : " There is one Celestine, there is one Cyril ; the fiiith of the synod is one ; the faith of the whole world is one." ^ " Then Projectus, the most reverend bishop and legate, said, ' Consider, holy Fathers, the mandate of the letter of the holy and venerable Pope, Bishop Celestine, who, not as one teaching the ignorant, but rather as one admonishing the learned, exhorts your holy assembly, that you will, according to the rule of faith and the interests of the Catholic Church, order to be accomplished, in all particulars, those things which lie has already beforehand deigned to define, and of which he now reminds you.' " ^ " On this, Firmus, Bishop of Crosarea in Cappadocia, said, ' The Apostolic and holy See of the most holy Bisliop Celestine, through the letters which he has sent to tlie most religious Bishops, Cyril of Alexandria, Juvenal of Jerusalem, and Rufus of Thessalonica, as well as to the holy Churches of Constantinople and Antioch, has already beforehand pre- scribed, concerning the present affiiir, the sentence and rule, which we also now follow; . . . and we have ordered that mandate to be executed, thus carrying out the canonical and Apostolic judgment against him (Nestorius).' " ^ The result of this council — the overthrow of the Nestorian and Pelagian heresies— is alluded to by Saint Prosper,'* a ' " Concilia Generalia Ecclesiaj," i. 405. * Ibid. ^ Ibid. * Saint Prosper of Aqnitaino was born a.d. 403. Ho was a layman, dia. tini^nishcd alike for his virtues and his great talents and learning. His zeal and success in opposing the heresies of his time were remarkable. About the year 4-10, ho wrote his admired poem " Do Ingratis." Uo was also the author of many controversial works. His Chronicle extends from the creation of tho THE RELATIONS OF POPES WITH COUNCIT;S. 95 cotemporary, as follows: "Tlirongh this man (Colcstine) all the Eastern Churches were freed from this double plague, when he, with the Apostolic sword, aided Cyril the Bishop of Alexandria, the most glorious defender of the Catholic faith, to ban the Nestorian impiety ; and by him also were the Pelagians (associated in kindred errors) a second time overthrown." ^ It was on this occasion that the words, " Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for us," were added to the Angelical Salutation.^ The Fourth General Council, that of Chalcedon, composed of six hundred bishops, was held in the year 451, to condemn the heresy of Eutyches, who denied the existence of two distinct natures — the Divine and human — in Christ.^ It was ■world to the year 455. Saint Leo the Great, on his election to tho Papal throne, A.T). 440, invited Prosper to Rome, appointed him his secretary, and entrusted the most important affairs to his care. Saint Prosper died about the year 463. * Prosper, " Contra Collatorem," prope finem. * Baronins, "Annales Ecclesiasticii," v. 622, ' Eutyches was the abbot of a monastery of three hundred monks, in tho neighbourhood of Constantinople. He left his retreat to oppose Nestorius ; but unfortunately he broached another heresy, as above set forth. His doctrine was, that, after the Incarnation, the human nature of Clmst was alto<^ether absorbed by the Divine. In the year 448, Eutyches was condemned by a Council at Constantinople presided over by Saint Flavian, Archbishop of that see. On this, he demanded a General Council, which was convened at Ephesua by the Emperor Theodosius II., and opened on the 8th of August, 449. This is known as " the false Synod of Ephesus," and also has been called the Latroci- naJe, or " assembly of robbers," on account of its violent proceedings. It was composed of 130 bishops or their deputies, from Egypt and tho East. Ignoring tho Papal legates, Dioscorus, a violent man, who had succeeded Saint Cyril as Patriarch of Alexandria, presided. Eutyches was present, accompanied by two of tho imperial officers and a number of soldiers to support his cause. Neces. sarily, in this packed assembly, cverytliing went in his favour. Saint Flavian, Archbishop of Constantinople, and Eusebius, Bishop of Dorylajum, were deposed. The Pope's legates were not allowed to read his letter to tho synod ; and they protested against the whole proceedings. Saint Flavian, on tlie spot, appealed to the Pope, lodging his written appeal with the Papal Legates. On this, he was grossly insulted and maltreated, being actually beaten by tho soldiers who had accompanied Dioscorus ! The venei-able man, a martyr of tho faith, survived these outrages only a few days, dying at Uypepa in Lydia, to \vhich place ho had been exiled by the Emperor. At tho General 96 THE CTIATR OF TETER. presided over by Saint Leo the Great/ throngli his legates, Pachasinus Bishop of Lilybfeum, Lueentius Bishop of Ascoli, and Boniface and Basil, priests of Rome. In his letter, dated June 25, 451, the Pope commends to the Emperor Marcian the legates whom he is sending, and begs of him to protect and defend the Catholic faith. In a letter addressed to the council, the following day, Leo states that he cannot be personally present, " which neither the necessity of the times nor any usage may permit," ^ adding, '' However, my brethren, you will consider that I preside over the synod in these brethren, Pachasinus and Lueentius, bishops, and Boniface and Basil, priests, who are appointed by the Apostolic See — my presence not being denied you, as I am with you in my vicars, and have long been unrelaxing in the preaching of the Catholic faith ; so that you cannot be ignorant of what we believe, or have any doubt as to what we desire." ^ The Emperor received the legates with all honour, on their arrival at Constantinople, and addressed the following reply to the Pope : — " To Leo, the Blost Reverend Bishop of the most glorious Church of the city of Eome, Marcian. " Let not Your Holiness doubt our zeal and conduct of affiiirs ; since we wish the true religion and the firm Apostolic faith to abide, and to be observed with a pious mind by every nation. Indeed, we have uo doubt Council of Chalccdon, all honour was paid to the memory of Flavian, who was declared a saint and a martyr, Eusebius was restored to his see, aud Dioscorus was deposed and excommunicated. The herosiarch Eutyches died shortly after his condemnation by the Council of Chalcedoii, aged seventy-five. His tbl- lowers were called Monophysites, from the Greek ix6vos single, and . 682-683. lOi THE CHAIR OF PETER. ness from our Lord, on, as it were, a solid roclc, which is Christ. Accordingly, as We receive and firmly proclaim the ■five holy Universal Councils, Nice, Constantinople, Ephesns, Chalcedon, and the Second of Constantinople, which the whole Church of Christ approves and follows; so that also which, with the pious co-operation of Your Serenity, has lately been celebrated in the Royal city. We receive with equal veneration and authority, as following up and interpreting them ; and We decree that it be deservedly numbered with them, as having assembled with one and the same grace of God ; and We consider that the priests of the Church of Christ who faithfully met therein should be equally inscribed among the holy Fathers and Doctors." ^ It is necessary to say a few words here on the case of Poj)e Honorius. In the Acts of the Sixth General Council, which we have just now been discussing, that Pontiff is condemned, as "in all things a follower of Sergius"^ — a circumstance, which, taken in conjunction with his letter to the latter, has led to much controversy in later times ; so that his orthodoxy has been disputed by non-Catholics, to this day. Evidently, Honorius was misled by the crafty Greeks. At the same time, it must be admitted that, by the tenor of his letter to Sergius, and by his forbidding any discussion of the question raised by the Monothelites, he laid himself open to the charge of favouring the new doctrine, which he ought at once to have authoritatively condemned. " From his inconsiderate lotter," as observed by Doctor Dol linger, "matter was drawn in later times both for his condemnation and exculpation."^ Pope Leo II., in his Epistle to the Bishops of Spain, on the Acts of the Sixth General Council, blames Honorius, " because he did not, as became the Apostolic authority, immediately ' I'agi, " Pontificum Romauorum Gcsta," i. 358. ^ It is positively asserted by Baronius, that the Acts of this Council wore, ill this passage, falsified by the Creeks. " Aniialcs," viii. 570 et soq. ^ Dolliuger, " Church History," period ii. chap. iv. sec. 7. THE RELATIONS OF POPES WITH COUNCILS. 105 extinguish the flame of heretical error ; but by his negligence added fuel to the fire." He was condemned, observes Pagi, " not as a heretic, but as a favourer of heretics." ^ " We are fully justified," says Doctor Dollinger, " in supposing that Honorius thought much more correctly than he expressed himself." ^ Indeed his cotemporary, Saint Maximus, asserts that he was " an opponent of the Monothelites : " and his own secretary, the Roman Abbot John, affirms that his letter to Sergius was falsified by the Greeks. " Who then is the more worthy of faith and authority as the interpreter of that letter," asks Saint Maximus, " he who wrote it on behalf of Honorius, and who is still alive, and who has enlightened all the East by his virtues and teaching of the true Christian faith, or they at Constantinople who speak their own feelings ? " ^ Cardinal Baronius has written at great length, in his Annals, in vindication of Honorius; and besides him there are many able and learned apologists of that Pontiff, in the past, as well as in modern times. In our day, the controversy has been revived by the celebration of the Vatican Council ; and the result is, that, during the last twelve years, con- siderable additions have been made to the literature of the question. In reviewing the whole case, it is necessary to bear in mind the following facts, if we would arrive at a just con- clusion : 1. When Honorius wrote to Sergius, no definition had ever been made by the Church, with respect to the doctrine which formed the subject of the correspondence. 2. Honorius in his letter, made no definition himself: nay, more, he expressly said that he did not mean to do so. 3. Ho ' Pagi, " Pontificum Romanorum Gesta," i. 353. " Damaatus est Honorius Paj>a, non quidem ut haireticns, seel ut hsGreticorum fautor." * Dollinger, " History of the Church," period ii. chap. iv. sec. 7. * "Disputatio Sancti Maximi cum Pyrrho," apud Baroniam, "Annales Ecclesiastici," viii. 699. " Maximus : ' Quis fuerit fide et auctoritate dignns epistolED hujus interpres, qui earn ox persona Honorii scripsit, adhuc superstcs, et qui totum Occidentem cum aliis virtutibus, turn dogmatibus fidci Christianuj, illnstravit ; an ii qui Constantinopoli quae ex corde crant loquebantur.' " 106 THE Cll-Vm OF PETER. forbade any fnrtlier discussion of the doctrinal point submitted to his notice, instead of immediately examining it, with the aid of his council, and deciding it with the Apostolic authority ; and it is for this omission, or negligence, or temporizing policy, that he is most generally censured. 4. Anything that Honorius actually wrote, or might have written, to Sergius, could never be regarded as that to which alone Infallibility is believed by Catholics to attach; namely, a solemn ex Cathedra definition, addressed by the Supreme Pontiff to the Universal Church. This will be more clearly understood, when we have before us, further on, in the chapter on Papal Infallibility, the conditions, all of which are essential to constitute an ex Cathedra pronouncement, as laid down by the Vatican Council. "Centuries of controversy have established beyond all doubt," observes Cardinal Manning, " that the accusation against Honorius cannot be raised by his most ardent antagonists to more than a probability. And this probability, at its maximum, is less than that of his defence. I therefore affirm the question to be doubtful ; which is abundantly sufficient against the private judgment of his accusers. The cumulus of evidence for the Infallibility of the Eoman Pontiff outweighs all such doubts." ^ Here may be appositely quoted the following words of Pope Agatho, in his Dogmatic Epistle, addressed to the Emperor, on the occasion of the assembling of the Sixth General Council : " For this is the true rule of faith, which in prosperity and in adversity is firmly held and defended by this spiritual mother of your most serene Empire, the Apostolic Church of Christ, which, through the grace of Almighty God, will be proved never to have erred from the path of Apostolic tradition, and which has never succumbed corrupted by heretictil novelties : but as, from tlic beginning of Christian faith, she has learned from lier founders, the princes of the Ai)()stles of Christ, she ' -Maiiiiing, " Pctt-i I'rivili^f^iuni," iii. 223; Luiulou, 1870. THE RELATIONS OF POPES WITH COUNCILS. 107 remains undefiled to the end, according to the Divine promise of our Lord and Saviour Himself, which He spoke to the Prince of His Disciples in the Sacred Gospels, saying : ' Peter, Peter, behold Satan hath desired to have yon that he may sift you as wheat. But I have prayed for thee that thy faith fail not : and thou, being once converted, confirm thy brethren.' Where- fore let your Serene Clemency consider, that, since the Lord and Saviour of all, of whom faith is, and who promised that the faith of Peter should not fail, admonished him to confirm his brethren, the same, as all know, has ever been confidently done by the Apostolic Pontiffs, my predecessors, of whom my littleness, although unequal and the least, desires to be a humble follower, for the sake of the ministry assumed by me, through the Divine mercy ; for it will be woe to me, if I shall neglect to preach the truth of my Lord, which they sincerely preached." Surely, Saint Agatho would not have written thus, on such an occasion, and only forty-two years after the death of Honorius, if he believed that the latter, one of "the Apos- tolic Pontiffs, his predecessors," had swerved one iota from the faith of Peter. All this tends to strengthen the conclusion, that it was only for having favoured heretics by his negligence in restraining them that Honorius was condemned. It is a matter to be especially noted, that the six general councils treated of in this chapter were mainly composed of Eastern bishops, were held in the East, and were under the influence of the Emperors of the East ; ^ which circum- stances go to prove still more conclusively, if possible, the coinplete supremacy of the Bishop of Rome, as visible Head and Teacher of the Universal Church, in the early ages of Christianity. ' The Western bishops were prevented from attending, in numbers, by the clangers and difhcultics of the long journey, as well as by the circumstance of their i)re.sence being required at home, to mitigate the evils entailed on their flocks by wars, dissensions, and the Barbarian incursions. 108 THE CHAIR OF PETER. To adduce further evidence on this subject would be super- fluous ; for, as all readers of Ecclesiastical history are aware, the supreme authority of the successors of Saint Peter, in their relations with councils, as in all other respects, became more and more developed, in each successive age, with the growth and extension of the Church. CHAPTEK VII. APPELLATE JURISDICTION OF THE HOLY SEE. " Ipsi snnt canones, qui appellationes totiua Ecclesiss ad hnjns pedis examen Toluere deferri ; ab ipsa vei-o nusquam prorsus appellari debere saiixerunt ; ac per hoc illam de tota Ecclesia jadicare, ipsam ad uullius commeare judicium." — Pope Gelasius I., a.d. 493.* The recognition of the supreme authority of the Holy See, from a very early period, is further evidenced by the appeals addressed to it from distant Churches, its intervention in the affairs of those Churches, its deposition of unworthy and schis- matical bishops, its restoration to their sees of bishops unjustly deposed, its excommunication of heretics, and receiving back to communion those who had abjured their errors, as well as its firm and decisive condemnation of the proceedings of irregular synods, convened without its sanction, and lacking the stamp of its approval and confirmation. The interposition of Saint Clement, fourth Bishop of Eome, in the aflfairs of the Church of Corinth, in the year of our Lord 96, has already been referred to.^ Next, we have the excommunication of Cordon, a Syrian heresiarch, by Pope Hyginus, a.d. 140, and the condemnation of the heresies of Valentine and Marcion by his successor. Saint Pius I., ten years later. ' Gelasii Papso I., Epist. iv, " They are the canons which will, that appeals of the whole Church be brought to the examination of this See ; and have decreed that no appeal be ever made from it; and that thus it judges of the whole Church, but itself goes to be judged by no one." Gelasius I., an African, governed the Church, a.d. 492-196. * Vide supra, chap. v. no THE CITAiri OF PETER. Again, in the year 196, we find the Pope, Saint Victor, excommunicating Theodotus the currier of Byzantium, who denied the Divinity of Christ ^— a decision followed by all the East. Another case in point was the exercise of Victor's authority, with respect to the celebration of Easter by the Oriental Churches.^ Next, we read of the penitence of Natalius, who, having become a bishop of the heretical sect of Theodotus, w^as ad- monished in a vision, and, being touched by God's grace, covered himself with sackcloth and ashes, and shedding many tears, cast himself at the feet of Pope Zephyrinus, and prayed to be received back into the communion of the Church — a petition most reluctantly complied with.^ This occurred in the year 203. So active was the zeal of Zephyrinus in suppressing this heresy, that he was styled, by Theodotus and his followers, " the chief defender of Christ's divinity." The excommunication of Privatus, an African heretic, by Saint Fabian, who governed the Church a.d. 236-250; the judgment of the cause of Origen by the same Pontiff; the appeals to Saint Cornelius by Cyprian and the schismatics of Carthage, who sought to depose him, a.d. 251 ; the sentence pronounced against Nuvatian and Novatus by the same Pupe Cornelius; the condemnation of the heresy of Sabellius by Saint Dionysius, a.d. 268 ; and the excommunication of Paul of Samosata, the heretical bishop of Antioch, by the same Pope, and by his successor Saint Felix ; are all so many instances to the same effect. In the early part of the fourth century, the supreme autho- rity of the Bishop of Rome had attained considerable develop- ment. Thus, in the years 335-345, those Easttrn bishops who had adopted, or were inclined to favour, the Arian heresy, assembled in synod, on several occasions, and proceeded to ' Eusebias, " Ecclesiastical History," v. 28. ' Vide supra, chap. v. ' Euaobius, " Ecclesiastical Histoiy," v. 28. APPELLATE JURISDICTION OF THE HOLY SEE. Ill extremes against Saint Athanasius, Patriarch of Alexandria,'^ and other prehxtes who firmly adhered to the Nicene definitions of faith. By their specious statements and misrepresentations of facts, they gained over to their side, for the time being, the EmjDerors Constantino II. and Constantius ; ^ and hence their decrees against the orthodox prelates were upheld and carried into effect by the strong arm of the civil power. The result was the deposition of Athanasius and other illustrious confessors of the faith. The Arian bishops^ formally addressed the Pope, Saint Julius,^ sending three deputies to lay before him their accusation against Athanasius and the other prelates. Julius having communicated the heads of the accusation to Atha- nasius and his colleagues, they immediately dispatched representatives to Eume, to plead their cause ; the result being the complete refutation of the charges made against them by the Arians. Their accusers, baffled by the decision arrived at, demanded a council, which the Pope consented to convene at Home, a.d. 341.^ This council was attended by Athanasius, Asclepas of Gaza, Paul of Constantinople, ' Saint Athanasius, Doctor of the Church, was bom at Alexandria, about the year 296 ; was chosen Patriarch of Alexandria in 328 j and died iu 373. In the year 325, he accompanied Saint Alexander, his predecessor in the patri- archal chair, to the Council of Nice. He took a leading part in the debates of that venerable assembly, being a powerful and unrelaxing opponent of Ai'iutj and his abettors. Athaiiasius's zeal in the cause of Catholic truth drew down upon him many years of persecution and exile. His principal works are in defence of the doctrine of the Trinity, the Incarnation, and the divinity of the Holy Ghost. His Creed has been alluded to, in the last chapter. * Constantine the Great died on the 15th May, 337, and was succeeded by his three sous, among whom he divided the Empire : leaving Gaul, Spain, an7l Britain to his eldest son Constantine II., Asia, Syria and Egypt to his second son Constantius, and lUyricum, Italy and Africa to the youngest, Constans. * These bishops were commonly called Eusebiaus, after their loader Euse- bius, the Arian Bishop of Nicomedia, who is not to be confounded with the celebrated historian, Eusebius, Bishop of Csosarea in Palestine. * Saint Julius I., a Roman, governed the Church, a.d. 337-352. * " Sancti Julii Papaa Epistolae," " Concilium indici postularunt, litterasque et ad Eusebianos et Athanasium Alexandriam quibus convocarontur mitti ; ut coram omnibus justo judioio de causa cognosci posset: turn euim se de Athauasio probaturos esse, quod jam uequii-ent." 112 THE CHAIR OF TETER. Marcellus of Ancyra, and Lucius of Adrianoplo, all Oriental bishops, who, having been expelled from their several Churches, on various charges, had arrived at the imperial city, and " laid their cases before Julius, Bishop of Rome." ^ Their adversaries did not appear, although it was at their request, in the first instance, that the council was convened. The Pope formally cited them to Rome once again ; but they, instead of obeying the citation, held a council of their own at Antioch, electing Gregory, an Arian bishop, to Athanasius's See of Alexandria, and detaining the Papal legates beyond the day named for their appearance. At the same time, they attempted to excuse to Julius their not appearing at Rome, by the alleged difficulty of travelling, owing to the Persian war, and other obstacles. The Pope then jjroceeded, in the Council of Rome, a.d. 341, to try the causes of St. Athanasius and the others ; acquitted them of all the charges preferred by the Eusebians ; and restored them to their sees. In the words of the historian of the period,^ " the Roman Bishop, on learning the accusation against each, and finding that they all held the same opinions as himself, with reference to the doctrine of the Council of Nice, admitted them to communion ; and, as, hy the digniti/ of his see, tlie care of all devolved on him, he restored to eaeh his own Church." ^ " He wrote to the bishops of the East, ' Socrates, "Ecclesiastical History," book ii. chap. 15. * Sozoraen : Hertnias Sozonien was born at Betlielia, near Gaza in Pales- tine, abont the beginning of the fifth century. He followed the profession of the law at Constantinople. He wrote a compendium of Ecclesiastical History in two books, from tlie Ascension of our Saviour to the year 323 ; but this work is not extant. The continuation of it, at greater length, in nine books, down to the year 439, has fortunately been preserved. Sozomen's Ecclesiastical History, with those of Socrates and Eusebius, was published by Robert Stephanus in 1554, by Valesius, Paris, in 16G8, and by Reading, Cambridge, in 1720 ; all in folio. * Sozomen, " Ecclesiastical History," book iii. chap. 8. Edit. Valesius, Paris, 1G68. Madiiv Se 6 'Pw/xaluv irrlaKowos to. iKarrrov i-yKKrjfxaTa, (TTeiS^ irduras bfj-oovvras eupe Trepl rh SJ-y^ua ttjs ^v tiiKaia (Tvf6Sov, uis (i/uo5()|oi>r avrovs tts Koivwuiau irpo(Tr)KaTO' ola 5e ttjs iravraiv Kr^Se/xovias avTcf TrpocTTjKova-qs Ota ttjv h^iav rov dpovou, iKaaTif) ryv iSiav iKKK-qaiav aiTiSwKi. APPELLATE JURISDICTION OF THE HOLY SEE. 113 and rebuked them for having judged these prelates unjustly, and for haying disturbed the peace of the Church, in not acquiescing in the Nicene doctrines. He summoned a few among them to appear before him on a day named, that they might account to him for the sentence they had passed ; and he threatened them that he would not bear with them any longer, should they introduce further innovations. Thus Julius wrote. Athanasius and Paul received back each his own see, and forwarded the letters of Julius to the bishops of the East." 1 On this, the Eusebian bishops again assembled at Antioch, and drew up a reply to the Pope, protesting against his decision. " They confessed, in their letters, that the Church of Eome was held in honour by all, as having been, from the beginning, the school of the Apostles, and the metropolis of religion, although the teachers of Christian doctrine came there from the East." ^ They then complained, in strong language, of the restoration of Athanasius, and the abrogation of their decrees by the Pope. " After these complaints and representa- tions of the injuries done them, they promised peace and communion with Julius, provided that he would approve of ^ the deposition of the bishops whom they had removed, and the appointment of those whom they had elected in their stead. But, in case of his resisting their decrees, they threatened opposition ; for, they affirmed, the bishops who * Sozomen, " Ecclesiastical Uistory," book iii. chap. 8. * Ibid., ^ipeiv jxiv yap ttckti (piKoTiixiav tijv 'Poifjiaicov iKK\7](nav iv rois ypd/jL/xafftP iifxoXoyovv, COS airoarrSXcav (ppovTi(TTi)piov, kolL evae^ficti fj.7]Tp6TroKiv 6| ap;^7)r yeyivi)- fxeurjv' el Kal e/c ttjs "Eco iviZr\ix7tffav avrrj ol rev S6y/j.aTos elarjyriTai. I have now l)cfore me a popular Enj^lish translation of Sozomcn's history, in which the important words in this passage, ws airoffT6Koiv (ppovTiffrrtpiov koX fvae^fias fi-i)Tp6Tro\iv e'l apxn^ yeyevrjij.evTii', are I'endered, " because it had been founded by the Apostles, and had enjoyed the rank of a metropolitan Church from the first preacliing of religion"! How different this from the literal translation above given, which is, verhatim, the same as that of the learned Doctor Barrow (" Tlieological Works," vol. vii. p. 343), viz. "as having been from the beginning the scliool of the Apostles and the metropolis of religion" ! ' Se^^iSfifvcfi fi-iy 'lov\icf rijv KaOalpriffw, k.t,\, I 114 THE CHAIR OF PETER. were their predecessors in the East had not opposed the deposition of Novatian by the Church of Rome.^ In their letter they made no reply about their opposition to the doc- trine of the Council of Nice, " but they declared that they had many imperative reasons to justify their conduct, and that they deemed it useless at present to make any defence, as they were accused of having acted wrong in every particular." ^ Julius, in his reply, rebuked them for having clandestinely introduced innovations on the doctrine of the Council of Nice ; and for having, contrary to the laws of the Church, omitted inviting him to their synod (at Antioch) ; '■'■for there is a sacerdotal laiv, that whatever is done against the sentiment of the Bishop of Rome should he declared invalid." ^ He further reproached them with the injustice of their proceedings agaiust Athanasius ; and, finally, he reprehended the arrogant style of their letter to himself,^ Exactly similar is the narrative of Socrates, another standard Ecclesiastical historian of the period.^ Having given the names of the orthodox prelates, who had been deprived of their sees in the East, and had gone to Eome, to lay their causes before the Pope,^ he thus continues : " Accordingly, they made known their causes to the Bishop of Eome ; but he, in virtue of the pirerogative of the Church of Borne, fortified them with strongly worded letters, and sent them back to the East, restoring to each his own see, and censuring those by whom * Novatian. Vide supra, p. 29. ' Sozomen, " Ecclesiastical History," book iii. chap. 8. See also Socrates, "Ecclesiastical History," book ii. chap. 15. " Socratis et Sozomeni Historia Ecclesiastica," Henricus Valesius, Paris, 1668. * Ibid., chap. 10. 'Elvai yap vifxov UpariKhi', &Kvpa airo^aivnv to. wapa yuii/xi^v ■npa.Tr6ft.fva tov "Poifxaioiv eTtLffKiwou. In this jjassago and one to the same pui-purt in Socrates, the word yvwfj.r]v is variously translated j viz. "sentiment," "opinion," "sentence," "judgment," and "will." * Ibid. ' Socrates, an Ecclesiastical historian of the fifth century, was born at Constantiuojjlc, about the year 380. He pleaded at the bar, and was therefore called ficholasticus, or the Advocate. He wrote an Ecclesiastical History, from the year 30U down to 445. " Vide supra, p. 111. APPELLATE JURISDICTION OF THE HOLY SEE. 115 they bad been rasbly deposed." ^ Tberefore tbese, departing from Rome, and relying on tbe letters of tbe Bisbop Julius, resumed possession of tbeir several Cburcbes, forwarding tbe letters to tbose to wbom tbey were addressed,^ Referring to a synod of tbese bisbops, at Antiocb, convened by Eusebius, tbe same bistorian informs us tbat " Maximus Bisbop of Jerusalem, wbo bad succeeded Macarius, was not present, for be bore in mind tbe fraudulent means by wbicb be had been induced to subscribe tbe deposition of Atbanasius. Neitber was Julius tbe Bisbop of Great Rome ^ tbere, nor did be send any one to take bis place, altbougb the ecclesiastical canon forbids that the Churches should make ordinances against the sentiment of the Bishop of Borne." ^ It is especially deserving of note, tbat in bis letter to tbe Eusebian bisbops, above alluded to — a letter written in tbe year 342, Pope Julius empbatically reminds tbem tbat it was in accordance witb usage and tbe Canon law, tbat tbe causes of bisbops sbould be referred, in tbe first instance, to tbe Roman Pontiff, and tbat judgment sbould be pronounced by bim : " For if, as you say," be writes, " tbey were absolutely in fault, the cause should be judged not in this manner, but * Socrates, " Ecclesiastical History," book ii. chap. 15. ruoopi^ova-iv ovv ra) 4'iti Tertullian, " Apologet.," c. 37 ; written a.d. 198. * Ibid. As is justly observed by Mr. Gibbon ("Decline and Fall of tlie Roman Empire," c. xv.), it is difficult to estimate accurately the proportion borne by the Christians to the whole population of the Empire before the conversion of Constantine. He sets it down as probably one-twentietb ; observing, that, in all likelihood, the number of the proselytes of Christianity was " excessively magnified by fear on the one side and by devotion on the other." It may perhaps be safe to take a medium between the two extremes — the alleged exaggeration of the cotemporary Apologists, and the caution of the modern historian. We have seen, that, even as early as a.d. 65, Taoitus describes the Christians martyred by Nero at Rome as " a huge multitude "— inyens ntwUitudo (" Aniiales," xv. 4i). * Eusebius, " Ecclesiastical History," viii. Ik K 130 THE CHAIR OF PETER. a constituent of the body politic, but, above all, the still more exemplary lives of the clergy, and the still greater services these latter rendered to the community, combined with the beauty and purity of their doctrine, all largely contributed to extend the kingdom of Christ, as well as to prepare the Empire for the fundamental changes to be effected by the first Christian Emperors. The bishops especially were, in many an instance, revered even by the Pagans, in their respective districts. Their exalted virtues, their paternal care of their flocks, their boundless charity to the poor and suffering, their inculcation of peace and good will amongst men, their loyalty to the Emperor, and their devotion, even unto martyrdom, to the God whom they served, were everywhere remarkable, and bore fruit a thousandfold, in the influence of their example and teaching on their numerous spiritual children ; so that the Christians, notwithstanding the monstrous calumnies to their prejudice circulated by Pagan writers, were in the course of time regarded and valued by those in high place, as the best subjects of the State. Unquestionably, the Empire, which was tending to disrup- tion long before the accession of Constantino, was in no small degree indebted for its preservation to the cohesion of its numerous Christian subjects in every country, all professing the same tenets which bound them in one common brotherhood, and all turning to their one spiritual Father, the Bishop of Rome. For this reason, we may well understand how, even while yet a Pagan, Constantino was most favourably disposed towards the Christians, and, by his edicts and general policy, effected much towards remedying the evils inflicted upon them by the cruelty of his predecessors, and raising them to the political level of their Pagan fellow-subjects. Naturally, after his conversion, the Christians found still greater favour with the Emperor.^ ' There is uinch doubt, and considerable controversy, as lo ilio exact date ORIGIN OF THE TEMPORAL POWER OF THE POPES. 131 Immediately on his accession, a.d. 312, Constantino happily- inaugurated this novel system of paternal rule. He declared all religions lawful; and strictly forbade any molestation or persecution of the Christians.^ In an edict which, in con- junction with Licinius, his colleague in the Empire, he pro- mulgated at Milan, the following year, full liberty of religious worship was extended to Christians everywhere, aod immediate restitution was ordered, of the churches, and other public property, of which they had been deprived ; the Imperial treasury being charged with the indemnity of those who had paid for such property.^ By another edict, the clergy were exempted from all political service, in order that, without molestation or distraction, they might devote themselves exclusively to their sacred functions.^ Next, in every city, large sums of money, and supplies of corn, were annually granted by the Emperor to the bishops, for the sujiport of widows, orphans, and the ministers of religion.^ After the fall of Licinius, a.d. 323, the whole Empire being united under Constantino, the Emperor showed still greater ftivour to his Christian subjects. He published an edict, "commanding all the people of the East to honour the Christian religion, to worship the Divine Being, and to recog- nize as God alone, the one true God, whose power endureth for ever." He revoked all the laws and judgments that had been passed against the Christians. He ordered restitution of all their possessions, and enacted, that those who had held of the conversion of Constantine. One thing is certain — that, from the very commencement of his reign, his sentiments and prepossessions were entirely Christian. ' By a law of Constantine of ten years later, a.d. 322, it was enacted that those using violence against Christians, to compel them to change their religion, should, if slaves, be publicly scourged, or should, if of a higher degree, be amerced in heavy fines (" Cod. Theodos.," 1. xvi. tit. ii. n. 5). ^ Euscbius, " Ecclesiastical History," x. 5. ^ Ibid., X. 7. Letter to Anulinus, Proconsul of Africa. In a future chapter, I shall have occasion to refer more fully to this subject. * Ibid., X. 6. Theodoi'ct, " Eccles. Hist.," iv. 4. 132 THE CHAIR OF PETER. high appointments in the array or the civil service, might resume the same, giving them however the option of remaining in a private station, shoukl they prefer it. The result was, that ere long a large proportion of the important posts of the Roman Government were filled by Christians ; the worship of false gods was universally interdicted ; and the arts of divination, the dedication of statues, and the celebration of Grecian festivals were prohibited. The combats of gladiators, and other objectionable customs were, at the same time, abolished. Tlien, at the cost of the Imperial treasury, sumptuous churches were erected in Rome, Jerusalem, Antioch, Nicomedia in Bithynia, and other places ; church ornaments and sacred vessels were provided ; and large sums were placed at the disposal of the bishops, for Ecclesiastical and charitable purposes.^ The faith and fervour of Constantine were further illus- trated in his promotion of the General Council of Nice, and other councils. In his deference to the assembled Fathers, on those occasions, and especially to the Bishop of Rome, he set his subjects, and his successors in the Empire, an example calculated to prove highly beneficial to the Church, of which he had the welfare so warmly at heart. Naturally, the Christian bishops, and especially the patri- archs, were the chief objects of Imperial favour; and this, under the circumstances of the times, would clearly be no less a dictate of sound policy than of zeal for the religion of Christ. Hence, under the first Christian Emperor, we find bishops advanced to positions of high trust, and invested with a large share of authority in their respective districts. About the year 321, a law was enacted, empowering litigants to bring their causes before bishops rather than the secular courts ; and it was declared that the decisions of the bishops should be valid, and as much superior to those of the civil ' Sozomeii, "Ecclesiastical History," i. 8; Eusebius, " Hist. Eccles.," x. 6 ; Eusebius, " Life of Constantine," p((s.sii/;i. Auastasiusj, "Vila Sancti Silvestri," ORIGIN OF THE TEMPORAL POWER OF THE POPES. 133 judges, as if pronounced by the Emperor himself; and it was ordered that all governors and subordinate military officers should see to the execution of those decisions, which, in every case, were to be irreversible.^ That the bishops, even under the Pagan Emperors, enjoyed large revenues, which were used for the purposes of the Churches over which they presided, and that those revenues accrued not only from the money offerings of the faithful, first-fruits and tithes, but from lands and houses, is evident, from the following passage in the Imperial enactment for the restoration of the property of the Church, in all parts of the Empire : " Therefore, all things which justly seem to have belonged to the Churches, whether houses, or lands, or gardens, or anything else whatsoever, we order to be restored ; no right belonging to the ownership being diminished, but all remaining safe and unimpaired." ^ From the day which witnessed tlie retributive judgment executed on Ananias and Sapphira, now for three centuries, large offerings had been continuously made by individual piety to the treasury of the Church. Besides, by the legislation of Constautine, bequests of all kinds of property for Church purposes were declared valid.^ To the Emperor's munificent benefactions, and annual subsidies, to the Churches, in many parts of the Empire, allusion has already been made. But of all the Churches, that of Rome was, from a very early period, the most richly endowed, and enjoyed the largest share of political influence. This might well have been ' Sozonien, " Ecclesiastical History," i. 9. This policy of Coustantine was quite in accordance with that of his Pagan predecessors ; as high honours and privileges had always been conferred on the ministers of religion in the EoMiau and other ancient empires. * Eusebius, " Life of Constantino," ii. 39. ' This law was promulgated at Rome, a.d. 321, according to some authorities ; bnt, according to others, eight years later. The clause in question runs as follows: " Habeafc unusquisque licentiani sanctissimo Catholica3 (Ecclesiie) v.^nerabiliqne concilio, decodens, bonoriim quod optaverit relmquere ; ct uou sint cassa judicia ejus" (" (Jod. Theodos.," lib. xvi. tit. 2, u. 4). 134 THE CHAIR OP PETER. expected ; for not only was Rome the capital of the Empire, but the Bishop of Rome, as we have seen, was "the bisliop of bishops," ^ occupying " the place of Peter," " the Chair of Peter," *• the Apostolic See," " the principal Church, the source of sacerdotal unity." ^ With that Church "the faithful every- where were bound to agree ;^ those only "in communion with that bishop were in communion with the Catholic Church." ^ Thus we meet with frequent allusions, in early Eccle- siastical history, to the large resources and comprehensive charity of the Christians in Rome, devoted to relieving the necessities of their brethren in the faith, in various countries, under the paternal direction of the Popes. As far bach as the year 175, we find Saint Dionysius, Bishop of Corinth, in his epistle to the Romans, addressed to Pope Soter, making allusion, as follows, to a practice, which, was then of long standing, and which, Eusebius observes, continued down to his day — one hundred and fifty years later : ^ — For this practice (he writes) has prevailed among you, from the very beginning, to do good to all the brethren in every way, and to send contributions to many Chnrches in every city ; thus refreshing the needy in their want, and furnishing to the brethren condemned to the mines all that is necessary. By these contributions, which you have been accustomed to make, from the beginning, you maintain, as Komans, the practices of your ancestors the Eomans, which have not only been observed, but extended, by your holy bishop Soter; inasmuch as he has not only furnished great supplies to the saints, but has moreover encouraged the brethren that come from abroad, as a loving father his children, with blessed words.** If the Church of Rome was able to dispense continuously such large contributions to the faithful " in every city," in the ' Tortullian, "Liber do Pudicitui," cap. 1. * For references of these quotations from the early Fathers, see chap. iii. ' IrenBDus, " Adversus Haereses," lib. iii. cap. 3. * St. Cyprian, Epistola 52. Ad. Antonianum de Cornclii Papa) ordinatioue. * Eusebius, " Eccles. Hist.," iv. 23. ' Epistle of Saint Dionysius of Corinth ; apud Euscb., " Hist. Eccles.," iv. 23. ORIGIN OF THE TEMPOK.iL POWER OF THE TOPKS. 185 ages of persecution, we may well imagine how great must have been its resources in the days of peace and prosperity under the first Christian Emperors. Year after year, its income was swelled, not only by large money offerings from princes and people, but by deeds of gift, and bequests of houses and lands, in various parts of Italy and the remote provinces, as well as in the capital. Indeed, as we learn from Saint Jerome, the wealth and influence of the Popes were reputed to be so great in the time of Pope Damasus, a.d. 366-o84, that Praetextatus the Senator, who died on being designated Consul, used to say jestingly to the Holy Father : " Make me Bishop of Eome, and I will at once become a Christian." ^ It was for a long time supposed that Constantino, on removing his capital to Byzantium, had made a donation of " the city of Rome, with Italy and all the provinces of the Empire of the West," to Pope Sylvester, for the benefit of the Holy See. This opinion was based on a deed of donation found among the spurious Decretals in the Vatican ; but this deed has now long been deemed apocryphal. The false Decretals, which are commonly attributed to Isidorus Mercator, were first published in the beginning of the ninth century, soon after the death of Charlemagne. That the authenticity of " the donation " found general acceptance at the time, may be accounted for by the fact of the Popes being then actually the sovereigns of Rome and of a considerable part of Italy, in virtue of the grants of the French monarchs. But even though Constantino did not execute a formal deed of donation to Sylvester, he practically gave over to that Pontiff and his successors in the Chair of Peter, the temporal rule of Rome and the Italian provinces, when he removed his capital to the " new Rome," which he founded on the • Sancti Hieron., Epist. 38, alias 61, ad Pammachiam. " Miserabilis Praetextatus, qui designatus consul est mortnus, homo sacrilegus, idolmnni cultor, solebat ludens bcato Papaa Damaso dicore : ' Facite me RorDaua3 ui'bis episcopum, et ero protinus Christianus.' " 136 THE CHAIR OF PETER. Bosphorns. (Jncoiiscious alike of the fact, both Pope and Emperor were but instruments in the hands of Him, who, in fulfilment of His all-wise designs, created that temporal dynasty, which, for eleven centuries down to our time, was to subserve the interests of His Church, by rendering it independent of earthly sovereigns, and safe from political revolutions, as well as by affording it the means of extending and maintaining its humanizing influence, and holy ministra- tions, in all parts of the globe. As the early history of the Church itself is a history of development, so is the early history of the temporal power of the Popes. From the reign of Constantino, the Popes possessed several estates, continually increasing in number and extent, which they carefully administered for the benefit of the Church. These possessions were called patrimonia — the patrimonies of Saint Peter, or of the Apostolic See. So extensive had they become at the close of the sixth century, that, in the reign of Saint Gregory the Great, a.d. 590-604, the Church owned large tracts in Sicily, Calabria, Apulia, Campania, Ravenna, Sabina, Dalmatia, Illyricum, Sardinia, Corsica, Liguria, the Cottian Alps, and a small estate in Gaul ; not to speak of more remote provinces.^ Some of these were estates, and some were principalities, in which the Papal deputies exercised ample civil and criminal jurisdiction. In the principalities were comprised several cities and bishoprics. Thus, the Cottian Alps, above mentioned, included Genoa, and the whole sea-coast from that city to the Alpine boundary of Gaul.^ Of this • "Letters of Saint Gregory the Great," passim. See also Baronius, "Annales Ecclesiastici," viii. 27, a.d. 591, when "the Roman Church had the richest patrimonies in all parts of the globe, not only in Italy and Sicily, but in Asia, in Gaul, and in Africa." * Bai'onius, " Annales Ecclesiastici," viii. 609, quoting from the letter of Olradus, Bishop of Milan, to Charlemagne : " Prime regni sui anno, donationcm, quam beato Petro Ariportus Rex donaverat, confirmavit, scilicet Alpes Cottias, in quibus Janua est, et quidquid ab ea Alpes usque ad Galliuruui lines cun- tincbaut." ORIGIN OF THE TEMPORAL POWER OF THE POPES. 187 extensive territory we are informed by a cotemporary historian,^ that it was " restored " to Pope John VI., in the year 704, by Aripertus the Lombard King, as " having formerhj belonged to the jurisdiction of the Apostolic See." ^ Aripertus, who is described as " a pious man devoted to almsdeeds, and a lover of justice," in order still further to testify his veneration for the successor of Saint Peter, caused the deed of gift, or restitution, to be written in letters of gold.^ The paternal manner in which these territories were governed by the Popes, through their deputies, may bo gathered from the letters of Saint Gregory the Great, who, on several occasions, expresses his desire, that his tenants and vassals should get full time and indulgence, and be treated with all leniency — the needy in some instances being accom- modated with loans, to be gradually repaid. The corn and other produce of the lands were shipped from adjoining sea- ports to Rome, to be there stored and distributed, for the supply of the public necessities. The poor, widows, and orphans, were supported ; pilgrims received hospitality ; and, in remote cities and provinces, suffering from war and its attendant evils, the clergy and the destitute members of their flocks were relieved with wise discrimination and economy. * Panlus Warnefridns, better known as Paulus Diaconus, or Paul the Deacon, was born at Forum Julii, the modern Cividale, in Northern Italy, A.D. 7iO. His education was completed at the court of Rachis, King of the Lombards. He was ordained deacon at Aquileia, and subsequently was appointed secretary to Desiderius, the last of the Lombard kings. He was a man of great learning, and was highly esteemed by all classes. His principal work is the history of the Lombards, above quoted. He wrote also a "Lifj of Saint Gregory the Great," " Gesta Episcoporum Metensium," and hymns, poems, and homilies for Sundays and holidays. He died at the monastery of Monte Cassino, a.d. 799. ^ Paulus Diaconus, " De Gestis Longobardorum," lib. vi. cap. 43. " Hoc tempore, Aripertas, rex Longobardorum, donationem patrimonii Alpiura Cottiarum, quas quondam ad jus pertinuerant Apostolicce 8edis, sed a Longobardis multo tempore fuerant ablata, restifuit." See also Baronius, " Annalcs Ecclcsiastici," viii. 651. * Paul the Deacon, " De Gestis Longobardorum," lib. vi. c. 4-3 : " et huiic doualiouom aurois exaratam littcris Romam direxit." 138 TPIE CHAIR OF PETER. The same system was uniformly carried out by Gregory's successors ; and it is generally admitted that, at this period, the revenues of the Church were most carefully and ably administered ; and at the same time the Pontiffs instructed their agents or deputies, in every instance, to pursue that even course of just and beneficent rule which befitted the representa- tives of the Father of the Faithful. CHAPTER X, THE GROWTH OF THE TEMPORAL POWER. " II n'y a pas en Eui-ope de souverainete plus justifiable, s'il est permis de s'exprimer ainsi, que celle des Souverains Pontifes. Elle est comma la loi divine, jnstljicata in semetipsii. Mais ce qu'il y a de vei-itablement etonnaut, c'est de voir les Papes devenir souverains sans s'en apercevoir, et meme, a parlor exactement, malgre enx." — De Maistre. The development of the political influence of the Popes appears to have steadily kept pace with the increase of their territorial possessions. This may be traced, as a necessary consequence, to two main causes ; first, the incapacity, or the absence, of the Emperors, who, whether at Ravenna, or in their remote Eastern capital, were unable, or unwilling, to consult the welfare of the Empire of the West ; and, secondly, the sacred character of the Vicars of Christ, their disinterested zeal, and their exalted virtues, which enlisted the sympathies and confi- dence of all classes, and, in more than one familiar instance, challenged the homage of the rude Northern invader, and arrested his impetuous career of bloodshed and rapine. The sufferings of the people, overtaxed and oppressed by the Emperors and their exarchs, the abuses and treachery of the military commanders, the barbarian incursions, and the many other evils arising from the general decline of the Empire, all naturally induced the Italian populations to turn to those who alone could aid and protect them in the hour of danger. Coerced by circumstances over which they had no control, entirely against their tastes and inclinations, the Popes were actually forced into the position of temporal rulers. 140 THE CUAIR OF PETiai. As early as the year 452, when Attila, " the scourge of God," with his savage Huns, stood red-handed before the gates of Eome, and the city was about to be given up to massacre and pillage, the saintly Leo, justly styled "the Great," arrayed in the garb of his sacred office, fearlessly went foith, to meet and turn aside the danger, even at the risk of his own life. His venerable aspect, the fame of his heroic virtues, his heaven-inspired eloquence prevailed; the rugged nature of the barbarian, flushed with victory, was subdued ; the city was saved ; the army was withdrawn ; and peace was con- cluded with the Empire, on the condition of an annual tribute. From this arose the time-honoured legend, that, in his interview with Leo, Attila beheld the Apostles Saints Peter and Paul, holding drawn swords over his head, and menacing him with instant death, if he rejected the prayer of the Pontiff.i Two years later, the mediation of the Holy Father was again exerted on behalf of the afflicted capital, the prey of the fierce Genseric and his Vandal host. The city, completely at the mercy of its conquerors, was about to be given up to fire and sword, when the Pontiff, attended by his clergy in proces- sion, issued forth to deprecate the meditated vengeance of the Vandal King. Moved by his touching appeal, Genseric so far relented, as to order the buildings to be spared from fire, and the unresisting inhabitants from slaughter. Thus, although immense booty and thousands of prisoners were carried off, including the Empress Eudoxia and her two daughters, the city was spared, through the intercession of Leo, from the horrors of ' Pagi, "Pontificum Romanormn Gesta," torn. i. p. 151', Venetiis, 1730; and Platiiia, " Historia do vitis Pontificum Roinanornin," p. G3, Coloniae, 1000. Mr. Gibbon pronounces this to be "one of the noblest legends of Ecclesiastical tradition" (" Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," chap. xxxv.). Accoi-ding to Paul the Deacon and other writers, the apparition was said to have been of Saint Peter alone, " whom, while Leo was speaking, Attila beheld, clad in Bfitordotal robes and of Divine aspect, threatening him with death unless ho obeyed the order.s of Pope Leo" (Barouius, "Annalcs Ecclesiastici," vi. lfS3, A.D. 452). TTTE On^OWTTI OF TTTE TF.MPOT^AT, POWFR. IH conflagration and indiscriminate bloodshed, to which it had been destined.^ Next followed the irniption of the Heruli, those savage hordes, which, issning from the dark forests of Germany and Poland, and the inhospitable shores of the Sea of Azov, swarmed over the Alps, a.d. 476, and desolated the plains of Northern and Central Italy. In rapid succession, Pavia, liavenna, and Rome, succumbed to their assaults ; and Odoacer, their leader, proclaimed himself King of Italy, thus termi- nating the existence of the Western Empire.^ At this time, the Byzantine Emperors still ruled over Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, Greece, Thrace, and a part of lUyria ; but Gaul was in the hands of the Franks ; the Anglo-Saxons held Britain ; the Visigoths, Spain ; the Vandals, North Africa ; and the Heruli, Italy. In the year 493, Odoacer was, in his turn, overthrown by Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths,^ who founded a kingdom extending beyond the Italian Peninsula, including Ehoetia, Norieum, Panuonia, and Dalmatia. This monarch, who fixed his residence at Ravenna, appears to have ruled with firmness and prudence; and, under his government, Italy enjoyed peace for several years. Unfortunately, however, the dissensions between the orthodox Christians and the Arians, whom he favoured, caused much disturbance in the latter part of his reign. Theodoric died at Ravenna, a.d. 526, leaving his Italian kingdom to his grandson Athalaric, then only twelve years old. This prince having died at the early age of sixteen, Italy became the prey of intrigues and disputes. The Eastern Emperor, Justinian, resolved to take advantage of this state of affairs, and dispatched large forces to reconquer the country. ' Pagi, " Pontificnm Romanorum Gosta," torn. i. p. 155 ; Prosper, in Chrouico ; and Baronius, " Aunales Ecclesiastici," vi. 211 ; a.d. 455. ^ August 23, 476. ' Tlie Eastern Goths were called, by ancient writers, Austrogothi or Ostrogoths ; and the Western were called Vesigotbi or Visigoths. 142 THE CHAIR OF PETER. After a protracted series of battles and sieges, victory declared for the Imperial armies, under the able conduct of Belisarius and Narses ; and the Gothic rule terminated A.D. 553. On this. Central Italy once again became a province of the Empire and was administered by the Imperial exarch, who fixed his seat of Government at Ravenna.^ Unhap])ily, the country enjoyed but a brief period of repose ; for, in the year, 568, the Lombards and their allies under the standard of Alboin, crossed the Julian Alps, and overran those fertile plains, to which their long possession has given the name of Lombardy.^ The affrighted inhabitants helplessly fled before them ; the exarch was powerless to resist ; and Alboin, borne onward by the tide of victory, menaced the capitals of Rome and Ravenna. The only serious opposition offered to the invaders, was that of the Gothic defenders of Pavia. After a three years' siege and gallant defence, that city ' The Exarchs (from the Greek e|, outside, and apxos, governor) were vice- roys of provinces under the Byzantine Emperors ; such as the Exarch of Italy, or of Sicily, or of Africa. They were invested with all but supreme power, civil and military, within their respective provinces, terminable only by their recall. The principal of these was the exarch of central Italy, who was generally called " the Exai'ch of Ravenna." This ancient and interesting city was the capital of Italy, during the last days of the Western Empire, and was the seat of government, successively, of the Emperors Honorius and Valentinian, of Odoacer, Theodoric, and his successors, and of the Imperial exarchs. The first Exarch of Ravenna was Longinus, appointed by Justinus II., a.d, 568, and the last was Eutychius, whose term of office closed in 752, when the territory passed to the Popes. These civil officers are not to be confounded with tho Ecclesiastical exarchs, who anciently held high rank in the Church, corresiionding to patriarchs or primates. ^ The Lombards, or Longobards, were so called from their long beards. Paul the Deacon, himself a Lombard, in his history of the nation, written in the eighth century, says, " It is certain, that they, first known as Winili, were afterwards called Langobards, on account of the length of their beards, untouched by iron ; for in their language lang signifies long, and heart beard " (" De Gestis Longobardorum," i. 9). This long beard appears to have been the universal distinctive appendage of the race ; for, on the occasion of the inhabitants of the Duchy of Spoleto, Reati, and other places renouncing the Lombard rule, and placing themselves under the dominion of the Popes, wo read, that they all shaved off their boards in the Roman fashion — more Rninnvonim tonsurati sunt ("Anastasius do vitis Poutificum Romanoram," pp. 153, 15 1. Moguntiae, 1G02). THE GrvOWTIT OF THE TEMPORAL POWER. 143 fell, and became, for many generations, the capital of the new kingdom of Lombardy. For about two centuries from this time, the Northern portion of Italy was ruled by the Lombard monarchs, and the remainder by the exarch of the Byzantine Emperor. The liombard kingdom included those provinces now known as Piedmont, Lombardy, the Tyrol, Continental Venice,^ Parma, ]Modena, G-enoa, Tuscany, and a small portion of Umbria and the Marches. The Imperial dominions comprised the Exarchate of Ravenna, reduced to the provinces of Ravenna, Ferrara, and Bologna ; the Romagna ; the Peutapolis,^ or five seaport cities of Rimini, Pesaro, Fano, Senegaglia, and Ancona, with their surrounding territories ; a considerable portion of the seaboard of Southern Italy, and the island of Sicily. The province of Naples was governed by a Lombard prince, the Duke^ of Beneventum, who was all but an indejDendent sovereign ; and Rome was ruled, nominally only, by a Patrician,* appointed by ' The Republic of Venice, so called from the Veneti, a people who inhabited all the adjoining coasts, was formed by numbers of these people and others from the interior of Italy, who had taken refuge from the Northern invaders in the islands of the Adi-iatic, early in the fifth century. They elected their first duke, or doge, a.d. 697. In 1797, Venice surrendered to France; and shortly afterwards was transferred to Austria, by the treaty of Campo Formio. In 18G6, thi'ough the intervention of Napoleon III., it was relinquished by Austria, and annexed to the kingdom of Italy. * Pentapolis ; from the Greek, ireure, five, and ttoX^is, cities. ' Duke. This is the highest title of nobility next to Prince. The word is derived from the Latin dux, a leader, or duco, to lead, and was first applied to the generals-in-chief of the Romans, called duces exercituurn, or leaders of ai'mies. The title continued in times of peace; the duces, or dukes, being ajjpointed governors of provinces. These dukes, at first, exercised an all but supreme jurisdiction in their several districts, subordinate however to the Emperor or his exarch. Several of them were confirmed by Charlemagne, who made the title hereditary, subject of course to his suzerainty. In France, tbere were a number of duchies and counties, these latter being governed by counts, coivfes, or in Latin comites, literally companions of the sovereign. The counts wore of two kinds — governors of provinces, and governors of cities. The counts who governed provinces ranked with dukes. Not so, the counts who were merely governors of cities. In the latter originated our counties of cities. ■• Patrician. The word is derived from the Paires Conscrij^ti, the " conscript fathers," or senators of Rome, as opposed to plehs, the common people ; whence " plebeian." The office of Patrician was first created by Constautine the 144 THE CHAIR OF PETER. the Emperor. But, iu reality, through the force of circum- stciuces, the Popes became the supreme lords of the city. The close of the sixth century is described by historians as the darkest and most disastrous period in the annals of Italy. War, famine, and pestilence, had, for a long series of years, wrought their baneful effects on the country. The sufferings of the people may well be imagined — their industry paralyzed, their lives in constant danger, their homes and pos- sessions subject at any moment to spoliation and destruction. One man alone appears to have be^n equal to the crisis. This was the holy Pope, Saint Gregory the Great.^ Com- bining rare practical ability with devoted zeal and heroic charity, he supplied in his own person for the neglect, or the powerlessness, of the nominal rulers of the country. On him devolved the providing corn for the capital and other cities, as well as the watchful protection of the inliabitants against the attacks of the enemy, on the one hand, and the treachery and oppressions of the Imperial governors and generals, on the other.^ Here we find him dispatching Leontius, as Great. There were two kinds of patricians, one honorary, the other official. Tlie latter were officers appointed to defend or govern a province, in the name of the Emperor. Thus, the governors of Africa, Sicily, and Italy were sometimes styled the patricians of those pi'Oviuces. This title was alwa^'s attached to the exarchate of Ravenna, i.e. the province of Italy. Indeed, by several writers, the titles " patrician " and " exarch " are regarded as identical, when applied to governors of provinces of the Roman Empire. The dignity of Patrician conferred on Pepin and Cliarlemague by the Popes, as we shall presently see, was one of great power and of the highest honour. It is thus described by Peter de Marca : "The name of patrician embraced two things : both the jurisdiction wliich the kings, by the consent of the pontiff and the Roman people, possessed in the city, and the protection or defence which thoy had promised the Roman Church." Patricii nomen duo qucedam com- pledebatur ; et jurisdidionem, qua Reges in Urhe ex consensu Pontificis et Populi Roniani potiehantur, et protectionem seu dej'ensioneni quam Romance Ecclesice polliciti erant. ' " The power as well as the virtue of the Apostles resided with living energy in the breasts of their successors," says Mr. Gibbon; "and the Chair of Saint Peter was filled, under the i-eign of Mauiice, by the first and the greatest of the name of Gregory" ("Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire " chap. xlv.). For particulars of his life, see Index, " Gregory the Great." ' " Sancti Gregorii E[)istolaB," lib. v. epist. 4i5. THE GROWTH OF THE TEMPORAL POWER. 145 governor, to Nepi in Etruria, enjoining on the inhabitants that they should obey him as they would himself.^ Here, again, he appoints Constantius to the important post ol governor of Naples.^ Next, he writes to the bishops about the defence and provisioning of their respective cities ; ^ issues orders to the military commanders ; ^ appeals again and again for aid and protection to the Emperor and his exarch ; nego- tiates treaties of peace with the enemy ; in a word, he becomes the actual ruler and protector of Italy ; so that he is fully justified in declaring, " Whoever fills my place, as pastor, is gravely occupied by external cares, so that it frequently becomes uncertain whether he discharges the functions ol a pastor, or of a temporal prince." ^ A considerable portion of the wealth of the Church was judiciously employed by Gregory in propitiating the enemy, and protecting his flock from those evils from which the waning power of their temporal sovereign was unable to shield them.^ In the letters of this great Pontiff, we may best understand the difficult circumstances in which he was placed, and appreciate the services which he rendered to religion and the State. Yet those services appear to have been but badly requited by the Emperor, to whose falling fortunes he practised, and preached, unswerving fidelity. Against his will he had ascended the pontifical throne; altogether against his incli- nation he became immersed in public affairs ; he would, if possible, have shrunk from the greatness thrust upon him ; but an overruling Providence ordained, that, in those difficult times, he should preside over the Church ; and alleviate the sufferings, and prolong the existence, of the Western Empire. ' " Sancti Gregorii Epistolse." lib. ii. epiat. 11 (alias 8). * Ibid., lib. ii. epist. 31 (alias 24). ' Ibid., lib. viii. epist. 18 (alias 20); lib. ix. epist. 4 et 6 (alias 2 et 5). * Ibid., lib. ii. epist. 3 et 29. ' Ibid., lib. i. epist. 25 (alias 24). " Hoc in loco quisquia pastor dicitur, curis exterioi'ibus graviter occnpatur, ita ut saspe incertum sit, utrnin pastoris ofBcium, an terreni proceria agat." ^ Ibid., lib. V. epist. 21 ; alias lib. iv. epist. 34. L 146 THE CHAIR OF PETER. Nor did he consider the enemy excluded from his pastoral care. In due time, he had the gratification of seeing their King Agilulph and numbers of his subjects abjure the Arian heresy. Lombard and Roman alike would he save from the evils of war, and unite in the bonds of Christian charity. CHAPTER XT. ' -5 COLLAPSE OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. " Sedes Roma Petri, qufe pastoralis honoris Facta caput mando, quicquid non possidet armia Relligione tenet." * St. Prosper or Aquttain (a.d. ■131). The onerous duties of a temporal ruler which thus devolved oil Saint Gregory the Great, in addition to the cares of his spiritual office, no less devolved on his successors, who all displayed the same prudence and charity, and, up to the final scene, the same loyalty to the Emperors, as their saintly predecessor. In several instances, the Emperors appear to have worthily appreciated the well-regulated zeal of the Popes, and to have viewed without reluctance or apprehension the steady growth of their political influence. Not unfrequently, however, they adopted and favoured the heresies which were but too rife among the Eastern Christians, and opposed and thwarted the Pontiffs, on whose good offices the existence of their rule in the West now mainly depended. Notwithstanding this, the Popes, all through, even where the Emperors perse- cuted the Church, inculcated loyalty on the people, exhorting them to " render unto Cassar the things that are Caesar's " — a course which they pursued, as may be seen in all cotemporary histories, until the Empire completely collapsed. But, owing to the fatuity of those for whose benefit it was intended, this well-meant interposition was of no avail. To- ' " Rome, the See of Peter, which to the whole world has become the head of the pastoral dignity, holds by religion that which she possesses not by arms." 148 THE CHAIR OF PETER. wards the close of the seventh century, the alternate incapacity and tyranny of the Byzantine government had completely alienated the masses of the Italian population. The state of affairs however became still worse, when an attempt was made to seize the Sovereign Pontiff, and carry him off a prisoner to Constantinople. This outrage was planned by the Emperor Justinian II., with a view to extorting the signature of Pope Sergius ^ to the Acts of the Council of Quinisext, of which the Holy See had positively refused its approval.^ On this occasion, the people and army of Italy interposed, to protect the sacred person of the Vicar of Christ; and, but for the interference of the Pontiff, would have put to death the Imperial officer charged with his abduction.^ The year 726 initiated the final crisis. The Emperor Leo the Isaurian then filled the Byzantine throne. This prince appears to have been actuated by a frenzied hostility against the Church. His zeal assumed the form of an attack on all holy images, which he seized and destroyed, in Constantinople and other cities of the East ; ordering his subjects everywhere to do the same, and, in several instances, punishing their dis- obedience with death or mutilation. He wrote, moreover, commanding Pope Gregory 11.** to follow his example, promising him his favour, as the reward of compliance, but menacing him with deposition, should he persist in disobeying. Gregory replied, remonstrating with the Emperor on his sacrilegious * Sergins I., a Sicilian, governed the Church, a,d. 687-701. * This coancil was convoked by the Emperor Jnstiuian II., in 692, in order to supplement the Acts of the Fifth and Sixth General Councils — the former held to consider the " Three Chapters," a.d. 553, and the latter convened to condemn the Monothelites, A.D. 680. Hence it is called " Quinisext." It was also named " In Trullo," from its meeting in the large hall or chapel, called Trnllus, in the palace of Constantinople. Pope Sergius had no part in the convening of this council, which was composed of 211 Greek bishops; nor was he represented in it by his legates ; and he persistently refused to comply with the Emperor's pressing demands, that he should confirm its Acts. ' Anastasius, " Life of Sergius," and Platina, " De Vitis Pontificum Romanorum," p. 103. * Saint Gregory II., a Roman, governed the Chmxh, A.u. 715-731. COLLAPSE OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 149 conduct, and pointing out to him the danger of exasperating his Italian subjects, who were so devotedly attached to the Church. " You would terrify us," he wrote, " and you say, * I will send to Eome and break the image of Saint Peter, and I will have Pope Gregory carried off in chains, as Constans carried off Pope Martin.' ^ But you ought to know and feel assured that the Popes for the time being presiding at Eome are the mediators and arbiters of peace between the East and the West. . . . Our predecessor Martin sat at Eome, exhorting to peace. The wicked Constans, entertaining false opinions concerning the doctrine of the Blessed Trinity, and adhering to the proscribed heretical prelates, Sergius, Paul, and Pyrrhus, caused the Holy Father to be arrested, and with tyrannical violence carried oflf to Constantinople, and there, having inflicted upon him gross insults and injuries, consigned him to exile. But Constans was slain, and perished in his sins ; while the blessed Martin is now venerated by the city of Cherson, to which he was banished, and by all the Northern nations, who flock to his tomb, and obtain there the cure of their maladies. Would to God, it were our lot to tread in the path of Martin ; although for the welfare of the people we desire to live and survive, inasmuch as the eyes of the whole West are turned towards our humble person, and, although we are not such as he was, the nations confide in us, and they revere the blessed Peter, whose image you threaten to overturn and destroy." ^ In his second epistle to Leo, the Pope reminds him of the difference between Ecclesiastical and temporal affairs — the distinct duties and functions of Pontiffs and Emperors. " Give ' Saint Martin, a native of Tuscany, governed the Church, a.d. 649-654. He condemned the Monothelite heresy, vrhich was supported by the Emperor Constans II., who published an edict in its favour. In order to procure the Pope's signature to this edict, Constans caused him to be seized and conducted a prisoner to Constantinople. The refusal of the Holy Father to comply with the Emperor's wishes entailed on him grievous indignities and hardships. After about two years' imprisonment and exile, he died in the Taui'ic Cliersonesus, on September 16, 654-. * BarouiuB, " Annales Ecclesiastici," vol. ix. pp. 71, 72, a.d. 726. 150 THE CHAIR OF PETER. ear to our humility, Emperor," he writes : " cease ; and follow the holy Church, as you have found it, and have received it. These are not the dogmas of Emperors, but of Pontiffs ; as we speak the wisdom of God." ^ So far was the Emperor from profiting by these wise counsels, that he caused six closely consecutive attempts to be made against the life of the Pontiff; but those attempts were baffled by the vigilant care of the Romans and the Lombards, who, although otherwise divided, united for the common pur- pose of protecting the Pope against the machinations of his enemies.^ Gregory, on his part, in the words of his biographer,^ " redoubled his alms, and prayers, and fasts, relying more on the protection of God than of man ; and, to testify his gratitude to the people for their devotion to him, he tenderly entreated them to serve God in good works, and to be steadfast in faith ; but at the same time he admonished them to persevere in attachment and loyalty to the Roman Empire. Thus he softened the hearts of all, and alleviated their continuous afflictions." ^ Indifferent to his own safety, in the sacred cause of duty, ' Barouius, " Annales Ecclesiastici," ix. 75, a.d. 726. Vide 1 Corinthians, ii. 7. ^ The full particulars of these attempts to assassinate the Pontiff, will be found in the " Life of Gregory II.," by Anastasius the Librarian. They are also given, less in detail, by Paul the Deacon, in his "History of the Lombards." See, farther, Bai'onius, " Annales," ix. 77, et seq. * Anastasius Bibliothccarius, or the Librarian. He was a Roman abbot, who flourished in the ninth century, and was librarian of the Vatican, and one of the most learned men of the age. Ho wrote the Lives of the Popes, from St. Peter to Nicholas I., who reigned A.n. 858-867. Anastasius was present at tlie Eighth General Council, held at Constantinople in 869, and presided over by the legates of Pope Adrian II. He translated the Acts of this council from Greek into Latin. He was a painstaking and reliable writer. Cardinal Baronius (" Annales," ix. 212) pronounces his style to be rude, but most truth- ful, and observes, " it is better to drink pure water out of an earthenware cup than impure water quaffed from a golden goblet." " Sed audiamus patientcr Anastasiuin, hsec omnia rudi stylo sed vcraci prosequentem. Satius est enim jjuram in scutella testea aquam bibere, quam impuram vase aureo propLnatam." The edition of Anastasius here quoteil is that of Mentz, 1602. * Anastasius, " Life of Gregory II.," and Baronius, " Auaales Ecclesiastici," ix. 78, A.u. 726. COLLAPSE OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 151 Gregory did not confine himself to remonstrating with the Emperor ; but emphatically condemned the Iconoclast ^ heresy, and addressed letters to the faithful everywhere, cautioning them against so great an impiety. Thereupon, the inhabitants of the Pentapolis, and the Venetian army, refused to obey the Imperial mandate ; and declared that they never would con- sent to the death of the Pontiff, but would forcibly resist any attempt upon his life. Then the people in all parts of Italy, despising the authority of the Exarch, elected dukes or leaders for themselves ; as thus only could they consult their own and the Pope's safety. Soon afterwards, on the Emperor's wicked designs becoming generally known, all Italy resolved to elect another Emperor, and establish him on the Byzantine throne ; but Gregory, " still hoping for the conversion of the prince, restrained such counsels." ^ Some writers date the commencement of the temporal sovereignty of the Popes from this period, a.d. 726, or eight and twenty years before the donation of Pepin. For a con- siderable time previously, the Pontiffs exercised supreme power over a large portion of Italy ; but, all through, they appear to have considered themselves as under the suzerainty of the Emperors, whose waning authority they endeavoured to preserve. Even this, as we have just seen, was, for some time, the policy of Gregory II. But, now that the yoke of the successor of Constantino the Great had been thrown off in ' Iconoclast, image-breaking ; from the Greek fUo/v, image, and KAdar-qs, breaker. ' Anastasius, " Life of Gregory II." To the same effect is the narrativw of Paul the Deacon, " De Gestia Longobardormn," lib. vi. cap. 49 : " Omnia quoque RavennjB exercitus vel Venetiarnm talibus jussis nnanimiter restiterant ; et nisi eoa prohibuisset pontifex, imperatorem super se constituere fuissent agErrcsai." According to Anastasius, Gregory, at this time, "armed himself against the Emperor as against an enemy;" jam contra im-peraforem quasi contra hoxtem se armavit. The precaution was bnt natural, as Leo had made several attempts upon his life. Under the circnmstancea, the Pope's inculcation on the people of loyalty to the Empire is i-emarkablo ; and shows how Gregory postponed all personal c-onsiderntions to his sense of public duty. However, it Koou afterwards became evident to him, that Leo's cause was utterly hopeless. 152 THE CHAIR OF PETER. what had remained to him of his Italian dominions, namely, the Exarchate, the Pentapolis, and the Duchy of Rome, the ppople everywhere in those provinces elected local leaders ; and all — chiefs and followers — rallied round the Pope, to whom they looked up, as their only reliable ruler and protector. The action of Gregory himself, in the crisis, still further justifies this view. Evidently regarding the re-establishment of the Imperial cause as hopeless, and seeing the continued hostility of the Emperor, and his unceasing endeavours, by bribes and gifts, to induce the Lombards to invade Rome, the Holy Father sent an embassy to Charles Martel, Mayor of the Palace of the Prankish King, soliciting his aid. The envoys of the Pope bore the keys of the Tomb of the Apostle, and several holy relics, as presents to that prince, and offered him the dignity of Consul, or Patrician, of Rome. Charles received the embassy with all honour, accepted the proffered dignity, and concluded a treaty with the Pope, undertaking to march with an army into Italy, when necessary, to defend the Holy See against all enemies.^ Meanwhile, the Imperial envoy Eutychius was actively engaged in negotiations with Luitprand the Lombard King; and at length succeeded in inducing that monarch to unite with the Exarch against the Pontiff. Ere long, Luitprand, with a large force, menaced Rome. Gregory, attended by his clergy in procession, went forth to meet him. To confront the invading army, he had but his sacred character, the authority of his office, his holy cause. The result of the interview was, tliat the powerful monarch, the master of many legions, cast himself at the feet of the venerable priest, paying homage to ' Baronius, " Aniialea Ecclcsiastici," ix. 80, a.d. 726. The Greek writei-a attribute this revolution mainly to Gregory. Cedreno Bays, " Gregory, the Apostolic man, and the coadjutor of Peter, the chief of the Apostles, fell ofE from Leo on account of his impiety, and, having concluded a treaty with the French, refused tribute to the Emperor." To the same effect are the testimonies of Theophanes and Zonaras. The Latins do not go so fai*. But clearly the Pope, who was univeitially trusted and revered by the Italians, must have had a large Bhare in dcterniiniug the ultimate resolution. COLLAPSE OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 153 him as the Vicar of Christ, and promising him " that he would injure no man." Luitprand then entered the city along with the Pontiff, divested himself of his armour, and deposited his mantle, his bracelets, his belt and gilt sword, before the tomb of Saint Peter, together with a golden crown and silver cross. Having prayed before the sacred shrine, he begged of the Holy Father to admit the Exarch also to peace, which was readily accorded; whereupon the king retired with his army, and wholly abandoned the wicked designs which he had concerted with the Exarch.^ Pope Gregory II., having died in 731, his successor, the third Gregory, 2 immediately on his election, wrote a strong letter of remonstrance to the Emperors, Leo and his son Con- stantino Copronymus, on their promotion of the Iconoclast heresy, and their grievous persecution of the Church. Leo's reply to this remonstrance was, to dispatch a powerful military and naval armament against Italy, charging the officer in command to bring back the Pope in chains to Constantinople. However, he could not command the winds and the waves ; his fleet was scattered by a violent storm in the Adriatic ; several ships were sunk, and the expedition proved abortive. About the same time, Gregory convened a council at Rome, in which it was decreed that all those w^ho condemned the veneration of holy images should be cut off from the communion of the Church. ^ The Emperor, doubly incensed by the loss of his fleet and the action of the Pope and council, seized on the patrimonies of Saint Peter in Sicily and Calabria ; decreed new and most onerous taxes, to be levied in Italy ; and threatened the Holy Father anew with his vengeance. ^ Meanwhile, Eome was again besieged by the Lombards, ' Anastasius, " Life of Gregory II.," and Baronius " Annales Ecclesiastici," ix. 95, A.D. 729. ^ Pope Gregory III., a Syrian, governed the Church, A.D. 731-741. ' Barouius, " Annales Ecclesiastici," ix. 101 et seq. ♦ Ibid. 154 THE CHAIR OF PETER. under Luitprand, who had forgotten all his good resolutions and promises to the late Pontiff. The Greek Emperors, who ought to have been the defenders of the beleaguered city, were now its determined, though impotent, foes. To the inhabi- tants, therefore, and indeed to the whole Central and Southern Italian populations, and their trusted chief and protector, the Pope, no course remained but to seek foreign aid. Under these circumstances, G-regory, following the example of his imme- diate predecessor, opened negotiations with Charles Martel, whose aid he solicited in several urgent letters. These overtures not having had the desired effect, Gregory dispatched an embassy, with presents of sacred relics, to Charles, a.d. 741. The Papal envoys, Anastasius a bishop, and Sergius a priest, were graciously received by the French prince, to whom, on behalf of the Pope and the people and nobles of Rome, they offered the dignity of Consul, or Patrician, praying him, at the same time, to extend to them his powerful protection. Charles readily promised to march with an army into Italy, to defend the Church and the city, with its territory, against all enemies : but, at the end of October that year, in the midst of his preparations, his career was cut short by death. Gregory died a few days later; and the life of the Greek Emperor, Leo the Isaurian, terminated about the same time. ^ The new Pope, Zachary, ^ successfully exerted himself to restore peace to Italy. Immediately, on his accession, attended by his clergy, he visited Luitprand, in his camp at Terni in Perugia, and prevailed on that prince to suspend his warlike operations, and, further, to make restitution of the four cities of the Duchy of Rome which he had seized, and of several * " Aunals of Metz," anno 741 ; and Baronius, " Annales," ix. 133 et seq. It ia stated by some, that Gregory III. actually crossed the Alps this year, and visited Charles Martel, who received the Pope with due honour, but was unable to comply with his request. The evidence of e.visting records however supports the above accouut; namely, that Gregory rather sent an embassy, and was promised aid by Charles. * Saint Zacharias, or Zachary, a Greek, governed the Church, a.d. T'll-To^. lie was revered and lovetl efpially by Greeks, Lombards, and Komaus. COLLAPSE OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 155 cities and provinces which he had taken from the Exarchate, thirty years before. ^ That the feeble grasp of the G-reek Emperors on their Italian possessions had altogether relaxed at this period, a.d. 742, is evident from the fact of the Lombards having held a considerable portion of the territory of the Exarchate fully thirty years, and of the question of its restitution now being, not to the Emperor Constantino Copronymus, but " to Saint Peter, Prince of the Apostles," " to the holy man," Zachary, and " to the Bepublic." ^ In the works of the historians and other writers of this period, we meet with frequent mention of the Roman Republic — Bespuhlica Bomana. On the complete extinction of the Byzan- tine rule in Italy, this form of government was created by the circumstances of the times, and was constituted of the nobles or senate, and the people of Rome, with the Pope as their universally acknowledged and firmly established head and ruler.^ The year 750 ushered in new troubles to Italy. Rachis, now King of the Lombards, totally regardless of a twenty years' treaty of peace, which he had concluded with Zachary, invaded the province of the Pentapolis with fire and sword, and laid siege to the walled city of Perugia. Zachary, on hearing of these proceedings, which were strangely at variance with the previous exemplary and pacific disposition of that monarch, set forth immediately for Perugia, attended by several ' Anastasius, " Life of Zachary," and Baronius, " Aunales," ix. 153 et seq., A.D. 742. The four cities here mentioned were Orta, Bomarzo, Blera, and Amelia. See Orsi, " Del Dominio Teraporale de' Papi," p. 3i. Rome, 1789. * Anastasius, " Life of Zachary." " Prgedictas quatuor civitates eidem sancto cam habitatoribus redouavit viro. . . . Numanatense et vallem, quae vocatur magna, sitam in territorio Sutrino, per donationis titulum ipsi Beato Pctro Apostolorum Principi reconcessit. . . . Duas partes territorii Csesenae castri ad partem reipublicae restituit." ^ Referring to this period of the history of the Popes, Mr. Gibbon says, " Tlieir temporal dominion is now contirmcd by the reverence of a thousand years ; and their noblest title is the free choice of a people, whom they had redeemed from slavery " (" Decline and Tall of the Roman Empii-o," chap.xlix.). 156 THE CHAIR OF PETER. of the dignitaries of his clergy, and induced the King to raise the siege. After some days' sojourn of the Holy Father, the sentiments of Eachis were completely changed. Not only did he decide to close his warlike operations ; but he determined to abdicate his royal dignity, and to withdraw from the world, which, even in his exalted station and with his all but bound- less power, could not satisfy the yearning of his heart. Accordingly, he divested himself of the distinctive appendages of state, and, accompanied by his wife and daughter, made a visit to Saint Peter's Church in Kome. He then begged of the Pope to admit him among the clergy, and took the habit, as a Benedictine monk, in the abbey of Monte Cassino.-^ At the same time, his wife, Thesia, and his daughter, Ratruda, with the Pontiff's permission, entered the nunnery of Plombariola,^ in the neighbourhood of the abbey, and there received the veil, and spent the remainder of their lives in prayer and contem- plation.^ Here we are reminded of a similar act, springing from a like motive, some eight centuries later — the voluntary abdication, and retirement into a monastery, of the Emperor Charles V. Zachary might well have been styled the father of his adopted country. Not content with averting the evils of war, and otherwise alleviating the sufferings of the people, he seems to have endeavoured, as far as possible, to keep alive the lingering embers of the Byzantine rule in Ravenna and the Pentapolis, probably entertaining a faint hope, that he and his successors might thus be relieved of the heavy burden devolving on them as temporal rulers. That Constantine Copronymus acquiesced in the actual ' Saint Benedict founded his first monastery at Monte Cassino, in the province of Caserta, fifty miles north-we^t of Naples, a.d. 529. * Saint Scliolastica, sister of Saint Benedict, founded the nunnery of riombariola, about five miles south of Monte Cassino, and governed it under her brother's rule and direction. This house was richly endowed by Queen Thesia. ' Auastasius, " Life of Zachary." Leo Ostiensis, " Chron. Cassin." cap. 8. Baronius, " Anuales Eccles.," ix, 197, a,d. 750. COLLAPSE OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE 157 position of affairs, appears not unlikely, if we may judge from his friendly relations with Pope Zachary, whose good services, evidently, he fully realized. Thus, we read of his making a donation, in perpetuity, " to the most holy and most blessed Pope of the holy Roman Church," of two estates, of consider- able extent, in the small portion of Italy still subject to the Empire.^ ' Anastasins, " Life of Zachary." Those estates were called Nymphas and Normias. Their lucality is not mentioned by the historian. CHAPTEK XII. DONATIONS OF PEPIN AND CHARLEMAGNE. " Et ipsas claves, tarn Ravennatiura Urbis, quamque diversaram civitatum ipsius Ravennatium exarchatns, una cum suprascripta donatione de eis a suo rege (Pipino) einissa, iu confessioue Beati Petri ponens, eidem Apostolo et ejus Vicario Sanctissimo Pap« (Stephano) atque omnibus ejus Successoribus Pontificibus perenniter possidendas atque disponendas tradidit." — Anastasius BiBLIOTHECAEIUS. Pope Zacliary having died on the 15th of March, 752, his successor Stephen II. was elected on the 27th of that month, but was carried off by a sudden illness, four days after his election. He was succeeded by Stephen III.,^ who was no sooner seated in Saint Peter's chair than he found himself face to face with a cruel and relentless foe. This was Astolphus, the brother and successor of Eachis on the Lombard throne. To this prince, waging war against Rome and its dependent cities and territories, Stephen, in the third month of his pontifi- cate, sent an embassy, offering costly presents, and praying for peace. Astolphus was induced to conclude a forty years' treaty of peace with the Pontiff ; but treacherously resumed hostilities within four months. In doing so, he openly avowed that his object was, to seize the whole province, retaining it under his jurisdiction, and levying an annual tribute of a golden solidus per head on the inhabitants of the city of Rome.^ ' Pope Stephen III., a Roman by birth, governed the Church, a.d. 752-757. His immediate predecessor, who reigned only four days, is omitted by some ^vrite^s from the list of Popes, because only elected, and not consecrated Pope. Consequently they call this Pontiff Stephen II. See Baronius "Annalea Eccles," ix. 208, a.d. 752. ^ Anastasius, " Life of Stephen III." The golden solidus, or eon, was worth IG francs, or 13s. 4d. of our money. DONATIONS OP PEPIN AND CHARLEMAGNE. 159 Having sent two more embassies to Astolphns, without avail, Stephen next dispatched envoys to Constantinoph', representing to the Emperor, that Eome was besieged, and that the Imperial provinces were in the hands of a devastating enemy — the Exarch having fled, utterly powerless to oppose the invasion.^ The Emperor was alike unable and unwilling to afford aid. In the words of the annalist, " he was much more inclined to wage war against the Church than to attack the Lombards." In the midst of these difficulties and dangers, the eyes of the entire Koman people were now turned towards the Apos- tolic Father. ^ He alone appeared calm and undismayed. In him all hopes were centred. On an appointed day, with an implacable enemy surging against the city walls, he assembled the terrified inhabitants, and feelingly exhorted them to turn with their whole hearts to God, who alone could aid them in their darkest hour of affliction. " I beg of you, my dearest children," said he, " let us implore the clemency of the Lord for our grievous sins; and He will be our helper and our deliverer from the hands of the persecutors." By his orders, public prayers were continuously offered up; litanies were recited; and there filed through the desolate streets, to the Church of the Blessed Mother of God, named " Ad Prasepe," a solemn procession, in which the Pope walked barefoot, attended by his clergy in their sacred vestments, and followed by thou- sands of the population. ^ Once again, now for the fourth time, an urgent appeal was made to the better feelings of the Lombard King ; but, finding that prince still deaf to his prayers, and seeing that no aid ' This was Eutychius, the last of the exarchs. By his flight, the Exarchate of Ravenna was closed, after an existence of 184 years. * In the early ages the Pope was generally so called. Even TertuUian, writing in a hostile spii-it, about a.d. 211, addresses Pope Zephyrinus as " Aijos- tolic man." * Auastagina, " Life of Stephen III.," and Baroniiis, " Anuales Ecclesiastici " is. 211, A.D. 753. This church was called "Ad Pr^sepe," because in it was pre- served the holy manger of Bethlehem. It is now Saint Mary Major's. 160 THE CHAIR OF PETER. could be looked for from the Byzantine court, Stephen, imita- ting the example of his predecessors, sent a message to Pepin, the son and successor of Charles Martel, stating that he was desirous of visiting him, in order to claim his powerful assistance for the Church and her oppressed children. Pepin forthwith dispatched to Kome the Bishop Eodigandus, and the Duke Authcarius, to tender his respects to the Holy Father, and, with a sufficient escort, to conduct him, with all honour, into France. On his way, the Pontiff, ever anxious to avert bloodshed and rapine, paid a visit to Astolphus in his capital, Pavia, and there endeavoured to effect a pacific arrangement ; but, this final effort having proved of no avail, he continued his journey across the Alps. On his arrival at the monastery of Saint IMauritz, the Pope was further waited on by Fulradus, Abbot of Saint Denys, the trusty councillor of Pepin, and the Duke Rhotaldus, who presented him with their royal master's felicitations upon his arrival on French soil. ^ The reception of Stephen, and his progress through France, were indeed well worthy of those ages of faith. Hearing of the approach of his venerable visitor, Pepin sent forward his son Charles (afterwards the celebrated Charlemagne), and several nobles, a distance of one hundred miles, to bid him welcome, and to impart additional dignity to his escort ; whilst he him- self awaited the Pontiff's arrival at his palace of Quierzy-sur- Oise, near Paris. ^ Three miles from the palace, Stephen was met by the monarch, his wife, his sons, and nobles, who all prostrated themselves, to do homage to the Vicar of Christ. Then, rising up, Pepin, with a loud voice, returned thanks to God for the visit with which his kingdom had been honoured ; and, to further testify his veneration for the Pontiff, the King- walked at his bridle-rein the whole way back to the palace. Arrived there, in the chapel royal, he solemnly promised * A.D. 754. Anastasius, " Life of Stephen HI. ; " and Baronius, " Annales Ecclcsiastici," ix. 213. * A favouiite palace of the Carlovingian kings. Charles Martel died here. DONATIONS OF PEPIN AND CHAELEMAGNE. 161 Stephen, binding himself by oath, that he woukl, with all his power, espouse the cause of Saint Peter and the Eonian Eepublic, and accomplish the restoration to them of the Exarcliate of Eavenna, and of the other possessions, usurped by the Lombards. ^ Pepin and his sons then executed a deed of donation, in writing, to the Pope, of all the territories in question ; clearly regarding him as the actual legitimate sovereign of the Italian provinces, formerly ruled by the Emperors.^ Stephen was conducted by the King to the abbey of Saint Denys, where suitable preparations had been made for his accommodation. Here, in the course of a few days, he anointed Pepin and his sons, Charles and Carloman, Kings of France, conferring on them at the same time the dignity of Patricians of Eome, a title by which, in his letters, he ever afterwards addressed them, and which they always assumed, until it merged in the superior dignity of Emperor, in the person of Charlemagne.^ The question arises here : Was the Pope justified in thus confirming the deposition of Childeric, the titular King ? ^ A fortiori, it may be asked: Was Pope Zachary justified in approving of and authorizing that deposition, two years before ? To answer these questions, we must carefully regard the actual position of affairs. Charles Martel died, a.d. 741 ; and was succeeded by his son Carloman in the hereditary office of Mayor of the Palace. Carloman, anxious to withdraw from the cares of state, retired into a monastery which he had * Anastasins, "Life of Stephen III." Baronius, "Annales Ecclesiasfcici," ix. 213, 214, A.D. 754. Platina, " De vitis Pontificnm Eomanorum," p. 114. * Anastasius mentions this written deed of donation, as read to and confirmed by Charlemagne, in his " Life of Adrian I.," but does not clearly allnde to it in his " Life of Stephen." It is also fully described by Leo Ostionsis, the chronicler of Monte Cassino, as we shall presently see. ^ Patricians of Rome. Vide supra, p. 143, note. * Childeric III., surnamed the Stupid, was titular King of France, a.d. 743-752. Ho died iu the monastery of Saint Bertiu, in 755. With hira closed the Merovingian, and witb Pepin commenced the Caxlovingian, line of kin^s. M 162 THE CHAIR OF PETER. founded on Mount Soracte, and there received the Benedictine habit, from the hands of Pope Zachary, in the year 746. He was succeeded in his all but royal dignity by his brother, Pepin le Bref. The Merovingian race of kings being rois faineans, leading lives of easy indolence and pleasure, and only rulers in name, all the power of the kingdom was in the hands of the Mayor of the Palace, who, of his own free motion, concluded treaties, declared war, and, in every other respect, exercised sovereign power. In the year 752, the whole nation determined to put an end to this anomalous state of affairs, and unanimously declared Pepin King. A difficulty however arose. The nobles, including Pepin himself, were bound by their oath of allegiance to Childeric. They applied to Pope Zachary, who, carefully considering all the circumstances of the case, and consulting alike the unanimous wishes and the welfare of the nation, granted them a dispensation from their oath.