>0. /6./7 . 'Xv PRINCETON, N. J. Division . .V* ^ ^ V, V. £3 / / i Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2018 with funding from Princeton Theological Seminary Library https://archive.org/details/scientificstudyoOOkits PSYCHOLOGICAL REVIEW PUBLICATIONS Psychological Monographs EDITED BY JAMES ROWLAND ANGELL, University of Chicago HOWARD C, WARREN, Princeton University (Review) JOHN B. WATSON, Johns Hopkins University (/. of Exp. Psychol.) SHEPHERD 1. FRANZ, Govt. Hosp. for Insane (Bulletin) and MADISON BENTLEY, University of Illinois (Index) Volume XXIII 1917 PSYCHOLOGICAL REVIEW COMPANY PRINCETON, N. J. and LANCASTER, PA. Agents: G. E. STECHERT & CO., London (2 Star,Yard, Carey St., W. C.) Leipzig (Koenig Str., 371; Paris (16 Rue de Cond6) TABLE OF CONTENTS OF VOL. XXIII 1. The Scientific Study of the College Student. Harry Dex¬ ter Kitson. Pp. 8i. 2. Whole vs. Part Methods in Motor Learning. A Compara¬ tive Study. Louis Augustus Pechstein. Pp. 8o. 3. Yale Psychological Studies, New Series—volume ii, No. 2. Edited by Rosell P. Angier. Pp. 159-331. 4. The Vertical-Horizontal Illusion. An experimental Study of Meridional Disparities in the Visual Field. Sarah Margaret Ritter. Pp. 114. (This volume includes Monographs 98-101.) k> I Vol. XXIII N). I Whole No. S§ 1917 PSYCHOLOGICAL REVIEW PUBLICATIONS THE Psychological Monographs EDITED BY JAMES ROWLAND ANGELL, University of Chicago HOWARD C. WARREN, Princeton University (Review) JOHN B. WATSON, Johns Hopkins University (/. of Exp. Psych.) SHEPHERD I. FRANZ, Govt. Hosp. for Insane (Bulletin) and MADISON BENTLEY, University of Illinois (Index) STUDIES FROM THE PSYCHOLOGICAL LABORA¬ TORY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO The Scientific Study of the College Student BY ^ HARRY DEXTER KITSON, Ph.D. Instructor in Psychology, the University of Chicago. PSYCHOLOGICAL REVIEW COMPANY PRINCETON, N. J. AND LANCASTER, PA. Agents: G. E. STECHERT & CO., London (2 Star Yard, Carey St., W. C.); Leipzig (Koenig Str., 37V, Paris (16, Rue de Cond6) PRINCETON UNIVERSITY V PRESS/ ACKNOWLEDGMENT The opportunity for making this application of psychological methods is due to the cooperation of Professor Leon C. Marshall, Dean of the College of Commerce and Administration of The University of Chicago. Mention of this fact is hardly necessary so patent is his connection at every point. To him the author owes more than can publicly be acknowledged. Thanks are specifically rendered for all the facilities which he unstintedly furnished for the researches of the past two years, but most grati¬ tude is felt for his live enthusiasm and interest which have been powerful incentives at every stage of the work. At discourag¬ ing moments, when technical difficulties seemed almost unsur- mountable, his unshaken confidence in the possibilities of the method and his happy combination of the common-sense and the scientific attitudes gave inspiration for renewed exertions. The author feels highly honored in being privileged to work with so intrepid an educator. Thanks are gratefully rendered to Miss Marie Spalding of the office force of the College of Commerce and Administration who assisted throughout the entire two years. To her intelligent ser¬ vice is due much of the reliability which can be credited to the results. Helpful criticism of some of the tests was contributed by Dr. Stella B. Vincent of the Chicago Normal College who used the series in several schools for Kindergarten Training. Grateful acknowledgment is due to Dr. Harvey A. Carr of The University of Chicago for generous advice and discriminat¬ ing criticism. To Professor James R. Angell, Head of the Department of Psychology in the university, who fostered the work from its inception, the author owes much. Those who have had the privilege of working under Professor Angell know how much stimulus results from his able psychological oversight. All this IV ACKNOWLEDGEMENT was enjoyed by this research. But in this case there was added the interest of an educator, for Professor Angell, by virtue of his position as Dean of the Faculties in the university maintained keen interest in the practical outcome of the study, and his advice from an educational point of view has thus been an additional aid. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I The Ideal of Individualized Instruction, CHAPTER II Psychological Tests for College Students. CHAPTER HI Description and Discussion of Tests. CHAPTER IV Psychological Norms for College Students. CHAPTER V Comparison between College Groups. CHAPTER VI Training for Efficiency in College. CHAPTER VH Vocational Guidance and the College Student. CHAPTER I The Ideal of Individualized Instruction “To-day the professor’s energy is practically exhausted in his study of the subject which he is to present to the student. In the time that is coming provision must be made, either by the regular instructors or by those appointed especially for the pur¬ pose, to study in detail the man or woman to whom instruction is offered. Just as at present, in many institutions, every stu¬ dent upon entrance receives a careful physical examination, for the discovery of possible weaknesses, and for the provision of special corrective exercises: ... so in the future it will be a regular function of the college to make a general diagnosis of each student. This will be made (i) with special reference to his character— to find out whether he is responsible, or careless, or shiftless, or perhaps vicious; (2) with special reference likewise to his intel¬ lectual capacity—to discover whether he is unusually able, or bright, or average, or slow, or dull; whether he is industrious, or irregular, or lazy; (3) with reference to his special intellectual characteristics—to learn whether he is independent and original, or one who works largely along routine lines; whether his ideas are flexible or easily diverted or rigid; whether he has control of his mind or is given to mind-wandering, and to what extent he has power to overcome difficulties; (4) with reference to his special capacities and tastes—to determine whether these are evenly balanced or whether there exists a marked preference for some special subject; whether he prefers those aspects of study which are of the book type or those of a mechanical or construc¬ tive type or those of a laboratory type; whether his special gift lies along lines of an aesthetic character or those of a literary or scientific or philosophical character; whether his special aptitude, supposing it to be in the literary field, lies in criticism or inter¬ pretation or creative work . . . and finally, (5) with reference 2 HARRY DEXTER KITSON to the social side of his nature—to judge whether he is fond of companionship; whether he is a leader or follower among his fel¬ lows; whether he is a man of affairs or devotes himself exclu¬ sively to his studies; the character of his recreations the way in which he spends his leisure hours; whether he is compelled to work for self-support or for the support of others. . . . Such a diagnosis, when made, would serve as the basis for the selection of studies. . . . The data thus gathered will determine the character of the advice given for the student, and of any punishment adminis¬ tered. . . . This material likewise, will determine largely the career of the student. . . . This feature of twentieth-century college education will come to be regarded as of greatest importance, and fifty years hence will prevail as widely as it is now lacking.”