^ Accordingly, Pepin was solemnly crowned King of France, at Soissons, in an assembly of the bishops and notables of the kingdom ; Saint Boniface, Primate and Apostle of Germany, officiating on the occasion, in obedience to the orders of the Pope.^ The unction by Pope Stephen, two years afterwards, appears to have been intended as a confirmation ' Eginhard, " Annales," vol. iii. p. 4 : also Baronius, " Annales Ecclesiastici," ix. 204, A.D. 752. The decision of Pope Zachary is given by the annalist, as expressed in the following words : " Melius esse ilium vocain regein, apud qnem stunma potestas consistoret." " It is better he should be styled King, in whom is vested the supreme power." ^ Ibid. Saint Boniface, named in baptism Winfrid, was born at Crediton in Devonshire, A.n. 680. He was educated partly in the monastery of Exeter, and partly at that of Nutcell near Winchester. Having preached Christianity for some time in Friesland, he visited Rome in the year 719, where he received from Pope Gregory II. a commission to preach the faith in Germany. So gratified was the Pope at the success of his labours, that he recalled him to Rome, and ordained him bishop for the same mission, a.d. 723. On his acces- sion in 732, Pope Gregory III. sent Boniface the pallium, and appointed him Archbishop and Primate of all Germany. He stood equally high in the favour of Popes Zachary and Stephen, Boniface suffered martyrdom, at the hands of the infidels of East Friesland, a.d. 755. DONATIONS OF PEPIN AND CHARLEMAGNE. 163 of this ceremony ; and, further, it included the two young princes with their father, as anointed sovereigns of France. Pepin's first act, in fulfilment of his promise to Stephen, was to send an embassy to Astolphus, calling on him to con- clude a treaty of peace with the Pope and the Koman Kepublic, and to make restitution of the territories of which he had deprived them. Astolphus refused ; on which, the French King immediately set his army in motion. Even then, in order to prevent the effusion of blood, Stephen wrote an urgent letter, a final appeal, to the Lombard King. This pacific overture, however, was spurned, with threats of ven- geance against the Pontiff, the French monarch, and the whole French nation. Attacked in the passes of the Alps, Pepin swept the enemy from his path, and pursued them, broken and dismayed, up to the walls of their capital, the strong city of Pavia. Here, Astolphus had no alternative. A treaty was concluded between the Eomans, the French, and the Lombards; Pepin receiving hostages, and Astolphus binding himself, by oath, to restore Eavenna and the various other cities and provinces which he had usurped. On this, the French King recrossed the Alps, with his victorious army; and the Pope returned to Kome, where, in the Church of Saint Peter, a general thanksgiving was offered up for the favourable termi- nation of the struggle.^ But ere long the political horizon became as dark as ever. The Lombards, forgetting the stern lesson they had been taught, and wholly regardless of their treaty obligations, once more levied war against the Komans, and besieged the city, devastating the surrounding provinces with fire and sword. Stephen again appealed to Pepin and his sons for aid, now addressins: them as Patricians of Eome.^ In a letter written ' A.D. 754. Anastasius, " Life of Stephen III.," and Baronins, "Annales," ix. 220. * " Dominis excellentiesimis Pipino, Carolo, et Carlomanno, tribus regibus, et nostris Romanis Patriciis." 164 THE CHAIR OF PETER. to them on the fifty-fifth day of the siege, he gives a lament- able description of the devastations and outrages perpetrated by the enemy, " worse than were ever perpetrated by Pagans." In another letter, he speaks in the person of Saint Peter, and adjures them to aid and defend the Church, so that he may, in turn, protect them in the day of judgment, and prepare places for them in heaven.^ Pepin's second armed intervention in Italy was far more complete and efifective than the first. Astolphus, hearing of his approach, raised the siege of Eome, which had now lasted more than three months, and fell back, with his army, on Pavia. Here, the Lombard was so hard pressed that he was compelled to yield at discretion, and, for his own sake, to act in perfect good faith. At the dictation of his conqueror, he restored to the Pope, by a written deed, all the cities and territories of which he had so lately promised to make restitution, now adding Comacchio, as the penalty of his perfidious breach of j)romise. To take possession of these cities, Pepin deputed his councillor, Fulradus, Abbot of Saint Denys, who went round with the deputies of Astolphus, receiving the keys of each city, and taking with him, as hostages, some of the principal inhabi- tants. With these, he proceeded to Rome, and there, on behalf of his royal master, he laid the keys and the deed of donation of the cities and territories on the Confession of Saint Peter,^ " delivering them up to the same Apostle, and to his vicar, the ' This letter, written under the pressure of a terrible emergency, has been censured by the enemies of the Popes ; " yet," observes Mr. Gibbon, " they surely meant to persuade rather than deceive. This introduction of the dead, or of immortals, was familiar to the ancient orators, though it is executed on this occasion in the rude fashion of the age " (" Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," chap, xli.x.). * Immediately under the high altar of the basilica of St. Peter at Rome, is a subterranean church, called " the Confession of Saint Peter" and also Limina Apostoloi-um, or " the threshold of the Apostles." Here are entombed one-half of the bodies of Saints Peter and Paul ; the other half being enshrined in the basilica of Saint Paul without the M'alls. In ancient times, churches dedicated to the memoiy of martyrs were called by the Latins " Confossio," and the Greeks " martyrium," from the Greek /xapTvp, a witness, which word, as well DONATIONS OF PEPIN AND CHARLEMAGNE. 165 most holy Pope, and to all his successors, pontiffs, to be possessed and governed by them for ever." ^ The cities restored by Astolphus to the Holy See, as enu- merated by Anastasius,^ comprised, with their circumjacent territory, the Exarchate of Ravenna, then reduced to the provinces of Ravenna, Ferrara, and Bologna ; and the Pentapo- lis, extending along the Adriatic from Rimini to Ancona — the whole measuring about one hundred and twenty geographical miles from the Po to Ancona, by an average of between forty and fifty from the Adriatic to the Apennines. As regards the Duchy of Rome, which extended from Viterbo to Terracina, and from Narni to the mouth of the Tiber, the Popes had, for a long period, been the rulers de facto of this district, under the suzerainty of the Greek Emperors, and they were latterly its independent sovereigns — the province having been aban- doned by its original possessors. It was formally confirmed, or guaranteed, by the donation of Pepin, along with the cities and territories which had been usurped by the Lombards, and which he now compelled them to restore. There is some difference of opinion among ancient writers as as the Latin Confessor, is employed by the Church, to designate one who has suffered death, to bear witness to Jesus Christ and the truth of His Gospel. In the fourth century, Saint John Chrysostom speaks of the Church of Saint Peter at Rome, as the mart[irium, or confession, of the Apostles, referring to the underground church. Anciently, as observed by Panvinius, double churches were very general ; especially in Italy — the lower, or underground church, commonly called the crypt, from the Greek Kpinrra, " hidden," being immedi- ately under the high altra" and sanctuary of the upper church. ' Anastasius Bibliothecarius, "De Vitis Pontificum Romanorum," p. 126. The original is quoted in the heading of this chapter. Here, it will be noted, the expression used is " donation," viz. donatione de eis a suo rege (Pipino) emissiX. Anastasius says that this written deed of donation was preserved in the archives of the church in his day — a.d. 860. ^ These cities, twenty in number, were Ravenna, Rimini, Pesaro, Fane, Cesena, Sinigaglia, Jesi, Forumpopuli, Forli with the fortress of Sussubium, Castrocaro, Montefeltri, Acerragio, Monte Luco, Serra, the Castle of San Marino, Bobbio, Urbino, Cagli, Lucoli, and Gubbio. To these were added Comacchio, above referred to, and Narni, " which city had, in times gone by, been taken from the Romans by the Duchy of Spoleto." Anastasius, " De Vitis Pontificum Romanorum," p. 126. Baronius, " Annales Ecclesiastici," ix. 234, A.D. 755. 166 THE CHAIR OF PETEE. to the actual extent of Pepin's donation. Anastasins, in his Life of Stephen, appears to define it as above given; whilst, on the other hand, Leo Ostiensis, the chronicler of Monte Cassino, widely extends its limits, taking the Exarchate of Kavenna as it was at the period of its greatest prosperity, and not as it was in its latter day, when shorn of much of its ancient possessions. Accordingly, he includes the island of Corsica, Parma, Reggio, Mantua, Continental Venice, and even Istria.i Again, in his Life of Adrian I., Anastasius himself adopts these extended limits, in describing the donation of Charlemagne, confirming that of Pepin.^ The writers however who question the extent of this alleged more ample donation, argue, that neither Pepin, nor even Charlemagne, had conquered the island of Corsica and certain other territories mentioned in the deed, and consequently could not make a grant or donation of them : but this is met by the not altogether unreasonable supposition, that the inhabitants of those terri- tories had, with a view to their own safety, in the troubled state of the country, previously placed themselves under the sovereignty of the Popes ; as certainly was afterwards done by the inhabitants of the duchies of Spoleto and Reati, when they transferred their allegiance from the King of the Lombards to Pope Adrian I.^ ' Leo Ostiensis, " Historia Cassiu," lib. i. c. 7. " Fecit autem idem inclytns Rex una cum liliis concessionem bcato Petro ej usque Vicario do civitatibus Italise et territoriis per designates fines, a Lunis cum insula Corsica, inde Suraimm, inde in montem Bardonem, Yercetum, Parmam, Regium, Mantuam, et Moutem-silicis, simulqae, universum Exarchatum Ravennte, sicut antiquitus fuit, cum provinciis Venetiarum et Istrice, cuuctumque Ducatum Spoletinum et Beneventanum." Leo Ostiensis wrote towards the end of the eleventh century. A monk of Monte Cassino, and subsequently Cardinal Bishop of Ostia, he was distinguished for his learning. * Anastasius Bibliothecarius, " Historia da Vitis Romanorum Pontificum," p. 156. Moguntiae, 1602. " Aliam donationis promissionem ad instar anterioris, . . . Carolns Francorum rex ascribi jussit, . . . nbi concessit easdem civitates et teiritoria beato Petro easquo proofato Pontifici contradi spospoudit per designatum confinium, sicut in eadera donatione contineri monstratur : " Here follows the designation of territories precisely as in the preceding note. ^ A.D. 773. Anastasius, " Life of Adrian I. ; " and Baronius, ." Anualcs DONATIONS OF PEPIN AND CHAKLEMAGNE. 167 The more extended limits of Pepin's donation, as set forth by Leo Ostiensis, are adopted in the confirmatory Diplomas of the Emperors, Louis le Debonnaire, Otho, and Saint Henry, to which it will presently be necessary more fully to refer. At this remote period, the question is one of much uncertainty. On the whole, the smaller limits, as above stated, appear the more probable of the two.^ It was on the occasion of his second expedition into Italy, that Pepin was waited on by the envoys of the Greek Emperor, offering him a large amount of treasure, in consider- ation of his delivering up the city of Eavenna and the other cities and territories of the Exarchate to their Imperial master. But the French King peremptorily "refused to suffer the alienation of those cities and territories from the power of Saint Peter, and the jurisdiction of the Eoman Church, or of the Pontiff of the Apostolic See ; affirming, with an. oath, that he had entered on the war, not through favour to any man, but through love of Saint Peter, and for the forgiveness of his sins, and that no amount of treasure could induce him to take away that which he had once given to the blessed Apostle." ^ Ecclesiastici," ix. 326. Charlemagne and his successors, notwithstandino-, expressly reserved these two duchies under their supreme jurisdiction, as we shall presently see. This appears to have been so arranged between Charle- magne and Pope Adrian I. ' Vide supra, p. 165. ^ Anastasius, " Life of Stephen III. ; " and Baronius, " Annales Ecclesiastici," ix. 234; A.D. V55. There has been considerable controversy among writers, on the question, whether the grants of Pepin and his successors to the'.Popes were a restitution, or simply donations or concessions. The facts appear to speak plainly for themselves. Certain cities and territories had been taken by the Lombards and other invaders from the Popes, or from the Greek Emperors, whose place in Italy the Popes occupied by common consent since the fall of the Western Empire. These cities and territories were conquered by the French monarchs, not for themselves, but to be handed over immediately to the Holy See. Clearly, the action of the Lombard Kings, who were compelled, at the point of the sword, to restore them, can be regarded only as restitution ; whilst, with reference to the part of Pepin, Charlemagne, and other devoted sons and defenders of the Church, the term " donation," or " concession " may appropriately bo employed ; especially as, humanly speaking, it appears most unlikely, that, without their aid, those possessions would have been recovered by the Popes. 168 THE CHATR OF PETER. Stephen III. was succeeded in the Pontifical Chair by his brother, Paul I., a.d. 757. This Pontiff, during a reign of ten years, was constantly harassed by his restless neighbours the Lombards ; as was his successor Pope Stephen IV., who pre- sided over the Church a.d. 768-771. After him, came Adrian I.,^ who, immediately on his accessi(>n, found himself so severely pressed by their incursions, under King Desiderius, that he lU'gently applied to Charlemagne for aid. The French monarch, having tried negotiations in vain, marched over the Alps, captured Verona and other Lombard cities, and laid siege to the strong fortress of Pavia, their capital.^ When the siege had lasted six months, Charlemagne, being desirous to visit the Pope, and to venerate the Tomb of the Apostles, set out with a large retinue of bishops, abbots, and nobles, and a numerous military escort ; and proceeded through Tuscany to Rome. His journey was so timed, that he arrived in the city on the eve of the great Easter festival. Adrian, hearing of his approach, and wishing to receive him with due honour, sent forward, a distance of thirty miles, all the judges, with a suitable escort, and the state banners, to meet him ; and when the King arrived within one mile of the city gates, all the classes, or scholse, of the Roman youth were there marshalled, with their officers, under arms ; ^ while younger boys bore palm and olive branches, and chanted a hymn of welcome ; and the holy crosses were displayed, with which it was customary to receive the Exarchs and Patricians of Rome. On beholding the sacred emblems of our Redemption, Charle- magne dismounted, and with his suite proceeded on foot to the Church of Saint Peter. Here, the Pope, attended by his clergy and a vast concourse of the Roman j)eople, awaited the arrival of his august visitor. On reaching the Church, the King, as he ' Popo Adrian I., a Roman of uoble birth, governed the Church nearly twenty-four years, a.d. 772-7135. He presided, by his legates, at the Seventh General Council, the second of Nice, in 787. - A.D. 773. ^ " Universas scholas militiae una cum patronis " (Anastasius, p. 155). DONATIONS OF PEPIN AND CHARLEMAGNE. 1G9 ascended, kissed each of the steps ; and, on his attaining the porch, he and the Pontiif cordially exchanged embraces ; and, the King taking the Pope's right hand, they revereutly advanced up the centre of the basilica ; whilst the clergy and religious communities rendered thanks to God, chanting the appropriate verse, " Benedictus qui venit in nomine Domini." Then the Pope and the most Christian Kiug,^ and all the bishops, abbots, nobles, and others composing his suite, aj)proached the Confession of Saint Peter, where, for some time, they remained prostrate in prayer, thanking Cod for the victory they had gained over the enemies of the Church, through the suffrages of the Prince of the Apostles. His thanksgiving being concluded, the King asked permission of His Holiness to enter the city, and to perform his devotions in the various other churches.^ Early on Easter Sunday morning, Adrian sent all his judges, and his entire military force, to escort the French monarch to the church of the Blessed Mother of Cod, " Ad Prsesepe ; " and, after the celebration of Mass, the Pontiff and the King- proceeded to the Lateran Palace, where Adrian entertained his royal guest. Next day, the Pope celebrated a Mass of thanks- giving in the Church of Saint Peter, after which he returned thanks to " the most excellent King of the French and Patrician of Eome," there present; and, on the following day, he officiated in the Church of Saint Paul, according to custom.^ On the fourth day, Adrian repaired in state to the Church of Saint Peter, there to confer with Charlemagne, whom " he besought, admonished, and with paternal affection exhorted," to fulfil, in all particulars, the promises made to Saint Peter and ' " The most Christian King," Christianissiimis Rex. Tho great antiquity of this title of the French monarchs is proved by its being thus applied to Charlemagne by Anastasius Bibliothecarius, writing iu the ninth century. It was pi'obably conferred on Charlemagne, or on his father Pepin, by the Pope. " Anastasius, "Life of Adrian I.; " and Baronius, " Annalos Ecclesiastici ," ix. 328, A.D. 77-i. At this time, Saint Peter's was outside the city walls. ^ Ibid. 170 THE CHAIR OF PETER. his vicar Stephen, of blessed memory, by his honoured father Pepin, himself, and his brother Cavloman, that they would restore the cities and territories of the province of Italy to the Popes " to be possessed by them for ever." ^ The King, having caused the deed of promise, which had been executed in France, to be read to him, was pleased to confirm its contents ; and, of his own free will, he ordered another deed of donation, " to the effect of the former," to be drawn up by Etherius, his chaplain and notary, in which deed he granted " the same cities and territories " to Saint Peter and his successors, and guaranteed to them the boundaries set forth therein.^ This deed he confirmed by his signature, and further he caused it to be signed by the bishops, abbots, and councillors in his train, and his secretaries. He then laid it on the altar of St. Peter ; and finally deposited it within the Confession of the Apostle ; when he and his councillors bound themselves, by oath to the same Blessed Peter and his successor. Pope Adrian, that they would religiously observe all its provisions.^ From this account, it would appear that the deed executed by Charlemagne to Adrian, on this occasion, conveyed the same extent of territory as Pepin's deed to Stephen, of which it was a confirmation. With respect to Charlemagne's con- cession of the Sabine territory " in a written deed of donation " to the Holy See, and other grants of that monarch, alluded to in the IJiplomas of the Emperors, Louis, Otho, and Saint Henry, they are generally ascribed to a later period of his reign.^ Charlemagne now returned to his army, closely * Anastasius, " Life of Adrian I." 2 Ibid. " Historia," p. 156. ' Ibid., and Baronius, " Annales Ecclesiastic!," i.\'. 329, a.d. 774. The deed was drawn up in duplicate ; one part being deposited in the Church of Saint Peter, and the counterpart being taken by the King. * Father Pagi is of opinion, that, as may be inferred from Pope Adrian's letters, although Charlemagne added many cities and territories to those which his father, Pepin, had granted to the Apostolic See, he did not grant thom all together, or in this particular visit to Rome : viz. " Constat vero ex Epistolis DONATIONS OF PEPIN AND CHAELEMAGNE. 171 investing Pavia ; and, after a protracted struggle, that city, reduced by famine and pestilence, was compelled to surrender. King Desiderius and his family were sent prisoners into France ; and the conqueror, adding those fair provinces to his dominions, legitimately assumed the iron crown of Lombardy.^ Tlius terminated the Lombard rule in Italy, after an existence of 206 years.^ Hadriani Papse, Carolum civitatibus ac provinciis, quas Pipinus pater Apos- tolicoe Sedi concesserat, plurimas addidisse, sed hce nee omnes simul, nee in hac Romana Caroli profedione datce sunt" (" Bi'ev. Gestoruin Pontificum Eoma- norum," vol. i. p. 461; Venice, 1730). This accords with the words of Anastasins, above quoted. * The Iron Crown of Lombardy is so called because, within a broad golden band set with jewels, it contains a thin circlet of iron, said to have been beaten out of one of the nails used at the Crucifixion of our Saviour, and brought over from the Holy Land by the Empress Helena. This crown was used at the coronation of several Emperors, including Charlemagne, Charles V., and Napoleon I. The last, wearing the diadems of France and Italy, placed the Iron Crown upon his own head, amid great state and ceremony, in the Cathedral of ]SIilan, on the 26th of May, 1805, pronouncing at the same time these words : Dieu me la donne ; gave a qui la touche. ^ A.B. 568-774. Anastasius, "Life of Adrian I.," and Baronius, " Annales Ecclesiastici," ix. 334 etseq., a.d. 774. CHAPTER XIII. CHARLEMAGNE CROWNED EMPEROR OP THE WEST. " Thou standest like Imperial Charlemagne, Upon thy bridge of gold ; thy royal hand Outstretched with benedictions o'er the land." Longfellow. Some five and twenty years later, tlie aid of Charlemagne was again invoked by the successor of Saint Peter ; and the French King promptly and efficiently interposed, as Patrician of Rome and Protector of the Holy See. The occasion was as follows ; and its details furnish a remarkable illustration of the con- dition of society in those rude and troublous times. One day, in the fourth year of his pontificate,^ as Adrian's successor, Leo. III.,2 was passing in a procession through the streets of Rome, immediately in front of the monastery of Saints Stephen and Sylvester, he was attacked by a numerous body of hired assassins, irreverently seized on, and savagely assaulted. The clergy and laity, unarmed and unprepared, were powerless to protect him; and the Holy Father was carried off and imprisoned. The miscreants by whom this outrage was perpetrated were the tools of a few influential wicked men, who had conspired to depose Leo, and to place a nephew of Adrian on the Pontifical throne. Having effected his escape from prison, and furnished by the Duke of Spoleto with a strong military escort, the Pope crossed the Alps, to ' April 23, 799. * Pope Leo III., by birth a Roman, governed the Church, a.d. 795-816. CHAELEMAGNE CKOWNED EMPEROR OF THE WEST. 173 solicit the aid of Charlemagne, then encamped with his army at Paderborn in Westphalia. That monarch, hearing of his approach, sent forward several bishops and nobles, and his son Pepin, to escort the Pontiff; and, on his arrival, he paid him honours similar to those rendered by his royal father to Pope Stephen. In their first interview, the King decreed, that all those who had been implicated in the conspiracy against the Holy Father should be punished by mutilation and death ; but, in deference to the Pope's wishes, the penalty was mitigated to exile. Returning to his capital, with a French escort, Leo was received with loud acclamations by the clergy and people, hailing him as their sole legitimate Lord and Pontiff. ^ The following year, according to promise, Charlemagne visited Rome, chiefly with the object of terminating the troubles and scandals caused by the factious proceedings of certain powerful subjects of the Holy Father. Those un- scrupulous men had dared to lay before the King a series of false charges against Leo, whose only offence was, that he alone had the courage and the power to check their excesses. As on a former occasion, Charles was received with all honours by the Pope. On the seventh day after his arrival, the King convened, with Leo's sanction, a great assembly of the clergy, nobles, and other influential persons, French and Roman, in the Church of Saint Peter. The Pope and the King occupied elevated seats, on the same level, and invited the archbishops, bishops, abbots, and principal nobles, of both nations, to be seated also ; the remainder of the assembly standing. Charles then stated that his principal object in coming to Rome was, to investigate the complaints that had been made against the Pontiff, and he invited those present to join in the investiga- tion. On this, the archbishops, bishops, and abbots unani- mously replied, " We dare not judge the Apostolic See, which is the head of all the Churches of God ; for by it and its ' Anastasius, "Life of Loo III.," and Baronius, "Annales Ecclcsiastici," ix. 498, A.D. 799. 174 THE CHAIR OF PETER. Vicar we all are judged, but it is judged by no one; such being the custom of ancient times. But, according as the Supreme Pontiff himself will decide, we will canouically obey." ^ The Holy Father then stood up and declared : " I tread in the footsteps of the Popes, my predecessors; and I am ready to clear myself of all the false charges, which have been iniqui- tously preferred against me."^ No one having meanwhile repeated, or attempted to substantiate, those accusations, Leo, on a subsequent day, in the same Church of St. Peter, and in presence of the French monarch and the same assembly, ascended the ambo, and, taking an oath on the Holy Evan- gelists, said, in a loud and distinct voice : " It is notorious, most beloved brethren, that bad men have risen up against me, and have calumniated me and my life, by the gravest accusations. For the sake of sifting these things, the most clement and most serene King Charles has come to this city, along with his clergy and nobles. Wherefore I, Leo, Pontiff of the Holy Koman Church, neither judged by any one nor acting by compulsion, of my own free will, in your presence before God who knows our consciences, and the angels of God, and the Blessed Peter, Prince of the Apostles, hereby clear myself of having perpetrated, or ordered to be perpetrated, those things of which I am accused, calling God as my witness, by whom we shall be judged and in whose sight we stand. And I do this, not bound by any laws, nor wishing to impose this custom or ordinance in the Holy Church on my successors or brother bishops : but only that I would the more certainly ' Anaetasius, " De Vitis Pontificuiu llomanoruin," p. 183, Mogiuitia>, 1602. " Qui universi archiepiscopi, ob episcopi, et abbates unanimiter audieutes dixe- runt : ' Nos Sedem Apostolicam, qutc est caput omnium Dei ecclesiarnm jndicare non audemus. Nam ab ipsa iios omnes et Vicario sno judicamur; ipsa autom a nemine judicatnr, quemadmodum et antiquus mos fuit. Sed sicut ipse Summns Pontifex censuerit, canonice obcdiemus.' " This is indeed strong testimony, as to how fully the Primacy of the Holy See was recognized at this early period ; and it has the greater weight, as coming from a cotemporary historian, remarkable for his accuracy and truth. * Ibid. CHARLEMAGNE CROWNED EMPEROR OF THE WEST. 175 free your minds from wicked suspicions." ^ This declaration of the Holy Father was most joyfully and respectfully received ; the litanies were recited ; and thanks were rendered to God by the entire assembly. All this occurred on Christmas eve. On the following day, as Charles prayed in the Church of Saint Peter, Leo advanced with a precious crown, emblematic of the Imperial dignity, and placed it on the monarch's head ; and all the Romans, present in great numbers, witnesses of his devoted defence and love of the Church, and of its chief pastor, exclaimed, with one voice, " Long life and victory to Charles, the pious Augustus, crowned by God, the great and peace-giving Emperor."^ Then the Pontiff anointed with holy oil the Emperor and his eldest son ; and Charlemagne bound himself by oath, to act ever as the protector and defender of the Church.^ The investiture of Charlemagne with the Imperial dignity by Pope Leo III. may well be regarded as one of the grandest, most solemn, and most important events in history. In review- ing it, we must not confine ourselves to the services rendered to the Church by the Carlovingian King. We must further take into account his paramount power; his widely extended dominions, comprising all France and Germany, the Low Countries, the Continent of Italy to Beneventum, and portions of Hungary and Spain; his peace-giving victories over unjust ' Ex Sacris Eitibus Romangc Ecclesise ante Natalem Domini, apud Baroniuni, " Annales Ecclesiastici," ix. 503 ; and Anastasius, " De Vitis Pontificum Roma- norrim," p. 183. * " Carolo piissimo Augasto, a Deo coronate, magno, pacifico Imperatori, vita et victoria." ' Anastasius, " Life of Leo III. ; " and Baronius, " Annales Ecclesiastici," ix. 502, A.D. 800. It is stated by Eginhard, and other writers after him, that Charlemagne was ignorant of the Pope's intention, and that the act of Leo took him completely by surprise ; nay, that he afterwards affirmed, that, had he known of the intended coronation, he would not have come to the church that day. This allegation however is not borne out by the monarch's seeming i-eady acquiescence in the ceremony. Some vrriters again surmise, that the coronation had been settled between the monarch and the Pope ; but that the time was anticipated by Leo. 176 THE CHAIR OF PETER. warfare, spoliation, and anarchy ; his wise jurisprudence ; his enlightened promotion of education ; his encouragement of agriculture and of all the useful arts ; and the other signal benefits which, for a long series of years, he had conferred on the populations of Western Euroj^e, Moreover, it was but right, as it was expedient, that the Imperial crown of the West should be worn by him who now firmly held the sceptre which had long since passed away from the Byzantine Emperors.^ By many writers, the hand of Divine Providence is recognized in the intimate union thus established between the Church and the Empire — an union so fraught with advantages to all Christian nations ; and this, notwithstanding the fact, that, in the course of time, there arose a few unworthy successors of Charlemagne on the Imperial throne. Throughout the whole course of his long reign, this power- ful monarch, the master of the entire Western world, displayed a filial affection for the successor of Saint Peter, and the most devoted zeal for the welfare of the Church. Thus, from the commencement, in setting forth his titles, in public documents, he used to style himself " Charles, by the grace of God, King of the Franks and the Lombards, Patrician of the Komans, Defender of the Holy Church of God." Such were his senti- ments of love and veneration for Leo's predecessor. Pope Adrian, that he would have the expression of them embodied, as in an enduring record, in the epitaph which he composed for the monument of that holy Pontiff. In it, these verses occur: — " Nomina jungo simul titulis, carissime, nostris ; Hadrianus, Carolus, Rex ego, tuque Pater .'^ * With reference to the re-estabhshtnent of the Empire of the West by Pope Leo III., Sigouius observes, " This title of Imperial dignity, which, in the person of Romulus Augustulus, the last Emperor of the West, had succumbed to the rule of the Goths, almost three hundred years before, was renewed by the Pontiff in the same West, in order that the Roman Church might have a Protector against infidels, heretics, and seditious persons, which office the Emperor of the East appears to have long before repudiated." " De regno Italise," lib. iv., ad annum 801. Carolo Sigouio, au eminent historian and antiquary, was born at Modena in 1520, and died in 1584. * "Dearly beloved, I join together our names, with our titles; Adrian, Charles ; I the King, and you the Father." CHARLEMAGNE CROWNED EMPEROR OF THE WEST. 177 On the death of Adrian, a.d. 795, Charlemagne, desirous that the dignity of Patrician of the Romans should be con- firmed to him by the new Pope, addressed a hotter to Leo, as follows : " As between the predecessor of Your Blessedness and me there has been a solemn treaty of holy paternity, so I now desire that there should be established between us a similar covenant of faith and affection, in order that, God enabling, the See of the most holy Roman Church may ever be defended by our devotion." ^ Whether as King or Emperor, he on all occasions acted up to these professions ; and, in his last will and testament, he solemnly enjoined the same course on his three sons, Louis, Pepin, and Charles, among whotn he be- queathed his dominions. In that document, written a.d. 806, he says : " But above all things we order, that the said three brothers shall together undertake the protection and defence of the Church of Saint Peter, as formerly undertaken by our grandfather Charles, and our father King Pepin, of blessed memory, and afterwards by us ; that they shall endeavour, with God's aid, to defend it against all enemies ; and that, as fur as pertaineth to them, and reason demands, they shall vindicate its rights." ^ We find the same spirit pervading all his letters to Pope Adrian.^ Here, indeed, is presented a remarkable contrast with the course pursued by some of the rulers of the earth in our day — a course directly leading to the ' " Sicut enim cum beatissimo prcBclecessore vestro sanctae paternitatia pa(5tntn iuii, sic cum Beatudiue vestra ejusdeai fidei et charitatis iuviolabile fcEdus statuere desidero, quateuus sanctissimse Roiuanse Ecclesias Sedes, Deo donante, nostra semper devotioue defendatur." ^ The same iastructions, in the same words, are given by Charlemagne's son and successor, the Emperor Louis le Debonnaire, to his three sons, in his last will and testament : viz. " Super omnia jubemus atque praecipimns, ut ipsi trea fratres curam et defensionem Ecclesise Sancti Petri simul suscipiant, sicut quondam a proavo nostro Carolo, et avo nostro Pi pi no, et beatse memoriaB genitore nostro Carolo Imperatore, et a nobis postea suscepta est : ut earn, cum Dei adjutorio ab hostibus defendere nitantur, et justitiam suam, quantum ad ipsos pertinet, et ratio postulaverit, habere faciant." ^ In those letters, Charlemagne styles himself, Devotus sancta; Dei Ecclesias Dufensor, humilisque Adjntor; and Fatriciiis Romanomm, Filius et Defensor Sancta: Dei Ecdesids. N 178 THE CHAIR OF PETER. subversion of all authority, political as well as religious, and the triumph of infidelity and communism.^ ' Charles, or as he was afterwards called, Charlemagne (Charles the Great), was the sou of Pepin le Bref, and was born at the Castle of Salzburg in Upper Austria, in the year 742. Pepin, dying in 768, left his dominions to his two sons Charles and Carloman, to be governed by them jointly ; but, the latter dying in 771, Charles became sole master of France. An able, wise, and enlightened ruler, he largelj' extended his dominions on every side. As we have seen, he was crowned Emperor of the West, by Pope Leo III., a.d. 800. Shortly afterwards, his Imperial dignity was recognized by the Eastern Empress, Irene, and her husband Nioephorus ; and the boundaries of the two Empires were amicably adjusted. At the same time, friendly relations were established between Charles and the celebrated Caliph of the Saracens, Haroun al Easchid, who presented him with the keys of the city of Jerusalem and of the Holy places (" Claves sepulchri Domini, claves etiam civitatis et mentis, cum vexillo detulerunt." — William of Tyre). Charlemagne was a liberal patron of learning, established schools extensively, and otherwise promoted education. He every- where encouraged agriculture, and all the useful arts. His Capitularies, or celebrated code of laws, range from a.d. 769 to 813. They were published by Balnze, Paris, in two volumes folio, in 1677. In the year 806, he drew up his last will and testament, dividing his dominions among his three sons ; but, Pepin and Charles having died, he associated his only surviving son, Louis, in the Empire with himself, at Aix-la-Chapelle, the year before his death, which took place on the 8th of January, 814, in the seventy-second year of his age, and the forty-seventh of his reign as King, and fourteenth, as Emperor. It is related that, several centuries later, his tomb in the Cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle was oiDened, when his body was found, attired in the Imperial robes, and seated in a chair of state. On being touched the whole crumbled into dust, save the diamond clasp which fastened his cloak, and other jewels, now preserved at Vienna. It is sometimes observed of Charlemagne, that he founded nothing of an enduring nature — that his Empire, his laws, all his works, perished with him. To this M. Guizot conclusively replies, "Although the vast domination of Charlemagne disappoai-cd with him, it is not true that he founded nothing; he founded all the States which sprung from the dismemberment of his Empire. His conquests entei'cd into new combinations, but his wars attained their end ; the foundation of the work subsisted, although its form was changed. It is thus that the action of great men is in general exercised. Charlemagne as an administrator and legislator appears under the same aspect " ('' History of Civilization," lecture 20). CHAPTER XIV. DIPLOMAS OF THE EMPEEORS LOUIS, OTHO, AND SAINT HENRY. "Has omnes suprarlictas provincias, urbes et civitates, oppida atque castella, viculos ac territoria, simulqne patrimonia, pro statu Regai iiostri, cuuctoqaa Christianorum populo conservando, jam dictse EcclesiEe tuae, Beate Petre, Vicarioque tuo, Benodicto, ac successoribua ejus, usque in finetn saeculi, eo modo coufirmamus, ut in suo detiueaat jure, priacipatu, atque ditioue." — Diplo.iia of the Emperor Henry II. The donations of Pepin and Charlemagne to the Popes appear to have been regularly confirmed by their descendants, on the accession of each to the Empire. Thus, Charlemagne's son and successor, Louis le Debjnnaire, or Louis the Pious, as he was styled, executed a most ample diploma, or charter, to Pascal I.,^ A.D. 817, decreeing, granting, and confirming to him, as Supreme Pontiff and Universal Pope, and to his suc- cessors for ever, the City of Rome with its duchy and terri- tories, as theretofore held and governed by him and his predecessors ; ^ certain cities, towns and districts (enumerated) m Tuscany and Campania; and the Exarchate of Ravenna and the Pentapolis, together with their cities districts and de- pendencies, which had been " restored by a deed of donation " to the Holy See by Pepin and Charlemagne,^ also the Sabine ' Pascal I., a native of Rome, governed the Church, a.d. 817-821. ^ " Sicut a prajdccessoribus vestria usque nunc in vestra jjotostate et ditiono teimistis et disposuistis." ' " Quee piae recordationis dominus Pipinus Rex, ac bonce uiemorite genitor nostcr Carolus Impcrator beato Petro Apostolo et prajdccessoribus vestris jamda- dum per douatiouis paginam restituernnt." It is deserving of notice that tlie Emperor hero speaks of the Exarchate of Ravenna and the Pentapolis, as having been restored to the Popes by Pepin and Charlemagne iu a deed of donation,, 180 THE CHAIR OF PETEU. territory, which had been " conceded in a written deed of donation " to the Pope by the latter monarch, and certain specified cities and provinces in Lombardian Tuscany, together with the islands of Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily, and all the patrimonies of the Church, " under her power and jurisdiction," in all parts of the Empire. Louis further confirmed to the Pope certain tributes and pensions, which used formerly to be paid every year out of the Duchies of Lombardian Tuscany and Spoleto into the palace of the King of the Lombards ; but, in doing so, he expressly reserved to himself his sovereignty over the said two duchies,^ thus proving that he did not aim at the least shadow of power or jurisdiction over all the other territories conveyed and confirmed in his diploma, no reserva- tion whatever having been made with regard to them. This is further expressed in the clause, " And we do not claim for ourselves any part in them (the said territories, cities, etc.), nor any power of governing, judging, taking from, or diminishing the same, unless when we shall have been invited by him who, at any time, shall hold the government of this holy Church." Next follow stringent provisions against any subjects of tlie Empire in any way interfering with the Komans, in the free and canonical election of the Pope — a topic which will be treated of fully in a future chapter. To the same effect are the diplomas, or deeds of confirma- tion, of the Emperors Otho I. to Pope John XII., and Henry II. to Pope Benedict VIIL, executed respectively in the years 962 and 1020. In these, as in that of Louis, we find the clause, " saving our rule in all things over these duchies and their subjection to us," applied only to the Duchies of Lombardian whilst he alludes to Rome and its duchy and territories, as having been " held under their power and jurisdictiou down to the present time" by Pascal and his predecessors on the Pontifical throne, and sovomed by them. ' " Eo scilicet niodo ut annis singulis pra^dictus census Ecclosia) Beati Petri Apostoli pr-rsolvatur, salva super eosdom ducatns nostra in omnibus domina- tlone, et illorum ad nostram partem snbjectioue." DIPLOMAS OF THE EMPERORS. 181 Tuscany and Spoleto, the tributes annually paid by wbicb are confirmed to the Popes ; while, with this sole exception, " all the provinces, cities and states, towns and fortresses, villages and territories, together with the patrimonies of the said Church," are confirmed to " the Sovereign Pontiff and Uni- versal Pope, and to his successors, to the end of the world, to be held by them in their right, princedom, and jurisdiction." ^ ' Theiner, "Codex Diplomaticas Dominii Temporalis S. Sedis," torn. i. p. 2-8, Romas, 1861 ; Baronius, " Annales Ecclesiastici," ix. 670 ; Cenni, " Esame del Diploma di Ludovico Pio," parte prima, and " Esame de' Diplomi d'Ottone e S. Arrigo," parte terza. The authenticity of the diploma of Louis le Debon- naire has been questioned by some writers, while admitted by the majority. It appears however to be conclusively established, as an authentic document, by the Abbate Cenni, in his learned treatise just named. Of the diplomas of Otho 1. and Henry IL, to the same purport, the authenticity is universally admitted. CHAPTER XV. RELATIONS OF THE POPES AND THE EMPERORS. " II ue f aut jamais perdre de vne cette grande et incontestable verite historique, que tous les souverains regardaient le Pape coinme leur sitp<^n'eur m'.me temporel, mais surtout comme le suzerain dee empereurs Slectifs. Les Papes etaient ct-nsos, dans I'opinion universelle, donner I'einpire en couronnant I'empereur. Celni-ci recevoit d'eux le droit de se nommer un successeur. Lss electeura AUemands recevait de lui celui de nommer nn roi des Teutons, qui etait ainsi destine a I'empire. L'empereur elu lui pretait serment, etc. Les pretentions des Papes ne sauraient done paraitre etrauwes qu'a ceux qui refusent absolument de se transporter dans ces temps recules." — De Maistre. There has been considerable discussion amongst the learned as to the degree of power or jurisdiction exercised by the Prankish or German Emperors and the Popes, respectively, in Rome and its dependencies, after the grants of Pepin and Charlemagne. Some writers assert that all through, and some that at particular periods specified, the Pontiffs exer- cised only the proprietary dominion, dominium utile, under the supreme dominion, or suzerainty, dominium altum, of the Emperors; some again hold, that they exercised supreme power conjointly and equally with tlie Emperors, consortes et socii ejusdem dominii ; whilst several are strongly of opinion, with Cardinal Orsi and the learned Fr. Theiner of our day, that, from a.d. 754, the year of Pepin's donation, the successors of Saint Peter continuously exercised the supreme as well as the proprietary dominion of the extensive territories of tlio Holy See.^ One fact is undeniable, and it goes far towards ' See Cardinal Orsi's able work, " Delia origino del Donn'nio do' Rotiiaiii PouteHci," with which is published, as an appenilix, the Abbalo Conni's " Esaiiio EELATIONS OF THE POPES AND THE EMPERORS. 183 reconciling these various opinions ; namely, that, even although the grants were made and confirmed to them by the French and German monarchs, in a manner full and complete, the Popes, in many an instance, were unable to enforce their authority, in several of the provinces, or, again, were power- less to resist attacks from outside ; and, consequently, were obliged to request the Emperors' interference and exercise of jurisdiction within their States; whether to defend and protect them against foreign invasion, on the one hand, or domestic faction, unhallowed conspiracies, and sacrilegious outrage, on the other.^ In all probability, it was with reference to thi.s necessity of the Holy See, rather than with the intent of arrogating supreme authority, that the Emperors used to send, from time to time, into the Papal States their envoys, mtssi, who appear to have partaken of the character of inspectors, or overseers, as much as of ambassadors. On the whole, the view that the Pontiifs exercised supreme dominion within their own territories, at the period in question, is fully borne out by tlic tenor of the diplomas of the Emperors, Louis, Otho, and Saint Henry, above referred to, as well as by the solemn acts of their successors. Whilst, with the Pope's permission, the Roman people took an oath of fidelity to the Emperor, expressly reserving how- ever their allegiance to their sovereign lord, the Pope,^ the Emperor, on his coronation, bound himself by oath to act as the Protector and Defender of the Church ; thereby under- del Diploma di Ludovico Pio, e de' Diplome d'Ottone e S. Arrigo ; " Rome, 1789 : also Father Theiner's " Codex Diplomaticus Dominii Temporalis S. Sedis," torn. I. preface. Rome, 1861. ' A notable instance of the latter, was the gross outrage perpetrated on Pope Leo III., and Charlemagne's intervention, at his request ; a.d. 799. Vide Bupra, p. 172. ' In the oath of fidelity to the Emperor, which Pope Eugenius II. pre- scribed, to be taken by all the Roman clergy (a.d. 824), we find the clauwe, " saving the fealty which I have promised to the Apostolic Lord " (the Pope) — salvd fide quam repromisi Domino Apostolico (" Sapplementum Lungobaidi- corum," attributed to Paul the Deacon, and recited in the end of his book, " Gesta EpiscopoiULu Metcusium." See Pagi, Breviarium, etc., ii. 29). 184 THE CHAIR OF TETEK. taking to enforce the obedience, to the Holy Father, of all the subjects of the Papal dominions, and to defend those dominions from all foreign aggression. Again, the Emperor was actually indebted for his authority and title to the successor of Saint Peter, at whose hands he received the sacred unction and the Imperial crown. In this interchange of privileges and services, created by the necessities of the times, originated the office of Patrician conferred by the Pontiffs of the day on Pepin and Charlemagne — an office subsequently amplified and exalted in the Imperial dignity.^ The coronation of Charlemagne as Emperor of the \Yest by Pope Leo III., a.d. 800, was really the commencement of the " Holy Roman Empire," although the Empire was not generally so called until the change from the Carlovingian to the German line of Emperors, in 962. As was the case with Charlemagne himself, his lineal descendants were indebted for the Impeiial rank and power to their coronation by the Supreme Pontiff, who, moreover, in cases of conflicting claims, named the Carlovingian prince to be promoted to the Imperial throne. For instance, three years after the deposition of Charles le Gros, the sixth Emperor of the Carlovingian line, Pope Stephen VI., A..D. 891, nominated to the Empire, not Charles's nephew, Arnulph, who had succeeded him as King of Germany, but Guido, Duke of Spoleto, who was descended from Charlemagne in the female line only, but who was the better able to protect and defend the dominions of the Holy See. Another illustration of the power of the Popes in this regard, in the tenth century, is furnished by the transference of the Empire from the French to the German princes by Pope John XII., in 902.'^ Not long afterwards, the elective • The Kings, from Pepin inclusive, wore styled Patricians of Rome ; but his in the Emperors was changed into the still higher title of Advocatus, Adjutor, Defensor, or Advocate, Helper, Defender, of the Universal Church. * This important event will bo more fully roforred to in the next chapter. RELATIONS OF THE POPES AND THE EMPERORS. 185 principle came into operation. At first, the election of Emperor was made by the Germanic Diet; but, from the middle of the thirteenth century down to modern times, it devolved on the high dignitaries of the Church and the Princes of the Empire. The place of election was Frankfort on the Main, to which city the electors or their delegates were summoned by the Archbishop of Mentz. All strangers, even sovereigns and foreign ambassadors, were jealously excluded from access to the city on the occasion. But, in reality, it was by the Pope alone that the Imperial dignity could be con- ferred ; inasmuch as the prince who was elected King became Emperor only on his receiving the Imperial crown at the hands of His Holiness. Thus, by the Alemannic law, it was enacted that "the Germans elect the King; and when, by the will of those who have elected him, he is consecrated and enthroned at Aix-la-Chapelle, he then receives the power and name of King. But when the Pope consecrates him, then he has the plenary power of the Empire, and the name of Emperor."^ In the letter of Pope Innocent III. to King Otho IV. and the princes of the Empire, a.d. 1201, the Pope, addressing Otho, says, "By the authority of Almighty God, conferred upon us in the person of Blessed Peter, we receive thee as King, and we order, that henceforward royal reverence and. obedience be paid thee ; and, all preliminaries prescribed by lavv and custom being observed, we shall invite thy royal majesty to receive the crown of the Roman Empire, and, God granting, we shall solemnly confer it upon thee, by the hands of our humility." ^ Here the Pope speaks in the spirit of the ' "Juris Alemannici," cap. xviii. n. 1-3. " Germani eligunt regem. . . . Qnandoipse consecratur, efc collocatur iu solio Aquisgianeasi, ex eorum voluutate qui ipsum elegere, tunc accipit potestatera et nomen Regis. Quando autcm Papa eum consecravit, tunc pleuariam habet imperii poteetatem, et nomen Imperatoris." * Balaze, " Epistolae Innocentii III.," Epist. 32. " Auctoritate Dei Omnipo- tentis, nobis in Beato Petro collafca, te in regem recipimus, et regalem tibi prajcipimus de cajtero revei-eutiam et obedientiam cxhiberi; pra^missisquo omnibus qua? de jure sunt et cousuetudinc pricmitteuda, regiam magnificentiara 186 THE CHAIR OF TETER. age, which invested the Head of the Church with such extra- ordinary powers in matters temporal. Again, as in the cases of Charlemagne, Louis le Debonnaire, Lothaire I., and others, we find the Pope of the day confirming the right of succession in the eldest son of the reigning Emperor, by anointing him King, and thus sanctioning his association with his father in the Empire. But we have a still further proof of the paramount autho- rity of the Popes in the Middle Ages, in the fact that it was from them that the Germanic princes, in a certain sense, derived their power of electing the King, and expectant Emperor. This historical fact stands forth in a clear light, as incontestably proved by several authentic oflicial documents. From these let us take the following extracts : — • In a letter of Pope Innocent III. to the Duke of Carinthia, A.D. 1201, the following passage occurs: "Wherefore, we acknowledge in those princes (Electors of the Holy Eoman Empire) the right and power of electing the King, to be after- wards promoted Emperor, as we ought to recognize it in those to whom it belongs by right and ancient custom ; especially as this right and power has come to them from the Apostolic See,^ which transferred the Roman Empire from the Greeks to the Germans, in the person of Charles the Great. But the princes, too, must acknowledge, and they do acknowledge, that the right and authority of examining the person elected King, and of promoting him to the Empire, belong to us, who anoint, consecrate, and crown him."^ When Rudolph of Hapsburg, as Emperor-elect, confirmed and guaranteed, in the most ample manner, the territories and ad suscipiendam Romani imperii coronam vocabimus, et earn tibi, daute Domino, humilitatia nostra) manibus, solemnitcr coufcrcuiuo." ' " Right and power," jus et potestas, are thus taken together, and used ia the singular number, in the original. * " Epistolai lunoceutii PP. III.," epist. 62. This letter is the more import- ant, that it is embodied in the Corpus Juris Cuuouici, in the Decretals of Pope Gregory iX., lib. i. tit. vi. cap. xxxiv. RELATIONS OF THE POPES AND THE EMPERORS. 187 privileges of the Holy See to Pope Nicholas III., a.d. 127Q, the Pontiff required, that the Imperial diploma should be approved and ratified, in a solemn deed, by the Princes of the Empire. That deed was accordingly executed by them ; aud in it they acknowledge, in language most emphatic, however florid, that their electoral rights and power are derived from the See of Peter ; and further, they show the complete accord of the Church and the Empire at that period. The exact statement which they give of the actual territories of the Papacy at the time — now six centuries ago — is of no small interest, especially as the territories, set forih by them, so closely coincide with the possessions of the Holy See in modern times.^ They say that, in conferring the Empire on Germany, the Roman mother Church " has honoured iier with a terrestrial name of dignity which is above every name of those who temporally reign upon earth;" and has established princes in her, who, supported by the authority of the said Church, are the electors of him who holds the reins of the Roman Empire. " In order, then," they continue, " that all matter of dissension and scandal, or any occasion of ill-feeling, may cease to exist between the Church and the Empire," they, in the name of their princedom, in and through all particulars, approve and ratify all that has been ratified and confirmed by their lord, Rudolph, King of the Romans, ever august, to their most holy father and lord, Pope Nicholas III., with respect to the acknowledgments, concessions, and acts or deeds, as well of the other Emperors and Kings, as of the King himself, aud especially with regard to the fidelity, obedience, honour, and reverence, due by the Roman Emperors and Kings to the Roman Pontiffs, and to the Church herself, and also with regard to the possessions, prerogatives, and rights of the same ' By the diplomas of Riulolph," says Sismondi, " the States of the Church reached the extent which they have preserved to the preseut day " (•' Auuuld of Italy," torn. ii. p. 252). 188 THE CHAIR OF PETER. Church. They next specify in detail all the territories of the Church thus confirmed — an enumeration which it is unneces- sary to repeat here, especially as these coincide pretty closely with the Pontifical States, as settled by the Treaty of Vienna in 1815. To this parchment deed, dated a.d. 1279, are attached, by silken cords, nine seals, viz. those of Henry, Arch- bishop of Treves ; Sigfrid, Archbishop of Cologne ; Werner, Archbishop of IMentz; Louis, Count Palatine of the Rhine and Duke of Bavaria ; John, Duke of Saxony ; Albert, Duke of Saxony ; John, Marquis of Brandenburg ; Otho, Marquis of Brandenburg ; and Gerard, Marquis of Brandenburg.^ Occasionally, w'hen the usual election was prevented by wars and disturbances, the choice, as we have seen, was vested in the Sovereign Pontiff, by whom the Emperor was nominated as well as crowned. This great power in the hands of the Pope appears to have been generally recognized in the Middle Ages. By common consent, he was the arbiter of piinces and kingdoms; and, as such, in a few grave cases, he deposed unworthy sovereigns and released their subjects from their allegiance. Of this extreme exercise of his authority, a few remarkable instances will be noticed further on. ' From the original deed in the Vatican Library ; apud Theiner, " Codex Diplomaticus Dominii Temporalis S. Sedisj" No. 393, torn. i. p. 247. In the year 1356, the Emperor Ciiarles IV. issued the Golden Bull, so called from a golden seal attached to it by silk cords, after the manner of Papal Bulls. This Bull, also called " Caroline," after the Emperor, regulates all, even tlie most minute, details to be observed in the election of Emperor. It confines the privilege of voting to the Archbishops of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, aud the Duke of Saxony, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Marquis of Branden- burg, and the King of Bohemia. Sevei'al other princes were subsequently added. CHAPTEE XVI. VICISSITUDES OF THE TEMPOEAL POWER IN THE MIDDLE AGES. The subdivision and rapid decline of the great Empire of Charlemagne, after the death of its illustrious founder, were, for a long period, detrimental alike to the Temporal Power of the Popes and the spiritual interests of the Universal Church. Charlemagne's son and successor, Louis I., whose diploma we have examined, was succeeded by his son Lothaire, a.d. 841, after a troubled reign of twenty-seven years. When, three years later, on the death of Gregory IV., Sergius II. ascended the Papal throne, he was consecrated immediately on election, without reference to the Emperor, matters having been precipi- tated by the apprehensions arising from the violence of faction. Lothaire thereupon sent his son Louis, with an army, to invade the Papal States. When Louis arrived at Pome, the Pope received him on the steps of Saint Peter's ; and refused to open the gates of the basilica to him until he should declare that he entertained no designs hostile to the Holy See. On the prince's making this declaration, Sergius crowned him King of the Lombards, but refused to comply with his demand, that the Romans should swear fealty to him — an oath which could be claimed only by the Emperor. In the year 855, a short time before his death, Lothaire divided his dominions among his three sons. To Louis, whr.m he had associated with himself in the Empire, six years before, he gave Italy ; to Lothaire, with the title of King, the 190 THE CHAIR OF PETER provinces lying, between the Rhine, the Meuse, and the Scheld, called after him Lotharingia, and more recently Lorraine ; and to Charles the Bald, the kingdom of Burgundy, Provence, and Dauphine. In 8-i9, Louis, who, as Emperor Associate, then governed Italy, had witnessed the invasion of the southern portion of the Peninsula by the Saracens, who carried their audacity so far as to besiege Rome, which he was powerless to defend, and which was saved solely by the genius and influence of Pope Leo IV.i On the death of Louis IL, without issue, in 875, he was succeeded by his brother, Charles II., or the Bald ; and other Carlovingian princes followed, several of whom were indebted for the Imperial dignity to their nomination by the Pope. But now the power of the Empire had dwindled to a mere shadow of its former substance. Consequently, the Emperors, even where willing, were oftentimes unable, to protect the Pontiffs ; and not only was the control of the election to the Papacy usurped by certain powerful families and their factions at Rome, but several portions of the States of the Church were unrighteously seized on and appropriated by priuces and nobles — the Emperors themselves, in some instances, partici- pating in the spoliation. Thus, from the latter part of the ninth to the middle of the eleventh century — a period of close on two hundred years — a large portion of the Pontifical dominions was in the hands of laymen. From time to time, the Popes, sometimes aided by the * " Pope Leo IV.," says Voltaire, " taking on himself, in this juncture, an authority which the Emperor Lothaire's generals seemed unwilling to assume, showed himself worthy, by his defence of Rome, to rule there as sovereign. He had employed the riches of the Chnrch in repairing the walls, raising towers, and extending chains across the Tiber. He armed the militia, visited all tlie gates himself, and received the Saracens, not in warlike array, but as a Piintiil encouraging a Christian peoi)le, and as a king watching over the safety of his subjects. He had been born a Roman : the courage of the first ages of the Republic reappeared in him, in a period of cowardice and corruption, like one of the great monuments of ancient Rome among the ruins of later structures." VICISSITUDES OF THE TEMrORAL TOWER. 191 Emperors, and sometimes unassisted, endeavoured, with varying success, to re-establish the Papal government in its spoliated provinces. Their efforts in this direction, upheld by the spiritual power, which in the Middle Ages was, in itself, a tower of strength, appear to have been under-estimated by certain writers, who no less undervalue their results. Much additional light, however, has been thrown on the actual position of the Pontiffs, as temporal sovereigns, at this particular period and in subsequent centuries, by the publication of a complete series of authentic official documents, which have been carefully extracted from the archives of the Vatican, by a master hand, chronologically arranged, and given to the public in our day.^ To these it will be necessary several times to refer, as we proceed, in this and the immediately following chapters. In the year 962, a great change was effected, by the transference of the Imperial dignity to Otho I., King of Germany. This change, which was the commencement of the German line of Emperors, was brought about as follows. Pope * " Codex Diplomaticng Dominii Temporalis S. Sedis," by Father Angnstia Theiner, Priest of the Oratory, Prefect of the secret archives of the Vatican, Rome, 1861. The series commences with the Donation of Pepin, a.d. 756, and gives, in chronological order, the solemn official acts of Pontiffs, princes, and others, with reference to the temporal dominions and government of the Holy See. Previously, a great part of these important documents were scattered in the pages of various historians and other authors. Several of them again lay hidden and forgotten in the manuscripts of the Vatican library. Here, we have them all placed before us, in an easily accessible and admirably arranged edition ; and they afford " the most abundant and most reliable source of information to the historian of the Middle Ages." They altogether refute those writers who allege that, for the first seven centuries after the Donation of Pepin, the Popes did not exercise real power over the territories that were assigned, or i-tither restored, to them by that celebrated act ; and that the temporal government of the Popes dates fi'om only the commencement of tlie sixteenth century — Julius II. and Clement VII., according to them, being the true and sole founders of the temporal government of the Holy See. Father Theiner, not wishing to accuse these authors of bad faith, observes, that we must attribute their error to ignorance of the existing historical documents, relating to the governmental acts exercised by the Popes over their States. This will be seen clearly by a reference to his work. Allusion has already been made to Father Theiner, as the continuator of the Ecclesiastical Annals of Baronius, Ray. naldi, and Ladorchi, which he has brought down from 1572 to the present time. 192 TTIE CHAIR OF PETER. John XII., having siififered much wrong and indignity at the hands of Berengarius, King of Italy, and his son Adelbert, sent legates to invite Otho to Home, to defend the Papal States and the Holy Koman Church from their tyranny ; at the same time, promising the German prince, that he would make him Emperor of the Komans — a dignity which, owing to the public disturbances, had been vacant since the death of Berengarius the elder, a.d. 024. John laid down, as a condi- tion, that, before entering Italy, Otho should swear, in the presence of the Apostolic legates, that he would consult the welfare of the Eoman Church, and accomplish the restoration to it of all the possessions of which it had been deprived by its enemies. Otho readily complied ; and, at the head of his armv, entered Italy, towards the close of the year. Having occupied Pavia without opposition, he proceeded to Rome, with a picked body of troops ; and there he was anointed and crowned Emperor by the Pontiff, on the 12th of February, 962. The following day, he issued his diploma, alluded to in a former chapter. In that important deed, in which he styles himself Emperor, he restores, and fully confirms, and guaran- tees, the rights and territories of the Holy See. Unhappily for himself and the interests of the Church, John XII., ere long, yielded to the earnest and frequently urged solicitations of Adelbert, Prince Royal of Italy, and took part with him against the Emperor. On this, Otho marched on Rome, and entered the city, as a conqueror — the Pope and Adelbert fleeing before liim, with all the treasure they could collect. Otho caused a synod to assemble at Rome ; and, at his instance, they elected an anti-Pope, who assumed the naii:e of Leo VIII., 6th December, 963. John shortly afterwards returned to the city; and the anti-Pope fled ; but John. died on the 4th of ]\Iay following. On the death of John XII., Benedict the Deacon was immediately elected his successor; and took the name of Benedict V. This Pope was exiled, and imprisoned at Ham- VICISSITUDES OF THE TEMPORAL POWER. 193 burg, by the Emperor, who had now become completely master of the situation, and little heeded the solemn obligations, which, in his diploma, as well as in his coronation oath, he had contracted to the Apostolic See. The Emperor died in 973, and was succeeded by his son Otho II. In the reign of this prince, the contending factions of the Roman nobles again involved the city and the Papacy in anarchy, which continued, through the reigns of eight Pontiffs, until the year 996, when Otho III. secured the election of his relative Bruno, who ascended the Papal throne as Gregory V.^ This Pontiff was driven into exile by Crescentius, or Cenci, a powerful senator of Rome, but was reinstated by the Emperor, who took signal vengeance on the rebellious subjects of the Holy See. On Gregory's death in 999, Otho again interposed ; caused Gerbert to be elected, as Sylvester II. ; ^ and enabled him to maintain his ground against the factions of the Roman nobles, which still called for the severest measures of repression.^ Otho III. dying in 1002, Hardouin, Marquis of Ivrea, was crowned King of Italy at Pavia; but Henry II., Duke of Bavaria, was, about the same time, elected King of Germany by the German princes, and King of Italy by the Milanese. Hence Italy was distracted by a civil war. In 1014, Henry was invited to Rome, and crowned Emperor, by Pope Benedict VIII., in the church of Saint Peter; and his royal consort Cunegunda was crowned Empress, on the same occasion. This exemplary prince, whose diploma we have examined, and • Gregory V., who reigned a.d. 996-999, was the first German who occupied the Papal throne. * Sylvester II., a Benedictine monk, and aftei'wards Archbishop of Rheims, governed the Church, a.d. 999-1003. He was the first Frenchman elected Pope. ' The family of Crescentins, or Cenci, possessed gi'eat power and influence in Rome in the latter part of the tenth, and the wholo of the eleventh, century. Their violent factious proceedings, and those of the Orsini, Colonna, Savelli, and other noble families, were a continual source of trouble to the Pontiffs, and a hindrance to the progress and prosperity of the city, and of the adjoining districts. 0 194 THE CHAIR OF PETER. whose name has been enrolled by the Church in the calendar of the saints, was a worthy successor of Pepin and Charlemagne, and a devoted defender of the rights and territories of the Church. A few years later/ Pope Nicholas II. eifected much in vindication of the temporal, as well as the spiritual, power, by his wise enactments to regulate Papal elections, which will be presently detailed. The good work was followed up by the successful exertions of the renowned Hildebrand, who governed the Church, as Gregory VII., a.d. 1073-1085. These will be described in the next chapter. » A.D. 1059. CHAPTER XVII. SAINT GREGORY VII. " L'lNTERETdu genre humain demancleun frein qui retienne les souverains, et qai met k convert la vie dea penples : ce frein de la Religion aurait pu etre, par una convention nniverselle, dans la main des Papes. Ces premiers Pontifes, en ne se melant des qnerelles temporelles que pour lea apaiser, en avertissant les rois et les peuples de leurs devoirs, en reprenant leura crimes, en reservant les excommunications pour les grands attentats, auraient toujours ete regardoa comme des images de Dieu sur la terre. Mais les hommes sont reduits a n'avoir pour lenr defense que les lois et les moeurs de leura pays ; lois souvent meprisees, moeurs souvent coiTompues." — Voltaire. The pontificate of Hildebrand, who, on his election, assumed the name of Gregory VII., is by many regarded as the most important and most interesting epoch in the history of the Papacy. In examining its prominent events, it is necessary that we should take into account the corrupt state of society in every grade, induced by continual wars and disturbances, at that period ; the crimes of princes and nobles ; their lawless appropriation of Church property ; their simoniacal sale of bishoprics and benefices ; and the lamentable laxity of morals of numbers of the clergy, especially in Germany and Northern Italy, and the neglected condition of their flocks, which necessarily ensued — evils which had been in vain struggled against by Gregory's predecessors. When we do this, and, further, when we review his Herculean labours, which may best be done through the medium of his voluminous corre- spondence, although we cannot fully realize, we may at least approach a worthy estimate of, the character and motives of this greatest of Pontiffs, who, actuated solely by a sense of 196 THE CHAIR OF PETER. duty, resolutely attacked all those appalling scandals, and delivered God's Church from the thraldom and desolation under which he had found her so helplessly suffering. Hildebrand was born, of humble parentage, at Saono in Tuscany, in the year 1013.^ Educated at Rome, under the eye of his uncle, the Abbot of Santa Maria on the Aventine Hill, he entered at an early age the celebrated Abbey of Cluni ; and even in that most austere community he soon became remark- able for his fervour and spirit of mortification. He stood high in the favour of Bruno, Bishop of Toul, who, on ascending the pontifical throne, under the name of Leo IX., a.d. 1049, summoned him to Rome, appointed him Abbot of Saint Paul's, named him cardinal, and employed him in several affairs of importance.^ Hildebrand was no less esteemed and consulted by Popes Victor II., Stephen X., Nicholas II., and Alexander II. ; and he largely influenced the policy of those Pontiffs.^ In 1054, as Papal Legate, he held a council at Lyons, to condemn simony ; and subsequently he convened a council at Tours, in which Berengerius ** retracted his errors concerning the Blessed Eucharist. In 1059, Pope Nicholas II. created him Archdeacon of Rome. On the death of Alexander II., in 1073, Hildebrand was unanimously elected his successor by the cardinals, with the assent and joyous acclamations of all the clergy and people. Although he was chosen on the 22nd of April, his consecration did not take place until the 29th of June, the feast of the Apostles Saints Peter and Paul. His reluctance to accept the weighty charge was the main cause of the delay. i\.t this time, the Kings of Germany, even when only Emperors elect ' The general repute is, that his father -nas a carpenter. However Pape- broke the Bollandist is of opinion that he was born of a noblo family. Vide Commentariuni pra3vium ad Vitam Sancti Gregorii VII., 25 Maii. * "Acta Vaticana," de I'ebus gcstis Gregorii Septimi. ' Pope Victor II. governed the Church, A.D. 1055-1057 ; Stephen X., 1057- 1058; Nicholas II., 1058-10(51 ; and Alexander II., 1061-1073. * Eereuger, or Berengerius, of Tours ib by some writers styled Berongarius. SAINT GREGORY VII. 197 and not yet crowned by the Pontififs, continued to claim and exercise the right to send ambassadors to be present at the Papal consecration. Accordingly, Hildebrand sent off messen- gers to Henry IV., announcing his election ; but at the same time earnestly beseeching the King to withhold his assent, or confirmation thereof, and thus save him from the dreaded burden of the Papacy ; and he added in his message to Henry, that, if he were once consecrated Pope, he would, as in duty bound, immediately take measures to repress the monarch's flagrant excesses.^ Henry, notwithstanding, urged him to accept the dignity, unhesitatingly gave his consent, and deputed Gregory, Bishop of Vercelli and Chancellor of his Italian kingdom, to be present at the consecration.^ Hildebrand, or, as he may now be styled, Gregory VII., was no sooner seated in Saint Peter's Chair than he addressed himself energetically to the correction of all existing abuses, and the assertion of all the rights and jurisdiction of the Apostolic See. Whether the wrong-doer were prince, or prelate, or peasant, he heeded not. In the unswerving dis- charge of his duty, he made no distinction of persons. All alike he called to account for their delinquencies. The King of Germany, to be in due time crowned Emperor by the Pope, was by far the greatest offender ; and, as he was so exalted in station, his multiplied crimes, his gross immorality, and his simoniacal dealings in Church property, exercised the most pernicious influence throughout Western Europe. All these accumulated scandals were a cause of grave solicitude to the newly elected Pontiff; and to these was superadded a lively sense of his own responsibility before God. * " Acta Vaticana." " Sed cum excusationem de relinquendo Papata nou invenisset, nuntios ad Regem Henricum celeriter destiuavit, per quos et elec- tiouem super se factam aperuit, et ne assensum prreberet attentins exoravit. Quod si non faceret, certum sibi esset, quod graviores et manifestos ipsius excessus nuUatenas impuuitos toleraret." See also Barouius, " Annales Ecde- siastici," xi. 415, a.d. 1073. ' Ibid. This was the last iustaiicc of the Imperial coutirmation of a l'ai)al Election. 198 THE CHAIR OF PETER. He felt that his strength for the life-and-death contest on which he was about to enter, could come only from on high. At this period, he addressed a touching letter to Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury,^ imploring his prayers and those of his suffragans and clergy, in his great emergency. The letter runs thus : — Gregory, Bishop, Servant of the servants of God, to our beloved brother, Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, Health and Apostolic Benediction. How the honour and burden of the Apostolic government has been imposed upon us, and by what great troubles we are pressed on every side, will be described to you by the bearer of these letters, to whom, having regard to your affection, we have disclosed some things yet hidden from our own domestic circle. Among other matters, in the first place, we beg of you, our brother, to relax not in your constant prayers for us, and to remind those subject to you or associated with you, to assist us also by their fraternal supplications. For, the greater the danger in which we are placed, so much the more do we need your suffrages, and those of all good men. Besides, if we would escape the judgment of Divine vengeance, we are compelled to rise up against a multitude, and to provoke them, even to the taking of our life. For while almost all, in the words of the Apostle, seek the things which are their own, and not those of Jesus Christ, the princes of kingdoms and the powerful ones of ' Lanfranc, Arcbbishop of Canterbury, was born a.d. 1005, at Pavia, tho capital of Lombardy, of which city his father was a magistrate. Having completed his studies at Bologna, he followed the legal profession, and also taught jurisprudence for some years in Pavia. Removing to Normandy, he entered the Abbey of Bee, of which, in the course of time, he became prior. Here commenced his controversy with Berengerins, against whom he trium- phantly defended the doctrine of the Church, on the Blessed Eucharist. Through the favour of William of Normandy, he was promoted to the dignity of Abbot of Saint Stephen's at Caen ; and, when William was established on the throne of England, he was raised to the exalted post of Archbishop of Canterbury. During William's absence, Lanfranc was virtually the ruler of England ; and his power and influence were, if possible, still greater under the reign of that monarch's son and successor, William Rufus. He died in 1089, aged b3. A devoted son of the Church, and a faithful servant and trusted counsellor of tho King, Lancfranc was sometimes placed in a difficult position, as William was not always obedient to the will of the Supreme Pontiff. However, tlie arch- bishop appears to have ever acted with prudence, and to have endeavoured to promote, to the utmost extent of his power, tho interests of religion. His works are, Letters, his Commentary on Saint Paul's Epistles, and his celebrated treatise on the Blessed Eucharist, Lihellus dc corpnre ef suivjuine Domini, contra Berengerium. All were published in one volume folio, by Luc D'Achery, Paris 1648. SAINT GREGORY VII. 199 tin's world, in order that they may accomplish their desires, not alono negligently desert, but with their ixtniost endeavours assail, the law of God and justice ; so tliat we now behold fultilled, i;nder our eyes, that of the Prophet: " The Kings of the earth stood iip, and the princes met together, against the Lord and against His Christ." Even the bishops and those who ought to be pastors of souls, seeking with insatiable dcsiro the glory of the world and the pleasures of the flesh, not only confound iu themselves what is holy, and what is religious, but draw down tlieir subjects to all wickedness, by the example of their works. How fraught with ('anger to us, not to oppose these ; how difficult to resist them, and to restrain their wickedness ; your prudence will fully realize.' Well indeed might Gregory have thus written ; for at the time the condition of the Church, and of society at large, was truly deplorable. Several unworthy persons, had, through temporal motives, entered the sanctuary. The sale of benefices was unblushingly carried on. The law of the celibacy of the clergy was extensively infringed. It is true, that many a holy priest and bishop, all the inmates of the monasteries, and the great majority of the laity, were deeply pained by these abuses ; but they were unable to prevent them ; for their perpetrators were countenanced and abetted by " the rulers in Israel " — the princes and nobles of the land, in several countries of Conti- nental Europe.^ These two crying evils — simony and the incontinency of the clergy — which went hand in hand, and acted and reacted on each other, as cause and effect, could be grappled with only by him to whom, in his capacity of Vicar of Christ, the ' Baronias, " Annalea Ecclesiastici," xi. 420, a.d. 1073. * Gregory, in allusion to congratulatory letters on his accession, addressed to him by William the Conqueror and his Qneen Matilda, speaks in compli- mentary terms of the King, as being an exception to the general nile with reference to the crimes, in the correction of which the Holy See was then engaged. "The King of the English," says he, " although in some respects he does not conduct himself as religiously as we desire, shows himself nioro deserving of ajiproval and honour than the other sovereigns ; as he neither destroys nor sells the churches of God, and promotes peace and justice among his subjects, and, further, he has refused the invitation of certain enemies of the Churcli, that he should unite in a pact against the Apostolic See ; and has compelled prietits to put away their wives, and laymen to Burrender tithes detained by them" (" Saucti Gregorii VII. Epistolce," lib. ix. ep. 5. April, 1074). 200 THE CHAIR OF PETER. greatest monarch or the most exalted prelate was no less amenable than the degraded serf. Equally impressed with the authority and the responsibilities of his divinely conferred commission, Gregory did not hesitate for one moment in the path of duty. Accordingly, early in 1074, he convened a council in Rome, the chief objects of which were, the repression of simony and the reformation of the morals of the clergy. Former decrees were renewed, with increased stringency, on these two im- portant matters. All buyers and sellers of Ecclesiastical benefices were declared punishable with excommunication : and, as regards holy orders, only those were to be ordained who bound themselves to a life of celibacy ; married priests were to separate from their wives, or, in the event of their re- fusing to do so, they were to be deprived of their offices ; and in this latter case the laity were forbidden to attend at mass celebrated by them, or to receive the sacraments at their hands. In carrying out these decrees, the Pope met with the most determined opposition ; but that opposition had to succumb to his inexorable sense of duty and his intrepid iron will. The following year, he held a second council at Rome, in which he proceeded to deal with the great question of Investi- tures. Before considering the acts of this council, it may not be amiss to say a few words on the subject of Investitures generally. When a suzerain lord made a grant of land to his vassal, it was usual that he should complete the grant by the outward ceremony of investing him therewith ; as, for instance, taking him on the land and handing him a turf, or a stone, or some other thing which formed a portion thereof, whilst the vassal, on his part, used to do homage and swear fealty to his supreme lord.i Originally, princes, in conferring lands on bishops and ' " The grant of laud or a feud was perfected by the ceremony of corporeal investiture, or open delivery of possession, " says Blackstone. SAINT GREGORY VII. 201 nbbots, for the support of their state, and for various pur- poses of religion and charity, invested them with a crosier and a ring, as the symbols of their jurisdiction over the sai Ibid., 1. vi. epist. 10; aud Baronius, " Aunalus Ecclcs.," xi. 513, A.D. 1078. SAINT GREGORY VII. 209 in order that, being thus duly qualified, tLey might return to preach the faith in their own country.^ In 1079, Gregory instructed his legate Hubert to remon- strate with William the Conqueror, on his prohibition of the bishops of his dominions visiting the Tomb of the Apostles, and to require that at least two bishops from each archi- episcopal province of England and Normandy should attend a council to be celebrated at Rome, in the approaching Lent ; adding, however, that, should they not be able to attend at the time prescribed, they should, at least, after Easter present themselves at the Apostolic See.^ We learn from the Pope's letters, that William complied with his wishes in this respect, sending his ambassadors to Rome with Hubert, on his return.^ Gregory also demanded, through his legate, that the king should take an oath of fealty to the Holy See, and resume the payment of Peter's pence, which had fallen into arrear.* The first, William refused ; the second, he promised to comply with ; as will be seen in his letter, as follows : — • To Gregory, the most excellent Pastor of the Holy Chnrch, ■William, by the grace of God, King of the Angles, and Duke of the Normans, wisheth health, with friendship. Most Holy Father, Your legate, Hubert, coming to me, has on your behalf admonished me, that I should render fealty to you and your successors, and that I should think better concerning the money which my predecessors were accustomed to send to the Eoman Church. The one I have admitted : the other I have not admitted. I have been unwilling to render fealty, and I will not do so ; because I have not promised it, nor can I find that my predecessors did so to your predecessors. The money, for nearly three years, during my absence in Gaul, has been negligently collected : now, however, as through the Divine mercy, I have returned into my kingdom, whatever is collected is being sent by yoiir above-named legate ; and the remainder shall be transmitted, as opportunity offers, through the envoys of our faithful Archbishop Lanfranc. Pray for us, * " Sancti Gregorii VII. Epistolso," 1. vi. epist. 13. * Ibid., I. vii. epist. 1 ; and Baroaias, " Annalea Eccles.," xi., 520, a.d. 1079. ' Ibid., 1. vii. epist. 25. * For PcLcr's Pence, see Index. P 210 THE CHAIR OF PETER. and for the state of our kingclom ; for we have loved your predecessors, and we desire to sincerely love and obediently hear you, above all others.^- That the Pope felt acutely William's refusal to render fealty to the Holy See, is mauifest from his letter to the legate Hubert, in which he says, "You yourself have long ere this been able to understand what value I set upon tribute paid, without honour rendered." ^ Harold King of Denmark having died this year, his suc- cessor Canute immediately sent an embassy to Gregory, professing his filial devotion and obedience to the Koman Church, by which he desired to be instructed and directed. The Pope replied in a most affectionate letter, congratulating the King on his anxiety to learn all things appertaining to the practice of the Christian faith, and his recognition of the Holy Koman Church as his mother, and the mother of all nations. He then suggested that Canute should send a prudent ecclesi- astic to Kome, to inform the Holy See about the condition and requirements of his subjects, and to take back all necessary documents and instructions.^ About the same time,^ Gregory dispatched Cardinal Eichard, Abbot of Marseilles, as legate, to Alphonsus, King of Spain, to congratulate him on his filial and devout attachment to the Chair of Peter, and to present him with a golden branch, containing filings of Saint Peter's chains, according to ancient custom.^ • Baronius, " Annales Ecclesiastici," xi. 521. * " Sancti Gregorii VII. EpistoliC," lib. ix. epist. 1. " Pecnnias sine honore tributas qnanti pretii habeam, tu ipso potuisti dudum perpendere." ' Saxo Grammaticus, " Historia Daniaa," 1. ii. and " Saucti Gregorii VII. Epistolso," 1. vii. ep. 5. ♦ October, 1079. " S. Greg. VII. Epist.," 1. vii. ep. 6. * Baronius, " Annales Ecclesiastici," xi. 523. " Cui ot dono mittit anix-nm clavicnlam, more majorum, catenae Sancti Petri ramontis refertam." This presentation resembles, if it was not the origin of, that of the Golden Rose, sent, once a year, by the Pope to a sovereign or other exalted personage. Wo read, in ancient authors, that on the fourth Sunday of Lent, on which is sung the Lmfare Jerusalem, the Supi-eino PontifE used to bless, and cany in the procession, a Golden Rose, full of balsam and musk, and afterwards send it to SAINT GREGORY VII. 211 In the year 1080, Eobert Guiscard, Duke of Apulia, Calabria and Sicily, who had been an enemy and invader of the States of the Church, of his own free accord made submission, and swore fealty to the Pope, at whose hands he received investiture of all his dominions, as his predecessors had, from Popes Nicholas and Alexander. On this occasion, Eobert bound himself and his heirs and successors to pay annually to Gregory and his successors twelve denarii of Pavian money for each ploughland of his lawful territories.^ Whilst Gregory was thus continuously engaged in the affairs of the Church in the West, the interests of religion in the East received his devoted attention. This year, an embassy from the Patriarch of the Armenians arrived in Rome, to consult the Pope, and to obtain his condemnation of certain heretical opinions, which had recently been broached in the East. These are enumerated in Gregory's reply to the Patriarch.^ But while we review the multiplied labours of his ever- vigilant zeal in remote countries, we must not overlook the some prince or other illustrions person, who had reudered good service to the Holy See. The cnstom is said by some writers to have originated with Leo IX., A.D. 1049-1055 ; and, by others, with Urban II., a.d. 1088-1099 ; and it has been regularly followed by succeeding Pontiffs. Pope Alexander III., in sending the Golden Rose to Louis VII. of France, in the year 1163, explains its mystic meaning, as follows, in his letter to that monarch : " This flower expresses and designates Christ the King, who says of Himself, ' I am the flower of the field and the lily of the valley.' For gold is, not inaptly, said to denote the King, since with this figurative meaning it was offered by the Mao-i to the Saviour, in order that thereby the Kiug of Kings and the Lord of Lords should be shown. And the red by which the gold is tinged and suffused signifies the Passion of the Redeemer, concerning which we read, ' Who is He who comes from Edom, with garments tinged from Bosra ? ' And, ao-ain, ♦ Wherefore is thy raiment red, and are thy garments as of those trampling in the winepress ? ' And the perfume of this flower prefigures the glory of His Resurrection." ' June, 1080. Baronius, " Annales," xi. 53i. We shall presently see how, on several occasions, this prince most loyally fulfilled his feudal duties, in coming to the Pope's rescne, and compelling Henry IV. to raise the siege of Rome. '^ " S. Gregorii VIT. Epistolas," 1. vii. epist. 26 ; and 1. viii. epist. 1 ; also Baronius, " Annales Ecclesiastici," xi. 544, a.d. lOSO. 212 THE CHAIR OF PETER. difficulties and opposition which he had to encounter nearer home. In the early part of his reign, when the decrees of his councils were promulgated, there arose, far and near, a storm of indignation, in which his sacred character appears to have been altogether forgotten by the wrong-doers, even among his own subjects. This is painfully illustrated by the following instance, well-nigh incredible, however fully authenticated. There dwelt in Rome a powerful noble, of the family of Crescentius, or Cenci, a man of great wealth and influence, and moreover prefect of the city. The Pope, who had frequently remonstrated with him privately, was at length obliged to excommunicate him for his crimes. On Christmas day, 1076, as Gregory was celebrating midnight mass, Cenci entered the Church, with an armed band, mounted the steps of the altar, seized the Holy Father by the hair of the head, dragged him through the streets, and cast him into a dungeon. Immediately the rumour of this appalling crime spread throughout the city. " To arms, to arms ! " was shouted on every side. Rich and poor, noble and simple, an infuriated multitude, pouring in from every quarter, laid siege to the stronghold of the aggressor ; and so fierce was their assault, that before the dawn of day the Pope was liberated. Through his active inter- position, which assumed the form of a command, the lives of Cenci and his family were spared, but all their property within and without the city was destroyed by fire and sword. This sacrilegious outrage, although it deeply pained Gregory, did not for one moment deter him from performing what he con- ceived to be his duty before God and man.^ We have now to return to Henry IV. Since his deposition and the election of Rudolph, as his successor, by the German princes, Henry had not been idle. Joined by some of his former associates, he gradually collected an army, chiefly ' Lambortus Schafnaburffonsis, " Historia," a.d. 107G. Those particiilara are taken literally from Lambert, a coLempurary historian. See alsu Baronius, " Annales Ecclesiastici," xi. 4tj4, 4(J5. SAINT GREGORY VII. 213 among his late Lombard subjects. When he deemed this force sufficient for his purpose, he levied war against Rudolph. This prince, who had reluctantly ascended the throne, was, after a reign of little more than three years, defeated and slain ; and Henry, once again, became de facto master of the Empire.^ Having thus removed every obstacle, Henry next turned his arms against the Pope, who recently, in a council at Kome, had renewed the sentence of excommunication against him, and had confirmed Rudolph's election.^ In this campaign against Gregory, Henry was accompanied by Guibert, the excommunicated Archbishop of Ravenna, whom, in a synod of schismatical prelates at Brescia, he had caused to be elected antipope, under the name of Clement III. Three successive years, Henry devastated the Papal dominions and laid siege to Rome ; but, each time, he was compelled to retire by Robert Guiscard, Duke of Calabria, with whom Gregory had concluded a treaty of alliance.^' At length, in 1084, through the co- operation of some traitors within the walls, Henry gained possession of the city. Gregory took refuge in the Castle of Saint Angelo ; the antipope Guibert was enthroned in Saint Peter's ; and at his hands Henry received the Imperial crown. The Duke of Calabria, with his Normans and Saracens, again appearing on the scene, Henry retired before him ; and Gregory was restored to his palace of the Lateran. Here the Pope celebrated his tenth and last Roman Council, in which he renewed his decree of excommunication against Henry, Guibert, and all their adherents. Feeling Rome insecure, he retired with his liberators, first to Monte Cassino, and shortly afterwards to Salerno ; and there, broken down by his anxieties • October, 1080. * March, 1080. In this his seventh Conncil at Rome, Gregory also renewed his decree against uncanonical investitures. In conlirniing iluilulph in his royal dignity, he sent that prince a gulden crown, bearing tlie inscription : " Petra dcdit Petro ; Petrus diadema llodolpho." ' Leo Osiiousis, " Hisloria," 1. iii., cap. 52. 214 THE CHAIR OF PETER. and labours, lie calmly expired on Sunday, the 25th of May, 1085, having governed the Church twelve years, one month, and three days. His biographer relates, that, just immediately before the last agony commenced, some of the bishops and cardinals, who stood at his bedside, congratulated him on the labours of his holy life and teaching ; when he replied, " My dearest brethren, I deem my labours of but small account : in this only do I trust — that I have always loved justice and hated iniquity. Therefore I die in exile." ^ They then spoke with anxiety about their position after his decease, and begged of him to name his successor. Thus pressed, he gave them the option of three names : Desiderius, Abbot of Monte Cassino, who succeeded him, as Victor III. ; Odo, or Otho, Bishop of Ostia, who succeeded Victor, as Urban II. ; and Hugo of Lyons.^ Then the Holy Father, in his dying breath, once again blessed his sorrowing brethren, and promised them, that, when in heaven, he would with earnest prayers commend them to their merciful God.