^ In the decade that has elapsed since President Harper outlined the foregoing program, the demand has become even more in¬ sistent that university education be made a matter for individual adjustment. College and university authorities are awaking to a realization of the fact that they know very little about the individuals committed to their care. The student brings to the institution a preparatory record consisting of grades which repre¬ sent roughly certain attainments in various academic lines. These grades, vague and unstandardized, constitute practically the only measure of the student at time of entrance. Even after four years of contact with the student, the institution has gained lit¬ tle by way of adequate measures of his ability. The records show a certain number of marks, which represent degrees of success in various branches of the curriculum. These markings usually indicate the number of facts the student has been able to acquire and retain until examination time. But the particular aptitudes for professional and social life which he possesses are practically undetermined. Moreover the institution lacks the power to measure the effect of its own training upon the student. It is William Rainey Harper, The Trend in Higher Education, Univ. of Chicago Press, 1905. p. 321 fT. THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE COLLEGE STUDENT 3 generally believed that academic training effects a general in¬ crease in mental power. It is assumed that four years of col¬ lege discipline have a pronouncedly beneficial effect upon memory processes, reasoning ability, habits of concentration, etc. The validity of this assumption remains questioned, however, because such general developmental effect has not been objectively deter¬ mined and subjected to measurement. The rapidly evolving ideals of twentieth-century education are bringing to light another responsibility that rests upon college and university administrators. Academic failures of students must be recognized as necessary subjects for investigation. The ten¬ dency of the past has been to accept the academic “cripples” rather ungraciously as necessary phenomena of the normal curve of distribution or else summarily to dismiss them on a general charge of incompetency. An awakening conscience, however, is prompting a new attitude toward these academic weaklings—a recognition of the obligation to study the individual in order to determine the cause of his deficiencies and then to apply remedial measures. So long as an institution accepts and retains a deficient student as a matriculant it owes him not merely low grades but special efforts looking toward their elimination. The needs of the better-than-average student are also being seen in a clearer light. Institutions of learning are coming to see that special capacity deserves special opportunity and the establishment of “honor courses” represents the recognition of the obligation to adapt instruction to individual needs. An attempt has been made at The University of Chicago to establish a method of studying the student, and although the aim is imperfectly realized the results have shown the practicability of the ideal. The innovations have been confined to the College of Commerce and Administration where for several years Dean L. C. Marshall has been promoting a method of individualized instruction. As at present organized, it involves the following features: I. The enrollment of the college is kept small—about 200 — so that close personal relations may be maintained between student and dean. 4 HARRY DEXTER KITSON 2 . Supervision of each student’s course of study is insured by the regulation that the entire thirty-six undergraduate majors must be chosen with the approval of the dean. 3. The effort is made to have a long interview with each person that applies for admission to the college. The aims of this interview are (a) to make certain that the college can serve this individual, (b) to make certain that the individual understands and appreciates the requirements of the college. 4. Upon admission each student fills out (a) a life-history blank, (b) a personal record blank. 5. Inquiries are sent to high school teachers for information concerning the student. 6. Inquiries are sent to former employers for information con¬ cerning the student. 7. A printed form and a personal letter are sent to parents requesting information and cooperation. 8. The gymnasium director furnishes any significant facts which appear in the physical examination. 9. At the opening of the autumn quarter a series of fresh¬ men conferences are conducted by the writer on the psychology and physiology of study. 10. At the end of each quarter, instructors are asked to turn in suggestions and criticisms concerning the students in their classes. 11. In addition to the close supervision over class-room work which prevails in The University of Chicago at large, advisory relations are also maintained over the non-scholastic activities of the student. At the opening of every quarter, each student fills out a blank indicating the activities and obligations he is assuming over and above the work incidental to his studies. 12. The Daily Maroon (the university newspaper) is watched and record made in the office, of the social and athletic activities of students in this college. 13. The final feature of the plan is a system of psychological examinations carried on by the writer throughout the past two years. It is evident that the corner-stone of this plan is that the THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE COLLEGE STUDENT 5 course of each student is given individual consideration by the dean and is chosen with reference to a large mass of information he has on file. This information is from widely different sources and covers the entire range of the student’s activities. It is not to be expected that all this information gives one hundred per¬ cent of reliability. Some of the replies to the inquiries, for example, give varying reports. This is to be expected. They are obviously based upon different degrees of acquaintance and they necessarily reflect different points of view. On the whole, how¬ ever, it is found that a fair degree of reliability can be attached to these reports. For example, if several persons who are com¬ petent to judge, report that a student is inclined to inactivity, one has rather good grounds for concluding that the information is correct. Experience has proved these judgments reliable in so many cases that their helpfulness is quite well established. Samples of blanks are here appended showing the manner in which the data are obtained. Their purpose will be clear with¬ out further explanation. The mental aspect of the student is a matter for psychological investigation. Therefore in 1913 a system of psychological examinations was introduced, and the remainder of this work will consist of a description of this system and a report of results. 6 HARRY DEXTER KITSON TLbc XHniversit^ of CbicaGo Zbc College of Commerce an5 JlOmlnigtcatlon Please state your estimate of this student and return the card to the Dean of the College of Commerce and Administration. The information will be considered confidential. _ It will be quite satisfactory to have this estimate stated as answers to the following questions or in any other form which you may find better adapted to the needs of the case. Name of student____ No. Dept. Title Course___ Taken_ Instructor_ I. In what particulars do you consider this student strong? (OVER) 2. In what particulars do you consider this student weak ? 3. Have you any other information or suggestions growing out of your experience with this student which will be helpful in shaping his curriculum ? (OVER) THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE COLLEGE STUDENT 7 Ubc of Cbicago Sbe College ot dommerce and Hbministcatlon This card is designed to indicate some of the qualities more frequently commented upon. It is not expected, of course, that information will be given upon all points mentioned. Ability to grasp general principles. Ability to master details. Ability to express thoughts. Alertness, Keenness, Thoroughness, System, Open- mindedness, Initiative, Judgment, Reliability, Industry, Self-reliance^ Regard for duty. Moral influence among fellows. Poise, Manner, Ability to handle people. Fondness for sports. Interest in people. Outlook on life. Popularity. 8 HARRY DEXTER KITS ON In what student activities do you expect to engage this quarter ? THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE COLLEGE STUDENT 9 Cbe Tnntvcrsits ot Cbtcaao PERSONAL RECORD Obe Colleae of Commetce anb nomlniattatlon student will please fill this blank in his own handwriting ^ AOOITIONAl INrOAMATION ON ANY Or THC POINTS MAY SC CIVCN ON THE BACK Or THE SHECT Date_ Date and place of birth - - Name . Name of parent or guardian - Permanent addrpjvs . , _ _ Business of parent or giiart^ian Businesses owned by near relatives; NAME OP BUSINESS fOiL PLACE KDro OP BUSINESS NAME OF RELATIVE Names and addresses of high-school teachers who know you best. (Advanced standing students may use names of college teachers.) NAME PRESENT ADDRESS Business or professional experience: YEAR WHAT PAY NAME OP EMPLOYER ADDRESS OP EMPLOYER Names and addresses of other persons who know you best: NAME PRESENT ADDRESS Extent of self-support Before coming to During college year___Summer vacations. TTAlght __ W» ;g>it _ - Hnw gpftrp Hmp ? __ Health -- - What extra reading?_ Married or si ngle? Famil y if marriffd - -- - _._■■■ ■ . ■■ ■ Tobacco?_In what fnrm? Ever do any public speaking?_ Drink? -- - Out-of-door _ Church affiliations___ Favorite aTrnm^Tn^n t<; . ■ _ _ Preparing for what; As definitely as you know now. DO NOT WRITE BELOW THIS LINE CONFERENCE IMPRESSIONS nf <>TprP»gmn - -- Voice_ rir pgA - _ Articulation_ Figure—slim, medium, thick-set, fat, straight, crooked, bent. Interest in people. Outlook on life. Manner and pose—graceful refined, vigorous, courteous, enthusiastic, winning, riow, quick, assertive, conceited, vivacious, taciturn, sleepy_ In what respects inferior to fellows. Conversational ability In what respects superior to fellows. 10 HARRY DEXTER KIT SON THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO The College of Commerce and Administration CONFIDENTIAL _^has applied for admission to the College of Commerce and Administration. Inasmuch as this college aims to prepare students for actual business and professional service, it is essential for the Dean of the College to have a complete record of each student’s previoxis business or profes - sional experience. We should accordingly appreciate your estimate of the quali¬ ties of the person mentioned above. It will be quite satisfactory to have this estimate stated as answers to some of the following questions or in any other form which you may find better suited to the needs of the case. 1. In what qualities do you consider him superior to his fellows? - , , , . — 2. In what qualities do you consider him inferior to his fellows?. 3. Can one depend upon him? 4, Is he industrious? 5. Is he able to tale correction properly? 6, Is his personality pleasing? 7. Do you know of any bad habits he possesses?. 8. Have you any other information or suggestions growing out of your experience with this student which will be helpful in shaping his curriculum? - Name of person who fills out the blank Official Position _ The bajck of the sheet may be used for additional information. THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE COLLEGE STUDENT II Zbc ‘Univcrstti? of Cbicago Cbe College of Commerce and AOmlnlettation SCCRKTARIAL WORK COMMCRCIAU TEACHINO PHILANTHROPIC ecRvice Trainino roR PUBLIC.SERVICE BUBINCSS SERVICE has appb'ed for admission to the College of Commerce and Administration. In this college, an individualized curriculum is assigned each student, the courses varying according to the past training, present capacities and contemplated occupation of the student. Obviously, accurate knowledge concerning the student is essential to the success of such a plan. We should accordingly appreciate your estimate of the qualities of the person mentioned above. It will be quite satisfactory to have this estimate stated as answers to some of the following questions or in any other form which you may find better suited to the needs of the case. t. In what particulars is this student strong scholastically ?_ 2 . In what particulars is this student weak scholastically ?, 3. In what qualities do you consider him superior to his fellows?. 4. In what qualities do you consider him inferior to his fellows ?. S- Have you any other information or suggestions growing out of your experience with this student which will be helpful in shaping his curriculum ?_ Name of person who fills out the blank_ Official position_ The back of the sheet may be used for additional information. 12 HARRY DEXTER KITSON Zbc TUntversttg of Cbicago TBAININO ■ PUBLIC 8EBVICI Zbc CoWcdc o( Commetcc anO HDmlntfltratton BUStNEdS BERVICt SECRETARIAL WORK COMMERCIAL TEACHINO RHILANTHRORIC SERVICE In the space below please submit in typewritten form a 200» to 250-word “life history." Make it clear-cut, concise, and business-like. Make i of such a character that the person who reads it will have a fairly clear idea of your life background. This will cause you to include statements of dat and place of birth, home influences, education, travels, ambitions for the future, and any other items which have been significant in your case. CHAPTER II Psychological Tests for College Students The use of psychological tests with college students is not new as the abundant literature upon Freshman tests bears witness.