^ Thus Hildebrand passed from this mortal scene. His last moments were darkened by adversity and seeming defeat : yet his mighty spirit was undaunted to the end. He died in exile : but his great work had been accomplished. The Holy See had been delivered from Imperial control ; its political inde- ' Paulas Bernriedonsis, " Vita Grogorii VII.," cap. 108. " Ego, fratres moi dilectirfsimi, nullos labores meos alicujus motucnti facio, in hoc solummodo confideus, quod semper dilexi justiciam et odio habui iniquitatem : propterea in exilio morior." « Ibid., cap. 109. ' Ibid., cap. 108. "Iliac, inqnit, ascendam et obnixis prccibus Deo propitio vos conimittam." Henry IV. of Germany sarvivod Pope Gregory VII. over twenty years, without being reconciled to the Church. His latter days were embittered by adversity and domestic faction. His sons Conrad and Henry took part with his insurgent subjects against him. Conrad died early ; hut Henry compelled his father to abdicate, taking his place as Henry V. Tlio dethroned King died at Liege in HOG, at the age of fifty-six, after a troubled reign of forty-six years. As he had died under the sentence of excommunica- tion, his remains lay above ground, in a stone coffin, at Liege, withont Christian burial, until 1111, when they were removed to the Imperial vault at Spire by Henry V. SAINT GREGORY VII. 215 ppRflence was firmly established, and its influence was strength- ened by judiciDiis alliances; the free and canonical election of the Sovereign Pontiff was assured ; unhallowed intruders had been driven from the sanctuary ; the discipline of the clergy was summarily enforced, and the abuse of Investitures had received its death-blow. In the words of an able English Protestant writer, Gregory VII. " found the Emperor the virtual patron of the Holy See; he wrested that power from his hands. He found the secular clergy the allies and de- pendants of the secular power ; he converted them into the inalienable auxiliaries of his own. He found the higher eccle- siastics in servitude to the temporal sovereigns; he delivered them from that yoke, to subjugate them to the Roman tiara. He found the patronage of the Church the mere desecrated spoil and merchandize of princes; he reduced it within the dominion of the Supreme Pontiff. He is celebrated as the reformer of the impure and profane abuses of his age ; he is more justly entitled to the praise of having left the impress of his own gigantic character on the history of all the ages which have succeeded him." ^ It is only natural that the public life of Gregory VII. should be variously estimated. No one denies the greatness of his genius. Some would accord him the highest praise ; while there are others who condemn him as ambitious and grasping, and who loudly protest against his " arrogant assump- tion of authority of sovereigns." But, to arrive at a correct conclusion, we must, as far as possible, divest ourselves of modern ideas and associations, and transport our minds back, some eight centuries, to the semi- barbarous age in which he lived. Whilst all are of opinion that in our day Hildebrand would be an anachronism, many, even non-Catholic, authorities affirm that in his own times he was a necessity. Obviously, the circumstances, political and ' Sir James Stephen, " Essays iu Ecclesiastical BiograiJby," p. 56. Loudon, 1860. 216 THE CHAIR OF TKTER. social, of the eleventh century were very different indeed from those of the nineteenth. The paramount authority of the Pope, formerly, over Christian sovereigns — an authority exer- cised with moderation and discretion — was universally recog- nized ; the rule being proved by the exceptional resistance of a prince, here and there, against whom the Papal decree had been promulgated. But, what was the result of that decision, notwithstanding ? Adherents, as in the case of Henry IV. of Germany, or of Boleslas of Poland, fell away from the deposed ruler, on every side ; and his cause, if not immediately, at least eventually, became hopeless. Invariably, the great majority of Christian princes and nations rallied round, and morally supported the judgment of, the Holy Father. Excommunica- tion, which, unrevoked, was sure to be followed by, as it involved, deposition, was an irresistible power in the h;tnds of the successor of Saint Peter. In the troublous condition of society in the Middle Ages, when might alone constituted right, when our modern ideas of international law and con- stitutional government were altogether unknown, and when, further, kings and nobles were but too apt to forget that they had duties towards their subjects to fulfil, and that the millions whom they ruled were not made solely to be the slaves of their caprices and the victims of their crimes, that power was not only a necessity, but a great public advantage.^ " When a Pope, or a few bishops, proclaimed a sovereign denuded of his rights, and his subjects freed from the oath of fidelity," says Monsieur Guizot, "such an intervention, although, doubtless, open to serious abuses, was often in particular cases legitimate and salutary. In general, whenever liberty has been wanting to mankind, its restoration has been ' In penising the lives of the Popes, and the history of the proceedings of councils, it will be noted that the Popes almost invariably convened and con. suited councils, at least of their own suffragans, before acting in grave matti;rs, such as 'he excommunication and deposition of princes. In some instances, the Pontiffs laid affairs of tliis kind before general councils, which liappened to bo sitting at the time. SAINT GREGORY VII. 217 the work of religion. In the tenth century, the people were not in a state to defend themselves, or to make their rights availahle against civil violence, and religion came to the rescue in the name of Heaven." ^ " The Papal power, by disposing of crowns, prevented the atrocities of despotism," observes another Protestant writer. " Hence, in those ages of darkness, we see no example of tyranny comparable to that of the Domitians at Rome. A Tiberius was then impossible ; Rome would have crushed him. Great despotisms exist when kings believe that there is nothing above them. Then it is, that the intoxication of unlimited power produces the most fearful crimes." ^ Of the same purport are the following words of Voltaire, quoted in the heading of this chapter : " The interests of the human race demand a check to restrain sovereigns, and to protect the lives of the people. This check of religion could, by universal agreement, have been in the hands of the Popes. These first Pontiffs, in not meddling in temporal quarrels except to appease them, in admonishing kings and peoples of their duties, in reproving their offences, in reserving excom- munications for great crimes, would have been always regarded as the images of God upon earth. But men are reduced to have for their defence only the laws and morals of their country, laws often despised, morals often corrupted." ^ In the exercise of this great power, with which the Supremo Pontiffs were invested, by general consent, for the common weal, during the Middle Ages, they appear to have been singularly devoid of those motives of self-aggrandizement which so largely influenced the policy of other sovereigns. Some fifty years before the spoliation of the territories of the ' Guizot, "Histoire de la Civilisation en Eui'ope," 5me lecture. * Coquerel, " Essai sui- I'Histoire Geuerale du Christianismo," p. 75. Paris, 1828. * Voltaire, " Essai," torn. ii. chap. 9. More evidence, of the same nature, will be found further on, in chap, xxxv., " Benefits conferred by tlic I'apacy on Mankind." 218 THE CHAIR OF TETER. Holy See, which it has been the misfortune of the present generation to witness, Le Comte de Maistre observed with truth, "To the Papacy alone is reserved the honour of pos- sessing only what it has possessed for ten centuries. Here one finds neither treaties, nor battles, nor intrigues, nor usurpa- tions : in going back, one always arrives at a donation. Pepin, Charlemagne, Louis, Lothaire, Henry, Otho, the Countess Matilda, formed this temporal State of the Popes, so precious to Christianity." ^ Finally, in one important particular, above all others, the state of political society in those days differed widely from that which exists in our time. All Christian nations were then within the pale of the Catholic Church ; and, as the Pope was regarded as the spiritual head of the entire Christian world, communion with him was deemed an indispensable condition of the rulers of Christian States receiving and pre- serving the allegiance of their subjects. This is clearly set forth by the venerable Archbishop of Cambrai, in the following words : " Gradually this sentiment became deeply impressed on the minds of Catholic nations ; namely, that the supreme power could be committed only to a Catholic prince, and that this was a law or condition established between the people and the prince, that the people faithfully obey the prince, provided the prince himself obey the Christian religion. Which law being established, all thought that the bond of the oath of fealty, taken by the whole nation, was immediately dissolved, on the prince, in violation of that law, with a contumacious mind, resisting the Catholic religion." And he observes further: "It is not to be wondered at, that nations, greatly attached to their religion, should have thrown off the yoke of an excommunicated prince. For, by that law, they had promised that they would be subject to the prince, as the prince himself would, in like manner, be subject to the Catholic religion. But the prince who, through heresy or the criminal * De Maistre, "Da Tape," chai3. vi. SAINT GREGORY VII. 219 and impious administration of the kingdom, was excommuni- cated by tlie Church, should now be no longer considered the pious prince, to whom the whole nation wished to commit itself. Therefore^ they deemed the bond of the oath dis- solved." ^ The mainspring of Gregory's policy, the scope of his life and labours, was to increase and consolidate the influence of the Church, and through that influence to promote the best interests of mankind. This was not with him an affair of personal ambition, as some superficial writers inconclusively allege; for probably there never lived a man more elevated above all petty considerations of self. It was rather a duty, which he felt was entailed upon him by his exalted office of Universal Pastor and Teacher. On that office, as we have seen, he entered with reluctance ; but, once he had done si, he readily accepted all its responsibilities, and fearlessly ful- filled its every obligation. In this spirit, as evidenced by his letters to foreign princes and prelates, he continuously laboured, even under circumstances the most adverse, to diffuse amono- all nations the truths and precepts of the gospel. It is possibly for this reason, that certain doctrinaires of that school, which would eliminate the religious element from popular education, somewhat flippantly pronounce him to have been a foe to social and intellectual progress. Let us now hear a distinguished writer, already quoted, who deals with this subject in no superficial manner, and has brought to bear fully upon it the acuteness and thoroughness of his eminently philosophic mind : — " We are accustomed to represent to ourselves Gregory VII., as a man who wished to render all things immovable, as an adversary to intellectual development and social progress, and as a man who strove to maintain the world in a stationary or retrograding system," observes M. Guizot. "Nothing can be so false. Gregory VII. was a reformer upon the plan of ' Fcuelon, " Disbcrtatio do auct6ritate Summi Pontificis," c. 39, 220 THE CHAIR OF TETER. despotism, as were Charlemagne and Peter the Great. He, in the Ecclesiastical order, was almost what Charlemagne in France and Peter the Great in Russia were in the civil order. lie wished to reform the Church, and througli the Church to reform society, to introduce therein more morality, more justice, and more law — he wished to effect this through the Holy See, and to its profit. "At the same time that he strove to subject the civil world to the Church, and the Church to the Papacy, with an aim of reform and progress, and not one of immobility or retrogression, an attempt of the same kind and a similar movement was produced in tlie cloisters of monasteries. The desire for order, discipline, and moral strictness was zealously shown. It was at this period that Robert de IMoleme intro- duced a severe order at Citeaux. This was the age of Saint Norbert, and the reform of the j)i'ebendaries, of the reform of Cluni ; and, lastly, of the great reform of Saint Bernard." ^ Here, M. Guizot might have given a far more extensive catalogue of the monastic institutes established about this time — all of them adopting, and some even surpassing, the primitive austerity of rule of the great Benedictine order. Taken in rotation of date, they would stand as follows : the Cluniacs, founded by Saint Odo, second Abbot of Cluni, in the province of Burgundy, in 927 ; the Camaldolesi, founded by Saint Romuald, Abbot of Camaldoli, near Arczzo in Tuscany, in 1009 ; the order of Vallumbrosa, founded in the valley of that name, in the diocese of Fiesoli in Tuscany, by Saint John Gualbert, abbot, in 1070; the Carthusians, founded by Saint Bruno, in the desert of Chartreuse, near Grenoble, in 1085 ; the Cistercians, or Bernardines, founded by Saint Robert, Abbot of Moleme, in the forest of Citeaux, near Dijon, in 1098, of which community Saint Bernard became a novice in 1113 ; the order of Fontevrault in Poitou, founded by Saint Robert of Abrisscl, in 1099; and that of (Jrandmont, near ' Guizot, " ilibloiy of Civilization in Europe,' lecture 6. SAINT GREGORY VII. 221 Limoges, fouiKlcd by Saint Steplieii, abbot, about 1120. All tliese monastic orders were remarkable for their spirit of fervour and austerity of rule. Of the Canons Eegular, besides the Premonstratensians, above-mentioned, founded by Saint Norbert, in the valley of Premontre, department of Aisne, in 1121, may be mentioned the Canons of Saint Victor, founded in the Abbey of Snint Victor, Paris, by William of Champeaux, Archdeacon of Paris, under King Louis VL, in 1113; the Gilbertines, founded by Saint Gilbert, an Englishman, at Sempringham, in Lincoln- shire, in 1150; the military orders, and others. It is true, that several of these orders were instituted after Gregory's death ; but the founders and their associates were thoroughly imbued with his spirit, and influenced by his undying example. In almost every chapter of Ecclesiastical history, we find the same principle of good, developed and sustained by super- natural grace, striving against, and eventually overcoming, the evil tendencies of man's weak nature. Even in the darkest, and, humanly speaking, the most hopeless, period of the anarchy of the Middle Ages, there were laid the foundations, broad and deep, of those monastic institutes — so many semi- naries of piety and learning — which still diffuse priceless bless- ings amongst us ; and, moreover, God raised up illustrious confessors, \ doctors, and martyrs, in various countries, to illumine the moral waste, and to preserve, extend, and per- petuate the benign influences of religion, by their teaching and example. And thus it was, that the Seventh Gregory had many a cordial sympathizer in his life-long struggle with the combined powers of earth and hell — a struggle in which he laid down his life, but not before he had achieved those triumphant results which have so long survived him, and which continue to operate beneficially, even in our remote age. CHAPTEE XVIII. THE TEMPORAL POWER IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY. The contest of the Pontiffs and the Emperors on the great question of Investitures — a contest which may really date its commencement from the accession of Gregory VII., a.d. 1073, and which terminated in favour of the Church, in the con- cordat of Worms, between Callixtus II. and Henry V., in 1122 — while it completely vindicated the spiritual jurisdiction of the Holy See, tended at the same time still further to con- solidate the temporal power of the Popes.^ Thenceforward, with some troubled intervals, resulting from wars and domestic faction, the Pontiffs resumed their legitimate position, in the government of their temporal dominions, and the exercise of their functions as supreme arbiters in the commonwealth of Christian nations. That position was made more and more secure by Eugenius III., who presided over the Church, a.d. 1145-53 ; by Adrian IV., A.D. 1154-59 ; and notably by Alexander III., a.d. 1159-81. ' The settlement of the Investiture question, wliich took place some thirty- seven years after the death of Gregory VIL, was really the result of that Pontiff's energetic action in the matter. Henry IV. of Germany persisted to the end in his course of opposition to the Holy See, and maintained his right of investi- ture of Ecclesiastical benefices, against Popes Victor III., Urban II., and Pascal II. Henry V. at first followed his father's example, and claimed the same right, until the year 1122, when a concordat was concluded between him and Pope Callixtus II., at Worms, the conditions of which were ratified at tho Ninth General Council, the first of Lateran, convoked by the same Pontiff, the following year. These conditions were to tho effect that the Emperor should have tho right of temporal investiture by tho sceptre, and the Pope tho right of spiritual investiture by the ring and crosier j as may be seen by the solemn declarations of both on the occasion. THE TEMFORAL POWER— CENTURY XTI. 223 These three Pontiffs were engaged in a protracted and desperate struggle with the Emperor Frederick I., surnamed Barbarossa, of the house of Hoheustaufen — a struggle from which the Church eventually issued triumphant. The services of Euge- nius, in vindicating the power and jurisdiction of the Papacy and the regalia of Saint Peter, will be best seen in the concordat between him and Frederick, executed at Constance, on the 22nd of March, 1 152.^ Adrian, an Englishman, no less jealously maintained the rights and prerogatives of the Holy See, and his reign of close on five years has been fitly described as " a series of perpetual conflicts," in the discharge of what he conceived to be a sacred duty. Thus it was, that he, a man of the humblest birth, without worldly interest or worldly advan- tages, and promoted, for his own merits solely, to the Apostolic throne, compelled the greatest monarchs to pay him due obedience and homage, as the Vicar of Christ.^ ' " Concordia inter Eugenium PP. III. et Fredericum I. Imperatorem, Romanorura Eegem, a.d. 1152; ex Ccncio Camerario, fol. 112 ; apud Theinor, " Codex Diplomaticus," torn. i. p. 22. * Adrian IV., whose name was Nicholas Breakspeare, was the only English, man who ever filled Saint Peter's Chair. He was born, of very humble parent- age, at Abbots Laugley, near St. Alban's. His father Robert had taken the habit at the monastery of St. Alban's ; and Nicholas, who had for some time been per- forming menial services there, applied to be also admitted a novice. The abbot, considering him unsuitable, refused to receive him. On this, he went to Paris, subsisting altogether on alms ; and prosecuted his studies at the famous uni- versity of that city, with great success. Leaving Paris, he was admitted into the house of the Canons Regular of Saint Rufus, at Valence, of which, in the course of time, he was elected prior. Repairing to Rome about the affairs of his order, he made a most favourable impression on Pope Eugenius III., who detained him at Rome, and appointed him Cardinal Bishop of Albano. He was sent by Eugenius, as legate, to the Kings of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, remaining in those kingdoms four years. On the death of Eugenius's successor, Anastasius IV., he was unanimously elected to the Pontificate by the cardinals, with the joyous acclamations of the Roman clergy and people, and was enthroned in Saint Peter's on the 2nd of December, 1154. It was with the greatest reluctance that he submitted to the heavy burden of the Papacy. In his reign of four years, eight months and twenty-eight days, Adrian IV. created thirteen cardinals — one cardinal bishop, six priests, and six deacons. He died on the 31st of August, 1159. All readers of history are familiiu' with the Bull of Adrian, "favourably assenting to the petition" of Henry II. of England, and conferring on that monarch the sovereignty of Ireland. 224 TBE CHAIR OF PETER. Adrian's successor, Alexander III.^ justly styled "the Liberator of Italy," continued the struggle with the Imperial power. At first the tide of fortune strongly set against the Pontiff and his allies in Northern Italy. Alexander was exiled, and temporarily deprived of his dominions ; antipope after antipope, in rapid succession, was raised up against him ; but eventually the justice of his cause, upheld by his genius and indomitable sense of duty, prevailed, and brought the Imperial offender, humbled and a suppliant, to the foot of his throne.^ It is related that, early in the conflict, when Frederick urged Louis VII. of France to join him in supporting the anti- pope Octavian, the French monarch indignantly rejected the overture, and plainly stated to the Imperial envoys, that he did not see w'hy he and his bishops should cut themselves off from the communion of the Church of Christ. The same view was taken by Henry II. of England, the other European sovereigns, and the Greek Emperor, who all steadfastly ad- hered to Alexander, as the legitimate Pope.^ We read in cotemporary history an interesting account of the reception of the exiled Pontiff, at this period, a.d. 1161, by the Kings of France and England, who had respectively requested him to honour their dominions with his residence. On his arrival at Courcy on the Loire, he was met by the two sovereigns, wlio, having paid him the usual marks of veneration, accompanied him on foot, one on each side, holding his bridle-rein, and thus they conducted him to the pavilion prepared for his reception. On the submission of Frederick, after fifteen years' futile ' Alexander III., a native of Sienna, governed the Church twenty-two years. For the first nineteen years of his reign he witnessed a deplorable schism of antipopes, which happily he outlived. He presided in person at the Eleventh General Council, the third Lateran. In the chapter on Cardinals, will be found an account of his wise legislation, to regulate the elections of Popes. Elected September 5, 1159, he died at Rome, August 2G, 1181. ^ Pagi, " Pontificum Piomaucjrum Gesta," vol. iii. p. 42-83. See also " Con- diLicmes pacis inter Fredericum I., Imperatorom et Alexandrnm PP. III., ab ipso Imp. approbataj," a.d. 1177 : ex tmnssumpto cncevo ; apud Theiner, torn. 1, p. 22. ' i'agi, iii. 51. THE TEMPORAL POWER— CENTURY Xtl. 225 endeavours to subjugate Italy, the conditions of peace having been concluded by their respective ministers, the Emperor travelled to Venice, to pay his homage to the Holy Father, who awaited him in that city. Alexander deputed certain cardinals to receive the Emperor's abjuration of the schism of the antipopes Octavian, Guide, and John, which he had insti- gated and abetted, and his promised obedience to himself and his successors in Saint Peter's Chair. This having been accomplished, the cardinals absolved Frederick from the sen- tence of excommunication, and restored him to Catholic unity .^ The same favour was extended to all the Imperial princes and councillors, ecclesiastical and secular, and all others present, who were bound by the same sentence. Then the Emperor, as a Catholic sovereign, approached the Pope, who received him in state, at the portals of the church of Saint Mark. Taking off his cloak, Frederick prostrated himself, and kissed the foot of the Pontiff, who raised him up, and gave him the kiss of peace. They then entered the church, amidst the joyful demonstrations of the people, the Emperor taking the Pope's right hand, and, on reaching the choir, Frederick reverentially received the blessing of His Holiness.^ On the following day, the feast of Saint James, after the Pope had celebrated high mass, Frederick conducted him out of the church, and held his stirrup whilst he mounted his horse ; but, as the distance to the point of embarkation was considerable, Alexander dispensed with his further attendance, the Emperor being desirous to hold his bridle-rein, and thus accompany him on foot the whole way, according to ancient custom. On the first day of August following, in a full assembly convoked for the purpose, Frederick, throngh his plenipotentiaries, bound himself, by oath on the Holy Evan- lists, to preserve in good faith the peace of the Church and the » July 24, 1177. - The same ceremonial was observed on the occasion of the visit of Charlemagne to Pope Adrian I., at Rome, four hundred years before. Vidq supra, p. 108. 226 THE CHAIR OF PETER. Empire, also the peace which he had concluded with the King of Sicily, and the truce into which he had entered with the Lombard cities. The Sicilian ambassadors, and the Lombard delegates, bound themselves by a similar oath. Thus, mainly through the exertions of Alexander, peace smiled once more on the Italian Peninsula, so long afflicted by war and its attendant evils.^ Still more triumphant were the results accomplished by Innocent III., who reigned from 1198 to 1216, and who is generally reputed to have been one of the ablest and most illustrious of the occupants of Saint Peter's Chair.^ From the commencement of his reign. Innocent seems to have taken * Pagi, " Pontificum Romanorum Gesta," iii. 85, 86. Baronius, in loco. No less successfully did the Church maintain its rights against Barbarossa's grandson, the Emperor Frederick II. , a. d. 1227-1250, diu-ing which period the cause of justice and truth was uncompromisingly vindicated by Popes Gregory IX. and Innocent IV. ^ Lothaire, afterwards Pope Innocent III., was the son of Thrasimond, Count of Segni, and was born in Rome, a.d. 1161. In his thirtieth year he was made cardinal deacon, of the title of Saints Sergius and Bacchus, by his uncle Clement III, On the death of Celestine III., January 8, 1198, he was unani- mously elected by the College of Cardinals to the Papal Chair. He deeply regretted his election, alleging his unworthiness and youth as disqualifications ; for he was then only thirty-seven years old. However, the cardinals thought otherwise ; and, although he was allied to some of the highest of the noble families of the city, his promotion to so e.xalted a dignity was due solely to his distinguished ability, holiness, and zeal for God's honour. In the " History of Pope Innocent III. and His Cotcmporaries," M. Fredei'ic Hurter, President of the consistory of Schaffhansen, who unceasingly for twenty years laboured at his great standard work, has enabled us to realize this grand historical character — perhaps, with the single exception of his predecessor Gregory VII., tho most prominent and most important personage of the medieval period. "The existence of a Pope of the Middle Age," says Hurter, "is a portion of Universal history ; and this latter, without the Chief of the Church, loses this central base, the source of the life which circulates in all parts of the European body." "His pontificate," observes another Protestant writer, "is the one most worthy of the attention and study of European monarchs. . . . His reiga is the most brilliant epoch of the Papal power" (Daunou, " Essai Historique Bur la Puissance Temporelle des Papes.") Innocent died at Perugia, on the 6th of July, 1216, having reigned eighteen years, six months, and nine days. One result of M. Hurter'a labour of love, in studying and recording the life and actions of Innocent III., was, that, after the completion of tho work, he abandoned tho Protestant for the Catliolic conimnniou. THE TEMPORAL POWER — CENTURY XII. 227 for his model his great predecessor, Gregory VII. ; and, accordingly, he untiringly and most successfully devoted his energies, with all the weight of his influential office, to the exaltation of the Church, the promotion of justice, the repres- sion of crime and great public scandals, the general reforma- tion of morals, and the consulting the best interests, temporal and eternal, of the whole human race. His policy will perhaps be best understood, from his own words, in the following extract from his first official letter after his elevation : — ^ It is onr duty (he writes) to make religion flourish in the Church of God; and to protect it there where it flourishes. It is our wish that during all our life Christianity should be respected and protected, and that religious establishments should prosper more and more. Neither death nor life separates us from justice; and we know that on us is imposed the duty of watching over the rights of all. No favour towards any person whomsoever shall make us deviate from this path. We are placed over peoples and kingdoms, not on account of our merit, but as the servant of God. Our firm resolution, in which nothing shall make us waver, is then sincerely and faithfully to love all those who are devoted to the Church, and to protect them with the buckler of the Holy See, against all insolence of oppressors. But, if we regard the importance of the pastoral functions, and the weakness of our powers, we trust not in our own capacity, but in Him only whose place we hold upon earth. If we consider the diversity of the affairs to be treated, the solicitude to be bestowed on all the Cliurches — a solicitude which is for us a daily duty, we recognize in ourselves, as expressed in the greeting of our letters * the servant of the servants ; ' ^ if, in fine, we consider the burden of the ' So great was the pressure of affairs to be dealt with, in various countries on the accession of Innocent III., that the number of oflBcial letters alone, which he wrote in the first year of his reign, was no less than 583. * This title, " Servant of the servants of God," was first used by the Popes, in the heading of their official letters, towards the end of the sixth century. It is said to have originated with Saint Gregory the Great, who, when .lohn " the Faster," Patriarch of Constantinople, assumed the title of " CEcumenical Bishop," deemed it his duty to set an example of humility, and commenced signing himself as " Servant of the servants of God." This signature is to be found in several of Saint Gregory's letters : for instance, among others, in those to Romanus, the defender of Sicily ; to Innocentius, Prefect of Africa ; to Virgilius, Bishop of Aries ; and to Augustine and his companions, whom he sent to evangelize England, a. d. 596. Its origin has been erroneously ascribed 228 THE CHAIR OF PETER. supreme administration, and the weakness of our shoulders, wc can api>ly to ourselves the words of the prophet : " I have come iuto the deep sea, and I have perished in the storm." But it is the hand of the Lord which has raised us from the dust to this throne, where we render justico not only with princes, but above princes. Throughout the whole reign of this Pontiff, we have unmis- takable evidence of the paramount power of the Popes, " rendering justice not only with princes, but above princes," in the councils of Europe, in the Middle Ages. The contro- versies of Innocent with Philip Augustus of France and John of England, not to speak of others in which he was engaged, prove that he carried the assertion of his authority to the highest point ever aimed at by an occupant of the Pontifical throne. To that authority, in every instance, the monarchs were compelled to submit. Those terrible weapons, the In- terdict, laid on the dominions of recusant sovereigns,^ and the to Pope Damasus, who govei-ned the Church, a.d. 366-381. See Pagi, " Pon. tificnm Romanorum Gesta," i. 3i aud 276 ; also Bede's " Ecclesiastical History of England," book i. chap. 23. • The Interdict. Local interdicts were resorted to by bishops in the early ages, to repress great public scandals, such as the violence and crimes of princea and nobles. We read of them in the sixth century. National interdicts are asci'ibed to the Middle Ages, when the strongest measures were required in the interests of religion and humanity. In a district or country under interdict, the churches were closed; the bells were silenced; solemn religions services ceased ; the sacraments were administered only to infants and tlie dying ; and the interment of the dead took place without any religious service. Thus the sovereign was punished through his subjects, to whom, in a short time, the deprivation of all the aids and ministrations of religion became intolerable. Hence the offender was eventually compelled to submission, preferring a request, in all penitence, that the interdict should be taken off, and the public exercise of religion restored to his kingdom. Perhaps the two most remarkable instances were the following, in the reign of Innocent III. The first was a.d. 1200, when the whole kingdom of France was laid under an interdict, because Pliilip Augustus had repudiated his wife Ingelburga of Denmark, and married, in her stead, Agnes de Meranie. In eight months, Philip was obliged to yield, sending away Agnes, and taking back his lawful wife. The second instance was, when John, King of England, opposed the Pope's nomination of Stephen Langton to the See of Canterbury, persecuted the clergy, and seized on their revenues. Here, in like manner, but after five years' obstinate impenitence — March 23, 1208 to May 15, 1213 — with a sentence of excommunication and deposition pronounced against him, and his whole kingdom laid under an interdict, John was compelled to yield, swearing fealty to the Pope aud his successors ; even as, two years THE TEMPORAL POWER— CENTURY XII. 229 excommunication and deposition of princes, in punishment of flagrant crimes, of the arbitrary abuse of power, and of the gross violation of the rights and jurisdiction of the Church, may seem unjustifiable to those who confine their scope to modern times, and regard not the circumstances and the exigencies of an earlier period: but every one must admire the disinterested zeal, and intrepid love of justice, which, with great holiness of life, were the characteristics of this illustrious Pontiff. later, he signed the great charter of English liberty, Magna Charta, on the com- piilsiou of his barons, at Ruunymede. CHAPTER XIX. THE TEMPORAL POWER — CENTURIES XIII. TO XVIII. The election of Rudolph von Hapsburg to the Imperial dignity, in the latter part of the thirteenth century, marks another important era in the history of the Temporal Power of the Popes. * Richard, Earl of Cornwall, brother of Henry III. of England, who had been chosen King of the Romans and Germans in 1271, having died on the 2ud of April, 1273, and the rights of Alphonsus, King of Castile, who had been elected to the same dignity, being doubtful and most difficult of decision. Pope Gregory X.,^ moved by the disputes and dis- turbances in Germany, which necessarily resulted, commanded the Ecclesiastical electors, under penalty of the deprivation of office, and the secular princes, under pain of excommunica- tion, to determine without delay, and give an Advocate to the Church ; ^ adding, that otherwise he would make the election himself. The electors, thereupon, immediately assembled at Frankfort ; and, after three days' deliberation, Rudolph, Count of Hapsburg in Switzerland, then absent, was chosen King and Emperor elect.^ Repairing to Aix-la-Chapelle, Rudolph there * Gregory X. See Index. * Advocate. Vide supra, p. 184, note. ' Rudolph, or Rodolph, von Hapsburg was the founder of the present Imperial house of Austria. Ottocar, King of Bohemia, having refused to acknowledge hira as Emperor elect, a war ensued between them, resulting in the defeat and death of the Bohemian prince. Rndolph thereupon took possession of Ottocar's province of Austria, which he conferred on his own stm Albert, afterwards Emperor: and Albert's successors, abandoning the title of Hapsbm-g, assumed THE TEMPORAL POWER — CENTURIES XIII. TO XVIII. 231 received the oaths of fealty of the electors, and was crowned King. The following year, he sent his ambassadors to the Pope, then, presiding over the Fourteenth General Council, at Lyons. Gregory gave them audience, not at the council, but in a consistory of cardinals ; on which occasion the leading member of the embassy, Otho, Provost of the Church of Saint Guido at Spires, and Chancellor of the Imperial Court, in the name of Rudolph, coniirnied all the rights and territories of the Holy See, and promised that the Emperor elect would not invade the possessions of the Church, or levy war against the King of Sicily ; and, further, that, on his receiving the insignia of the Empire at Eome, he would take the usual oath of fealty and obedience to the Holy Father. On this, Gregory con- firmed his election. The following year, Rudolph, coming from Vienna, with his Queen Consort and children, waited on Gregory, then at Lausanne, taking an oath to the Pontiff, that he would defend and guarantee the possessions of the Church, and further binding himself to join the Crusade.-^ In his diploma, executed the same year, a.d. 1275, Rudolph placed on record his con- that of Austria, as being more illastrious. Rudolph was succeeded by Albert in 1291; and the male line continued until the death of Charles VI. in 1740, when it became extinct, and Charles's only daughter Maria Theresa succeeded to the throne. She married Francis I., Duke of Tuscany, of the house of Lorraine, who thus became the founder of the Hapsburg-Lorraine dynasty. In 1780, Maria Theresa was succeeded by her son Joseph II. ; and he, by his brother Leopold II. , in 1790. After the coronation of Napoleon as Emperor of France in 180-i, Leopold's son and successor, Francis I., relinquished the title of Emperor of Germany, and assumed that of Emperor of Austria. Some say that this step was taken, in obedience to the imperious will of Napoleon, while others, including a cotemporary writer, afErm that it was the result of Francis's apprehension that, with the increase of the power of the Protestant States, in the course of time, the title of Emperor of Germany might be wrested from the house of Hapsburg-Lorraine by the house of Hohenzollern — a view which has been borne out by recent events. After an unusually long reign, Francis was succeeded by his son Ferdinand IV. in 1835 ; and that monarch abdicated iu favoni- of his nephew, Francis Joseph, the present Emperor, in 1848. ' Pagi, "Pontificum Romanorum Gesta," iii. 348; Bernardus Guido, in " Chronico Rom. Pontificum ; " and Ptolomaeus Lucensis, " Hist. Eccles.," lib. xxxiii. oap. 4. 232 THE CHAIR OF PETER. finnation of all the privileges conceded by the Emperors, his predecessors, to the Holy Eomaii Church, and his solemn promise to defend the city and provinces which they had recovered and restored to her.^ In this important deed, we find the following clause, regarding matters spiritual : " Anxious to abolish the abuse which some of our predecessors are known and are said to have exercised in the election of prelates, we concede and enact, that the election of prelates shall be freely and canoni- cally made, so that he shall be placed over a widowed Church, whom the whole chapter, or the greater or sounder part thereof, will have considered the person to be chosen, provided the canonical statutes are fully observed. And in Ecclesiastical affairs and causes, appeals shall be freely made to the Apostolic See. And let no one presume to impede tlieir prosecution or progress. We also repudiate and repress the abuse which our predecessors used to commit in taking possession of the goods of deceased prelates or Churches, accor 1512. ' Ranko's " Ilistory of the Popes," book i. chap. 2. THE TEMPORAL TOWER — CENTURIES XIIT. TO XVIII. 241 " He had ever sought to present himself in the character of a liberator; governing his new subjects with a wise benignity, he secured their attachment and even devotion ; the temporal princes were not without alarm at sight of so many warlike populations in allegiance to a Pope." ^ From this time forward, the various cities of the Papal dominions, and the unruly barons, were brought more and more into a state of unconditional subjection to their sovereign lords, the Popes ; and, with occasional vicissitudes arising from political disturbance and warlike operations,^ the terri- tories of the Holy See continued the same, till near the close of the last century, when the French revolution and its consequences effected great, though not enduring, changes in this, as in other sovereignties. These will form the subject of future chapters. * Ranke's " History of the Popes," book i. chap. 2. * Such, for instance, were the disastrous warlike policy and the unlucky alliances which were forced on Clement VII. by the defence of Italy against Cliarles V., and which entailed such severe reverses and so much humiliation on that Pontiff. Clement VII. reigned a.d. 1523-1534; and had the misfortune to witness the defection of England from the Chnrch, under Henry VIII. CHAPTER XX. THE GREAT SCHISM OF THE WEST. Of all the evils resulting from the removal of the Papal court to Avignon, which was, not inaptly, compared by the Italians to the Babylonian captivity, the most deplorable was that inflicted on the Universal Church by the Schism of the Antipopes,! which endured more than forty years. This schism arose out of the transfer of the Papacy back to Home, by Gregory XI., in 1377. Gregory having died on the 27th of March, 1378, the sixteen cardinals then in Rome assembled in conclave, and on the 8ih of April unanimously elected, as Pope, Bartolomeo di Prignano, Archbishop of Bari in Apulia, outside the Sacred College. The elect, who assumed the name of Urban VI., was immediately enthroned ; and on Easter Sunday, the 18th, his coronation took place, in front of Saint Peter's, all the cardinals who had chosen him participating in the ceremony. The inhabitants of Rome had urgently besought the cardinals, before their enclosure, to elect a Roman, or at least an Italian, and thus to put an end to the evils inflicted on the City and Papal States by an opposite course for the last seventy years. According to some writers, they assumed a tone of menace ; and, further on, large crowds, in a state of excite- ment, surrounded the building in which the conclave was being ' Generallj called " the great schism of the West." THE GHEAT SCIIISIM OF THE WEST. 213 held, crying out that they would insist on the new Pope being a native of Rome. Although these proceedings may not have amounted to coercion, there can be no doubt that they would, have had considerable effect in making the result of the election different from what it might have been, were the majority of the cardinals unanimous. For the conclave com- prised four Italians only, one Spaniard, Peter de Luna, and no less than eleven Frenchmen ; and these last, if they agreed and were not coerced, could and would have chosen one of their own nation. But, it is alleged, the French cardinals were by no means of one mind, being divided into two parties, that of Limousin, and that of the other provinces of France, and therefore both favoured the election of an Italian. Besides the sixteen who entered the conclave, there were six who had remained at Avignon, the total number of the members of the Sacred College at the time being twenty-two. On the 19th of April, the sixteen cardinals at Rome wrote to their colleagues at Avignon, announcing their election of Urban ; and the Avignon cardinals replied by letter, acknow- ledging him as Pope. Urban was a learned, pious, and austere man ; but, in his zeal for the reformation of manners, the correction of abuses, and the retrenchment of extravagant expenditure, he appears to have been wanting in discretion ; for immediately after his election he began to act with harshness to the members of the Sacred College, and he also offended several of the secular princes. Towards the end of June, twelve of the cardinals — eleven Frenchmen and one Spaniard — obtained permission to leave Rome, owing to the summer heats, and withdrew to Anagni. Here, in a written instrument, dated 9th August, 1378, they protested against the election, as not having been free, and they called on Urban to resign. A few days later, they removed to Fondi in the kingdom of Naples, where they were joined by three of the Italians whom they had gained over to their views ; and, on the loth of September, the fifteen 244 THE CnAIE OF PETER. elected an antipope, the French Cardinal Kobert of Cevennes,* who took the name of Clement VIT., and reigned at Avignon sixteen years, dying September 16, 1394. Thus there were two claimants of the Papal throne — Urban holding his court at Eome, and Clement residing with his followers at Avignon. The latter was strong in the support of the sovereigns of France, Scotland, Naples, Aragon, Castile, and Savoy ; while the remainder of Christendom adhered to Urban. Clement was succeeded by Peter de Luna, the Cardinal of Aragon, who, on his election, assumed the name of Benedict XIII., and reigned at Avignon twenty-three years — a.d. 1394- 1417. This lamentable state of affairs lasted altogether forty years. Urban's successors at Rome, duly elected by the Italian cardinals and those acting with them, were, Boniface IX., a Neapolitan, a.d. 1389-1404 ; Innocent VII., a native of Sulmona, a.d. 1404-1406 ; Gregory XII., a Venetian, a.d. 1406-1409 ; Alexander V., a native of Candia, who reigned ten months, a.d. 1409-1410 ; and John XXIII., a Neapolitan, A.D. 1410-1417. As we have seen, there sat, during the forty years, two antipojies at Avignon — Clement VII., a.d. 1378- 1394 ; and Benedict XIII., a.d. 1394-1417. Although the Popes above enumerated, as having reigned at Rome, are now regarded as the legitimate Pontiffs, and, as such, are inscribed in the Catalogues of Popes, while Clement and Benedict are classed as antipopes, there prevailed at the time much uncertainty on the subject. A great deal depended on the question, whether or not the election of Urban VI. was made under coercion and was consequently uncanonical. That question was one most difficult of decision. The party of each claimant was large and influential ; and, although diametrically opposed to each other, neither was guilty of disobedience to ' DoUinger, Alzog, and other modern writers call him Robert of Gevei'n ; bnt Pagi, Panvinius, and others nearer liis own times, style him of Cevennes ; " Kobcrtiis Gallua Gebenneusis.'' THE GREAT SCHISM OF THE WEST. 245 the Church or its chief; as all were only anxious to know the true Pope and to render him obedience. "During the whole time that the schism lasted," says a cotemporary, Saint Antoninus, Archbishop of Florence,'- " each party or obedience numbered men deeply learned in the Holy Scriptures and the canon law, and also most religious men, nay, men illustrious by their miracles : nor could the question ever be decided, without its remaining doubtful to many. For, although it is necessary to believe tliat, as there is one Catholic Church, not several, so also is its one chief pastor the Vicar of Christ, if however it should happen that through schism several Supreme Pontiffs are created or named at one and the same time, it does not seem necessary to salva- tion to believe that this or that one, but that one of them is the Pope canonically elected. Now, every one is not bound to know who has been canonically elected, as every one is not bound to know canon law. In such matters, the people can folluw their superiors or prelates." We may well imagine the uncertainty existing as to tlie legitimate Pope, when we find ranged on opposite sides two most illustrious saints, Catherine of Sienna, and Vincent Ferrer, — both spiritual children of Saint Dominic, and burning with zeal for the glory of God.^ In February, 1395, Charles VI. of France convoked an assembly of the clergy of his dominions, under the presidency of Simon Cramandus, Patriarch of Alexandria, in order, if possible, to terminate the schism. The assembly advised that ' Saint Antoninu?, Archbishop of Florence, was born in that city, in 13S9, At an early age he entered the Dominican order, in which he was distinguished for his learning and piety. In 1-44..6, he was consecrated Archbishop of Florence. Ho died in 1459, in his seventieth year. His principal work is Sumnia TheolngicB Muralis, partibus quatuor distincta, which has passed through several editions. * Saint Catherine of Sienna, with her powerful influence, supported Urban VI., while Saint Vincent Fen-er adhered to De Luna, Benedict XIII., whom he regarded as the legitimate Pope, until 1416, when, in common with the King of Aragon antl several otlier adherents, lie renounced him, admitting that he had been mistaken in supporting him. 246 THE CHAm OF PETER. the rival Pontiffs, Boniface IX. and Benedict XIII. should abdicate. The same view was taken by most of the universities of Europe. Both claimants however were reluct mt to act upon it ; and consequently affairs remained as before. About two years after the election of Boniface's successor, Gregory XII., by the Roman cardinals, a conferenr-e was proposed between him and his rival at Avignon, in order that some agreement might be come to between them — each having, on his election, promised on oath that he would resign should the other do the same ; but the difficulties as to preliminaries which were raised on both sides were such that no progress was made in the matter.^ Then the French party, dissatisfied with Benedict, withdrew their support from him; and the Roman cardinals, equally displeased with Gregory, abandoned him likewise. After this, the united cardinals met at Leghorn, and there agreed, that, whereas both Pontiffs were bound by their oaths and the uncertainty of their positions to abdicate, and had refused to do so, thus prolonging the schism, they had lost all claim to obedience. It was therefore resolved that they, the members of the Sacred College, should convoke a General Cfuncil, to meet at Pisa, on the 25th of March, 1409. Gregory and Benedict were duly informed thereof, and were requested to attend the council ; and legates were sent with the same intimation to the sovereigns of France, England, Germany, and other states. The Council of Pisa sat from March 25th to August 7th, X409. There were present twenty-three cardinals of both "obediences," four patriarchs, twelve archbishops, eighty bishops, eighty-seven abbots ; the procurators of one hundred and two absent archbishops and bishops, and of two hundred absent abbots; the generals of four mendicant orders; the deputies of twelve Universities, namely, Oxford, Paris, Tou- louse, Orleans, Angers, Montpclier, Bologna, Florence, Cracow, Prague, Vienna, and Cologne ; the representatives of over one ' Pauviuius, apud PUitiuum, " Do vilis Poutiliuuui llomauuruui," p. 281. THE GREAT SCHISM OF THE WEST. 247 hundred cathedral and collegiate chapters, two hundred and eighty-two doctors and licentiates of canon and civil law, and the ambassadors of the Kings of England, France, Poland, Bohemia, Portugal, Sicily, and Cyprus. Guido de Malesec, the oldest cardinal, presided. This was a large and most influential representation of the Church, and it afforded evidence of the great anxiety of Christendom to put a period to the schism. Yet, in the opinion of many, the validity of the council, at best, was but doubtful ; as the essential condition of its being convoked by the Pope, and participated in by him, was wanting. This view was urged bj Gregory's representatives, as well as by those of the German King, Rupert of the Palatinate, and of Ladislas, King of Naples, both supporters of Gregory. The crisis, no doubt, was one of extreme difficulty. John Gerson, Chancellor of the University of Paris, and other learned theologians argued, that the rule just mentioned, that a General Council should be convoked and participated in by the Pope, applied only when there was an undoubtedly legiti- mate Pope ; but that, in the actually existing circumstances, where there were two claimants of the Papal throne, each with a large following, and where the legitimacy of each was a doubtful question, the mandate of neither would be generally obeyed, and consequently the lamentable schism, so full of perplexity and uncertainty, and so detrimental to the Churcli, would be perpetuated ; and that therefore the council, con- voked and participated in by the united cardinals, was legitimate. In its eighth and ninth sessions, the council discussed the question of its being canonically convened, and decided that question in the affirmative. The case of the two claimants of the Papacy was next considered. Their protests against the proceedings were set aside ; and, as they both had failed to attend in person, judgment went against them, and they were each declared unworthy to preside over the Church, juid for- 248 THE CHAIR OF PETER. bidden to act as Pope. ^ In the sixteenth session, each of. the twenty-tliree cardinals solemnly bound himself by an agree- ment, that, if he were chosen Pope, he would not dissolve the council until it had legislated for the complete reformation of Ecclesiastical discipline, which had been seriously impaired by the schism. It was next decidel that the united cardinals exclusively had the right of electing the Pope. The conclave commenced on the 15th of June, and, on the 26th, Peter Filargo, a Friar Minor, and a native of Candia, was chosen, taking the name of Alexander V. Alexander presided at the last sessions of the council, which broke up on the 7th of August, having accom- plished its main work of electing a Pope. The reformation of Ecclesiastical discipline was deferred to a General Council, which the Fathers unanimously agreed was to be convoked in three years for the purpose. The newly elected Pope, as several had anticipated, was not universally recognized. Gregory had still the support of Germany, Naples, and some of the lesser Italian States ; while Scotland, Spain, and Portugal adhered to Benedict. Alexandc-r, after a short reign of ten months, died on the 3rd of May, 1410, and the cardinals elected as his successor Cardinal Cossa, a politic worldly man, who assumed the name of John XXIII. The Council of Pisa, intervening in a most difficult crisis, intended well ; but it was irregular, as not having been con- voked by the Pope. Consequently, it only aggravated the evil which it laboured to cure. Instead of two, there were now three claimants of the Papal Chair. It was reserved for the General Council of Constance to restore union and peace to the Church. The" Sixteenth General Council, that of Constance, was, at the time of its assembling, the largest, and perhaps the most important, ever held. It was convoked by John XXIII. for the 1st of November, 1414, in a Bull issued for the purpose on ' Session 15lb, June o, llOU. THE GREAT SCHISM OF THE WEST. 219 tlie 7th of December previous. Its objects were, to terminate the schism of the autipopes; to condemn errors of faith, espe- cially those of Wickliff and Huss; and to reform Ecclesiastical discipline. The council assembled eighteen thousand ecclesiastics, comprising twenty-four cardinals, three patriarchs, thirty- three archbishops, one hundred and sixty bishops, one hundred and twenty-four abbots, and close on three hundred dt)ctors and licentiates of canon and civil law. Among tlie princes present were Sigismund, King of Germany, Emperor Elect, and the Dukes of Saxony, Mecklenburg, Pomerania, Lorraine, and Austria. The concourse of strangers in the city was over one hundred thousand. On the 5th of November, 1414, the council was opened by John, who advisedly spoke of it as a continuation of the Council of Pisa, which had pronounced against his two rivals. However, the general sentiment was quite otherwise, in accordance with the conclusion arrived at by the university of Paris and other universities, namely that the schism could be ended only by the resignation or deposition of the three claimants. Gregory acted in this spirit; for, in a public audience, his delegates declared to the council that he was ready to resign, provided that his two opponents would do so, and that John should not preside at the council. John refused, relying on the decision of the Council of Pisa ; and further expressed a wish that the voting should be by bishops alone ; but the bishops were a very small proportion of the ecclesiastics attending. Besides, there were several laymen among tlie representatives of the universities. The definite arrangement made was as follows. The whole assembly was divided into four nations — Italian, French, German, and English. After De Luna's deposition, a fifth, the Spanish, was added. Each nation had its own committee and president, who separately discussed each subject of deliberation. The result was laid 250 THE CHAIR OF TETER. before the general conference of nations ; and the decision of the majority was submitted to the council in its next session. On the 1st of I\Iarch, 1415, the four nations being assembled in the Apostolic palace, in presence of the Emperor Sigismund, the Patriarch of Antioch, in the name of the whole council, earnestly besought John, who, as Pope, had convoked the council, that he would restore complete peace to the Church by a renunciation of the Papacy — his two rivals renouncing also ; which John of his own free will promised to do. On the following day, the Pontiff, seated on his throne in front of the altar, in the Cathedral, and in presence of the Emperor and the whole council, in its twelfth session, read out in a clear voice the schedule, which on the previous day had been presented to him by the Patriarch, and of which the tenor was as follows : " I, John XXIII., Pope, for the sake of the whole Christian people, of my own accord and freely, pro- fess, promise, vow, and swear to God, and to the Church, and to this sacred council, that I will give peace to the Church by way of my simple renunciation of the Papacy ; and that I will do and carry it into effect, according to the deliberation of this present council, if and when Peter de Luna and Angelus de Corario, styled respectively by their followers Benedict XIII. and Gregory XII., renounce in like manner, and also in any case whatsoever of renunciation or decease, or otherwise, in which my renouncing can give union to the Church of God, for the extirpation of the present schism." The Emperor tliereupon laid aside his crown, and kneeling kissed the feet of the Pontiff, thanking liim in his own name and that of the council. Thanks on behalf of the whole council wore also rendered to him by the Patriarch of Antioch. But ere long differences arose between the Pope on the one hand and the Emperor and the council on the other. John moreover appears to have immediately regretted liis solemn promise to abdicate. With the aid of Frederick Duke of Austria, he withdrew, in disguise, to Schall'hauseu, on the THE GREAT SCHISM OF THE WEST. 251 iiidit of the 20tli of March. Thence he summoned the car- dinals of his obedience to attend him ; and he opened commu- nications with the King of France and other princes, in ord'-r to justify his flight. Meanwhile the business of the council proceeded. By its order and that of the Emperor, John was arrested by Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg, and detained a prisoner. The council then appointed a deputation to confer with him on the whole question ; and the result of their protracted conference was, that John made full submission. Thereupon, the council, in its twelfth session, on the 29th of May, 1415, formally deposed him from the Papacy. On the 81st, in presence of the delegates of the council, he entirely acquiesced in the sentence, and affirmed on oath that he would never act contrary to it ; and, now resigning and renouncing the Papacy, he divested himself, yet in their presence, of all the Papal insignia, and expressed his regret that he had ever been elevated to the position,^ Immediately on the deposition of John XXIII. by the council, Grregory XII. came forward to redeem his promise. On the 5th of June, 14 1 5, Carlo de Malatesta, Lord of the city (jf Iximini, where Gregory resided, arrived at Constance, as liis plenipotentiary, and declared to the Emperor that he had been sent to him, and not to the council, which Gregory did not recognize. In the fourteenth session, at which Sigismund at first presided, as Gregory refused to abdicate under the presi- dency of a cardinal of another obedience, a Bull from him was read, in which he first, through his legate the Cardinal of Eagusa, convoked the council, in order that he might after- wards acknowledge its authority. The cardinals of the two " obediences " were declared united, and the cardinals, created * The deposed Pontiff, John XXIIL, remained a prisoner four years. On his liberation in 1419, he cast himself at the feet of Martin V., whom he venerated as Vicar of Christ, and expressed his approval of his election as Pope, by the Council of Constance. On the 23rd of June that year, Martin named hiia Bisliop of Tusculum and Dean of the Sacred College. He died on the 22nd of December following. 252 THE CHAIR OF PETER. by Gregory, six in number, were received into the Sacred College. Then, the Cardinal Bishop of Ostia presiding, Mala^ testa read Gregory's solemn act of renunciation, which was joyfully and gratefully received by the whole assembly.^ Benedict XIII., although occupying the most doubtful position of the three claimants, and now long universally regarded as an antipope, was the most difficult to deal with. The council again and again endeavoured to procure from him his renunciation. Even the Emperor Sigismund, accompanied by fourteen delegates of the council, travelled to Perpignan, to hold an interview with him on the subject ; but, owing to Benedict's obstinacy and subterfuges, they returned disap- pointed. The Spaniards, so long his supporters, now withdrew from him ; and Saint Vincent Ferrer abandoned him, declaring that he had been deceived in his regard. Finally, in its thirty- seventh session, on the 26th of July, 1417, he was solemnly deposed by the council.^ The case now stood thus. Gregory XII. had voluntarily abdicated; John XXIII. had submitted to the Council of Constance, by which he was formally deposed ; and the anti- pope Peter de Luna (Benedict XIII.) had also been deposed, without submitting, and was abandoned by all his followers. The election of a Pope was the next business of the council. The conclave consisted of twenty-three cardinals, and (on the proposition of the cardinals themselves) of thirty deputies, six from each nation — a departure from the general rule, which was allowed in this particular instance, but which, it was expressly stated, should not be permitted in any other. xVfter a consultation of three days, on the 11th of November, 1417, ' In a letter, a short time afterwards, which he addressed to the council, confirming all that had been done in the matter, Gregory signed himself Angclo, Cardinal Bishop. Ho was appointed by Martin V. Cardinal Legate of Aucoua. Ho died in October, 1417. * Obstinately adhering to his bare title of Benedict XIII., and without any followers, I'eter de JiUua conLinuod to reside in obscurity, in the small Spanish town of Peiiiscola, until his death, which took place in Ilil],. TTIE GREAT SCHISM OF THE WEST. 253 tliey unanimously elected Cardinal Ottone Colonna, who as- sumed the name of Martin V., and was consecrated and crowned on the 21st of the same month. Martin immediately addressed himself to carrying out the proposed reforms of Ecclesiastical discipline, in the council. In the forty-fifth and last session, on the 22ud of April, 1418, he confirmed the decrees on matters of faith, made according to the due forms of councils ; ^ but he excepted all that had been done otherwise. He then declared the council closed. Thus happily terminated the great schism of the West, equally disedifying and detrimental to religion ; and all Christendom rejoiced that peace and union had been restored to the Church. ' " Quua in materia fidei conciliariter determiiiata, conclusa, et decreta fuisseut." CHAPTER XXI. LUTHEK AND THE GREAT PROTESTANT SECESSION. " And was there not religion when the Church Was one — a common mother — loved and feared, When haughty souls rejoiced to bear her yoke, When all those grand monastic piles were reared ?" Ada Cambridge, The great Protestant secession has been perhaps the heaviest blow sustained by the Church since her foundation. Of the several defections, too, not excepting even the Greek schism, it has been tlie most rapid in its development. Its author, Martin Luther, was born of humble parentage at Eisleben, in the county of Mansfeldt in Saxony, on the 10th of November, 1483. In 1501 he was placed by his father in the University of Erfurt, in order that he might qualify him- self for the profession of the law. Here, iu 1505, he took the degree of Master of Arts; and, showing but little taste for the legal profession, he devoted himself to the study of the Aristotelian philosophy. About this time, a staitling event occurred which changed the whole current of his life. As he was walking one day in a meadow with a friend named Alexis, the latter was struck dead at his side by a flash of liirhtnino-. Luther on the spot formed a resolution — some say he made a vow — to dedicate the remainder of his life to God. On the 17th of July, 1505, he privately left the University at niglit- fall, and begged for admission into the convent of the Angus- tinian Hermits at Erfurt, Here he was cordially received; LUTHER AND THE GREAT PROTESTANT SECESSION. 2.15 and in 1507 he marie his religions profession and was ordained a priest. The following year, on the recommendation of Staupitz, the provincial of the Augustinians, he was appointed by Frederick, Elector of Saxony, to the professorship of phi- losophy in the newly established University of Wittenberg, where he lectured with marked success. So high did he stand in the estimation of his superiors, that in 1510 he was sent, with another brother, on the affairs of the order to Rome. Arriving within sight of the city, he cast himself on his knees, and exclaimed, " Hail, Holy Rome, city sanctified by the blood of the martyrs ! " ^ But this devotion did not last long, as will presently be seen. In 1512, he received the Doctor's cap, alluding to which he says, " I was obliged to take the degree of Doctor, and to promise on oath that I would faithfully and without adulteration preach the Holy Scriptures which are so dear to me." In his preaching, ere long, Luther became remarkable for his propensity to novelties ; and he showed himself a strenuous opponent of the system of scholastic theology,^ of which the ' This he tells us himself: " Auno 1510, cum primum civitatem inspicerera, in tem-am prostratus dicebam : Salve sancta Eoma." ^ The Scholastic Theology, based, as I'egards its machinery, or reasoning process, on the system of Aristotle, prevailed extensively in the Middle Ages. Its method was, to reduce all theology to one single body, distributing the questions in order, so that one should tend to throw light on another, and the whole should be made a system, connected, consecative, and complete. lb observed in its reasoning the rales of logic, made use of the notions of meta- physics, and reconciled, as far as possible, faith with reason, and religion with philosophy. Its followers were called Scholastics or Schoolmen; but some of them, not content with proceeding judiciously after the example of Saint Thomas, entered into many nice and speculative points, in themselves unim- portant, and having but little or no bearing on theology. So far was this abuse carried, that Gregory IX. and other Popes were obliged to interfere and recall the disputants from theii' extravagant departures outside the legitimate domain of theological discussion. Peter Lombard is generally regarded as the founder of this school, although, to a considerable extent, it existed before his time. He was a Doctor of Paris, and bishop of that city from 1159 to his death in 1164. He is known as the " Master of the Sentences," from his having estab- lished a system of theology, in which he supported the various subjects with " sentences," or passages from the Holy Scriptures and the Fathers. He was followed by several theologians, who wrote elaborate " Commonlaries on the 256 THE CHAIR OF PETER. great Dominican, Saint Thomas of Aquino, had been so illus- trious a Doctor.^ Master of the Sentences." There were two ^'eat divisions of the Schoolmen — the Thomists or the followers of Saint Thomas of Aquino, and the Scotistf: or disciples of John Duns Scotus. The latter was called Scotus, as being a native of Scotland or Ireland, although it is generally thought that he was bom in the village of Dunstane in Northumberland. He entered the Franciscan order, taught divinity at Oxford, and subsequently established himself in Paris, where he died in 1308, at the early age of thirty. four. He was called the " Subtle Doctor." Saint Thomas will be spoken of fully in the next note. These two opposed schools both adopted the Peripatetic or Aristotelian system in questions of philosophy. In theology, Duns Scotus and his followers, including the whole Franciscan order, strenuously maintained the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary, which, being then an open question, undefined by the Cliurch, was denied by the Dominicans. Beyond this, the points of dispute between the two schools were on problematical questions of little consequence. ' Saint Thomas of Aquino was born in 1227, of the ancient family of the Counts of Aquino, in Campania in the kingdom of Naples. In 1243 he entered the order of the Dominicans, or Friars Preachers. At Cologne, he studied under the celebrated Albertus Magnus. Here he combined assiduous application to his studies with the most edifying holiness of life ; and his silence and love of retirement were such that his fellow-students called him " the dumb Sicilian ox." On hearing this, his distinguished master, who had already become acquainted with his wondrous capacity and genius, exclaimed, " He is an ox, whose bellowings will one day resound throughout the universe ! " In 1257, Thomas received a doctor's cap in Paris, where he lectured and preached with great distinction, and where Saint Louis frequently invited him to his court. Pope Clement IV. offered him the Archbishopric of Naples ; but he shrank from BO gi'eat a burthen, and prayed to be excused by His Holiness. On his way to the Second General Council of Lyons, to which he had been summoned by Gregory X., Saint Thomas was seized with his last illness, and closed his labours and holy life at the Cistercian Abbey of Fossa Nova, in tlie diocese of Terracina, on the 7th of March, 1274, in his forty-eighth year. Saint Thomas's works are most vohiminous ; and when one takes into account his labours in preaching and discharging other duties devolving on him, it is a subject of wonder how in twenty years one man could have written so much. His style has been well described as " characterized by avast aud profound genius, exquisite judgment, admirable clearness, and unique precision. Whether in establishing the truths of faith, or replying to difficulties raised, it is very rarely one can observe that anything could be added to what he has said." So great was his facility in writing, that he used to dictate to his secretaries on three or four subjects at the same time. This great theologian and saint was styled " the Angelical Doctor," " the Eagle of Theologians," and " the Angel of the Schools." His works have run through several editions, in Rome, Antwerp, Venice, and Paris, ranging from seventeen to twenty-three volumes folio, and twenty -eight volumes cjuarto. The abridgment of his theological works, called the Sunnna Theoloyica, is held in the greatest esteem down to the present da}-, and is said to stand higli in the favour of His Holiness Pope Leo XIII. LUTHER AND THE GREAT PROTESTANT SECESSION. 257 Pope Julius II., who governed the Church a.d. 1503-1513, beiuo^ anxious to rebuild the basilica of Saint Peter on a majatiscs. * .Jer. Emser, "in Prasf. Ann." apnd Audin, ii. Ill, 112 : " Hunc fere libris, singulisqiie propc capitibus, Biblia falsaase, ac fere mille quadringentos erroreg hajreticos, mendaciaque occultavisse : " and, again, Seckendorf, " Common, do Luth.," ibidem : " Ipsum non pauca de quibus in notis suis litigat Emserus mutusse, supplevisse, ant qu« per errorem irrepserant sustnlisse." Audin here gives several instances of these errors. ^ Ibid. " Asiuos pontilicios non euro. Indigni onim sunt qui de laboribua meis judicent." 270 THE CHAIR OF PETER. against himself. He further blames Luther for having under- taken a work, to which he could not devote the necessary time. And Doctor Dolliuger plainly states that, for the sake of the doctrine of Justification by Faith, "Luther deliberately and purposely gave a mistranslation of several passages in the Bible, and especially in the Epistles of Saint Paul, and that it was also to uphold this, his favourite dogma, that the great Reformer interpolated fanciful expressions of his own, that were foreign to, and altogether undiscoverable in, the original text." ^ Besides the translation of the New Testament, Luther, while at Wartburg, was engaged in writing several pamphlets against the Church, and in reply to his opponents — all pub- lished at Wittenberg and Basle in 1522. On the death of Leo X., December 1, 1521, his successor Adrian VI. immediately addressed himself to the retrench- ment of the expenses of the Papal court, and other salutary reforms of abuses, which had been greatly exaggerated by the enemies of the Holy See, hoping thus to withdraw the German populations from the new doctrines. But the movement had gone entirely beyond his control ; so that, at the close of his brief pontificate, he observed, with his dying breath, Septem- ber 14, 1523, " Alas, how sad is the condition of a Pope, who wishes to do good, but cannot ! " Clement VII. who reigned from November, 1523, to Janu- ary, 1534, resolved, immediately on his accession, to deal with the distractions of the Church in a spirit of vigour commen- surate with the crisis. He sent his legate Campeggio to the Diet of Nuremberg ; but here the legate found the German princes far from favourable to the views of Rome, He there- fore exerted himself in another quarter, and brought about an alliance between the previously mutually estranged princes of Austria and Bavaria in support of the Church ; ^ but on the " Bollinger, " The Cbuich and the Churches," p. 297. Loudon, 1862, Trans. See further, p. 321. * Juno 5, 1524. LUTHER AND THE GREAT PROTESTANT SECESSION. 271 other hand the Elector of Saxony, the Landgrave of Hesse, and the rulers of Prussia, Mecklenburg, Anhalt, and Mausfeld, united to support Luther. Not long afterwards Clement committed a serious blunder in siding with Francis I. of France against the powerful monarch Charles Y., when the Imperial aid and friendship were of so much consequence to the Church. Twice was Rome besieged, taken and plundered by Charles's forces, the Pope being made prisoner, and treated with marked indignity. Ere long, Luther's novel theories, as set forth in his ser- mons and writings, especially in his tracts on Monastic Vows and the Abuse of Masses, were carried by his followers into practical effect. Several of his brethren of the Augustinians, and other monks, left their convents, declaring their religious vows to be null and void ; and many of them took wives — a step naturally causing much surprise and disedification. Several of the secular clergy, too, followed the same course. Of these the most prominent was Andrew Carlstadt, Arch- deacon of Wittenberg. This man, carried away by the excite- ment of passing events, became suddenly changed into a violent fanatic. He placed himself at the head of a riotous mob, who burst into the churches, committing gross excesses, overturning altars, and destroying holy pictures and statues. He further, assuming extraordinary ecclesiastical powers, released monks from their convents, and bade them marry, abolished auricular confession and fasting, and capped the climax by administering the Blessed Eucharist to all comers, whether in the state of grace or not ! ^ ' Andrew Rodolph Carolstadt, or Carlstadt, whose true name was Boden- stein, was canon, archdeacon, and professor of Theology, at Wittenberg. lie gave the doctor's cap to Luther, to whom he was closely bound by the ties of friendship. He shared the opinions of Berengerins, in denying the real presence. He was the first ecclesiastic in Germany who was publicly married. His disciples composed prayers for this occasion, to be sung at the nujjtial mass. The first ran thus : " O God, who, after the blindness of the priests, has designed to confer on happy Carlstadt the grace to bo the tirst who has the courage to take a wife, without having regard to the laws of the Papacy, we pray," 272 THE CHAIR OF PETER. Luther remonstrated, but iu vain, with this unruly disciple. Yet the proceedings of Carlstadt and his associates were only- consistent with Luther's own teaching — his violent invectives against the Church, its visible Head, its bishops, and clergy, and his declaration that the time had come, not only to abolish monastic vows for ever, " but to punish with all severity those who make them, to destroy convents, abbeys, priories, and monasteries ; and thus prevent those vows being ever again uttered." ^ Then his leading principle of justification by faith alone, as he expounded it, when carried out to its inevitable conclu- sion, even although not so intended, must hav^e had a most pernicious effect with such men. No doubt, the Lutheran doctrine is, that good works are the result and the sign of faith ; so that justifying faith is never without good works. But how are we to understand the following propositions ? " As nothing justifies except faith, so nothing sins except unbelief." " If in faith adultery could be committed, it would not be a sin." 2 Again, in his treatise, " On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church," Luther says : " Thus then you see how rich the Christian or baptized man is, who, even though willing to lose his salvation by sins ever so great, cannot do so except he ahould refuse to believe ; for no sins can damn him unless unbelief alone. . . . But contrition and the confession of sins, and then satisfaction, and all those practices devised by men, will suddenly desert you, and render you more unhappy, if, etc. Such were the profanities of some of the self-called Reformers. Carlstadt died at B;ile, in want, in 15-il. His several controversial works are held iu little esteem by Protestants. ' Lutheri " De Votis Monasticis Judicium," Opera ii. 477 b. Scriptnm a.d. 1521. * Lutheri " Disputationes," Opera i. 488 b. " Questio, utrum opera faci- ant ad justificationein ?" "1. Ut nihil justificat nisi fides, ita nihil peccat nisi incrcdulitas." " 10, Si in fide fieri potest adultcrium, peccutum uou esset." LUTHEK AND THE GEEAT PROTESTANT SECESSION. 273 forgetful of this Divine truth, you fill yourself up with them." 1 Further, he writes to Melancthon, on the 21st of August, 1521 : " Be a sinner and sin boldly ; but more boldly believe and rejoice in Christ, who is the conqueror of sin, of death, and of the world. To sin is our lot, as long as we are here. This life is not the habitation of justice ; but we expect, says Peter, new heavens and a new earth, in which justice will dwell. It is sufficient that through the riches of the glory of Grod we have known the Lamb, who taketh away the sins of the world. Sin cannot separate us from Him, even though a thousand times — a thousand times in one day — we should commit fornication or murder." ^ Here, indeed, is a convenient doctrine, likely to make many proselytes among men of loose morals and practical infidelity — a numerous class, it must be admitted, in Luther's day ! It cannot, then, be a matter of surprise to us to hear from a learned German ecclesiastic of the present day, that " the grand ' acquisition ' of the Eeformation, the Protestant ' Justifi- cation ' doctrine, is now abandoned by the most distinguished theologians as ' untenable,' and by the exegetists branded as * unbiblical.' " ^ It was in the year 1523 that Luther published his remarkable work on " The Secular Magistracy," which was ' Luther. "De Captivitate Babylonica Ecclesiae," Opera ii. 271- Scrip, tuiii A.D. 1520. "Itavides quam dives sit homo Christianus sive baptisatus, qui etiam volens non potest perdere salutem suam quautiscuuque peccatis, nisi nolit credere. Nulla enira poccata enm possunt damnare, nisi sola incredalitas. . . Contritio autem et peccatorum confessio, deinde et satisfactio, et omnia ilia boiniuum excogitata studia, sabito te descreut, et infeliciorem reddent, si oblitua veritatis hujus divina) in ipsis tete distenderis." * " Esto peccator et pecca fortiter; set fortius fide et gaude in Cliristo, qui victor est peccati, mortis, et mundi. Peccandum est quamdiu hie sumus. Vita hscc non est habitatio justitiaj; sed expectamus, ait Petrus, ccbIos novos et tei-ram novam, in quibus justitia habitabit. Sufficit qiiod agnovimns, per divitias gloriao Doi, Aguum qui tollit pcccata mundi : ab hoc non avellet nos peccatum, etiamsi millies, millies uno die, fornicemur aut occidamus." See Audin, i. 219. ^ Dolliuger, " The Church and the Churches," p. 322. London, 18G2. Trans. T 274 THE CHAIR OF PETER. levelled against all authority, and which so inflamed the peasantry, that a large portion of Germany was convulsed by their excesses. He had, in the commencement of his public career, called for the extermination of Pope, cardinals, and bishops. He now violently inveighed against all political rulers. In this treatise, he writes : " Princes are of the world, and the world is alien from God ; inasmuch as they live according to the world, and against the law of God. Be not astonished, therefore, by their furious fighting against the Gospel, for they cannot act contrary to their own nature. From the beginning of the world, a wise and prudent prince has been a vara avis, and an honest and upright prince still more rare. They are generally the greatest fools, or the very worst scoundrels living under the sun.^ .... Trust them not, my good peoj^le." The feuds of the peasants and nobles had subsisted before the time of Luther. We read of risings of the former against their " tyrants " in Flanders and along the banks of the Khiue and the Moselle, in 1492. But they had been reduced to submission by the prompt and energetic measures of their spiritual and temporal lords. All their animosity was now intensified and roused into fatal activity ; and this, to a considerable extent, by the language of " the great Reformer," whose doctrines, oral and written, were so enthusiastically received and so widely circulated throughout Germany. That language was enlarged on, to a startling degree, by Carlstadt, Strauss, Muntzer, chief of the " Conquering Anabaptists," and other unruly followers of Luther.^ ' " Ab initio mundi rara avis in terra fuit princeps prudentia pollens ; mnlto rai'ior probus princeps. Ut plurimum, vel maximi sunt moriones, vel nebulones omnium qoi sub sole vivunt pessimi." This book on " The Secular Magistracy " was written by Luther, against an Imperial decree prohibiting the circulation of his version of the New Testauieut, and ordering its suppression. Tlio Emperor's example in this matter was followed by other princes. ' Audin, " Life of Luther," vol. ii. chap. 10. LUTHER AXU THE GREAT PROTESTANT SECESSION. 275 The Black Forest, Saxony, Thuringia, Franconia, and the Palatinate, were the chief scenes of the Peasants' war. It was not without great slaughter that the authorities succeeded in suppressing this fanatical outbreak — the numbers slain being computed at not less than one hundred thousand.^ In the first instance, Luther had by his writings excited the peasants against the bishops, priests, and Catholic princes ; but when he found that the ignorant people, assembling in vast numbers, made no distinction, but assailed with equal animosity the Protestant rulers, who so warmly supported the new doctrines, he completely changed his tone, and called on the sovereigns of Hesse, Brunswick, and Saxony to exterminate " those murdering and pillaging peasants." In his " Table Talk," he says : " I, IMartin Luther, have shed the blood of the rebellious peasants; for I commanded them to be killed. Their blood indeed is upon my head, but I put it upon the Lord God, by whose command I spoke." ^ Henry VIII. of England came forward as an opponent of Luther, in 1521. His " Defence of the Seven Sacraments against Martin Luther," said to have been principally written by Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, is considered a complete refu- tation of the arguments of the Reformer,^ In recognition of ' Audin, " Life of Luther," vol. ii. chap. 10. In this chapter, Andin gives full details of this fierce bat short-lived struggle. At the battle of Mulhausen the peasants' army was utterly routed, with immense slaughter, by Philip Landgrave of Hesse, Henry Duke of Brunswick, and George Duke of Saxony, on the 15th of May, 1525. These princes are said to have taken the field, by the advice of Luther and Melancthon. Shortly after the final battle, Muntzer was taken prisoner at Frankenhausen, brought back to Mulhausen, and beheaded there. In his last moments, he was attended by a priest, having abjui'ed his errors and expressed a desire to be reconciled to the Chui-ch, against which he had so grievously offended. * "Table Talk," p. 27(5, Eisleben edition. In a letter to Nicholas Amsdorf, dated May 30, 1525, Luther wrote, that the peasauts deserved no patience, but the wrath and indignation of God and men ; and that to justify them, to pity them, to favour them, would be to deny God, to blaspheme, and to wish Him to be torn from heaven. "Nulla patientia rnsticis debetnr, sed ira et indignatio Dei et homiuum. Hos ergo justificare, horum misereri, illis favere, est Deum negare, blasphemaro, et dc coelo vclle eradicari." ' In his book on the " Babylonian Captivity of the Church " (Opera ii. 360 b), 276 THE CHAIR OF PETER. Henry's services to the Church in this matter, Clement con- ferred on him the title Fidei Defensor, Defender of the Faith, which was most acceptable to Henry, as it placed him, with regard to the Church, on the level of the Kings of France and Spain, styled respectively "the Most Christian King," and " the Most Catholic King," through the favour of the Apostolic See. In his book, Henry, alluding to Luther, says : " For he cannot deny, that every Church of the faithful recognizes and venerates the most holy Koman See, as its mother and spiritual ruler, to which neither distance of place nor intervening dangers prevent its having recourse. For even the Indians, separated from us by so many tracts of land, sea, and desert, if those who come from India speak truth, submit themselves to the Roman Pontiff. Therefore, if the Pontiff has acquired so great and so widely diffused a power neither by the ordinance of God nor by the will of man, but usurped it by force, I would have Luther say, when it was that he thrust himself into the possession of such great authority. The origin of so immense a power cannot be obscure, especially if it commenced within the memory of man. But, if he should say that it is further back than one or two generations, let him bring it to our recollection from history." ^ With reference to Luther's allegation, that the Pope had Luther had redaccd the number of the Sacraments from seven to three. Baptism, Penance, and the Eucharist, " Bapfiijnius, Pcenitentia, Punis." Henry's work, against this innovation, admired for its pure Latinity no less than for its matter, was styled, " Assertio Septem Sacramentorum adversus Martinuni Lutherum, edita ab invictissimo Angliae et Franciaj rege et domino Hibcrniaj, Henrico ejus nominis octavo." Loudini, 1521, in asdibus Pynsonianis; Autvcrpias, 1522, in ajdibus Michaiilis Hillenii ; Roma), 1543. Several editions were also brought out in France, Holland, and Germany. The manuscript, preserved in the Vatican Library, was presented to the Pope. To it is prefixed the following distich : — " Anglorum rex, Heuricus, Leo decime, mittit Hoc opus, et fidei tosteiu et amicitiaj." ' " Assertio Septem Sacramentorum adversns Mart. Lutherum, Henrico VIII. Augliae ilege auctore," p. 9. Farisiis, apud Gulielmum Desboys, 1562. LUTHER AND THE GREAT PROTESTANT SECESSION. 277 acquired his " despotic power " by mere force, Henry continues : " I greatly wonder that he expects his readers to be so simple or so stupid as to believe, that a priest, unarmed, alone, without retainers, supported by no right, relying on no title, ever could have usurped, or possessed himself of, or obtained, so great an empire over so many bishops, his equals, over so many different and widely divided nations, as that one would suppose that all peoples, cities, kingdoms and provinces had been so prodigal of their possessions, rights, and liberties, as to confer on a foreign priest so much power over them- selves — a power which he would scarcely dare to wish for." 1 Towards the end of his work, the King observes : " Thus, then, there is no doctor so venerable, no person so holy, no one of so great eminence in the knowledge of sacred literature, whom this new petty doctor, this diminutive saint, this dwarf of erudition,^ does not reject, with an air of great authority. Wherefore, since Luther despises everybody, since he believes in no one, he should not be enraged if in turn no one believes in him. For, of what use is it to hold any further controversy with him, who dissents from all others, and does not agree with himself — here asserting one thing, here again denying it ; here denying another thing, which he had previously asserted ? He despises the ancient doctors of the Church, and from his own exalted position ridicules those of modern times. Ho assails with abuse the Supreme Pontiff of the Church. He sets at naught Ecclesiastical usages, dogmas, morals, laws, canons, faith, and the Universal Church herself, as if there were no Church save that which he has made of two or three heretics, and of which he is the head." ^ Luther's reply to Henry was published, both in Latin and German, in 1522. The two texts vary considerably ; but both * " Assertio," p. 10. * " Novus doctorculus, fsanctulus, oniditulus." Lutlier is said to have beea greatly exasperated by tliese iiucouiijliuicutary expressions. ' " Assertio," p. iiT, 98. 278 THE CHAIR OF PETER. are written in the same abusive style.^ He unsparingly pours out the vials of his wrath against the King, the Pope, and the Church. Of Henry, he says : " Now when this damnable rottenness and worm purposely and wittingly composes lies against the majesty of my King in heaven, it is my right, for my King, to bespatter the majesty of England with his own filth and dung, and trample underfoot that crown which blasphemes Christ."^ He says further : " If the foolish King so forgets his Koyal majesty, that he dares to come forward with open lies, and this, while treating of sacred things, why may it not be excellent for me to cast back into his mouth his falsehoods, so that, if he feel any pleasure in lying against the Divine Majesty, he may lose it in hearing the truth against him- self? "^ And again : " Here I have to deal not with the ignorance and dullness of Henry, but with his obstinate and impudent wickedness. He not only utters untruths here, like the most frivolous scoffer, but in these serious matters he now dares, he now flees, he now corrupts, he now perverts, he says all things, and again he remains silent, entirely through mere caprice ; so that, if he does not surpass, he egregiously equals the most worthless scoundrel."^ Luther did not remain long unanswered. A reply, admired equally for its elegance of style and cogent • reasoning, was written by Bishop Fisher, refuting, at great length, all his arguments;^ and another rejoinder was composed by Sir Thomas More, under the assumed name of " AVilliam Ross," in which he attacked Luther in a vein of banter, ridicule, and ' I quote from the Latin version. It is entitled, " Contra Henricum Regem Angliso Martiuus Lutbcrus." " Opera," ii. 61G b. * Luther, " Opera," ii. 518 b. » Ibid., ii. 521. * Ibid., ii. 521 b. * This work is styled " Assertionum Regis Angliao de Fide Catholicaadrersua Lutheri Babylonicani captivitatem defensio: Aiithoro R. D. Johauue Rollensi Episcopo." Pari.siis, apiid Gulielinum Desboys, 1562. LUTHER AND THE GEEAT PROTESTANT SECESSION. 27f) abuse, perhaps not as appropriate and effective as would have been a more serious tone.^ Three years later, Luther addressed a most humble apology to Henry — a circumstance which is by some writers attributed to his having shrewdly discerned certain foreshadowings of the great change which eventually took place in the King's rela- tions with the Holy See. Others ascribe it to the strongly urged suggestion, or rather command, of Luther's patron, the Elector of Saxony.^ In October, 1524, Luther threw off the monastic habit, and in the following June he married Catherine Bora, a young Cistercian nun. This lady had fled from her convent at Kimptschen in Saxony to join the Reformer, in 1523. The bride's age was twenty-six, and the bridegroom's forty-one. Luther's marriage came by surprise upon his disciples, none of whom he had consulted on the subject. " He has unexpectedly married," says Melancthon, in a letter to Camerarius. " I shall not venture to condemn these sudden nuptials as a fall and a scandal; although God points out to us in the conduct of His elect faults which we cannot approve. Woe to him who rejects the doctrines because of the sins of the teacher."^ Luther him- self shows an anxiety, on more than one occasion, to explain or justify this step, as one requiring at least explanation. He writes to a friend, "It is indeed true, Amsdorf, that I have married Catherine Bora. 1 may live some years longer ; and I could not refuse my father this proof of filial obedience, in the hope of offspring. It is necessary to strengthen precept by example ; there are so many weak minds who dare not look the Gospel in the face."^ Yet this explanation does not appear quite to satisfy himself ; for he writes to another friend, Kceppe, who had assisted Catherine to escape from her convent : " You are aware what has happened to me : I am caught in the ' " Eruditissimi viri Galielmi Rossei opus elegans, doctuui, festivum." * Luther's letter is dated Witteuberg, September 1, 1525. » Audiu, " Life of Luther," ii. 220. ♦ Ibid. 280 THE CHAIR OF PETER. snares of a woman. It is a perfect miracle ; God must have pouted at the world and me," etc.^ Again, he writes to Spala- tinus, " I have made myself so vile and contemptible by this marriage, that I may hope the angels will laugh and all the devils weep."^ Indeed this and other events in his life appear to hav^e been surprises to himself and others — " things not written in the stars." " I am a peasant's son," he says, " and my father, grand- father, and great-grandfather were all common peasants. My father went to Mansfeld, where he got employment in the mines ; and there I was born. That I should ever become bachelor of arts, doctor of divinity, and what not, seemed not to be written in the stars. How I must have surprised folks by turning monk ; and then, again, by changing the brown cap for another ! By so doing I occasioned real grief and trouble to my father. Afterwards I went to loggerheads with the P<)pe, married a runaway nun, and had children by her. Who foresaw these things in the stars ? Who could have foretold that they were to come to pass?"^ Erasmus, who could not resist the opportunity for a sarcasm afforded by the marriage, observes, in a letter to Nicholas Everard, dated December 24, 1525, " The tumults of comedies generally end in marriage. Hence the sudden tranquillity of all things. . . . The Lutheran tragedy seems to be about to have a like ending. A monk marries a nun," etc.* It is stated that sometimes in moments of cool reflection the married pair had compimctious visitings. " One evening, as they walked in their little garden, the stars blazed with » Audin, " Life of Luther," ii. 219. * " Sic mo vilom et contcmptum his nuptiis feci, ut aiigelos ridero ct omncs da3moues flero sperem." ' Seo Chaluier'e " Memoir of Lutlier," prefixed to " Table Talk," p. xxv. London, 1878. * " Solent comici tumultus fere in matrimoniura exiro ; atqiic hinc rerum omnium subita tranquillitas. . . . Similom exituin liabitura vidotur Liitlienina trajL^curlia. Duxit monachus moiiachaui," etc. Erasmi Kpistula ad Nicolatmi Everardum, Doc. 21, 1525. LUTHER AND THE GREAT PROTESTANT SECESSION. 2S I extraordinary lustre ; the heavens seemed on fire. ' Do you see what splendour those luminous points emit ? ' said Catherine. Luther looked up, and said, ' What a glorious light! It shines not for us!' 'And wherefore?' returned Bora. * Have we lost our right to the kingdom of heaven ? ' Luther sighed. ' Perhaps so,' said he, * as a punishment for our having left our convents.' ' Should we not, then, return to them ? ' said Catherine. ' It is too late ; the car is sunk too deep,' replied the doctor, and the conversation dropped."^ In 1529, Luther published, in plain language, intelligible to all, his two Catechisms, a greater and a less, for the instruc- tion of the clergy and the people in his tenets. These Cate- chisms form part of the Symbolic Books of the Lutherans.^ As agreed on by both parties at the Diet of Nuremberg, the German princes and prelates. Catholic and non-Catholic, met at the Diet of Spire in 1526, and again in 1529 ; but no settlement of the controverted points was arrived at. In the latter assembly, in which the Catholics were in a majority, a decree was passed, explaining and confirming the decree of the diet of 1526, which approved of the moderate propositions of the Catholic princes and prelates. Those propositions were : That the Edict of the Diet of Worms should be maintained in those States in which it had already been received ; that those who had adopted the new doctrines should be allowed to observe them in quiet until the assembling of a General Council, as any attempt to prohibit them might lead to a sedition ; that the Catholic doctrine of the Eucharist should not be preached against ; that the sacrifice of the Mass sliould be continued, and that in those places in which it had been abolished no one should be molested for offering it in private, or for assisting at it ; that the clergy should preach the Gospel according to the Church's interpretation, but that controverted » Audin, " Life of Luther," ii. 213. * Symbolic Books are the books containing the symbol, or creed, or profes- sion of faith, of a particular religious communion, or sect. 282 THE CHATR OF PETER. points should be avoided until the assembling of the council ; and that all the provinces of the Empire should live in peace, committing no acts of hostility against each other. The adherents of Luther in the diet drew up a strong protest against this decree, setting forth their reasons for doing so. This protest was signed by John, Elector of Saxony ; George, Marquis of Brandenburg; Ernest and Francis, Dukes of Lunen- burg ; Philip, Landgrave of Hesse ; and Wolfgang, Prince of Anhalt, Fourteen Imperial cities joined in it, viz. Strasbourg, Nuremberg, Ulm, Constance, Reutlingen, Windsheim, Mem- mingen, Lindau, Kempten, Heilbronn, Isny, Weissenbuvg, Nordlingen, and St. Gall. It was dated the 19th of April, 1529; and from that day forward those whose opinions it represented were known as Protestants, "which all the Reformers adopted as a glorious appellation." Acting on his laudable resolve to leave nothing untried which might reconcile the religious differences prevailing in the Empire, Charles, as Advocate and Protector of the Church, convoked a diet to assemble at Augsburg on the 8th of April, 1530. At Charles's desire, a statement of their Articles of Faith was prepared and presented to him by the Protestants in the diet, on the 25th of June. This symbol, or profession of faith, known as the Confession of Augsburg, Confessio Augm- tana, was drawn up by Melancthon, and is written in a con- ciliatory tone, characteristic of its author. Melancthon was aided in his work by Luther and other theologians, and some of the German princes ; but it was mainly his own composition. When completed, it met the full approval of Luther, who said : " I am quite pleased with the document. I see nothing in it that requires either change or emendation. I could not myself have written it, having neither the sweetness of temper, nor the self-restraint necessary to the work." The Confession of Augsburg consists of an introduction and two parts. In the first part, it sets forth what the sub- scribers believe, comprised in twenty-one articles, " based ou LUTHER AND THE GREAT PROTESTANT SECESSION. 283 the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds " ; and, in the second, it states, in seven articles, the " abuses " which they condemn. In the former, will be recognized Luther's principal errors, involved as they are by Melancthon in guarded and subdued language. In the latter, objection is made to Communion under one kind, private Masses, the celibacy of the clergy, monastic vows, the distinction of meats for days of abstinence, auricular confession, and the Ecclesiastical hierarchy as a system of Church g< •vernment. On the 25th of June, 1530, the Confession was read to the diet, in the presence of the Emperor, and handed to him. The reply to it, Confutatio Gonfessionis Augustanse, as drawn up by the Catholic theologians,^ was read in a public session of the diet, on the 3rd of August, when the Emperor and the Catholic princes expressed themselves satisfied with it. Luther, being under the ban of the Empire, could not take part in the Diet of Augsburg, but remained at Coburg, near enough for consultation. Melancthon next drew up, under the direction of Luther, a reply to the Confutation, and styled it " An Apology for the Confession of Augsburg." ^ When this Apology was laid before the Emperor, he rejected it, along with the Confession. About the same time, appeared the Confession of Basle, composed by Zwingli, in which were stated the points of difference between his opinions and those of Luther on the " Lord's Supper," ^ and also a Confession of the four cities which adhered to the Zwingli's doctrine, namely, Strasbourg, Constance, Lindau, and Memmingen. This last was called Confessio Tetrajpolitana^ ' Of these the principal was John Faber, afterwards Archbishop of Vienna. ' Melancthon published two editions of this Apology, Apologia Confessionis AugwstancB, one in quarto, aud another in octavo, in 1531. It was immediately tiuuslated into German. * The first edition of this Confession was printed in German at Basle in 1530. ■* From the Greek rirpa, four, and Tr6Mis, cities. This Confession, di-awn up by Bucer, was published at Strasbourg, first in German, and afterwards iu Latin; both in 1531. 284 THE CIIATR OF TETER, Thus early, was brought into prominence, to the discomfiture of Luther and his adherents, that divergence of doctrine which necessarily results from the leading principle of tlie Keformers — the right of private judgment in matters of faith. The Emperor now insisted on the Protestant princes abjur- ing their errors; and a civil war appeared inevitable, and would certainly have ensued, but for the attitude of the Turks who meditated the conquest of Europe. The common danger united those who otherwise would have engaged in fratricidal strife ; and negotiations opened at Frankfort were concluded at Nuremberg, July 23, 1532, to the effect: that, until the assembling of a General Council, no hostilities should be entered on by any of the parties ; tliat meanwhile the status in quo should be maintained ; that religious disputations should cease ; and that those who had already received the Confession of Augsburg should be included in the arrangements ; the Emperor thus abrogating the decrees of the Diets of Worms and Augsburg. As the Augsburg Confession is " not only ' the funda- mental creed of the Keformation,' but also the only one which the great majority of Christ-believing Protestants now acknow- ledge," ^ it may be well to refer briefly here to its history and some few of its variations. The original Confession, presented to the Emperor, was drawn up in German and in Latin ; and, by desire of the Protestant princes, the German version was that which was read to the diet. The Emperor retained the Latin copy ; and handed that in German to the Archbishop of Mentz. Both are now said to be lost. When Charles dismissed the princes, he exacted a promise from them that they would not publish the Confession without his express permission. Notwithstand- ing this promise, five editions in German, and two in Latin, ' DoUingcr, " The Church uiul tlie Churches," p. 11. Loiitlon, 1862. Tiaiis. LUTHER AND THE GREAT PROTESTANT SECESSION. 285 were published in the course of that year, all varying more or less from each other.^ Melancthon himself issued a new edition towards the close of the year (1530). In the preface he says, " We now publish from a trustworthy copy a new and accurately written out Confession." ^ Even in this will be found variations from the original. How could it be otherwise, when, in each successive edition, an attempt was made to meet the necessarily conflict- ing views of the leading theologians of the Reformation, each of whom asserted, in practice, his right of private judg- ment in interpreting the Scriptures ? How futile this attempt, will be seen in a comparison of IMelancthon's edition of " the Confession of Augsburg " of 1540, with that \\hich he published ten years before. The earlier is known as the Confessio invariata ; and the later as the Confessio variata — a very necessary distinction. In the original Confession, the tenth article says : " Con- cerning the Lord's Supper, they (the Protestants) teach, that the body and blood of Christ are really present, and are distributed to those eating in the Lord's Supper ; and they disapprove of those who teach otherwise." To this article the Swiss theologians objected ; and, in order to please them, Melancthon altered it in his Confessio variata, by omitting altogether the words affirming the Eeal Presence, and substi- tuting for them the following: "that the body and blood of Christ are given ivith the bread and wine to those eating in the Lord's supper." ^ Luther severely censured his friend for > Audin, " Life of Luther," vol. ii. p. 333. * " Nunc emittimus probe et diligenter descriptam Confessionem ex exera- plari bonsB fidei." * In the Confessio invariata, a.d. 1530, the Latin runs thus : " De coena Domini decent, qaod corpus et sanguis Christi vere adsint et distribuantur vcscentibus in ccena Domini, et improbant secusdocontes ; " and in the Confessio variata, A.D. 15-40, thus : " De coena Domini docent, quod cum pane et vino exhibeantur corpus et sanguis Christi vesceutibus in ccEua Domini." It is asserted by some writers, that, in the original Confession, handed to the Emperor now not extant, the words " sub specie panis et vini," occurred after " Christi." Audiu is positive on this point (" Life of Luther," ii. 351). 286 THE CHAIR OF PETER. his action in the matter. " Who," he asked, " has given yon permission to alter a public Confession? The Confession of Augsburg is neither yours nor mine. It is the Confession of all who bear the name of Christians at AVittenberg." i Melancthon here had undertaken the impossible. As well might he have attempted to turn back the Elbe to its source. The three great chiefs of the Eeformation, Luther, Zwingli and Calvin, held and professed widely different views on the Lord's Supper. Their views, he felt, could never be reconciled ; but he vainly hoped to establish a modus vivendi between them. Luther at first held the doctrine of Transubstantiation, as set forth, with his approval, in the tenth article of the original Confession of Augsburg. But eventually, hard pressed by the opposition of the Sacram^ntarians,^ he abandoned this doctrine, and substituted for it that of Consubstantiation, or Impanation, as he called it ; viz. that the body of Christ is received in, Ufider, and tuith the bread — in, sab, et cum pane. Now, Zwingli's doctrine was, that the language of our Lord at His Last Supper was iigurative ; that the word " is," est, or Icttj, in the text, means " is a sign of," or " represents," — the import being, not " This is my body," but " This represents my body " ; and that the only presence of Christ in the Eucharist is that which exists in the thoughts of a contempla- tive mind: while Calvin maintained, that nowhere but in heaven is the body of Christ really and substantially present ; that the bread and wine are unchanged by the words of con- secration ; but that at the moment of communion a Divine power emanating from the body of Christ in heaven is com- municated to the soul of the believer— that is, that Christ is received spiritually. Luther, strongly impressed with the Catholic doctrine, had ^ Andin's " Life of Luther," ii. 352. * Sacramentarians. So tliose wore called who denied the Catholic aiid Lutheran doctrine of the real presence of the body and blood of Christ iu tl.e Eucharist. LUTHER AND THE GREAT PROTESTANT SECESSION. 287 but little patience iu his intercourse with the Sacramentarians. In a work which was published in Zurich in 1526, Zwingli complains of his intolerance as follows : " See, then, how these men, who owe everything to the Word, would wish now to shut the mouths of those who differ from them, Christians like themselves. They cry out that we are heretics, who should not be listened to ; they proscribe our books, and denounce us to the magistrates. Is not this to do as the Pope did formerly, when truth endeavoured to raise her head ! " ^ "We have Bibles in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and Grerman," wrote Luther to his followers in Frankfort, " let the Swiss, then, show us any version in which it is written, ' This is the sign of My body.' If they cannot do this, let them be silent. They are incessantly exclaiming, ' The Scriptures, the Scriptures ! ' But the Scriptures as loudly and distinctly proclaim, * This is My body ' ; and these words defy them. There is not a child of seven years old who would give a different interpretation of the text." 2 Again, with reference to Zwingli's main argument against the real presence, namely, " that it is the doctrine of the Pope," Luther observed, " The Sacramentarians prefer the true bread and wine, in order to show disrespect to the Pope, thinking that they can in this way directly overturn the Papacy. Truly this is a frivolous argument, on which they will base nothing that is good. For, according to it, they would be bound to deny also the Holy Scriptures and the office of preaching ; for surely we have all this from the Pope. What folly ! Christ found the abuses of the Pharisees in the Jewish people : but He did not in consequence reject what they held and taught. We must acknowledge that under the Papacy is most tliat is good in Christianity, nay, all that is good in Christianity, which from the Papacy has come to us. For we must confess that in the Papacy are the true Scriptures, true baptism, the true ' Audin's " Life of Luther," ii. 304. * Ibid., ii. 301, Luther, " Defensio de Coen^ Domini." 288 THE CHAIR OF TETEE. sacjrament of the altar, the true keys for the remission of sins, the true ofifice of preaching, the true catechism, as are the Lord's prayer, the articles of faith, the ten commandments. I say moreover that in the Papacy is true Christianity, yes the nucleus of Christianity." ^ Well indeed might Luther's bio- grapher style this " a noble admission, which would cause us to rejoice, if soon afterwards, when opposed to the Catholics, Luther was not ready to deny words which he had hurled against Zwingli." ^ In 1527, Luther reckoned eight different interpretations of the words of Christ : " Hoc est corpus meum." Thirty years later, there were no less than eighty-five.^ It is not a matter of surprise, then, that in the disputation on the Euf'harist between Luther and Zwingli at the Conference of Marburg, in 1529, nothing was done towards reconciling their differences. On the contrary, the breacli was widened.^ In estimating the public life and character of Luther, much depends upon the standpoint from which he is regarded. * Andin, "Life of Lather," ii. 302. Claude de Sainctes (Sanctesias) " De rebus Eucharistiso controversis ; " Paris, 1575. Luther's words are, " Sacra- inentarii verum paucm et vinum habere volunt in despectum Papa), arbitnmtes se hoc pacto recte subvcrtere posse Papatum. Profecto frivolnm est hoc argu- raeiitum supra quod nihil boni asdificaturi sunt. Hoc enim pacta negare eos oporteret totam quoque Scripturam sacram et prsedicaudi ofBcium : hoc enim totum nimirum a Papa habemus. Stultitia hoc est totum. Nam et Christus in gonte Judaica iuveuit Pharisajorum abusus : non taraen proptorea rejocit quod illi habuorunt et docuerunt. Nos autem fatemur sub papatu plnrimum esse boni Christian!, .imo omne bonum Christianum, atque etiara illinc ad nos deveuisse. Quippe fatemur in papatu veram esse Scripturam sacram, vcrum baptismum, verum sacramentura altaris, veras claves ad remissionern poccatorum, verum praedicandi ofRcium, vernm catechismum, ut sunt oratio Dominica, articnli fidci, decern in'aocepta. Dico insuper in Papatu veram Christianitatcm esse, imo verum nucleum Christiauitatis esse." 2 Ibid., ii. 302. * Ibid., ii. 301. * The Conference of Marburg was held by desire of the Landgrave of Hesse, who was anxious to restore peace to his dominions, disturbed by the violent disputes of the two great Reformers and their followers. Luther was accompanied by Molancthon, Justus Jonas, and Creiiziger; and Zwingli by Q5colampadius, Martin Bucer, and Gaspard Iledion. Osiander f rom Nnrcnilierg, Hans Brcnz from Halle, and Agricola from Augsburg were also present. The conference opened September 23, 1529. LUTHER AND THE GREAT PROTESTANT SECESSION. 289 Whilst Protestauts extol him to the skies, Catholics view with horror his virulent attacks on the Church and its Supreme Pastor, its sacred doctrines, and venerable institutions. That he was a leader of vast ability, a man to sway the multitude by his earnest eloquence, cannot be denied ; but it is no less true that his impulsive nature, aroused into full activity in main- taining and propagating his own doctrines, and assailing those of the Catholic Church, carried him, on many occasions, far beyond the bounds of ordinary prudence, and betrayed him into the use of language and the propounding of opinions, which, in moments of cool reflection, he might have been expected to regret. Yet, we never meet with any retractation or apology from him, save in the one instance of his penitent letter to King Henry VIII. Most accurately does he himself contrast his own tempera- ment and that of his best-beloved follower IMelancthon, in these words : " I was born to contend with the devil : hence my writings are full of fury. It is my destiny to roll rocks and masses, to eradicate thorns and briars, to fill up marshes, to trace out roads: but Philip has another mission; he walks silently and softly; and builds, plants, waters, and sows, in peace and joy of heart." ^ Luther came forth as a professed reformer of the doctrine of the Church. Yet he was wanting in the coolness and calm reasoning qualities, which one would naturally expect to meet with in any person entering on so momentous, so difficult, and so delicate a task. All through his voluminous writings, there are to be found force and fervid eloquence, mingled with unmeasured abuse of all those who differed from his opinions, whether Pope or Prince, or prelate or Swiss minister. Catholic or Calvinist — all the same: but we often look in vain for sustained argument, amidst the confusion and din of violent declamation ; and the result is, that the searcher after truth is rather confused and bewildered than convinced by the ' Audiu's '■ Life i)f Luilici," ii. 303. U 290 THE CHAIR OF PETER. perusal of his works. With justice has it been observed of Luther, that while he has pulled down or destroyed much, he has raised up or built very little on the ruins of his creation. In his antagonism to particular tenets of the communion of which he was once a consecrated minister, he goes to the uttermost verge of the opposite extreme. This is peculiarly manifest in his treatise on Monastic Vows, and his remarkable Sermon on Marriage, preached at Wittenberg in 1522 — a discourse which certainly would not meet the approval of any one of his followers at the present day.^ Again, in the cause of the Reformation, he sometimes did not hesitate to sacrifice principle to expediency, as is strikingly exemplified in the instance, which will presently be detailed, of his officially sanctioning the bigamy of the Landgrave of Hesse. In all the relations of private life, Luther is represented as having been kindly and amiable ; and further it is evident that he was personally most disinterested. All his days, he ■was a poor man ; and, after his death, his wife and children were steeped in poverty, which latter circumstance was a disgrace to his powerful patrons, whom he had enriched by transferring to them so much Church property, and whom he had elevated, severally in their own dominions, to the supremo headship of the Church. " " Martini Lutheri do Matriinonio, sermo habitus Wittembergso, anno 1 522 ; " "Opera," v. p. 19, Wittembergoe, loM. "It is remarkable," observes Auflin, " that this sermon is not to be found in subsequent editions of Luther's works " (" Life of Luther," ii. 17). CHAPTER XXII. THE OTHER LEADING REFORMERS. It will nov/ be necessary to dwell briefly on the histories of the other leading Reformers, who, although differing from Luther and from each other on several points of doctrine, were unanimous in repudiating the authority, and opposing the teaching, of the Catholic Church. Of these the first to present himself is Melancthon, who may well be styled the lieutenant of Luther. Philip Melanc- thon, or Melanchthon, was born at Bretten in Western Germany, on the 16th of February, 1497. At the suggestion of his relative Reuchlin, under whom he made his studies, he altered his name, Schwartz-Erde (black earth) to Melancthon, which in Greek has the same signification — a usage not uncommon among scholars at that day. In 1518, on the recommendation of Reuchlin, he was promoted to the professorship of Greek in the University of Wittenberg, by Frederick, Elector of Saxony. There he became united, in close bonds of friendship, with Luther, who filled the chair of philosophy in the same university. Ere long, the reputation of Melancthon widely spread throughout Germany, and his lectures sometimes numbered over two thousand auditors, including several persons of the highest rank. " Imagine," says one of his cotemporaries, " a thin spare youth, buried in the ample robe of a professor, with hanging sleeves ; a scholar apparently but fifteen, who, when he walked, scarcely reached Luther's shoulder, but who is a perfect giant in learning and languages 292 THE CHAIR OF PETER. — a fragile frame which contains we know not what treasures of wisdom and erudition." ^ At the same time his amiability, and that spirit of universal charity, in which, all through life, he yearned for general peace and the reconciliation of religious dififerences, endeared him to all who knew him. But unfortu- nately he did not possess strength of character, to resist the in- fluences by which he was surrounded ; and he too readily yielded himself captive to every new doctrine, although he frequently looked longingly back to the ancient Church which he had left. Melancthon's accomplishments as a scholar and his singular moderation pointed him out as the most suitable one of his party to draw up the Coufession of Augsburg in 1530, which, as we have seen, was a most difficult task. His well-known spirit of conciliation, and his laudable anxiety to put an end to all existing differences of religion, led Francis I. of France to invite him to a conference with the Doctors of Sorbonne in 1536 ; but the Elector of Saxony could not spare him. It is said that Francis became doubly anxious for this conference, on perusing the " Twelve Articles," which Melanctlion had presented to him. In these will be found the following words, which show how much the writer inclined to a reconciliation with the Church: "First therefore we all unanimously profess this : that Ecclesiastical polity is a holy and useful thing ; so that there should certainly be some bishops, who would preside over the many ministers of the Churches ; again, that the Roman Pontiff should preside over all the bishops. For the Church has need of rulers to examine and orJain those called to the Ecclesiastical ministry, ... to supervise the doctrine of the priests : and, if there should be no bishops, such never- theless ought to be created." ^ Again, as late as the year 1547 — the year after Luther's death — when the breach between the Catholics and the ' Aadin, " Life of Luther,'' ii. 356. ' " Primum igitur hoc omnes nnanimiter profitcmur, politiam ecclcsiasticam rem esse Banctam et utilem, ut sint utique aliqui episcopi qui priosint pluribus ecclesiaruui uiiuistris, item ut Komuuus Poutifex praiait uumibus opiscopis. THE OTHER LEADING REFORMERS. 203 Reformers appeared irreparable, Melancthon wrote to the Papal legate, Cardinal Campeggio, " We would acknowledge tbe supremacy of the Pope and the hierarchy of the bishops, if the Pope would not reject us ; " and to the Emperor's chaplain, " We would all be ready to obey the Holy Roman Church, so gracious to us, as she has been in all ages to her children, if she would concede to us a few unimportant points which, however well inclined, we cannot retract." ^ A remarkable trait in Melancthon's character was his filial piety. We read that, " with an indescribable melancholy," he used to recall the image of his aged father, the smith, a fervent Catholic, whom, in his childhood, he used to see rise from his bed every night, at twelve o'clock, to kneel in prayer to his Creator.^ It was a touching scene, when Melancthon stood by Opus est eniin in ecclesia gabernatoribus, qui vocatos ad miaisteria ecclesiastica explorent et ordinent, . . . et inspiciant doctrinam sacerdotum ; ut si nulli essent episcopi, tamen. creari tales oporteret." Here, may also be quoted the words of anothei- learned Protestant, Grotius, to the same effect. Writing to the Caldnist minister, Rivetns, he says, " All those who know Grotius are aware how earnestly he has wished to see Christians united in one body. This he once thought might have been accomplished by a union of Protestants ; but afterwards he saw that such a union is impossible. Because, not to mention the aversion of Calvinists to every kind of union, Protestants are not bound by any Ecclesiastical government, so that they can neither be united at present, nor prevented from splitting into fresh divisions. Therefore Grotius now is thoroughly convinced, as are many others also, that Protestants never can be united among themselves, unless they join those who adhere to the Roman See, without which there never can be any general Church government. Hence he wishes that the revolt and the causes thereof may be removed; among which causes the Primacy of the Bishop of Rome was not one, as was confessed by Melancthon, who also thought that primacy necessary to restore union" (" Ajjol. ad Rivetum "). Hugo de Groot, Latinized Grotius, was born at Delft in Holland, in 1583. He adopted the legal profession; but was also distinguished as a theologian, historian, and general scholar. He is regarded as the founder of the science of International Law. Having joined Barneveldt and the Arminians against Prince Maurice, he narrowly escaped being executed with his friend and leader, in 1613. Grotius was a truly amiable and pious man. He was the author of several valuable works. He died in l(Ji5, aged sixty-three. ' Audin, " Life of Luther," ii. 362. * Ibid. Vinus Winshemius, in the Funeral Oration of Melancthon, says, " Georgius Schwartzer fuit vir pius et pene usque ad superstitionem religiosus; biugnlis uootibus hora duodeciua consuevit e lecto snrgere ad usitatarum precum recitatiouem." ?04 THE CHAIR OF PETER. the death-bed of his mother. " My son," said she, " you see your mother for the last time. I am about to leave this world, and you also must die, and will have to render an account of your actions to the Supreme Judge. You know that I was a Catholic, and that you induced me to abandon the religion of my forefathers. Well, I adjure you by the living God, tell me unreservedly in what faith I ought to die?" To which he replied, "Mother, this faith is the more con- venient, the Catholic is the more sure." ^ Notwithstanding all this, Melancthon himself made no change, holding the new doctrines to the end of his life. He died at Wittenberg in 1560, aged 63. His amiable qualities were marred by indecision and want of firmness ; so that, to use the words of one of his biographers, " once he abandoned the bark of Peter, he became the sport of the winds and the waves — Nunc me pontus liabet, jactantque in littore venti." * Next on the scene appears Zwingli, Latinized Zuinglius, Luther's co-operator in assailing the Church and her doctrines, and, at the same time, as we have seen, his uncompromising- opponent in the tenet of the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist. Ulrich Zwingli was born at Wildhausen, in the canton of St. Gall in Switzerland, in 1484, the year after the birth of Luther. He made his studies at Berne, and subsequently at Rome, Vienna, and Basle. In 1506, he was appointed pastor at Glarus, and, after ten years' sojourn there, he was promoted to Einsiedeln, a celebrated place of pilgrim- age. Thence, in 1517, he removed to Zurich, in the cathedral of which city he had received an appointment. On the preaching of indulgences being opened in Switzerland, Zwingli ' Audin, " Life of Luther," ii. 360. * Melaucthou's works are " Loci Communes Theologici," " Doclamatioues," " E|»istolae," and " Vita Martini Lntlieri breviter exposita." They hayo betn nianj times published in several towns of Germany. The tirsl edition was that of Wittenberg, 1561-64, in four volumes folio. THE OTHER LEADING REFORMERS. 295 assailed not only the doctrine of indulgences, but also the authority of the Pope, the sacrament of penance, the sacrifice of the Mass, the merit of faith, the tenet of original sin, the effect of good works, the invocation of saints, ecclesiastical laws, religious vows, fasting, and the celibacy of the clergy. Not alone as regards the Lord's Supper, but on many other points, did he differ from Luther, whom he and his disciples considered to have stopped very far short of the Keform of doctrine which was required. Hence the Zwinglians and Calvinists called themselves the Reformers, and were known by that name on the Continent, in contradistinction to the followers of Luther. The majority of the magistrates of Zurich sided with and supported Zwingli.^ Under his rule, ere long, law and order succumbed to mob-tyranny and riot. Churches were dese- crated, altars were overturned, holy pictures and statues were destroyed, the Mass was abolished, and all the ceremonies of the Church were prohibited in the city and district. About this time, acting up to his tenets, Zwingli married a wealthy widow. Besides Zurich, the cantons of Berne, Schafifhausen, and Basle adopted the new doctrines ; and so great were the dis- orders consequent thereon, that a civil war broke out between the Catholic and Protestant cantons. With gloomy fore- bodings that his last hour was at hand, Zwingli, as chief pastor of Zurich, marched out to battle reluctantly, at the head of his followers, twenty thousand strong. They were signally defeated on the field of Cappel, and their leader fell mortally wounded, on the 11th of October, 1531, at the age of forty- seven. After Zwingli's death, his followers generally became Calvinists. In mental powers and acquirements, he was far inferior to Luther, Melancthon and Calvin. His works weie published in Zurich, in 1581, in one volume folio. In his confession, addressed to Francis I., he ranks Hercules, Theseus, and other Pagans, among the Elect ! ' A. II. 1523. 206 THE CHAIK OF PETER. CEcolampadiiis, who was to Zwingli what Melancthon was to Luther, was born at Weinsberg iu Suabia, in 1482. His name was Hausshein (House-light), which he altered to its equivalent in Greek. He became a Bridgettine monk in the Abbey of Saint Laurence, near xVugsburg ; but, after a short time, he abandoned the cloister, and retired to Basle. Here he met Erasmus, who was taken by his highly cultivated mind and store of learning. When the new doctrines of Luther and Zwingli were broached, he immediately adopted them, preferring the opinion of the latter to that of the former on the Eucharist. He was then pastor of Basle, and published a work, maintaining his own and Zwingli's interpretation of the words of Christ, *' This is My body." The Lutherans replied to this in a work styled " Syngramraa," on which he published a rejoinder, " Anti-Syngramma." He also wrote treatises against Free Will, the Invocation of Saints, and other Catholic tenets, as well as Commentaries on several books of the Bible. After the example of Luther and other Eeformers, Q^co- lampadius took a wife, to the great disappointment of Erasmus, who wrote about his friend's marriage in terms still more severe than those which he applied to the union of Luther and Catherine Bora. In 1529, CEcolampadius and his adherents, in abolishing the Catholic religion, committed in Basle and other cantons excesses similar to those perpetrated by the Zwinglians in Zurich. He died of the plague, at Basle, in 1531, the year of Zwingli's death. On his tomb in the Cathedral of that city, may be read the inscription : " Auctor evangelicse doctrinae in hac urbe primus, et templi hujus verus episcopus." ^ John Calvin, or Cauvin, who is generally regarded as the second chief of Protestantism, was born at Noyon, in the department of Oise, on the 10th of July, 1509. His father was a cooper in that town, and afterwards become notary and ' " The first author of eviingelical iloctrine in this city, and of this temple the true bishop." THE OTHER LEADIN^G REFORMERS. 207 procurator general to the bishopric. Calvin studied at Orleans and Bourges ; and at the latter place he was imbued with tlie new doctrines by his Greek Professor, the Lutheran Melchior Wolmar. Thence he passed to Paris, where he became known by his Commentary on the two books of Seneca, " On Clemency." This work was evidently written to mitigate Francis I.'s persecution of his Protestant subjects ; and was published in 1532. Calvin, who had for some time been preaching and expounding the new creed, was now regarded as the head of the Reformation in France. Ere long, for his own safety, he was obliged to flee from France ; and he settled in Basle, where he had a cordial welcome from the Protestant party. Here he published his " Institutes of the Christian Religion," a summary of his doctrine, dedicated to the King of France. This work appeared in French in 1535, and in Latin the following year. In subsequent editions it was con- siderably modified. In the beginning of 1537, Calvin, then in his twenty-eighth year, settled at Geneva, on the urgent solicitation of Farel, an ardent promoter of the Reformation in that city. Two years afterwards, in consequence of a dispute with the civic authori- ties on the administration of the Lord's Supper, he and Farel were banished, Farel going to Neufchatel, and Calvin to Strasbourg. Recalled in 1541, Calvin passed the remainder of his life in Geneva. It was during his sojourn at Strasbourg that he was married to Idelette, the widow of the Anabaptist, Storder, whom he had converted. Calvin established in Geneva an extraordinary theocratic system of government, civil and religious, which was carried on through his agents and secret police with extreme severity. A word against him or his doctrines was liable to be visited with signal punishment — imprisonment, exile, or even death. The most remarkable case was that of Michael Servetus, a physician, whom he ordered to be burnt alive for heresy about the Holy Trinity ; which sentence was carried out at Champel, 208 THE CHAIR OF PETER. near Geneva, on the 27th of October, 1553. It is right to add, that the apologists of Calvin contend that such Draconian measures were necessary at the time, in order to check the riots and outrages caused and perpetrated by the Anabaptists and other dissenters from his doctrines. But might not the Anabaptists and other disturbers of the public peace have justly pointed to the example so recently set them by the Swiss Keformers themselves, in the desecration of churches, the overturning of altars, the destruction of church furniture, and the persecution of Catholics, by which strong measures they sought to enforce the profession of their own particular tenets — tenets owing their existence to the exercise of that right of private judgment, which in theory they challenged for all Christians, but in practice thpy rigorously denied to all those who dissented from their views? It is painful to behold, in a visit to the Cathedrals of Berne, Geneva, and other Protestant cities of Switzerland, the bare, neglected interiors of those venerable structures, covered with dust and cobwebs — dark and gloomy solitudes, unfrequented by daily worshippers, and exhibiting not a single emblem or memento of Christi- anity. Surely, according to the same principle of the right of private judgment, the Catholics, by whose piety those churches had been erected and adorned, ought to have been left in peaceable possession of them, to worship God in the manner they deemed best and most conformable to His will. It must be admitted, even by those who altogether dissent from his teaching, that Calvin, like Luther, was a man of great genius, a leader of almost irresistible force of character. Not only did he adopt the first principle of Zwingli, that Lutlier's reformation of the doctrine of the Church required a still further reform ; but, to a very great extent, he remodelled Zsvingli's own tenets. We have seen how Zwingli and Calvin dilfered on the Eucharist. Predestination, Calvin's special doctrine, was not held by Zwingli. Zwingli made the clergy subject to the THE OTHER LEADING REFORMERS. 200 civil power. Calvin would have tbem independent of sneli control. Zwingli admitted some hierarchical grades and dis- tinctions. Calvin would have all ministers equal. Moreover, Calvin conceived and successfully carried out the idea, that Geneva should be the mother and mistress of all the Reformed Churches — that she should be to them what Rome had ever been to the Church Catholic. With this object, he induced the Senate of Geneva to establish an Academy in that city, under his presidency ; and, owing to his erudition, accomplish- ments, and mental powers, and the gifts of the learned men whom he had attracted around him, students from France, Germany, and other Continential nations, as well as from Eng- land and Scotland,^ flocked to the new institution, imbibed there the Reformed principles, and returned to propagate them in their native countries. We have seen how widely divergent were the views of Zwingli, Calvin, and the other Swiss Reformers, from those of lAither on the Eucharist. Another point of difference was Free Will. Then, again, there was the gloomy doctrine of Predestination, which may be regarded as the most prominent, and indeed the characteristic, feature of Calvin's creed — a doctrine affirming that, "by an eternal decree, God preordains what shall be the lot of each individual." The tendency, if not the necessary consequence, of this tenet appears to be, to discourage its professors from any effort to please God ; for, according to it, no matter whether their acts are good or bad, whether they lead the holiest of lives, or commit every conceivable sin, it will be all the same, as regards their eternal happiness or reprobation — their lot having been absolutely preordained by God ! Could a more gloomy or a more dangerous creed than this be conceived ? " I have been thoroughly plagued and tormented with such ' The celebrated Scotch Rcformor, John Knox, who twice visited Oencva, and spent a considerable time in that city, was the firm friend and active associate of Oalvin. 300 THE CTIATTl OF PETER. thoughts of predestination," says Luther: "I would needs know liow God intended to deal with me," etc. " But at lust, God be praised, I left them ; I took hold again on God's revealed word."^ Yet Luther's own doctrine, that man is justified by faith alone, even though he should lead the most wicked life, ^ may be regarded as likely to conduce to similar results ; with this diifereuce, that it substitutes presumption for despair. Certain it is, that neither doctrine accords with " God's revealed word," as expressed in the Old and New Testaments. ^ Calvin's followers have long since altered or qualified nearly every one of his tenets. They now commonly hold the view of Zwingli on the Eucharist, namely, that it is only a sign of the body of Christ ; and a great many of them reject the doctrine of absolute predestination. As was the case with Luther, Calvin had reason to lament the divisions inevitably arising, in his own lifetime, from the right of private judgment in interpreting the Scriptures. In a letter to Melancthon, towards the end of the year 1552, he says, " Truly it is of no little importance, that there should not go down to posterity the suspicion of any discord having arisen amongst us. For it is more than absurd that we, who have been compelled to break with the whole world, should in our very principles differ from one another." * Calvin's system would abolish all external worship, sacred ceremonies, festivals. Pope, bishops, and priests. For them it would substitute a severe discipline, consistories, conferences, « Lutlier'.s " Table Talk," p. 279. * Vide supra, p. 272. » Gen. xxii. 16-18 ; Psa. xvii. 21-24 ; Isa. i. 16 ; Ezek. xviii. 21-23 ; Dan. iv. 24 ; Matt. v. 16, x. 42, xvi. 27, xxv. 34-46 ; John xiv. 21 ; 1 Cor. iii. 8 ; James ii. 24. ■• " Joannis Calvini Epistolao et Responsa," p. 108, Genevse, 1575. " Calviiius Melancthoai, GeneviB, 4 Calund., Decemb., 1552. Nee vero parvi rcfert ne qiiio ad posteros exeat ullius inter nos exortas discordia? suspicio. Plusqiiam euini absordum est, postquam discessionem a toto rnundo facere coacti sunius, inter iptsa principia alius ab aliis dissilire." To this vt>luuie is prefixed Calvin's Lii'e by Theodore Beza. THE OTHER LEADING REFORMERS. 301 synods, elders, deacons, and superintendents. Like Luther- anism, it admits but two sacraments — baptism, and the Lord's Supper. ^ Calvin died at Geneva on the 27th of May, 1564, in his fifty-fifth year. His entire works were published at Amster- dam, in 1671, in nine volumes folio. They are principally composed of his commentaries on the Scriptures. Theodore Beza, the principal adherent and the successor of Calvin, was born at Vezelai, in Burgundy, in 1519. He made his studies in Paris and Orleans, and finally at Bourges, where his professor, Melchior Wolmar, gained him over to the new doctrines, then exciting so much attention on the Continent. On his return to Paris, he freely entered into the gaieties of that capital, and his society was much prized, on account of his personal graces and accomplishments, as well as his mental gifts. At this time he led a dissolute life ; and published a collection of licentious poems, styled " Poemata Juvenilia," which were admired by his young companions, as much for their immoral tone as for their classical elegance. Tired of the dissipations of Paris, he went to Geneva, in 1548, and there he became the intimate friend of Calvin, whose tenets he adopted, and, on whose death, in 1564, he succeeded to the government of the Reformed Church. In 1571, Beza presided at the Conference of Rochelle, at which all the Calvinist Churches of France were represented. He was a violent con- troversialist, and is accused of having excited civil war in France, and of having instigated the murder of the Duke de Guise. When advanced in life, he republished his juvenile poems, deprived of their licentious passages, under the new title of " Poemata Varia." He also published a Life of Calvin, a translation of the New Testament, a Confession of Faith, a History of the Reformed Churches, a treatise asserting the ' At first, Luther rcdaced the number of sacraments frotii seven U) three. Subsequently, he further reduced them, by discarding Penance. 302 THE CHAIR OF PETER. Right of Magistrates to punish Heretics, and other works. In his old age, he married a young girl, with whom he lived in a state of extreme poverty, depending altogether on private charity. He died in Geneva, in 1605, aged eighty- six. CHAPTER XXIII. INTRODUCTION OF THE REFORMATION INTO ENGLAND. In 1534, Luther had the gratification of witnessing the rupture of Henry VIII. with the Pope, and the extension of the Ke- formation to England by that monarch. These were events little expected some ten years before, when the King and the great Reformer fought out their controversial battle d Voutrance, and the Holy Father then reigning conferred on the former the highly prized title of Defender of the Faith. It was on the 22nd of April, 1509, that Henry, then in his eighteenth year, succeeded his father on the throne. On the 9th of June following, he was married, with great pomp, to Catherine of Aragon, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella. Catherine, who was in her twenty-sixth year, was the widow of his elder brother Arthur, with whom her brief union had pro- duced no issue. ^ The married life of Henry and Catherine continued apparently unclouded until 1527, Catherine having borne the King three sons and two daughters, all of whom had died in childhood, except the Princess Mary, afterwards Queen of England. When eighteen years of their union had passed, and Catherine's charms began to wane, Henry became deeply ena- moured of one of her ladies of honour, Anne Boleyn, whom he ' A dispensation from Pope Julius II. had removed all difficulty about this fii-st marriage, which, according to Catherine's solemn declaration, had never been consummated. 304 THE CHAIR OF PETER. wished "to substitute for her, as Queen, He now, for the first time, spoke of scruples which he entertained about the validity of his marriage with his brother's widow ; and, after much con- sultation with his ministers and the bishops of his kingdom, he applied, in the year 1527, to Pope Clement VII. to pro- nounce the marriage invalid. Clement bestowed the most careful consideration on the cause, and referred it to a com- mission in England, composed of his legate. Cardinal Cam- peggio, and Henry's powerful minister. Cardinal Wolsey. But Catherine entered a protest against this commission ; first, because it was composed of the King's subjects;^ and secondly, because, being held in England, it was directly under the King's control. Meanwhile, on the suggestion of Cranmer, the Universities of Europe were consulted. In Oxford and Cambridge, the royal influence prevailed ; and those learned bodies pronounced against the marriage. But the Universities of Germany, France, and Italy were entirely in favour of its validity. Indeed, in France and Italy, the decision was, that, in the case, a divorce was impossible, as the first marriage, that of Arthur and Catherine, had never been consummated. The matter was now referred by the Pope to a congregation of cardinals, and the proceedings were necessarily very pro- tracted; certainly not too much so, as will appear, when the importance of the interests involved are taken into account. Besides, Clement hoped that the delay would lead Henry into a better frame of mind. This, however, was not the case ; for, while the cause was yet pending, Henry repudiated Catherine, and on the 25th of January, 1533, he privately married Anne Boleyn, who was crowned, with all circumstances of mag- nificent display, at Westminster, on the 1st of June following. In April that year, Cranmer, whom Henry had recently appointed Archbishop of Canterbury, held a court at Dun- ' Cardinal Campeggio had recently been presentiHl by Heury to the episcopal see of Salisbury. THK REFORMATION IN ENGLAND. 305 stable, in which he pronounced the King's marriage with Catherine invalid and null ; and on the 28th of May, in a court which he held at Lambeth, he declared the royal marriage with Anne Boleyn valid and lawful. In March, 1534, Clement, acting on the all but unanimous opinion of the cardinals,^ made his final decision, refused to grant the King's suit, declared his marriage with Catherine valid, and required him to take her back, as his wife. Henry now resolved to break altogether with the Pope, and to prohibit all communication between his own subjects and the Holy See. Accordingly, his Parliament passed statutes, to order, " utterly renouncing, refusing, relinquishing, and forsaking the Bishop of Rome, and his authority, power and jurisdiction," declaring the King to be Supreme Head, on earth, of the Church in England and Ireland, and framing, and making obligatory on all the subjects of the realm, an oath affirming the Royal Supremacy.^ Heury, however, although he thus severed himself and his kingdom from the Church, was neither Lutheran nor Calviuist, but adhered to the Catholic doctrines — transubstantiation, auricular confession, communion under one kind, and other tenets, which he had formerly defended against Luther. For denying any of these, he burned or beheaded his Protestant subjects ; while, for refusing to take the Oath of Supremacy, the Catholics likewise suffered. Amone: these latter victims were some of the first men of the kingdom — notably Sir Thomas More and Bishop Fisher. Sir Thomas More was born in London in 1480. He was the son of a judge, and stood high in the favour of Cardinal Wolsey, on whose suggestion he was made privy councillor, in 1516. At this time he had been for some years a member of Parliament, and had gained a high reputation by his elo- * Dr. Lingard states that, out of two and twenty cardinals, nineteen decided for the validity of the marriage, and three only proposed a farther delay (" History of England," vi. 202). * Statute 25 Henry VIII., caps. 19, 20, and 21, for England; and 28 Henry VIII., caps. 13 and 19, for Ireland. -1- X 806 THE CUAIR OF PETER. quence and independence. King Henry VIII. formed a very- favourable opinion of him, cultivated his society, constantly consulted him on affairs of State, and employed him on em- bassies. In 1521, he was knighted and promoted to the office of Treasurer of the Exchequer. In 1523, he was elected Speaker of the Parliament convoked that year. On the 25th of October, 1529, he was appointed Lord Chancellor, in suc- cession to Wolsey ; but, strongly disapproving of Henry's repudiation of Queen Catherine and his intended marriage with Anne Boleyn, to which his official assent would necessarily be looked for, he resigned his exalted post in 1531, and retired into private life. However, his retirement from public affairs, his past services, as valuable as they were disinterested, his noble character, and the esteem in which he was held in every European country, did not save him from Henry's unrelenting tyranny. He was impeached and condemned for his con- scientious refusal to take the Oath of Supremacy, and was beheaded on Tower Hill, on the 6th of July, 1535. Writers of all creeds concur in pronouncing Sir Thomas More to have been one of the greatest men produced by England, in any age.i Well worthy to stand beside his friend, the ex-chancellor, was the venerable Doctor Fisher, Bishop of Kochester. John Fisher, born at Beverley, in 1459, was preceptor to Henry VIII., in his youth ; and had ever been a devoted friend and servant of that monarch and his royal father. He was distinguished alike for piety and learning, and was one of the first contro- versialists of his day. He, no less strongly than Sir Thomas More, disapproved of Henry's treatment of his lawful wife, and his unhallowed second marriage. For this offence, and for his refusal to take the Oath of Supremacy, he suffered a long and painful imprisonment in the Tower, and was beheaded on the ' Sir Thomas More was an accomplished scholar and writer. His principal work, "Utopia," was written in Latin, and was published at Basle in 1518; and was almost immediately translated into Enj^lish, French, Italian, and otlior European languages. THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND. 807 22nd of June, 1535, in his seventy-seventh year. When Henry heard that the Pope was about to send the aged bishop a cardinal's hat, he said, "He may send the hat; but, when it arrives, there will be no head to wear it ! " ^ After three years, Henry preferred against Anne Boleyn a charge of infidelity as his wife, which would be equivalent to the crime of high treason. Anne appears to have been guilty of some levity ; but, on her trial, no adequate evidence was adduced of more serious crime. She was unaided by counsel, and was attended only by her ladies-in-waiting — a cruel act of injustice, even though she were guilty ! She was convicted, and sentenced to be beheaded. On hearing her sentence, she exclaimed, "0 Father and Creator! 0 Thou who art the way, the truth, and the life ! Thou knowest that I do not deserve this death." Then, turning to her judges, she said, " My lords, I do not arraign your judgment. You may have sufficient reasons for your suspicions ; but I have always been a true and faithful wife to the King." She was executed at the Tower, on the 19th of May, 1536 ; and in her last moments displayed admirable firmness, resignation, and fervour. Her last words were, " O Lord God, have mercy on my soul," which were scarcely uttered when, at one stroke, her head was severed from her body. Some writers allege that the real cause of the accusation against Anne Boleyn was that Henry had become tired of her, and wished to replace her by Jane Seymour, one of her maids of honour. Of this there can be but little doubt, as, on the morning after Anne's execution, Henry was married to Jane Seymour ! Cranmer, who, in obedience to the King's wishes, had annulled the Koyal marriage with Catherine, and pronounced that contracted with Anne to be valid, was now called upon by Henry to revoke his former decision, and to declare that the ' Doctor Fisher's works were published at Wurtzburg, in one volume folio, in 1597. 308 THE CHAIR OF PKTER. King's marriage with Anne had ever been null and void. This was a painful and humiliating position for the arch- bishop ; but, as non-compliance would have cost him his head, he pronounced the decree, two days before Anne's execution. In 1537, Jane Seymour died in childbirth, leaving a son, who succeeded his father, as Edward VI. For two years Henry remained a widower ; and then he married Anne, sister of the reigning Duke of Cleves. On meeting this lady, on her arrival at Dover, Henry was sadly disappointed with her appearance, with respect to which he had been misled by a highly flattering portrait of her by Hans Holbein. However, he could not then find any decent pretext for withdrawing from the marriage ; and, moreover, he could not afford to array against himself the hostility of the German Protestant Princes. A few months later, Anne reluctantly consented to a divorce, a bill for which was, by the King's order, passed by the Lords and Commons ; ^ and the much-wronged princess retired into private life, on a pension of £3000 a year — a con- dition being that she should reside within the realm of England. On the 8th of August, 1540, Henry's fifth marriage took place — his choice having fallen upon Catherine Howard, niece of the Duke of Norfolk. This unfortunate lady was arraigned on the same charge as Anne Boleyn, and was condemned and executed at the Tower, on the 14th of February, 1542. The balance of evidence appears to incline in favour of her inno- cence of the charges made against her; but, under the despotic sway of Henry VIII., the King's accusation of any of his subjects, no matter how exalted their rank, or how insufficient the evidence, was equivalent to a conviction.^ ' This Bill received the royal assent on the 24th of July, 1540. * With reference to Catherine Howard, Doctor Liugard observes: "On a review of the original letters in the State-papers, of the act of attainder, and of the proceedings in Parliament, I see no sufRcient reason to think her guilty." (" History of England," vi. 317, n. London, 1844.) THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND. o09 Henry's sixth queen was Catherine Parr, widow of Lord Latimer. The marriage was celebrated privately at Hampton Court, on the 12th of July, 1543. Catherine favoured Luther's doctrines ; and, one day, she had the temerity to uphold some of them against the King's opinions, in a polemical discussion. Henry, who at the time was suffering from a painful illness, construed the Queen's argument as a grave offence against the Royal Supremacy ; and he commanded the Lord Chancellor and the Bishop of Winchester to have articles of impeachment prepared against her. A friendly hint communicated to Catherine was immediately acted upon by her. She hastened to the King's cabinet, and assured His Majesty that his learned arguments had, since their conversation, been working in her mind, and had completely converted her, and she apologized for the pain she had caused him. Henry was alike flattered and mollified. "Is it so, sweetheart?" said he. " Then we are friends again." Next morning a guard arrived to convey the Queen a prisoner to the Tower ; but they were dismissed with- out her. Catlierine, it need hardly be observed, was careful not to offend again ; and she survived Henry, who died on the 28th of January, 1547.^ Such was the founder and first supreme head of the Reformed Church in England — a heart- less voluptuary, a monster of cruelty and injustice ! Further on we shall have occasion to consider the Anglican religious Articles, drawn up by Royal authority, the suppres- ' Henry settled the Buccession of the crown on his own three children, and their issue respectively ; first, on Edward, his son by Jane Seymour ; next, ou Mary, his daughter by Catherine of Aragon; and, next, on Elizabeth, his daughter by Anne Boleyn — and this, notwithstanding his repudiation of Queen Catherine and Queen Auue. In default of issue of his own children, he further settled the succession on the descendants of his younger sister Mary, wife of Louis XII. of France, to the exclusion of the line of his elder sister Margaret, wife of James IV. of Scotland. This latter arrangement was set aside by Elizabeth, who, when dying, was asked, who was to succeed her. " Who," she replied, " but my cousin James (VI.) of Scotland." In any case, James was her legitimate heir, and had, with the aid of Cecil, the Queen's prime minister, privately made all necessary ari-angoments to succcsstuily resist any attempt to disjjutc his right to the throne on the death of Elizabeth. 810 THE CHAIR OF PETER. sion of monasteries by Henry and his successors, and the effects thereof on the condition of the people. If Clement VII. was reluctant to dispense with the laws of Christian marriage, at the request of Henry VIII., Luther was far more compliant in the celebrated case of Philip, Land- grave of Hesse, which arose in 1539. This prince was a main pillar of the Reformation in Germany. He had been sixteen years married to Christina, daughter of George Duke of Saxony, during which time that princess had borne him eight children. He now became enamoured of Lady Margaret de ISaal, maid of honour to his sister, the Princess Elizabeth, and he desired to wed her, still retaining Christina as his wife. He addressed to Luther and his colleagues at Wittenberg, a letter, drawn up by Martin Bucer, under his own supervision, asking for permission to have two wives. It is unnecessary, as it would be undesirable, under any circumstances, to quote at length from this revolting docu- ment ; but it may be mentioned, that, in the course of it, the Landgrave cites, as a precedent in his favour, the fact that "Luther and Melancthon advised the King of England not to put away his first wife, but to take another wife besides her."^ The concluding paragraph is remarkable for its undis- guisedly hypocritical tone : " In fine, I repeat," says this sensualist prince, " my petition is, that Luther, Philip, and Bucer will disclose to me, in writing, their opinion on this affair ; in order that afterwards I may be able to amend my life, to approach the Sacrament with a good conscience, and to transact all the business of our religion more freely and more confidently." The reply, an elaborate composition, comprised in twenty- four articles, was favourable. It granted tlie Landgrave the desired licence to have two wives; but, at the same time, it pointed out that the case was especially exceptional ; and that ' " Item scio Tjuthoriim ot PIiilii)piim regi Aiiglice suasisao ut primam uxorotu nun dimiltcrot, sefl ali;iin |)i-fclGr ipsam diicerct." THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND. 3U it should not be taken as a precedent ; and that, for this reason, and moreover to prevent scandal, the marriage should be strictly private ; and that all who took part in it should be bound to secrecy under the seal of confession. This letter was dated Wittenberg, the Wednesday after the feast of Saint Nicholas, 1539, and was signed " by the obedient subjects and servants of his Highness," Martin Luther, Philip Melancthon, Martin Bucer, Antony Corvinus, Adam, John Leningus, Justus Winther, and Denis Melander. The marriage was privately celebrated at Rothenburg on the Fulda, on the 3rd of March, 15-10, Melancthon and Bucer being present. But the secret was not kept, as the bride and her family were directly interested in the matter being set in its proper light. The result was painful dissatisfaction in the Landgrave's own family, and much of that scandal which had been apprehended by Luther and the other doctors of Wittenberg. CHAPTER XXIV. THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. A General Council had now for a long time been desired, in order to settle, if possible, the religious differences that dis- tracted Europe.. At one period, Luther himself appealed from the Pope to a Council ; and several of his followers expres-ed the same sentiment, in the early days of their secession from the Church. But great difficulties interposed — especially, wars, riots, and dissensions, in the several States, mainly arising from one cause, the introduction of the new doctrines. Anxious as the Popes were to re-establish Christian peace and union, they were deterred by these difficulties. Moreover, the Protestants refused to acknowledge their authority ; and insisted that, if a General Council were to assemble, it should be convoked, not by the Pope, but by the Emperor and the other Christian princes. At length, the Eighteenth CEcumenical Council, convened by Pope Paul III., assembled in the cathedral of the city of Trent, in the Tyrol, within the geographical boundaries of Italy, on the 13th of December, 1545 ; and it continued, though with several interruptions, through twenty-five ses- sions, under that Pontiff, and his successors Julius 111., Paul IV., and Pius IV., under whom it concluded its labours in 1563. Its objects were: to examine and coudumn the numerous THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. n]'o rrrors taught by Luther and the other innovators of the day ; to explain the faitli of the Church on the various points of d(jctrine then contested ; to defend her worship, which tlie Protestants attacked as superstitious and idolatrous ; to pro- pagate Catholic doctrine; to restore peace; and, finally, to reform the abuses introduced into the discipline of the Church in the preceding ages. Its decrees, which were carefully examined and discussed by the most able canonists and theologians, are admittedly drawn up with admirable clearness, precision, and wisdom. They were signed by two hundred and fifty-live Fathers,^ including the four Papal legates, and were confirmed by Pope Pius IV., in his Bull, Benedictus Deus, on the 26th of January, 1564. The Pope ordered a Profession of faith of the Council to be drawn up, which is a summary of its dogmatical decrees, and is known as the " Tridentine Profession of Faith," or the Creed of Pope Pius IV. It commences with the Creed, which is recited after the first Gospel at Mass, and which, in Catholic prayer-books, is styled the Nicene Creed.^ After this, it expresses a firm belief in the Apostolical and Ecclesiastical Traditions, and the other observances and constitutions of the Church ; also in the Sacred Scriptures, according to that sense which has been, and is, held by the Holy Mother, the Church, whose office it is to judge of the true sense and interpretation of the Sacred Scriptures. It professes also that there are truly and properly seven sacraments. Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Penance, Extreme Unction, Orders, and Matrimony ; and that these confer grace : and that Baptism, Confirmation, and Orders cannot be repeated without sacrilege. It receives and embraces all and singular the definitions and declarations of the Council ' One English and three Irish BishopB assisted at the Coancil of Trent. The English prelate was Thomas Goldwell, Bishop of St. Asaph's ; and the Irish were, Thomas O'Herlihy, Bishop of Ross ; Donat Mac Congail, Bishop of Ila[)hoe ; and Eugene O'Hart, a Dominican, Bisliop of Acliour)'. * Vide supra, p. 88. S14 THE CHAIR OF PETER. of Ti'GDt concerning Original Sin and Justification. It professes that in the Mass is offered to God a true, jproper, and projntiatorij sacrifice for Ihe living and the dead ; and that in the Most Ho'i/ Sacrament of the Eucharist the Body and Blood of Christ, together with His soul and divinity, are truly, really, and snhstantially jyresent ; and that there is made a conversion of the whole snbstance of the bread into the Body, and of the whole substance of the wine into the Blood, which conversion the Church calls Transubstantiation. It confesses also, that under either species the tvhole and entire Clirist, and the true sacrament, is received. It firmly holds, that there is a Purgatory, and that the souls there detained may be aided by the suffrages of the faithful : likewise that the Saints reigning with Christ may he venerated and invoked; and that they pray to God for us, and that their relics are to be venerated. It asserts that the images of Christ and of the ever Virgin Mother of (xod, as well as of the other saints, are to be kept and venerated. It affirms that the power of Indulgences has been left by Christ in the Church, and that their use is, in the greatest degree, salutary to the Christian jyeople. It acknowledges the Holy Catholic and Apostolical Roman Church to be the Mother and Mistress of all the Churches; and it promises true obedience to the Roman Pontiff, the successor of Saint Peter and the Vicar of Jesus Christ. Finally, it undoubtingly receives and professes all other things, handed down, defined, and declared, by the sacred Canons and (Ecumenical Councils, and chiefly by the most holy Council of Trent ; and, at the same time, it equally condemns, rejects and anathematizes all things contrary thereto, and all heresies whatsoever condemned by the Church. This it declares to be the true doctrine of the Church, indispensable to salvation. It was enacted that this Profession of Faith should be made by all those thenceforward entering on any Ecclesiastical office or charge, or obtaining any academical degree, as well as by those who should abjure heresy, and return to tlie Church. THE COUNCIL OF TREXT. 01.") It need hardly be observed that its doctrine is no less obligatory on every Catholic Christian. The " Catechism of the Council of Trent," drawn up by tlie Pope's orders, at the request of the Council, is a precise and comprehensive statement of all that Catholics believe. ] t is sometimes called " The Roman Catechism," and Catechismus ad Parachos. Not unnaturally, the Protestants, at all times, have decried tlie conduct and the decrees of the Council of Trent. Down to the year 15-10, they blamed the Pope for his delay about convoking a council ; but, immediately on the Bull of Convo- cation being issued by Paul III., in 1542, Luther published several writings, to deter his adherents from taking part in it, or accepting its decisions. In 1547, the year after Luther's death, Calvin strongly opposed it, in his " Antidote to the Council of Trent." Again, in 1549, in a second diet at Augsburg, when the Lutheran princes were asked by the J*]mperor if they would submit to the decrees of the Council, I^taurice, Elector of Saxony, said that he would acquiesce in t]iem only on three conditions : first, that the points of doctrine already decided in it should be discussed anew; secondly, that the Lutheran theologians should be admitted, and should have a deliberative voice, and that their votes should count as those of the bishops ; thirdly, that the Pope should not preside, either personally or by his legates. This was taken as a formal refusal. In 1560, when Pius IV. issued his Bull for the resumption and continuation of the interrupted sessions of the Council, the German Lutheran princes published their " Grievances " against its decrees. The work first appeared in German, and was immediately translated into Latin, with the title, Goncilii Tri- dentini Decretis opposita Gravamina. These grievances have been repeated and enlarged on, and the proceedings of the Council of Trent have been misrepresented, by several Pro- testant authors and their copyists, and notably by Fra Paolo 316 THE CHAIR OF PETER. Sarpi, an excommunicated Servite friar/ and Le Conrayer, an apostate Augustinian, his translator and annotator.^ To refute Fra Paolo, Cardinal Pallavicino wrote his cele- brated " History of the Council of Trent," which is the Catholic standard work on the subject.^ The difference between the two writers is not so much in the main facts related, as in the circumstances, and the consequences thertof, which they set forth. The decrees of the Council of Trent on faith were received by all Catholic nations. Certain governments, especially that of France, objected to some of its decrees on discipline, as not being in accordance with the laws of the kingdom. The * Peter Paul Sarpi, better known as Fra Paolo, was born in Venice, in 1552. Having become a Servite friar, he attained the rank of provincial in that order, in 1579, although only twenty-seven years old. The differences between the Republic of Venice and Pope Paul V. brought into prominence Fra Paolo's sentiments, which were anything but dutiful to the Holy See. On being sum- moned to Rome, he refused to obey the Papal citation, and was excommunicated in consequence. In 1617, his "History of the Council of Trent" was pub- lished in London, under the assumed name of " Pietro Soave Polano," by Marc Antonio de Dominis, with a dedication to James I. He was the author of several other works. He was styled by Febronius " the Hater of the Papacy and of the Popes, tl\e disciple of Luther and Calvin." He died in 1623, aged seventy-one. * Peter Francis Le Courayer was boi-n at Rouen, in 1681 . He became a Canon Regular of Saint Augustine, and was appointed Librarian of S:iiut Genevieve's, Paris. Ere long, he manifested Jansenist sentiments; and, ntjt content with this, he went still farther, and professed Anglican view.s, as expressed in his " Dissertation on the Validity of Anglican Order.'!," published afc Brussels in 1723. This work having been condemned by the Ecclesiastical autliorities in Paris, he passed over to England, whore he was hospitably received. He died in 1776. Among his works is " The History of the Council of Trent of Fra Paolo, translated from the Italian into French, with critical, historical, and theological notes." London, 1736, and Amsterdam, 1736, 2 vols, each. ' Cardinal Sforza Pallavicino was born in Rome, in 16ri7. Although the head of his noble family, lie chose to abandon the world and its honours for a reli"-ious life ; and, in his thirtieth year, he entered the Society of the Jesuits. He was employed by Innocent X. in several important affairs; and Alexander VII. promoted him to the Sacred College. His principal work, " 'J'he History of the Council of Trent," written in Italian, was published in Rome in 1656- 1657, in two volumes folio ; and in a second edition, in Honie, in 1661, and in a li:Uii) vci-,-iiHi, ill 1670; ciicii in three v(jliinios qiKUlo. lie died nn tiie 5l1i nf June, 1667. THE COUNCIL OF TEEXT. 317 difficulties on this head have long since, to a considerable extent, been adjusted. Under all the circumstances above referred to, it was, humanly speaking, impossible that the Protestants should be reconciled to the Church, even by a General Council, at this particular period. Angry passions were in the ascendant ; the temporal interests of princes and nobles were deeply involved ; and the conflict of creeds was intensified by violent political antagonism. Hence, there unhappily ensued a series of wars, which lasted until 1G48, when peace was restored by the Treaty of Westphalia,^ guaranteed by all the European powers, and affairs were placed in pretty much the same position as they stand in at the present day. ' Sometimes spoken of as the Ti'eaty of Munster, or of Osnaburg, as it was signed at those places. CHAPTEK XXV. THE SYMBOLIC BOOKS OF THE PROTESTANTS. While Paul III., hoping to reconcile, by a final effort, the existing religious dififerences, was making the necessary arrangements for convoking the General Council described in the last chapter, the Protestant German Princes and the leading ministers of the Reformation, assembling at Schmal- kalden, in February, 1537, assumed an attitude of determined opposition to the laudable endeavours of the Holy Father. At their meeting, on the suggestion of the Elector of Saxony, it was resolved that a formulary of belief, to constitute the unalterable basis of their doctrines, should be drawn up ; and this work was entrusted to Luther, Melancthon, Justus Jonas, Creuziger, Bugenhagen (Pomeranus), Armsdorf, and Agricola. This formulary, known as " the Articles of Schmalkaldon," was couched in language very different indeed from the conciliatory tone which Melancthon had adopted in drawing up the Con- fession of Augsburg. It altogether denied tbe spiritual rights of the Pope; affirmed that his office ought to be abolished; and asserted that he was the true anti-Christ. In subscribing it, Melancthon did so with the following reservation : " I, Philip Melancthon, approve of the above articles, as true. But, as regards what concerneth the Pope, I am of this opinion : If he will admit the Gospel, then for the sake of peace and public concord, on account of the Christians who are now under him or may be under him in future times, the superiority THE SYMBOLIC BOOKS OF THE PROTESTANTS. 319 over the bishops, which he holds otherwise, by human right should be conceded to him by us also." ^ Melancthon's pacific views, on this as on other occasions, were overborne, to his bitter disappointment. The Confession of Augsburg, the Apology for that Con- fession, the Articles of Schmalkalden, and Luther's Greater and Less Catechisms constitute the Symbolic Books of the Lutherans. Besides these, there is " The Form of Concord," or " The Book of Torgau," drawn up at Torgau, in 1576, with the object, as the name imports, of reconciling the differences of the several Lutheran Churches, and of guarding tliem against the erroneous doctrines of the Keformers, or followers of Zwingli and Calvin, on the Lord's Supper. This formulary has been adopted by some of the Lutheran Churches, and rejected by others. There are certain Confessions of Faith, which may be classed with the Symbolic Books of the Lutherans ; for, although they vary from each other and the Confession of Augsburg on some points, they mainly agree with the Lutheran doctrines. These are, the Saxonic Confession, prepared by Melancthon, at the desire of Maurice, Elector of Saxony, styled by its author " A Repetition of the Confession of Augsburg," presented to the Council of Trent in 1551, and published in Latin and German in 1552 ; the Confession of Wiirtemberg> drawn up in Latin by Brentzen,^ in obedience to Christopher ' "Ego Philippus Melancthon hos articulos supra positos probe tanquam veros. Ad pontificem autem qnod attinet sic sentio : Si admittere velit Evan- gelinm, quod tunc paciset publicse concordias gratia propter Christianos qui sub ipso jam sunt et futuris temporibus esse forsan possunt, superioritas in epis- copos, quam alioquin habet, jxire humano per nos illi sit quoque concedenda." ^ Johann Brentz, or Brentzen, was born at Weil in Suabia, in 1499, and was a canon of Wiirtemberg. On the persuasion of Luther, he became his follower. However, he did not on all points adopt his doctrines. Brentz held that " the body of Christ was not only in the Eucharist with the bread, but everywhere, like His divinity, since the Ascension." Hence his adhei-ents in this opinion were called " Ubiquitarians." On Luther's death, he succeeded to the head of the Lutheran party. He died at Tiibingen, in 1570. His works consist of Disputations in favour of Lutheranism, in eight volumes folio. 320 THE CHAIE OF PETER. Duke of Wiirtemberg, presented to the Council of Trent, in January, 1552, and published the same year; and those of Mansfeld, Suabia, Pomerania, Antwerp, and Copenhagen. We have next to glance at the Confessions of Faith, or Symbolic Books of the Calviuist, or Helvetic, or Reformed, Churches. The first of these is the Confession of Basle, first printed, in German, in 1530. The next is " The Summary and General Confession of Faith of the Helvetic Churches," ^ dated 1536, and presented to the Council of Trent. The third is the Helvetic Confession, drawn up by Henry BuUinger, under the supervision of the Elector Palatine, in 1566, and adopted by all the Protestant cities of Rhsetia and Switzerland, save Basle.^ The ministers of Basle refused to sign it, not that they dis- approved of its doctrine, but because they considered their own Confession of 1530 sufficient. Calvin's tenets, once established in Geneva, ere long penetrated into France; and were adopted in preference to Lutheranism by the great majority of those who in that kingdom had abandoned the Church. In 1561, at the Con- ference of Poissy, the Confession of Faith of the French Reformers, drawn up by Theodore Beza, Calvin's principal assistant and successor, was presented to Charles IX. It was signed by the Queen Dowager of Navarre, her son Henri de Bourbon, King of Navarre, afterwards Henri IV. of France, the Prince de Conde, the Count of Nassau, the Admiral Coligni, and other influential persons. There was also the Belgic Confession, adopting Calvin's tenets, drawn up in 15G1 for the Reformed Churches of Flanders, approved of in synod in 1579, and confirmed by > This is a second and improved edition of the Confession of Basle. It is Btyled " Ecclesiarum per Helvetiam Confessio Fidei Sumraaria et Gencralis." "^ This is the Helvetic Confession, imr excellence. It is styled " Confessio et Expositio simplex orthodoxse fidei et dogmatum catholicorum sincora) religionis Christianje, concorditer ab ecclesia> ministris, qui sunt in Helvetia, Tiguri, Bcrni, Scaphusii, Sangalli, Curia)-Rhct>torum, et apud confedoi'atos, Mylhusii, item el Bienua^, qiiibus adjunxerunt se et Geneveusis occlesiio miuibtri, editas." THE SYMBOLIC BOOKS OF THE PROTESTANTS. 321 the Synod of Dort in 1 619. The Dutch, who previously had professed adhesion to the Lutheran Confession of Augsburg, subscribed the Belgic Confession, on being freed from the Spanish yoke. Armiuius,^ a professor of theology in the University of Leyden, having dissented from Calvin's severe doctrines on the five points of Free Will, Predestination, Justification, Perse- verance, and Grace, a violent controversy arose thereupon among the Dutch Reformers. To settle their differences, there was held, in 1018, 1619, the celebrated Synod of Dort, under Prince Maurice, which was attended by delegates, not only from all parts of the Netherlands, but from Switzerland, tlie Palatinate, Hesse, Bremen, and England. This synod upheld Calvin's doctrines, excommunicated the Arminiaus, adopted the Belgic Confession, and drew up canons concerning the five articles controverted in the Belgic Churches. These canons were promulgated on the 6th of May, 1619.^ The Arminiaus, according to Mosheim, maintained tlieir opinions with so much spirit, counige, and eloquence, that " a great number of persons were convinced of the justice of their cause." Four provinces of Holland refused to subscribe the canons of the Synod of Dort. This synod, moreover, was regarded with little favour in England; "for the English preserved respect for the ancient Fathers, not one of whom dared to set bounds to the Divine mercy." In the Churches * James Harmensen, Latinized Arminius, was born at Oudewater in Hol- land, in 1560, studied for some time at Geneva, and was, for fifteen years, a minister at Amsterdam. In 1603, he was appointed to the chair of theology at Leyden. He suffered much hardship and persecution, on account of his opinions. He died in 1609. His works were published at Frankfort, in 1631, in quarto. His followers were called Arminiaus, or Remon.strauts, from a remonstrance, which they presented to the States General of Holland, against the decrees of the Synod of Dort, in 1619. Arminius's principal opponent was Gomar, his colleague at Leyden, who upheld the Calvinist doctrine. The followers of the latter were called Gomarists, and sometimes Anti-Remonstrants. * The canons of the Synod of Dort were published with the following title : " Judicium Synodi uatioualis reforuiatarum ecclesiaruiu liabiLi Dordrechii anno ]618 ct 1619, do quinquc ductrinas capitibus, in ccch-siis Bclgicis coutroversis : Promulgatum VI. Mali MDCXIX." Y 322 THE CHAIR OF TETER. of Brandenburg, Bremen, and even of Geneva, Arminianism held its ground. On the death of Prince Maurice, the xVrminians were permitted to return to Holland, when they gradually built churches and established schools ; and in time they ventured to found a college at Amsterdam, for the dissemination of their religious tenets. Their Confession of Faith was composed by Arminius's chief adherent, Episcopius, who was the first pro- fessor of theology in this college. It was published in 1622.^ The ministers of the Established Church of Holland wrote a Refutation of it, which the Armiuians replied to, in their Apology, in 1G26. The Symbolic Books of the Church of England are the Thirty-nine Articles and the Book of Common Prayer. To these may be added the " English Theological Oaths," as embodied in certain Acts of Parliament. Of these oaths, some affirm the Royal Supremacy and Jurisdiction in matters spiritual ; and others are declarations against Trausubstantia- tion, the Sacrifice of the Mass, and the Invocation of Saints. In July, 1536, Henry VIII., in order to remedy the evil of the diversity of doctrine preached in the pulpits of England, addressed a circular to the bishops, commanding tliat preach- ing should cease until Michaelmas next ensuing ; and mean- while he had " Ten Articles of Religious Credence " drawn up, and submitted to Convocation, by which body they were unanimously adoi)tcd. These Articles comprised the Sacra- ments of B.:ptism, Penance, and the Eucharist, as well as the doctrine of Transubstantiation, Auricular Confession, and the Invocation of Saints; leaving the tenet of Purgatory at least doubtful. These were followed up by the "Statute of the Six Articles" of the year 1538, which were all in unison with the tenets of the Church of Rome. Next came a further reformation of the doctrine of the ' The Arminian Confession of Faith is styled, " Confessio sive Dcclarntio scntontiiG Pastornm, qui in Federate Belg'io licnionstrantes vocantur, supci' pi'DCcipuos articulos Keligioni.s Cliriitiaiii MDCXXII, THE SYMBOLIC BOOKS OF THE TROTESTANTS. 023 Church of England, in the " Forty-two Articles of Edward VI.," which were called "Articles agreed upon by the Bishops and other learned men, in the Convocation held at London in the year 1552, for avoiding diversity of opinion and establish- ing consent touching true religion, published by the King's authority." These were mainly the work of Archbishop Cranmer, and were in substance all but the same as the Tliirty- nine Articles, by which thoy were soon afterwards superseded. The Thirty-nine Articles were drawn up by Archbisliop Parker, and were submitted to, and unanimously approved of by, the Convocation of Canterbury in 1562. They were the Forty-two Articles of Edward VI., reduced to thirty-nine, with some alterations. They were confirmed by Parliament in 1566, and again in 1571, with some further variations. In the Act entituled "An Act to provide that the Ministers of the Church will be of sound religion," a.d. 1571, it was enjoined that all Ecclesiastical persons should subscribe the Thirty- nine Articles, which are described in the Act as " the Articles of religion comprised in a book, imprinted, entitled Articles whereupon it was agreed by the Archbishops and Bishops and the whole clergy in the convocation holden at London, in the year of our Lord God 1562, according to the computation of the Church of England, for avoiding of the diversities of opinions, and for establishing of consent, touching true religion, put forth by the Queen's authority." There is great uncertainty, and there has been much con- troversy, as to which is the imprinted hooJc, here mentioned, as in the several printed copies, English and Latin, anterior to 1562, and in the manuscript copies, in both languages, down to the same year, there are several various readings. The Book of Common Prayer forms the Liturgy of the Church of England. In the year 1546, Henry VIII. published the King's Primer, wliich contained the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, the Ten Commandments, and several hymns and collects. 324 THE CHAIR OF TETER. Edward VI.'s First Prayer Book, published in 1540, was an enlargement of the King's Primer. Its title was, " The Book of the Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments, and other Eites and Ceremonies of the Church : after the use of the Church of England. Londini in officina Edouardi Wliitclmrche. Cum 2^'>"ivilegio ad imprimendum solum. Anno. Do. 1549, Mense Martii." ^ The Second Prayer Book of Edward VI., called '•' The Book of Common Prayer," was ])ublished in 1552. It has several variations from that of 1549.^ Queen Elizabeth's "Book of Common Prayer" was pub- lished in 1559 ; ^ and that of James I. in 1604 ; * each varying more or less from the preceding. The " Book of Common Prayer " of the Scottish Episcopal Church was published in 1637,^ and has several variations, especially in the office for the Communion. In 1662, was published the " Book of Common Prayer" of ' There were six various " imprints " of Edward VI.'s First Prayer Book, all in 1549, besides that above mentioned ; viz. two more by Whitchurche, one in May, and one in June ; three by Richard Grafton, the King's printer, London, in March ; and one by John Ofmoen, in Worcester, in July. The colophon of the first edition ran as follows : " Imprinted at London in Fletestrete, at the signe of the Sunne ouer againste the conduyte, by EdVVarde Whitchurche. Tbe seventh days of Marche, the yeare of onr Lorde, 1549." In some copies, is found, at the end, the following list of prices, varying according to the impres- sion : " The Kinges Maiestie, by the aduyse of his moste deare uncle the Lorde Protector and other his highnes Counsel!, strcightly chargeth and commaundeth, that no maner of person do sell this present booke unbounde, aboue the price of ii. shyllynges & ii. pence the piece. And the same bounde in paste or in boordes, not above tlie price of three shyllynges and viii. pence the piece. God saue the King." ^ Of Edward VI.'s Second Prayer Book there wore four " imprints," in 1552 ; two by Edward Whitchurclic, and two by Richard Grafton. ' Of Queen Elizabeth's " Book of Common Prayer," there are three " im- prints," in 1559 ; two by Richard Grafton, and one by Richard Juggo and Johu Cawode. ♦ James I.'s " Book of Common Prayer " was " imprinted at London, by Robert Barker, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty, Anno 1G04." * The Scotch "Book of Common Prayer" was printed in Edinburgh by Robert Young, Royal printer, 1()37. THE SYMBOLIC BOOKS OF THE PKOTESTANTS. 325 King Charles 11./ revised by both houses of Convocation, aud sanctioned in its present form by Act of Parliament. In the dogmatic division of the Symbolic Books of the Church of England, the old and new religions prevail in very different proportions from those in which they will be found in the liturgical section. Indeed it has often been observed that, while the Thirty-nine Articles, or Creed, are more Pro- testant tlian Catholic, the " Book of Common Prayer," or liitiirgy, is more Catholic than Protestant, Next in authority to the Thirty-nine Articles and the Book of Common Prayer, are the Homilies, which are a collection of plain sermons, approved of by the State, in order that one of them may be read out in church on every Sunday on which there is no sermon. The first book, attributed to Archbishop Cranmer and Bishops Ridley and Latimer, was published in the reign of Edward VI. ; aud the second was added, by order of Convocation, in the reign of Elizabeth. It is unnecessary here to refer to the Symbolic Books of the Sociuiaus and others of the minor sects that arose very soon after Luther and Calvin had led the great secession from the Church. The more we consider these several Confessions of Fuith, all varying from one another, aud some of them diametrically oi^posed to others, on important points of belief, the more clearly have we brought before us the necessary consequences of the exercise of the " right of private judgment " in the inter- pretation of the Scriptures. Here indeed is a striking contrast Avith the unity of the Church Catholic, of which all the members, in every clime, profess one and the same doctrine, in union with their one Supreme Pastor and Teacher, Saint Peter's Successor in the See of Kome.^ ' " The Book of C ommou Prayer " of King Charles II. was printed in L oudon in 1662, by His Majesty's Printers. All the editions above mentioned were published t'iufi ■privder Uio Gatliolic Church, hero so highly laiidod by tliis (listingni.shed Protestant writor, is fully treated of in anotlicr clinpter — that on th" Hierarchy. o28 THE CHAIR OF rETER. In Spain, with a population of 1 6,025,860, on the 31st of December, 1877, the entire, save 60,000 persons, were Catholics. Of these 60,000, about one-fifth may be taken as Protestants, according to the returns laid before the Cortes, in July, 1876. In Portugal, with a population of 4,31:8,551, on January 1, 1878, the whole may be said to be Catholic — the number of Protestants, mostly foreigners, not exceeding 500. In Italy, of a population of 26,801,154, in the census of 1871, 99f per cent, were returned as Catholics, Protestants 0"15, and Jews 0*1 1. In European Russia, inclusive of the Russian provinces of Poland, in 1879, besides 64,000,000 " Orthodox " Greeks, 3,000,000 Jews, and 2,600,000 Mahometans, there were 8,355,000 Catholics, including 55,000 United Greeks and Armenians, and 2,950,000 Protestants. In Greece, at the census of 1879, there were 1,635,698 members of the " Orthodox " Greek Church, 14,677 other Christians, "mainly Roman Catholics," 2652 Jews, and 917 Mahometans. Here, the Catholics may be fairly estimated at 13,000. In European Turkey there are no accurate statistics of the various religious denominations; but, according to "a rough estimate " made over twenty years ago, the number of Catholics, in communion with the See of Rome were, at tluit lime, 640,000. These may now be safely taken as over 1,000,000, as there has been, within the last twenty years, a great increase in their numbers.^ Of Protestants of all kinds, 10,000 may be considered a liberal estimate. Let us now take the Protestant European countries : — By the census of December 1, 1875, the German Emi)iie numbered 26,718,823 Protestants, 15,371,227 Catholics, 116,735 of various other Christian sects, and 520,575 Jews. This shows 62*5 per cent, of Protestants, and 36 per cent, of Catholics. ' Incluaive of United (!rcek.s and Anii'Miiant; iu coiuiiuuiiou with the See uf Rome. THE RELIGIOUS CENSUS OF EUROPE. ^29 In Swerleu and Norway, by the census of 1875 and that of 1879 respectively, the total population was G,270,206, all of whom were Lutherans except 13,676. Of these, there wore about 2000 Jews, and of the remainder 8000 may be estimated as Protestant dissenters, and 3600 as Catholics. In Denmark, according to the census of 1880, the popula- tion was 1,969,451. Of these, all were Lutherans, except 9093 persons, comprising 391:6 Jews, 3000 Catliolics, and the remainder were Protestant dissenters, some Mormons, and some of no creed. In the Netherlands, by the census of 1880, the number of Protestants is given as 2,469,814; of Catholics, as 1,439,137; of divers other Christian denominations, as 22,049 ; and of Jews, as 81,693. In Switzerland, according to the census of 1880, the Pro- testants are 1,667,109, and the Catholics, 1,160,782, being respectively 59 per cent, and 41 per cent, of the population. There were also 7373 Jews — a small item, not afiecting these proportions. In Great Britain and Ireland, on the 4th of April, 1881, the total population was 35,246,562. In Ireland, the Catho- lics were 4,141,933, and in Great Britain and the Channel Islands they are estimated at over 2,000,000. Deducting these from the total population, and making allowance for the Jewish body, which may be taken as 52,000, of whom 40,000 reside in London, we may estimate the Protestants of the United Kingdom at nearly 29,000,000, and the Catholics at 6,200,000.1 ■ For all the above figures, respecting the total population, and the numbers of the various religious denominations of the several European States, I am indebted to "the Statesman's Year- Book for 1882," by Frederick Martin. In not making a religious census, England is an exception to the general rule, lb ■vvas estimated, in the middle of the year 1878, that in Englaud aud Wales 13,500,000 persons claimed membership with the Established Chnrch, and 11,000,000 were Protestant dissenters. "There are altogether 140 religious denominations in Great Britain, the names of wiiich have been given iu to the Registrar-General of Births, Deaths, and Marriages." THE CHAIR OF PETER. All the above figures optical table : — are comprised in the following syii- Catholics. ProtPstants. France .... . 35,387,703 . 580,757 Belgium . . . , 5,522,151. 13,000 Austria-Hungary . . 25,295,716 . . 3,775,479 Spain . . . . . 16,565,8(30 12,000 Portugal .... . 4,318,051 . 500 Italy 26,734,151 40,000 European Russia •. 8,355,000 . . 2,950,000 Tux-key in EuroiJO . . 1,000,000 10,000 Greece .... 13,000 . 1,677 German Empire . 15,371,227 26,718,823 Sweden and Norway . 3,600 . . 6,256,590 Denmark 3,000 1,960,361 The Netherlands . . 1,439,137 . . 2,469,814 Switzerland 1,160,782 1,667,109 Great Britain and Ireland . 6,200,000 . . 29,000,000 Total 147,399,381 75,456,110 Here it will be seen that the Catholic is to the Protestant poj)ulation of Euroj)e very nearly iu the proportion of two to one. The principal divisions of Protestantism are primarily Lutherans and Calvinists. Of the former, some Churches adopt, while others reject, episcopal government. The district of Lutheranism is Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Prussia, Hanover, Saxony, Wiirtemberg, and otliers of the smaller German States, and the Baltic provinces of Russia. It is also professed, to some extent, in Hungary, and other parts of the Austrian Empire. Calvinism prevails in Holland, in the Protestant cantons of Switzerland, in the Duchy of Nassau, in Hesse, Anhalt, and Lippe in Germany, to some extent in a few of the Southern depart- ments of France, and in Hungary, Transylvania, and Prussia, in Scotland and the North of Ireland, and partially in Enghind. Although the Arminians do not now form distinct Churches, their opinions, opposed to and moderating the severe tenets of ('alvin, are extensively held by I'rotestants, especially in Eny-land ajid Holland. THE RELIGIOUS CENSUS OF EUROPE. 831 The Anglican Church, which is Episcopalian in govern- ment, is quite distinct from, although akin to, Lutheranism and Calvinism, modified by the doctrine of Arminius. It is almost entirely confined to England and her colonies. ]\raking full allowance for the great increase of population during the past three centuries and a half, and for the fact that, as a rule, children, in each successive generation, follow the religious opinions of their parents, we cannot but regard the 75,000,000 Protestants in Europe in our day, as a powerful proof of the extent and enduring character of the revolt from her authority, which all but rent the Church in twain in the lifetime of Luther, and, to mere human apprehension, appeared to threaten her existence. Yet, sustained by her Divine Founder, she not only survived the ordeal, coming forth from it purified and strengthened, but, in due time, regained much of what she had lost at home ; and, further, conquered in the New World many a province in lieu of those of which she had been bereft in the Old. Then, from her bosom went forth — to edify and instruct, to revive a spirit of holiness in Europe, and to evangelize, in far remote regions, multitudes who sat in darkness and the shadow of death — that gallant band, the Society of Jesus, numbering in its ranks Ignatius, of Loyola, its holy founder ; Francis Xavier, the Apostle of the Indies ; Francis Borgia, still more illustrious for his humility and zeal for God's honour than for his noble descent; xVloysius Gonzaga and Stanislas Kotska, eloquently preaching to the youth of all nations, even down to this day, by the example of their stainless young lives ; John Francis Eegis, a truly Apostolic missionary, — all enrolled in the calen- dar of the saints, and their no less devoted associates, Faber, Salmeron, Bobadilla, Laynez, Ilodriguez, and others, each devoting his life and labours, his every thouglit and aspiration, to the promotion of " God's greater glory," ^ and the salvation of souls ; so that, ere long, — * " Ad majoium Dui gloiiam," thu uioUo of the Society. o32 THE CHAIR OP PETER. " India repaired half Europe's loss ; O'er a new hemisphere the Cross Shone in the azure sky ; And, from the isles of far Japan To the broad Andes, won o'er man A bloodless victory." In a similar spirit, were founded, about the same time, with the cordial approval of the Holy See, the following other orders of Clerks Eegular : ^ the Theatins, established in 1524 by Saint Cajetan of Thienna, and John Peter Caraffa, Arch- bishop of Theate, afterwards Pope Paul IV. — the scope of the institute being the revival of the spirit of holiness in the clergy and people ; ^ the Clerks Regular of Somascha, instituted by Saint Jerome jEmiliani, in 1530 — their chief object being the training of young clergymen and the instruction of youth ; the Clerks Regular of Saint Paul, or Barnabites, founded also in 1530, with a view to forming the lives of Christians after the model prescribed in the Epistles of Saint Paul, and to providing ministers for the confessional, the pulpit, the education of youth in colleges and seminaries, and the conducting of missions ; ^ the Clerks Regular, Assisting the Sick, even those affected by the plague, founded by Saint Camillus de Lelis in Rome, in 1584, and the Clerks Regular, jMinors, instituted in Naples in 1588, for the exact fulfilment of all the duties of the Ecclesiastical state, and the ptromotion of holiness in all classes.'