^ The feature distinguishing the present application, however, is that while previous investigations have been primarily devoted to the study of tests, and rightly too, the present investigation had for its object primarily the student and his immediate relation to the university. In this case the tests were only the instrument— the student, the goal. The objection is sometimes raised that the status of mental tests is so undecided that one is not warranted in subjecting them to the arduous strain of practical application until further development is reached. To await perfection, how¬ ever, is obviously impossible; furthermore, one dare not say that the patient work of past investigators has been for naught. Surely something has been gained; some difficulties have been overcome; some refinements of technique have been brought about; some pitfalls have been exposed. True, many theoretical problems remain unsolved, and in an application of this kind one encounters them at every turn. Still it seems wise to slur some of them for the sake of the goal, and while frankly admitting the tentative and incomplete nature of the results one may still ascribe some reliability to them. One may also point to the fact, now almost truistic, that theoretical psychology gains much from these early applications of psychological method to prac¬ tical situations, and there is reason to hope that serious efforts to approach the actual problems of university administration by such means will serve to focus more attention upon mental tests and thereby further their development. In spite of imperfec¬ tions, then, the research was undertaken with the conviction that 2 For history of Freshman tests see Mary T. Whitely. An Empirical Study of Certain Tests for Individual Differences. Archives of Psychology. No. 19, New York. August, 1911. pp. 1-13. 14 HARRY DEXTER KIT SON psychological methods offer a mode of approach to some of the problems of university administration and a two-year trial has shown the hope to be justified. It is easily understood that in such work as this, the complete demonstration of results demands long and thorough trials by many workers, under various condi¬ tions. Therefore the claims of the present investigation must rest largely upon questions of methodology. It is in this direc¬ tion that progress must first be made. The undertaking here reported was the trial of a method, and any claims for the psy¬ chological data presented are secondary to the claims adduced in favor of the method. The hypothesis adopted was that psy¬ chological measurements are helpful in making a scientific study of the student, but that when they are to be used for purposes of interpreting or controlling everyday activities, they must be accompanied by other facts of interpretative value. So in the present work, the usefulness of the tests is to be regarded as conditioned upon the other means provided for studying the student. The general plan of the psychological examinations was to devise a system for measuring the mental capacity of college students in order to guide their college work. Secondary aims included that of measuring mental ability from time to time throughout the student’s progress in order to determine the effect of college training. The way also seemed opened for comparing various groups of students in order to observe the differences among groups. The clinical aspect of the work also presented opportunity for giving individual aid to students in forming habits of study. Each of these phases will be discussed in later chapters. Briefly stated, the plan was to choose from the large array of tests available, those that seemed most likely to be of service for diagnostic purposes. Stern® states the requisites of such tests as follows: “three things are evident: first, series of tests must be arranged that will set in play the various constituent functions of intelligence; secondly, for this purpose 3 W. Stern, Psychological Methods of Testing Intelligence, tr. Whipple, Warwick and York, Baltimore, 1914. p. 22. THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE COLLEGE STUDENT 15 there must be a wise selection of tests; out of the immense num¬ ber of possible tests only those should be chosen that afford a decided and a reliable symptomatic value, general applicability, and possibility of objective evaluation; thirdly, there must be created a system by means of which the several particular results of the testing can be united into one resultant value, i.e., a value that shows the grade of intelligence of the subject objectively in an inclusive formula in which performances of different degrees of value shall in some way be compensated.” In attempting to arrange a workable series of tests it is found that there is a deplorable diversity of opinion and practice re¬ garding particular tests, and a wide variation in manner of administering them. A further obstacle is the paucity of corre¬ lations that have been shown between specific tests and everyday activities. The ideal method of selecting tests to be used for diagnosing mental ability is to try out a large number of tests and to correlate results with a great variety of activities. The tests having the highest degree of correlation with such every¬ day activities would then be most reliable for diagnostic pur¬ poses. Such a method of selection is obviously beyond the reach of one investigator. Lacking the power to show such rigid cor¬ relations, however, there are other criteria that may be employed. First, it is possible to make an a priori selection on the basis of methodological fitness. The form in which a test shall be given may be determined to some extent by the experience of other in¬ vestigators. In memory tests, in tests involving perceptual activi¬ ties, in association tests, considerable work has been done, and the technique has been partially standardized. Care was taken in the present selection, to follow these standardized modes of procedure so far as possible. It was not possible to do this completely inasmuch as several complex situations were desired that required specially devised tests. Still the standardized tests were mostly used as will be observed by one familiar with the literature. Another consideration that modifies the selection of tests for such a series is economy of time and effort. If psychological tests are to become generally useful in college and university administration they must be handled economically. This makes i6 HARRY DEXTER KIT SON group work desirable, so far as possible, and tests must be chosen that can be so adapted. In the series about