* Besides these, there were the Congregations, ' The Clci'ks Regular are clergymen living in community, following a rule and taking vows, in order to devote tlicmsolves to the functions of the sacred ministry, the instruction of tlie people, the aiding the sick, the conducting of missions, and other similar works. ^ The Theatins were so named from Caraffa's diocese of Theate, the arch- bishop having been chosen the first general of the order. 3 The Barnabites were so called from the church of Saint Barnabas at Milan, which was given to them on their institution. Their founders wore throe Italian gentlemen of good family, Antonio Maria Zachari, Bartoloineo Ferrari, and Giacomo Antonio Morigia. They were specially favouretl by Clement VII. and Saint Charles Borromeo. * The founders of the Clerks Regular, Minors, wore fJiovanni Augiisdno Adorno, a (Jeuoct-c gentleman, autl his friuudi Augnstiuo ami Francitcu Caraccioli. THE RELIGIOUS CENSUS OF EUROPE. o33 composed each of a number of secular priests, living in com- munity, and following a rule ; such as that of the Oratory, founded by Saint Philip Neri in Eome, in 1564 ; and the Oblates^ of Saint Ambrose, now called of Saint Charles, instituted by Saint Charles Borromeo, Cardinal Archbishop of Milan, in 1578. All these associations, no less by their example than by their untiring labours, largely promoted the reaction, or "reflux in public opinion," that so strongly set in, about fifty years after the commencement of the Reformation. The ancient orders, moreover, reanimated by their pristine fervour, contributed their share to the movement. And so it has continued ever since. The Clerks Eegular of the Schola Pia and of the Mother of God, and the Congrega- tions of the French Oratory, the Lazarists or Fathers of the Mission, the Eudistes, the Sulpiciens, the Passionists, the Eedemptorists, and the Fathers of Charity have been insti- tuted; as well as many a congregation of religious women, and many a brotherhood of monks, for charitable, educational, and missionary purposes. The great College of the Pro- paganda, the French Association of the Propagation of the Faith, the Society of the Foreign Missions, and other kindred institutions, have also been unceasingly engaged : and the Universal Church, notwithstanding grievous persecution at home, even within the capital of Catholic Christendom, is now as full of vigour and activity, and as strong in the adhesion of her children in all parts of the globe, as she has been at any period of her existence. ' The Oblates are organized nnclcr the bishop of a diocese, and bound to him by a simple vow of obedience, or an oblation, to be employed, as he may direct, in labouring for the salvation of souls. CHAPTER XXVII. EFFECTS OF THE REFORMATION IN PROTESTANT STATES. Again and again, in these pages, has it been proved, even on Protestant testimony, and many a historical fact has been cited in illnstration thereof, that, in the Middle Ages, the Church was ever the champion and protector of the lowly and the oppressed against the tyranny of those in high place. AVheu, however, many fair provinces in central Europe were withdrawn from her spiritual jurisdiction by the revolt of Luther, an undeniable change for the worse ensued in the social condition of the masses. The learned Doctor Dollinger, himself a German, and one who is generally regarded as a reliable and indeed an unim- peachable witness as to facts, bears very unfavourable testimony to the immediate effects of the Eeformation on the personal liberty and the well-being of the populations of the several German States. In doing so, he gives, in all cases, exact references to his authorities — nearly all of them German writers of high repute. It was a natural result of the movement in Germany, that the increased power of the temporal prince, now supreme head of the Church in his own dominions, should be accompanied by a corresponding diminution of the freedom of the lower jrrade of nobles and of the humbler classes. In Mecklenburg, on tlie establishment of the new doctrine, the order of prelates ceased to belong to the Diet. Since the EFFECTS OF THE REFORMATION. 335 year 1552, only two orders appeared therein, the R'dterschaft, or Equestrian order ; and the Lamlschaft, or Provincial Estates. The nobles had seized their share of the Church property, and the peasants, whose interests were now no longer represented in the national assembly, as they had been by the clergy, were subjected to a system of tyranny and plunder, under which their labour was appropriated by the nobles, and they were expelled from their farms by the process called Legan, or laying — the tillage lands being converted into large manors and pastures. Indeed, the peasantry were treated by their lords " like the most abject slaves," and they attempted, whenever they could, to malce their escape even into Russia. It was only in 1820 that serfage was abolished in Meck- lenburg.^ In Pomerania, where Protestantism was established in 1534, the fate of the peasantry was the same. Here the oppression of the tillers of the soil became such, that "even those who still held farms fled the country." In the peasant law of 1616, they were " declared to be * serfs without any civil rights,' and preachers were compelled to proclaim fugitive peasants from the pulpit.' " ^ In the territories of Brunswick and Hanover, the new absolute Ecclesiastical power of the princes (simultaneously Avith the substitution of the Roman law for the German, which took place after the Reformation) was attended with results detrimental equally to the towns and the rural districts. The habits of extravagance engendered and encouraged by the robbery of the Church property, the disorder of the finances of the principalities, the debasing of the coinage by the nobles, and the annihilation of the ancient freedom and inde- pendence of the Estates, all conduced to aggravate the lament- able state of affairs.'^ In the Brandenburg and Prussian dominions, " the con- > Dolliiigor, "The Church and the Churches," p. 92; London, 1862. Trans. 2 Ibid., pp- 9=5, 9i. ' Ibid., pp. 91, 95. o3G THE CHAIR OF TETER. dition of tlie peasants had become more and more miserable since the CLurcli had fallen, and the nobles and princes were the only powers in the country." After the seventeenth century, the monarch usurped all power ; the estates were not convoked ; and taxes were imposed at the King's pleasure. " Military executions, formerly quite unknown in Germany, became frequent, especially for non-payment of imposts." So oppressive were the taxes levied by the Royal head of the Church, that the peasants left their farms in troops and turned robbers, and numbers of them fled into Poland, leaving twelve thousand farms uncultivated. Under Frederick William I., " the Lutheran clergy had to drink to the very dregs the bitter cup of monarchical Church supremacy." The Church and the State were reformed by the King in the same ignorant and arbitrary spirit, and were ruled as he ruled bis army. " He dictated to the Lutheran clergy, as their spiritual head, what subjects they were to preach about, and what they were to avoid, as well as which ceremonies were to be observed in Divine service, and what was to be omitted." ^ In the Electorate of Saxony, in Hesse, Wiirtemberg, and the smaller States, it was all the same : so that Arnold the historiographer of the King of Prussia observes, " It cannot be denied that, since the Reformation, tyranny, injustice, and extortions had risen to the highest point." ^ In Denmark and Sweden, purely Lutheran countries, the dwellers on the great estates of the Church were obliged to exchange the mild rule of the clergy for the oppressive yoke of the nubles. They became mere thralls. At this day, the clergy are all slaves to the King, their temporal and S2)iritnal head. Similar results were produced in England by the intro- duction of the Reformation, uuder Henry VIII. Here, cimmenciug with Henry, and continued through subsequent ' Dollinger, " Tlie Church and the Chnrchcs," pp. 95-98. * Ibid., pp. 98, 99. EFFECTS OF THE REFOKMATION 337 reigns, there was carried out by the State a system of sup- pression of monasteries aud sequestration of Church property, familiar to all readers of history. It is needless to dwell on tlie sufferings of the members of religious communities, male and female, who were thrown penniless on the world, or on the great change effected in the condition of the mass of the population, who had previously received instruction, and relief in their corporal necessities, from the monastic institutions which dotted the land. Then, the tillers of the soil on the domains of the Church were transferred from the kindly sway of the clergy and monks to the reckless tyranny of rapacious nobles, residing at a distance; tillage was extensively super- seded by pasture ; aud cattle and sheep were substituted for human beings. One fact speaks volumes for the mischief done, and the necessity created ; and that is, that, as far back as the reign of Elizabeth, a Poor Law was enacted, and thus was '*' free Christian charity degraded into a legal obligation, and a compulsory oppressive tax substituted for a willing gift." ^ As regards the Calvinistic or Reformed Churches, they were far less pliant than the Lutheran, and by their resistance to secular authority, from time to time, they drew down on themselves grievous persecution. Calvin, as we have seen, would make the ministers 'of his own Church at Geneva independent of the civil power ; and in this, through the concurrence of the civil magistrates, he succeeded. But what was thus effected in certain cantons of Switzerland, was not to be accomplished in larger states. Influenced by Calvin, the Protector, Somerset, in a marked manner favoured the doctrines of Geneva in England, in the reign of Edward VI. ; ^ and in ' DoUinger, "The Church and the Churches," p. 150. The learned autlior, viewing our Poor Law from a Continental standpoint, alludes to the Workhouses, added in more recent times, aud observes that " their arrangements, bj the separation of husband and wife, parents and children, are completely un- Clu'istian, and in their present state a disgrace to the country." "^ See the long letter, of seven closely printed pages folio, from Calvin to "the Protector of England," dated Geneva, October 22, 1510. " loannis Calvini Epistolse," p. 65; Geneva, 1575. Z o38 THE CHAIR OF PETEE. Scotland, Holland, and some of the German principalities, they met with the like acceptance from the ruling powers. Yet in every instance the sovereign maintained unimpaired his own rights and jurisdiction, as supreme head of the Church. But if the Calvinists suffered persecution themselves, they no less carried out, and suggested, the persecution of others. " The Calviuistic religion," says Niebuhr, " has everywhere, in England, in Holland, as in Geneva, set up its blood-stained scaffold as well as the Inquisition, without its possessing a single one of the merits of the Catholic." ^ The burning alive of Servetus in Geneva, and the judicial murder of Barneveldt in Holland are notable examples. But it must be admitted that, with the exception of the first mentioned, the political element entered largely into all such cases ; and all Christian communions at the present day will doubtless unite in repro- bating such proceedings as these, and the martyrdom of More and Fisher, the fires of Smithfield, the massacre of Saint Bartholomew, and the cruelties of the Spanish Inquisition, in all of which the sacred name of religion was prostituted to political purposes. This is especially apparent in the cotemporary records of the Massacre of the French Calvinists in Paris, on Saint Bartholomew's day, the 2-Ith of August, 1572. That lamentable act was entirely political. The clergy had no connection with it whatever. The Calvinists had plotted against the King's life ; had levied war against him ; had met his troops in several pitched battles ; had introduced foreign soldiers into liis dominions ; and had detached several towns from his obedience. The massacre, an extreme measure which no circumstances could justify, was forced on the youthful monarch ^ by his mother Catherine de Medicis, and his councillors, who represented to him, that, if such immediate action were not ' Niebuhr, apad Dollingcr, "The Church and the Churches," p. 100. ' Charles IX. of France was boru June 27, 1550, ascemleil the throne December 15, 1560, his mother acting as Regent. He died May 31, 157 I, aged twenty-four. EFFECTS OF THE EEFORMATION. oo9 taken against the leaders of the ]3lot, he wouhl lose not only his kingdom but his life, and the other members of the Royal family would also fall victims. It has been urged against the Catholics that Pope Gregory XIII. publicly returned thanks to God, when he heard of the event ! This false charge carries its own contra- diction, in its absurdity. The facts simply arc, that Charles wrote to all the sovereigns in Europe, including the Pope, that he had detected and cut short the plot against his life ; and the Pope rendered thanks to God for the King's safety — ^not for the massacre. But what is, and has long been, the result of the complete subjugation of the Church, in matters spiritual, to the civil authority, in the several Protestant States of Europe? We are informed, that " there are now in Germany about thirty- eight Protestant Churches, each of which is independent of the other, and has its own organization ; and since in each of the States the Church has been degraded into a mere branch of the Administration — has been inserted as a wheel in the great State machine — it has come to pass that all the threads of Ecclesiastical government come together, and are united in the hands of a single Government official, the Minister of Public Worship." 1 Hence the Royal Supreme Heads of the Church, in their several dominions, have long acted as they pleased in matters Ecclesiastical ; as they act at this day. True, they are said to consult their theologians ; but those theologians may be changed at any time, according to the Royal pleasure. The " Union," which, for State reasons, was begun in Prussia and was imitated elsewhere, " has, since 1817, amalgamated the Lutheran and Calvinist Churches, and given an essentially different form to German Protestantism." ^ The new Church thus constituted by Royal command, is called " Evangelical," ' Bollinger, " The Chnrcli and the Churches," p. 275, * Ibid., p. 276. 340 THE CHAIR OF PETEE. which name, in the present day, we are tokl, is used in official documents, as, " a collective term to express opposition to Catholicism" ^ Genuine Calvinism, as represented by the decisions of the Synod of Dort, and the old Lutheran Church, have almost died out in Germany.^ To any one remembering how widely apart were the opinions of Luther and those of the first Swiss Reformers, on the Lord's Supper and other essential tenets, it will not be difficult to draw accurate conclusions, as to the results of the compulsory amalgamation of conflicting creeds, and other similar measures, enacted by the civil power. Not only are the several Churches reduced to a state of slavery, and de- prived of that freedom of thought which was the proud boast of the first Protestants; but the abandonment of cherished tenets, the laying aside of fixed opinions, the open profession of doctrines inwardly ignored, the system of give-and-take, en- forced by the State, must necessarily conduce to the extensive prevalence of indifference, and rationalistic principles, culmi- nating in materialism. To enslave in like manner the Catholic Church, has been the aim of the Culturhampf, and of all the Bismarck-Falck enactments, in our day — an attempt which has been rendered utterly futile by the constitution of the Church, and the steadfastness of her sons, and which happily has now been abandoned. The following account of the disastrous effi3ct of such legis- lation on the Protestant Churi-h of the German Empire, taken from one of the leading German Protestant papers, the Beichs- hofe,^ contains a lesson well worthy of the attention of the statesmen of every land : — The Evangelical Cliiirch Las suffered grievously from the mUurlMmpf. . . . Indifference and hatred towards the Church aud Christianity hava ' DoUiiiger, " The Churcli and the Churclies," p. 276. ^ Ibid., p. 277. =» October, 187«. EFFECTS OF THE REFORMATION. 841 increased to an astounding degree, and the iincliristianized masses of the Iniuibler chisses have ranked themselves in tens of thousands in the army of social democracy. As a result of the putting aside of the Church and of Christianity, and of the imj)ious doctrine that "everything is nature," which has been the outcome, immorality has increased, and the number of crimes is being multiplied to an appalling extent. The bonds of social order are being dissevered because the moral factor^, authority and religion, have been long since put on one side, and replaced by rationalistic commercialism, so that we find ourselves in face of the most serious com- plications in the social, moral, and ecclesiastical order. Of all the promises which were made at the commencement of the culturkampf, not only has not one of them been realized, but the reverse has happened in every direction. Instead of peace, there are everywhere disorder and disunion. It has frequently been asserted that the atmosphere of Catholicism is unfavourable to material progress and the in- dustrial arts. Italy and Spain are pointed to, in support of this allegation, and, on the other hand, England, Prussia, and other Protestant States are instanced, as nations which occupy foremost places in industrial progress, under the influence of Protestantism. Superficially regarded, this may appear to some to be a correct view of the case. But a calm investiga- tion of actual facts will show that it is altogether erroneous. The question is geographical rather than religious — one of climate and material resources, rather than of creed. Thus, there is not in the world a more successful nation in every branch of human industry than. Belgium. In agriculture, she occupies the first place ; in her iron manufacture, she closely presses England ; in other branches of industry she has attained a high position; and yet, perhaps, not excepting Ireland herself, there is no more Catholic country. Then there is Catholic France, second to none, if not first of all, in the industrial arts and material prosperity. This was proved, if proof were necessary, in her rapid rise, after the payment of five milliards of francs, or two hundred million pounds sterling of indemnity to Prussia, at the close of the Franco-German war. England herself would have found it a very difficult task to discharge this huge liability, on the termination of a ol2 THE CHAIR OF PETEE. costly campaign. France appears to have scarcely 'felt it. Of this fact, the subjoined note, from the columns of our leading journal, affords an apposite illustration. ^ » From the Times of December 28, 1880 :— "Paris, Monday, December the 27th, 9.30 p.m. " Ten years have passed since dug of the severest and most costly struggles which France ever had to fight, and the country and its people seem now more prosperous than they ever were before. The heavy burden of the war debt, the immense amounts spent to repair the ravages sustained, have been borne with an ease only paralleled in America, and the greatly increased taxes have been paid without apparently depressing industry and commerce. The increase in revenue has been such, indeed, that this year 120,000,000f. of taxes have been taken off without endangering the equilibrium of the Budget. Indeed, it may be fairly said that France has never been so prosperous, and that no real poverty exists in the country. The workhouse is unknown ; public and private charity largely relieves the wants of those M'ho, mostly by their own fault, have to seek for help. And yet France has had to face severe losses in different branches of her industry. The deficiency in the wine crops, due to the phyl- loxera, may be estimated at hundreds of millions of francs a year, and the silk- worm has nearly disappeared from the southern Departments. France, as well as England, has had to face the competition of America. What is the explana- tion of this superiority over other countries ? It seems to have three funda- mental causes : the geographical frontier of France and its more evenly distributed resources from agriculture and industry, the extreme thriftiness of her people, and her democratization of credit. There is no doubt that in the organization of her ti'ansport system, in the development of her industry, France has been more systematic than other countries. More pains have been taken to protect existing interests and avoid over-production ; the principle of Free Trade, even when introduced, has been handled with extreme care ; and fiscal laws have been made when it was thought necessary to nurse industry after the sevei-e shock of 1870. The consequence is that iron and coal have been able to hold their own. All the great manufacturers have their hands full, and tlio French railways are obliged to go abroad for part of their immediate wants. Thus the Northern of France Eailway had to order some fifty engines from Vienna. The traffic on all French i-ailways has gi'eatly increased, and the Government has always favoured their development. When unprofitable lines liave been built, the Government has eventually taken them up, so as to protect this important branch of national industry. Again, the farmer seems to have been better able to stand competition. Ilard-working, economical in the extreme, and sober, ho gets all that the land can yield. He always complains, find every year lays something by. There is no over-population and, therefore, no emigration. Thus production and consumption are more eveidy balanced, and when one source of revenue momentarily fails it is replaced by another. " The sense of economy and thrift of the French people is especially striking to those who have lived much in other countries. Nearly everybody possesses something in this country. ]f anybody does not, you may be pretty sure it is his own fault." EFFECTS OF THE REFORMATION/ 343 Again, in some of the prosperous Protestant countries mentioned, the Catholic population is an important element. For instance, in the German Empire, of a population of forty- two millions, twenty-six millions are Protestant, and fifteen millions are Catholic. CHAPTER XXVIII. PIUS VI. " Nemo est in muiido sine aliqua tribulatione vel augustia, quamvis Hex sit vel Papa."— Thomas a Kempis. When France was visited by the fatal Revolution, which eventually overturned alike the altar and the throne, neces- sarily violent and fundamental changes were to be expected in the Ecclesiastical affairs of the country. At first, the National Assembly decreed, that all Church property should be sequestered, as it belonged to the State — subject, however, to the expenses of Divine worship, the maintenance of its ministers, and the relief of the poor.^ In lieu of tithes, now abolished, and the large income of about four and a half million pounds sterling, derived from Church lands, now taken possession of by the State, small stipends were fixed for the remuneration of the clergy, whose numbers were 130,000. The scale of payment, it need hardly be observed, was ex- tremely low,'^ and, consequently, a very large balance accrued to the national exchequer. Every chapter in the kingdom l)rotestod against the alienation of the property of the Church ; but their protests were as unavailing as the passing wind. Next followed the enactment of " tlie Civil Constitution of the clergy." ^ By this law it was decreed, that promotions • December 19, 1789. ^ The stipend sot apart for a cure, or parish priest, was 1200 livres, about £50 a year, with tlie use of a house and garden. ' July 12, 1790. PIUS VI. 345 to all Eeclesiastical benefices should no longer take place according to the provisions of the existing Concordat with Home, but that they should be elective, the bishops and priests being chosen by the Departmental electoral assemblies, without any reference to the Pope — not only every sect of Christians, but even Jews and Infidels, being entitled to vote on the occasion. The episcopal sees were reduced from one hundred and thirty-six to eighty-three, being a bishopric for each of the new departments into which France was divided ; religious orders were abolished ; all connection with the Holy See was interdicted ; the reception of a Papal bull or brief, unauthorized by Government, was made a criminal offence ; and all the clergy were required to take the oath to observe this constitution, under pain of forfeiture of their offices and of the emoluments attached thereto. Only four bishops, out of one hundred and thirty-six, and a very small minority of the priests, gave in their adhesion to the new law, Avhich was rejected by the great majority, w^ho preferred exile and poverty to the sacrifice of their sacred obligations.^ Several of the nonjuring priests, however, remained in France, secretly ministering to the faithful, at the risk of their lives.^ In the course of the following year, many hundreds of these devoted men w^ere massacred in Paris, Meaux, Chalons, Lyons, and other cities, with circumstances of revolting cruelty. Pius VI.,^ who then governed the Church, issued monitory ' The four bishops who acted so unworthily were Lomenie de Brienne, Archbishop of Sens ; Jarente, Bishop of Orleans ; Savines, Bishop of Vivicrs ; and the celebrated Talleyrand, Bishop of Autun. ^ Those who took the oath to observe the Civil Constitution of the Clergy were called Assermentes, or Jurors, and those who refused to take it were styled Insermentes, or Noujnrors. * Pope Pius VI., John Angelo Braschi, was bom at Ceseno in 1717. Ho governed the Church a.d. 1775-1799. He expended very large sums on tlio drainage of the Pontine marshes and other improvements. This Pope was distinguished for learning, piety, prndcnce, and sublime resignation under affliction. He suffered from the hostility of Joseph II., Emperor of Germany, and of Leopold, Grand Duke of Tuscany, as well as from the wrongs and out- lages inflicted by revolutionary France. 346 THE CriAIIl OF PETER. letters, and a brief, against this flagrant violation of the rights and jurisdiction of the Apostolic See. In these documents, he emphatically condemned the " Civil Constitution of the Clergy," severely censuring the Ecclesiastics who had given in their adhesion to it, and highly commending those (the great majority) by whom it had been rejected.^ The intrepid bearing and decisive action of the Holy Father in this crisis had considerable eflfect in the provinces of France, and caused much disappointment and annoyance to the revolutionary party in the capital. It was intimated to him, that, if he expected to be allowed to remain in peaceful possession of his territories, he should at once revoke his edicts, and accept the Civil Constitution. To this he firmly replied, that as Vicar of Christ he could not be false to his trust. *' I have prayed to God," said he, " for aid and light, and inspired, as I believe I am, by the Holy Spirit, I refuse to accede to these conditions." Tiie French Directory appeared to acquiesce. Their hands were full. They had more than enough to occupy them in other quarters. Their quarrel with the Pope could be adjourned. Meanwhile, anarchy and infidelity swept over France with resistless force. The King, the Queen, and other members of the Eoyal family, were ruthlessly murdered,-^ together with a vast multitude of the friends of religion and social order, of every condition of life;^ Christianity was proscribed; the ' April, 1791. * Louis XVI. was guillotinecl on the 21st of January, 1793. This amiable but most unfortunate prince was attended in his last moments by the Abbo Edgewortb, who, on the fatal axe descending, uttered the sublime words, " Fils de Saint Louis, montcz au cicl." Marie Antoinette was executed on the 16th of October following, the infamous Duke of Orleans, " Egalite," shortly aftei-wards, and the King's sister, the Princess Elizabeth, on the 10th of May, 1794. On the 8th of June, 1795, the youthful Dauphin, Louis XV II., died in the prison of the Temple, the victim of cruelty and neglect. ' The following particulars are given by Prndhomme, in " Les Victimos de la Revolution." There were guillotined, under the sentences of the Tribunals, 2028 of the nobility of both sexes, 1467 wives of workmen, 1135 priests, 350 nuns, and 13,623 of the humbler classes; being a total of 18,603. To the^e must bo added 3718 women who died in premature labour or from grief; the rius VI. 347 Babbath was abolished ; the National Convention decreed, that the only deities in France sliould be Liberty, Equality, an49 transfer of pictures, works of sculpture, and manuscripts, to the French Kepublic. Not content with these concessions iniquitously wrung from a helpless and unoffending State, the French Directory now resolved, that the temporal sovereignty of the Popes should cease to exist. Already French revolutionary and atheistical principles had been widely disseminated in Italy and in Rome itself. Thus, unhappily, was the way prepared. Towards the close of the year 1797, Joseph Bonaparte was sent ambassador from the French Republic to the Pope. Immediately on his arrival, he demanded the liberation of all political prisoners, a reduction in the numbers of the Papal army, the expulsion of all French refugees, and the dismissal of the Austrian general, Provera, from the Pope's service. Although maintaining an appearance of moderation, he seems, from the commencement, to have favoured the revolutionary party. His residence, the Corsini palace, and its enclosure, were entirely outside the control of the Papal government. Here the disaffected used to assemble, wearing the tricolour cockade, and, issuing forth, used to erect poles, surmounted by the cap of liberty, in various quarters of the city. On the 28th of December a large body of insurgents assembled in front of the Corsini palace ; and, after listening for some time to the inflammatory addresses of violent demagogues, they attacked the Pontifical troops, who were sent to disperse them. Joseph Bonaparte, General Duphot, and other French officers came out of the palace to preserve peace, when Duphot was accidentally shot by a sub-officer of the Papal Guards. This unlucky occurrence gave their oppor- tunity to the French Directory. Their ambassador was with- drawn. No explanation would be listened to. The French army, under Berthier, marched on Rome. By the Pontiffs orders, no resistance was offered to their advance. They entered the city, and immediately took possession of the Castle of Saint Angelo, liberating all the prisoners, and thus adding 350 THE CHAIR OF PETER. to the revolutionary elements abroad. Under the protection of the French flag, the j)opnlace assembled in great numbers in tlie Campo Yaccino, on the 15th of February, 1798, and there, j^lanting the tree of liberty, proclaimed the Roman Republic. The same day Berthier marched, in military pomp, to the Capitol ; and, not only by his j)resence and countenance, sanctioned these proceedings, but further participated in them, by delivering the following inflated address : — Shades of Cato, of Pompey, of Brutus, of Cicero, and of Hortensiiis, accept tlie homage of the emancipated French, in the Capitol, where you have so often defended the rights of the people, and added new glories to the Eoman Eepublic. The descendants of the Gauls, bearing olive branches, now repair to this august spot, to restore the altars of liberty erected by the elder Brutus. And you, Romans, who have recovered your legitimate rights, remem- ber the monuments of glory that surround you, resume your pristine greatness, and emulate the virtues of your ancestors. Thus was celebrated the anniversary of the Pope's accession, in his own capital! The Holy Father was, at the time, engaged in his devotions in the Sistine chapel, when Haller, the French Commissary General, abruptly entered, and announced to him that his reign was at an end. Several attempts were made to induce him to flee : seemingly friendly advice, threats, even insults, were resorted to, but all in vain. Then force became necessary : the room in which he sat was plundered in his presence ; the few trifling articles required for his personal comfort were withdrawn ; even the Fisherman's ring was taken off his finger ; and when the venerable Pontiff, then in his eighty-second year, asked to be allowed to die where be was, he received the curt and brutal answer that he could die anywhere. On the 20th of February he was removed, a prisoner, from the Vatican, and, under an escort of French cavalry, was compelled to travel towards France. A fatiguing journey of five days brought him to Sienna. After a brief sojourn there, with the monks of Saint JBarbe, he was removed to the Chartreuse, about two miles from Florence. Here he PIUS VI. 331 was visited by tlio exiled King of Sardinia, Charles Emanuel IV.,^ and his queen ; and, in reply to their expressions of condolence, he remarked : " In this world all is vanity. No one can say so with more truth than we can. Yes, all is vanity, but to love and serve God, the giver of every good. Let us, then, raise our eyes to Heaven, where thrones are prepared for us, of which men cannot deprive us." During his residence in this monastery, and wherever else he sojourned on the route, his fortitude and resignation commanded the sympathy of all — even his captors. Towards the end of March, an order arrived from the Directory, that the Pope should be transported into France. Crossing the Alps in very severe weather, he suffered much from cold and fatigue. When this circumstance was deplored by his attendants, he observed, " It is the will of God. Let us go wherever they please." At Gap, Grenoble— every city, town, and hamlet on the way — the inhabitants crowded around him to obtain his blessing, and to testify their profound sympathy and veneration. Owing to the advanced years and brokt^n health of the august prisoner, four months are said to have been occupied in this dreary journey. Shortly after his arrival at Valence, his destined place of detention, his over- tasked strength entirely gave way, and the brief illness super- vened which was to put a period to all his earthly troubles. When administering the holy viaticum, the officiating priest asked him if he forgave all his enemies. " From the bottom of my heart," was the reply ; and thus, with the most edifying sentiments of resignation to God's will, and charity to all mankind, on the 29th of August, 1799, he peacefully yielded up his soul to the Divine Master, whom he had so faithfully followed in the rugged path of suffering.^ ' Charles Emanacl IV. was dispossessed by the French of his capital, Turin, and his continental dominions, in 1798. * In 1802 the remains of Pius VI. were removed from Valence to Rome, and interred there, with great pomp, by his successor Pius VII., assisted by eio'hteen cardinals. 352 THE CHAIR OF PETER. After the deposition of Pius VI. from bis temporal throne, Lis spiritual authority continued to be exercised by his vicar in Rome ; while the temporal government devolved on a body of consuls, senators, tribunes, questors, and other officials of the ancient classic model, created und^r a new and cumbrous consti- tution, framed in Paris for tlie occasion. Under this constitution it was enacted, that the French General should have a veto, for ten years, on all laws passed by the governing body in Eome. A natural consequence of this revolution was a wide-spread system of confiscation and pillage. All the Papal domains, and the properties of religious communities and of the Eomau nobles were sequestered; churches and palaces were plun- dered ; paintings, statues, and other objects of art — the accumu- lated treasures of centuries — were borne away by the invaders, or sold by them to brokers, chiefly wealthy Jews, who, jackal-like, followed in the track of spoliation. The total amount of spoil thus gathered by the French, whether in the shape of plunder, confiscations, or exactions, is roughly esti- mated by cotemporary writers at two hundred millions of livres, or £8,500,000 of our money .^ Meanwhile French revolutionary ideas were zealously propagated in Italy ; a Jacobin Club was established in Rome ; the Sabbath was declared abolished, the priesthood pro- scribed ; and, in order to carry out the principle of " equality," the Colonna, and other princes and nobles, were compelled to serve as private soldiers in the ranks.^ In the adjoining towns and hamlets, the work of pillage was likewise carried on. In a few instances, French soldiers were killed by the infuriated people ; and the result was, that numbers of the peasantry were massacred, in retaliation. » Such was the rapacity of the French, that they carried off with thorn tliirty-six sets of type, of the several characters of as many different lanpuagos, from the great missionary college of the Propaganda. This was a wanton act ; for, it need hardly be observed, these types could not be of any use whatever to the plunderers. ^ After some time, substitutes, for payment, were permitted. CHAPTER XXIX. PIUS VII. "Cum tot sustincaa ot tanta negotia solus." — Horace. On the death of Pius VI., a prisoner and in exile, there was great joy among the Infidel party in France ; while in Pro- testant Engkmd, naturally enough, the question was asked, " How can a successor to the deceased Pontiff be elected ? The cardinals are dispersed ; Rome is in the hands of the spoiler ; close by * the Threshold of the Apostles,' an altar of Liberty has been set up ; the priesthood is annulled, the Sabbath abolished. Has the Papacy ceased for ever to exist ? " Even to many a sincere Catholic it appeared as if the spirit of revolutionary France had permanently settled down, in dark- ness and desolation, on the Eternal City ; and, but for the Divine promise, it would have seemed that the gates of hell had at length prevailed against the Church. But here, as on many a former occasion, when human hope had well nigh become extinct, God's providence intervened in behalf of His Church. Under the protection of Austria, the Sacred College assembled at Venice, and there, on the 13th of March, 1800, elected Cardinal Chiaramonti, who assumed the name of Pius VII.^ On the 3rd of July following, the new Pope entered his capital, amidst the joyous acclamations of the people — the city having been restored to him by the successes ' Pins VII., Gregory Barnabas Chiaramonti, born at Ceseno, in 1740, governed the Church from a.d. 1800 to 1823. 2 A 354 THE CHAIK OF TETER. of the Austrians and Russians, under Suwarrow, against the forces of the French Republic. Napoleon, now First Consul, plainly saw that the experi- ment of Atheism in France was an utter failure. Infidelity had had its trial, as a substitute for Christianity, and had miserably broken down. The worship of the goddess of Reason and other similar absurd profanities had no hold on the masses. The great heart of the nation was far from altogether unsound. Therefore he resolved to restore Catholic worship in France ; it may have been not so much on account of his innate love for reli2:ion as because he felt that his doing so would be in accord with the sentiment of the great majority of Frenchmen, and because, moreover, he had learned from experience that good Christian men are those most likely lo make good citizens and good subjects. Accordingly, he concluded a Concordat with the Pope,^ to the effect, that the Government of the Republic acknowledged the Catholic Apostolic and Roman religion to be the religion of the great majority of French citizens ; and that the hierarchy was to be constituted of ten archbishops and fifty bishops, who were to be nominated by the First Consul, and afterwards to receive canonical institution from the Pope, according to the usage under the lately suppressed monarchy. Before entering on office, the bishops were bound to take an oath of fidelity to the First Consul, who was recognized by the Pope, as possessing the same rights and privileges as the late King ; and it was provided that, should the future chief of the State at any time not be a Catholic, there should be a new convention to meet such a contingency.'-^ This Concordat was • July 15, 1801. ^ The action of Pius VII., ou the conclusion of the French Concordat of 1801, affords, as observed by Dr. DiJllinger, "the most conspicuous instance of an extraordinary application of the highest Church power, because the weal of the Church urgently required it." " With a stroke of the pen (by his Bull of the 29th of November of the same year), he deprived of their dignity thirty-seven French bishops who had refused to resign. He, too, abolished all the Episcopal Churches for ever, with their chapters and privileges ; and he erected, at the same time, ten metropolitan sees and fifty bishoprics. A pro- nus VI r. 355 laid before tlie legislature by Portalis, minister of Ecclesiastical affiiirs, OD behalf of the First Consul, ou the 5th of April, 1802 ; when several enactments were passed to regulate the details. On the promotion of Napoleon to the Empire by the Senate, in 1804, Louis XVIII. issued a protest, at Warsaw, against his assumption of a title and dignity, conferred on him by a body having no legal existence. Louis further protested against all acts that followed therefrom ; and he stated that, making this protest in the presence of all the sovereigns of Europe, he thus acted in their interests as well as his own. To meet this move, by obtaining what had long been regarded as the highest sanction and confirmation of the Imperial dignity, Napoleon resolved that he should be crowned by the Pope. Acting differently from Charlemagne and other monarchs, who had repaired to Rome on similar occasions, he insisted, in his arrogance, that the Holy Father should come to Paris, to crown him. The Pope felt extreme reluctance to depart thus from the ancient usage. In fact, he considei-ed it derogatory to his exalted office, that he should be asked to do so. More- over, he entertained grave apprehensions of the fatigues of the journey, in his enfeebled state, and greatly feared that he mio-ht never see Eome airain. In a secret consistorv, held a few days before his departure, the Holy Father gave expression to all these anxieties and doubts; adding, however, on the other hand, that he rejoiced at the opportunity, now afforJed, of substantially testifying his gratitude to Napoleon for the restoration of religious worship in France, and that he hoped, in a personal interview, to obtain further advantages for the Church. Therefore it was that he determined to go.^ The Holy Father set out for Paris on the 2nd of November, 1804 ; and was met by a guard of honour on the French frontier. ceeding so unprecedentecl, such au abolition of well-founded rights, was only to be justified by the most extreme necessity — by the imperative duty of creating a new system of order out of the deeply convulsed Church of France" ("The Church and the Churches," p. 47, trans. London, 1862). ' Allocution in the Secret Consistory of October 29, 1804. 356 THE CHAIR OF TETER. In his progress through France, he was received with all marks of veneration by the people ; and his heart was gladdened, as he on several occasions observed to the members of his suite by the evidence afforded, on all sides, that the efforts of infidelity to eradicate the faith of Christ in the provinces had met with but little success. On the 2nd of December, the ceremony of the coronation took place, with great pomp, in the cathedral of Notre Dame, in presence of the Senate, the Council of State, the Legis- lative body, the high officials of the Empire, and the Foreign Ambassadors. In the actual coronation, however. Napoleon departed from all ancient precedents, and broke through the programme that had been agreed on ; for, when the Pontiff was about to place the crown on his head, he seized it, and crowned himself; and he also placed her crown on the head of the Empress. Of this unworthy slight Pius deemed it advisable, as it was more dignified, to take no notice at the moment ; but a shade of displeasure was observed to pass over his countenance.^ Finally, the Emperor, wearing his crown, and with his right hand upon the Book of the Gospels, took the oath of fidelity to the constitution, and bound himself to respect, and to cause to be respected, the laws of the Concordat ; and to have no object in governing but the maintenance of the interests, the happiness, and the glory of the French people. After this, the chief herald made proclamation in these words : "The most glorious and most august Emperor Napoleon, Emperor of the French, is crowned and enthroned. Long live ' In acting thus, Napoleon probably wislied to show the world, that he considered it was to liimself alone he was indebted for the Imperial dignity. A writer of our day, who assuredly is no friend of the Papacy, observes, " This unruly will of a parvenu, always anxious to establish his title, could not but deeply wound the Pope, who had come from Home to Paris to perform a ceremony of which he appeared to be thought no longer worthy. Ho complained of this alteration of the programme, and gave notice that if the Moniteur re- ported the fact, he should be under the necessity of reminding Napoleon that ho had broken his word. Hence the silence, so long unexplained, of the ofiicial jour- nal on this imposing ceremony, and the incidents which had marked it " (" The History of Napoleon I.," by P. Lanfrey, vol. ii. p. 407. Trans., London, 1872). rius viT. 357 the Emperor." The acclamations of the people and salvos of artillery concluded the grand and solemn ceremony. Not only on this, but on several other occasions, Napoleon showed but little respect for his venerable visitor ; thus pre- senting a striking contrast with the conduct of Charlemagne, and other Imperial princes, crowned by the Popes. It may be that he felt his newly fledged honours required more self- assertion than the inherited rank of the Emperors of ancient lineage. But, in any case, he had long since proved himself to be strangely indifferent to all Christian principles and obligations, whenever these appeared to stand in the way of his ambitious projects. This was painfully evinced in his extraordinary proceedings, with the object of conciliating the followers of Mahomet, during his campaign in Egypt, some six years before. And now it was deeply to be regretted that the undoubtedly great services which he rendered, in subjugating anarchy and communism to law and order, and re- establishing religious worship in France, were obscured by his unworthy treatment of the Pope, who had, at the cost of so much personal inconvenience and of so much violence to his own feelings, come from Rome to crown him. " I will say nothing," writes the able minister of His Holiness, Cardinal Consalvi, referring to this period, "of the humiliations that were heaped upon Pius VII. My memory and my pen alike refuse to dwell upon such narratives." In visiting Paris, to crown Napoleon, Pius VII., as we have seen, hoped to be able to secure important advantages to the Church. On that occasion, he strongly urged the Emperor to follow the example of his predecessor Charlemagne, and to restore to the Holy See the provinces of which it had been bereft. " I recognize in his coming to Paris for my coronation," says Napoleon, " the act of a holy prelate ; but he has asked me to resign the Legations to him."^ This, of course, was quite out of the question. The ambitious policy of the ' Napoleon's letter of July 22, 1807. 358 THE CHAIE OF TETER. conqueror of Coiitineiital Europe tended in quite the opposite direction. Italy must be made a province of the Empire ; and its viceroy, a member of the Imperial family, must date his decrees from Rome. Such was the programme, which he had laid down, to be carried out when practicable. Even as early as the period of his coronation, he pressed the Pope to remove his court to Paris or Avignon. Thus would the Papacy have become a powerful instrument in his hands, to subjugate the nations to the Imperial sway. "Abroad/' said he, in his conversations with Las Cases at St. Helena, " the Pope was bound to me by Catholicism, and with my influence and our forces in Italy I did not despair, sooner or later, of obtaining the direction of the Pope for myself; and then what an influence, what a lever of public opinion in the rest of the world should I not have possessed ! . . . I should have made an idol of him •: he would have remained near my person. Paris would have become the capital of Christendom, and I should have governed the religious as well as the political world." ^ But these speculations were baffled by the firmness of Pius, who insisted on returning to his capital, and plainly told the Emperor, that before leaving Rome he had provided for the contingency of his detention in France, by executing a formal act of abdication, which was deposited at Palermo, then under the protection of the British fleet, and which would be promulgated, immediately on its becoming neces- sary. On this, the Pope was permitted to depart peaceably ; but it was not for a moment to be supposed that Napoleon had changed his plans. In his aims at universal empire, he was not to be discomfited by the feeble ruler of a fourth or fifth-rate state. Thenceforward, the relations of the cabinets of the Tuileries and the Vatican became far from cordial ; and several serious misunderstandings arose. The Emperor's brother, Prince Jerome, had contracted marriage witli an American ' " Jfomorial of St. Helena." PIUS Yir. 359 lady, Miss Patterson. The marriage had been annulled by the Imperial law of succession, and the Emperor requested the Pope to annul it likewise. The Pontiff, in terms con- ciliatory but firm, refused to do so ; assuring His Majesty that, all the circumstances considered, his conscience forbade his compliance. Napoleon, it need hardly be observed, could ill brook such independence, even in the Head of the Church ; especially as it entered into his designs that the Papacy should become the passive instrument of his ambition. In February, 1808, Tuscany, Parma, and Piacenza having been annexed to the Empire, the French army, under General Miollis, entered the Papal territories ; and, wholly regardless of the energetic protests of the Government, took possession of Rome ; imprisoning or banishing the cardinals attached to the person of Plis Holiness, as well as the Papal officials in the city and the provinces ; occupying the Post Office in order to examine the correspondence passing through it ; seizing on the printing presses, particularly those of the Camera Apostolica and the Propaganda ; searching with violence for papers and writings of all kinds in the offices of the Pontifical magis- trates, not even excepting the cabinet of the Prime Minister ; absorbing the Papal troops in their own ranks ; and disbanding the noble guard.^ These acts were followed by the plunder of Ecclesiastical property ; the abolition of religious houses; the expulsion of holy virgins from their cloisters ; the profanation of the churches ; the loose rein given to libertinism ; the despising of Ecclesiastical discipline and the sacred canons ; the promulgation of a code, not only contrary to these same sacred canons, but even to the precepts of the Gospel and the Divine law ; the persecution and degradation of the clergy ; the subjecting of the sacred power of the bishops to the lay power ; the violence done in many ways to their consciences ; their forcible expulsion from their cathedrals ; and other ' From the Bull of Excommnnication of Napoleon and his abettors by Pope Pias VII., published and posted up in Rome, June 10, 1809. ^^>0 THE CHAIR OF TETER. similar wicked and sacrilegious attempts against the liberty, the immunity, and the doctrine of the Church.^ Pius, now a prisoner in his palace, witnessed, day after day, the rapidly growing evils resulting from this gross violation of his sovereign rights, and sacrilegious contempt of his spiritual authority ; but, all through, he displayed the most edifying resignation and dignity, under circumstances so humiliating and afflicting. Protracted diplomatic negotiations ensued ; but with no benefit whatever to the weaker party. The fable of the wolf and the lamb was fully realized. After considerable pressure, the Pope had reluctantly given in his adhesion to the Berlin and Milan decrees ; ^ but when Napoleon further insisted that he should actively join in hostilities against England, the Holy Father positively refused to do so ; stating that for no consideration whatever would he take part in the warlike operations against that power ; that he ought not to be called upon to regard the enemy of another as his enemy ; that he was the Universal Pastor, the common Father of all, tho minister of peace; and that the proposals submitted to him, in the name of the Emperor, were most abhorrent to his feelings. Finally, he made a solemn protest against the spoliation of the territories of the Church. Little heeding the remonstrances or the protest of the Holy Father, Napoleon forthwith published a decree to the following effect : " "Whereas the temporal sovereign of Pome has refused to make war against England, and the two kingdoms of Italy and Naples ought not to be divided by a hostile power,'' and ' From tho Bull of Excommuuication of Napoleon and his abettors by Popo Pius VII., published and posted up in Kome, Juno 10, 1809. * The Berlin decree, dated 21st November, 180G, and that of Milan, dated 17th December, 1807, constituted what was called "the Continental S^-stem." By tliese decrees, Great Britain was declared in a state of blockade; and all tho Continental nations adopting them, at the instance of Napoleon, closed their ports against British commerce ; and all trading with Britain, and the use of British goods were strictly prohibited. ' At this time, all Northern Italy, down to the bonndaiy of the Papal States, formed the Kingdom of Italy, under Napoleon ; and the Kingdom of Naples, or the Two Sicilies, was ruled by the Emperor's brother Joseph. On the promotion rrus viL 301 whereas the donation of territories, made by our illustrious predecessor Charlemagne to the Holy See, was for the benefit of the Church, and not for the good of the enemies of our holy religion ; We therefore decree, that the duchies of Urbino, Ancona, Macerata, and Cameriuo be for ever united to the kingdom of Italy." ^ To this it was added, that the Pope should continue to be Bishop of Rome, exercising his spiritual functions as his predecessors had done in the early ages, down to the reign of Charlemagne, The following year, emboldened by the successes of his arms, the Emperor resolved that the Pope should be deprived of his now nominal sovereignty — the mere shadow of temporal power, that still remained to him in his capital and the adjacent districts.^ Accordingly, he issued a new decree, from the palace of the Austrian Csesars at Shoenbrunn, that Eome should be an Imperial free city ; tliat its civil administration should be conducted by a council then nominated by the Emperor ; that its monuments and art-treasures should be taken under French protection ; and that, the Pope having ceased to reign,''an income of two millions of francs (£80,000) should be settled on His Holiness.^ On the 10th of June, 1809, this decree was promulgated in of Joseph to the throne of Spain, ho was succeeded by Murat (married to his eister Caroline), proclaimed King of the Two Sicilies, under the name of Joachim- Napoleon, August 1, 1808. ' This act of spoliation is alluded to, as follows, by the Holy Father in the Ball of Excommunication : " But if our temporal power should have beeu reduced to a vain and empty appearance in this our metropolis and the adjoin- ing provinces, it was at this time entirely taken away in the flourishing provinces of the March of Ancona, Urbino, and Camcrino. We entered a solemn protest against this open and sacrilegious usurpation of so many States of the Church, with the view to protect our dearest subjects against the seduction of an unjust and illegitimate Government, and sent instructions to our venerable brethren, the bishops of those provinces." "^ When, on the 2nd of February, 1808, the French, under General MioUis, took possession of Rome, they left the civil government, and the administration of the finances, for the moment, to the Pontifical ministers and the ordinary tribunals — a mere mockery of government, dominated, as it was, by those military dictators. * May 17, 1809, 362 THE CHAIR OF rETE"R. Eome by the lieutenants of Xapoleon, then for over a year the actual rulers of the city. In doing so, they reminded the people of their ancient glory, and congratulated them on their having exchanged the government of the Popes for that of the French Empire. On the same day, Pius strongly protested against this fresh act of spoliation, and published a Bull, which had been for some time prepared for an event but too clearly foreshadowed, excommunicating the Emperor and all his agents and abettors. In that document, no one was named, while all were plainly designated ; and the sentence, moreover, was considerably mitigated by the Pontiff's adding an instruc- tion to all Christian people, not in any way, in consequence thereof, to damage, injure, hurt, or prejudice, the said parties, their rights, prerogatives, or property. On personal grounds, Napoleon probably little heeded this solemn act of the Pope, cutting him and his agents off from the communion of the Church ; but he was in no small degree troubled by the appre- hension of its moral effect on an exclusively Catholic country, such as Italy, as well as on the great majority of the population of France, especially in the provinces.^ However, a proceeding of still greater recklessness on his part immediately followed. After night-fall on the 5th of July, General Radet, acting on the orders of his superior officer Miollis, escaladed the palace of the Quirinal, with a number of soldiers, forced his way into the Papal apartments, • The account wliich Cardinal Pacca gives of his presentation to tlie Emperor, whose levee, in Paris, he attended, in obedience to the Holy Father, on the 2Ist of February, 1813, shows how sore Napoleon felt about the Bull of Excommunication. On his being presented to the Emperor by the minister as the Cardinal Pacca, His Majesty repeated with a serious countenance, " The Cardinal Pacca ! " Then, smiling in his most gracious manner, he said, " You, Pacca, were a long time in a fortress ? " The cardinal answered, " Three years and a half. Sire." The Emperor bowed his head a little, and, making a sign of writing with his right on his left hand, said, " You wrote the Bull of Excommunica- tion ?" The cardinal prudently maintained silence ; when the Emperor resumed, " But now the past must be all forgotten," — alluding to the tenth article of the Concordat of Fontaincbleau, in which he had promised to restore to his good graces the cardinals, bishops, priests, and laity, who had incurred his dis- pleasure, in regard to the events referred to therein. Notes, etc., p- 210. PIUS Yir. ?>c^?> and, iu tlie Emperor's name, called on the Pope to sign a deed of renunciation of his temporal sovereignty ; adding, that if the demand were refused, his instructions were to seize the person of His Holiness and carry him off a prisoner. To this Pius replied, " If, on account of your oath of fidelity and obedience to the Emperor, you have deemed it your duty to execute these orders, reflect how We ought to maintain the rights of the Holy See, to which We are bound by so many oaths. We will not. We cannot. We ought not, either to surrender or renounce that which is not ours. The temporal dominions belong to the Church. We are only their administrator. The Emperor may cut them into pieces ; but he can never obtain from us their renunciation." On this, the Pope was carried off, a prisoner, at three o'clock iu the morning of the 6th, — his minister, Car- dinal Pacca, alone being allowed to accompany him, and that only as far as Florence.^ Thence the Holy Father, subject to fearful hardships and privations, was transported across the Alps to Grenoble. But here the feelings of the inhabitants who crowded around the carriage and the palace where he was lodged, to testify their sympathy and veneration for him, proved a source of alarm to his captors ; and, consequently, after a sojourn of about ten days at Grenoble, he was removed back to Italy, and domiciled at Savona on the Gulf of Genoa, where he was detained nearly three years. Thence, by the Emperor's orders, he was removed to Fontainebleau, where he remained a close prisoner, until the colossal fabric of Napo- leon's power was nodding to its fall, in presence of the armies of united Europe, in January, 1814, when, through motives of expediency, he was unconditionally released.^ ' In the journey from Florence to Grenoble, Cardinal Pacca travelled in a separate carriage, and Avas not allowed to communicate with His Iloliness. From Grenoble, the cardinal was removed to the dreary fortress of San Carlos, at Fenestrelles, where he remained a close prisoner, fz-om the 6th of August, 1809, to the 5th of February, 1813. On the completion of the Concordat he was liberated, and joined the Pope at Fontainebleau. * Pius YII.'s detention at Grenoble was from the 21sfc of July to the Isfc of August, 1809 J at Savona, from about the loth of August, 1809, to the 9th of 364 THE CHATPv OF PETER. The sufferings endured by Pius YII. in bis forced journey?:, may be imagined on perusing the following brief details, ex- tracted from the Memoirs of Cardinal Pacca : — On the first day, leaving Kome, they travelled in a close carriage shut up, almost without air, in the most burning hours of the day, imder the hottest sun of Italy, in the month of July. After nineteen hours of a most painful journey, to the great inconvenience of the Pope, who several times com- plained of his sufferings to the cardinal, then ignorant of the malady by which His Holiness was afflicted, they arrived, one hour before midnight, at a wretched inn on the mountain of Eadicofani, and there alighted. Not having a change of clothes, they were obliged to keep on those which they wore, and which bad been quite wet with perspiration, and were dried on their backs by the cool air of the night. Nothing had been prepared for them at the inn. A small room was assigned to the Holy Father, and another next to it to his minister, with the gendarmes posted at the doors.^ Cardinal Pacca, on his liberation from the fortress of Fencs- trelles in February, 1813, travelling to Paris, sojourned for a day at the hospice of the monks of Mont Cenis, and was informed there of what had befallen the Pope in his journey from Savona to Fontainebleau. Late at night on the 11th of June, 1812, the Holy Father arrived at the hospice in a state of health, giving cause of serious alarm for his life. On the morning of the 14th, he was so much worse that the viaticum was administered to him. Notwithstanding this, the French escort insisted that he should resume his journey in the even- ing of that day, and this, in spite of the earnest remonstrances and prayers of the monks and of the surgeon, Clara, who had expressly come from Lans-le-Bourg to prescribe for him. June, 1812 ; and at Fontainebleau, from the 20th of June, 1812, to the 24th of January, 1814. His forced absence from his capital was close on five years, viz. from the 6th of July, 1809, to the 24th of May, 1814. ' "Notes on the Ministry of Cardinal B. Pacca, Secretary of State to His Holiness Pope Pius VII.," pp. 98, 99. Trans., Dublin, 1843. rius vir. 3(35 When Cardinal Pacca called on Clara, the latter told him that he had had the honour of accompauying the Holy Father in this journey, and had been alone with him in the carriage, to take care of him ; that they travelled night and day for five nights and four days, without resting any single night ; and, fiually, that while the servants, and others who accom- panied the illustrious prisoner, took their supper in the even- ing, the carriage, with His Holiness in it, was put up in a coach-house of the inn.^ It is difficult to believe these details, although circum- stantially set forth and accurately verified by the cardinal. Yet, such brutal treatment of the venerable Pontiff was only in keeping with his arrest, deportation, imprisonment, and cruel persecution in prison, by the Emperor Napoleon. In 1810, while Pius VII. lay in captivity at Savona, the Emperor caused a decree of the Senate to be passed, enactino- that the Papal States should be united to the French Empire ; that Rome should be the second city of the Empire ; that the Prince Imperial of France should bear the title of Kino- of Rome;^ that the French Emperors, having been duly crowned in Paris, were, before the tenth year of their reign, to be crowned at Saint Peter's ; that the Popes, on their elevation, should take an oath, never to act contrary to the four propo- sitions of the Gallican Church, enacted in 1684 ; ^ that lands of the annual value of two millions of francs should be settled on the Pope, who was to have a palace in Paris as well as in Rome ; and that the expenses of the College of Cardinals and of the Propaganda should be under the direct charge of tho > " Ministry of Cardinal B. Pacca," pp. 194, 195. Cardinal Pacca mentions, that the colonel in command of the escort sent a message by courier to the government in Turin, representino; the state of the Pope's health, and requcstino' instructions ; and that the reply was that he should obey his instructions from Paris, and proceed on his journey. ^ Napoleon's expected heir, " the King of Rome," was born shortly after- wards—March 20, 1811. ' For the Gallican Articles, see Index. 366 THE CHAIR OF PETER. Imperial Government. Meanwhile, the clergy aad the few cardinals allowed to remain in Rome maintained, to the best of their power, the spiritual authority of the exiled Pontiff; and unmistakable symptoms of dissatisfaction were exhibited by the people. To preserve order, and enforce obedience to his edicts, twenty thousand additional troops were dispatched by the Emperor to Eome ; and, for their accommodation, some of the churches were converted into barracks ! During the live years of his captivity — a gross and wanton outrage in the eyes of all civilized nations — Pius VII., whether at Savona or Foutainebleau, was jealously debarred from com- munication with the external world, and was thus kept in ignorance of passing events. From time to time, false repre- sentations were made to him by those who were allowed to approach him — either the tools of the Emperor, or conscientious men wlio were themselves deceived. They told him that the Church was severely suffering from his unyielding nature ; that religion languished ; that schism prevailed ; and that all might be remedied by his making some concessions to the Emperor. Thus pressed again and again in his solitary prison-house, without a minister of state, or even a trusty friend, to whom ho could turn for counsel in his perplexity,^ and studiously kept in ignorance of the real state of European politics, after a severe struggle, acting for the best, the Holy Father consented, first at Savona, and again to a still greater extent, at Foutainebleau, to entertain, conditionally only, the Emperor's demands, which involved a renunciation of some of his temporal and spiritual rights. It was on the 9th of May, 1811, that Monseigneurs do Barral, Archbishop of Tours, Davoisin, Bishop of Nantes, and Mannay, Bishop of Treves, deputed by the Emperor, arrived ' Cardinal Pacca and other leading members of the Sacred College were at this time incarcerated in vai'ious fortresses, and thus debarred from advising or communicating with the Pope. nus Yii. 367 at Savona. Joined by the Bishop of Faenza, they had several audiences of His Holiness, from the 10th to the 19th of the month. With extreme difficulty, they persuaded the Pope to meet the Emperor's wishes, assuring him that his doing so was imperatively demanded by the interests of the Church. Again, on the 13th of January, 1813, the Emperor, accom- panied by the Empress, unexpectedly arrived at Fontainebleau, and, on that day, and the four days following, he held con- ferences with the Pope on the subject of a Concordat, the preliminaries of which were agreed on between them, and signed by His Holiness. Before affixing his signature to these Preliminary Articles, Pius expressly declared that he would sign them only subject to their being thoroughly discussed seriatim by his cardinals, in secret Consistory, as required by the laws of the Church ; and he stipulated that they should not be promulgated until this had been done.^ On the Pope's consulting the cardinals, which he did on ' In the course which he pursued on this occasion, Pius YII., solely anxious for the %Yelfare of the Church, acted for the best, under circumstances the most difficult and perplexing. " He yielded for a moment of conscientious alarm," says a distinguished Englishman, brought up at the feet of the venerable Pontiff, " he consented, though conditionally, under false, though virtuous, impressions, to the terms proposed to him for a new Concordat. But no sooner had his upright and humble mind discovered the error than it nobly and euccessfully repaired it " (" Recollections of the Last Four Popes," by Cardinal "Wiseman, p. 62). To this may be added the following words of a disinterested ■witness : " In Savona, to which city the PontifE had been carried, he was alone, left to his own resources, and without any adviser. By the earnest and almost extravagant representations made to him, of the distractions and perplexities occasioned to the Church by his refusal of the institution, the worthy old man was at length prevailed on, though not without bitter grief, and after violent conflicts with himself, to resolve on the virtual renunciation of this right. . . . Nor was even this all that was required of him. He was hurried to Fontaine- bleau with an impatient and reckless speed, by which his physical inflnnitie.s were painfully aggravated; and, when arrived thei-e, was assailed by repeated importunities, and pressed by the most urgent representations, that he ought completely to restore the peace of the Church. By these means he was at length effectually wrought on to comply ; the remaining points were finally conceded — even those most decisive " (Ranke, "History of the Popes," ii. 465. Trans., London, 1875). 368 THE CHAIR OF PETER. the first favourable opportunity, they altogether disapproved of his having conceded so much, and they strongly advised His Holiness to address a letter of revocation to the Emperor. But Napoleon anticipated this step, and ordered the Articles in question, which were intended only as the basis of a future agreement, to be promulgated as the Concordat of Fontaine- bleaii, bearing date January 25, 1813.-^ We have seen that this consummation was the aim of Napoleon as early as the period of his coronation, a.d. 1804. Now he had, at length, apparently succeeded. He held the Papacy in his grasp, as a powerful instrument of State policy. Little did he foresee that his plans were to be frustrated, in the all-wise designs of God — that, the following year, he should sign his own abdication in the same palace of Fontainebleau ; ^ and that, two years later, the despoiled and outraged Pontiff should reign in his own capital, more secure and more inde- ' The principal articles of this Concorflat, one affecting the temporal, and the other the spiritual, rights of the Roman Pontiff, are as follow : — " Article III. The territories, or fixed property, which the Holy Father possessed, and ■which are not alienated, shall be exempted from all sorts of taxation. They shall be administered by his agents or charges d'affaires. Those which havo been alienated shall be replaced as far as the snm of two millions of fi-ancs." This article appears to involve, on the part of the Pope, an acquiescence in, or a condonation of, the spoliation, by the Emperor, of the teri-itories of the Church. " AirriCLE IV. The Pope shall give the canonical institution, conform, ably to the Concordatum, and in virtue of the present indulgence, within the six mouths which shall follow the notification, according to usage, of the nomination of the Emperor to the archbishoprics and bishoprics of the Empire and the Kingdom of Italy. The first information shall bo notified by the metropolitan. At the termination of the six months, if the Pope has not accorded the institution, the metropolitan, and in failure of him, or if it should relate to the election of the metropolitan himself, the oldest bishop of the province, shall proceed to the institution of the bishop nominated, so that a see shall not remain in future vacant at any time longer than one year." Clearly, this article would deprive the Pope of the salutary power of a veto, in the case of an unfit person being nominated by the Emperor to a vacant see. It would, moreover, put the metropolitan in opposition to the head of the Church, " thus," in the words of the Holy Father, in his letter of revocation, addressed to the Emperor, " constituting the person inferior in the hierarchy, judge, and reformer of the head of that hierarchy, to whom they all owed submission and obedience." ' April 4, 1814 ; ratified by treaty with the allied powers, executed April 11th. PIUS VII. 3G9 pendent, and with larger territories than ever, whilst he, so long the master of kings and nations, should fret, in hopeless cap- tivity, on a remote volcanic island in the Southern Atlantic.^ Being now fully aware of his mistake, arising out of the difficult circumstances in which he was placed, and the gross misrepresentations that had been made to him, Pius revoked all that he had done, and emphatically declared that thence- forward he would treat w^ith no one except in his own capital. In his letter of revocation, addressed to the Emperor, dated Fontainebleau, March 24, 1813, he expressed his bitter regret at having signed " the Articles which were to form the basis of the definite treaty ; " adding, " But our grief increased in proportion when, to our surprise, we saw, notwithstanding the agreement made with Your Majesty, those same articles pub- lished under the title of a concordatum, whilst they were only the basis of a future agreement." Early in the year 1814, Pius VII. was waited on at Fon- tainebleau, by Cardinal Maury and two bishops delegated by the Emperor, to inform him that he would be immediately liberated on his voluntarily renouncing a portion of his temporal dominions. To this condition he peremptorily refused to accede, as the territories of Saint Peter were not liis, but belonged to the Church. He was then informed that he was unconditionally at liberty. " It must be with all my cardinals," he replied. When told that under existing cir- cumstances this was impossible, " Then let me have a carriage to convey me home," said he ; "I wish to be at Rome, in order to fulfil my duties as Head of the Church." In his parting address to the cardinals, seventeen in number, assembled at Fontainebleau, the Pope commanded them not to * That Napoleon was heartily ashamed of the carrying off, and protracted detention, as a prisoner, of Pius VII., is evident from his conversations with Las Cases, at St. Helena. "It was done without my authority," said he. If so, why was not the wrong immediately redressed, and reparation made ? No : the so-called mistake appears to have admirabJy accorded with the Emperor's general policy. 2b 3 0 THE CHAIR OF TETER. accept any pay or pension from the French Government ; not to wear any French decoration ; and not to assist at any public festival to which they might be invited. Leaving Fontaine- bleau on the 24:th of January, he travelled homeward by easy stages, frequently resting by the way. At Fiorenzula, his French escort was relieved by an Austrian guard of honour ; for the Papal States were then temporarily garrisoned by the Austrians. Having delayed a considerable time at Yiterbo, for the assembling of his cardinals, on the 24th of May he re-entered his capital, greeted by the joyous vivas of the inhabitants, and accompanied by the cordial good wishes of all civilized nations. All through his troubles, Pius VII. experienced much sympathy from the three great non-Catholic sovereigns— the Czar, the King of Prussia, and the Prince Regent of England. This sympathy was substantially evinced by the readiness with which they acquiesced in, and supported, the Pontiff's demand that all his territories should be restored to him. No doubt, the amiable character of Pius, and the cruel wrongs of which he was the innocent victim had their effect. But, moreover, in the Papacy — the most ancient of all dynasties — the sovereigns must have recognized the type, and centre of the system, of legitimate monarchy ; which circumstance, no doubt, largely influenced their decision, that its temporal possessions should be restored in their integrity. In the present day, when internationalism, communism, and nihilism are so rife, it would be well for themselves if the rulers of certain great States were influenced by the like considerations.^ ' " The most immediate support of the Papacy," says Ranke, allading to this period, " was the idea of secular legitimacy, aud it is to be observed that this support was offered with even moi-e determination from the side of its opponents in faith, than from that of its adherents and the followers of its creed. It was from the victory of the four great allied powers, three of which were non-Catholic, over that ruler, who had thought to make his capital the centre of Catholicism, that the Pope was I'estored to freedom and enabled to return to Rome. It was to the three non-Catholic monarchs alone, at that time assembled in Loudon, that the Pope had first expi'essed his desire to recover the entire States of the Church" (" History of the Popes," II., 4G7). PIUS VII. 371 But, perhaps, no Government exliiLitecl more kindly feel- ings towards Pius VII., than that of Protestant England. On more than one occasion of peril, a British ship of war was placed at his disposal, in case he should decide to escape by sea from his enemies. We have seen how reluctant he was to join in the Continental system, aimed against the commerce of Great Britain ; and how peremptorily he refused to take part in active hostilities against that power, even though his refusal involved the loss of his temporal dominions. In June, 1811, when the Czar and the King of Prussia visited London, Cardinal Consalvi arrived there on behalf of the Pope, and was received with condescending kindness and all due honour by the Prince Regent, to whom he was the bearer of a brief, expressing the sentiments of " admiration, friendship, and attachment," entertained by the Holy Father towards His Rnyal Highness, and towards "that valiant and in so many ways illustrious nation," England.^ The success of the Cardinal, in influencing the preliminary deliberations in London and the still m(»re important proceedings of the Congress of Vienna, was in a great degree due to the favourable disposition of England. When Napoleon, two months before his abdication, liber- ated the Pope at Fontainebleau, Rome and its surrounding district only were restored to His Holiness.^ By the Treaty of Vienna, the following year, the Marches, with Camerino, and their dependencies, as well as the Duchy of Benevento, the Principality of Ponte-Corvo, and the legations of Ravenna, Bologna, and Ferrara, with the exception of that part of Ferrara which is situated on the left bank of the Po, were restored to the Holy See. The right, however, of the Emperor of Austria and his successors, to place garrisons at Ferrara and Commachio was formally recognized.^ * These expressions are taken from the Allocution of Pius VII. to the Consistory of September 4, 1815, in which he alludes to Cardinal Gonsalvis mission to London of the previous year, ^ Decree of February 10, 1814. ' Treaty of Vienna, signed June 9, 1815, article 103. Cardinal Consalvi 372 THE CHAIR OF PETER. One of the decisions of the Allied sovereigns was, the immediate restoration to Rome of the works of art which had been carried off to the Louvre. The heavy cost of trans- porting these was generously defrayed by England.^ The eminent sculptor Canova^ was deputed by the Pope to super- intend the important work of their removal. Having satis- factorily completed his arrangements in Paris, Canova crossed over to London ; and on his return he was the bearer of a most friendly letter from the Prince Regent to the Pope, and also of letters from Lord Castlereagh to His Holiness and to Cardinal Consalvi. Early in 1816, he reached Rome, with his precious charge — those unique treasures of painting and sculpture, and those rare manuscripts, which had so long been the ornament and glory of that ancient city.^ strove hard against the reservation of the part of Ferrara on the left bank of the Po. He also endeavoured to procure the restoration to the Holy See of the Comtat Venaissin and Avignon ; but without success. * Wiseman's " Last Four Popes," p. l-iO. * Antonio Canova, perhaps the most eminent of modern sculptors, waa born at Possagno, in the province of Treviso, in Northern Italy, on the 1st of November, 1757 : and died at Venice, October 13, 1822. On the completion of his important mission of 1816, above referred to, his name was inscribed, by the Pope's own hand, in " the Golden volume of the Capitol," and he was created Marquis of Ischia by His Holiness, who also settled on him an annual pension of 3000 crowns. ' Subsequently, Pius VTT., to mark his sense of gratitude, and the high esteem he entertained for the Prince Regent of England, presented His Royal Highness with a collection of casts of the principal great works of sculpture in Rome, carefully taken for the purpose under the supervision of Canova. One evening, at the Pavilion at Brighton, the Prince, speaking of this valuable collection, said that really he did not know what to do with it. The first Viscount Ennismore, soon afterwards created Earl of Listowcl, who was present, said, that, under favour of His Royal Highness, he would venture to ask for it for the School of Art in Cork, in connection with the Royal Cork Institution. The Prince gi-aciously complied with his request ; and the casts were sent to Cork. They may now be seen in that part of the Institution which is occupied by the School of Design. Here, Maclise, Hogan, and other Cork men eminent in the Fine Arts, drew their first inspirations from these splendid models. CHAPTER XXX. PIUS IX. The Papal dominions, as settled by the Congress of Vienna, stood as follows, after the Peace of 1815, They comprised an area of 16,155 English, or 12,041 Geographical, square miles, in the centre of Italy, being bounded, on the west by the Mediterranean from a little south-east of Orbitello in Tuscany to Terracina on the Neopolitan frontier, and on the east by the Adriatic from the southern mouth of the Po to the Tronto. Further south, but included in the above area, lay the Duchy of Benevento and the Principality of Ponte-corvo, each being entirely surrounded by Neapolitan territory. The Papal States were divided into twenty provinces. Of these the principal was the Comarca of Home, including the capital. Then, there were six " legations," each governed by a cardinal, and thirteen " delegations," each governed by a prelate. The legations and delegations were severally divided into districts, which were subdivided into governments, and these last were again subdivided into communes. In the following table will be found the area and population of each province : — 374 THE CHAIE OF TETEE. Area in Geographical Square Miles. Population including Towns. In 1816. In 1853. Comarca di Roma Legations. Bologna Ferrara Forli 1319-2 1023 823-4 541 528 1064-7 430 332-5 673-6 240=9 252-7 358-5 1170-7 885 400-2 872-2 238-3 286-1 555-4 46-2 245,203 280,701 170,727 150,933 123,767 198,145 48,098 147,355 197,313 31,136 77,089 69,058 181,542 102,053 55,861 101,164 21,736 15,886 116,770 20,184 326,509 375,631 244,524 218,433 175,994 257,751 62,013 176,519 2-13,104 42,991 110,321 91,916 234,533 135,029 73,683 128,324 29,017 20,701 151,559 23,176 Eavenna Urbino -with Pesaro Velletri Delegatio7is. Ancona Macerata Camerino Fermo Ascoli Perugia Spoleto Eieti Viterbo Orvieto Civita Vecchia Frosinoue -vvitli Ponte-corvo . . 12,041-6 2,354,721 3,124,758 On the restoration of Pope Pius IX., by the Catholic powers, after the outbreak of 1848, His Holiness, preparatory to his return to his capital, issued a " Motu Proprio" from Portici, dated 12th September, 1849, completely re-organizing the government of his dominions. After his return to Eome, several edicts were published, in the name of the Pope, by the Cardinal Secretary of State, in September, October, and November, 1850, regulating the details. Thus, the following new organization was established. The whole of the States were distributed into five great divisions : one of these was to bear the name of the District of Rome (" Circondario di Eoma "), and the other four were to be termed Legations. These great divisions were sub- divided into provinces ; the provinces again into governments ; and the governments into communes. PIUS IX. 375 In the District of Rome were included, besides Rome and the Comarca, or country immediately about the city, three Provinces, Viterbo, Civita Vecchia, and Orvieto. The four Legations were : — 1. Romagna, comprising four Provinces, Bologna, Ferrara, Forli, and Ravenna. 2. Le Marche, comprising six Provinces, Urbino and Pesaro, Macerato with Loreto, Ancona, Fermo, Ascoli, and Camerino. 3. Umbria, comprising three Provinces, Perugia, Spoleto, and Rieti. 4. ]Marittima e Campagna, comprising three Provinces, Velletri, Frosinone, and Benevento. Each of these four legations was to be governed by a cardinal with the title of Legate, and under the legate each province by a functionary with the title of Delegate.^ In the same important document. His Holiness announced the institution of a council of State, of a consultative council on financial matters, of provincial councils, and of communal councils. He declared that the municipal representation and administration should be founded on the most liberal principles (" pin larghe franchigie ") compatible with the local interests of the communes : and that the election of the communal councillors should be based upon an extensive number of electors, regard being chiefly had to property.^ It has frequently been observed that the government of the Papal States, even under Pius IX., was too much in the hands of ecclesiastics, to the exclusion of the laity ; but it will be seen, from the 'following official statement, that there has existed considerable misconception on this head. In Mr. Lyons's despatch to the Marquis of Normanby, dated Rome, May 26, 1856, he quotes from a statistical return of the number of ecclesiastics in the civil employment of the • " Despatches of Mr. Lyons respecting the condition and administration of the Tapal States," 1855-1857; p. 11. Presented to the House of Commons l)y command of Iler Majesty, in pursuance of their address dated June 26, I860. ■' Ibid., p. 11. 376 THE CHAIll OF PETEU. Pope, made np to the 1st of Janiiai-y, 1848, or nearly two years prior to the "3Iotu Proprio " of His Holiness above referred to. The following is the general result : — Employed in the Different Departments of the State. Kumber. Salaries. Scudi. Pounds Sterling. Ecclesiastics Laymen 243 5,059 190.315 1,186,192 41,373 257,868 Employed in the Exclusively Ecclesiastical Departments. Kumber. Salaries. Scudi. Pounds .Sterling. Ecclesiastics 161 316 36,119 61,835 7 852 Laymen 13^442 From the number given above of ecclesiastics employed in the Departments of State, should be deducted 134 chaplains of the prisons and similar establishments, whose duties were exclusively religious.^ It would appear, therefore, that out of the number of 5302 persons in the Civil Service of the Papal States, on the 1st of January, 1848, only 109 were ecclesiastics. The army, which was of course composed entirely of laymen, was not included in the Return.^ " The number, then, of ecclesiastics holding civil offices in the State," observes Mr. Lyons, " is very small compared witli ' " Despatches of Mr. Lyons," pp. 7, 8. * Ibid. This interesting Return was placed at Mr. Lyons's disposal by Cardinal Antonelli. In handing it to him, Monsignor Berardi, the Under- Secretary of State, told him that the number of ecclesiastics was smaller tht-u (May, 1856) than in 18 18 ; and he observed, " that it must also be rememberod that among the ecclesiastics are counted persons who, like himself and tlio present Minister of the Interior, although Roman prelates wearing the Eccle- siastical habit, are not in holy orders." nus IX. o77 the niimLer of laymen; and the aggregate of the sahirios received by such ecclesiastics is very much less than the aggregate of those received by laymen. The laity have besides a compensation in being employed in greater numbers than ecclesiastics, and at a greater aggregate amount of salary, in the purely ecclesiastical departments, the revenues of which are principally, if not entirely, derived from foundations or contributions from abroad. It is maintained, moreover, and, I believe, not without reason, that the attempts which have been made to carry secularization further, have not contributed either to satisfy the people or to improve the administration." ^ On the other hand, the rank and character of the civil offices occupied by Churchmen must be taken into account. The Secretary of State, who had, under the Pope, the supreme direction of all affairs, home and foreign, was a cardinal; his substitute, or Under-Secretary of State, was a prelate ; all the ministers, except the minister of arms, were prelates ; as were all the delegates or governors of provinces, except three. Thus, although the number of ecclesiastics in office was not large, nevertheless, as they occupied almost without exception the high and influential posts, the whole direction of the Government was essentially Ecclesiastical.^ " It is strenuously maintained by the warm partisans of the Papacy, and is reluctantly admitted by many moderate and sensible men, that this is a necessity under the Government of a sovereign who is an Ecclesiastic, claiming to be Head of the Universal Church ; and that whether a few more or less laymen be ad- mitted to office, the real secularization of any government, with a Pope at its head, is impossible. Such, indeed, appears at this moment to be the opinion of Cardinal Antonelli, and, indeed, of Poj)e Pius IX. himself." ^ This last is, in the eyes of Catholics, a most important consideration. For, inasmuch as the spiritual character and ' 2>h: Lyons's Despatcli, May 26, 1856. ' Ibid. ' Ibid. oiS THE CHATE OF TETEE. functions of the Supreme Pastor of the Universal Chiirch were incomparably above and beyond his status and duties as a temporal ruler, so it was fitting that the principal offices of liis Government should be filled by ecclesiastics. The Temporal States, under Divine Providence, for many centuries, were instrumental in securing the complete personal and political independence of the Pope, who ought not to be the subject of any sovereign ; and, moreover, they furnished him with means for the discharge of the duties of his office, in all parts of the globe. At the same time, in the opinion of thoughtful persons well qualified by observation and experience to speak with authority on the question, the inhabitants of the Papal dominions were happier and better under the paternal rule of the Pontiffs than they now are under a secular prince. The gross public revenue of the Papal States ranged from £2,389,076, in 1853, to £3,009,524, in 1857 ; whilst, in the same period, the expenditure mounted from £2,643,060 to £3,104,692. One half of the revenue accrued from customs and excise ; one fourth, from direct taxes and domains ; and the remainder, from stamps, post-office, and miscellaneous items. Of the expenditure, the interest on the public debt amounted to considerably more than one third ; being £950,750, in 1853, and £1,068,079, in 1857. The cost of the Papal army averaged £390,000, in the five years; being £359,194, in 1853, and £424,247, in 1857. The exact figures of the gross revenue and expenditure, during the five years, were as follow : — Year. 1853 Revenue. £ . 2,389,076 Expenditure. £ 2,643,660 Deficit. £ 254,584 1854 . 2,405,574 2,727,688 322,114 1855 . . 2,672,141 2,882,886 210,745 1856 . 2,866,895 3,009,493 142,598 1857 . 3,009,524 3,104,692 95,168 ' ' The annual deficit was met by a foreign loan. It is deserving of note tliat, the last three years, the finances were bcinj,' brouKlit into a healthier condition, as iii(lic;ito(l by thr sIciKly diiniuiilion of the deficit. PIUS IX. .^79 In 1856, the Pontifical army comprised two regiments of foreign soldiers, called Swiss, but not composed exclusively of Swiss, 3500 strong, and about to be increased to 4800 ; whilst of native troops the numbers were 5000 gendarmes, 5000 regular troops, and 3000 dispersed in small bodies. "Thus," observes Mr. Lyons, "the Papal army, supposing the Swiss regiments to be completed, may be stated, in round numbers, at about 18,000 men — a force sufficient to enable the Pope to dispense with foreign aid, if its fidelity can be relied upon."^ At that time, the French had 5000 men in the Koman States, and the Austrians 8000. The revolutionary movement in Italy, in the years 1859- 1861, deprived the Pope of the greater part of his territories, which, together with Tuscany, Parma, and Modena, were annexed to the new Kingdom of Italy. Of the twenty pro- vinces, which he previously ruled, only five now remained to the Holy Father, along with the city of Kome. These were : — Area in Geo- graphical Square Miles. Population in 1853. Provinces. In Towns. In Country. Total. Rome and its Comarca . Viterbo .... Civita Vecchia Velletri .... Frosinone 1319-2 872-2 286-1 430 555-4 313.230 112.976 19,117 59,197 115,021 13,279 15,348 1,584 2,816 39,538 326,509 128,324 20,701 62,013 154,559 3462-9 619,541 72,565 692,106 And even of this small remnant of the territories of the Holy See, including the capital of Catholic Christendom, the ' Despatch to the Marqnis of Normanby, from Rome, May 24, 1856. Mr. Lyons states that it had been suggested to Cardinal Antonelli to increase the Swiss, and diminish the native, troops. This His Eminence did not approve of. It was commonly thought that most of the native soldiers were in league with the secret societies. But M. de Rayneval, the French envoy at the Vatican, " and others in a situation to be well informed," did not believe this. Thoy thought that although the native troops conld never be expected to act with any great zeal or vigour, they might be depended upon to repress ordinary disordor^ ; but they were also of opinion that in case of a general or really formidable insurrection mauy would desert, and not a few join the insurgents. •^•^0 THE CHAIR OF PETER. Italian Government took possession, in the month of September, 1870. A brief review of the events which led to these acts of spoliation will not be out of place here. Unfortunately for mankind, a zealous and ever-active pro- pagandism of revolution and infidelity had long been working and extending its baneful influence over all Europe, through the agency of those secret associations which have ever been emphatically condemned by the Church.^ The principles of Blazzini and his colleagues — principles levelled against all the most venerable institutions, and aiming at the destruction alike of religion and civil government, had, to a considerable extent, undermined Continental society, and they rose to the surface in the year 1848. At the close of the previous year, Pius IX. had introduced considerable reforms in his dominions; advancing laymen to the principal offices, and attaching responsibility to his ministers. His example was followed by the sovereigns of Piedmont, Tuscany, and Naples, who granted constitutional government to their subjects. But such concessions were quite insufficient for the revolutionary party in Italy, whose avowed ohject was the destruction of all the "governments in the Peninsula, in order to create one sole Italian State, under the Republican form." ^ In other Continental countries, the same s[)irit displayed itself with unmistakable significance. The overthrow of Louis Philippe,^ the establishment of the Republic in France, * The members of the revolutionary secret societies in Italy were first called carhoiuiri (charcoal burners) ; as, although the societies were composed of various classes, they comprised a large number of the most hard-working of the labouring population, such as the charcoal burners. ' Statutes of the secret society, named " Young Italy," to be established under the auspices of Mazzini ; article i. Article ii. ran as follows : " By reason of the evils flowing from absolute rule, and the still greater evils produced by Constitutional Monarchies, we must unite all our efforts to form a Republic, one and indivisible." Subsequent articles, upholding assassination, inctm- testably prove the wisdom of the Huly See's condonmation of secret societio."