to be described about half of the tests were given by group. Some of the other tests could easily be arranged for group administration. In the opinion of the writer, however, some tests should be given individually. Satisfactory diagnosis demands some personal contact with the student, and a period of time spent in the lab¬ oratory is of considerable value in enabling the psychologist to study the characteristics of the student at close range. The necessity for economy of time and effort resulted in the omission from the series of any extended learning tests. This is per¬ haps, unfortunate, but experience has shown that it is imprac¬ ticable to commandeer the time of a large number of university students for more than three periods throughout the year. It is also desirable, in choosing tests, to avoid those that may be seriously affected by practice. Furthermore, if the tests are to be given to the same students year after year, they should be of such a nature that memories held over from year to year will not be of assistance. On the symptomatic side, much room for choice also exists on a priori grounds. It is certainly possible to select tests that call for a variety of mental activities. There exist a number of good tests for memory ability; others furnish means for measuring associative activities; almost all tests that are tests of intelligence demand a high degree of attention. A complete inventory of the mind is out of the question, nevertheless it is possible to select good tests for measuring fundamental psychical activities, and the net result will be an insight into the general capacity. Every test employs the whole mind, and the reaction to each one will measure the activity of the mind in one of its modes. Of course the modes are not all equal in development, but the qualitative disparities can be disregarded by the use of a kind of compensa¬ tion mechanism. In the light of some of the recent investiga¬ tions in the field of mental tests, there is experimental evidence for the selection of certain tests over others. Simpson,^ after an intensive study of a variety of tests recommends the testing ^ B. R. Simpson, Correlations of Mental Abilities, New York, 1912. p. no. THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE COLLEGE STUDENT 17 especially of the following abilities in the relative order stated, “(a) selective thinking, (b) memory and association, (c) quick¬ ness and accuracy of perception, (d) motor control, (e) sensory discrimination.” In the present collection of tests, though no attempt was made to classify rigidly, still the functions employed most actively are probably selective thinking, memory, speed of association and quickness of perception. Chronology of Tests and Description of Subjects After a comprehensive survey of mental tests with the above considerations in mind, twelve were chosen for the first year’s work. Manipulation of the data from these served to augment the number of measures to sixteen. Only the names of the tests will be given here; full description will follow in Chapter III. 1. Number-checking. 2. Memory for Numbers Heard. 3. Memory for Objects Seen. 4. Memory for Logical Material, Heard. 5. Secondary Memory for same. 6. Immediate Memory for Logical Material, Seen. 7. Secondary Memory for same. 8. Loss in Logical Material Heard. 9. Loss in Logical Material Seen. 10. Opposites Test. 11. Constant Increment Test. 12. Hard Directions Test, Printed. 13. Directions Test, Oral. 14. Word-building Test. 15. Sentence-building Test. 16. Business Ingenuity Test. On February 20, 1914, the first group of students was exam¬ ined with tests numbered i, 2, 4, 6, 14 and 15, given in the above order. Two weeks later the group was called together again and tests numbered 5, 7 and 16 were given. Both group exam¬ inations took place in the morning and required one and one-half hours and one-half hour respectively. The rest of the tests were given individually at the psychological laboratory. They extended over a period of time from February 23 to March 17, 1914. They were given in the order 3, 10, ii, 12 and 13, and required about twenty minutes. i8 HARRY DEXTER KIT SON This first group of students numbered seventy-seven. It con¬ sisted of all Freshmen in the college and some others whom the dean wished examined. The figures here presented, however, are not compiled from the work of this entire group. In estab¬ lishing norms for the series, it was desired to use only those records which were complete—that is, which contained a score for every test. This eliminated some records, since unavoidable absences and laboratory accidents occurred. Other records were eliminated because of language difficulty resulting from foreign birth or speech defect. As is often the case, there were also a few who misunderstood directions. Such circumstances reduced the number of usable records to forty. These forty students were classified academically as follows: Freshmen 32 or 80% Sophomores 6 or 19% Juniors 2 or 1% Thirty-one were men and nine, women. The average age Octo¬ ber, 1913, was 19.9. The norms which are to be presented, are thus seen to be not entirely Freshmen. This will not hinder the computation of Freshman norms, however, as in all cases where comparisons are shown, the subjects are grouped academically. The results secured with this mixed group are employed only in determining relationships among the tests. This procedure seemed justified inasmuch as it was neces¬ sary to establish norms as soon as possible in order to obtain a working basis for diagnosis, and it seemed wise to retain as large a number of records as possible in order to give greater relia¬ bility to the averages. Moreover for purposes of gauging the value of the tests as a series the class of subjects used is of little account. It should be pointed out that the confinement of this study to the College of Commerce and Administration resulted in the use of a selected group of students. In the first place these students entered the university with a high-school average grade better than 80% (according to the ruling of the university). They are further selected in that they have similar vocational aims. The college offers preparation for “careers in the practical pro- THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE COLLEGE STUDENT 19 fessions or the various branches of business, charitable and philanthropic service.” These considerations undoubtedly affect the norms slightly and they were certainly influential in deter¬ mining the nature of some of the tests. The 1914 Freshmen were first examined on November 9 of that year. Forty complete records were secured from this group. Exactly the same tests were employed as were used with the previous group. The group was called together again on Novem¬ ber 24, 1914, and tested for secondary memory as described above. Individual tests were given during the interim. The statistical side of this investigation resolves itself into several problems. Therefore the figures will be presented from several points of view. The first task is to make an evaluation of this particular series of tests as a series. This will be assayed in Chapter IV. Chapter III will be devoted to a description of the tests. CHAPTER III Description and Discussion of Tests Inasmuch as this investigation aimed primarily to make a study of the student, not of the tests, no attempt will be made to give an exhaustive critique of each test. This has already been done for some of the tests by previous investigators and standardization has already been partially accomplished. As arranged in this series, however, the tests have not been previously used, there¬ fore they require some examination in order to ascertain their practical diagnostic value as a whole. The tests will be described in detail and the discussion will be made as full as circumstances permit. All tests were given in the morning. All were given by the writer. When tests were given individually an assistant was present to record results and the same assistant served during both years. Before the tests were cast in final form they were used with an experimental group consisting of twelve students in psychology. This gave opportunity for the elimination of un¬ desirable features and also served to give the experimenter fa¬ cility in handling the tests. The total series required about two and one-half hours’ work from each student, the time being divided into three periods; the first group test required one and one-half hours, the second group test, one-half hour and the individual test, twenty or thirty minutes. Tests designated g were given by group; those marked i were given individually. The latter were given in the psycho¬ logical laboratory, the former, in a large, well-lighted recitation room. The students were seated in alternate seats and were provided with pencils. The following remarks were made by way of introduction to the tests: “We shall devote the next hour and a half to a series of psychological tests. You -will be excused from your next class if you have one. “I wish to quiet any fears you may entertain about these tests, by assuring you that there is nothing mysterious or occult about them. They are simply tasks such as you perform every day, involving ordinary feats of memory, reasoning and attention. The distinguishing feature is that exactly the same task is set for each person and the objective conditions are the same for THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE COLLEGE STUDENT 21 every one. I wish to obtain as true a measure as possible of your mental ability, so ask that you put forth your maximum effort. “The results will not give a ‘map’ of your mind, neither will they tell your fortune as a slip from a nickel-in-the-slot machine. But we hope to obtain some facts which will assist in planning your course through the university. “Remember, these are simply common, everyday tasks, to be performed under experimental conditions, and your only concern is to give them your entire attention and most conscientious effort.” Care was taken to avoid interruption during the tests. Test No. I. Number-checking®^ Materials: Forms like sample laid face downward upon the desks.® Directions; “On the reverse side of the paper before you are printed the ten Arabic numerals arranged in rows like this (showing sample). When I give the signal you are to begin at the first line and go across the paper, crossing out all the sixes. Work as fast as possible for I wish to see how rapidly your mind can act; only do not miss any. The number six appears five times in each row, so you can easily tell when you have checked all in one row. Make any kind of a mark you wish. If you happen to make a mistake and cross out the wrong number, do not stop to erase—simply draw a ring around that number and I will understand. Two minutes will be given. When I call time, stop instantly and turn over the paper face- downward. I will give the signals. Turn, Go, and at the expiration of the time. Stop. Any questions?” 168492370127504869341890256371756089243786904312 805134269240976153832041579684812673905379086521 597846102518237496085932410769345208617931675840 7396508149736150284047859621309315648724235, 67908 253017986386091 54729367 48 01256493 120758612749053 470385621609382714578109643525279416380104823795 982561743835469201760213795842184957036095218674 046279538062843975127456038913507842169568 192437 614923057451728630919568327408620735491247350186 321708495794150382656327184097068391524850431269 962134058425193860790481723656283051497594807123 681053742194537026804723865919036827154750329416 734291865961248705319830654721579348260835972640 476812590630759481248597312067102964538347165289 597328401083614972525346901875417283906126583074 3509472168570213946521084763927451906836897 10352 809765324278465139031269587404820516379418056937 048576139716802543967014239580694732815201648795 1256809735093762184869751402383I51679042962431508 213409687342980657173652098143968405721073294861 5 R. S. Woodworth and F. L. Wells, Association Tests. Psychol. Rev. Mon. Sup. 1911. 13, p. 26. ® Blanks for Tests No. i, 10, ii, 12, 14 and 15 were secured from C. H. Stoelting and Co. In this test and all others where time was kept, an ordinary stop-watch was used. 5 4 2 I 8 6 3 0 9 7 6 8 I o 9 4 2 3 7 5 22 HARRY DEXTER KIT SON Method of Scoring: Each digit checked correctly counted one unit. No deductions were made for omissions or wrong figures checked. This test, recommended by the Committee on Standardization from the American Psychological Association, involves a num¬ ber of factors. Some of these are: (i) a high degree of con¬ centration, (2) quickness of perception for visually apprehended forms, (3) speed in motor response, (4) susceptibility to eye- strain, (5) ability to persist beyond the point of fatigue. The two-minute period devoted to this work was undoubtedly one of extremely close application. Though no errors were counted in scoring, still observation of the errors made by an individual in this test throws some light upon the care with which one does work of this nature. Of the forty individuals whose records were used, more than fifty percent (twenty-two) made no errors, made i error, “ 2 errors, “ 3 “ (t « “ 8 “ “II “ As will be seen in Table IV, this test ranks lowest in degree of correlation with the results of the whole series. This would be expected in view of the fact that it places more emphasis upon motor factors than most of the other tests. This test seems on the whole, to be a useful type of test, for the purposes for which it was used, not from the standpoint of its high correlation with “general intelligence” but for its cor¬ roborative value. It calls for the exercise of considerable speed, and in conjunction with other tests of mental quickness, prob¬ ably offers some corroborative evidence in accentuating a ten¬ dency toward one extreme or the other. The tests that are generally recognized as of a quite purely memory type will next be described. It will be noted that the 5 6 3 2 I I THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE COLLEGE STUDENT 23 assortment used was quite varied, the attempt being made to secure rote material, material logically connected, to test memory for impressions made through two different sense avenues, and to test immediate and deferred reproduction. Test No. 2 Numbers Heard^ g Materials : Blank sheet of paper and pencil. Directions: “I am going to read some numbers aloud, and shall ask you to listen very carefully. When I have finished each group, and not until then, I wish you to write the numbers down just as I give them—the same numbers, in the same order. If you leave out any one, indicate its position in the group by a dash. Before giving each group I will tell you how many digits it contains. Questions?” 