?. ' February 24, lb 18. PIUS IX. 381 and the attack on the representative assembly in Paris two months later ; ^ Vienna in a state of open rebellion, the mob forcing its way into the Imperial palace,^ and, notwithstanding his concessions, the compelled flight of the Emperor and his court to Innspruck ; ^ the Austrian garrisons expelled from IMilan ; barricades erected in Berlin, the populace in conflict with the Eoyal troops, and the capital temporarily thrown into a condition of anarchy and panic ; ^ Naples in a state of siege, its newly convened constitutional assembly dissolved, and its civic guard disbanded ; insurrectionary tumults and the subversion of governments in minor States ; and rioting and anarchy in Kome ; — all simultaneously occurring, mark tho year 1848 as one of the most memorable in European history. But the climax was reached in the month of November, when the world was filled with alarm and horror by the assas- sination of the Pontifical prime minister, Count Rossi, on the crowded steps of the senate house, in the broad light of day,*" the attempts of the revolutionists to coerce the Holy Father, and bend him to their nefarious projects, and his flight to Gaeta, to escape their sacrilegious designs against his freedom of action and his life.^ In the month of January, 1849, the Constituent Assembly, charged with the formation of a new constitution, met in Rome, and decreed the abolition of the temporal power of the Pope, erecting in its stead a democracy pure and simple, under the name of the Roman Republic ; and, ere long, the conduct of affairs mainly devolved on Mazzini, the head and centre of the secret societies, the apostle of revolution and infidelity^ Meanwhile, all the Catholic powers, save Piedmont, pre- ferred their aid, to restore Pius IX. to his throne : but a ' May 15th. * March 13th. ^ May 17th. ■• March 18th. * November loth. * November 24th, ' Armellini, Saffi, and Mazzini were appointed a triumvirate, to conduct the supreme goveramcnt ; but, as might have been expected, the real power and direction of affairs were all but exclusively vested in the master spirit of tiie xuovemeut, Mazzini. 382 THE CHAIR OF PETER. formal application from the Pope was necessary, to authorize their intervention. This application was accordingly made by the Cardinal Secretary of State, Antonelli, under date, Gaeta, February 18, 1849. Acting thereon, the Austrians immedi- ately occupied the legations, from which they dislodged the revolutionists ; and the expeditionary force under General Oudinot, dispatched by Prince Louis Napoleon, President of the French Eepublic, disembarked at Civita Vecchia on the 25th of April. On the 30th of June, the French entered Rome ; and, two days later, the victorious general sent Colonel Neil with the keys of the city, to be laid at the feet of His Holiness, at Gaeta. Immediate steps were taken by the Holy Father to organize a new administration. On the 12th of September, he issued his " Motu Proprio," already referred to, from Portici, to which town he had removed from Gaeta ; and, on the 12th of April, 1850, amid the rejoicings of his people and of the whole Catholic world, he re-entered his capital. In the year 1859, the war between Austria, on the one hand, and France and Italy, on the other, wrought great and fundamental changes in the Italian Peninsula. The Austrians lost their Lombardo- Venetian dominions, which passed to Victor Emanuel ; and, before the close of the year, Bologna and the other legations were taken possession of by that monarch, and annexed to his kingdom. Against this act of spoliation of the territories of the Holy See, neither France nor Austria made a sign.' The following year, Umbria and ' Napoleon III. was then all powerful, and it has been observed with truth, that one word of remonstrance from him would have stayed the hand of Victor Emanuel, and preserved the Papal territories intact. In reply to an application from the Pope, the Emperor wrote His Holiness, December 31, 1859, urging him, for the sake of the peace of Europe, to relinquish those provinces which had been a source of troul)le to the Holy See, for the last fifty years ; and adding that, in such a case, the powers would guai'antee the integrity of his remaining dominions. Napoleon has been severely censured for the course he pursued on this occasion. The key to his conduct manife.stlj' is furnished by his apprehension of a repetition of the Oroini plot of the previous year — of a nus IX. 383 the Marches were also annexed by Victor Emanuel, notwith- standing the gallant resistance of the Pontifical army, under the chivalrous La Moriciere. Having thus dispossessed the Pope of the greater part of his dominions, the Italian revolutionists no longer disguised their plan of depriving him of the remainder, and of making Kome the capital of a " United Italy." This project would have been put into immediate execution but for the French occupa- tion. However, the triumph of Garibaldi and the Mazzinians was only a question of time. That triumph was to be accom- plished by the transfer of the protectorate of the territo- ries of the Holy See from France to the new kingdom of Italy! In September, 1864, a convention was concluded between the cabinets of Paris and Turin, in which the Italian Govern- ment, then about to remove its capital from Turin to Florence, bound itself, not only to abstain from invading the present territories of the Pope, but to prevent, by force, all others doing so. Next, it was agreed, that the French troops should be gradually withdrawn from the Papal States, as the forma- tion of the new Pontifical army proceeded ; but that, in any case, the French evacuation should take place within two years. It was further agreed, that the Pope might organize an army, even composed of foreign Catholic volunteers, for the preservation of peace and order within his dominions ; but it was expressly provided that this army should not enter into hostilities against the Italian Government. Finally, the king- dom of Italy declared its willingness to assume, by arrange- ment with the Pope's Government, a portion of the public debt of the former States of the Church. This treaty, made without the consent of the Holy Father, fresh attempt to assassinate him by the emissaries of the Mazzinians, should lie have counteracted the plans for which they had, for years, been preparing the pronnd, in the States of the Chnrch, by the dissemination of their pernicious principles. 384 THE ciiAm of teter. nay, without his having been consulted, was signed by the ministers of Xapoleon III. and Victor Emanuel, on Sep- tember 15, 1864 ; and when, on the 23rd of the same mouth, it was ofBcially communicated by the Emperor to Pius IX., the Pope declined to participate in it. The events which followed show the wisdom of the Holy Father's decision, at the same time that they illustrate how little importance was attached to the obligations of this solemn treaty by the Italian Grovernmeut. A French legion of 1200 volunteers, recruited at Antibes, arrived in Eome in September, 1866. These, with the Papal Zouaves, 15U0 strong, of various nationalities, and about an equal number of native troops, now constituted the Pontifical army, which was commanded by General Kanzler. They replaced the French Imperial troops, of which the withdrawal was completed in the following November. A few months afterwards, with the connivance of the Italian prime minister Katazzi, who was anxious that Eome should be the capital instead of Florence, Garibaldi and his followers collected money and arms, and enrolled volunteers, in order to invade the States of the Church, and overturn the rule of the Pope. A remonstrance of the French Cabinet, addressed to the Italian minister, had the effect of a temporary check to this hostile movement. But the intervention of Eatazzi was merely with a view to keep up appearances ; for, after a short time, the machinations of the revolutionists were carried on without let or hindrance. On the 29th of September, 1867, the Garibaldians entered the Pontifical States, without any opposition from the Italian Government. Napoleon therefore again dispatched a military force, under General De Failly, which disembarked at Civita Vecchia on the 29th of October. After several engagements, the Garibaldians were completely broken and routed at Mentana, on the 3rd of November ; and, peace and order having been re-established in the Papal terri- tories, the French troops were finally withdrawn in February, PIUS IX. 385 1868 — one division, under General Dumout, being left to garrison Civita Vecchia. The Franco-German war, which proved so disastrous to Catholic France, for nineteen years the protectress of the Holy See, afforded the enemies of religion and order in Italy their long-desired opportunity. On the 2nd of September, 1870, MacMahon's army, 90,000 strong, capitulated at Sedan, and Napoleon III. rendered himself prisoner to King William of Prussia. On the 8th of that month, Victor Emanuel sent a letter to Pius IX., by Count Ponza di San Martino, in which, " with the affection of a son, with the faith of a Catholic, with the loyalty of a king, and the sentiments of an Italian," he addressed himself " to the heart " of His Holiness. In it, he observed, that a storm fraught with the gravest dangers menaced Europe ; that the party of universal revolution, favoured by the portentous events then being enacted on the Continent, were prepared to strike, especially in the Papal States, the last blow at Monarchy and the Papacy. He added, that in such a crisis he deemed it his duty to assume the responsibility of maintaining [order in the Peninsula, and guarding the integrity of the Holy See ; and that for these ends he felt that it was absolutely necessary he should enter the Papal dominions, the frontiers of which he then protected. He continued : " Your Holiness will not see in this precau- tionary measure an act of hostility. My Government and my troops will strictly confine themselves to a conservative line of action, guarding the rights of the Eoman populations, which are reconcilable with the inviolability of the Sovereign Pontiff, his spiritual authority, and the independence of the Holy See." He then requested that the Holy Father would concert with Count Ponza di San Martino, who was fully in possession of the views of the Italian Government, the necessary measures to insure these important objects. Finally, he implored the Apostolic benediction, and repeated the assurance of his senti- ments of profound respect for His Holiness. 2c 386 THE CHAIR OF PETER. To the Pope, under the circumstances, only one course was open. Peremptorily rejecting all the propositions contained in the letter, and submitted to him by the envoy, he sent the following reply to the King : — Sire, Count Ponza di San Martino has placed in my hands a letter which Your Majesty has been pleased to address to me ; but it is not worthy of an affectionate son, who glories in the profession of the Catholic faith, and the observance of kingly honour. Into the details of that letter I do not enter, lest I should renew the sorrow which its first perusal has caused me. I bless God, who has permitted Your Majesty to fill up to overflowing the afflictions of the close of my life. As for the rest, I cannot comi^ly with the demands, or assent to the principles, contained in your letter. Again I invoke God, and in His hands I place my cause, which is wholly His. I pray Him to grant abundant graces to Your Majesty, to deliver you from all dangers, and to bestow on you the mercies of which you stand in need. — From the Vatican, the 11th September, 1870.— Pio Papa IX. On the same day, the 11th of September, the King, on the proposition of the council of ministers, ordered his army, under the command of General Cadorna, to enter the Papal States. As protracted resistance would have been useless, the Holy Father, anxious to spare the unnecessary effusion of blood, issued orders that opposition should be carried no further than would be sufficient to establish the fact of violence. On the 19th the invaders stood before the gates of Rome, which had been closed against them on their approach. On that day the Pope addressed a letter to General Kanzler, thanking him and the army under his command for their gallant services and devoted attachment to the Uoly See. He then continued : " With regard to the duration of the defence of the capital, I deem it my duty to command, that the resistance shall be such only as to constitute a protest, establishing the fact of violence done us. Once a breach is made in our walls, let negotiations for surrender be entered on." At five o'clock on the morning of the 20th, fire was opened by the besiegers ; and in a few hours a practicable breach was effected. Then the garrison surrendered, as prisoners of war ; PIUS IX. 387 and the city was taken possession of by tlie army of Victor Emanuel.^ On the 2nd of October, a 'plebiscite, or secret vote of the whole Eoman people, was taken, as to whether they would wish to be incorj)orated with the Kingdom of Italy. As the Eoyal troops were already in possession, and the Pontifical States and capital were overrun by the Garibaldians and Mazzinians ; and, moreover, as the majority of the population, being sound Catholics, advisedly abstained from the ballot, lest their voting might appear to be an acquiescence in those revolutionary and iniquitous proceedings ; there could have been but one result — an overwhelming majority in favour of the incorporation.^ On the same day a royal decree, based on this vote, promulgated the following articles : — *' I. Eome and the Eoman provinces form an integral part of the Kingdom of Italy. "II. The Sovereign Pontiff retains the dignity, the inviola- bility, and all the prerogatives of the sovereign. " III. A special law will sanction the conditions proper to guarantee, even by territorial immunities, the independence of the Sovereign Pontiff and the free exercise of the spiritual authority of the Holy See." The King immediately assumed the government of the Papal territories, shortly afterwards making Eome his capital, and taking up his abode in the Pope's palace of the Quirinal. To the Holy Father there remained but the Vatican, and that only on sufferance. ' The Papal army wliicli surrendered on this occasion, in obedience to the Pope's wishes, was close on 10,000 men, of whom at least two thirds were Italians, and the remainder were foreigners. Among the Papal Zouaves, the Irish were honourably distinguished for their bravery and devotion to the H0I3' See. The invading army numbered between 50,000 and G0,000. * M. Villefranche, the able biographer of Pius IX., plainly asserts that the balloting urns were tampered with, and this so clumsily as to convict the mani- pulators. " These numbers," he observes, " were so clearly impossible, that the friends of Victor Emanuel blamed him for having played this comedy, let us rather say, for having badly played it " (" Pie IX. sa Vie, eon Histoire, sou Siecle," p. 331, 3rd edit. Lyons, 1877). CHAPTER XXXI. THE HIERARCHY. The Hierarchy, from the Grieek hpa, sacred, and apxn, govern- ment, is the body of clergy, of Divine institution, governing the Church, and, as defined by the Council of Trent, is com- posed of bishops, priests, and deacons or ministers.^ That the Hierarchy is of Divine institution we learn from Saint Paul, 1 Corinthians xii. 5 and 28 : " And there are diversities of ministries ; " " And God indeed hath set some in the Church ; first apostles, secondly prophets, thirdly doctors;" and Ephesians iv. 11, 12: "And He gave some apostles, and some prophets, and other some evangelists, and other some pastors and doctors, for the perfecting of the saints, for the work of the ministry, for the edifying of the body of Christ." The power of ordination conferred by Christ on His Apostles was by them conferred on their disciples, whom they ordained bishops, and was by these latter imparted to the bishops whom they in their turn ordained. In his Epistle to Titus (i. 5), Saint Paul says, " For this cause I left thee in Crete, that thou shouldst set in order the things that are Avanting, and shouldst ordain priests in every city, as I also appointed thee ; " and in Eusebius's " Ecclesiastical History," book iii. c. 4, we read that " Titus was appointed bishop over the Churches of Crete." While the mission of the Apostles was not confined to any particular region, that of the bishops ' Council of Trent, Session xxiii. chap. iv. canon 6. THE HIEKAECHY. 389 whom they ordained was circumscribed by the dioceses over which they severally presided. The word " bishop " literally means an overseer, from the Greek em, over, and o-KOTrtw, to see, to view, to watch. With the extension of Christianity, the term spread to many languages, varied in the commutable letters, according to the genius of each language. Thus the Greek liriaKoirog, and the Latin episcoims, became in the French, by gentle gradations, episcope, evescope, and ultimately evesque or eveque, which last, although there is only one letter in common, claims the same origin as the English episcop, biscop, and finally bishop. So is it also in the Swedish and Danish bisJcop, German hischof, Saxon hisceop, Spanish ohispo, Portuguese hispo, Italian vescovo, Celtic easpig, and corresponding terms in other tongues of the great Indo-European family. Priests, or Presbyters, from the Greek vpecrl^vTepoi, were literally ancients or seniors ; but, moreover, they were " esti- mable or approved men," and " constituted in honour." In the primitive ages they sat in council with the bishop, by whom they had been ordained, and under him they administered the affairs of the Church, and dispensed the sacraments. Tertul- lian, in his " Apology," written towards the end of the second century, speaks of them as follows : " There preside over us certain approved elders,^ who have obtained the honour, not by payment, but by the testimony of their merit.^ In the first century, the terms irpEorjivTepog, priest or elder, and iTTicTKOTroQ, bishop, were generally applied to one and the same person; and the bishop of a city or district was, not uncommonly, spoken of as its chief priest, summus sacerdos. When Saint Paul addressed the elders {TiptaftvTipovg) of the Church of Ephesus, he said to them, " Take heed to yourselves ' Here, Tertullian makes use of the Latin word seniores, although, in the same sense, he elsewhere adopts the Greek equivalent pre.^lytcri. * Tertullian, " Apologet.," c. xxxix. " Nobis praBsident probati quiqae seniores, honorcm istum non pretio sed testimonio adepti." nOO THE CHAIR OF PETER. and to the whole flock, wherein the Holy Ghost hath placed you bishops (eTriaKOTrovc;) to rule the Church of God, which He hath purchased with His own blood." ^ However, as Saint Thomas observes, this identity was in name only, for in reality/ the distinction between bishops and priests was always observed in the xipostolic times.*^ But, ere long, with the development of the Church, these distinctive terms were more strictly applied. Writing about the year 200, Tertullian alludes to " the bishop," and " the priests " and " deacons," as subject to him, in the followiug words : " The chief priest, who is the bishop, has the right of giving baptism, and then the priests and deacons, not however without the authority of the bishop ; " ^ and, some fifty years later, Saint Cyj)rian writes : " Whence you ought to know that the bishop is in the Church, and the Church in the bishop, and, if any are not with the bishop, they are not in the Church." * AVe read in the life of Saint Simplicus, Pope, that a.d. 470, he ordered the priests of the Koman Church to attend weekly at the seven basilicas, for the administration of the sacraments of baptism and penance.^ They were called the priests of the penitents, and heard their confessions. The chief of these was called the Major Penitentiary, who in modern times is a cardinal ; and the others were called Minor Penitentiaries. » Acts XX. 17, 28. * Saint Thomas's words are: "Quantum acl nomen oHm non distinguebantur Episcopi et Presbyteri. . . . Unde et Apostolus communiter utitur nomine Prosbyterorum quantum ad utrosque, cum dicit, 1 Tim. : Qui bene prcesunt Presbyteri duplici honore digni haheanfur ; et similiter etiam nomine Episco- porum, unde dicit, Acta xx., Presbyteris Ecclesise Ephesinse loquena : Attendite vohis et universo gregi, in quo vos Spiritus Sandiis posuit Episcopos regere Ecclesiam Dei; sed secundum rem semper fuit inter eos distinctio, etiam tempore Apostolorum, ut patet per Dionysium." ' Tertullian, "De Baptisrao," c. 17. "Dandi baptismi habot jus summus sacerdos qui est episcopus, dehinc presbyteri et diaconi, non tamen sine episcopi aactoritate." ' Cyprian, Epist. 69, Ad Florent. " Unde scire debes episcopum in ecclesift esse, et ecclesiam in episcopo, et si qui cum episcopo non sint, in occlesia non esse." * Anastasius Bibliothecarius, " De Yitis Romanorum Pontificum," p. 10. THE HIERARCHY. 391 Deacons were so called from the Greek BiaKovot, ministers. The Apostles, being occupied in preaching the Word of God, and unable to attend to secular affairs, ordained seven ministers, who were called Deacons, and to whom was committed the care of the poor, and widows, and orphans. Their function also was to administer the Eucharist to communicants, and to carry it to the absent ; and, moreover, by permission of the bishop, they used to preach and baptize. In the course of time, as the chief of the priests was styled the Arch-priest ; so the first of the body of deacons was called the Arch-deacon. As we have seen, the first bishops were chosen and ordained by the Apostles. The successors of these, in their turn, were chosen by the clergy and people, with the assent of the neigh- bouring bishops, by whom they were ordained. By the most ancient canons it was enacted that the ordination of a bishop should be performed by at least three bishops. This is seen in the " First Apostolical Constitution," which says, " Episcopus a duobus aut tribus episcopis ordinetur ; " and " three bishops " are prescribed as the minimum number to take part in the election of a bishop, by the General Council of Nice, and by the Councils of Antioch, Fourth of Carthage, and others, in the earlier half of the fourth century. It was further enacted by those councils that the election of the bishop should be approved of in writing by the absent bishops of the province, and con- firmed by the metropolitan.^ In the Synod of Laodicsea, held in the year 372,^ it was ordered that each bishop should have his see in a city within his district. The observance of this ancient law has led to a city's being defined as a town corporate, which has a bishop * In China and similar countries exposed to sanguinary persecutions, which may suddenly deprive a flock of its pastor, a bishop has the power of consecrat- ing a successor to himself, without other bishops assisting. Thns, foreseeing the approaching danger, he may select one of his own priests, and consecrate him bishop — two other priests assisting at the ceremony. Then the whole pro- ceeding is, at the earliest opportunity, reported to the Holy See, for its approval and confirmation. 2 Canon 57. 392 THE CHAIR OF PETER. and a cathedral church, and is called clvitas, ojJjJiditm, and urhs} As from the early ages, a city and the circumjacent district formed a diocese,^ governed by a bishop, so, with the extension of the Church, several dioceses forming a province, were subject to the Metropolitan,^ or archbishop of the chief city of the province, under whose presidency provincial councils were held as occasion arose. While each bishop was subject to the jurisdiction of the metropolitan, the latter was bound, by the canons of the earliest councils, not to take any important step, as metropolitan, without consulting his suffragans. Indeed, as before observed, the Pope himself, in ancient times, rarely acted in grave causes, without convoking and consulting his council of bishops. Hence the numerous councils of Eome. Gradually, with the growth of the Church, the Hierarchy became further developed in the primatial and patriarchal dignities. What the archbishoj) was to the bishops of his province, the Primate* was to the prelates of a nation. The same may be said of a Patriarch,^ but with, in some instances, a wider limit of circumscription. At first, the jurisdiction of the metropolitans over the bishops of their provinces, as well as that of patriarchs and primates over national Churches, was considerable ; but it was, from time to time, curtailed by the decrees of councils ; and in latter days it has become merely nominal, at least to all practical intents. This may be accounted for by the increased * There were also country bishops, for exclusively rural districts, called Chorepiscopi ; from tho Greek x'^P"'! country, and iniffKoiros, bishop. They were under the jurisdiction of tho bishop of the adjoining city, and could confer only minor orders, being little more than pai-ish priests. They were abolished by the Council of Laodicaja, in the fourth century. ' Diocese : from the Greek 5io/«rj(rjs, administration, goyernment, jurisdictiou. * Metropolitan : from tho Greek fxr'irrip, mother, and wSKis, city. * Primate, Low Latin Primas, is derived from the Latin primus, first. In some instances, tho dignity of primate is simply honorary, without any actual primatial jurisdiction. * Patriarch, from the Greek narpta., a family, or wutt^p, a father, and apxhs, chief, may be interpreted head of tho family, or chief of tho Fathers. THE HIEEAKCHY. 393 facilities of travel and intercommunication, wliich have brought all bishops into such close relations with the successor of Saint Peter, the head and source of all ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The Patriarchal dignity is of very ancient date. It was first enjoyed by the three great sees of Kome, Alexandria, and Antioch. Eome, as not only being the patriarchate of the AVest, but as being the See of Peter, and holding the primacy over the Universal Church, took the first place. Next came Alexandria, as having been founded and governed by Saint Mark the Evangelist, in obedience to Saint Peter ; and the third place was occupied by Antioch, founded by Peter, and by him committed to Evodius. The following words on this subject, uttered by Pope Gelasius I., in a synod at Rome, composed of seventy bishops, close on fourteen hundred years ago, will, doubtless, prove interesting to the reader : — ^ The Holy Roman Catholic and Apostolic Church is placed above other Churches by no decrees of councils, but has obtained the primacy by the Evangelical voice of our Lord and Saviour, saying : " Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build My Church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it ; and I will give to thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven. And whatsoever thou shalt bind upon earth, it shall be bound also in heaven : and whatsoever thou shalt loose upon earth, it shall be loosed also in heaven." To whom was given also the society of the most blessed Apostle Paul, the Vessel of Election, who, not at a different time (as heretics state), but on one and the same day, suffering along with Peter, under the Emperor Nero, in the city of Eome, was crowned by a glorious death ; and alike they consecrated to Christ the Lord the said holy Eomau Church, and, as such, put it above all the cities of the whole world by their presence and venerable triumph. And therefore First is the See of Peter, the Eoman Church, having neither spot, nor wrinkle, nor anything of the kind. But the Second See was consecrated at Alexandria, in the name of the blessed Apostle Peter, by Mark his disciple and the Evangelist, who, being sent to Egypt by the blessed Apostle Peter, preached the word of truth, and consummated a glorious martyrdom. And the Third See at Antioch is held in honour by the name of the ' A.D. 494. Saint Gelasius, an African, governed the Church, A.r». 492-496. 39i THE CHAIR OF PETEE. same most blessed Apostle Peter, because he dwelt there before he came to Eome^ and there first arose the name of the new people of Christians. Jerusalem, having been declared a Patriarchal Church by the General Council of Chalcedon, a.d. 451, took the fourth place ; but this was probably in honour of the memory of Saint James the Apostle, and rather in name than by any prerogative of real power. For the Patriarch of Alexandria not only sat in the second place, but presided over all the bishops and archbishops of Egypt and Lybia ; and the Patriarch of Antioch not only sat in the third place, but presided over all the archbishops and bishops of the East; whilst the Patriarch of Jerusalem, although occupying the fourth place, did not preside over an archbishop or even a bishop. Nay more, he was subject, according to Saint Jerome, to the Archbishop of Caesarea, the Metropolitan of Palestine, and further to the Patriarch of Antioch, who presided over all the prelates of the East.^ The fifth in order anciently was the Patriarch of Con- stantinople. As this city was the " New Rome," founded by Constantine as the capital of the Eastern Empire, the Emperors and clergy were naturally anxious to obtain for its chief bishop a high place in the hierarchy. Accordingly, at the Second General Council, the first of Constantinople, held a.d. 381, and at the Fourth General Council, that of Chalcedon, a.d. 451, canons were enacted giving the see of Constantinople precedence over Alexandria and Antioch, and placing it second only to Rome.^ But the Popes, Saints Damasus and Leo I. respectively, refused to ratify these canons ; and it was only in the year 1215, in the Twelfth General Council, the fourth Lateran, that Pope Innocent III. conceded this precedency to the Byzantine Capital, which thus took rank after Rome.' * " Quis est Petrus ? " pp. 56, 57. Eatisbon, 1790. * General Council of Constantinople, canon 3 ; and of Chalcedon, canon 28, or, according to the Greeks, 30. This latter canon was passed at the close of the Council of Chalcedon, after the departure of the Papal legates and two thirds of the Bishops. ; ' Twelfth General Council, canon 5. THE HIERARCHY. 395 This decree was confirmed in the Sixteenth General Council, that of Florence, held a.d. 1438, 1439, under Pope Eugenius IV., for the re-union of the Greek and Latin Churches, in the following words : — • Likewise we define that the Holy Apostolic See and the Roman Pontiff hold the Primacy over the whole world, and that the Roman Pontiff him- self is the successor of Blessed Peter, Prince of the Apostles, and that he is the true Vicar of Christ, and Head of the whole Church, and Father and Teacher of all Christians ; and that to him, in the person of Blessed Peter, the full power of feeding, ruling, and governing the Universal Church was given by our Lord Jesus Christ ; even as is also contained in the Acts of General Councils, and in the sacred canons : renewing more- over the order of the other venerable Patriarchs handed down in the canons; that the Patriarch of Constantinople should be pecond after the most holy Roman Pontiff, the Patriarch of Alexandria third, of Antioch fourth, and of Jerusalem fifth ; saving all their privileges and rights. That the Eoman See is, and has been, from a very early- period, regarded as the head and fountain of the episcopate and of all Ecclesiastical jurisdiction, is clearly proved by the extracts from the writings of the Fathers, and from the decrees of Popes and councils, to that effect, already given in these pages. The following further quotations may be appropriately introduced here. In the year 252, Saint Cyprian wrote as follows : — The Episcopate is ove, of which a part is held by each, in one undividei whole. The Church also is one, though the more widely extended and multiplied by the increase of her fruitfulness. Even as the sun has many rays, but one light; as a tree has many branches, but one trunk firmly fixed in a tenacious root; and as from one fountain many streams proceed, so that a number may be seen in the abundance overflowing, whilst unity is preserved in the source. Take away a ray from the body of the sun ; unity does not admit a division of light. Break a branch from a tree ; that branch cannot bear fruit. Cut off a stream from its fountain ; cut off, it becomes dry. Thus the Church of the Lord, pervaded by light, sheds her rays all over the world : yet there is but one light, which is everywhere diffused ; nor is the unity of the body divided. In her prolific abundance, she extends her branches over the whole earth — more Avidely diffuses her largely flowing streams : yet there is one head, and S96 THE CHAIR OF PETER. one source, and one mother ; rich in the copious successions of her fruit- fulness.i According to the same Saint Cyprian, the " one head, one source, one mother," here alluded to, is the Apostolic See— "the Chair of Peter, the principal Church, the source of sacerdotal unity." ^ In the year 445, the Emperor Valentinian III. published an edict against certain irregular proceedings of Hilary, Arch- bishop of Aries, who, as metropolitan, through mistaken zeal, had deposed certain bishops of the Trans- Alpine Churches, and ordained others in their place, " against the will and opposition of the inhabitants," and " without consulting the Pontift' of the Eoman Church." These proceedings having been examined, by order of the Pope, Saint Leo the Great, in a council at Eome, which Hilary attended, they were condemned, and " the sentence of condemnation," says the edict, " was about to take effect throughout Gaul, even without the Imperial sanction. For what would not be lawful to the authority of so great a Pontiff over the Churches ? " ^ It then proceeds to state that the Emperor issues a precept, in support of the Pope's authority, to the effect, that " it shall not be lawful for the Bishops of Gaul or of the other provinces, in contravention of the ancient custom, to attempt anything without the authority of the venerable man, the Pope of the Eternal City.** But they and all others must regard as a law whatever has been sanctioned or may be sanctioned by the authority of the Apostolic See ; ^ so that whatever bishop is summoned to the * Cyprian, " Liber de Unitatc Ecclesise." * Cyprian, Epistola Iv. Ad Cornelium. ' " Quid enim tanti Pontificis auctoritate in ecclesias non licerefc ? " * " Ne quid tam Episcopis G.allicanis quam aliaruni provinciarnm, contra consuetudinem veterem, liceat, sine viri v^enerabilis Papaa Urbis ^ternsa auctoritate, tentare." We have seen, tbat, one hundred years before — namely in the reign of Pope Julius, a.d. 342,— this doctrine was spoken of as embodied in the canon law of the Church. Vide supra, p. 114. ' Sed illis omnibusquo pro lege sit quicquid sanxit vol sanxerit Apostolicae Sedis auctoritas. THE HIERARCHY. 397 tribunal of the Roman Pontiff, and neglects to come, lie shall be compelled by the Governor of the province to attend."^ In the year 451, the Emperor Marcian and the Fathers of the General Council of Chalcedon, in a letter to the Pope, Saint Leo, begged of him to grant the Patriarchal dignity after Rome to the See of Constantinople, conformably with the canon of their own, and of the Second General Council,^ to that effect. They say, "Vouchsafe to extend over the Church of Constantinople a ray of your Apostolic Primacy," ^ which shows, as observed by a learned writer, that in the opinion of the Church, at that early period, " the Patriarchate was but a partial emanation of the Primacy of Saint Peter, of which the plenitude resides in the See of Rome." ^ In the year 516, John, Archbishop of Nicopolis and Metro- politan of Ancient Epirus, immediately on his election, sent his written profession of faith to Pope Hormisdas,^ and sought the communion of the Apostolic See ; at the same time re- questing the prayers of His Holiness, and his advice to govern him in the difficulties by which he was surrounded, in conse- quence of the opposition of Dorotheus, Bishop of Thessalonica, and other factious men. In his letter, forwarded by the Deacon Rufinus, he addressed the Pope thus : — To my Lord and ever most holy and most blessed Father of Fathers, Fellow-minister, and Prince of Bishops, Hormisdas, John wisheth health in the Lord. ' Baronius, "Annales Ecclesiastici," vi. 31. ^ The first of Constantinople, a.d. 381. ' " Confidentes quia, lucente apud vos Apostolico radio, et usque ad Constan- tinopolitanorum Ecclesiam consuete gnbernando ilium spargentes, hunc SEepius expanditis, eo quod absque invidia consueveritis vestrorum bonorum partici- patione ditare domosticos." It is worthy of note, as observed by Baronius, that the Fatliers of Cbalcedon here earnestly beg of the Pope to confirm the canon passed by two General Councils, which they know and considered could not stand without the confirmation of the Roman Pontiff (" Annales Ecclesi- astici," vi. 165). We have seen how Saint Leo refused to comply with their request. * Rohrbacher, " Histoire Universelle de I'ltglise Catholique," vol. ii. p. 546. ' Hormisdas, a native of Campania, governed the Chinxh, a.d. 514-523. 398 THE CHAIR OF PETER. Having announced his election by the Bishops of Ancient Epirus, he continues : — But referring all things to God, who looses the tongues of stammerers, I, as in duty bound, have recourse to your prayers ; in order that, accord- ing to the custom of the Apostolic See, which liath the care of all the Churches, you may vouchsafe to extend your solicitude to that of Nico- polis, conformably with the ancient spiritual disposition. ... It is my desire to follow your doctrine, as did prominently Alcyson, my prede- cessor, now among the saints : and I anathematize Dioscorus, and^Timothy named Elurus and Peter their successor, and his associates Acacius and that Peter who disturbed the Church of Antioch ; and thus I follow the Synodal and Apostolic letters written by Leo, the Chief Prelate of the Eoman Church. But I entreat you to admonish me more fully and com- pletely as to what ought to be observed, and to intimate to me by your safeguarding letters those from whom I ought to stand aloof; so that if, perchance, through my inexperience, I have said or done anything at variance with your Apostolic doctrines, I may, being imbued with your teaching, be able to withstand the machinations of heretics. Doing this, Most Holy Father, you will find the bishops and our holy synod more steadfast, and you will confirm the clergy and people in good deeds, making the Holy Church of Nicopolis, as it were, of your own household.^ The principle indicated in these extracts was further de- veloped in succeeding generations. From the eleventh century down, bishops usually affixed to their signatures, in solemn documents, the formula, " by the grace of God and favour of the Apostolic See, Bishop of ." In the primitive ages when they were chosen by the clergy and people, they immedi- ately sought the communion of the Bishop of Kome, which at least implied his approval or confirmation of their election. In subsequent centuries, when elected by cathedral chapters, or presented by sovereigns in virtue of a Concordat, or, again, when translated from one diocese to another, the Pope's approval was invoked, as indispensable to the validity of their institution. Further, no new Episcopal See could be estab- lished except by the Pope. From a very early period, too, archbishops, on their consecration and election, received the ' Baronius, " Annales Ecclesiastic!," vi. 678 ; " Epistolss Poutif. Roman.," torn. i. THE HIERARCHY. 399 pallium, transmitted to them by the Supreme Pontiff, as a token of their spiritual jurisdiction over their respective pro- vinces, and as an emblem of the charity and innocence by which their lives ought to be distinguished.^ The following condensed particulars of the College of Car- dinals, the patriarchates, the residential archiepiscopal and episcopal sees, the apostolic delegations, the vicariates apos- tolic, and the apostolic prefectures, will enable us to form an idea of the distribution of the Hierarchy over the globe. They are brought down to the 31st of March, 1882.2 At the head of all, is His Holiness Pope Leo XIII., * The Pallium, from the Latin, signifying a cloak, is a vestment or decoration Bent by the Pope to patriarchs and archbishops (and, exceptionally, in some very few special cases, to bishops) on their consecration. It is a white woollen band, made in the fashion of a circle, and is worn on the shoulders and breast. From it depend similar bands, one each on the breast, back, and both shoulders. These bands are all marked with red or purple crosses. The pallium is made of a portion of the wool of two spotless white lambs, which are blessed, each year, on January 21st, the Feast of Saint Agnes, at the church of that saint on the Nomentan road, without the walls of Rome, and which, after the ceremony, are confided to the care of certain nuns until the time of shearing arrives. The palliums made of this wool are laid on the tomb of Saint Peter, the whole night of the vigil of the festival of the Apostle, and are blessed on the following day in the basilica. The pallium, observes Pagi, is only conferred on patriarchs and arch- bishops ; but it has been, for special merit, given to some bishops. The first bishop that we read of as having received it was the Bishop of Ostia, at the hands of Saint Mark, Pope, a.d. 336-337. It was not given indiscriminately to all metropoli- tans until after the middle of the eighth century, when it was decreed by Pope Zachary, and became a law of the Church, that they all should receive it on their election and consecration. The pallium was also sent to Apostolic legates, and Papal vicars in missionary countries : for instance, by Pope Symmachus to Csesarius, Archbishop of Aries, his vicar in Gaul, about the year 500; by Saint Gregory the Great to Saint Augustine in England, about a century later; and by Gregory III. to Saint Boniface, whom he had appointed Archbishop and Primate of all Germany, in 732 ; not to speak of other examples. Among the questions submitted to the Pope by the Apostle of England, a.d. 597, we find the following, as recorded by the Venerable Bede (" Eccles. Hist.," lib. i. cap. 27) : " Augustine's seventh question : How are we to deal with the bishops of Gaul and Britain ? Gregory answers : We give you no authority over the bishops of Gaul, because the Bishop of Aries received the pallium in ancient times from my predecessor, and we are not to deprive him of the authority which he has received." * They are taken, in a condensed form, from " La Gcrarchia Cattolica per I'anno 1882," published in Rome, May 1, 1882. 400 THE CHAIR OF PETER. whose titles are, Bishop of Eome, Vicar of Jesus Christ, Successor of the Prince of the Apostles, Supreme Pontiff of the Universcal Church, Patriarch of the West, Primate of Italy, Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Eoman Province, Sovereign of the Temporal Dominions of the Holy Eoman Church. Next in rank are the Sacred College of Cardinals of the Holy Eoman Church, collaterals and coadjutors of the Supreme Pontiff. These are the six Cardinal Bishops, holding the six suburbicarian Sees of Eome, forty-six Cardinal Priests, and thirteen Cardinal Deacons, making a total of sixty-five. Of these, one was created by Gregory XVI., namely the venerable Cardinal Schwarzenberg, Archbishop of Prague, created and published Cardinal Priest of the Title of Saint Augustine, in the Consistory of the 24th of January, 1842; forty-three were created by Pius IX. ; and twenty-one by His present Holiness. There is one hat reserved " in petto ; " and there are four hats vacant, of the full complement of the Sacred College, which is seventy.^ Of the Cardinal Priests, two are patriarchs, twenty- two are archbishops, and three are bishops, of distinct sees, which will be included in the following enumeration. The nineteen remaining cardinal priests are not members of the episcopate. The Patriarchal sees are twelve in number — seven being of the Latin, and five of the Oriental rites. They stand as follow, in their order of rank : — Constantinople, Lalin rite. Jerusalem, Latin rite. Alexandria, Latin rite. Babylon, Syro-Chaldaic rite. Antioch, Latin rite. Cilicia, Armenian rite. Antiocli, Mdchite rite. West Indies, Latin rite. Antioch, Maronite rite. Lisbon, LMtin rite. Antioch, Syriac rite. Venice, Latin rite. • Full particulars of the Sacred College will be found in the next chapter — On Cardinals. Although the numbers are limited to seventj', the number of hierarchical titles of cardinals is seventy-four, as wo shall sco further on. THE HIERARCHY. 401 The Kesidential Sees of Archbishops and Bishops through- out the world are distributed as follow : — LATIN RITE. ETJilOPE. Archbishops. Bishops. Austria Hungary 11 41 Bosnia and Herzegovina 1 3 Belgium . . 1 5 France 17 66 Germany 5 21 England 1 13 Ireland 4 25 Scotland 2 4 Greece 3 6 Italy : Piedmont and Liguria 3 23 „ Lombardy and Venice ^ .... 3 20 „ States of the Churcli 7 58 „ Tuscany and Emilia 5 20 „ Neapolitan Province 22 79 Insiilar Italy 2 9 22 Holland 1 4 Portugal 3 3 9 Eoumelia 1 0 Eussia 1 6 Russian Poland 1 7 Servia I 1 Spain 9 44 Switzerland 0 6 Turkey 1 4 ASIA. Asiatic Turkey ; Archbishop of Babylon or Bagdad . Persia : Bishop of Ispahan East Indies : Archbishop of Goa, and Bishops of Cochin, Macao, Malacca, and Saint Thomas of Meliapor . Smyrna : Archbishop of Smyrna, and his Suffragan, tho Bishop of Candia (Europe) 1 0 0 1 1 4 1 1 ' Inclusive of the Patriarch of Venice. - Comprising Malta, Gozo, Corsica, Sicily, and Sardinia. The Bishop of Ajaccio, Suffragan of the Archbishop of Aix in France, is included herein. ' Inclusive of the Patriarch of Lisbon, 2d 402 THE CHAIR OF PETER. AFRICA. Julia C?esarea or Algiers, Archlashop of, and the Bishops of Constautine aud Oran Bialwps' Sees in Africa subject to Metropolitans in Europe ; — Angola (Lower Guinea) ; Angra (Azores) ; Funclial (Madeira); Santiago (Cape Verd Islands); Saint Thomas's : all Suffragans of Lisbon The Canaries, Suffragan of Seville .... Eeunion or Saint Denis, Suffragan of Bordeaux . Immediately Subject to the Holy See ; — • Port Lonis (Mauritius) and Tangiers Archbishops. Bishops. AMERICA. Canada, inclusive of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick 4 15 Newfoundland 0 2 United States 11 52 Mexico 3 18 Bolivia 1 3 Brazil 1 H Chili 1 3 Argentine Confederation 1 5 Ecuador 1 6 Haiti 1 4 New Granada 1 9 Peru 1 7 Uruguay 0 1 Venezuela 1 4 Antilles (West Indies) 2 4 Guatimala 1 4 Suffragans of Metropolitans in Europe ; — Guadeloupe and Martinique, Suffragans of Bordeaux 0 2 OCEANIA. Philippine Isles 1 4 Australia 2 12 New Zealand, immediately subject to the Holy See . 0 3 THE HIERARCHY. 403 KESIDENTIAL SEES OF THE ORIENTAL RITE.^ GKEEK EITE. GRJECO-ROUMANIAN. Archbishops. Bishops. Austria-Hungary. — The Archbishop of Fogaras and Alba Julia, iu Transylvania, and his Suffragans the Bishops of Armenopoli or Szamos-Ujvar, Grand Varadino or Gross-Warden, and Lugos . . 1 3 GR-ffiCO-RUTHENIAN. Austria-Hungary.— The Archbishop of Leopoli or Lera- berg, Galitz, Kiovia, and Kamenek, in Austrian Galicia, and his Suffragan the Bishop of Przemysl Sanechea and Sambor 1 1 The Bishop of Kreutz, Suffragan of the Cardinal Arch- bishop of Zagabria or Agram .... 0 1 The Bishops of Eperies, and Munkacs, Suffragans of the Cardinal Archbishop of Gran .... 0 2 KussiAN Poland. — The Bishop of Minsk, Suffragan of the Archbishop of Mohilev .... The Bishop of Chelm and Belz Prussia. — The Bishop of Supraslia .... (^The lubt two immediately subject to the Holy See.) GR.ffiCO-BTJLGAIlIAN. These Catholics have a Bishop of their rite, who governs them with the title of Administrator Apostolic. GR^CO-MELCHITE. The Melchite Patriarch of Antioch. The Archbishops of Aleppo, Damascus, Emessa or Horns and Apamea, and Tyre : and the Bishops of Beyrout and Gibail, Bosra, Heliopolis or Baalbek, Farzul and Zahleh, Hauran, Sidon or Saida, Ptolemais, and Tripoli in Syria .... AEMENIAN EITE. Austria-Hungary. — The Armenian Archbishop of Lem- berg. Asia. — The Patriarch of Cilicia. 0 1 0 1 0 1 ' Here, I give the name of each see, in order to indicate the more accurately the districts or countries in which the several rites are followed. 404 THE CHAIPt OF PETER. Archbishops. J3ishopS The Arclibi.shops of Aleppo, Cfesarea, Marasc, Mardin, and :\ralatiah ; and the Bishop.s of Adana, Alexan- dria, Ancyra, Artvin, Brusa, Diarbekir, Erzeronra, Karputh, Sebaste, Tokat, Trebizonde, and Ispahan G 12 SYRIAC RITE. SYRIAC. The Syriac Patriarch of Antioch. The Archbishops of Aleppo, Babylon, Damascus, and Mossul : and the Bishops of Alexandria, Beyrout, Diarbekir, Emessa or Horns, Gezir, Keriatim, Mardin, and Tripoli in Syria .... 4 8 SYRO-CHALDAIC, The Patriarch of Babylon. The Archbishops of Diarbekir, Kerkuk, Mosul, Seert, and Sehanan ; and the Bishops of Akra, Araadiah, Gezir, Mardin, Salmas, and Zaku .... 5 6 SYRO-MARONITE. The Maronite Patriarch of Antioch. The Archbishops of Aleppo, Archis, Beyrout, Damascus, Tyre and Sidon, and Tripoli ; and the Bishops of Cyprus, Baalbek, and Gibail and Botri . . 6 3 COPTIC RITE. COPTO-EGYPTIAN. Africa. — The Catholics of this rite have not a con- stituted hierarchy, and depend on a Vicar Apos- tolic of Egyi:)t of the same rite.^ COPTO-ETHIOPIC OR ABYSSINIAN, These Catholics also are without a constituted hierarchy, and are under tlie jurisdiction of a Latin Vicar Apostolic, who resides in Abyssinia.^ Before proceeding further, it is necessary to say something about the various rites, or forms of religious worship, prevailing in the Church. As the reader is aware, the Latin rite is that of the entire * Enumerated iuiiong the Vicars Apostolic. THE HIERARCHY. 405. West, and is also followed in some parts of the East, and in almost all Foreign Missions under Apostolic Vicars and ]Pre- fects. The Liturgical language is the ancient classical Latin.^ The Oriental Catholic rites differ considerably from the Latin, and are followed with the full sanction of the Holy See. From a very early period, the numbers of the orthodox Eastern Christians have been greatly diminished by the inroads of the Arian, Eutychian or Jacobite,^ and other heresies ; so that the great majority of the Oriental Christians are, and have been, for over tM'elve centuries, outside the pale of the Church. These are the Greek schismatics, the Syriac, Egyptian or Coptic, and Ethiopian Jacobites, the Nestoriaus of Persia and the East, and the schismatical Armenians. It is deserving of note that all these sects hold the Catholic dogmas rejected by Protestants — the real presence of Jesus Christ in the Holy Eucharist, Transubstantiation, the sacrifice of the Mass, the adoration of the Blessed Sacrament, the veneration and invocation of Saints, and the number of the Sacraments — a proof that these articles of belief and these usages prevailed in the Church, in the fifth century. However, it is the orthodox Oriental Christians only, that claim our attention here. There are four Greek rites in communion with Rome. Of these, the Grseco-Roumenian prevails in Transylvania and Hungary, and numbers one Archiepiscopal and three Epis- copal sees. The Graeco-Ruthenian rite prevails in Austrian Galicia, Austrian Croatia, and Hungary, in the dioceses of Chelm and Belz in Russian Poland, that of Minsk in Russia, and that of * It is unnecessary to describe the Carthusian, Carmelite, Dominican, and Ambrosian liturgies, which vary slightly from the general liturgy of the Latin rite. * The Eutychian or Mouophysite heretics took the name of Jacobites from Jacob Baradeons or Zauzala, who, in the sixth century, was iutmdod into the Rce of E. 251. ANCIENT TAPAL ELECTIONS. 417 from foreign interference and domestic intrigue or violence. That such was its intent, is evident • from the clauses in the Diplomas of the Emperors, Louis le Debonnaire, Otho, and Saint Henry, implying at least the condition of Imperial approval. Louis, in his diploma, in the year 817, made stringent provisions against any of the subjects of the Empire in any way interfering with the Romans, on a vacancy occur- ring in the Holy See ; so that the funeral obsequies of the deceased Pontiff "might be conducted with all honour and without any disturbance, and that he whom, by Divine inspira- tion and the intercession of Blessed Peter, all the Romans, with one counsel and concord, without any promise, should elect to the order of the Pontificate might be consecrated without ambiguity or contradiction, in the usual manner." Next, it was provided, that, on the consecration taking place, legates should be sent to Louis, or to his successors, the Kings of the Franks, to establish between the Pope and the Emperor relations of friendship, love, and peace, as was customary in the days, of pious memory, of his great-grandfather Charles Martel, his grandfather Pepin, and again of his father Charles the Emperor.i Seven years later, a.d. 824, when Louis sent his son Loth aire, then associated with him in the Empire, to Rome, to put an end to the troubles caused by the opposition of Zizinius, the Autipope, to Pope Eugenius 11.,^ Lothaire, with the Pope's full assent, made an enactment, with a view to preventing the recurrence of such evils, that the consecration of a Pope should thenceforward take place in the presence of the Emperor or his envoys.* Again, in their respective diplomas, the Emperors, Otho I., 1 Theiner, "Codex Diplomaticus Dominii Temporalis S. Sedis," torn, i., pp. 2, 3, 4 ; Baronius, " Aanales," ix. 670; Cenni, " Esame del Diploma di Ludovico Pio," parte prima. - Eugenius II., a Koman, governed the Church, a.d. 821-827. ^ Sigonius and other authorities are of opinion that this enactment was made by Eugenius himself: " Eugenium ncmpe ipsum, Lothario Komos exis- tentc, statuisse ut cousecratioui llomaui Poutificis legati Impcrialcsinteressent." 2 E 418 THE CHAIR OF PETER. A.D. 962, and Henry II., a.d. 1020, each with the concurrence of the reigning Pontiff, inserted the following clause : " Saving in all things our power and that of our successors, according to what is contained in the pact and constitution and firm promise of Pope Eugenius, and of his successors, that all the clergy and all the nobility of the Roman people, for various urgent causes, and in order to mitigate unreasonable severity on the part of Pontiffs towards the people subject to them, bind themselves by oath, so far forth as that the future election of Pontiffs, according to each one's discernment, may be canonically and justly conducted : ^ and that no one will con- sent to the consecration of him who may be chosen to this high and Apostolic government, until he make, in presence of our envoys or of the whole public, such a promise for the satisfaction and future conservation of all, as our lord, and venerable spiritual father, Leo, is known to have made, of his own free accord." ^ Pope Leo IV., here alluded to, governed the Church a.d. 847-855. This Pontiff, as well as his immediate predecessor, Sergius IL, had, through fear of disturbances, been consecrated without time being allowed to communicate with the Imperial court. Leo's " pact," or promise, appears to have been to the effect, that he would, as far as possible, take measures to insure, that on his decease, the election and consecration of his successor should be duly and canonically conducted in the presence of the Imperial envoys.^ Wholly irrespective of the weighty spiritual interests • The original words of this passage in the constitution of Pope Eugenius II. are here set forth, as follow : " Ut omnis clerus et univei'sa populi Romani nobilitas, propter diversas necessitates et Pontificum irrationabiles erga popu- latn sibi subjectum asperitates retuudendas, sacramento se obligent, quatenus futura Pontificum electio (quantum uniuscuj usque intellectus fuerit) canonice et juste fiat." ^ Cenni, " Esame de' Diplomi d'Ottone e S. Arrigo," parte tcrza. ' This is clear from the Pontiff's own letter to the Emperors Lothaire and Louis; viz. "Leonis PP. IV., Epistola ad Imperatores Lotharium et Ludovicumj" apud Gratianum, Decretales, 63, c. 31. " Inter uos et vos pacti scric statutum ANCIENT PAPAL ELECTIONS. 419 involved — of the things necessary to the headship of the Universal Church, it was felt to be of the utmost consequence to the temporal subjects of the Popes, that the elections to the Pontifical throne should be "justly and canonically con- ducted ; " for thus only could they be assured of having wise and paternal rulers. It was also a matter of vital importance to the entire commonwealth of Christian nations, over whose temporal as well as spiritual affairs the Pope at this period, by common consent, exercised paramount control. Therefore it was, that the clauses just recited were inserted in the Imperial diplomas; and this, with the full assent of the Pontiffs. More- over, any interference whatever, by any of the subjects of the Empire or others, with the free election of Pontiffs by the clergy, nobility, and people of Rome, was most strictly pro- hibited. Should such interference nevertheless be attempted, the Emperors bound themselves to repress it by all means in their power, punishing the offenders by exile or death.^ As the Empire declined, however, it sometimes occurred, especially in periods of anarchy, that the Pope was consecrated immediately on election, without reference to the Emperor.^ Again, on the other hand, we read of Popes nominated by the Emperors, and presented by them to the clergy, nobility, and people of Rome.^ est et confirmatum, qnod electio efc consecratio fahu-i Eomani Pontificis nonnisi juste et canonice fieri debeat." In a council held in Rome, a..d. 898, Pope Jolin IX. also enacted, that those elected Roman Pontiffs should not be conse- crated except in presence of the Imperial legates. ^ Cenni, as supra. Theiner, "Codex Diplomaticns," etc., torn, i, pp. 4-8; Baronius, " Annales," in locis. ^ Among several Popes consecrated at this time, without awaiting the arrival of the Imperial envoys, may be mentioned, Paschal I., a.d. 817; Valen- tinus, 827 ; Sergius II., 841 ; Saint Leo IV., 847 ; Adrian II., 867 ; and John VIII., 872. ' Thus Saint Leo IX., previously Bruno, Bishop of Toul, was chosen Pope in a great assembly of nobles and prelates at Worms, convened and presided over by the Emperor Henry III., a.d. 1048. Leo, who resisted the burden sought to be imposed upon him, finally consented to bear it, only on the condition of his election being ratified by the entire clergy and people of Rome, which was done with joyful acclamation. He governed the Church a.d. 1048-1055. '120 THE CIIAin OF TETER. Notwithstanding the safeguards above recited, agreed on between the Popes and the Emperors, it unfortunately hap- pened that, from the close of the ninth to the middle of the eleventh century — a period of strife and anarchy, created by the decline of the Western Empire — the Papal throne became an object of contention to ambitious and unprincipled factions ; and the prize was the more coveted, that, as we have seen, the elected King of Germany could become Emperor only by being crowned by the Pope ; and, further, that, in disputed cases, the choice between rival candidates for the Imperial dignity, was determined by the voice of the Pontiff. Hence occurred the intrusion of a few unworthy persons into Soint Peter's Chair. These, following each other in rapid succession, enjoyed severally but a short tenure of power. Some were violently deposed and cast into prison ; some were exiled ; and some w^ere murdered. Princes and nobles little heeded what scandals might arise, provided that their creatures held the Apostolic See, and that thus they themselves became possessed of the revenues, and controlled the political influence, of the Church. In vain, in those unsettled times, was the evil struggled against by several Pontiffs — notably Leo VII., Sylvester II., Clement II., Saint Leo IX., Victor II., and Stephen X.-^ The night of the Dark Ages was now at its darkest. Yet God did not desert His Church. By His ordi- nance, and in fulfilment of His promise, not one of the few personally unworthy men, who appear in the long roll of the occupants of the Chair of Peter, ever made any solemn ex Cathedra definition of faith. It would require a large volume to discnss in detail the alleged crimes of some twenty or five and twenty Popes, at various dates, among the two hundred and sixty-two succes- sors of Saint Peter. The subject, however, here claims a brief > Leo VII. governed the Church a.d. 936-939; Sylvester II., 999-1003; Clement IL, 1046-1048; Saint Leo IX,, 1049-1055; Victor II., 1055-1057; and Stephen X., 1057, 1058. ANCIENT PAPAL ELECTIONS. 421 notice. The characters of the Foutiffs in question have but too long been estimated from the statements of a few writers of small authority, who were manifestly influenced either by hostility to the Holy See, or by a desire to flatter the pre- judices of those in high place, unfriendly to the Papacy, such as several of the Byzantine Emperors. Among these writers, the principal, indeed for several of the biographies the only, authority was Luitprand, Canon of Pavia, and subsequently Bishop of Cremona. He was secretary to Berengerius II., King of Italy, by whom he was sent ambassador to the Emperor Constantino Porphyrogenita at Constantinople, in 946. On his return, he left the service of Berengerius for that of the German Emperor Otho I. On Otho's conquering Italy, Luitprand accompanied him thither, and, in recompense for his services, he was presented by the Emperor to the Bishopric of Cremona. In 968, he went again to Constanti- nople, as ambassador to the Emperor Nicephorus Phocas. He wrote a "History of his diplomatic missions to Constantinople," and a Kelatiou, in six books, of all that took place in Europe in his time. The " Lives of the Popes, from Saint Peter to Formosus," and " The Chronicles of the Goths " are attributed to him ; but it is generally supposed that these works are not from his hand. The style of Luitprand's writings is either one of flattery or of satire, according to his subject ; and he is considered unre- liable as to facts. Moreover, he introduces many free anecdotes, ill becoming aa ecclesiastic ; and these are generally irrelevant. Of them Sismondi observes that "they do not give a favourable idea of the tone prevailing among the great, and in what was in that day considered good society, especially if one bears in mind the rank at court and the Ecclesiastical functions of the historian." As remarked by Dean Milman, Cardinal Baronius mainly, nay solely, relies on Luitprand, as his authority regarding certain passages in the private lives of the Popes of this 422 THE CHAIR OF PETER. period ; whicli circumstance implies an absence, at the time, of corroborative evidence of Luitprand's statements; for, if such existed, it would have been alluded to by so laborious a writer as Baronius. Modern investigators, however, have care- fully sifted all extant records, including much that has been brought to light since Baronius's day ; and the result is, tliat the generally accepted accounts of the lives of the Pontiffs referred to, have turned out to be in several particulars in- accurate, and, in many more, directly opposed to truth. Accordingly, the total number of Popes, in all ages, whose memory is open to censure, has been reduced to six — a mar- vellously small proportion, considering the terrible ordeals through which the Church has had to pass ; and, even so, there is good reason to expect that the number will be still further diminished, with the progress of researches yet incom- plete.^ But that any such men, no matter how few, should * The reader is refeiTed to the " History of the Papal States " by the Reverend John Miley, D.D., vol. ii. p. 256, et seq., where, in a clear popular form, the lives and characters of the several Popes of the tenth century, who have been so gravely aspersed, are reviewed, and the evidence on both sides is set forth. The learned author lays before us " the only existing authentic evidence," relative to the twenty Popes from Formosns to Agapetus II., extending over sixty-six years, a.d. 890-95G, — " a term the most disastrous the Roman See has ever witnessed." " The conduct of two of the twenty, Stephen VII. and Chris- topher I., is deploi-ed by all Catholics." ..." Of the eighteen remaining, two have been accused of scandalous crime, on the sole testimony of Luitprand ; but other writers refuse to convict them thereon. As to these, Sergius III. and John X., their characters become entitled to respect, as fresh documents throw light on their histories. All the rest are remarkable for their virtues, save John XL, of whom we know nothing to his discredit but that he was the son of a bad mother and the brother of a sacrilegious tyrant. He lived and died the slave of the latter, as did others of the Popes of this period " (p. 291). Still later, a.d. 1881, Monseigneur Justin Fevre, " well known in the literary world in France," is engaged on a "Biography of Pope Alexander VI. (Roderick Borgia), who reigned a.d. 1492-1503," a work appearing in Les Nouvelles Annales de Philosophie Catholique, a monthly jjublication, conducted by several literary men in France, under the direction of M. Louis do Savigny, according to whom this life of that Pontiff, in which a careful scrutiny is made of all the extant cotemporary records of his reign, is a full and complete vindication of one who has hitherto been held up to public opprobrium in terms of unmeasured abuse. See The Tablet of January 15, 1881. The subject is furtlier treated in tlio learned and laborious work of A. Leonetti, D.S.P., "Papa Alessandro VI., sccoudo ANCIENT PArAL ELECTIONS. 423 have been intruded into the Apostolic Chair, and that it was possible, at any period, for the factions of the Eoman nobles to exercise such control over the election of Pontiffs, is deeply to be deplored.^ The emancipation of the Holy See from such lamentable evils was well commenced by Pope Nicholas II., who governed the Church, a.d. 1058-1061. He clearly saw that the remedy lay in a comjjlete change in the mode of Papal election, namely, that it should no longer be made in a general assembly of " all the clergy and all the nobility of the Eoman people," but that it should be the work of a select body of the leading clergy, placed in an elevated position by the supreme Pontiff, on account of their piety, talent, and devotion to the Church. documenti e carteggi del tempo ; " 3 vols. 8vo, Bologna, 1880. M. Leonetti fully states the case, as preferred against that Pontiff, and then proceeds with his vindication — the result, or verdict, being, that he pronounces Alexander VI, to have been " the most outraged of all the successors of Saint Peter." In the commencement of the first volume he gives a detailed list of all the authorities he has consulted, comprising no less than forty-one manuscripts from the collec- tions of the Vatican and of eight other great libraries, and ninety-three published works, several of these being cotemporaneons with the reign of Alexander, Thus, each successive year, it becomes more and more appai'ent, that, in dealing with such subjects, a careful and laborious scrutiny of this kind is indispensable to investigators really desirous of establishing the truth. * It is scarcely necessary to notice the long exploded "fable of a female Pope," to use the words of Gibbon, " which, as it is false, deserves that name.'' The story was, that a disguised female, Joanna or Joan, was elected Pope, and reigned two years, five mouths, and four days, as John VIII., in immediate sue- cession to Leo IV. Now, Leo IV. died 855, and, according to Anastasius the Librarian, who lived at the time, he was immediately succeeded by Benedict III., who governed the Church, 855-858. Neither Anastasius, in his Lives of the Popes, nor any other writer for two centuries later, makes mention of Joan. The fiction first appeared in the chronicle of Marianus Scotus, a.d. 1086, and was repeated by Martinus Polonus, a.d. 1278. It is attributed by F. Pagi to the Waldensian heretics. Not to speak of Catholic authors, the fable of Pope Joan is conclusively refuted by Aventinus, " Annales Boiorum," lib. iv. ; Bayle, •' Dictionnaire Ilistorique ; " Basnage, " Histoire des Eveuements de I'Eglisc ; " Blondel, "Eclaircissement de la Question si une Femme," etc.; Bochart, " Guvres," Leydon, 1712; Boxhorn, " Historia Universalis," Leipsic, 1675; Courcellos, in his Latin version of Blondel, Amsterdam, 1657 ; Gesselius Timann, " Historia Sacra et Ecclesiastica," Utrecht, 1661 ; Leibnitz, " Flores sparsaa in tumulam Papiss£e," in Bibliothec. Histor., Gottingen, 1758 ; Schook, " Fabnla Hamelensis," Groningen, 1662 ; and several other Protestant writers. 421 THE CHAIR OF PETEE. Accordingly, in a council, held at Eome, A.D. 1059, and com- posed of one hundred and thirteen bishops, he decreed, that, on the Poj^e's death, the cardinal bishops should first most diligently consider the election ; that they should then call into their councils the cardinal priests and deacons; and that finally the new election should obtain the assent of the rest of the clergy and the people. It >Yas further enacted that the choice should be made out of the bosom of the Roman Church, if a suitaVde person could be found therein ; and, if not, that the elect should be taken from another Church ; always saving due honour and reverence to the Emperor, conformably ^itli the right conceded to him and his successors by the Ajiostolic See.i This last clause appears to refer to the constitution of Lothaire, that the consecration should take place in the presence of the Emperor or his envoys ; but, as we are in- formed by a cotemporary. Saint Peter Damian, this " con- sulting of the royal or imperial authority " was omitted, when imminent danger rendered the immediate election of the Pontiff necessary.^ The last Imperial confirmation of a Papal election was that of Pope Gregory VII. by Henry IV., Emperor Elect, a.d. 1073. ' The following are the words of tlio decree of Pope Nicholas II., a.d. 1059: " Qnapropter instructi praedecessorum nostrorum aliorumqne sanctorum patruin anctoritate, deceruimus atque statuimus, ut, obeunte hujus Romanaj Universalis EcclesisB Pontifico, injirimis Cardiualos Episcopi diligentissime simul de clcctione tractantes, mox sibi Clericos Cardinales adhibeaut, sicqae reliquus Clerus ct populus ad coDsensura novas electionis accedant. . . . Eligatur autem de ipsius Ecclesiaa gremio, si reperitur idoneus ; vel si de ipsa non invenitur ex alia assumatnr, salvo debito honore et reverentia dilecti filii nostri Ilenrici, qni in prsesentiarani Rex habetur, efc futurus Itnperator, Deo concedeute, speratur, sicut jam ipsi concessimus et successoribus ipsius, qui ab Apostolica Sedo per- sonaliter hoc jus impetraverint." * Petri Damiani Opera. Epist. 20, lib. i. Saint Peter Damian was born in Ravenna, a.d. 988. lie adopted a monastic life, nnder the rule of Saint Benedict. In 1057, Pope Stej^hen X. named him Cardinal Bishop of Ostia. He was highly esteemed, and employed in important affairs by several successive Popes, in- cluding Nicholas II. His works consist of several letters, some sermons, five lives of saints, and some short treatises. He died at Facnza in 1072, at the ago of eighty-three. ANCIENT PAPAL ELECTIONS. 42 J Thenceforward, notwithstanding the revolutions and anarchy of the times, the principle so wisely laid down by Nicholas II., and maintained and developed by successive Pontiffs and councils, became gradually more and more firmly established ; so that, on the death of Popu Alexander III. — to whose legisla- tion on the subject, in the Eleventh General Council, the Third Lateran, it will presently be necessary more fully to refer, — his successor, Lucius III. was chosen, A.d. 1181, by the cardinals exclusively, the body of the people and the clergy taking no part whatever in the proceedings. This was the first instance of a Pope being elected solely by the Sacred College.^ The cardinals, their institution, privileges, powers, and dignity, as well as the several constitutions enacted to regulate their election of a Pope, will be treated of, at length, in the next three chapters, ' Panviuius, Annotat. iu Vitam Alcxaudri III. apud Platinam, jj. 20G. CHAPTER XXXIII. CARDINALS. " Cardinal " is derived from the Latin cardo, a hinge, implying one on whom an establishment or system depends and turns. The word, in general acceptation, when used as an adjective, means chief, principal, pre-eminent, fundamental. Thus, the ancients spoke of the cardinal virtues — justice, prudence, temperance, and fortitude, — these being deemed by them the base or foundation of all the others : and, in the reign of the Emperor Theodosius, the chief officers of the Empire were called cardinal (that is, p'tncipal) governors, etc. About the year of our Lord 100, Pope Evaristus ^ divided the city of Rome into parishes, appointing one priest to each, to minister to the faithful in the small church of the parish.^ Forty years later. Pope Hyginus ^ considerably increased the number of priests ; and hence it gradually came to pass that the chief priest of each church was called the cardinal priest, presbyter cardinalis.'^ At the accession of Pope Sylvester, a.d. 314, this designation had, for some time, become general. On any of the cardinal priests being made bishops, in the early ' Saint Evaristus, a Syrian, governed tlie Church, a.d. 100-109. * Parish, pai'ish church, Latin Paroscia, parochia, is by some derived from the Greek, Ilopa, close by, and oIkos, a house, that is, a number of houses contiguous. Others derive it from napoxhi a salary, or allowance for main- tenance. ^ Saint Hyginus, a Greek, governed the Church, a.d. 139-142. * Even outside Rome this was the case. Thus, in ancient records, we read of pretres cardinaux and cur^s cardinaiur., in France, in the same souse. CAEDTNALS. 427 ages, they dropped their title of cardinal, as the episcopacy- was then considered a superior dignity.^ In the course of time, the parishes in the city were varied and multiplied by successive Pontiffs, according as the numbers of Christians increased. The church of each parish, presided over by its cardinal priest, was called a title, titulus, being " a monument " to God and His saints, as well as a place for the assembling of the faithful, for the purposes of religious worship.^ The titles, or parish churches, were, not unfre- quently, erected close by the cemeteries. During the first three centuries, they were necessarily small and unpretending buildings ; but, after the accession of Constantino the Great, they were replaced by structures, in style and dimensions, more worthy of the objects for which they were destined. Besides the parish churches, or titles, there were deaconries, Diaconice, first established by Saint Fabian, Pope, about the year 240. Before this, the deacons had no fixed place for their ministrations in the city. The deaconries were public hospitals, where the poor, and widows and orphans were relieved and ministered to. Chapels or oratories were attached to them. The deaconries were distributed over the districts or regions of Rome — one to each. Hence the deacons severally serving them were called regionarii. As the number of deacons increased, the chief of each deaconry was called Diaconus Carclinalis — the Cardinal, or principal, deacon. Long after the hospitals had ceased to exist, the chapels, in many an instance, survived, and gave titles to members of the Sacred College ; such as the Cardinal Deacon of Saints Cosmas and Damian, Saint Adrian, and others. The dignity and importance of the office of cardinal gradually increased with the growth of the Church. For instance, in a council held in Rome, and presided over by Pope ' For this reason, in some of the early councils, the cardinal priests subscribed the decrees after the bishops. * The first attribution of the term titulus to parish churches is ascribed to Pope Evaristus, a.d. 100. 428 THE CHAIR OF PETER. Stephen IV., ^ a.d. 7G9, it was decreed, that no person, whether layman or of any other order, should be promoted to the dignity of the sacred Pontificate, unless, ascending by distinct grades, he had been made a cardinal priest or deacon.^ This had actually been the usage, without a single ex- ception, from the elevation of Saint Gregory II. to the Papal throne, a.d. 715, to that of Stephen IV. himself, a.d. 768 ; and it continued down to the election of Marinus I., a.d. 862, inclusive — both periods comprising the reigns of twenty-one Pontiffs. Then, the rule fell into disuse, owing to the anarchy that universally prevailed ; and Adrian III. was elected from outside the Sacred College, in the year 884 : and from Adrian to Alexander IL, a.d. 1061, both inclusive, there reigned fifty Pontiffs, of whom only six were cardinals before election. In 1073, Saint Gregory VII. was chosen ; and from liis reign to that of Urban VI., a.d. 1378, both inclusive, there were forty-six Popes, of whom, on their election, all, save eight, were members of the Sacred College. However, even at this time, the decree of Stephen IV. does not appear to have been considered one of absolute necessity. For, as we shall see further on in this chapter, Pope Gregory X., in his Constitution TJbi i:)ericuluin, A.D. 1274, enacted, tliat " not only absent cardinals, but also all men of any order or condition can be created Roman Pontiff." ^ It is in this same year 779, that we find the first mention of cardinal bishops, when the same Pope Stephen IV. created seven cardinal bishops, and decreed, that they should, each in his weekly turn, celebrate Mass, every Sunday, in the Church of the Saviour (the Lateran), on Saint Peter's altar, and recite the " Gloria in excelsis Deo." * * Steplieu IV., a Sicilian, governed the Church, a.d. 768-772. * See Baronius, " Annales Ecclesiastici," ix. 299, 300, a.d. 769. * Gregory X. himself was one of those elected from outside the Sacred College. * Anastasius, " De Vitis Pontificnm Romanorum," p. 139. " Ut omni Dominico die a septem Episcopis Cardinalibus hebdomadariis, qui in Ecclesia CARDINALS. 429 These were the bishops holding the seven suburbicariau sees of Borne, and assisting the Sovereign Pontiff; and they were called Hebdomadarii,^ or weekly bishops, and Collaterales, or as- sistants of the Pope. Those prelates were, the Bishop of Ostia, who was the first, and whose duty it was to consecrate the Apos- tolic Father, above all others ; the Bishop of Saint Riifina, the second ; the Bishop of Porto, the third ; the Bishop of Albano, the fourth ; the Bishop of Tusculum', the fifth ; the Bishop of Sabina, the sixth ; and the Bishop of Praeneste, the seventh.^ The residence of cardinals in their bishoprics or parishes was obligatory, by the canon law, from a very early date. In a synod, composed of sixty-seven bishops, convened in the church of Saint Peter, Rome, by Pope Leo IV., a.d. 853, Anastasius, Cardinal Priest of the title of Saint Marcellus, was deposed from all his dignities, and deprived of the priestly honour, on account of five years' non-residence in his parish, and dwelling in a foreign country, in contravention of the canons. Two councils had been assembled, to consider his cause, and, cited to these by the Apostolic letters, borne by Salvatoris observant, Missarum solemnia super altars beati Petri celebrarentar, et Gloria in excelsis Deo diceretur." Saint Peter's altar in the Lateran Church was exclusively reserved for the Pope and these seven cardinal bishops. " No one," says John the Deacon, " presumes to offer the Holy Saciifice on this sacred altar, besides the Apostolic Lord and the seven cardinal bishops of the same church, who celebrate Mass in this holy basilica, each in his own week" (" Liber de Ecclesia Lateranensi," cap. 8). Originally the " Gloria in Excelsis Deo " was recited in the Mass by bishops on all Sundays and festivals ; but by priests on Easter Sunday only. This rule was confirmed by Saint Gregory the Great, about a.d. 595. The distinction is said to have ceased about the middle of the eleventh century, when priests, as well as bishops, were allowed to recite it, on all days to which it is proper. The opening words, " Glory to God in the highest and on earth peace to men of good will," are those recorded by the Evangelists, as uttered by the heavenly host on the morning of the Nativity. The date of the authorship of the remainder is uncertain, but is of a very remote period. This hymn is called the greater, and the " Glory be to the Father and to the Son and to the Holy Ghost," etc., the lesser, doxology. (From the Greek Z6^a, glory or praise, and \4yw, to speak.) ' Hebdomadarii — from the Greek, €/35ojuay, a week. ' At present there are only six cardinal bishops, instead of seven, as formerly — the See of Santa Rufiua having been united to that of Porto. 430 THE CHAIR OF TETEE. three bishops deputed for the purpose, he had failed to attend. ^ Here we may infer, how great was the dignity of cardinals in those days, when three bishops were sent, to serve a citation on Anastasius ; and further we see, that the law of residence was then stringently enforced on the members of the Sacred College.^ Cardinals having dioceses to govern generally reside in their dioceses, of course frequently going to Rome, to pay their homage to the Holy Father, and to take part in the business of the sacred congregations of which they may be members. Should it be necessary, however, or desirable, that they should reside in Eome, they are authorized to do so by decrees of councils, for valid reasons, dispensing with the residence of cardinals in their bishoprics. Thus they are enabled to fill certain important offices in the Roman court. In such cases, their dioceses are administered by coadjutor bishops, auxiliary bishops, or vicars general. Cardinals who have not bishoprics are bound to reside at the Papal court, unless in very rare cases, when a special dispensation is granted. In the year 882, Pope John VIII.^ drew up a Constitution, respecting the law, or regulation, of cardinals, in which he commands them to meet, twice a month or more frequently, at any title (parish church), or deaconry, or any church whatever, to consider the lives, manners, qualities, and style of dress, of their own order, and of the inferior clergy, and likewise the bearing of superiors towards their subjects, and the obedience of subjects to their superiors ; to cut off all things unlawful, and to remedy all matters complained of by the clergy and laity, as far as appertains to the Papal jurisdiction. In this document the Holy Father likens the cardinals to the seventy ancients in Holy Writ, and himself to Moses."* He recommends ' Anastasius, " De Vitis Pontificum Romanoram," p. 286. * Pagi, " Pontificum Romanoram Gesta," ii. 54. ^ Popo John VIII., a Roman, governed the Church, a.d. 872-882. * " Quippe cum sicut nostram mansuetudiuem Moysi, ita et vestram frater- nitatem septuaginta scniorum, qui sub oodem causarum negotia dijudicabant, vieissitudinem gcrere, cortum habeamus." See Exodus xviii. 13-23, and Numbers xi. 16, 17- CARDINALS. 431 to their care the monasteries deprived of abbots, and the filling up of vacancies, and the making changes, therein; with the proviso, that he shall be first consulted. Further, in order that they may take care of the churches, and the discipline of the clergy thereof, as well as the remedying the complaints of the laity, he commands them to attend, twice a week, at the sacred palace (the Lateran), conformably with the decrees of his predecessor Leo IV. Finally, he sanctions their enjoying perpetual benefices in his parishes, as far as is convenient to the Pontiff, and their officiating daily, in turn, in the principal churches, near the primatial church of their consecration, and their participating equally in the offerings of those churches, both for their own use, and for the lighting of their respective churches, saving always the ancient custom of the cardinal deacons.^ The following interesting account of the Sacred College, under Pope Stephen X., in the year 1058, when Saint Peter Damian had been recently appointed Cardinal Bishop of Ostia, is taken from an ancient manuscript, " On the Sacred Eites," in the Vatican Library : — ^ There are in the Koman Church (at Eome) five Patriarchal churches.^ The first is the Lateran, also called the Church of Constantine, and the Basilica of the Saviour. It has seven cardinal bishops, wlio are called Cvllatemles, and also Eebdomadarii ; because, each week, in turn they officiate in the place of the Pope. These cardinal bishops are the bishoj)s of Ostia, Porto, Saint Kufina or Silva Candida, Albano, Sabina, Tusculum, and Prseneste. Another Patriarchal church is that of Saint Mary Major, to which are attached seven cardinal priests— those of Saints Philip and James the Apostles, Saint Cyriacus in Thermis, Saint Eusebius, Saint Pudentiana, Saint Vitalis, Saints Peter and Marcellintis, and Saint Clement. Another Patriarchal church is that of Saint Peter, in which are seven ' " Liber canonum inscriptus Constitutio Joannis Papce VIII., de Cardi- nalibus, in Bibliotheca Vaticana." Baronins, "Annales Ecclesiastici," x. 565. Pagi, " Pontificum Romanornm Gesta," ii. 124. * Apud Baroiiium, " Anuales Ecclesiastici," xi. 238. ' These five churches are called Patriarchal, in honour of the five great Patriarchal sees — Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jorusaleiu. 432 THE CHAIR OF PETEK. cartlirical priests — those of Saint Mary beyond the Tiber, Saint Chry- sogonus, Saint Cecilia, Saint Anastasia, Saint Laurence in Damaso, Saint Mark, and Saints Martin and Sylvester. Another Patriarchal church is the basilica of Saint Paul, in which are the Cardinals of Saint Sabina, Saint Prisca, Saint Balbina, Saints Nereus and Achilleus, Saint Sixtus, Saint Marcellus, and Saint Susanna. The fifth Patriarchal church is Saint Laurence outside the walls, in which are the Cardinals of Saint Praxedes, Saint Peter ad Vincula, Saint Laurence in Lucina, Saints John and Paul, Saints the Four Martyrs (Quatuor corouatorum), Saint Stephen in Monte Coelio, and Saint Quiritius. The prefects of these Palriarchal churches are: of the Latcran, the first collateral bishop ; of Saint Mary Major's, the cardinal archpriest ; of Saint Peter's, the cardinal archpriest ; of the church of Saint Paul, the cardinal abbot ; and of the Church of Saint Laurence, the cardinal abbot. Besides the Titles (parish churches) there are the Deaconries, presided over by the cardinal deacons, of wliom there are twelve called Begionarii ' and six Palatini? These Deaconries are, Saint Mary in Dominica, over which presides the archdeacon, Saint Lucia ad Septem Solia, Saint Mary Nova, Saints Cosmas and Daraian, Saint Adrian, Saints Sergius and Bacchus, Saint Theodore, Saint George, Saint Mary in Schola Grseca, Saint Mary in Portion, Saint Nicholas in Carcere, Saint Angelus in Foro Piscario, Saint Eustachius, Saint Mary in Aqiiiro, Saint Mary in Via Lata, Saint Agatha in Equo Marmoreo, Saint Lucy in capite Subiirrsa, and Saint Vitus in Macello. It is the duty of the Rcgionarii, to sing the Gospel at the Stations;^ and of the Palatini, to sing it in the Lateran Church. ' Rcgionarii — so called, as above stated, from the several districts or regions, into which Rome was divided for Ecclesiastical jiurj^oses. From the fifth century, we find mention, in Ecclesiastical history of regionary deacons, each of whom had charge of the poor, widows, and orphans, and of the dis- tribution of alms, in his own district. ^ Palatini — so called from tho Latin, palatium, a palace, as these cai'dinal deacons were attached to the Lateran, which was the palatial chm-ch, or principal basilica of the Pope. ^ Stations. From the early ages, the Pope, at the head of his clergy, in procession, used to go round to the several basilicas, in turn, and there recite the office, celebrate Mass, and preach ; and the days for this particular celebra- tion, in the several churches, were marked " Stations," in the Roman Missal. These stations, that is, solemn processions and devotions, in the several churches, BO called, are mentioned by the author of the Acts of Pope Saint Daniasus, A.D. 3GG-384, and by Anastasius, in his Life of Saint Hilary, Pope, a.d. 461-468. At the close of the celebration, tho archdeacon used to announce where the station would be held on the following day. Tho stations in Rome are said to have been fixed in the several districts by Saint Gregory tho Great. CAIIDIXALS. 438 Here we see that at this period, a,d. 1058, the Sacred College comprised fifty-three members, viz. seven cardinal bishops, twenty-eight cardinal priests, and eighteen cardinal deacons. There is a list of the cardinals and their titles, in the reign of John XXII., a.d. 1316-1324, in which are enumerated seven bishops, thirty-one priests, and nineteen deacons, making the total number fifty-seven.^ The numbers of each order have, from time to time, been varied by the decrees of Popes and councils. They were made, six bishops, fifty priests, and fourteen deacons, or a total of seventy, by Sixtus V., a.d, 1585-1590 ; the same as they stand at the present day. We have seen, that, in the year 1059, Pope Nicholas II. placed the election of Pope in the hands of the cardinals, decreeing, that, on the death of a Pontiff, the cardinal bishops should, first, most diligently consider the election of a successor; that then they should call into their councils the cardinal priests and deacons ; and that, finally, the election should obtain the assent of the rest of the clergy and the people.^ This law or constitution of Nicholas II. was carried out, in its integrity, in the elections of eleven out of fifteen Pontiffs, in succession, from his reign down to that of Alexander III. inclusive, covering a space of one hundred and twenty years. In the four exceptional instances, the Cardinals elected the Pope, as in the others ; but it does not appear that the popular assent was obtained. In each instance, the omission was the result of the troubles of the times. The immediate successor of Nicholas, Pope Alexander II. was, in consequence of popular tumults, elected hurriedly by the cardinals, on the suggestion of the Archdeacon Hildebrand, At the Mass, celebrated by the Pope at the Stations, the Gospel was recited or sung by the regionary deacons. Vide Panvinium, Interpretatio, etc., p. 73, apnd Platinam " de Yitis Pontificum Eomanorum." ' Pagi, " Pontificum Piomanorum Gcsta," iv. 290. * Vide supra, p. 424. 2 F 434 THE CHAIR OF TETER. A\'ho succeeded him as Gregory YII. But even here the Roman nobility were consulted.^ Hildebrand himself, as set forth in the decree of his election, was chosen by the Sacred College, " with the assent and acclamation of immense crowds of both sexes and of every rank." ^ Next, came Victor III., "elected by the cardinals, clergy, and people."^ Urban II. was chosen at Terracina, " in accordance with the wishes of the clergy and people of Eome." ^ Paschal II. was elected by "the Fathers {i.e. the cardinals), the clergy, and the people of the city." ^ So also was Gelasius 11.*^ Callixtus II., in his letter to Adalbert, Archbishop of Mentz, speaks of the general body of the clergy, and the laity of the Eomans, as having taken part in his election."^ Honorius II. was chosen by tlie cardinals, " with the consent of all the Eoman clergy." '^ Innocent II., owing to the schism caused by the antipope Peter Leonis, or Anacletus, was elected by the cardinals alone.^ In the choice of Celestine II., the acclamations of the Roman clergy and people were united with the unanimous vote of the cardinals •,'^^ ' A.D. 1061. " Hildebrandus Archidiaconus, habito consilio cum Cardi- nalibus nobilibusque Romanis, ne disseusio incresceret," etc. (Leo Ostionsis, " Historia," lib. iii. cap. 20). ^ A.D. 10/3. " Consentientibns pluritnis turbis ntrinsque bcxus diversique ordinis acclamantibus " (" Electionis S. Grof^corii Papse VII. decretuiu "). ^ A.D. 1086. " Episcoisi Cardinales una cum clero et popnlo" (Barouius *' Annales Ecclesiastici," ix. 579). * A.D. 1088. Baronias, " Aniiales," ix. 590. * A.D. 1099. " Ecce to in Pastorcm sibi elegit dari populus Urbis, to elegit Clerus, te collaudant Patres denique " (Pandulphus Pisanus, " Vita Paschalis PP. II."). * A.D. 1118. " Omnium Cardinalium consensu, Cleri et populi toco ac votis expetitus " (Pandulphus Pisanus, in Vita). ' A.D. 1119. " Episcopi, Cardinales, et Clerici et laici Romanorum invitum mepenitusque renitentcm in Romano) Ecclesia) Pontificem Callistum unanimiter assumpserunt " (" Epistola Callisti Papso II. ad Adalbcrtum Arcliicpiscopura Moguntinum "). ^ A.D. 1124. " Consensu omnium clcricorum Romanorum." Ccccanus in Chronico. " A.D. 1130. Pagi, "Pontificum Romanorum Gesta," ii. 493; and Baronius, in loco. '" A.D. 1143. " Clero ct popnlo Romano acclamanto partim et cxpotcnte." " Caslestini Papaa II. Epistola ad Cluniaccnscs." " Onmium consensu creatur," Platina, 199. CAEDIXALS. 435 whilst in the elevation of Lucius 11.,^ Eugenius III.,'^ and Anastasius IV.,^ the wishes of the Komau people appear not to have been consulted, in the pressing necessity of a speedy- election. In the election of Adrian IV./ and that of Alexander III./ the assent and acclamations of the Roman clergy and people were joined to the suffrages of the Sacred College. But the events wliich signalized the accession of the latter of these two Pontiffs rendered absolutely necessary a complete change in the manner of Papal elections. Alexander III. was chosen Pope by twenty-three cardinals, on the 5th of September, 1159. On the same day, five dissentient cardinals^ elected Octavian of IMonticello, Cardinal Priest of the title of Saint Cecilia, who, as antipope, took the name of "Victor IV." On Octavian's death, in 1164, the schism was continued by Guido, Cardinal Priest of the title of Saint Eustachius, who called himself "Pascal III."; by John, Cardinal Bishop of Tusculura, A.D. 1109, as " Callixtus III."; and by Lando, a.d. 1177, as "Innocent III." After a few months, Lando was compelled to retire ; and thus the schism ceased, after an existence of nineteen years. Painfully impressed by the grave scandals and detriment to the Church arising from such a state of affairs, Alexander III. wisely decided to alter the rule requiring an unanimous * A.D. 1144. Pagi, iii. 3j and Baronius, in loco. « A.D. 1145. Ibid., iii. 7 5 Ibid. ' A.D. 1153. Ibid., iii. 28; " Convenientibus Patribas, summa concordia clegerunt," etc. Otto Frisingensis. * Adrian IV., an Engh'^hman, was elected, a.d. 115i, by the cardinals — " tlic clergy and laity alike bailing him by acclamation " (Ancient M.S. in Vatican Libi-ary). For his biography, vide supra, p. 223, note. * The biography of Alexander III., elected in 1159, will be found in another chapter. Vide snpi-a, p. 224, note. According to Baronius, " Annales," xii. 421, his election was made with the popular assent — " assentiente clero efc l)opulo Romano." In the course of his long pontificate, he created thirty -four cardinals ; viz. nine cardinal bishops, sixteen priests, and nine deacons. ^ Onuphrius Panvinius says that the dissentients, electing Octavian, the antipope, were five in number. Their names are given by Baronius, " Annales," xii. 425. On the other haiid, Pagi (iii. 41), asserts, that they were only two, namely, John, Cardinal Priest of Saint Martin, and Guido, Cardinal Priest of Saint Callixtus. 43G THE CHAIR OF PETER. vote of the cardinals, in electing tlie Supreme PontitF. Accordingly, in the year 1179, in the Eleventh General Council, the third Lateran, he decreed, that, in case the cardinals were not unanimous, the person, obtaining the votes of at least two-thirds of the members of the Sacred Colleo-e present, should be considered the Eoman Pontiff. This Con- stitution of Alexander III., Licet de evitanda, has ever since been adopted, as embodying one of the leading principles of Papal elections. By this Pontiff, it was also enacted, that all cardinals sliould have an equal right of voting, thus setting aside the priority given to cardinal bishops over cardinal priests and deacons, by the decree of Nicholas 11.^ It was further enacted by him that elections to the Pontificate should thenceforward be made by the Cardinals alone; the assent of the body of the clergy and people of Eome being altogether dispensed with.^ This rule, as we have seen, was carried out in the election of Alexander's successor, Lucius III. The first Conclave, or strict enclosure of cardinals, for the election of a Pope, is said by some writers to have been on the occasion of the election of Honorius III., a.d. 1216;^ but this is positively contradicted by the learned and accurate critic, Onuphrius Panvinius,'* in his annotations on Platina's Life of ' The distinction was obserred, up to this time, as may bo seen in the accoants of several Papal elections, in which the cardinal bishops are spoken of, separately and first; e.g. Episcopi et Cardinales, i.e. "the cardinal bishops, and the cardinal priests and deacons." Sometimes the cardinal bishops alone are spoken of, as in the election of Victor HI., above alluded to ; Epis. copi Cardinales i(,na cum clero et populo. This wo may well understand, as, under the Constitution of Pope Nicholas II., the election was invariably initiated by the cardinal bishops alone, and, doubtless, in most instances, their choice was concurred in by the cardinal priests and deacons, whom they called into their councils. * Onuphrius Panvinius, "Annotat. in Vit, Alexaudri PP. III.," apud Platinam, p. 206. ' Ciaconius, in Honorio III. * Onufrio Panvini, a learned historian, antiquary, and critic, was born at Verona, in 1529. He became an Augustiuian hermit, it is said, in order to CARDIXAT.S. 437 Gregory X. ; and Lis account of the first institution of the Conclave, as follows, is that which is generally accepted : — ^ Pope Clement IV. having died at Viterbo, on the 20th of November, 1268, the Holy See remained vacant for nearly three years, owing to the dissensions of the cardinals, about electing his successor.