6135 2947 36814 57296 241637 935816 8537142 9412837 47293815 71836245 924738615 475296318 8697132504 2146073859 Practice was given with two groups of three digits each, using the numbers 816,435. Of course, the groups of four digits each also served as practice groups, inasmuch as they are too short G. M. Whipple, iManual of Mental land Physical Tests, Warwick and York, Baltimore, 1910. p. 362. 24 HARRY DEXTER KITSON to be real tests of memory for college students. The numbers were given at the rate of two per second. Method of Scoring:® The score represents the number of digits reproduced in correct order. Test No. 3. Objects Seen, i Materials: Covered box twelve by twenty by three inches, containing the following objects fastened to the bottom: foun¬ tain-pen, pencil twenty-five cent piece, envelope, ink-well, maroon ribbon, ruler, pen-filler, two-cent stamp and key. Directions: “I am going to show you a group of objects for six seconds, then will ask you to name them aloud from memory.” Method of Scoring: The score represents the number of objects correctly reproduced. Test No. 4. Logically Related Material, Heard g Materials: Blank sheet of paper and pencil. Directions: “I am going to read you a rather long passage and shall ask you to listen very carefully, for when I have finished, I wish you to reproduce the meaning of the passage. The passage is too long for you to remember word for word, but try to get the entire meaning, then in reproducing, use the same words as appear in the text whenever you can.” More than once, | it has happened | in the history | of science, | that a phenomenon | predicted | by theory, | has not been brought within the range of actual observation | until long afterwards.] An astronomer | predicted | the existence | and location | of the planet | Neptune, | but it was not until some time later ] that the planet | was found | at the predicted spot. | Similarly, ] a phys¬ icist I unfolded ] theoretically | the phenomenon ] of the so-called refraction of light, | but it was reserved | for a successor | to ob¬ serve I the fact. I A third | instance [ is found | in the for¬ tunes I of the theory of audition.] An eminent ] physiologist ] of the nineteenth century ] suggested ] that the little ] hair-cells ] in , ® For discussion of methods of scoring this test, see H. T. Woolley and C. R. Fischer, Mental and Physical Measurements of Working Children, Psychological Review Monograph Supplement, No. 77, December, 1914. p. 124 ff. THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE COLLEGE STUDENT 25 the inner | ear | vibrate | sympathetically | when appropriate | wave-lengths | reach | the ear. | Some time subsec|uent | to the proposal I of this explanation, | minute, ] hairy ] filaments | on the bodies | of Crustacea ] were seen to vibrate | sympathetically | when sounds | were made | in the vicinity | of the animals.] On investigation | these hairs | were found to be connected | with the auditory nerve, | and to constitute | the mechanism of hearing | for the animal.] The analogy ] of this arrangement ] to the structure ] of the human ] inner ] ear ] was instantly seen, ] and thus that which had previously ] been propounded ] as a theory ] was established ] as a fact.]® Method of scoring: It will be noted that this passage, as does the following one, contains a main proposition and three illustra¬ tions, the last one of which is amplified. For reproduction of the main proposition two units were given; for mention of the first, second and third illustrations there were given 14, 13 and 14 units respectively. Thus by merely stating the main proposition and the illustrations, the individual could score 43. In addition to these gross divisions, the passage was further divided into 81 “ideas.” Counting each of these as two-thirds of a unit, their united value is 54, which added to the 43 units mentioned, per¬ mits scoring on a basis of 97 points for correct reproduction of the passage. Test No. 6. Logically Related Material, Seen, g Materials: Papers containing the passage beginning “When a man confines—” in mimeographed form laid face-downward on the desks. Directions: “On the reverse side of the paper before you will be found a long passage which I wish you to read carefully when I give the signal. Read it but once, then turn it over, and on the back of it write all you can recall of the passage. Be careful to read each sentence but once, then turn over the paper and reproduce the meaning as accurately as possible.” 9 Adapted from Popular Science Lectures, E. Mach. Open Court Publish¬ ing Co. Chicago, 1895. P- 29. 26 HARRY DEXTER KITSON When a man [ confines his activities | to one particular field, I attempting | to specialize therein, | there is great proba¬ bility I that his capacity for enjoyments | of an aesthetic [ or spiritual character | will be lost.] Let a man who loves poetry | drop all interest in literature | for a long time, | and give himself up I to the ardors [ of scientific research, | and he will find | that the beauties | of poetry ] in time | cease to have any charm for him. I Similarly, | let one who was deeply religious | in early life, I leave off religious activity | and turn his attention | to the pursuit of wealth, | and he will find | that the fires of religious zeal and enthusiasm | grow cold, ] leaving him unresponsive | to religious appeal.] A pitiful | example j of this tendency j toward atrophy | on the part of the emotions, | is found | in the case of Darwin.] In his youth, ] he was a passionate ] lover of music, ] but was unable to maintain his interest in it, ] owing to his absorption ]in scientific pursuits.] In later life,] he sought ] to revive his interest ] in music,] but discovered ] to his intense sor¬ row ] that he was no longer able to find enjoyment therein.] He had so long ] neglected ] the faculty ] of musical enjoyment ] that it had become completely atrophied. ] Method of Scoring: For reproduction of the main proposi¬ tion, two units were given; for statement of first, second and third