^ After the obsequies of the deceased Pontiff, they assembled at Viterbo, seventeen in number, and, although they held frequent meetings, they were unable to arrive at any definite result. At that time the cardinals were not, as was soon afterwards the custom, shut up in conclave, but, early in the morning of each day, they met to treat of the election of a Pope, if at Rome, in the Lateran, or the basilica of Saint Peter, or elsewhere, as occasion offered ; or, if not at Rome, in the cathedral church of that city, in which they then sojourned ; as in the present instance at Viterbo.^ Meanwhile Philip, King of France, and Charles, King of Sicily, visited the Roman court at Viterbo, and urged the Sacred College, in the interests of Christendom, to make "a speedy and mature election of a Pontiff." However, those monarchs effected nothing by their intervention, and had to return to their respective homes, leaving matters in the same unfinished state. At length, on the suggestion of Saint have abundant leisure for his studies. In 1555, Pope Marcellus II. gave him an appointment in the Vatican Library. His works are numerous, and display mnch learning and research. Ho died in 1568, at the early age of thirty-nine. * Panvinius, apud Platinam " De Vitis Pontificum Romanorum," p. 233. ^ The vacancy lasted from the 29th of November, 12G8, to the 1st of September, 1271. ' Onuphrius Panvinius, apud Platinum, p. 233. This statement of Panvinius, made about the year 15G0, is questioned by Pagi and other writera, on the authority of Augustinus Oldoinus, vs^ho, in a supplement to Ciaconius, says, that, on the death of Clement IV., a.d. 1268, the cardinals were shut up in conclave by Raynerius Gatto, acting for the Prefect of Viterbo, and Albertus de Moutebono, magistrate of that city; and that the cardinals issued a "dij)loma" from the conclave, calling on those two persons to allow Henry, Cardinal Bishop of Ostia, who was very ill, to leave the conclave, which request was complied with. The date of the diploma is given as "the 13th June, 1270, the Apostolic See being vacant." 438 THE CHAIll OF PETER. Bonaventure/ the Cardinals agreed to leave the election, by way of compromise, to six of their own number; and these fixed their choice on Theobald, Archdeacon of Liege, of the family of the Visconti of Piacenza, a holy religious man, out- side the Sacred College. This election took place on the 1st of September, 1271. At the time, Tlieobald was at Ptolemais in Syria, on his way to Jerusalem, with the Prince of Wales, after- wards Edward I., then engaged in the Crusade. Immediately on receiving the decree of his election, from tlie legates of the Sacred College, the new Pope returned to Italy, travelling by Brindisi to Viterbo, and thence to Rome, where he was consecrated on the 27th of March, 1272, and entered on his pontificate, assuming the name of Gregory X.^ All these proceedings impressed Gregory with the necessity of preventing the recurrence of such delays and discord in Papal elections ; and, accordingly, at the Fourteenth General Council, the second of Lyons, which assembled, on his summons, in May, 1274, he enacted his celebrated code of laws, contained in his constitution Uhi pericidum, to be observed thenceforw^ard, in all meetings for the election of a Supreme Pontiff. As given by Panvinius, they contain the few additions or variations, not very material, made by Boniface VIII. and Clement V. They run as follows : — ^ I. That the meetings for the election of a new Pontiflf be held in a fit place, in which the preceding Pontiff, residing with his court, and holding audience of causes and of Apostolic letters,'* died. But if he should have ' Saint Bonavcnture was then Genei-al of the Franciscan order. Shortly afterwards, he was nominated Cardinal Bishop of Albano, by Gregory X. * Gregory X. governed the Church, a.d. 1272-1276. He presided, in person, at the Fourteenth General Council. * I have seen these laws of Gregory X. given in a varied form, but practically to the same effect, by a modern writer. But I adopt, in preference to any other, the version of Onuphrius Panvinius, which, ho tells us, ho has taken from the Decretals, Sextus of Boniface VIII., and Clementinm of Clement v., with the confn-mation of, and some additions by, those Pontiffs. Vide Panvinium, apud Platinam, "Do Vitis Pontificum llomanorum," p. 233-235. * We have seen what large jurisdiction, in civil as well as Ecclesiastical CARDINALS. 439 died in a country house, villsige, or town, and consequently the meetings cannot be conveniently held there, then that they be held in the city, within the diocese of which the said country house, or village, or town, is situated, unless the said city be interdicted. In which case, the election ought to be made in the nearest city, not interdicted. But if the audience was in another place, then let the election of the future Pontiff be held, not where the Pope died, but where the audience was. II. That, on the death of the Pontiff, the meetings be not held, unless after an interval of at least ten days, during which time the absent cardinals should be waited for, and the nine-days' obsequies of the deceased Pontiff performed by the cardinals present. III. That all cardinals, for any reason whatever, absent from the conclave, can have no right of voting. IV. That not only absent cardinals, but also all men of any order and condition, can be created Eoman Pontiff.^ V. That the nine days' obsequies being finished, and the Mass of the Holy Ghost on the tenth day being celebrated, all the cardinals who are present (whether those absent arrive, or not) be shut up, in the palace in which dwelt the deceased Pontiff, in a safe place, enclosed on every side, and guarded in the best manner, which is called the Conclave, with only two, or, as is the custom now, three or four servants, who will minister to them in all things necessary, in the place where the meetings are held . Nor may it be lawful for any one to enter or go out of the place, unless on account of infirmity, save these and certain other men whose aid is very necessary to those who are in conclavo. And the place of conclave may have no dividing wall, but all the cardinals shall inhabit it in common, in their cells, divided by woollen cloths. VI. That the place and gates of the conclave be most diligently guarded ; if the election be held at Eome, first, by the prajtorians, then by the Roman nobles and the ambassadors of princes, previously bound by oath, and finally in the nearer doorway of the conclave by the bishops and the conservators of the city ; but if these meetings be held outside the city, then by the temporal lords of the place, bound by the same oath of fidelity. The duty of these is, to guard the conclave, and diligently to causes, was granted to Bishops, by Constantine the Great, sujira, p. 132. This was the origin of the Bishop's court, midientia episcopalis. The Papal court above referred to, causarum et liteixirum Apostolicarum audientia, was of the same nature, but of a far more important and wider scope, as it embiaced all Christendom. The business thereof, in Ecclesiastical affairs, is transacted by- certain congregations of cardinals, at the present day, as we shall see further on, in this chapter. ' The election of Urban VI., a.b. 1378, is the last instance of a person from outside the Sacred College being chosen Pope. Since then, no one but a Cardinal has been elected to the Papal throne. 440 THE CHAIR OF PETER. take care, tliat notbiug be taken into, or sent out from, the conclave, which might interfere with legitimate voting; and to examine each article brought in to them, either for food, or for any other purpose; and to provide that no detriment be suffered by the cardinals ; and to attend to all their wishes, and to urge them to an early choice, should thoy delay the election of a Pontiff. And it is the duty of the prtetoriau soldiers and the Roman nobles to lu'eserve the conclave safe from all intrusion. VII. That the cardinals cannot come out of the conclave for any reason, without having created a Eoman Pontiff. But should they come out, the affair being incomplete, they ought to be compelled to cuter again, by those who preside over the custody of the conclave. YIII. That to cardinals comJng, after the entry of the conclave, and before the election of Pope, there be power to enter the conclave and vote with the others; and no cardinal, on any occasion or pretext, even though he should be bound by the chain of excommunication, can be prevented from taking part in the election. IX. That after three days entrance into the conclave, unless the Pontiff is declared, the Eoman nobles aud those who i)rcside over the custody of the conclave, shall have strict care of the meals and food brought in to the cardinals, and will allow only one dish to be taken in.^ X. That, in holding the meetings, it shall, under i^ain of anathema, be unlawful for any one, either to bribe, or to promise anything, or to solicit, or to secure to himself, by canvassing, the favour of the cardinals in the new election. And, during the time, the cardinals shall have no right nor power of attending to any other business — to the end that the election be expedited. XI. That no one can be declared Eoman Pontiff, unless he receive the entire votes of two-thirds of the cardinals present in the conclave. XII. That on the death of the Eoman Pontiff, all the Ecclesiastical magistrates cease to hold their offices, and to receive their remuneration excepting the greater Penitentiary, and the minors, and the Camerlengo (Came ra7- ills) of the Holy Eoman Church, whose functions continue, even though the Pope be dead. These laws for the election of a Supreme Pontiff, published by Gregory X., in the Fourteenth General Council, a.d. 1274, were suspended by Adrian V., immediately on his election, in 1276. This, he is said to have done with a view to their modification ; ^ but, as he died in one month and nine days ' Such stringent rules as tliis were mitigated by Clement VI., who reigned A.D. 1342-1352, Pius IV., 1559-1565, and Gregory XV., 1621-1623. ' Jordanus, a cotemporary Avriter, in MS. in the Vatican Library, apud Raynaklum, num. 26. " Hie statim post suam creationem Constitntionem CARDINALS. 441 after he had been chosen, and was never consecrated, the act was considered invalid. However, it was duly ratified by his successor, John XXI., who appears to have concurred in his views. This suspension of the law of conclave, seemingly suggested by attempts on the part of the people of Yiterbo to coerce the cardinals, now greatly reduced in number, continued for the space of sixteen years, a.d 1276-1292 ; during which time six Pontiffs were elected by the cardinals, without enclosure of conclave. These were, John XXI., who reigned A.D. 1276, 1277; Nicholas III., 1277-1280; Martin IV., 1281-1285; Honorius IV., 1285-1287; Nicholas IV., 1288- 1292 ; and Saint Celestine V., 1292, 1293. On his accession, in 1292, Saint Celestine V. restored the law of conclave, which has continued in force ever since. He also increased the number of cardinals by twelve, promoting seven French, and five Italian, ecclesiastics to the purple. The Constitution of Gregory X. was further confirmed by Boniface VIII., in his book of Decretals, entitled " Sextus," ^ a.d. 1298, and by Clement V., in the Fifteenth General Council, held at Vienne, in 1311, as set forth in the Constitutions of that Pope, entitled " Clementinre." ^ All previous enactments, however, including the funda- mental Constitutions of Alexander III., and Gregory X., are comprised in the Bull, jEterni patris, of Pope Gregory XV., dated November 15, 1621. This important Bull was the result of the labours of a commission of cardinals and canonists, appointed by His Holiness, to consider the entire subject.^ The following year, he published his Ceremonial, Decet Bomanum Gregorii de restrictione Cardinalium in electione Papae suspendit, intendens earn aliter ordinare, sed morte prajventns nou potuit, nee Sacerdos ordinatus est." ' "Liber Sextus Decreialinm Bonifacii Papae YIIL," lib. i. cap. 6, tit. 3. For " Decretals," see Index. * " Clementina," lib. i. tit. 3. ' Cocqnelines, " Bnllarum Privilegiorum ac Diplomatum Romanorum Pontificum amplissiuia Collectio," tom. v. p. 310, ct scq. Roma, 1739, ot seq. 442 THE CHAIR OF TETER. Pontificem, arranging all the details of the conclave.^ These were confirmed, and, in some few particulars, slightly modified or supplemented, by the Bull of Urban YIII., Ad Romani Pontifids, dated 28th of January, 1626,2 and by the Constitution of Clement XII., ApostoJatus officium, dated 5th of October, 1732;^ and they constitute the law of Papal Elections, as it now stands. It is unnecessary here to recite their provisions, as the greater part of these have already been given in extracts from the Constitutions of preceding Pontiffs ; and as, moreover, their substance will be found, and several of their clauses will be referred to, in the next chapter, giving an account of a conclave, and of the election of a Pope, in modern times. AVe have next to consider, in detail, the creation, office, duties, privileges, and dignity of cardinals, at the present day. The College of Cardinals comprises seventy members ; viz. six of the order of bishops, fifty of the order of priests, and fourteen of the order of deacons.'* The first order, necessarily, is always kept filled up. It is composed of the bishops of the six suburbicarian sees of Kome. They are the vicars of the Pope. Other bishops or archbishops, promoted to the purple, are cardinal priests ; and in this order there are also several who have not attained episcopal rank. The third order — that of deacons — is altogether composed of ecclesiastics below the rank of bishops.^ In these two orders, there are always a ■ Cocquelines, " CcCremouiale iu Electiono Summi Eomani Pontificis obser- vandum." * Ibid., torn. v. p. 397. Urbani PP. VIII. Confirmatio et approbatio Consti- tutionis Gregorii XV. de electione Romaui Poutificis et Coereiuonialis contincutis illins ritns. ' Ibid., torn. xiii. p. 302. Clernont XII. hero names his predecessors who published Constitutions on the subject ; especially Syramachus, a.d. 500, " Contra ambieutos Pontificatum," Nicholas II., Alexander III., Gregory X., Clement V., Clement VI., Julius II., Paul IV., Pius IV., Gregory XV., and Urban VIII. * Although the number of cardinals is restricted to seventy, the actual number of the liiorarchical titles of the Sacred College is seventy-four; viz. bishops six, priests fifty-two, and deacons sixteen. * The late Cardinal Autonelli, so long Secretary of State to Pius IX., was not even a priest, having received only deacon's orders. CARDINALS. 443 few hats left vacant, for occasions of promotion that may arise. Of the cardinal bishops, the first is the Bishop of Ostia and Velletri.^ He is Dean of the Sacred College. From the early- ages, the Pope has always been consecrated by the Bishop of Ostia, assisted by the Bishops of Porto and Albano; and, should the Bishop of Ostia himself be the person chosen Pope, or should he, through illness or any other unavoidable cause, be absent, or should the See of Ostia be vacant, then the Arch- priest of Ostia assists the other bishops in the consecration.^ The next of the cardinal bishops is the Bishop of Porto and Santa Rufina,^ wdio is Sub-Dean of the Sacred College and Vice- Chancellor of the Holy Roman Church. The third is the Bishop of Albano; the fourth, the Bishop of Palestrina (anciently Prseneste) ; the fifth, the Bishop of Frascati (anciently Tusculum) ; and the sixth, the Bishop of Sabina. The cardinal priests take their titles from the titular churches of Rome. Each is superior of his own titular church, with jurisdiction and the right of a throne therein. Similar privileges are enjoyed by cardinal deacons, who take their titles from churches which were formerly deaconries. The cardinals are the council and senate of the Pope; as they have been for many centuries. Just one thousand years ago. Pope John VIII.^ published a Constitution, in which he laid down a course of duties for his cardinals, authorizing them to represent him, and, in certain matters which he sets forth, to act in his behalf — all subject to his confirmation, " inasmuch as," he says, " that we may be assured that as our clemency bears the part of Moses, so may your fraternity bear that * The Sec of Yellctri was united to that of Ostia, by Pope Eugenius III., in 1150. * A case in point is that of Ubaldo, Cardinal Bishop of Ostia and Velletri, consecrated Pope, as Lucius III., a.d. 1181, by the Cardinal Bishop of Porto, the Archpriest of Ostia, among others, assisting. * Formerly two separate sees. ^ John VIII. gorerned the Church, a.d. 872-882. 444 THE CHAIR OF PETER. of the seventy elders who adjudicated on causes under him." ' As it was in the reign of this Pontiff of ten centuries ago, so is it in our day. What an august council assembles around the Holy Father — learned, pious, venerable men, far advanced in the vale of years, without family ties or worldly aspirations,— as it were, standing apart from all others, raised above their fellow-men, — educated by a severe discipline, from their earliest youth, in the traditions of the Apostles, the doctrines and maxims of the Gospel of Christ, — and chosen by the Supreme Pontiff for their transcendent talents, virtues, and holiness ! What earthly monarch is surrounded by such a court ? To form a just estimate of the composition of the Sacred College, we have only to regard the lives, gifts, and characters, of two of those princes of the Church now residing amongst us — men of whom British subjects of every creed may well be proud. And it is indeed a striking advantage possessed by the Catholic Church and her Chief Pastor, that when, within her pale, in any part of the world, a Manning or a Newman should be raised up by God, to shed the light of learning and holiness around him, far and near, he may be summoned by the Holy Father to his side, to become his trusty councillor and assistant, with a seat in the most majestic and most venerable senate the world has ever known. Pope Sixtus V.,^ in his Constitution Postquam varias, declares, that "the cardinals of the most holy Roman Church, representing the persons of the holy Apostles, while they ministered to Christ our Saviour, when He preached the Kingdom of God, and wrought the mystery of human salva- tion, stand forth, the councillors and coadjutors of the Roman Pontiff, in the fulfilment of the Sacerdotal Office, and the government of the Catholic Church over which he presides ; " and Saint Bernard, in his celebrated address to Eugenius III., ' Vide supra, p. 430. 2 Sixtus V. governed the Chui-ch, a.d. 1585-1590. CARDINALS. 445 says, "Let ns come now to thy collaterals and coadjutors (the cardinals). These are to thee assiduously devoted — thy intimates. It is thine, after the example of Moses, to call and summon to thyself, from every side, elders, not youths ; but elders not so much in age as in moral qualities, whom thou hast known, because they are the elders of the people. Are not those who are to judge the world to be chosen from the whole world ? " ' It is indeed a mistake, to suppose that the life of a cardinal is a life of dignified leisure — that, once he is promoted to the purple, he has little else to do than to enjoy his otium cum dignitate. To know that the contrary is the case, one has only to bear in mind that the Holy See is charged with " the solicitude of all the Churches " — the supreme spiritual direc- tion of Catholic Christians in all parts of the globe. Super- ficial observers, before the late revolution, were but too apt to regard the Papal court, as chiefly occupied with administering the temporal affairs of a third or fourth-rate power ; the main- taining the state and ceremonial that surround the Sovereign Pontiff; the giving audiences to bishops, and other dis- tinguished persons coming from foreign countries ; the appointing bishops to vacant sees ; and the carrying out the grand religious functions, on certain great festivals. Now that the Holy Father has been despoiled of the last shred of his temporal dominions, they conceive, that the ceremonial, audiences, and appointment of bishops, alone remain. Per- haps the best mode of dissipating such erroneous ideas may be, to enumerate the several Sacred Congregations of the Roman Curia, which are composed of cardinals, and of which the labours, in most instances, are not confined to Rome, but embrace the whole Catholic world. These are : — • The Roman and Universal Inquisition, or Holy Office : for the examination and repression of heretical ' " De Considerationo," lib. iv. cap. 4. Written a.d. 111:5. 446 THE CHAIR OF rETER. doctrines, for matrimonial causes, and for other important matters — Prefect, His Holiness the Pope. This congregation comprises thirteen cardinals, including Cardinal Panebianco, the Secretary; and it has a number of archbishops, bishops, monsignori, and members of religious orders, as Consultors ; and several officials.^ ^ The Inquisition. In the year 120i, Pope Innocent III. established the tribunal of the Inquisition, to seek out and examine heretics, and, if they con. tiuued obstinate in their errors, to hand them over for punishment to the civil jjower. This measure was mainly intended to meet and repress the excesses of the Albigenses, so called from the town of Albi in Languedoc, in which town and ijrovince they existed in great numbers, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Their doctrines were levelled against religion and social order. They taught, that marriage was a crime, that all external Catholic worship was an abuse which should be destroyed, and that the pastors of the Church were ravening wolves which should be exterminated. Their acts, the result of these principles, as described by Peter the Venerable, in his letter to the Bishops of Embrun, Die, and Gap, in 1147, comprised the profanation of churches, the over- turning of altars, the scourging of priests, and other similar outrages. These were evils which required to be dealt with by strong measures. The Albigenses were condemned by the Council of Albi in 1176, and by other provincial councils ; and they were excommunicated by Pope Alexander III., in the Eleventh General Council, the third Lateran, in 1179. The Inquisition was confided to the Dominican Order by Pope Gregory IX. , in 1233 ; and, about twelve years later. Innocent IV. extended it to all Italy, except the Kingdom of Naples. In 1255, it was established in Prance, with the consent of Saint Louis, by Alexander IV. Spain was altogether subjected to it, in 1481, under the roign of Ferdinand and Isabella ; and Portugal adopted it, under King John III., in 1537, according to the form received from Spain. When the Spaniards made a settlement in America, they caiTied the Inquisition there with thcin ; and the Portuguese introduced it into the East Indies. By these details, observes the Abbe Bcrgicr, as well as by other historical facts, it is clear that the Tribunal was established in no kingdom of Christendom but with the consent, and often at the request, of the sovereign. In 1545, Pope Paul III. formed the Congre- gation of the Inquisition under the name of the Holy Office; and Sixtus V. confirmed it in 1588. The cruelties perpetrated under the Inquisition in the Middle Ages, in Spain, are deeply to be lamented. Here, under Ferdinand and Isabella, and in accordance with their policy, it became a purely political institution ; and several Pontiffs, from time to time, interposed to mitigate its severities — notably Sixtus IV., Leo X. and Innocent X. In any case, its objects and its faults, its use and its abuse, must be viewed in the light of former times. Happily, in modern days, the action of the Inquisition or Holy Office is very different indeed from what it was in those troubled times, when heretical sects, emboldened by their numbers, gave vent to their feelings, iu acts of violence against person and property, not alone injurious to religion, but tubvcrsivc of the peace and order of civil society. CARDINALS. 4i7 CoNSiSTORiAL AFFAIRS : for the preparation of matter for the Papal consistories ^ — Prefect, His Holiness the Pope. This congregation numbers seven cardinals, with a monsignore as Secretary, and a Surrogate. ArosTOLic Visitation : for the visitation of the churches in Rome — Prefect, His Holiness the Pope. This congregation numbers five cardinals, including Cardinal Monaco La Val- letta, Vicar of His Holiness, President ; and has an archbishop as Secretary, and several Consultors, and other officials. Bishops and Regulars : ^ for the judging of appeals from the decisions of bishops ; for the hearing of causes between bishops and regulars ; and for the revision and approval of the rules of religious orders and congregations. The Prefect of this congregation is Cardinal Ferrieri, including whom it comprises thirty-six cardinals. It has a number of arch- bishops, bishops, monsignori, and members of religious orders, as Consultors, and several officials. The Council : for the interpretation and carrying out of the decrees of councils ; and for receiving and considering the reports which bishops are required to render of their dioceses. The Prefect is Cardinal Nina, besides whom there are thirty- two other cardinals in the congregation. Attached to it, is a committee of prelates, for consultation, and for receiving and examining the reports of bishops on the state of their dioceses.^ ^ Consistories. See Index. '^ Regulars. The members of religious orders, " living by rule," are so called, from the Latin, rcjula, a rule. The ordinary j^arochial clergy are called secular. ^ By a very ancient law of the Church, all bishops are bound to present themselves, from time to time, before the Sovereign Pontiff ; 1st, to venerate the Tomb of the Apostles ; 2ndly, to render homage to the Successor of Saint Peter; 3rdly, to lay before him, in writing, a full and minuto'account of their dioceses. The Constitutions of Benedict XIV. enact, that this visit should be made by the Italian bishops once in three years, by those of Spain, Germany, the British Islands and the North of Europe once every four years, of more distant parts of Europe once every five years, and of more remote countries once every ten years. We have ah-eady seen how firmly Gregory VII. insisted on the fulfilment of this duty by British and other bishops, eight centuries ago. Sec chapter xvii. 448 - THE CHAIR OF TETER. There is also a Special Congregation, for the Ke vision of Provincial Councils. It numbers seven cardinals, including: the Prefect, Cardinal Nina, — all members of the sacred congre- gation of the Council. Attached to it, are several Cousultors, chiefly members of religious orders. Kesidence of Bishops : for enforcing the canons, obliging bishops to reside in their dioceses — Prefect, Cardinal Monaco La Valletta, with a monsignore as Secretary. On the State of the Eegulaes : for insuring: the observ- ance of their rules and constitutions by religious orders and congregations. This congregation comprises two cardinals, with a monsignore as Secretary. Ecclesiastical Immunity : for the regulation and main- tenance of Ecclesiastical privileges, immunities, and exemp- tions, as regards persons and places. This congregation num- bers thirteen cardinals, including its Prefect, Cardinal Nina, with a monsignore as Secretary. It also has five prelates, Consultors. De Propaganda Fide : for the propagation of the faith, and the government of the Church, in missionary countries. This congregation comprises thirty-four cardinals, including its Prefect, Cardinal Simeoni, with a monsignore as Secretary, and one as Protonotary Apostolic. It has a number of arch- bishops, bishops, monsignori, and members of religious orders, as Consultors, and several officials. There is also a congregation De Propaganda Fide, for the Affairs of the Oriental rite. It consists of its Prefect, Cardinal Simeoni, and sixteen other cardinals, all members of the preceding congregation. It has a monsignore as Secre- tary, and several archbishops and bishops, chiefly Orientals, and members of religious orders, as Consultors, and several officials.^ Attached to the latter congregation, is a Commission, consisting of five cardinals, taken from the thirty-four above » For au account of tlio College of Propagauda, sec Index, " Propagauda." CARDINALS. 441) named, for the revision and correction of Looks of the Oriental church. The Index : for the condemnation of books contrary to faith and morids— Prefect, Cardinal Martinelli, with thirty-five other cardinals, a member of the Order of Preachers as Perpetual Assistant, and another as Secretary. This con- gregation has a large number of archbishoi,)S, bishops, mon- signori, and members of religious orders, as Consultors. Sacred Rites : for the regulation of all matters, and the decision of all questions, concerning the Liturgy ; and for the conduct of the processes of the beatification and canonization of Saints. This congregation is composed of twenty-nine cardinals, including the Prefect, Cardinal Bartolini ; and it has several official prelates, including the Bishop of Porfirio, Sacristan to His Holiness, a protonotary apostolic,^ the Dean and two Auditors of the Rota,^ and the Master of the Apostolic Palace. The Monsignori JMasters of the Pontifical Ceremonies have place in this congregation. It also comprises several Prelates, and members of religious orders, as Consultors. Ceremonial : for all matters of ceremonial, and questions of precedence — Prefect, Cardinal di Pietro, Dean of the Sacred College, besides whom there are eighteen other cardinals, and two monsignori as Secretaries. The Monsignori Masters of the Pontifical Ceremonies are Consultors of this congregation. Discipline of Regulars : for maintaining the observance ' Protonotary : from the Greek, TrpaJTos, first, anrl the Latin, nnfarius, a rotary. The Colleqje of ProtouoLaries Apostolic consists of its Dean, Mon- Biguore Pericoli, and six other clotuestic prelates of His Holiness. It also has a large number of Supernumerary Protonotaries, all monsignori. Its duties have reference to the beatification and canonization of Saints, and other solemn affairs. ^ Auditors of the Rota. The Rota is the highest tribunal of the Papal Government, It exercises an appellate jurisdiction. It is composed of twelve auditors or judges, all domestic prelates of His Holiness, including its Dean, Monsignore Alessandro del Maguo. Of the Auditors, two are Spaniards, one is a Frenchman, one a German, and eiglit are Italians. It was originally so called from the Latin, rota, a wlieel, probably because the members sat in a circle. 2g '400 THE CHAIR OF TETEE. of their rules and constitutions by religious orders and con- gregations in Italy — Frefed, Cardinal Ferrieri, with twelve otlier cardinals, a monsignore as Secretary, and three Con- suitors, who are members of religious orders. Indulgences and Sacred Relics : for all matters apper- taining thereto. This congregation comprises twenty-nine cardinals, including its Prefect, Cardinal Oreglia di Santo Stefano ; and has several officials, with a number of arch- bishops, bishops, monsignori, and members of religious orders, as Consul tors. Examination of Bishops : for the examination of priests named for the Episcopacy. This congregation consists of two divisions. The first, for the examination in Sacred Theology, numbers three cardinals, an archbishop, and two members of reliaious orders ; aud the second, for examination in the Sacred Canons, is composed of two cardinals, and the Bishop of Amata, Auditor to His Holiness. The Venerable Fabcic of Saint Peter's : for the administration, repairs, and preservation, of this unrivalled structure. The Prefect is Cardinal Howard, Archpriest of the Basilica, who is assisted by six other cardinals, a monsignore, as Secretary, and several officials. To this congregation are also entrusted the care of pious bequests, and other similar objects. Bauretana : for the care of the holy sanctuary of Boreto — Prefect, Cardinal Jacobini, with six other cardinals, and officials. Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs : for the pro- tection and advocacy of Catholic rights in diplomatic and international questions. This congregation comprises twenty- two cardinals, including its Prefect, Cardinal di Pietro, Doan of the Sacred College. It has a monsignore as Secretary, several archbishops, bishops, and members of religious orders, as Consultors, and several officials. Studies : for Education in Rome and the Papal States. This congregation numbers twenty-one cardinals, including its Prefect, Catdinal de Buca, with a monsignore as Secretary, and officials. CARDINALS. 451 Each cardinal is a member of several of these congre- gations— some more, some less. For instance, Cardinal de Pietro, Bishop of Ostia and Velletri, and Dean of the Sacred College, is Prefect of the congregations of Ceremonial, and of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affiiirs, and a member of eight other congregations : besides which, he is Protector of the Portuguese nation, and of several cities, communes, churches, hospitals, religious communities, colleges, and other insti- tutions, of any of which he may at any time be called on to advocate tlie interests with the Holy See. He holds moreover the high and important office of Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church, and that of Arch-Chancellor of the Roman University, The more recently appointed cardinals, especially those who cannot permanently reside in Rome, have not so many weighty cares at the Roman Court as this venerable cardinal bishop. Nevertheless each of them, on his elevation, has been named by His Holiness a member of several of tlie sacred congregations. Thus, Cardinal Manning, Archbishop of \Yestminster, created and published by Pius IX., on the 15th of March, 1875, Cardinal Priest of the Title of Saints Andrew and Gregory on the Coelian Hill, is a member of the four following congregations — Bishops and Regulars, Propaganda, Sacred Rites, and Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs : Car- dinal Howard, created and published also by Pius IX., on the 12th of March, 1877, Cardinal Priest of the Title of Saints John and Paul, is a member of the congregations of Eccle- siastical Immunity, Propaganda, Propaganda for the Affairs of the Oriental Rite, the Index, and Ceremonial, and Prefect of the congregation of the Vatican Basilica, of which he is Archpriest ; and he is moreover Protector of several religious orders, congregations, and institutions : ^ and Cardinal Newman, created and published by His present Holiness, on the 12th ' The Protectorship of religions orders, etc., is crenerally confined to the six Cardinal Bishops, and the other incnjberd of the Sacred Colitge who per- manently rcbide in Piome. 452 THE CHATE OP^ PETER. of May, 1879, Cardinal Deacon of Saint George in Yelabro, is a member of the congregations of Propaganda, Sacred Rites, Indulgences and Sacred Relics, and Studies. Besides the Sacred Congregations, there are several im- portant offices, each of which is generally presided over by a cardinal. These are : — The Apostolic Chancery : ^ This court carefully examines, minutes, seals, and registers Bulls,^ provisions of great bene- fices, and other similar documents of importance. It is pre- sided over by Cardinal de Luca, Bishop of Palestrina, who is Vice-Chancellor and Compiler (Sommista). Under him are several officials, such as a Regent, who is a prelate, a Suh- Compiler, a Depositary General of the leaden seal, a Sealer (Piomhatore) , a Notarij-Secretary, and others. There is also attached a Colleoe of Prelates, called Abbreviators of the Parco ' The Chancery is so called from the Latin, cancelli, lattices or rails, behind ■which the judge sat, and which divided him from suitors, in ancient times. * A Papal Bull is so called from the Latin, huJla, tlie boss or seal attached to it. It is written on parchment and sealed with lead, and issued, by orders of the Pope, from the Apostolic Chaucery. One side of the leaden seal is impressed with the heads of the Apostles, Saints Peter and Paul ; and the other with the name of the Pope and the year of his pontificate. Bulls are issued for the celebration of jubilees, and concerning doctrine, and, iu such cases, are addressed to the Universal Church. Bulls are also issued for the consecration of Bishops, and such other solemn objects. They are generally designated from the first word or few words — for example, the famous Bull Vnigenituii, issued by Pope Clement XL, in September 1713, commencing with the words, " Urn'fievifns Dei filiiis." This Bull condemns one hundred and one propositions extracted from the book of Pere Quesnel, entitled " Le Nouvean Testament avec des reflexions morale.-'," etc. Doctrinal decisions, such as those contained in this Bull, are binding on all Catholics, being pronounced by the Pope, ex Cafhedrd, as Head and Teacher of the Universal Church, and they have the same weight as if they emanated from a General Council. This subject will bo more fully treated, in the chapter on Papal Infallibility. Bulls concerning doctrine are sometimes called Constitutions. A Brief, from the Latin breviK, ip, as the word indicates, a more concise document than a Bull, and is a letter addressed by His Holiness, to princes, bishops, magistrates, communities, or oven a private individual, about any important affair. It is written on paper, sealed with rod wax, with the impress of tlie Fishormau. or Saint Peter in a boat. It is signed by the Secretary of Bri"fs, or the Cardinal I'enitentiary. Hriofs tcntiinato thus- " (iivon at Home, under the Fishcrnian's ring." clc. CAUUIXALS. '153 Maj^giore, four in number, including- their dean, with several supernumerary prelates, and their substitutes. The duty of the Abbreviatori is to minute the Bulls, and to decide questions or controversies that may arise about them. The xIpostolic Penitentiary : presided over by Cardinal Bilio, Bishop of Sabina, who is called the Major Penitentiarij. Under him are several officials, chiefly prelates. These are a Regent, who is an Auditor of the Rota, a Theologian, a Baiary, a Corrector, a Sealer, a Canonist, secretaries, writers, and others. The Major Penitentiary gives dispensations, and absolutions in occult cases, where the dispositions or repentance are such as deserve them. All tlie officials of this court are sworn to secresy ; and no money can be received in it, even for stationery, under the pain of simony. The Apostolic Dataria : presided over by Cardinal Saccoui, Bishop of Porto and Santa Rufina, who is Pro-Datarg. Under him, are the Siib-Datary, who is a Prelate, and a large number of officials. This court is charged with the expedit- ing of Bulls and Briefs, the collation of benefices, and other important matters. The Dataria is so called from the Latin word, datum, "given," used in dating Bulls and Briefs: viz. Datum apud S.Fetrum; "(iiven at Saint Peter's." ^ The Venerable Apostolic Chamber (Reverenda Cameno Apostolica) : presided over by Cardinal di Pietro, Bishop of Ostia and Yelletri, Dean of the Sacred College, and Camer- lengo, or Chaniberlain of the Holy Roman Church. Under His eminence are a Vice-Camerlengo, an Auditor-General, and a Treasurer-General. There are several Prelates Clerics of the Chamber, and officials. ^Vhen the Holy See becomes vacant, the Cardinal Camer- lengo occupies the Papal palace, and assumes supreme autho- rity in the government, until the Conclave is assembled. Formerly, during the interregnum, he had the power of ' Hence the word date in English, and simihir terms, in the same sense, iu several other Kuroiieun languages. 4.1 i THE ciLvm of petek. coining money, Avitli his own armorial bearings, and a symbol of the Holy See being vacant. Besides these, there are the Secretariates of the PaUice (Segreterie Palatine). The SecreUiry of State is Cardinal Jacobini, \\ith a prelate as Substitute and Secretarij of the Cipher, and several officials. The Secretary ry, the names of those whom he prf»poscs to CAKDLVALi^. 455 elevate to that high dignity ; so that, in a certain sense, they are created with the approval of their future colleagues. A cardinal may be created by the Pope, six months, or even a much longer time, before being published or proclaimed. He is, in this case, said to be " reserved in petto ; " that is, iit the breast of the Holy Father. When proclaimed, he takes precedence according to the date of his creation. Tlie Catholic powers, conformably with ancient usage, are allowed to recommend to the Pope, a few prelates for the cardinalate. When a cardinal is named, the Pope sends him the berretta, a cap of red silk, by a monsiguore and a chamberlain of honour. The berretta was first given to cardinals by Pope Paul II., in 1460. The red hat, however, must be received from the hands of the Holy Father himself; so that the newly created cardinal, whether he be in Rome or in a foreign country, loses no time in repairing to the Vatican, for this purpose, as well as to render thanks and homage to His Holiness. The red hat was first conferred on cardinals by Innonent IV., at the Thirteenth General Council, the first of Lyons, a.d. 1245, as a mark of their obligation to shed their blood, if necessary, in the cause of God and His Church. The colour of their robes, which is either red, or dried rose, or purple, according to the season or occasion, is ascribed to the same origin. Cardinals of the religious orders wear their robes of the colour of their orders respectively, with a red lining ; but the berretta and red hat are common to all. Ciaconius states, that purple garments were first assigned to cardinals by Boniface VIII., A.D. 12!J4-1303. This must apply to cardinals generally ; for, unquestionably Cardinal Legates a latere, or ambassadors of the Pope, wore purple, long before that period. Thus, in the year 1213, when Pelagius, Cardinal Bishop of Albano, was sent as legate to the Emperor at Constantinople by Innocent III., according to a cotempoiary historian,^ even his shoes were red, ' Georgiujj Lo''otlicta. ,456 THE CHAIR OF PETER. and his britHe and saddle-cloth were of the same colour. Again in 1227, on the accession of Gregory IX., the author of that Pontiff's life, describing his coronation, mentions "the purpled train of venerable cardinals, clergy, and prelates."^ Then, according to Matthew of Westminster, in the year 1265, when Clement IV. sent Cardinal Ottoboni, of the title of Saint Adrian, as his legate, to Henry III. of England, the cardinal, " robed in red," presided at the council which he convoked in Westminster Abbey, and there caused the Apostolic mandate to be published, and pronounced sentence against the King's enemies.^ When a cardinal is created, his mouth is closed, in secret consistory, by the Pope, and, in a subsequent consistory, it is opened by His Holiness. The meaning of this ceremony is, that, in the interval, the new cardinal has no power of voting in consistory or in conclave — this power being conferred only by the opening of his mouth by the Pope. The Pope also places the cardinal's ring on his finger, and assigns him his title from one of the titular churches of the city. All this, it will be seen, is conformable with the legislation of four hundred and fifty years ago. On the 25th of October, 1432, Pope Eugenius IV. published a decree, " that cardinals named in a secret consistory ought not to be considered such, until they shall have received the insignia (marks and tokens) thereof; that is to say, the red hat, the assignation of a title, and the ring put on the finger ; nor, even having received these, and having been named cardinals in a public consistory, can they have an active voice in the election of a Roman Pontiff or in any other act whatever ; until, having been thoroughly instructed in those things which it is usual to treat of and observe in consistory, they receive leave from, and their mouths are opened by, the Roman Pontiff, with the consent and advice of the older cardinals." ' Apud Pagi, iii. 215. " Purpuratam rcnerabilium Cardinalium, etc., comi- tivani." * Ibid. iii. 319. " Qui cum iiibcis iu Angliaui veniens indumcutis," etc. CAriDINAI.P. in? Therefore, should there be a newly created cardinal whose mouth had not been opened, before the death of the Pope, that cardinal has only a passive voice in the conclave. He may be elected ; but he cannot elect. Formerly cardinals were always addressed by Catholic sovereigns as " Cousin ; " and in France they took precedence of the princes of the blood royal. But this was changed by the edict of 1566, which gave the first place to the latter. In courts holding diplomatic relations with the Holy See, the Papal nuncio has always taken precedence of all other ambassadors, not as a cardinal, however,^ but as representative of the Pope. The members of the Sacred College rank above patriarchs, primates, archbishops, and bishops, by their sole dignity of cardinal. On the 10th of January, 1630, Urban VIII. gave them the title of " Eminence." Before that, they were styled " Most Illustrious," illustrissimi. ' As a rule, at present, the Apostolic uuucios to foreign courts are titular archbishops — not cardinals. CHAPTER XXXIV. A MODERN PAPAL ELECTION. Immediately on the death of a Pope, the Cardinal Camerlengo or chamberhiin, assumes, in virtue of his high office, the sovereign authority.^ He enters the chamber of death, accom- panied by the clerici of the Reverenda Camera Apostolica, and with a small gold or silver hammer, two or three times, liglitly strikes the forehead of the deceased Pontiff, calling him by his family name.^ Then, having knelt by the bed-side and prayed, he declares, in a loud voice, that the Holy Father has ceased to live. Before the late revolution, the Pope's death, thus authenticated, was announced to the outside public by the bell of the Capitol, tolling twenty-three times. Then the Fisherman's ring, Anello Peseatorio, is drawn off" the deceased Pontiff's finger by the Maestro di Camera, and handed to the Cardinal Camerlengo, This ring, and the mould for the leaden seals to be attached to Pontifical Bulls, are broken, according to usage ; and the fragments are afterwards presented to the assembled cardinals by the Camerlengo. ' The important ofRce of Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Cliurch was filled and its duties were performed, by His present Holiness, on the death of Pius iX. * This ceremony i-esembles, if it did not originate in, the custom of calling the dead, which prevailed among the Romans, before the Christian era. The friends of the deceased used to call him aloud by his name, for eight successive days ; and, on the ninth day, the interment or cremation of the body took place. Thus, we read in Lucan, Corxiora notidam conclnmatu jacent. Hence, by a figure of speech, conrhimatum est became a phrase, used to denote, that an affair was all over — beyond all hope. See Terence, " Euuuchus," ii. 3, 5(5. A ]MOl)EEN PAPAL ELECTION. 4.~(} Next it is the duty of the Cardinal Camerlengo, assisted by three heads of orders of cardinals, to notify the Pope's death to all the foreign courts, through the Apostolic nuncios, and to summon the absent cardinals to the conclave. Mean- while the Dean of the Sacred College convenes all the cardinals in Rome, for the purpose of making the necessary arrangements for the work before them. As we have seen, in the Constitution of Gregory X., tlio conclave is not necessarily held in any particular place in Rome, nor indeed in Rome itself, should the death of tlie Supreme Pontiff occur elsewhere, or should war or disturbances, in any way, interfere with the freedom of election in Rome. Thus, for the latter reason, in the year 1800, Cardinal Chiaramonti was elected Pope, under the name of Pius VII., in a conclave assembled at Venice. In Rome, nearly all the conclaves have been held at the Vatican up to 1823, since w])ich time they have been held at the Quiriual, save the last, at which His present Holiness was elected, and which was held at the Vatican, the only palace left to the Pope by the Italian Revolution. On the day fixed for opening the conclave, which is generally about fourteen days after the decease of the late I'ontiff, including the Novendiali, or nine days' solemn obsequies, the cardinals, assuming the cappa magna, or car- dinalitial violet cloak, assemble at Saint Peter's, where they assist at the Mass of the Holy Ghost, celebrated by the Dean of the Sacred College, or other senior cardinal, to implore the Divine light and guidance in their deliberations. On this occasion, is preached a sermon De eligendo Summo Pontifice, in which their Eminences are reminded that their sole thought should be the glory of God, and the providing a suitable [)istor for His Church.^ They tlien proceed in state to the church attached to the palace in which the conclave is to be ' All this is as prescribed in the Bull iinil the Ceremonial of Gregury XV., dated respectively 1(321 and 1622. 4r0 THE CHAIR OF TETEK. belJ.^ The order of procession is as follows. First come tlie attendants of the cardinals ; then, the Papal choir, chanting the hymn Veni Creator Spiritus ; then a master of ceremonies bearing a Papal cross ; then the cardinals, walking in rotation of rank and seniority, bishops, priests, and deacons ; and finally the prelates and officials of the conclave. This cere- mony is called the opening of the conclave. Formerlyj the Governor of Eome always took part in this procession, walking by the side of, but a little behind, the Cardinal Dean : but, since the occupation of Eome by the Italian Government, the Ceremonial, in this as in several other respects, is neces- sarily varied and curtailed. Arrived in the chapel, the Cardinal Dean recites the prayer Dens qui corda jidelium ; and their Eminences kneel, for some time, in adoration of the Blessed Sacrament, exposed on the altar. After this, the Cardinal Sub-Dean reads, in a loud voice, the Pontifical Constitutions regarding conclaves, and the cardinals take the usual oath to observe the same. Subsequently, the Governor of the Conclave, the Prince Marshal, and all the other officials likewise take the oath of secrecy and faithful observance of the rules, before the Sub- Dean.2 The remainder of this first day is devoted by their Eminences to receiving their friends, the Roman nobility, foreigners of distinction, and the Diplomatic body. At the close of the day, a bell sounds through the corridors, and the Master of Ceremonies calls out Exeunt omnes, on which all strano-ers withdraw, leaving the cardinals and their conclavists alone. Then the Camerlengo and Cardinals heads of orders, ^ Formerly, the cardinals drove, in their carriages, from Saint Peter's to the Qairinal ; bnt now, as the Qnirinal palace is occujjied by the King of Italy, the conclaves can no longer be held there ; and, therefore, on the last occasion, when His Holiness Leo XIII. was elected, the procession moved ironj tlje Pauline chapel, in which the Mass of the Holy Ghost was celebrated, thit>ugh the Sala Regia, to the Sistine, where the conclave was held. ' All iLccc proceedings arc ag prescribed in the CV-rctuouiale of Gregory XV. A MODERN PAPAL ELECTION. 4G1 along with the Prince Marshal and Masters of Ceremonies, and their attendants, proceed to search every cell and apart- ment; and, having satisfied themselves that there is no intruder in the building, they draw up an official minute to that effect. Immediately thereupon, the conclave is closed, not to be opened again until a Pope is elected. Should a Cardinal, however, arrive any time after the closing, he is admitted, through a wicket reserved for the purpose. On the last occasion, the proceedings of closing the conclave were as follow : Prince Chigi, the Hereditary Marshal of the Holy Eoman Church and Guardian of the Conclave, proceeded from the chamber of the IMaestio di Camera, attended by his four Captains, and a number of Noble guards, and Swiss guards, and several servants in state liveries bearing torches, to the great door of the conclave. Here, he was met by the Cardinal Camerleugo and the three heads of orders of cardinals. While they locked the door on tbe inside, he locked it on the outside, placing the keys in a crimson velvet bag, which he kept in his custody. Then Monsignor Eicci- Paracciani, the Governor of the Conclave, walked round the building, in order to assure himself that there could be no communication from outside. These precautions are prescribed in the Ceremonial of Gregory XV., to insure the conclave's being really closed, as otherwise the election would be null and void, even though all the other requirements of the Pontifical Constitutions were fully complied with. Formerly, there were wickets, at which all articles of food for the meals of the cardinals and their conclavists were received ; and over these strict watch was kept by prelates and other officials — every dish being examined, the poultry being carved, and the bread broken : in order to -prevent any sur- reptitious correspondence. In the last conclave, this precaution was unnecessary ; as there was a kitchen prepared within the building, and a number of cooks and attendants were provided, for the pi'cp ii-atii>n of luod. 4G2 THE CIIAIK OF TETER. Early on the morning of the second day, the cardinals are summoned to the chapel, to enter on the important business for which they have assembled — the IMaster of Ceremonies passing along the corridor of the cells, and calling out, " In capellam, domiui." ^ The preparations in the chapel are as follow : — On both sides are lofty screens extending the whole length. In front of tliese, are thrones or seats for the cardinals. Before each seat, is a small square table, with writing materials ; and over it is a canopy. Screens, seats, tables, and canopies, are all draped or covered with violet cloth, except in the case of cardinals who have before taken part in a conclave; and for these the draperies are all green. The robes of their Eminences are marked by the same colours ; but all retain the red hat. The same rule applies to the draping of the cells. In the last conclave, four cardinals took part, who had been created by Gregory XVI., and had been in the previous conclave. The remaining fifty-seven had received the hat from Pius IX. Besides these, there was Cardinal Brossais Saint Marc, who was absent through illness, and who died shortly afterwards, and Cardinals Ciillen and McCloskey, who arrived late. Thus, the numbers of the Sacred College, on the death of Pius IX., were sixty-four, of whom all save three took part in the elecdon of his successor. The venerable Cardinal Amat, Dean of the Sacred College, was, on this occasion, carried into the conclave ; and immediately went to bed, where he remained the whole time. Another in very feeble health was Cardinal ]\Iorichini, who ascended the steps, supported on either side by his conclavists. When their Eminences are assembled in tlie chapel, tlie Dean or another senior cardinal celebrates ]\Iass ; after wliich they take their seats, and proceed to the election. In modern times, there are three recognized modes of ' " To tke clinp<'l, My Lords." A MODERN TAPAL ELECTION. 403 electing a Pope, as set forth, together with the rules for con- cl acting them, in the Bull and Ceremonial of Gregory XV. The first of these is what is called quasi j^er Lifipivationem — " as it were by Inspiration," when, for instance, all the cardinals, unanimously and aloud, proclaim one of their number Supreme Pontiff. This must be done, first, in the conclave, and that closed ; secondly, by all the cardinals present in the conclave; thirdly, in common or conjointly (com- muniter), no one dissenting, no treating concerning the person having preceded, and by the word eligo, " I elect," uttered in an intelligible voice, or expressed in writing if it cannot be so uttered. Thus, one of the cardinals may say, "Most Reverend Lords, I elect {ego elvjo) the Most Eminent Lord, Cardinal N , as Supreme Pontiff." All present assent, viva voce, each one using the word eligo ; and the person so chosen is Pope. This mode of election, practically unknown in our day, is also called Acclamation or Adoratit)n,^ according as it is slightly varied. In the one case the cardinals all simul- taneously exclaim that they elect N N Pope ; and in the other they all approach the person they wish to elect, kneel down, and reverentially salute him as Supreme Pontiff. The second mode of election is by Compromise, and has been resorted to only in those very rare cases in which the cardinals are unable so far to agree, as to unite at least fully two-thirds of their votes in favour of one person. Then all the cardinals, present in the conclave, unanimously leave the election to certain of their number. These Comioromissarii retire to a separate apartment ; and having agreed among themselves that no verbal consent, but a ivritten consent only, shall be valid, they elect a Pontiff; and their election is " canonical and true." ^ The third mode of electing a Pope is by Scrutiny, or * Adoration. See Index. - We have seen how Gregory X. was elected by way of Compromise, a.d. 1271. Vide supra, p. 438. 4G4 Tllli CHAIR OF TETER. Scrutiny and Accessus. lu latter times, tliis is the only mode followed. The proceedings are these : On the first mornino- of the conclave, after Mass has been celebrated, the cardinals take their seats in the chapel, as already described, and proceed to ballot. There are slieets of paper, called Schedidse, prepared for this purpose. Each cardinal takes one of these, and writes in the centre of it the name of the person he would elect Pope. The form is this : Ego, N. Cardlnu.lls N. eligo in Summum Pontijicem Reverendissimum Dominum meum Cardi- nalem X. : i.e. " I (Christian name) cardinal (surname), elect for Supreme Pontiff, my most Reverend Lord, Cardinal (name)." Besides his own name written at the top, he adds a short text of scripture at foot ; and folds the billet, sealing it at both ends. It is so folded, as that only the name of the person for whom he votes can be seen. He next advances, and kneels at the foot of the high altar, where he repeats aloud the following oath: Testor Christum Dominum, qui me judicaturus est, me eligere quern secundum Deum judico eligi dehere, et quod in accessu prsestabo : i.e. " I call to witness Christ the Lord, who will judge me, that I elect him, whom before God I judge ought to be elected ; and which I shall make good in the accessus." He then goes up to the altar, lays the folded scJiedula, or billet, on the paten, and drops it thence into the large chalice, placed there for the purpose. The voting is presided over by the tliree Scrutineers, wlio are chosen by lot, every morning, from all the cardinals present, to examine the tickets and announce the result. Should there be sick or infirm cardinals confined to their cells, the scrutineers take with them a locked empty ballot-box, the k(!y being left behind ; and they proceed to the cells, where thoy witness the oaths, and receive in the box the votes, of tlie sick c.irdinals; and these votes so received are brought back by them to the cliapel, and deposited, with the others, in the chalice. Should a sick cardinal be too ill to vote, another cardinal, at his rofjUPst, fills the ^rjuduja for him, being A MODERN PAPAL ELECTION. 4Gj first bound by oath never to divulge the name of the person voted for therein. All the members of the Sacred College are bound to vote ; and any one refusing or refraining from doing so incurs the penalty of excommunication. When all have voted, one of the Cardinal Scrutineers takes up the chalice, covers it with the paten, and shakes the billets well up together. Another then takes them out, and counts them into another chalice. Should their number not agree with the number of cardinals voting, the billets are burned, and the voting recommences de novo. But if the number corresponds, as is almost invariably the case, the scrutiny is entered on as follows. The Scrutineers take their seats at a large square table, draped in violet, and so placed in the chapel as that they are face to face with all the cardinals. The senior Scrutineer then draws a billet from the chalice, seeing and reading only the name of the person voted for; he hands it to the second Scrutineer, who also reads it, and notes the name down. The latter then hands it to the third, who also sets down the name, and announces it to the assembly. Each of the other billets is treated in the same manner. The cardinals are furnished each with a large sheet of paper, on which are printed the names of all the members of the Sacred College ; and on this sheet, as each vote is read out, a mark is made by each, opposite the name of the person for whom the suffrage is given. As we have seen, to constitute an election by Scrutiny or by Scrutiny and Accessus, at least the entire two-thirds of the votes of those present must be given to one person — the vote of the Elect not being computed ; for no one can vote for himself, as expressly declared in the Bull and Ceremonial of Gregory XV., a.d. 1521, 1522. According to the^ same enactment, no one but a cardinal can be elected.^ ' Tbis had been the usage for one hundred and forty-four years at the time ; as the last Pope ever elected from outside the Sacred College was Urban VI., A.D. 1S78. 2 H 406 THE CIIAIll OF TETER. Should there be no election, on the first serutiuy, the billets are all burned ; and the cardinals are summoned again in the afternoon, when, after the recital of the hymn Veni Creator Sinritus, the same process of voting is repeated ; and it is continued twice a day, until a Pontiff is elected. There naturally is felt profound interest in Eome, as throughout all Catholic Christendom, about the result; and, consequently, every morning and evening, a large crowd assembles near the hall of conclave, watching for the smoke of the burned billets, on seeing which ascend from the small flue or pipe of the stove, used for the purpose, the people disperse, thus knowing that the election has not yet taken place. Should there be no election by simple scrutiny, the Accessus then comes into operation. This is the giving of votes (previously given in the scrutiny to another) to a cardinal who has already received, in the scrutiny, such a number of votes as would be likely, with this accession, to make him Pope. In the sehedula used for this, the word accedo, " I accede to," is substituted for eligo, " I elect." Care is taken by the Scrutineers that no one who has voted, in the scrutiny, for the person in question, now votes again. This can be seen, by examining the Scripture motto on each billet. Should a cardinal, voting in the Accessus, not wish to give his suffrage to this particular person, he writes in the schedida, after accedo, the word nemini " to no one ; " i.e. " I accede to no >> one. Should the Accessus not raise the number of votes in favour of one person to the regulated two-thirds, the proceedings above described are repeated at the next meeting, and so continue until an election is made. On this last occurring, the Masters of Ceremonies are called in, and the schedules are opened in their presence, in order to ascertain that no Cardinal has voted for himself, as in that case the election would be null and void. Then the Cardinal Dean, two Cardinal Deacons, and the Masters of Ceremonies approach the Elect ; and the A MODERN PAPAL ELECTION. 4G7 Dean says to him : Acceptame electionem de te canonice factam in Summum Ecclesipe CathoUcse Pontificem ? " Do you accept the election canonically made of you, as Supreme Pontift" of the Catholic Church ? " On his accepting the dignity, using the word Accepto, the Cardinal Dean genuflects, the First Master of Ceremonies claps his hands, all the cardinals rise and remain standing, and all the canopies are instantly lowered, save one, that of the newly elect, now tlie lord and master of all. The Cardinal Dean then inquires what name His Holiness will be pleased to assume — Quo nomine vis vocarif^ This is immediately signified by the new Pope; and an official minute of the election, its acceptance, and the choice of name by the Pontiff is drawn up by the Protonotary Apostolic, and signed by him, the Marshal of the Conclave, the Masters of Ceremonies and the secretaries. The enclosures are then immediately thrown down, the great doors are opened, and the conclave is at an end. The two senior Cardinal Deacons then conduct the new Pope behind the Altar, where he takes off his cardiualitial ring, and is divested by them of his robes as cardinal, and clothed in the Pontifical white cassock, with the cord and gold tassels round the waist, and the rochet, hood, white skull-cap, and stole ; and his valet puts on him white silk stockings and scarlet shoes, ornamented with a golden cross. Thus arrayed, * The change of name by the Pope, on his election, originated in the year 965, with John XII., whose baptismal name was Octavian. Some writers say that it was in imitation of the change of name of Saint Peter, originally callod Simon; bnt William the Librarian states that it was simply because Octavian considered the name John more appropriate to the Pontifical dignity than his own name; and that, for the same reason, his example was followed by the German Popes, whose names, Bruno, Gerbert, Suidiger, Gerhard, etc., were not so well Baited to that exalted office. The change has been erroneously attributed to Sergius II., who reigned a.d. 844-817, and of whom it has been said, that, his name being Peter, he changed it through humility, as he would not reign under the same name as the Prince of the Apostles. His namr>, however, was not Peter, but Sergius, before his election. In this matter, he appears to have been confounded with Pope Sergius IV., who was elected a.d. 1009, and whose original name was Peter or Pictro. See Pagi, " Poutif. Rom Gesta," ii. 43, 177; and Panviuius npud Platiuam, aunotat. p. 156. ^08 THE CHAIK OF PETER. lie is conducted to the front of the Altar, uhere, seated on a throne — the secUa gestatoria^ he receives the homage or " obedience " of all the cardinals, who, kneeling before him, kiss his foot, and then his hand ; and he, in his turn, gives each the Kiss of Peace on both cheeks.^ When the Cardinal Camerlengo makes his obedience he puts the Fisherman's ring, Anello Fescatorio, on the finger of His Holiness, who hands it back to his Eminence, in order to have his name engraved on it. Meanwhile, the First Cardinal Deacon asks the new Pope's permission to proclaim the election ; having obtained which, he proceeds, attended by the Masters of Ceremonies, Cross bearer, mace bearers, and acolytes, to the external loggia, or grand gallery of the basilica, and, thence addressing the anxious crowd assembled below, says : Annuntio vohis gaudium magnum. Papam hahemus Eminenfissimuni et Reverendissimum Dominum, Joachim, tituli Sancti Chrysogoni, Freshyterum Cardinalem Feed, Episcopum Ferusinum, qui sihi nomen imposuit Leonis XIII. " I announce to you a great joy. We have as Pope the Most Eminent and Most Eeverend Lord, Joachim of ' The seat, or throne, in which the Pope is borne, in solemn processions. * This ceremony is called the " Adoration " of the Pope, which expression has been objected to : but to any one familiar with the Latin language the word adorare will not appear inapplicable here; as it means not only "to worship the Supreme Being," but, moreover, " to honour, to pay homage to, to salute." Dr. Webster's second definition of Adoration is, " Homage paid to one in high esteem ; profound reverence." In the " Revised Version of the New Testament, 1881," will be found, at the end of the volume, the following passage, in the " List of readings and renderings preferred by the American Committee, recorded at their desire : " " At the word ' worship' in Matt. ii. 2, etc., add the marginal note, 'The Greek word denotes an act of reverence, whether paid to man (see chap, xviii. 26) or to God (see chap. iv. 10).'" The Greek word in the three verses here referred to is the verb irpoffKuvftv, of which the literal translation is, "to adore," h&tin, adorare. Kissing the Pope's foot was "an ancient custom" as far back as the middle of the ninth century. Anastasius the Librarian, a cotomporary, tells us, in his life of Saint Leo IV., that, in the year 847, on the occasion of the election of tliat Pontiif, " all the people kissed his feet, preserving the ancient custom;" qui morem conservantes antiqiiam omnea oscuhiti sunt pedes. " Historia de Vitis Romauornm Pontiflcum," p. 257. It was intended then, as it is now, as a mark of vonoration for the ^^iicoesbor of Saint Peter, as Vicar of .lesus Christ. A MODERN PAPAL ELECTION. 409 the Title of Saint Clirysogoniis Priest Cardinal Pecci, Bishop of Perugia, who has given himself the name of Leo XIII." ^ Shortly afterwards, His Holiness proceeds in state to the loggia^ and gives his first Apostolical Benediction JJrhi et Orhi, to the city and the world. This most interesting and solemn ceremony used formerly to be performed from the grand external gallery over the entrance gates of Saint Peter's ; but, owing to the usurpation of the Papal dominions by the Italian Government, it was per- formed on the late occasion from the interior gallery looking down into the vast nave of the basilica. Formerly, moreover, it was not, as it is now, confined to the day of the election of a Supreme Pontiff; but it took place also, after the Pope's High IMass on Christmas day, Easter Sunday, Whit Sunday, Corpus Christi, and the Feast of Saints Peter and Paul. On these occasions, having concluded his prayers after Mass, at the foot of the grand altar in Saint Peter's, the Holy Father, in full pontificals, was borne down the nave, in the sedia gestatoridy accompanied by the College of Cardinals, their chaplains, and the domestic prelates and officials, and escorted by the noble guard and numerous attendants. Ascending the Scala Regia, the procession entered the grand gallery looking down on the Piazza, lined with troops and filled with thousands of spec- tators. The chanting of the Papal choir was heard in the distance ; every eye was fixed on the central arch of the gallery ; and, when the venerable Pontiff appeared there, elevated on his throne, all the spectators immediately knelt down; the cannons of Saint Angelo fired a grand salute ; and then, amidst silence the most profound, the Holy Father stood up, and, with his eyes raised to heaven, and, in a sonorous voice reaching far on every side, thrice blessed the prostrate multi- tude, the city, and the whole world. Non-Catholic spectators ' I fill in the spaces foi" uauie and title with those of His present Holiness, as announced by Cardinal Catcrini, the First Cardinal Deacon, in proclaiming his election, Febrnary 20, ISl^i. 'iTO THE CIIAIK OF TETEE. of this scene have oftentimes acknowledged, that they were deeply impressed by its sublime accessories and solemn import. It was indeed a ceremony quite consonant with the sacred oSBce of Chief Pastor and Teacher of God's Church in all parts of the globe. Omitted since the Eevolution of 1870, let us hope that ere long political circumstances will be so far changed in the Italian Peninsula as to admit of its resumption, along with other grand functions which, for the same cause, have fallen into abeyance.' On returning to the Sistine chapel, the newly elected Pope receives the homage of the Prince Marshal, the Governor of the Conclave, and other officials ; and then the cardinals make their second adoration or obedience. The third adoration of the members of the Sacred College used formerly to be made with great state and ceremony at Saint Peter's ; but, in the case of His present Holiness, it was performed in the Sistine. Meanwhile the Holy Father will have received the Koman nobility and other distinguished personages, as well as the foreign ambassadors, who come to pay him their respects, and to tender him the congratulations and friendly assurances of the courts which they severally represent. A few days later, follow the coronation and enthronization, conducted with due ceremony and splendour, according to the ancient ritual.^ * The Popo used also to give the grand benediction Urhi et Orbi from the portico of Saint John Lateran's on the Ascension, and of Saint Mary Major's, ou the Assumption. ' The first instance of the coronation of a Pope is that of Nicholas I., which took place in the year 858. According to Anastasiiis, a cotemporary writer, Nicholas was enthroned in the Lateran, after which, being escorted by the nobles and people to Saint Peter's, ho was there in the Emperor's presence, consecrated Supreme Pontiff. He then celebrated Mass above the tomb of the Apostle; and was conducted back, with hymns and spiritual songs, to the L'lteran, where he was crowned, amidst the rejoicings of the city, clergy, senate, and people. Pagi is rather doubtful about his coronation having taken place at the Lateran basilica, as his successors wore crowned at Saint Peter's, after which they proceeded, in state, to take possession of their cathedral, the Lateran. Consequently, he surmises that a slight variation has crept into Anastasins's text, and he would read Lnfrmnvm perdnrfi/s cornnatus for Lafr. ranum perductns coronatvr. The Papal Tiara, or triple crown, is a high cap, A MODERN PAPAL ELECTION. 471 The conclave in which His Holiness Leo XIII. was elected was one of unprecedently short duration. At the first ballot Cardinal Pecci had nineteen votes, while the remainder of the suffrages were divided over a number of other cardinals ; at the second, he had thirty -four ; and at the third, that is, on the morning of the second day of voting, he had forty-four, being more than the requisite two-thirds of the sixty-one who voted. Here the conclave lasted only thirty-six hours. The conclave which elected his predecessor, Pius IX., lasted forty-eight hours, the election having been made in the fourth scrutiny. Gregory XVI. was elected by a conclave which sat fifty days; and Pius VIII. in one of thirty-six days. Three Catholic powers, France, Austria, and Spain, have a right of Veto in the conclave, in recognition of ancient services to the Holy See.^ This right can be exercised only once by each power, in a conclave. In other words, the State exercising its right can exclude only one cardinal from being elected. circled by three golden crowns, and surraonnted by a ball and cross. It ia worn at the coronation, and when the Pope gives his benediction Urbi et Orbi. It ia quite distinct from a mitre. Innocent III., in his sermon on Saint Sylvester, says, " The Koman Pontiff uses a crown as a sign of Empire, and a mitre as a sign of the Pontificate." Both, however, may be said to be conjoined in the tiara. Jacobus Sancti Georgii states that Constantine, on being bajatized by Saint Sylvester, placed his own crown on the Pope's head. But this idea appears to have originated in the fabled donation of Constantine to Sylvester. Papebroke however observes, that, apart from all fables, it may be said, that, ecclesiastical peace having been established by the Emperor, Sylvester, either by his own free choice or at Constantino's desii-e, assumed a cap in the Eoman fashion, as the symbol of liberty, ornamented, where it touched the head, with a golden crown or diadem, to signify the royal priesthood conferred by Christ on the prince of all priests. This was about the year 325. Boniface VIII., about A.D. 1296, added a second crown, in order that the prerogatives of the double kingdom, tempoi'al and spiritual, might be symbolized ; and in 1362 Urban V. assumed the tiara of three crowns, " possibly," says Pagi, "on account of the mystic number" — numeri mystici forsan causa; or, as others observe, to indicate the paternal power which should be conjoined with the other two. In the ancient effigies of the Pontiffs, they are represented bare-headed, down to Saint Sylvester; from Sylvester down to Boniface VIII., with one crown; from Boniface VIII. to Urban V., with two crowns ; and from Urban V. down, with the tiara, or triple crown. ' Portugal is also stated to have a veto ; but this is nut clear ; and that State has never alleuiptud to exercise the right. 472 THE CHAIR OF PETER. This is done in the following manner. Should there be a particular member of the Sacred College in whose favour the votino- is likely to go, and who may happen to be obnoxious to one of the above-named three States, a cardinal of that nation, or its ambassador to the Holy See, intimates to the Dean of the Sacred College tliat the State which he represents objects to the cardinal in question. This renders the election of that cardinal impossible ; and the votes are therefore given for another.^ For example, in the conclave of 1830-31, which elected Gregory XV L, Spain exercised her veto against the election of Cardinal Griustiniani, who seemed certain of receiving the requisite majority of votes at the time ; and consequently Cardinal Capellari was chosen in his stead. Giustiniani had been nuncio at Madrid, and had rendered invaluable services to Ferdinand YII. ; but, in doing so, he appears to have con- travened the plans of the S|)anish prime minister in certain ecclesiastical arrangements ; and to this circumstance, as the minister was now restored to power, the cardinal's exclusion from the pontificate was generally attributed. On the 6th of January, 1831, the twenty-second day of the conclave. Cardinal Marco-y-Catalan, a Spaniard, received the following formal note from Labrador, the Spanish ambassador to the Holy See, bearing date the 24th of December previous : — "The undersigned, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of His Catholic Majesty to the Holy See, presents his distinguished reverence to His Eminence, and prays him to make known to the Sacred College united in conclave, that he, in the name of his august sovereign, and by the express orders of His Catholic Majesty, gives the exclusion to the Most Eminent Cardinal Giustiniani. " Pedeo Gomez Labbador." In the scrutiny of the following morning, Cardinal Marco, ' It is necessary, however, that the veto, when resorted to, should be exer- cised in due time, so as to anticipate an actual election. For, once that two- thirds of the cardiuals in conclave have voted for one person, no veto or protpst can abrogate the election, tinii cinionicnlly made. A MODERN PAPAL ELECTION. 473 seeing that there were twenty-one votes recorded for Cardinal Giustiniani, sixteen of scrutiny and five of accessus, and that four more of accessus would suffice for his election, hastened to communicate the exclusion to Giustiniani's nephew, Cardinal Odeschalchi, and to Cardinal Pacca, Dean of the Sacred College. Then the Cardinal Dean, having first informed Cardinal Giustiniani thereof, before the midday scrutiny, read out the note of exclusion to the assembled conclave : aftcn* which Cardinal Giustiniani proceeded to the middle of the chapel, and spoke as follows : — " Were I not acquainted with courts by experience, I certainly should have reason to be surprised at "the exclusion," published by the Most Eminent Dean ; since, far from being able -to reproach myself with having given His Catholic 3Iajesty any cause of complaint during my nunciature, I dare congratulate myself on having rendered His Majesty signal services in the most difficult circumstances in which he was placed. His Majesty has given proof of his being sensible thereof, by having honoured me (immediately on his restoration to the complete exercise of his sovereignty) with the grand cross of the Conception, and by having actively interested himself with the Holy Father, a short time before my departure, in order to have conferred on me a dignity in the Cathedral church of Valencia. I will always cherish the memory of the favours which His Catholic Majesty has bestowed upon me, and I will entertain the most profound respect for him, and the most lively interest in all that can concern his welfare and that of his august family. I have further to observe, that, of all the benefits conferred on me by His Majesty, I consider the greatest and the most acceptable to me (at least in its effects) that of his having this day closed to me the high dignity of the Pontificate. Well aware of my own weakness, I could never have anticipated that I should be loaded with so heavy a burden. Yet, during the past few days, seeing, to my surpiise, that I was thought of in this 47:1: THE CHAIR OF rETER. matter, my soul has been penetrated with bitter grief. To-day, I find myself freed from so great a trouble, my tranquillity is restored, and there remains to me the gratification that some of my most worthy colleagues have been able to cast their regards on me, and have honoured me with their votes ; and to them I will ever profess my sincere gratitude." ^ It was well-known that Cardinal Giustiniani had the strongest objection to be elevated to the exalted post to which he had been destined by his colleagues, by whom, doubtless, this circumstance was deemed an additional recommendation in Ids favour. It may be interesting to the English reader to be reminded that His Eminence was connected by family ties with these countries— being uncle to Sigismund, Prince Giustiuiani-Bandini, Earl of Newburgh in Scotland. While France has not exercised her veto in modern times, Austria has done so frequently, and Spain once only — on the occasion just referred to. * Moroui, " Dizionaiio," xxxi. 221-22-i. Venice, 1845. CHAPTER XXXV. BENEFITS CONFERRED BY THE PAPACY ON MANKIND. To any careful and dispassionate reader of history, no matter what his religious tenets may be — nay, even though he should altogether reject the Christian dispensation — it must be obvious, that the Papacy, quite apart from its highest, its most sacred, functions, has, during its existence of close on nineteen hundred years, conferred signal and enduring benefits on the human race. Not one modern Catholic writer need be quoted in support of this proposition ; as, happily, it is upheld by a host of non- Catholic witnesses. Before we come to these, let us take up those cotemporary historians, whose authority is so widely accepted ; and what do we find? In the midst of the anarchy induced by the decline and disruption of the Roman Empire, all through the horrors of the Barbarian incursions in the North, and the dangers of the Mahometan invasions in the South, and further on in that gloomy period commonly denominated the Dark Ages, when peace had seemingly fled for ever before the lurid aspect of war and its grim attendants, famine and pestilence, when the arm of industry was paralyzed by insecurity, and all the institutions of civil society were being loosed from their foundations, we constantly meet with one venerable figure standing prominently forth in the desolate scene — reducing anarchy to order, staying the red hand of massacre and rapine, fi:arlessly confronting the royal or imperial oppressor in the 476 THE CIIAIE OF TETER. stronghold of Lis power; assembling around him, protecting, relieving, and consoling, the oppressed, the helpless, and the sorrow-stricken, and, upheld as it were by a supernatural power, succeeding, beyond all human hope, in his heroic efforts to save society. In perusing the records of this sad epoch, we cannot but conclude, that those who rendered such services to mankind were, each in his turn, raised up by God, to counteract the evils which He, in His inscrutable designs, permitted to exist ; and that their wondrous success was mainly due to the fact, that, in their exalted position of Vicars of Christ, before the eyes of the whole world, they were recognized and revered as the impersonation of a principle ever abiding in His Church, and enunciated, on His advent, by the angelic choirs in these words : " Glory to God in the highest, and on earth Peace to men of good will." Thus, the action of the Popes was regarded by themselves, and accepted by all Christendom, as a dictate — nay more, as a solemn obligation, of their sacred office. It is unnecessary here to dwell on those passages in early Church History, which illustrate the heroism and cliarity of the First Leo, and the First Gregory, and of several of their successors on the Papal throne, elsewhere alluded to in these pages. Referring to a later period, a learned Protestant writer observes: "During the Middle Ages, when there was no social order, the Papacy alone perhaps saved Europe from total barbarism, It created bonds of connection between the most distant nations ; it was a common centre, a rallying point for isolated States. ... It was a supreme tribunal, established in the midst of universal anarchy, and its decrees were sometimes as respectable as they were respected. It prevented and arrested the despotism of the Emperors, com- pensated for the want of equilibrium, and diminished the inconveniences of the feudal system." ^ ' Ancillon, "THblcau des Revolutions du Sy.steino roliti18 THE CHAIR OF PETER. From the opinions on the other side, as held by the great majority of theologians at the time, one or two quotations will suffice liere : — Writing about two hundred and fifty years ago, Sylvius,^ a divine of high authority, observes : " The answer is certain of faith, that the judgment of the Eoman Pontiff, in determining matters of faith, is infallible ; so that when he defines ex Cathedra, or when, as Pontiff, he propounds anything to the Church, to be believed, of faith, he can in no case err, whether he defines with a General Council or without it. The first proof of this is, that Christ, as recorded in the 22nd chapter of Saint Luke, speaks to Blessed Peter thus : ' Simon, Simon, behold Satan hath desired to have you, that he may sift you as wheat : but I have prayed for thee that thy faith fail not.' With reference to these words. Saint Leo says : ^ ' To all the Apostles there was a common danger of a temptation of fear, and they equally needed the assistance of the Divine pro- tection, since the Devil was desirous to terrify all and to destroy all : but special care is taken of Peter by the Lord, and He particularly prays for the faith of Peter, as, assuredly, the state of the others would be more certain, were the mind of the chief not conquered.' " Conformably with which. Pope Agatho, in the Sixth General Council, affirming that ' the Apostolic Clmrch of Christ, through the grace of God, will never be proved to have wandered from the path of Apostolic tradition, and never succumbed, corrupted by heretical novelties,' proves this from the same quoted words (Luke xxii.),'' as had before been ^ Francois Sylvius, or Da Bois, was boru at Braine-lo-Comte in Hainault in 1581. He was Canon and Dean of Saint Ame at Doaai, and was for over thirty years professor of theology in that town. He died there on the 27th of February, 1649. He was the author of several learned works, among which are his much valued Commentaries on the Summa of Saint Thomas, above quoted. His works were published, in six volumes folio, in Antwerp in 1GU8, and in Venice in 1746. * Saint Leo the Great, Pope, writing about a.d. 450. ' A.D. 680. Vide supra, p. 106. PAPAL INFALLIBILITY. 019 proved by Lucius I. and Felix I., where we have shown from their words, and those of Leo IX., Bernard, Innocent III., and Saint Thomas, that the sentence of Christ had reference to Peter and also to his legitimate successors in the Primacy of the Church." i About the same time, Andrew Duval, Doctor of Sorbonne, and Eoyal Professor of Theology in the Academy, Paris, wrote : " The Pontiif alone, without a General Council, if he decrees as Pontiff, or, as they say, ex Cathedra, can decree nothing whatever against faith or good morals. It is other- wise if he act as a private person, for so he may strike on either shoal. But he is said to act or define as Pontiff, when he propounds any dogma or precept to the whole Church, to be believed or observed ; but as a private person, when as a particular doctor he propounds or teaches anything, in which maimer Innocent III. issued the Commentaries on the Decretals." ^ ' Sylvius (Franciscus) " Opera," torn. v. p. 246. Venice, 1746. " Responsio fide cei'ta est, Eomani Pontificis judicium, in rebus fidei determinandis esse infallibile ; ita ut quando ex Cathedra defiuit, sive quando ut~Pontifex proponit Ecclesiso qnidpiam fide credendum, iiullo casn possit errare, sive cum Generali Concilio definiat, sive sine illo. Prob. 1. quia Christus (Luc. xxii.) sic B. Petrum alloquitur : ' Simon, Simon, ecce Sathanas expetivit vos, nt cribaret eicut triticum ; Ego autem rogavi pro te, ut non deficiat fidea tua.' . . . Hoc probat (Pontifex Agatho) ex allegatis Christi verbis (Luc. xxii.), quemad- modum antea idem probaverant Lucius I. et Felix 1., ubi ex eorum, ut et ex Leonis IX., Bernardi, Innocentii III. et Saucti Thomae, verbis ostendimus, Bsntentiara Christi pertinere ad Petrum, ac etiam ad legitimes ejus in Primatu Ecclesiae succeasores." The first two Pontiffs here named governed the Church, in the third century ; viz. Lucius I., a.d. 252, 253 ; and Felix I., a.d. 269-275. * Duval. " De Suprema Eomani Pontificis in Ecclesiam potestate," pars. II. De Pontificis in definiendo infallibilitate, p. 200. Paris, 1614. " Solus Pontifex, absque concilio aristocratico, si ut Pontifex, seu (ut loquuntur) ex Cathedra decernat, niliil quicquam contra fidem aufc bonos mores potest decernere. Aliud, si ut privata persona agat : sic enim in utrumque scopulum potest allidere. Dicitur autem ut Pontifex agere seu definire, quando dogma sen prseceptum aliquod toti Ecclesiee credendum vel observandum proponit ; ut privata vero persona, quando ut particularis Doctor aliquid proponit vel docet, quo pacto Innocentius III. commentaria in decretales odidit." Andrew Duval, born at Pontoise in 1564, Doctor of the House and Society of Sorbonne, was the first who filled the chair of theology newly established by Henri IV. in 15U6. At his death iu 163S, ho was senior of Sorbonne and Dean of the faculty of 520 THE CIIAIIl OF PETER. The several texts of Scripture, proving the Primacy of Peter, have been considered in former chapters. His Infalli- bility is implied in all of these ; but especially in that, more than once, quoted from the twenty-second chapter of the Gospel of Saint Luke. Several passages from the writings of the Fathers have also been cited, and several historical facts have been carefully weighed ; all corroborative of the Scripture evidence, and all clearly setting forth the Catholic belief, from the Apostolic times, that the Prince of the Apostles trans- mitted to his successors in the See of Rome, all his gifts and powers, and special privileges, as Vicar of Christ and Visible Head of the Church. Of these not the least is tiie essential gift of Infallibility, as defined by the Vatican Council. In this sense, it is constantly affirmed by the Fathers, that Peter ever lives and judges in his successors in the Apostolic Chair. In addition to the several instances already given, the following few may not be out of place here. At the Third General Council, that of Ephesus, held a.d. 431, Philip, the legate of the Apostolic See, addressing the assembled Fathers, declared, that no one doubted, nay that it was known to all ages, that Peter the Prince and Head of the Apostles and foundation of the Church had received from Christ the keys of the kingdom, and the power of binding and loosing, and that now and ever ho both lives and judges in his successors.^ The exact words of the legate are embodied in the constitution of the Vatican Council on this subject, which will be immediately quoted. A few years later. Saint Leo the Great, a worthy successor of the Prince of the Apostles, .said : Blessed Peter " ceases not to preside over his own see ; and unfailing he enjoys association with the Eternal Priest : for that solidity which, when he was theology. He was author of a " Commentary on the Suninia of Saint Tlionias," two " Tracts against Richer," and other works, inchuling the above quoted, " De Snprema Romani Pontificis in Ecclesiam Potestate," 4to, Paris, 161 i. ^ " Concilii Ephosini Acta," torn. ii. cap. 16. PAPAL INFALLIBILITY. 521 made a rock, he received from the rock, Christ, has trans- mitted itself to his heirs." ^ At the Fourth General Comicil, that of Chalcedon, assembled in the year 451, when the letter of the same holy Pope to Saint Flavian was read, the Fathers exclaimed : " This is the faith of the Apostles. So we all believe. Peter hath spoken by Leo." With a like acclamation, the dogmatic letter of Pope Agatho was received by the Fathers of the Sixth General Council, the Third of Constantinople, held a.d. 680.^ The following words uttered by Domitius, Bishop of Prusa, on that occasion, are most significant ; especially as they express the unanimous sentiment of the council : " I receive and embrace and so believe the suggestions of our father Agatho, the most holy Archbishop of the Apostolic and principal See of ancient Eome, as dictated by the Holy Ghost, through the mouth of the most holy and most blessed Prince of the Apostles, Peter, and written by the hand of the thrice most blessed Pope Agatho." And now, twelve centuries later, the Vatican Council declares : " Truly no one doubts, nay rather it is known to all ages, that the holy and most blessed Peter, prince and head of the Apostles, the pillar of the faith and foundation of the Catholic Church, received the keys of the kingdom from our Lord Jesus Christ, the Saviour and Eedeemer of the human race ; and that he lives, presides, and judges, to this day and always, in his successors, the Bishops of the Holy Koman See, founded by him, and consecrated by his blood." ^ * " Saucti Leonis PP. Magni Sermo iv." in Nat. Ord. c. 4. " Sedi sua> pracesse non desinit, et indeflcicns obtinet cum ^terno Saccrdote consortium. Soliditas eniin ilia, quam do petra Christo etiam ipse petra factns accepit, in suos qnoque sc transfudit lia)i'cdes." * Vide sujn'a, p. 103. ^ " Constitutio dogmatica prima, de Ecclcsia, caput ii. Do pcrpetuitato Primatns Beati Petri in Romanis Pontificibus. " Nulli sane dubium, imo scculis omnibus notum, qnod sanctns bcatissiniusqnc Pctrus, Apostolorum priuceps ct caput, fideique columna et Ecclcsia) Catliolica; fuudamentum, a Domino nostro 522 THE CHAin OF PETER The Council of the Vatican, being the Nineteenth General Council, was opened by its First Public Session on the 8th of December, 1869, in the transept on the Gospel side of the high altar of Saint Peter's ; with the prescribed solemn ceremonial. Pope Pius IX. presided in person. On the 10th, was held the First General Congregation for business. At the Second Public Session, on the Gth of January, 1870, being the Feast of the Epiphany, the Pope recited in a loud voice the pro- fession of faith, namely, the Creed of Nice and Constantinople, together with the definitions of the Council of Trent, called the Creed of Pius IV. ; after which it was read aloud from the amho by the Bishop of Fabriano. " Then for two whole Jiours," to use the words of one of the prelates present, " the cardinals, patriarchs, j)rimates, archbishops, bishops, and other fathers of the council made their adhesion to the same by kissing the Gospel at the throne of the head of the Church." ^ A truly sublime spectacle — those seven Imndred bishops from all parts of the earth, " the representatives of more than thirty nations and of two hundred millions of Christians," " thus openly making profession of one common faith, in communion with the one Supreme Pastor and Teacher of all ! When the question of the Infallibility of the Pope was about to be entered on, about one hundred of the Fathers signed and presented a petition praying that the question should not be brought before the council, as they deemed its discussion "inopportune." It has been erroneously stated that these one hundred prelates did not believe in the doctrine, in which until it was defined by the Church they would have been quite justified. But such was not the case; for, on the Jesu Christo, Salvatore humani generis ac Rcdomptore, claves regni accepit : qui ad hoc usque tempus et semper in snis successoribus, Episcopis sanctSD llomanse Sedis, ab ipso fundatic, ejusqae conseciattc sanguine, vivit et prsesidefc et judicium exercet." In this sentence arc embodied the words of the legate Philip, alluded'to in the preceding page. ' Cardinal Manning's " True Story of the Vatican Council," p. 91. London, 1877. ' Ibid. TArAL INFALLIBILITY. 623 authority of tliose who took j^art in the council, only five bishops, at the utmost, were opposed to the doctrine itself;^ and by these it was readily accepted, once it was defined by the Church, On the other hand four hundred and fifty of the Fathers of the Council preferred a petition that the doctrine should be discussed. By this time, the summer heat, which in 1870 was excep- tionally great, had already seriously affected the health of many of the bishops. Several had been compelled by illness to return home ; several still in Kome were unable to attend the council; and some had died. Thus the numbers were reduced to six hundred and one. In the final vote in congregation before the Fourth Public Session, these six hundred and one Fathers voted : 451 Placet, or mj ; 62 Placet juxfa modum, or ay, conditionally or with modifications ; and 88 Non placet, or no. The modifications or amendments, 163 in number, were sent in to the commission in writing, and, on their being duly examined and reported, many of them were adopted. The Fourth Public Session was held on the 18th of July, presided over by Pius IX. in person. After the usual cere- monial, the decree De Romano Pontifice was read from the ambo by the Bishop of Fabriano, and every Father of the council was called on by name to vote. There were present 535. Of these, 533 voted Placet and 2 Non placet.^ The decree was then confirmed in the usual form by the Holy Father.3 On a calm and dispassionate consideration of the question, fairly stated, as I trust it has been in this chapter, not a few ' Cardinal Manning's "True Story of the Vatican Council,"' p. 99. ' On the 17tli of July, 55 bishops signed a declaration, that they would not appear at the Public Session of the next day. Adding these and 11 unaccounted for to the 535 who voted, we have the total of 601. There voted in the majority 52 of the 62 who had previously voted Placet juxta modum or ay with modifi. cations. ' I am indebted for these figures and dates to Cardinal Manning's " True Story of the Vatican Council." 524 THE CHAIR OF PETER. non-Catholics, I am confident, will feel inclined to admit the reasonableness of the Catholic doctrine, that Papal Infallibility, as defined by the Vatican Council, is indispensable to the Church. This granted, the enjoyment of the privilege by the successors of Saint Peter, speaking ex Catheclrd, is a necessary consequence. For, as Saint Thomas of Aquin observes, " it is manifest that Christ has not been wanting in necessary things to His Church, which He loved, and for which He shed His blood." Therefore, as General Councils cannot be constantly assembled, and it is necessary that there should be one visible Head and Teacher, to decide officially on questions of faith and morals which are constantly arising, Christ conferred on Saint Peter and through him on his successors the privilege of Infallibility, as now defined by the Church, The following impressive words of an illustrious Protestant writer, on this subject, may be appositely quoted here : — " When therefore," says Leibnitz, " Almighty God estab- lished His Church upon earth, as a sacred city placed upon a mountain. His immaculate spouse, and the interpretress of His will, and enjoined that throughout the whole world her unity should ever be maintained, and ordered that she should be heard by all under pain of being confounded with heathens or publicans, it follows that He should establisli a mode by which the will of the Church, the interpretress of the Divine Will, might be known. And this was shown by tlio Apostles, who represented the body of the Church in the beginning. For they, the Council of Jerusalem, being assembled, explaining their decision said, 'It hath seemed good to the Holy Ghost and to us.' Nor did this privilege of the Holy Ghost assisting the Church cease on the death of the Apostles, but it ought to endure to the consummation of the world, and in the whole body of the Church it was propagated through the bishops, as the successors of the Apostles. " But as a council cannot continuously nor frequently be held, for the bishops cannot often be absent from the flocks PAPAL INFALLIBILITY. 525 over which they preside, and yet the Church should personally exist and subsist, in order that her will should be known, it follows (by the Divine law itself, and by the very memorable words of Christ addressed to Peter, when He specially committed to him the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and likewise when three times He emphatically commended to him His sheep to be fed) that it was insinuated, and believed in the Church, that one among the Apostles, and one successor of him among the bishops, should be endowed with greater power ; in order that through him, as a visible centre of unity, the body of the Church might be bound together ; the common necessity might be provided for ; if needed, a council might be convoked, and, when convoked, directed ; and in the intervals of councils it might be possible to take measures that the interests of the faithful should not suffer. And when the ancients continuously hand down the tradition that in the city of Rome, the capital of the world, Peter the Apostle governed the Church, and suffered martyrdom, and designated, his successor,^ nor did any other bishop ever come in that manner, we acknowledge with good reason the Eoman bishop to be the prince of the rest. Therefore this at least ought to be certain, that, in all things which would not bear the delay of a General Council, or are not sufficiently important for a General Council, the Prince of Bishops, or the Supreme Pontiff, has meanwhile the same power as the whole Church ; that through him any one can be excommunicated and restored, and that to him all the faithful owe true obedience ; of which the force goes to the extent, that, as far as an oath is to be kept in all things which can be observed with the safety of one's soul, so also to the Supreme Pontiff, as the one visible Vicar of God on earth, obedience is to be rendered in all things, which we, examining ourselves, judge can be done without sin ' Here is anotlicr instance of Protestant recognition of the fact of Saint Peter's having held his See at Kome, which might well be added to those quoted at the end of chapter iv. 526 THE CHAIR OF TETER. and with a safe conscience ; so far that, in doubtful matters, other things being equal, obedience is to be considered safer ; and this is to be done through love of the unity of the Church, and in order that we may obey God in those whom He has sent. For we ought to suffer anything more willingly, even with great loss to ourselves, than be dissevered from the Church and give cause for schism. But concerning the primacy and authority of the Roman Pontiff, more will hereafter have to be said. " All these things however are to be understood, saving the right of earthly powers, which Christ did not take away : for although Christian princes owe obedience to the Church no less than each of the least ones of the faithful, however, unless it appears to be otherwise provided and done by the law of the kingdom, the Ecclesiastical power is not to be extended so far as that it should arm subjects against their true lords ; for the arms of the Church are tears and prayers. And this is the best and safest limitation of the secular and the Ecclesiastical power, after the example of the primitive Church."^ ' "Exposition de la Doctrine de Leibnitz sur la Religion, cuvrage Latin inedit, et traduit en Francjais, par M. Emerv," page 300, Paris, 1819; and " Systeme Religieux de Leibnitz, publie d'apres le manuscript original, par I'Abbe Lacroix; traduit par Albert de Broglie," page 260, Paris, 184G. Leibnitz, dying in 1716, in his seventieth year, left this manuscript, written by his own hand. It passed from his library into the Royal library of Hanover ; and in 1810, by permission of King Jerome, it was sent to Cardinal Fesch, who had it transcribed by M. Emery, superior of the Seminary of Saint Sulpice, by whom it was published in Paris, in 1819. So important is the above quoted passage that I deem it right to subjoin here the whole of the original Latin: — " G. G. Leibnitzii Systcma Theologicum, ipsius auctoris manu scriptum. " Cum igitur Deus Optimus Maximus Ecclesiam constitacrit in terris, tam- quam civitatem sacram super montem positam, sponsam suara immaculatam, et voluntatis suas iuterpretem, cujus unitatem per totum orbem caritate colli- gandam usque adeo couimendavit, et quam audiri jubet ab omnibus qui Ethnicia aut publicanis tcquiparari nolunt, consequens est nt modum constituerit quo voluntas Ecclesiae, interpres voluntatis diviuas, cognosci possit. Et hoc jam tnm Apostoli ostendere, qui corpus Ecclesiae initio representabant. Hi euim, Concilio Hierosolymis coacto, sententiam suam expHcantes, inquiunt : ' Visum est Spiritui Sancto et Nobis.' Neque hoc privilegium assistentis Ecclesiae Sancti Spiritus Apostolornm morte cessavit, sed usque ad consummationem gccnli durare debet, atque in toto corpora Ecclesiae per Episcopos taniquam TArAL INFALLIBILITY. 527 But it is not tor a moment to be suj)posed that the Pope does not avail himself of all means within his reach, to aid his judgment, when he makes a definition ex Cathedra. This is manifestly his duty ; and accordingly he consults his canonists and congregations of cardinals ; as, in ancient times, on similar occasions, his predecessors consulted their suffragans and other bishops, in a council in Rome. Moreover, the Holy Father has the power, should he in his discretion deem it advisable, of collecting the suffrages of the Apostolorum successores fuit propagatam. Qnoniam aatem nou semper nee frequenter haberi potest conciliam, nam episcopi popnlos qiiibus prtesunt crebro deserere non possunt, at tamen semper persona Ecclesiee vivere et subsistere debet, ut voluntas ejus possit cognosci, consequens fuit, qiso divine jure, et memorabllibus admodum Christi ad Petruna verbis (quaudo claves regni ccBlorum specialiter commisit, pariter ac cum oves suas pascendas tribus vicibus emphatice commendavit) insinuatum atque in Ecclesia creditum est, nt unus inter Apostolos, hujusque successor unus inter episcopos, majore potestate esornaretur, ut per eum, tamqnam visibile centrum unitatis, colligari coi-pua Ecclesise, provideri communi necessitati, convocari, si opus, concilium, et convocatum dirigi, et tempore interconciliari dari opera posset ne quid res fidelium publica detrimenti caperet. Et cum Petrum Apostolnm in principe orbis terrarum urbe Roma et Ecclesiam gubernasse et martyrium snbiisse, et Snccessorem sibi desiguasse, constanter veteres tradant, neque ullus alius episcopus unquam ea ratione veuerit, Romanum ca3terorum priucipem merito agnoscimus. Itaque saltern illud certum esse debet, in omnibus quae moram Concilii Universalis non ferunt, aut Concilium Universalem non merentur, interim eamdem esse Episcoporum Principis sive Pontificis Maximi potestatem, quse totius Ecclesise ; per eum excommunicari quemvis et restitui posse, eique omnes fideles veram debex'e obedientiam, cujus vis eo porrigitur ut quemadmo- dum juramentum servandum est in omnibus quae cum salute animce servari possunt, ita et Poutifici Maximo tamquam uni visibili Dei Vicario in terris sit obediendum in omnibus quae sine peccato salvaque conscientia fieri posse, ipsi nosmetipsos interrogantes, judicamus ; usque adeo ut in dubio, caoteris paribus, obcdientia tutior sit censenda ; idque faciendum est amore unitatis Ecclesiaj, et ut Deo in his quos misit obediamus. Quidvis enim libentins jiati debemus, etiam cum magna jactura nostra, quam ut Ecclesia divellamur, et schismati causam prasbeamus. Sed de primatu et auctoritate Romani Poutificis postea pluribus erit dicendum. " Hsec tamen omnia intelligenda sunt salvo jure terrenarum potestatum quod Cbristus non sustulit ; etsi enim Christiani priucipes non minus Ecclesiaa obedientiam debcant quam minimus quisque fidelium, tamen nisi ipso jure regni aliter provisum actumque esse constet, Ecclesiastica potestas eo extendenda nou est ut subditos in veros dominos armet ; Ecclesiaa enim arma sunt lacrymaa et preces. Et haoc optima tutissiinaque Secularis atque Ecolesiasticae potestatis coUimitatio est, primitivae Ecclesiae exemplo." 528 THE CHAIR OF PETEK. bishops dispersed, all over the world. This was the course pursued by Pius IX. in defining the dogma of the Immaculate Conception, in the year 185 1.'^ From an early age, it was the common opinion of Catholic theologians that the Blessed Virgin Mary Mother of God was preserved from the stain of original sin when she was conceived in her mother's womb. This belief is founded, first on the opinion of the principal Fathers, secondly, on the precaution taken by the Council of Trent," when, in deciding that all the children of Adam arc born stained with original sin, it declared that its intention was not at all to include the Blessed Virgin therein; thirdly, on the decrees of several Popes, who have approved of the Feast of the Conception of the Blessed Virgin and of the office composed for it, and have forbidden the contrary doctrine to be preached and taught.^ Nevertheless, as it was not an article of faith until defined by the Church, its belief was not obligatory on the faithful.^ On the 2nd of February, 1849, Pius IX. issued his encyclical letter, addressed to the patriarchs, primates, arch- bishops, and bishops of the Church all over the globe, to collect from them the universal tradition respecting the belief in the Immaculate Conception of the Mother of God. In the course of time, replies arrived, to the number of six hundred and three. Of these, five hundred and forty-six were not only in favour of the belief, but they demanded with urgency its doctrinal definition ; whilst, on the other hand, there were a small minority, who hesitated, solely on the gi-ound of opportuneness. Pius IX. called to his side, to assist him in ^ There are questions iu which there is not time for this course, and inamediate action on the part of the Pope is required. Such, for instance, is the case of a new heresy, calling for promi^t and vigorous measures of exposure and repression. ' Session the fifth. ' Sixtus IV., Pius v., Paul V., Gregory XV., and Alexander VII., were the Pontiffs especially approving of this Feast; and the three last forbade that the opposite opinion should bo treated as heretical. * Pcrgier, " Dictionnaii'c do Tlieulogie," ii. 221'. PAPAL INFALLIBILPry. 529 this solemu affair, all the bishoj^s who could repair to Rome. lu obedience to his invitation, one hundred and ninety-two arrived from all countries excepting Russia, of which the subjects Avere prevented from going by the despotic will of the Emperor Nicholas. These prelates assisted in putting the finishing hand to the work of the commission charged with the preparation of the Bull. When the moment arrived of determining the definitive publication, the question arose, whether the bishops assisted there as judges, to pronounce the definition simultaneously with the Successor of Saint Peter, and whether it was necessary to mention their j^resence there with this title, or whether the supreme judgment was to be attributed to the sole word of the Sovereign Pontiff. The debate terminated suddenly, as it were by the inspiration of the Holy Ghost. " It was the last sitting," relates Monsignor Audisio, who was present ; " mid-day had sounded, the whole assembly knelt down to recite the Angelus. Then each one resumed his place, and a fevv^ words had scarcely been exchanged, when an acclamation to the Holy Father, a cry of eternal adhesion to the Primacy of the See of Saint Peter, arose, propagated itself, and closed the debate : Petre, doce nos ; conjirma fratres tuos ! ' Peter, teach us ; confirm thy brethren ! ' And the teaching which these pastors demanded of the Supreme Pastor, was the definition of the Immaculate Conception." ^ This was indeed an auspicious foreshadowing of the main work to be accomplished by the General Council of the Vatican, in its doctrinal definition of Papal Infallibility, six" teen years later. And that definition was not the act of the Pope alone; but the act of a General Council — namely, the Bishops of the Universal Church, convoked by, united with, and presided over by, the Pope. ' Villefranche, " Pie IX., Sa Vic, Sou Ilistoire, Son Siecle," page l3ii, Lyon, 1877. 2 M CHAPTER XXXVII. CONCLUSION. "A milk-white hind, immortal and unchanged, t'ed on the lawns, and in the forest ranged ; Without unspotted, innocent within. She feared no danger, for she knew no sin. Yet had she oft been chased with horns and hounds, With Scythian shafts, and many winged wounds Aimed at her heart ; was often forced to fly, And doomed to death, though fated not to die."— Duydkn. \Ve have now seen the trials which, from her infancy down to the present day, have been endured by the Church — three centuries of Pagan persecution ; the invasions of the Huns, the Vandals, the Heruli, the Lombards, and other barbarians from the North ; the incursions of the Saracens on the South ; the Arian, Macedonian, Nestorian, Eutychian, Monothelite, and other heresies; the furious outburst of the Iconoclasts; the Greek schism ; the contests of the Popes and the Emperors on Investitures and other burning questions; the forty years' schism of the Antipopes ; the great Protestant secession ; and, near our own times, the horrors of the French Revolution, when in Catholic France tlie religion of Christ was proscribed by legislative enactment, when Rome was occupied by the Republican forces, when the Pope was carried off a prisoner, in his eightieth year, and died in exile, and when his suc- cessor was, with every circumstance of cruelty and insult, similarly deported, and for nearly five years detained in cap- tivity by the first Napoleon. We have also witnessed the CONCLUSION. 531 ^nti-Christian conspiracies aud the machinations of secret societies, aimed at the subversion of authority in every European State. And, at the present moment, we deplore the condition of the Successor of Saint Peter, without one shred of the patrimony of the Church — actually a prisoner in the Vatican, where his existence is merely tolerated ; the clergy subjected to conscription for the army in France and Italy ; religious orders extensively abolished ; their property con- fiscated ; and several of the most venerable institutions of Christianity practically doomed to annihilation. Perhaps the most directly anti-Christian and the most pernicious of the proceedings of the enemies of the Church — - and those, alas ! in Catholic countries — are, the banishing of religion from the school, and the conscription of the clergy foi? the army. As regards the first, it is unnecessary, in addressing Chris- tian readers, to dwell, at any length, on this monster evil, this undisguised attempt to un-Christiauize the rising generation. Of the second, a brief notice may be useful, especially as the details are unlikely to be known to the majority of my readers-. When the new Military Law was being discussed in the Italian Chamber in the year 1875, enacting, among other things, the conscription of the clergy for the army, His Holi- ness Pius IX. addressed the following eloquent and touching remonstrance to King Victor Emanuel : — Sire, I beg of you and conjure you, in the name of your august ancestors, in the name of the Saints of your family, in the name of your Virgin de la Consolata, in the name even of God, in the name of your dearest interests, do not give your sanction to a law so fatal to the Chm'ch — this military law, which would be the destruction of the clergy^ and consequently, if such were possible, of the Catholic Church. Ah ! through pity, Sire, for yourself, for your subjects, for society, do not increase the debts, which you have contracted, to God ; do not burden your conscience with new outrages against the Church. Stoj), and go no further on a road which leads you to the deepest abyss.^ • Allocution of April 13, 1875. 632 THE CHAIR OF TETER. Notwithstanding this appeal, Victor Emanuel was iiu- moved. The law was voted by the Senate, and was signed and promulgated by the King. And what is the purport of this law ? That every eccle- siastic up to the age of forty, whether he be curate, parish priest, canon, or even bishop, no matter what his dignity, may be taken away from his Church, his parish, his diocese, clothed in military uniform, and incorporated in a regiment. Again : At the moment of commencing his Ecclesiastical studies, and his preparation for the sacred 'ministry, the young aspirant to the priesthood, having attained his eighteenth year, is obliged to quit the seminary, and to go, for three years,^ to the barrack, or the regiment ; and there he leads the life of a soldier, in the common barrack-room ; and this continuously ; the result being that at least seventy per cent, of the students lose their vocation.^ Having served his three years, during which he is fully exercised in drill and manoeuvres, he is a soldier up to the age of forty : and, in time of war, whether student or priest, he is liable to be calhd out, to serve in the ranks. By the law of 1871, it was provided that ecclesiastics should be employed, by preference, in hospital and ambulance duties ; but this provision was rejected by a vote, and so excluded from the law of 1875.^ However, in practice, priests serving as soldiers, are employed in the hospitals, or in some writing office. * The term varies from three to five years, according to the branch of the service. '^ If he pleases, and has the means, which few students have, he may abridge the time, by paying 1500 or 200J francs, and going to live one year in barrack, as a soldier, with soldiers. A friend of the author, a British subject, writes as follows, from a small town in Italy, in July, 1882 : " There are thirty lads in the seminary here, taken in at twelve years old, and kept and educated until they are eighteen, when they must become common soldiers. Perha})s, of all these, ten may not persevere for the j'l'iesthood." This agrees with the above stated proportion of 70 per cent, losing their vocation, through serving in the army. 3 The Law of July 19, 1871, and that of June 7, 1875. CONCLUSION. 538 In Italian cities, it is not an uncommon occurrence, that a young soldier in uniform is seen entering the sacristy of a churcli, and coming out again, in a few minutes, in vestments, to celebrate Mass, and, having thus satisfied his devotion, resuming his military garb, and returning to his barrack ! ^ The object of the conscription of seminarists and priests is to destroy the Church by depriving it of ministers ; and it is succeeding ; so that, in many dioceses of Italy, so much are the numbers of the clergy reduced, that priests are obliged to duplicate (that is, to say two Masses) on Sunday, in some country places. The reader will not be surprised to hear, after the foregoing statements, tliat there is no chaplain in the Italian army, and that the troops are never sent to religious worship. They may go, or remain in barrack, as they please. They all have the ordinary daily parade on Sunday. The law ignores that day, and on it the Government and municipal works are carried on, the same as on weekdays. Jews, Mahometans, Pagans, would not act thus. They respect their priests, as sacred persons reserved for sacred things. Not so the Infidel party in Italy, and those who, more recently, would follow their example in France. They hate the clergy. They believe not in God. They would destroy all religion. They happily are only a minority of the population : but they are a compact phalanx, perfectly organized ; and hence they prevail, but, let us hope, only for a time, against the unorganized masses.^ Well, indeed, in his * In such a case as this, the priest must either be known to the Fathers of the Church, or must satisfy them by producing the necessary papers from hia bishop. - Although intended as a protest against the revolution, the systematic abstention of the Catholic party in Italy from voting at political elections, since 1860, appears to be a mistake. Had they exercised the franchise, the majority in the Chambers unquestionably would be Catholic, and the present lamentable state of affairs would not exist. In 1872 and 1875, when the Italian Catholics took part in the municipal elections, they demonstrated their power, carrying the day in Venice, Florence, Palermo, Modena, Genoa, and Verona, notwith- standing that a larger proportion of the population of cities is lio.stile to the 534 THE CHAIR OF PETER. powerful letter to the Italian Minister on this subject, does Monseigneur Dupanloup observe : — Once agairij it is not a question of wliat you yourself believe, but of what is the creed of the nation for which you make your laws. Well, in the eyes of the Catholic, be it known to you, the Catholic priest continues here below the mission and the priesthood of Jesus Christ ; Every day he immolates on the altar the Divine and atoning Victim for the salvation of the world ; With it, under the Eucharistic form, he nourishes the Christian people ; He is, moreover, the delegate of Jesus Christ for the reconciliation of man with God ; And at the same time he teaches all, little and great, princes and people, the doctrine and the morality of Jesus Christ. Eeligious functions, doubtless, before all, but social functions also, and civilizing in the highest degree.^ Further on he utters the following impressive words : — I say, that to see the same man celebrate at the altar and take part in musketry practice ; to see him in the confessional and on guard ; to see him in the pulpit and in the barrack-room ; to see him with the same hand with which he elevates the sacred host, wielding the sabre and the gun, discharging the howitzer and canister shot; with the same hand with which he absolves and blesses, shedding blood, — all this is repugnant to the Catholic conscience, as it is to the human conscience.^ How different was the action, in this regard, of the first Christian Emperor, fifteen centuries ago ! He would not — neither indeed would his predecessors, the Pagan Emperors — have ever contemplated, that the ministers of religion should serve in the army : but, more than this, Constantino the Great Church than of that of nvral districts. Even though, as observed by M. Ville- francho, the Parliamentary oath were so framed as that Catholics could not in conscience take it, they could, when elected, go to the Chambers, and insist on their right to admission ; and such a claim, urged by numbers, backed by the majority of the population, must in the end succeed, as O'ConncU's exertions were successful in the British Parliament. Seo Villefranchc, " Vie de Pie IX.," p. 462. ' '♦ Secondo Lettre a M. Minghetti, sur la nouvcllo Loi Militaire Italicnno et scs consequences pour le clerge, par. Mgr. L'^^voque D'Orluaris, Monibre da Scnat." Deuxifeme Edition, Paris, 1876, p. 13. ^ Ibid., p. 14. CONCLUSION. 535 would exempt the clergy from any civil or political office whatsoever. In a letter to Anulinus, Proconsul of Africa, about A.D. 325, he says : — Wherefore it is our will, most beloved AniiliniiR, that these men, within the province intrusted to thee, in the Oatholio Church (of Carthage) over which Ca3cilianus presides, who give their services to this holy religion, and who are commonly called clergy, shall be held totally free and exempt from all public offices, to the end that they may not, by any error or sacrilegious deviation, be withdrawn from the service due to the Divinity, but rather may devote themselves to the Divine law, their special province,^ without any molestation. So that, whilst they exhibit the greatest possible reverence to the Deity, it appears the greatest good will accrue to the State/'' Not to dwell on the higher motives which dictated the course here pursued by Constantine, his thouglitful regard for the ministers of religion was in accordance with sound policy ; for thus he permanently assured to himself the devoted loyalty and affection of the largely increasing Christian popu- lation of the Empire. On the other hand, a glance at the religious census of Europe^ will show how impolitic has been the persecution of their Catholic subjects by certain rulers in modern times. But there is another consideration of human prudence which ought not to be lost sight of; and that is, that the Church, on principle, inculcates on her children the duty of order and loyalty, the precept of rendering unto Caesar the things that are Csesar's. Indeed it has recently come to pass, that a powerful Conti- nental sovereign and his minister, almost as powerful, have discovered and practically acknowledged their gross blunder in endeavouring to enslave the Catholic Church, and in visit- ing her with grievous persecution : for thus have they tempo- rarily weakened that power — that great moral organization, which has always denounced and striven against, and which ' T^ ISici) vojxa). The above appears to me to be the correct reudcring of these words. ^6/10$ is used by sacred writers to express " the Divine law." " Eusebins, " Ecclesiastical History," x. 7. ^ See chapter xxvi. 536 THE CHAIR OF PETER. alone can eventually overcome, those occult, but ever active, enemies of religion and social order, those opponents of all government, Ecclesiastical and civil — the secret societies that exist in almost every European State. Those in high place, who have so acted, now fully know, to their cost, that with all their power and with all their resources, they have been but instruments in the hands of those who plot alike against God and King. Nihilists and communists, certain great monarchs and their ministers, liberal senators and deputies, may, on many questions, be as wide apart as the poles; but in one respect they have, too often in our day, appeared to be " of one heart and one soul : " and that is, in their hostility to the Catholic Church. It is this unnatural combination which has deprived the Vicar of Christ of his temporal power — that power which, in its origin, development, and existence prolonged far beyond that of all other dynasties, was manifestly the work of God, and pre-eminently embodied that divinely established principle of order, by which kings reign and legislators decree what is just. That the Pope should be totally free from the control, however indirect, of any earthly potentate, has long been the opinion of wise and experienced statesmen of every creed. It is the sentiment also of the Catholic subjects of every State, and of all sovereigns, doubtless, could their innermost thoughts be read. For the Church over which the Holy Father presides is not the Church of a nation, or of a language, or of an epoch, but the Church of all time — ^the Church of every tongue, and tribe, and people. Within the jealously guarded confines of Japan and China, on the banks of the Amazon, the Nile, and the Indus, by the remote shores of the Northern Pacific, in the crowded semi-barbarous cities of the East, as well as in the centres of Western civilization, in the frozen recesses of the North, amidst the burning sands of the Tropics, in the Red Indian's camp, in the Negro village, under the palm-leaf shed of the South Sea Islander, as well as in the CONCLUSION. 537 Lateran Basilica, or beneath the glorious dome of Saint Peter's — wherever man exists — she gathers her children, she erects her altar, and daily offers a clean oblation, from the rising to the setting of the sun.^ And wliilst Catholic Cliristians, in every clime, loyal and true in te nporal affairs to their respective sovereigns or other constituted authorities by whom they are governed, rendering unto Csesar the things that are Caisar's, turn to her, and acknowledge her authority in matters spiritual, rendering unto God the things that are of God, few non-Catholics will be found, on cp.lm reflection, to deny, that he whom so many millions believe to be divinely commissioned to govern this Church — the Church of all nations — should be free and independent, not tlie subject or vassal of any monarch. However, it may be well to observe, as some of my readers may not be clear on the subject, that the Temporal Power of the Popes is not, in the strict sense of the word, essential to their sacred office. For, whether concealed iti the Catacombs or enthroned amidst the princes of the Church in the first Christian temple in the world, whether receiving the envoys of kings at the Vatican, in exile at Gaeta, in captivity at Fontainebleau, or, again, as at present, a prisoner in his own capital, where he dwells but on sufferance, the Successor of Saint Peter alike claims and receives the veneration and spiritual allegiance of the faithful. And every Catholic knows, that, without one rood of territory, without one shilling of fixed revenue, Leo XIII, is as much Christ's Vicar on earth, and visible Head of the Church, as were his predecessors in those days when the proudest monarchs rendered homage to the Pope, and appeared before him as arbiter in the causes of kingdoms and empires. But, although not strictly essential, this principality, in the designs of an all-ruling Providence, has been, for eleven centuries, highly expedient, and most useful to religion ; furnishing the Church with means and ap[)lianccs fi)r her mission to teach all nations; and insuring to ' Malaclii i 11. 538 THE CHAIR OF PETER. the Supreme Pontiff that complete personal and political independence which is required for the discharge of his exalted duties. Now, for a brief period, the temporal rule of the Popes has ceased to exist — doubtless to be restored, in God's own time, as in the days of Pius VII. We have seen how that Pontiff, deprived of his dominions, lay, for four years and a half, in seemingly hopeless captivity in a foreign land, and how, by a sudden political revolution, he was firmly re-established on his throne, and in full possession of all the States of the Church, guaranteed by the Allied Powers, in 1815. In this, as in other respects, it is not unlikely that history will repeat itself. At the present moment, it is true, while the Church is so flourishing in remote regions, the outlook is gloomy at home. Even in the capital of Catholic Christendom, the enemies of Religion appear to be triumphant on every point. So far have they succeeded in their unholy warfare, that they may ere long attempt to carry their daring projects as far as those who, at the close of the last century, decreed the abolition of Christianity, and set up the worship of the Goddess of Reason, in France. But there is a God in Israel now, as there was then. All things are in His hands. Angry storms may rage, and the bark of Peter may be beaten upon, and be all but submerged by the winds and the waves; but in it there reposes One, Who, should we tremble for its safety, may justly reproach us in the hallowed words, " Why are you fearful, O ye of little faith ? " ' » Matt. viii. 23-26. INDEX. Academical exhibition at the Propaganda, 493 Accolti, Cardinal, 265 note Adoration, Two meanings of, 468 note Adrian T., Pope, 168 note „ seeks the aid of Charlemagne, 168 ,, Charlemagne's love and reverence for, 176 Adrian IV., an Englishman, 223 note „ renders great services to the Holy See, 223 Adrian VI., Pope, 270 Agatho, Saint, Pope, 101 note „ presides by his legates at the Sixth General Council, 101 „ " Peter hath spoken by Agatho," 103 „ on the unfailing faith of the Apostolic See, 108 Albornoz, Cardinal, 237 Alemannic Law, on the election of Emperor, 185 Alexander III., Pope, 224 note „ Struggles of, with the Emperor, 224 „ How reverenced by the Kings of France and Italy, 224 „ reconciled with, and reverenced by, the Emperor Frederick I. 225 Almsgiving, Opponents of, 490, 491 „ Their arguments, 491 Ambrose, Saint, 35 note „ on the Primacjr of Peter, 35 Anacletus, Pope, 67 note Anastasius the Librarian, 150 note Ancillon on the power of the Popes in the Middle Ages, 476 Angelical Salutation, Addition to the, at Council of Ephesus, 92 Anglican Church, 322-325, 331 „ Great movement in, the last fifty years, 4 „ " Rome-ward " tendency in, 4 Anglicanism, District of, 331 Annals of Baronius, 53 note Anno Poleyn, 303-305 „ Trial and execution of, 307 540 INDEX. Anne of Cleves, 308 Antioch, See of, foiindod by Poter, 44 „ Here the disciples, first called Christians, 45 Anti-Christ, The Pope regarded as, by Protestants, 1 Anti-Christian proceedings in certain European States, 531 » Banishing religion from the School, 531 „ Military Law of Italy, 531 — 533 » Conscription of the clergy, 531 „ Fall particulars thereof, 532 „ Bad results thereof, 532, 533 „ Eeligion practically ignored by the State, 533 » Touching appeal of Pius IX. to Victor Emanuel, 531 j> „ of Monseigneur Dupauloup to the Italian Minister, 534 », A contrast with the action of Constantino the Great, 534 „ Sound policy of Constantine, 535 5, Impolicy of Modem rulers, 535 „ Practical admission thereof, 535, 536 ,> The unconscious instruments of Nihilists and Communists, 536 Antipopes, in reign of Alexander III., 224 „ Great Schism of the, 242 „ at Avignon, 244 Antonelli, Cardinal, 376 7iote, 377, 379 note, 442 note Antoninus, Saint, Archbishop of Florence, 245 note „ on the Schism of the Antipopes, 245 Appeals to the Pope, 109, 110, 111, 116 None from the Pope, 109, 121 Apostles, Dispersion of the, 18 Apostolate, continued in the bishops, 13 Ai)ostoHo, a term especially applied to the Pope and his See, 159 Apostolic See, All Ecclesiastical causes to be referred to the, 91 ,, The decree of the, the authority and guide of general councils, 93 „ Appeals of the whole Church to the, 109, 117 ,, No appeals from the, 109 „ See Pope Archbishops, 392 Arius and Arianism, 84 note Arminianism, 321, 321 note, 330 Arminias, 821 note „ controverts five points of Calvinism, 321 Articles, The Thirty.nine. iSee England, Churoh of Assemani, Joseph, Stephen, and Simon, 408 Astolphus, King of the Lombards invades Rome, 158 „ conquered by Pepin, 163, 161 ,, restores the territories of the Holy Sec, 165 ,, Cities and territories so restored, 165 Athanasiiis, Saint, 111 note INDEX. 541 Athanasiiis, appeals to Pope Julius, 111 " Creed of, 88 Attila and Saint Leo the Great, 140 Augsburg, Diet of, 282 „ Confession of, 282 et seq. ,, ,, the fundamental creed of the Reformation, 28 A ,, „ Confutation of, 283 ,, „ Apology for, 283 „ „ Variations of, 285 „ „ Several editions of, 234 ,, „ Article of, on the Lord's Supper, 285 ,, ,, This article how varied, 285, 288 Augustine, Saint, 35 note ,, on the Primacy of Peter, 35, 36, 73 ■> ,, Apostle of England, 74, 399 note Authority, Recognition of, implanted in tho human mind, 479, 430 Auxiliary Bisliops, 414 ,, of Rome appointed by Saint Peter, 55 Avignon, Removal of the Popes to, 233 City of, 233 note „ County of, 233 note „ List of Popes at, 233, 234 „ The Popes return to Rome, from, 238 ,, Antipopes at, 244 Baptism by heretics. Controversy on, 77-79 Baratier, 62 note ,, on Saint Peter in Rome, 63 Barnabites, or Clerks Regular of St. Paul, 332 Barneveldt, Execution of, 338 Barouius, Cardinal, 53 note ,, Annals of, 53 note Barrow, Isaac, D.D., 23 note „ on the Primacy of Peter, 23, 24 ,, on St. Peter in Rome, 61 Bartholomew, Saint, Massacre of, 338 and Pope Gregory XIII., 339 Basil, Saint, 33 note ,, on the Primacy of Peter, 33 Bede, the Venerable, 73, 399 note, 496 Belgium, Material progress and prosperity of, 341 Bellarmin, on the power of the Keys, 14 „ on the Pope's right of presiding at General Councils, 85 Benedict XIII., Antipope, 244, 252 Benedictines, The, 496 Berengcrius, 196, 198 note Berlin and Milan Decrees, 360 note Bernard, Saint, 40 note ,, on the Primacy of Peter, 41, 42 542 INDEX. Bernard, on the Cardinalate, 44i Beza, Theodore, 301 Bishop of Kotne. See Pope Bishop's Court, 438 note Bishops, the successors of the Apostles, 13 ,, The Apostolate continued in, 13 ,, limited to their dioceses, 13 ,, favoured by Constantine, 132 „ constituted judges by him, 132, 481 ,, bound to visit the Pope, at stated times, -117 note See Hierarchy, 389-393 Bissextile or Leap Year, 499 Bonaparte, Joseph, at Rome, 349 Bonaventure, Saint, 438 Boniface, Saint, Apostle of Germany, 162 note Bracci, on the title " Pope," 5 note Brentz, Johann, 319 note Briefs, Papal, 452 note Britain, Christians in, in second century, 128 note „ Missionaries sent to, by Pope Eleutherius, 73 ,, „ by Celestine, 73 ,. ), by Saint Gregory the Great, 74 Bulls, papalj 452 note C.EDWALLA, King of West Saxons, Visit of, to Rome, 74 Calendar, The, reformed by Gregory XIII., 498 Calling the recently dead by name, 458 Calvin, 296 „ " Commentary on Seneca" of, 297 ,, "Institutes of the Christian Religion" of, 297 ,, at Geneva, 297 „ System of government at Geneva by, 297 ,, condemns Servetus to bo burned alive, 297 „ and the Anabaptists, 298 „ and Zwingli, 298 „ How he differs from Zwingli, 298 „ and John Knox, 299 note „ Academy of, at Geneva, 299 „ and Somerset, Lord Protector of England, 337 „ Character of, 298 „ Docti'ine of, on the Eucharist, 286 „ „ on Predestination, 299 „ „ Results of, 300 „ System of, 300 „ laments discords of Protestants, 300 „ admits only two sacraments, 301 „ Tenets of, much modified since his time, 300 „ well supported in France, 320 Calvinism, Five points of, controverted by the Arminians, 321 INDEX. 543 Calvinism, Districts of, 330 ,, persecuting, 33S ,, suffei'ing persecution, 337, 338 ,, favoured in England, 337 „ ,, in Scotland, 338 in Holland, 338 Canon Law, The, 485-487 „ Lord Stair on, 487 Canons Eegular, in the Middle Ages, 221 Canossa, 204 Canova, 372, 372 note Carbonai'i, 380 nute Cardinal, Derivation of the word, 426 „ Priests, in former times, 426 ,, Deacons, in former times, 427 „ „ Regionarii, 427, 432 note „ ,, Palatini, 432 note „ Bishops, first created a.d. 779, 428 „ ,, called Hebdomadarii and Collaterales, 429 Sees of, 429 Camerlengo, The, 453, 458 Cardinals, Eesidence of Cardinals strictly enforced, in ninth century, 429 „ Eule thereon in modern times, 430 „ Constitution of John VIII., a.d. 882, regarding Cardinals, 430 ,, Account of the Sacred College, a.d. 1058, 431 ,, Numbers of, at various periods, 433 „ Election of the Pope by the Cardinals, the clergy and people assent. „ ing, from a.d. 1059, by the constitution of Nicholas II., 433 „ This law altered by Alexander III., a.d. 1179, 435 „ The Cardinal Bishops no longer to have precedence in electing, 436 „ The votes of fifo.f/urtZs only required, 436 ,, The Cardinals exclusively to elect, 436 „ The first Conclave, 436 ,, Gregory X. elected by Compromise, 438 ,, Code of laws of Gregory X. to regulate Conclaves, a.d. 1274, 438 ,, „ suspended by Adrian V., a.d. 1276, 440 „ „ restored by Celestine V., a.d. 1292, and in force ever since, 441 Bull ^tsrni Patris of Gregory XV., a.d. 1621, 441 ,, Cseremoniale of Gregory XV., a.d. 1622, 441 Bull Ad Romani Poiitificis of Urban VIII., a.d. 1626, 442 ,, Constitution Apostolatus Officium of Clement XII., A.d. 1732, 442 ,, The Sacred College, as it now stands, 442 „ Bishops, 443 „ Priests, 443 „ Deacons, 443 ,, The Bishop of Ostia, Dean of the Sacred College, always consecrates „ the Pope, 413 ,, ,, is assisted by the Cardinal Bishops of Porto and Albano, 443 54^ INDEX. Cardinals, Titles of, 443 ,, form the Council and Senate of the Pope, 443, 444 ,, Constitution of Pope John VIII. theroou, a.d. 882, 413 „ ,, of Pope Sixtus V. thereon, a.d. 1595, 444 „ Saint Bernard thereon, a.d. 1145, 444 „ worthily represented in these countries, by Cardinals Mauniiig and Newman, 444 „ Laborious avocations of, 445 „ The Sacred Congregations, 445 ,, The Inquisition or Holy Office, 445 ,, Consistorial Affairs, 447 ,, Apostolic Visitation, 447 ,, Bishops and Regulars, 447 „ The Council, 447 „ Eevision of Provincial Councils, 418 „ Residence of Bishops, 448 „ On the state of the Regulars, 418 „ Ecclesiastical Immunity, 448 „ De Propaganda Fide, 448 ,, De Propaganda Fide, for the Oriental Rite, 41.8 The Index, 449 „ Sacred Rites, 449 „ Ceremonial, 449 „ Discipline of Regulars, 449 ,, Indulgences and Sacred Relics, 450 ,, Examination of Bishops, 450 „ The Fabric of Saint Peter's, 450 „ Lauretana, 450 ,, Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, 450 ,, Studies, 450 ,, Important offices of the Roman court, generally presided over by Cardinals, 452 ,, The Apostolic Chancery, 452 „ The Apostolic Penitentiar}-, 433 ,, The Apostolic Dataria, 453 ,, The Venerable Apostolic Chamber, 453 „ The Secretariates, 454 „ The Gi-and Consistory, 454 „ The Secret Consistory, 454 „ The Conclave, 454, 459, et seq. ,, Creation of Cardinals, 454 ,, reserved in petto, 455 ,, Privilege of Catholic powers, regarding, 455 „ The berrotta, 455 „ The red hat, 455 „ The Cardinal's ring, 456 ,, The closing and opening the mouths of, b3' tlio Po^ie, 45G, 457 „ How honoured by Catholic sovereigns, 457 Precedence of, 457 INDEX. 545 Cardinrvls, when first styleil " Emiucnce," to? Cai'lovingian line, 161 Carlsfcadt, 271, 271 note Carthage, Council of, 90 Catechism of the Council of Trent, 315 ,, Irish popular, 507 note Catechisms, Luther's greater and less, 281 Cathedrd, Ex, 509 Catherine of Aragon, BOi, 305 Catherine Howard, 308 Catherine Parr, 309 Catherine, Saint, of Sienna, 245 Catholic, Etymology and primitive use of the word, as applied to the Chiu'ch, 30 note Catholic belief regarding the Pope, 5 ,, ,, on the Primacy of Peter and his successors, 13 Catholic Church, The Protestant Secession a great blow to the, 331 ,, Rapid recovery of the, 331 Gains of, in the New World, 331 ,, Missionary work of, 331 Catholics guided by the Church in interpreting the Scriptures, 22 ,, Devotion of, in all ages to the Pope, 3 Catholic King, The most, a very ancient title of the Kings of Spain, 276 Catholicism alleged to be unfavourable to material progress, 341 ,, This allegation disproved by facts, 341, 342 Cave, William, D.D., 17 note ,, on the Jews, 17 ,, on Saint Peter in Rome, 61 Caxton, 75 note Celestine, Saint, Pope, 92 note, 73, 74, 92 Centuriators of Magdeburg, 54 note Cephas, 9 note Cerularius, Michael, 125 Chalcedon, Council of, 95 Chamier, Daniel, 62 note „ on Saint Peter in Rome, 62 Chapters, The Three, 99 Charity, Fathers of, 333 Charity, Society for the Organization of, 491 note Charles Martel, 152, 154 Charlemagne, visits Pope Adrian I., 168 „ aids the Pope against the Lombards, 168 „ conquers King Desiderius, 171 „ assumes the iron crown of Lombardy, 171 „ confirms Pepin's donation, 170 „ subsequent donations by, 170 ,, visits Leo III. in Rome, 173 „ crowned Emperor by Leo, 175 „ Great devotion of, to the Holy See, 177 2n 646 INDEX. Charlemagne, Biographical account of, 178 note Charles V. convokes the Diet of Worms, 267 „ places Luther under the ban of the Empire, 2GH „ endeavours to reconcile existing differences, 282 ,, at the Diet of Augsburg, 282 et seq. „ twice besieges Rome, 271 Childeric III. of France, 161 note „ Deposition of, approved by the Pope, 161 „ „ Justification thereof, 161, 162 Chorepiscopi, 392 note Christian King, Most, a very ancient title of the King of France, 169 note, 276 Christians, first so named at Antioch, 45 ,, and Jews banished from Rome by Claudius, 51 ,, Cruel persecution of, by Nero, 55 „ Gi-eat numbers of, in Rome, about a.d. 65, 55 „ „ in various countries, in second century, 127 „ Virtues of the eai'ly, 129 Value of, to the State, 130 Chrysostom, Saint John, 37 note „ on the Primacy of Peter, 38 „ deposed by schismatics, appeals to the Pope, 118 Church of England. See England, and Anglican Church of Rome. See Rome, Papacy, Pope Churches, Gifts of Constantine to the, 132, 133 City, A Bishop's See constituting a, 391 Civil Constitution of the Clergy. See French Revolution CJlaudius, Emperor, 59 note Clavius the Jesuit, and the Calendar, 500 note Clement, fourth Bishop of Rome, 55 „ interposes, to allay the schism at Corinth, 67 „ Letters of, to the Corinthians, 67, 68 Clement V. Pope, 233 note ,, removes his court to Avignon, 233 Clement VII. Pope, 270 „ disastrous policy of, 211 7iote, 271 and Henry VIIL, 301 „ declares Henry's marriage with Catherine valid, 305 Clement VII., Antipope, 244 Clement, Saint, of Alexandria, 50 note Clerks Regular, 332 note „ Minors, 332 „ Assisting the Sick, 332 „ of the Schola Pia, 333 „ of the Mother of God, 333 Cletus, third Bishop of Rome, 55, 67 note Coadjutor Bishops, 414 Conclave. See Cardinals Concord, Form of, 319 Concordats of Pius VII. and Napoleon, 351, 368 INDEX. 547 Confessiou of Saiut Peter, 16i note of Augsburg. See Augsburg of Basle, 283, 320 Tetrapolitana, 283 Saxonic, 319 of Wiirtemberg, 319 Confessions, Sundry others, 320 „ of the Calvinist, Ilelvetic, or Reformed, Churches, 320 Belgic, 320 ,, See Symbolic Books Congregations, Sacred. See Cardinals Consalvi, Cardinal, 371, 372 Conscription of the clergy in Italy, 531 Constance, General Council of, 248 Constantine the Great favours his Christian subjects, 129 et seq. promotes the Council of Nice, 132 makes munificent donations to the churches, 132 exempts the clergy from political service, 131 Letter of, thereon to the Pro-Consul of Africa, 533 especially favours the bishops, 132 appoints them judges, 132 Alleged donation of, to Pope Sylvester, 136 Enlightened legislation of, 483 et seq. Death of. 111 7iote Constantine Copronymus, 153, 156 Constantinople, Second General Council, the First of, 87 „ Fifth General Council, the Second of, 98 „ Pope Vigilius not present at this council, 99 „ „ subsequently approved of its decrees, 100 „ Sixth General Council, Thii'd of, 100 „ Constantinople seeking second place, next after Rome, but refused by Popes, 87, 98 , „ ultimately conceded, 394, 395 Coquerel, on the Power of the Popes in the Middle Ages, 217 Corinth, Schism at, 66 Cornelius, Saint, Pope, 27 note „ Appeals to, from Africa, 30, 110 Council of the Apostles at Jerusalem, 18-20 of Aries, 83, 83 note of Nice, First General, 84 of Constantinople (1st.) Second General, 87 of Caithage, 90 of Mile vis, 90 of Ephesus, Third General, 91 of Chalcedon, Fourth General, 95 of Constantinople (2nd.) Fifth Genetal, 98 of Constantinople (3rd.) Sixth General, 100 of Sardica, 116 of Lyons (2nd.) Fourteenth General, 125 548 INDEX. Council of Pisa, 246 ,, of Constance, Sixteenth General, 2-18 „ of Trent, Eighteenth General. See Trent „ of the Vatican, Nineteenth General. See Vatican Councils of the first three centuries, 80 note „ Decrees of, ratified by the Pope, and by him communicated to all the churches, 81, Si „ Provincial, National, and Q^lcumenical or General, 82 „ All General, presided over by the Pope, or by his legates, 85, 96 nnfe „ Dogmatic letter of the Pope, the authority and guide of General Councils, 93 „ Decrees of, derive validity from the Pope's approval and confirma- tion, 82 ,, The Pope's approval sought for, even though he should preside through his legates, 98 ,, Great power of the Apostolic See regarding councils, 100 Courayer, P. F. Le, 316 note Cranmer, Archbishop, 304, 307 Creed, Apostles', 88 „ Athanasian, 88 „ Nicene, 88 ,, Constantinopolitan, 88 „ of Pope Pius IV., 88, 313 Crescentius or Cenci, 193 7iote „ Sacrilegious outrage on the Pope by, 212 Crusades, 487 Crypt, 164 note Culturkampf, 340 „ Bad eficcts of, on Protestant Churches, 340 ,, leading to materialism, 340 „ Futile attempt to enslave the Catholic Church by, 340 Cyprian, Saint, 27 note ,, on the Primacy of Peter, 27-30 ,, appeals to the Pope against the schismatics of Carthage, 30 „ Controversy of, with Pope Saint Stephen, on Baptism by heretics, 77 ,, on the Eoman See, as the head and fountain of the Episcopate, 395 Cyril, Saint, Bishop of Jerusalem, 32 note ,, on the Primacy of Tcter, 32 Cyril, Saint, Patriarch of Alexandria, 92 note „ presides for the Pope at the Council of Ephesus, 92 Damasus, Saint, Pope, 87 note „ not represented at Second General Council, 87 „ subsequently appx'oves of it, 87 Daunou, on Innocent III., 226 note Decretals, 121, 486 note „ False, 135 Delegates Apostolic, 410, 411 Diet of Worms, 267 INDEX. 549 Diet of Nm-emberg, 270, 2S1 „ of Spire, 281 „ of Augsbm-g, 282 Diocese, why so called, 392 Dionysius, Bishop of Corinth, 58 note ,, Letter of, to the Romans, 68, 134 Dioscorus at the false synod of EiDhesus, 95 note Diplomas of the Emperors to the Popes, 179, 231, 232 Dollinger, on the title. Pope, 7 ,, on Pope Honoi'lus, 104, 105 „ on the Pope's right of presiding at General Councils, 85 ,, on the Papal decree, as the authority and guide of Genei'al Councils, 93 „ on Luther's Bible, 270 ,, on the doctrine of Justification, 273 " Domine quo vadis," 57 note Donatus and Donatism, 83 note Dort, Synod of, 321 Doxology, 428 note Duke, Title of, 143 note Dupanloup, Monseigneux', Appeal of, to the Italian Minister against the con- scription of the clergy, 534 Duval of the Sorbonne, 519 note „ „ on Papal Infallibility, 519 Easteh, Controversy on, 70 „ how calculated, 70 note, 86 „ Early Popes on, 71 „ Council of Nice on, 72, 86 Ecchelensis, Abraham, 6 note ,, on the origin of the title, Pope, 6, 7 Eck, John, 261 Ecthesis of Heraclius, 102 Eleutherius, Pope, 69 „ sends missionaries to Britain, a.d. 177, 73 Empire, Princes of the. See Princes ,, Holy Roman, 184 „ conferred by the coronation of the Elect by the Pope, 185 „ transferred by Pope John XII. from the French to the Germauti, 191 Emperors, Relations of, with the Popes, 182 „ the sworn protectors of the Church, 183 ,, Election of, 185 „ crowned by the Pope, 185 Emser, Jerome, 269 note „ on Luther's Bible, 269 England, Church of, Symbolic Books of, 322 ,, The Ten Articles of Religious Credence of Henry VIII., 322 The Statute of the Six Articles of Henry VIII., 322 „ The Forty-two Articles of Edward VI., 323 550 INDEX. England, Church of, the Thirty-nine Articles of Elizabeth, 323 „ The imprinted book of the Thirty-nine Articles, 323 „ The King's Primer of Henry VIII., 323 „ The First Prayer Book of Edward VI., 324 „ The Second Prayer Book of Edward VI., 324 „ Elizabeth's Book of Common Prayer, 324 „ Scottish Episcopal Book of Common Prayer, 324 ,, Book of Common Prayer of Charles II., 324, 325 „ The Theological Oaths, as in Acts of Parliament, 322 „ The Homilies, 325 „ The Dogmatic Articles of, more Protestant than Catholic, 825 „ The Liturgy of, more Catholic than Protestant, 325 Ephesus, Council of, 91 „ False Synod of, 95 note Epiphanius, Saint, 33 note „ on the Primacy of Peter, 33 Episcopius, 222 Equinox, Vernal, 70 note Era, Christian or Vulgar, 14 note Erasmus and the Humanists, 266 note Eucharist, The, as in the Confession of Augsburg, 285 „ varied, 285 „ Liither's docti'ine on, 286, 287 „ „ how modified, 286 „ Zwingli's doctrine on, 286 „ Calvin's doctrine on, 286 Eudistes, 333 Engenius II., Pope, 417 note, 418 Eugenius III., Pope, 41 ,, Saint Bernard's remarkable letters to, 41, 43 „ Services of, to the Chui-ch, 223 „ Concordat of, with Frederick I., 223 Eusebians, Arians so called, 111 note Eusebius, Arian Bishop of Nicomcdia, 111 7iote Eusebius Pamphili, historian, 44 note Eutyches, 95 note Evaristus, Saint, Pope, 426 note „ divides Rome into parishes, 426 Evangelical Church in Germany, 339 Exarchs, 142 note Excommunication, 109, 110, 216, 219, 228 F^NliLGN, on the Power of the Popes in the Middle Ages, 218 Fesaler, on Papal Infallibility, 510 Filioque, 88, 124, 125 Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, 306 „ reputed author of the Defence of the Seven Sacraments, 275 „ Reply of, to Luther's attack on Henry VIII., 278 INDEX. 551 Fisher, named Cardinal, 307 „ beheaded by Henry VII T., 306 Flavian, Saint, Archbishop of Constantinople, 95 note, 119 Florence, Council of, 395 Foreign Missions, Society of the, 333 France, Material progress and prosperity of, 341, 312 note Franco-German War, 385 Frederick I., Emperor, 223-225 Frederick II., 226 note French Revolution, 344 ,, Church property sequestered in France, 344 „ Amount of Church revenue, 344 ,, Number of clergy, 344 „ New stipends of clergy, 344 " Civil Constitution of the Clergy," 344-346 „ Bishops and Priests to be elected to benefices, 345 „ Jews and Infidels to vote, 345 ,, Reduction of Episcopal sees, 345 ,, Religions orders abolished, 345 „ The Clergy refuse to take the oath, 345 ,, Assermentds and Insermentds, 345 note „ Massacre of the clergy, 345 „ Civil Constitution condemned by Pius YI., 346 „ Murder of the King, Queen, and other members of the Royal Family, 346 „ Numbers of the victims of the, 346 note „ Christianity proscribed, 346 „ The Sabbath abolished, 346 „ The Papal States invaded, 347 „ Ruinous conditions of armistice imposed on the Pope, 3 17 ,, Second invasion of the Papal States, 348 „ Treaty of Tolentino, 348 „ Further cessions and indemnity exacted, 348 „ Decree that the Temporal sovereignty of the Popes should cease to exist, 349 ,, Joseph Bonaparte at Rome, 349 ,, General Duphot shot, 349 „ Tree of Liberty planted, 350 „ Berthier's inflated address, 350 ,, Brutal treatment of Pins VI., 350 „ Pius carried off, a prisoner, 351 ,, „ death of, at Valence, 351 ,, Spoliation of Rome and its tenntories, 352 ,, Anti-Christian conduct of the invaders, 352 Fulradns, Abbot of St. Denys, 160, 164 Gallican Ai'ticles, detailed, 514-516 ,, by whom confirmed, 516 „ condemned by the Church, 517 552 INDEX. GalUcan, Articles, pronounced against by Italy, Spain, Austria, Hungary, and Belgium, 517 „ annulled by Louis XIV., 517 >, renounced by the bishops of France, 517 Garibaldi invades the Papal States, 384 Gelasius I., Pope, 109 note „ on the appellate jurisdiction of the Holy See, 109 „ on the Patriarchal Sees, 393 Genseric and Saint Leo the Great, 140 German Empire, Thirty-six per cent, of the population Catholic, 328, 336 „ Thirty-eight distinct Protestant Churches in the, 339 Gerson, John, and the Great Schism of the West, 247 Gibbon, on Saints Peter and Paul at Rome, 64, 65 „ on the Ba^iihca of Saint Peter, 65 ,, on the Fable of Pope Joan, 423 note Giustiniani, Cardinal, 472-474 Gladstone, Mr., on Papal Infallibilit\', 510 „ on the civil allegiance of Catholics, 510 " Gloria in Excelsis Deo," The, 428 Golden Bull, The, 188 note Golden Rose, The, 210 note Gomar and Gomarists, 321 note Gospel of Saints Matthew, Luke, John, and Mark, 9 note, 50, 51, 51 note Greek Schism, Principal cause of, 123 „ Political differences conduced to, 123 Greek Schismatics, all hold those Catholic dogmas which are rejected by Protestants, 405 Gregory of Nazianzum, Saint, 33 jwte J, on the Px'imacy of Peter, 34 Gregory of Nyssa, Saint, 34 note „ on the Primacy of Peter, 34 Gregory the Great, Saint, Pope, 40 note „ on the Primacy of Peter, 40 ,, saves Italy, 14-1-146 „ and Saint Augustine, 399 note Gregory II. Saint, Pope, 148 note „ resists the Iconoclasts, 152 „ remonstrates with the Emperor Leo, 152 „ Life of, sought by Leo, 152 „ solicits aid of Charles Martcl, 152 „ names Charles Patrician of Rome, 153 Gregory III., Pope, condemns Leo and his son, 153 „ besieged by the Lombards, 154 ,, solicits aid of Charles Martcl, 154 Gregory V. the first German Pope, 193 note Gregory VII., Saint, Election of, 196 „ Letter of, to Lanfranc, 198 note ,, Measures of, against Simony, etc., 200 „ „ on Investitures, 200 et seq. INDEX. 553 Gregory VII., reproves Henry IV. of Germany, 202 „ excommuuicates Henry, 203 „ absolves Henry at Canossa, 204 „ Dealings of, with other princes, 205 et seq. „ Kings rendering fealty to, 206 et seq. „ Relations of, with various Christian sovei'oigns, 206 ot seq. „ requires British and other foreign bishops to visit Rome, 209 „ requires William the Conqueror to render fealty, and to pay Peter's Pence, 209 „ pained by William's refusal of the former, 210 „ Attention of, to the affairs of the Church in the East, 211 ,, Sacrilegious outrage upon, by Cenci, 212 „ driven from Rome by Henry IV., 213 ,, dies at Salerno, 21-1 ,, Character of, 215 ,, Opinions on the public life of, 215-221 „ Mainspring of the policy of, 219 „ compared to Charlemagne and Peter the Great, 220 „ Monastic institutes of the time of, 220 „ Far-reaching results of the reign of, 215, 221 Gregory X., 230, 231, 232, 437, 438 Gregory XI. definitively removes the Papal court from Avignon to Rome, 338 Gregory XII., 246-252 ,, formally re-convokes the Council of Constance, 251 ,, renounces the Papal throne, 252 Gregory XIII. reforms the Calendar, 498 et seq. Grotius, 293 note ,, anxious for the union of all Christians, 293 7iote „ advocates the Primacy of the Pope, 293 note Guelphs and Ghibellines, 239 note Guizot, on Gregory VII., 219 ,, on the Power of the Popes in the Middle Ages, 216 Hapsburg. See Rudolph von Haj^sburg Hardouin, Pere, 21 note Hassoun, Cardinal, 406 note „ Services of, to the Church in the East, 406 note Hegesippns, Saint, 68 note „ Journey of, to Rome, a.d. 157, 69 ,, on the Popes of his time, 69 Henry, Saint, crowned Emperor, 193 „ Diploma of, 180 Henry IV. of Germany, 197, 203 7wte „ remonstrated with by Gregory VII., 202 „ attem})ts to depose Gregory VII., 203 „ excommmiicated by Gregory VII., 203 ,, absolved at Canossa by Gregory VII., 201 „ deposed by the German Princes, 205 „ slays Rudolph in battle, and recovers his kingdom, 213 554 INDEX. Henry IV. invades the Papal dominions, 213 „ captures Rome, and elects an antipope, 213 ,, deposed by his son, 214 Death of, 214 Henry VIII. and Luther, 275 ,, Defence of the Seven Sacraments by, 275 et seq. ,, Title of Fidei Defensor conferred on, by the Pope, 276 „ replied to by Luther, 277 „ Gross abuse of, by Luthex", 278 „ Subsequent apology of Lutlier to, 279 „ Marriage of, to Catherine of Aragon, 303 „ applies to Pope Clement VII. to annul the marriage, 301. „ repudiates Catheriue, and marries Anne Bole\ n. 304 ,, breaks with the Pope, 305 ,, enacts the oath of Royal Supremacy, 305 ,, belieads Sir Thomas More, 305 ,, beheads Bishop Fisher, 306 ,, beheads Anne Boleyn, 307 ,, marries Jane Seymour, 307 „ marries Anne of Cleves, 308 ,, repudiates her, 308 ,, marries Catheriue Howard, 308 „ beheads her, 308 „ marries Catherine Parr, 309 „ orders her impeachment, 309 „ Narrow escape of Catherine, 309 Death of Henry, 309 „ Succession settled by, 309 note „ Reb'gious ordinances of. See Church of England „ Suppression of monasteries by, 336, 337 Heraclas, Patriarch of Constantinople, third century, 6 vote Heraclius, Emperor, favours the Monothelites, 101 Heruli, The, invade Italy, 141 Hesse, Philip, Landgrave of, and Luther, 310 „ applies to Luther for licence to have two wives. 310 ,, Application of, granted, 310 Hierarchy, Meaning of, 388 „ of Divine institution, 388 ,, Power of ordination im])arted to Bishops, 389 „ Bishops, 389 ,, Priests or Presbyters, 389 ,, Terms bishop and preshyter, in Apostolic times, 390 ,, ,, more strictly applied after the first century, 390 „ Saint Thomas thereon, 390 „ TertuUian on the superior jurisdiction of bishojjs, 390 „ Priests Penitentiary, 390 ,, How bishops were first chosen, 391 „ Three bishops required for ordaining a bislio]). 391 ,, Exceptional cases, in an emergency. 391 INDEX. 555 Hierarchy, a bishop's see constituting a city, 301 „ Chorepiscopi, 392 note „ A Diocese, 392 ,, Metropolitans or Archbishops, 392 „ Primates, 392 „ Patriarchs, 392 ,, Jurisdiction of the above, 392 „ The five great Patriarchal Churches, 393 „ Eome, 393 ,, Alexandria, 393 „ Antioch, 393 „ Jerusalem, 394 ,, Constantinople, 394 ,, Pope Gelasius I. thereon, 393 „ Constantinople promoted to second place by Twelfth General Council, 394 ,, General Council of Florence thereon, 395 „ The Roman See, the head and fountain of the Episcopate, 395 „ Saint Cypi'ian thereon, 395 „ The Emperor Valentinian III. on the Primacy of the Roman See, A.D. 445, 396 „ The Emperor Marcian and General Council of Chalcedon thereon, A.D. 451, 397 „ The Metropolitan of Ancient Epirus thereon, a.d. 516, 397 „ Elections of Bishops, fi'om an early period, confirmed by the Pope, 398 „ The Pallium, 399 note „ The Pope, 399 „ His titles, 400 „ The Cardinals, 400 „ The Cardinal Bishops, Priests, and Deacons, 400 „ The twelve Patriarchal Sees, 400 „ Residential Sees of the Latin rite, 401 „ ,, in Europe, 401 „ „ in Asia, 401 „ ,, in Africa, 402 ,, ,, in America, 402 „ „ in Oceania, 402 ,, Residential Sees of the Oriental rite, 403 „ ,, Grajco-Roumenian, 403 „ „ Graeco-Ruthenian, 403 „ ,, Grseco-Bulgarian, 403 „ „ Gra5co-Melchite, 403 „ „ Armenian, 403 „ „ Syriac, 404 „ „ Syro-Chaldaic, 404 ,, ,, Syro-Maronite, 404 „ Coptic Rite, under Vicars Apostolic, 404 „ ,, Copto-Egyptian, 40-t 556 INDEX. Hierarchy, Coptic Eite, Copto-Ethiopic or Abyssiniau, 404 „ Considerable difference between the Latin and Oriental rites, 405 „ Districts of the Latin rite, 404 „ „ of the several Oriental rites, 405-409 „ Liturgical language of each of the latter, 406-409 „ Maronite Christians, why so called, 407 „ Melchite Christians, why so called, 406 „ Marriage of the Oriental clergy, 409 „ Number of occupants of the Residential Sees, 410 „ Titular Sees, 410 „ ,, no longer called Sees in partihns hifidelium, 410 ,, Archbishoi^s and bisho^DS of Titular Sees, in countries without a hierarchy, 410 ,, ,, in Great Britain, formerly, 410, 411 „ Delegations Apostolic, in Europe, Asia, and Africa, 412 ,, Vicariates Apostolic, in Europe, 412 „ „ in Asia, 412 „ „ in Africa, 412 „ „ in America, 412 ,, ,, in Oceania, 413 „ Prefectures Apostolic, throughout the world, 413 ,, Synojisis of the Hiei'archical Titles of the Chm-ch, 413 ,, Coadjutor Bishops, 414 ,, Auxiliary Bishops, 414 ,, Apostolic Nuncios, 414 „ ,, Internuncios, 414 ,, High Officials of the Papal Court, 415 ,, Titles vacant on March 31st, 1882, 414 note Higden, Ranulf, 75 note ,, on Peter's Pence, 75 note Hilary, Saint, Bishop of Poitiers, 32 note ,, on the Primacy of Peter, 32 Hildebrand. See Gregory VII. Hochstraten, the Dominican, 261 Holy Ghost, The Divinity of the, denied by Maccdonius, 87 ,, Procession of the, 124 Holy pictiu'cs and statues. Destruction of, in the eighth century, 148 ,, ,, in i-eigns of Edward VI. and Elizabeth, 506 ,, Saint Gregory the Great, on, 507 ,, Catholic Catechism, on, 507 note Honorius, Pope, 102 note ,, Case of, considered, 104-107 Howai'd, Cardinal, 451 Humanists, 266 note Hurtcr, historian of Innocent III., 226 note Hygiuus, Pope, 109 Iconoclasts of the eighth century, 1 18 INDEX. 557 " Iconoclastic fury " of Edward VI. and Elizabeth, 506 Ij:^natius, Saint, third bishop of Antioch, 30 note ,, first uses the word Catliolic, 30 7infe Ignatius, Saint, Patriarch of Constantinople, 120 Ignatius of Loyola, Saint, and his companions, 331 Immaculate Conception, The, 528 ,, a very ancient belief, 528 ,, Council of Trent thereon, 528 ,, Pius IX. collects the suffrages of the disijorsed bishops thereon, A.D. 1S19, 528 „ „ invites all bishops, to whoui convenient, to come to Rome to assist him thereon, 529 „ „ defines the dogma, 529 ,, ,, Remarkable scene on the occasion, 529 Ina visits Rome, 74 „ establishes Peter's Pence, 75 Indulgences, under Julius II., 257 ,, under Leo X., 257 ,, Publication of, 257 „ Alleged abuses therein, 257 „ Catholic doctrine of, 258 ,, „ errors concerning, 258 Infallibility. See Paj^al Infallibility Innocent L, Pope, 90 note „ confirms the councils of Carthage and Milevis, 91 Innocent III., Pope, 226 note „ Energetic policy of, 227 Inquisition, The, 445 „ a political institution in Spain, 416 note „ Cruelties of, in Spain, 446 note Interdict, The, 228 note Internuncios Apostolic, 410 Investitures, 200, 201 „ Abuses of, 201, 202 „ The question settled, 222 Ireland, Saint Celestine, Pope, sends Patrick to, 74 Irentens, Saint, second Bishop of Lyons, 31 note „ on the Primacy of tho Roman Church, 31, 32, 72 Iron Crown of Lombardy, 171 note Italian legislation. Tendency of, to destroy Christianity, 531-533 Jacor Baradsous or Zanzala, 405 note Jacobites, 405 note Jane Seymour, 307, 308 Jerome, Saint, 36 note „ on the Primacy of Peter, 36, 37 „ on Saint Peter's fixing his See at Rome, 44 „ on Saint Peter being twenty-five years Bishop of Rome, 59 Jesuits, The, 331 558 INDEX. Jesuits, great services of 331, 498 Jews, The prejudices of the, in ancient times, 17 Jews and Christians banished from liome, a.d. W, 54 John the Evangelist, Saint, 67 „ Gospel of, 9 note John XII., Pope, transfers the Empire to the Germans, 191, 19:i John, King of England, and the Interdict, 228 note John XXIII., Pope, 248-251 ,, convokes the Council of Constance, 248 „ renounces the Papacy, 250 „ is formally deposed by the Council, 251 Julius I., Saint, Pope, 111 note „ Appeals to, a.d. 341, 111, 112 Julius II., Pope, 240 note „ The motive of his warlike operations, 240 „ and Indulgences, 257 Justification, Luther's doctrine of, 272, 273, 300 Justin Martyr, Saint, 128 note „ on the great number of Christians in second century, 128 Justinian, Emperor, Wise legislation of, 483 note The Code of, 483 note, 484 „ The greatest of all legislators, 483 7iote Kenrick, Archbishop, 2 note Keys, The power of the, 14, 489 Knox, John, 299 Ladeuchi, Annals of, 53 note Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, 195 7wte Laurence, Saint, and the treasures of the Church, 4-89 Lazarists or Fathers of the Mission, 331 Leap Year, 499 note Leibnitz, Biographical account of, 478 ,, on the Popes as supreme arbiters, in the Middle Ages, 477 ,, advocates the Primacy of the Bishop of Rome, 524 Leo, Saint, the Great, Pope, 39 note „ on the Primacy of Peter, 39, 40 ,, on Saint Peter's establishing his Sec in Rome, 47 ,, presides by his legates at the Council of Cbalcedon, 95 „ Letter of the Emperor Martian to, 96 „ " Peter hath spoken by Leo," 97 ,, and Attila, 140 ,, and Genseric, 140 Leo II., Saint, Pope, 103, 103 note Leo III., Pope, 172 note „ Sacrilegious assault upon, 172 ,, avenged by Charlemagne, 173 ,, visited by Charlemagne, 173 „ Charges against, and how dealt with, 174 INDEX. 559 Leo TIL, Pope, crowns Cliarlemagno Emperor, 175 Leo IV., Pope, .saves Rome from the Saracens, I'JO ,, Voltaire's eulogium on, 190 note Leo X., Pope, Character of, 263 ,, publishes Indulgences, 257 ,, issues a Bull explauatuiy of, 263 ,, cites Luther to Rome, 262 ,, issues a Bull against Luther, 26 i Leo XIII., 7t, 256 note, 468, 471, 537 Leo the Isaurian, Emperor, 148, 150, 154 Leo Ostiensis, 166 note Limina Apostolorum, 164 note Linus, Saint, second Bishop of Rome, 55, 67 note Lombards, why so called, 142 7iote „ conquer Italy, 142 besiege Rome, 152, 1.54, 155, 163, 168 Lombardy, annexed by Charlemagne, 171 ,, Iron Crown of, 171 note Louis I., Emperor, 189 Diploma of, 179 Louis of Bavaria, and his antipope, 238 Lucius, the first Christian British king, 73 Luitprand, King of the Lombards, 152, 153 Luitprand, Canon of Pa via, 421 Luke, Saint, Gospel of, 9 note Luna, Peter de. See Benedict XIII. Antipope Luther, Birth of, 254 „ Early life of, 255 et seq. ,, attacks the doctrine of Indulgences, 260 ,, The celebrated propositions of, thereon, 260 ,, Violent language of, against the Church of Rome, 2(jl ,, Unorthodox teaching of, 262 „ cited to appear before Leo X., 262 ,, Insulting letter of, to Leo X., 264 ,, burns the Pope's Bull, 266 „ at the Diet of Worms, 267 „ refuses to retract, 267 ,, placed under the ban of the Empire, 268 ,, a willing prisoner at Wartburg, 268 ,, translates the Bible into German, 268 „ Inaccuracies therein, 269, 270 „ Results of doctrines of, 271 „ Justification doctinne of, 272, 273 „ on the Babylonian Captivity of the Church, 272 ,, on the Secular Magistracy, 273, 274 note „ on the Peasants' War, 275 „ Abusive reply of, to Henry VIIL, 277, 278 „ Subsequent apology of, to Henry VllL, 279 ,, throws off the monastic habit, 279 560 IN'DEX. Luther marries Catherine Bora, 279 Observations of, on his own marriage, 280 publishes his two Catechisms, 281 and the Confession of Augsburg, 282 et seq. Doctrine of, on the Eucharist, 286, 287 censures the Sacramentarians, 287 upholds the Papacy against Zwingli, 287 declares that in the Papacy is true Christianity, 288 at the Conference of Marbui-g, 288 on Predestination, 299 Character of, 289 Sermon of, on Marriage, 290 sanctions the bigamy of the Landgrave of Hesse, 290, 310, 311 Macedoxius, 87 note „ Heresy of, 87 ilagisteruijn, The, 56 Maistre, Comte de, 218 Manning, Cardinal, on Pope Honorius, 106 „ as a member of the Sacred College, 444 „ Date of creation, and title of, 451 „ on the Vatican Council, 522 Marburg, Conference of, 288 Mark, Saint, Gospel of, 9 note, 50, 51 note „ the Interpreter of Peter, 51 „ founds the sees of Aquileia and Alexandria, 52 „ suffers martyrdom, 52 7iote Maronites, 407 Marriage of the Oriental clergy, 409 Martian, Emperor, Letter of, to Saint Leo the Great, 96 Martin, Saint, Pope, 149 Martin V., Pope, 253 Martijrium, 164 note Matilda, The Countess, 204 note ,, Donation of, to the Holy See, 201 note Matthew, Saint, Gospel of, 9 note, 51 note Maur, Congregation of Saint, 496 Maxcntius, Emperor, 129 Maximus, Abbot, 101 Mazzini and his colleagues, 380-383 Mclancthon, 291-294 „ advocates the Primacy of the Pope, 292, 293 Melchites, 406 Mercy, Order of, for the redemption of captives, 481 Merovingian line closed, 161 Metropolitans, 392 Mezzofanti, Cardinal, 494 note Milan and Berlin decrees, 360 Milevis, Council of, 90 INDEX. 561 Missionary labours of the Cliui'uU, 492 Monastic Institutions of the Middle Ages, 200, 195 „ Dugald Stewart on, 496, 497 note „ Voltaii'e on, 497 Monophysite heresj-, 95, 95 note Monothelite heresy, 101 Monte Cassino, 156 More, Sir Thomas, 278, 305, 306 Miilhausen, Battle of, 275 note Muntzer, 274, 275 note Murat, 360 note Napoleon I. For early history, see French Revolution Concordat of, with the Pope, a.d. 1801, 354 restores Catholic worship in France, 354 crowned Emperor, a.d. 1804, 354 assumes the iron crown of Lombardy, 171 note Ambitious views of, regarding the Papacy, 358 invades the Papal States and Capital, a.d. 1808, 359 deposes Pius VII., and annexes his States to France, 359-361 excommunicated by the Pope, 362 imprisons the Pope at Savona, two years, 363 ,, ,, at Fontaineblean, two years and a half, 363 •and Cardinal Pacca, at levee, 362 note visits Pius VII. at Fontainebleau, 367 prematurely publishes the Concordat of Fontaineblean, 368 Abdication of, 368, 369 Napoleon III., Letter of, to Pius IX., in 1859, 382 note ,, Convention of, with Victor Emanuel, regarding the Papal States, 383 ,, sends a military force, to protect the Papal States, in 1867, 384 „ defeats and expels the invaders, 384 ,, Capitulation of, at Sedan, 385 Natalius, 110 Nero Emperor, 59 note, 55 Nestorius, 91 note ,, Heresy of, 91 Newman, Cardinal, on the doctrine that the Pope is Anti-Christ, 2 ,, on Papal Infallibility, 510 ,, Date of creation and title of, 451 ,, as a member of the Sacred College, 444 New Testament, 12 note Nice, Council of, 84 ,, Papal confirmation of Acts of, 86 Novatian, the first antipope, 29 note, 110 Novatus, the schismatic, 29 noie, 110 Nuncios, Apostolic, 414 OBr,ATES of Saint Charles, 333 2 0 562 INDEX. CEcolampadius, 296 Optatus of Milevis, Saint, 3-i note „ on the Primacy of Petei', 3i, 72 Oratorians of Saint Philip Neri, 333 French, 333 Origen, 27 noie „ on the Primacy of Peter, 27 ,, Judgment of, by Pope Fabian, 110 Orosius, 49 note „ on Peter's going to Rome, 49 Osius, Bishop of Cordova, 85 Ostia, The Cardinal Bishop of, 443 Ostrogoths, The, invade Italy, 141 Otho I., the first German Emperor, 192 „ Diploma of, 180 Pacca, Cardinal, 362-364 Pagi, Francis, 6 note Pallium, The, 399 note Panvini, Onuphrio, 436 note Papacy, Erroneous ideas about the, 1 „ The, Benefits of, to mankind, 475 „ See Popes „ a supreme tribunal in the midst of the anarchy of the Middle Ages, 476 ,, repressing the excesses of sovereigns, 476 ,, protecting, relieving, and consoling the oppressed and the helpless, 476 „ a bond of connection between the most distant nations, 476 „ in its relation with Slavery, 480 „ Enactments of the first Christian Emperor on Slavery, insi>ired by the Church, 481 ,, Enfranchisement of Slaves, encouraged and blessed by the Church, 481 „ The liberation of Christian slaves by the Church, 481 „ in its relation with Jurisprudence, 482 „ The laws of Constantino the Great, 483 ,, The Theodosian Code, 483 note „ The Justinian Code, 483 note 484 ,, The laws of the Visigoths, 483 note ,, ,, all largely influenced by the Popes, 483-485 ,, Examples thereof, 484, 485 „ Canon Law, 485, 487 ,, Decretals, 486 note „ The Ci-usades, 487 ,, The care of the poor, widows, oi-phans, and destitute sick, 489 „ Asylums and hospitals, 490 ,, The Foreign Missions, 492 „ The Propaganda, 493 ,, ,, Academical exhibition of, 493 ,, The preservation of Literature and Science, 495 ,, The Benedictines, 196 INDEX. 563 Papacy, the Congregation of Saint Maur, 496 „ Voltaire on the Benedictines, 497 „ Eflects of the Papacy on all the Literature and all the Jurisi^rudence of the Middle Ages, 497 „ has striven to make Literature, Science, and the Arts, the hand- maids of Eoligion, 498 ,, The great Libraries and Galleries amassed by the Popes, 498 ,, Their muniiicent patronage of men of learning and genius, 498 ,, Keformation of the Calendar by Gregory XIIL, 498 ,, Patronage and development of the Fine Arts in the service of Re- ligion, 501 ,, Sir David Wilkie thereon, 502 note „ The perfection of Ecclesiastical architecture, 502 „ The Gothic Cathedral, 502 ,, The Dudmo of Southern Europe, 503 „ Saint Peter's, 503 „ ,, compared with Saint Paul's in London, 503 „ „ Michael Angelo's grand conception regarding the Dome, 503 Papal Elections, Ancient, 416 ,, Account of, by Saint Cyprian, a.d. 251, 416 „ Imperial confirmation gi-adually introduced, 416 ,, Lothaire's enactment, 417 „ Promise of Pope Eugenius II., 418 ,, Provisions of the Imperial dijjlomas, 418 „ Promise of Pope Leo IV., 418 „ In periods of anarchy, the Papal throne contended for by ambitious factions, 420 ,, A few unworthy persons elected, 420 „ None of these ever made an Ex Cathedra definition, 420 „ Gross exaggerations concerning them, 421 ,, Luitprand, canon of Pavia, the main authority, 421, 422 „ Doctor Miley thereon, 422 note „ Monseignevu- Justin Fevre, on Pope Alexander VI., 422 note „ M. Leonetti, on Alexander VI., 422 note „ Fable of Pope Joan, 423 note „ Falsity thereof proved by Protestant writers, 423 note ,, Judicious change in mode of election, made by Pope Nicholas II., A.D. 1059^423 ,, The Pope to be chosen by the Cardinals, 424 „ The last Imperial confirmation of a Papal election, 424 „ The first Pope chosen by the Cardinals exclusively, 425 Papal Elections, Modern, 458 „ Ceremonies immediately on the Pope's death, 458 ,, The Cardinal Camerlengo assumes the sovereign authority, 458 ,, The Pope's death notified to foreign courts, 459 „ The Cardinals are assembled, 459 „ The Nine-days solemn obsequies, 459 „ The Cardinals assemble for the Conclave, 459 564 INDEX. Papal Elections, the procession, 460 „ The closing of the Conclave, 461 ,j The first day of election, 462 „ Arrangements in the chapel, 462 ,, The three recognized modes of electing a Pope in modei-n times, 462 et seq. „ The first : As it were by Inspiration, 463 ,, The second : By Compromise, 463 „ The third : By Scrutiny, or Scrutiny and Accessus, 463 „ The mode of voting, 464 „ The scrutineers, 464, 465 „ The Accessus, 466 ,, Ceremonies on an election taking place, 466 ,, Change of name by a Pope, on election, 467 note ,, The Obedience or Adoration of the Cardinals, 468, 468 note „ The Fisherman's Ring, 468 „ The election announced to the people, 468 j, The solemn Apostolical Benediction Urhi et Orhi, 469 ,, Homage rendered to the new Pontiff, 470 ,, Coronation of a Pope, 470 note ,,, Duration of recent conclaves, 471 „ Veto of Catholic powers, 471 ,, ,, exercised by Spain in conclave of 1830-31, 472 Papal Infallibility, 508 ,, Much misconception about meaning of, 508 „ Definition of, by the Vatican Council, 508 „ A Pope may eiT, as an individual, 509 „ But he cannot err, when speaking ex CatkednX, 510 ,, Errors of those who lose sight of this distinction, 510 ,, Mr. Gladstone on the civil allegiance of Catholics, 510 „ Monseigneur Pessler, Secretary to the Vatican Council, 510 „ His " True and False Infallibility of the Popes," 510 „ His lucid reply to Dr. Schulte, 510 note, 511 et seq. „ an open question, until defined by the Vatican Council, 513 „ The four Gallican Articles, 513-517 ,, Opinions on Papal Infallibility, in past times, 513, 518 ,, Sylvius, 250 years ago, 518 „ Duval, about the same period, 519 „ Infallibility implied in the Primacy, 520 ,, Peter lives and judges in his successors, 520, 521 „ The legate Philip thereon, at Council of Ephesus, a.d. 431, 520 „ Saint Leo the Great thereon, about a.d. 450, 520 „ The Council of Chalcedon thereon, a.d. 451, 521 „ The Sixth General Council thereon, a.d. 680, 521 „ The Vatican Council thereon, a.d. 1870, 521 ,, The Nineteenth General Council, of the Vatican, 522 „ „ Voting of, on Papal Infallibility, 523 „ by no means an unreasonable doctrine, 523, 524 „ Important quotation from Leibnitz, 524 INDEX. 565 Papal Infallibility, when defining ex CathedrA, the Pope avails himself of all aid within his reach, 527 ,, He can, should he deem it advisable, consult the bishops, dis- persed, 527 ,, This course piirsued by Pius IX., in defining the Immaculate Conception, in 1819, 528 „ The definition of Papal Infallibility the act of a General Council, 529 Papal Territories, Extent of, at various periods, 136, 187, 232 note, 371 „ Spoliation of, 190, 347, 348, 359, 361 Papias, 51 Piiraguay, Jesuit missions in, 492 Parish, 426 Passionists, The, 333 Patriarchs, 392 Patriarchal Churches, 393-395 Patrician, 143 )Lvto ,, dignity conferred on Charles M artel by the Pope, 152 note Patrick, Saint, Apostle of Ireland, 74 Patrimonies of the Chiu'ch, 136 „ How administered by St. Gregory the Great, 137 Paul, Saint, 20, 21, 55, 56, 57, 58 note Paul the Deacon, 137 note Paul III., Pope, convenes the Council of Trent, 312 Paul's Saint, Cathedral, London, 503-505 Pearson, John, Bishop of Chester, 63 note „ on Saint Peter in Rome, 63, 64 Peasants' War, The, 274, 275 Pelagius, 90 note „ Heresy of, 90 Penitentiaries, Major and Minor, 390, 453 Pepin, receives Pope Stephen III. 160 ,, is made Patrician of Rome, 161 „ replaces Childeric III., as King of France, 161 ,, marches into Italy to aid the Pope, 163, 164 ,, conquers Astolphus, King of the Lombards, 163, 164 „ The Deed of donation of, 164 „ Cities and territories comprised therein, 165 Petavius, on Chronology, 59 note Peter, Saint, Catholic belief regarding the Primacy of, 13 „ Scriptural proofs of the Primacy of, 8 et seq. „ Early Fathers on the Primacy of, 25 „ Councils on the Primacy of, 395, 520, 521 „ Protestant writers on the Primacy of, 22, 63, 64 „ Origin of the name Peter, 9 note „ Exclusive privileges of, 13 „ transmitted all his power and privileges to his snccessors, 13 „ Preaching of, before going to Rome, 4'6, 51. „ fotiuds the see of Antioch, 45 566 INDEX. Peter, Saint, appoints Evodius his successor at Antioch, 45 ,, goes to Rome, 18, 48 „ first sojourns with the Jews in Rome, 49 „ removes to the house of Pudens, 49 ,, dwells therein seven years, 49 „ baptizing in Rome, 49 7wte „ " The Preaching of Peter," a very ancient work, 45 note „ authorizes Mark to wi-ite his Gospel, 50 „ writes his First Epistle, 51 „ Praise of this Epistle by Erasmus and Grotius, 51, 52 ,, dates it from " Babylon," as Rome was then commonly called, 52 „ Second Epistle of, 52, 56 „ sends Mark to found the see of Aquileia, 52 „ sends Mark to found the see of Alexandria, 52 n sends many others to found sees in various countries, 53 „ travels much, founding Churches, 54 „ appoints auxiliary bishops of Rome, 55 „ is compelled to leave Rome, a.d. 49, 18, 54 ,, is present at the Council of Jerusalem, 18, 54 ,, head and director thereof, 18 ,, Acquiescence of all in decisions of, 18 ,, Intercourse of with Saint Paul, 20, 21 „ reproved by Saint Paul, at Antioch, 21 „ Humility and exemplary moderation of, 21 ,, arrested by order of Nero, 56 ,, escapes from prison, 57 „ has a vision of our Lord, 5/ „ returns to pi'ison, 57 „ is crucified, 57 ,, Interment of, 58 note „ Year of death of, 59 „ Date of foundation of the Church of Rome by, 59 „ Bishop of Rome twenty-five years, 59, 59 note, 60 „ Feast of his Chair at Antioch, 45 7iote >> ,) at Rome, 59 ,, Ancient writers on the martyrdom of, 58 „ His being at Rome, denied by a few Protestants, 61 » » asserted by Protestant divines of high repute, 61-64 » )) proved by ancient monuments, 64 Peter's, Saint, Basilica, 503-505, 504 note „ Pence, 75 note Peter Lombard, 255 note Petrarch, 235 Philip Augustus and the Interdict, 228 note Philip Landgrave of Hesse. See Hesse Philo Judajus, 53 note „ met Saint Peter in Rome, 53 Pius VI., 345 note INDEX. 567 Pius VI. condemns the " Civil Constitution of the Clergy," in France, 345. 346 „ Intrepidity of, 346 „ Brutal treatment of, by the French, 350 ,, carried oiF, a prisoner, 350 „ meets the deposed King of Sardinia, 351 „ edifying sentiments of, 351 „ death of, at Valence, 351 Pius VII., 353 note „ Concordat of, with France, a.d. 1801, 354 ,, makes extraordinary chauges in the Church of France, 354 ,, goes to Paris, to crown Napoleon, 355 „ Slights passed on, by Napoleon, 356, 357 „ Firmness of, 358 „ refuses to annul Prince Jerome's marriage with Miss Patterson, 359 „ States of, invaded by France, 359 „ a prisoner in Rome, 360 ,, adopts the Berlin and Milan decrees, 360 „ refuses to make war against England, 361 „ deprived of his territories by France, 361 „ jn'otests against this spoliation, 361 note „ excommunicates Napoleon, 362 „ dethroned, and carried off, a prisoner, 363 „ Brutal treatment of, 364, 365 „ at Savona two years, 363 ,, at Fontainebleau two and a half years, 363 ,, kept ignorant of passing events, 366 ,, urged to make concessions to Napoleon, 366, 367 „ visited by the Emperor at Fontainebleau, 367 ,, signs preliminary articles of Concordat of 1813, 367 ,, Principal articles of Concordat considered, 368 note „ addresses letter of revocation to Napoleon, 369 „ liberated from captivity, 369 „ returns to Eome, 370 „ Sympathy for, by three non-Catholic sovereigns, 370 „ „ especially the Prince Regent of England, 370 „ Friendly relations of, with England, 371 „ Teri'itories all restored to, by Treaty of Vienna, 371 ,, Works of Art restored to, 372 Pius IX., Extent of Papal States, early in reign of, 373, 374 after 1861, 379 Revolution of 1848, 381 Assassination of Count Rossi, 381 flees to Gaeta, 381 aided by Austria and France, 382 restored to his thi'one, 382 issues his Motu Proprio of 1849, 374, 382 New organization of his States by, 374, 375 Relative numbers of clergy and laity in government of, 375, 376 Revenue and Expeuditiu-e of States of, 378 568 INDEX. Pius IX., Strength of Pontifical Army under, 379 „ Great reforms of, in Papal States, 380 „ witnesses events of 18o9, 382 ,, deprived of the Legations, 382 „ rejects the Convention of Napoleon III. and Victor Emanuel, regai-d- ing the Papal States, 384 ,, States of, invaded by Garibaldi, 384 „ Invaders expelled by the French, 384 ,, Imjjortant letter to, from King Victor Emanuel, in 1870, 385 Eeply of, to the King, 386 „ Papal States invaded by the King, 386 „ Rome taken, 387 „ The Plebiscite, 387 „ The King assumes the government, 387 „ Royal decree regarding the Pope, 387 „ Appeal of, to Victor Emanuel, against the conscription of tlie clergy, 531 „ collects the suffrages of the Bishops, dispersed, on the Immaculate Conception, 528 ,, defines the dogma thereof, 529 „ Remarkable scene on the occasion, 529 „ convokes the Vatican Council, 522 „ defines the dogma of Papal Infallibility, the Sacred Council approv- ing, 523 Polycarp, Saint, 69 note, 70 Poor Law, The, in United Kingdom, 337, 492 Pope, Origin and meaning of the title, 5-7 ,, the title applied to bishops generally, in the early ages, 5 ,, „ exclusively attributed to the Bishop of Rome, from the ninth century, 6 ,, Catholic doctrine about the Pope, 5 „ The Pojje deemed Anti-Christ by Protestants, 1, 2 ,, Devotion of Catholics of all ages and nations to the Pope, 3, 139 „ ,, of many, formerly Anglicans, to the Pope, 3 „ Supreme power and jurisdiction of the Pope symbolized by the Keys, 14 „ All Ecclesiastical causes to be referred to the Pope, 91, 115, 117 „ presides, either in person or by his legates, at all General Councils, 85, 96 note „ The Dogmatic letter of the Pope, the authority aud guide of General Councils, 93 ,, The approval and confirmation of the Pope, essential to the validity of the decrees of councils, 82, 84, 114, 115, 118, 119 „ Office of tlio Pope, to communicate decrees, thus ratified, to all the churches, 84 „ Rescript of the Pope, conclusive, 91 ,, Care of all the churches, devolving on the Pope, 112 ,, in fomier times, always consulted his council of bishops, in important cases, 116 note „ The Primacy of the Pope fully established, early in fourtli century, 118 INDEX. 569 Pope, the Bishoias of Dardania thereon, a.d. 492, 120 „ Appeals to the Pope, 109-111, 116, 118, 121 „ No appeals from the Pojie, 109, 121 „ Benediction of, "Urbi et Orbi," 469 ,, should enjoy complete personal and political independence, 536 Popes, Relations of, with Emperors, 182 „ Power of, in the Middle Ages, 216-219, 228, 476-480 „ Excommunication and deposition of princes by, 216-219, 228 ,, the saviours of society in the Middle Ages, 475 ,, preserved Europe from total barbarism, 476 ,, the arbiters of sovereigns, 216-219, 477 „ Guizot thereon, 216, 477 ,, Coquerel thereon, 217 ,, Voltaire thereon, 217 ,, Ancillon thereon, 476 ,, Leibnitz thereon, 477 ,, Fenelon thereon, 218 „ This great power of, would now be an anachronism, 215, 478 „ Sanction of, sought for by the holders of supreme jiower in Europe, 479 ,, ,, by Pepin, by Napoleon, and by many between these, 479 ,, Coronation of, 470 note „ Exaggeration about unworthy, 420-423 Potter, John, Archbishop of Canterbury, 71, 72 910^0 Pra3textatus the Senator, 135 Prefects Apostolic, 410, 411 Presbyter, 389 Prierias, Sylvester, 261 Priest, 389 Primacy, Remarkable evidence regarding the, 173, 174 ,, See Councils, Peter, Pope Primates, 392 Princes of the Empire, The, 186-188, 205 Propaganda, 333, 493 Propagation of the Faith, Association of the, 333 Prosper of Aquitaine, Saint, 94, 91 note Protestants, Origin of the word, 282 ,, Concession of some, on the Primacy, 22, 292, 293, 293 note, 525, 526 Protonotary, Apostolic, 449 note Pudens, the Roman, 49 note „ receives Saint Peter, 49 ,, House of, converted into a church, 49 Pudentiana and Praxedes, Saints, 49 note Pudentiana, Ancient church of Saint, 50 Purgatory, Doctrine of, 260 note Pyrrhus, Monk, and Patriarch of Constantinople, 101 Ql'Inisext, Council of, 148 note Rachis, King of the Lombards, 155, 156 570 INDEX. Eavenna, 142 note Eaynaldi, Annals of, 53 note Eedemptorists, 333 Eeformation, The, attained its fullest development, in the first fifty years, 326 „ commenced to recede after fifty years, 326 „ Followers of, divided, 326 „ Sects of, persecuting each other, 326 ,, Several Churches of, merely local, 326 ,, Lord Macaulay thereon, 327 „ See Eeligious Census of Europe „ Effects of, in Protestant States, 334 ,1 „ in Mecklenburg, 334 „ ,, in Pomerania, 335 „ „ in Brunswick and Hanover, 335 „ „ in Brandenburg and Prussia, 335, 336 „ ,, in Saxony, Hesse, and Wiirtemberg, 336 „ ,, in Denmark and Sweden, 336 „ „ in England, 336, 337 „ „ Slavery of the Protestant Church, on the Continent, 339 „ „ Amalgamation of the Lutheran and Calvinist Churches by the State, in Germany, 339 „ „ The Evangelical Church in Germany, 339 „ „ Bad effects of State interference, 340 „ „ A Gennan Protestant Journal thereon, 340 ), „ See Culturkampf Eeformers, who so called, 295 Regale, The, in France, 513 note Eegulars, 447 note Eeligious Census of Europe, France, 327 Belgium, 327 Austria-Hungary, 327 Spain, 328 Portugal, 328 Italy, 328 European Eussia, 328 Greece, 328 European Turkey, 328 German Empire, 328 Sweden and Noi-way, 329 Denmark, 329 Netherlands, 329 Switzerland, 329 Great Britain and Ireland, 329 Total, in synopsis, 330 District of Lutheranism, 330 „ of Calvinism, 330 „ of Anglicanism, 331 Remonatrants. See Arininianism INDEX. 671 Reunion, Temporary, of the Greek and Latin Churchoi?, 125 Revolution. See French Revohitiouary movement on the Continent, in 18i8, 380, 381 Rienzi, the Roman Tribune, 234-237 Rite, The Latin, 401 Rites, The various Oriental, 405 „ „ Districts of, 405-409 Rome, The Bishop of, visited by Bishops from the eai-liest times, 69 „ See Pope Roman Church, The, Great wealth of, 132, 133 „ Great charity of, 134 ,, Patrimonies of, 136 Roman Nobles, The, Yiolonce of, 193 Roman Republic, The, 155 Rossi, Count, Assassination of, 381 Rota, Auditors of the, 449 note Rudolph of Suabia elected Emperor, 205 „ receives a golden crown from Gregory VII., 213 note „ defeated and slain by Henry IV., 213 Rudolf von Hapsburg elected Emperor, 230 ,, Dynasty of, 230 note Diplomas of, 231, 232 Sackamentaeians, 286 note Saracen invasion of Italy, 190 Sardica, Council of, a.d. 347, 116 „ on Appeals to the Pope, 116, 117 Sarpi, Fra Paolo, 315, 316 note Satisfaction, in the sacrament of Penance, 259 note Schmalkalden, Articles of, 1, 318, 319 Scholastic Theology and Schoolmen, 255 note School, Banishing religion from the, 531 Schulte Doctor, against Papal Infallibility, 510 Scotus, John Duns, and Scotists, 255 note Secret societies, always condemned by the Chiirch, 380, 535, 536 Sedan, Capitulation of, 385 Sees, Residential, 401 ,, Titular, no longer styled in partibus Infidelium, 410 Sergius, Patriarch of Constantinople, 101 Sergius I., Pope, 148 Seminarists in Italy obliged to serve in the army, three years, 532 " Servant of the servants of God," 227 note Servetus, burned alive, 297, 338 Silverius, Pope, Saint, 99 note Simon Magus, 16, 48, note, 56 note Simon, Phre, on Luther's Bible, 269 Simony, 16 note Slavery and the Papacy. See Papacy Smithfield, Fires of, 338 572 INDEX. Socrates, Ecclesiastical historian, 114 7iote Somascha, Clerks Regular of, 332 Somerset, Lord Protector of England, 337 Sophronius, Patriarch of Constautinoijle, 101 Soter. Pope, 69 note, 134 SozoDien, Ecclesiastical historian, 112 note Spanish Inquisition, Cruelties of the, 338, 446 note Stair, Lord, on the Canon Law, 487 State control of Protestant Churches in Germany, 339 Bad effects of, 340 „ A German Protestant Joiu-nal thereon, 340 Stations, held in Rome in the early ages, 432 note Stephen I., Saint, Pope, 77, 77 note Stephen III., Pope, 158 nofe ,, Action of, daring the siege of Rome, 159 ,, visits Pepin, to obtain his aid, 160 ,, Progress of, thi-ough France, 160 ,, Reception of, by Peiiin, 160 „ Anoints Pepin King, 161 Stephen, Sir James, on Gregory VII., 215 Stewart, Dngald, on Monastic Institutions, 496 „ Strange self-contradiction of, 497 note Sulpiciens, The, 333 Suarez, on Papal Infallibility, 508 Switzerland, Protestant Cathedrals of, 298 Sylvester I., Saint, Pope, 83, 85 ,, Constantine's alleged donation to, 135 Sylvester II., the first French Poi^e, 193 note Sylvius (Du Bois), on Papal Infallibility, 518 Symbol or Creed, 88 note Symbols, the four great, 88 note Symbolic books, 281 note ,, of the Lutherans, 319 „ of the Church of England, 322 „ of the Catholics, 325 note „ See Confession of Faith Syro-Chaldaic, spoken by our Lord, 9 note Tacitus, on Nero's persecution of the Christians, 56 note Temporal Power of the Popes, The, the work of God, 536 „ pre-eminently embodied the principle of order by which kings reign, 536 „ not strictly essential to the sacred office of the Popes, 537 „ yet expedient and most useful to the Ciiurch of all nations, 537 „ preserved the Visible Head of that Cliurch in a position of com- plete personal and political independence, 637 „ deemed desirable by wise statesmen of every creed, 536 „ will, doubtless, in God's own time, be restored, as in 1814, 538 Tertullian, 26 note INDEX. 573 TertuUian, on the Primacy of Peter, 26 ,, on Peter's baptizing in Konie, 49 note ,, on the great number of Christians, a.d. 200, 128 ,, on the superior jurisdiction of Bishops, oi)0 Theatins, The, 332 Theiner, Father, The " Codex Diplomaticus " of, 191 note ,, The " Ecclesiastical Annals " of, 53 note Theodore, Bishop of Pharan, 101 Theodoret the historian, 38 note „ on the Primacy of Peter, 39 ,, Appeal of, to Saint Leo the Great, 119 Theodosius IT., Emperor, Wise legislation of, 483 note Code of, 483 note Thomas of Aquino, Saint, 256 note Thomists, 256 note Threshold of the Apostles, 164 note Tiara Papal, or triple crown, 470 note Title or parish church, 427 Titles of Cardinals, 443 Titles, Hierarchical, 413 Torgau, The Book of, 319 Trent, General Council of, opened, 312 Objects of, 312, 313 „ Decrees of, confirmed, 313 Profession of Faith of, 313, 314 „ Catechism of, 315 „ The Protestants opposed to, 315 " Grievances " of the Protestant princes regarding, 315 „ misrepresented by Fra Paolo, 316 ,, Courayer, 316 ,, Pallavicino, histoi-ian of, 316 Trinitarians, Order of, for the redemption of captives, 481 Trullus, 148 note Ubiquitarians, 319 note Urban V. removes the Papal Court from Avignon to Rome, 238 Urban VI. elected Pope, 242 Ursacius and Valens, Recantation of, 117 Valentinian II., Emperor, on the Primacy, 119 Vatican, General Conncil of the, 522 ,, „ Assembling of, 522 „ „ presided over by Pins IX., in person, 522 „ „ Decree of, on Papal Infallibility, 522 ,, ,, Voting on Papal Infallibility, 523 Venice, Republic of, 143 note Vicars Apostolic, 410, 411 Victor, Pope, 70, 71, 72 574 INDEX. Victor Emamiel seizes on the Papal Legations in 1859, 382 ,, Convention of, with Napoleon III., roganling the Papal States, 383 „ Letter of, to Pius IX. in 1870, 335 „ The Pope's reply to, 386 „ invades the Papal States, 386 ,, takes Rome, 387 „ assumes the government of the Papal territories, 387 ,, Decree issued thereon, 387 Vienna, Treaty of, 371, 373 Vigilius, Pope, History of, 99 note Vincent Ferrer, Saint, 245 Vincent of Lerins, Saint, 78 note „ on the controversy of Pope Stephen and Cyprian, 78 Visigoths, 141 note ,, The laws of the, 483 note Voltaire, on the power of the Popes in the Middle Ages, 217 ,, on the Benedictines, 497 Vossius, G. J., 62 note „ on Saint Peter in Rome, 62 Vulgar Era, 14 note Warfare of Unbelief against Christianity, 3, 531 et seq. Wars after the Reformation, 317 Westphalia, Treaty of, 317 Whiston, William, 62 note „ on Saint Peter in Rome, 62 Wilkie, Sir David, 502 note William the Conqueror, praised by Gregory VII., 199 note „ i-efuses to render fealty to the Holy See, 209 „ agrees to pay Peter's Pence, 209 Letter of, to Gregory VII., 209 Worms, Concordat of, 222 note Workhouse system, 337 note Year, First day of the, changed from March 25th, 501 Zachary, Saint, Pope, 154, 156 ,, authorizes the deposition of Childeric III. of France, 161 Zanzala, 405 note Zophyrinus, Saint, Pope, 58 note, 110 Zwingli, 294 „ considered Luther's Reform iusufhcicnt, 295 ,, Doctrine of, on the Eucharist, 286 ,, complains of Luther's intolei'auce, 287 ,, at the Conference of Marburg, 288 note „ and Calvin, 298 ,, Death of, on the field of Cappel, 295 ERRATA. Page 37, note 3, for " Beatitudince " read " Beatitudini." „ 215, line 26, for "of" read "over" sovereigns. ,, 371, last line, for " Commachio" read " Comacchio." 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