illustrations, 14, 13 and 14 units respectively were given. In addition to the 43 units thus credited, the passage contained 57 “ideas” which counted as one unit each, thus permitting scoring on the basis of 100. Tests No. 5, 7, 8, 9,—Deferred Reproduction of Logically Related Material Heard and Seen. Materials: Blank sheets of paper. Directions: “Write all you can recall of the passage I read to you at the last psychological examination beginning. “More than once it has happened in the history of science.” “Write all you can recall of the passage you read at the last psychological examination, beginning, “When a man confines his activities to one particular field.” Method of Scoring: Same as above. It happened that in the second reproductions some subjects reproduced more “ideas” THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE COLLEGE STUDENT 27 than they did the first time. Such gains were not counted in comparing the amounts lost; the individual simply being credited with having lost nothing. To one who has scored memory tests, the difficulties of the present task are manifest. It is necessary to lay down arbitrary rules and to adhere to them closely. Some of those most constantly used in the scoring of these passages are as follows: 1. When an “idea” was repeated no credit was given for the repetition. 2. When “ideas” were interpolated which were clearly not found in the original passage, but were mere wild guesses, no credit was given. 3. In mentioning the illustrations, if an individual gave half of an illustration, half credit was given. For example, some remembered that the second illustration in the passage heard con¬ tained something about a physicist but could not recall the idea “refraction of light.” Such an incomplete statement was given a credit of 7 instead of 13. The difficulties of scoring memory passages need not be unduly magnified. It is true that the order in which the “ideas” are reproduced does not follow the original with strict fidelity, still, owing to the faithfulness of the retentive powers of the mind, it is possible, after some experience in scoring, to match up the various meanings and to identify them with the original sources with a tolerable degree of accuracy. As already said these memory tests were planned with view to securing a variety of measures. On the basis of material they may be classed as Rote and Logical. On the basis of sense organ impressed, the material was either heard or seen. Lastly the ef¥ort was made to measure both primary and secondary memory, the latter reproduction occurrring two weeks after the first. In manipulating the measures secured by the use of Tests 2 and 3 one is handicapped by small range of measures. This tends to obscure the meaning of the measures. In Test 2 a wider range of measures might be secured by adopting a different method of scoring. Credit might be given for position of the digits as well as for correct reproduction. This method has disadvantages. 28 HARRY DEXTER KITSON however, some of which are discussed by Whipple^® and Wool- ley and Fischer,“ In Test 3 the difficulty due to small range of measures might be reduced somewhat by the use of more objects exposed for a longer time. Whipple^^ suggests, however, that likelihood of such improvement is slight. This test might be arranged for administration to a group by the use of a stereopticon slide show¬ ing a number of objects. These might be exposed on a screen for a given length of time, then the subjects might write down the names of the objects. This arrangement would permit of testing for deferred memory, a difficult accomplishment when the test is given as an individual test. In all objects tests care should be taken to use objects with simple names, and objects whose names come readily into con¬ sciousness. Otherwise the results might be misleading because it might happen that an image of the object would be before the subject, still he might fail to name it because the name would refuse to come. For this reason care was taken to select objects common to the everyday experience of university students. The degree of logical relationship (in terms of use) between objects also affects this test. It will be noted that the objects here used are frequently associated in use, e.g., envelope, stamp, pen, etc. It is possible that with objects not so frequently associated, the results would have been different. Reference to Table III (p. 50) shows only a slight degree of correlation between the results of these two so-called “memory tests.” Their correlation with the results of the other “memory tests” is equally slight. This may be due to the small range of measures already referred to. Another reason, how¬ ever, may be that these two tests involve immediate recall, which is to some extent a “restoration of the original im¬ pression which is slowly fading.” The impression is still in the foreground of consciousness and partakes of much of the freshness of the original impression before it has been vitiated Op. cit. Op. cit. 12 Op cit., p. 250. THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE COLLEGE STUDENT 29 by the disturbances of time and conflicting impressions. For this reason the reproductions were probably favored by the sense avenue used in impression. In the reproduction made by persons in whom visual impressions tend to persist, the persever¬ ance of the impression might be a factor, while in the case of persons whose visual impressions do not persist so easily, reproduc¬ tion would be scanty. The same tendency applied in the auditory field might affect Test 2. Hence the memory factor, which judg¬ ing by the low correlation seems to operate with unequal force if at all, may be obscured by this factor of the rapidity with which the impression fades. Most of the evidence seems to favor tests for secondary memory over those that call for immediate repro¬ duction only. The tests for “logical” memory were planned to show differen¬ ces between immediate and deferred reproductions. Here re¬ tentive capacity is unquestionably demanded. The impressions must be retained over a considerable period of time. This results usually in some losses. The change is not only of a quantitative nature, affecting the number of “ideas” retained. It is also quali¬ tative. The material becomes in the interim, distorted in all sorts of ways because of the entrance into the mind of conflicting im¬ pressions. Some of these become associated with those retained and become part of the fabric of the first impression. Even when new material is not introduced, the original material may lose its shape and some parts may assume prominence over others. It should be kept in mind that the numerical results do not tell the whole story in any person’s reproduction. There exist qualitative differences among the reproductions which can not be expressed numerically. Particularly is this true in deferrred reproductions. Here two persons may give the same number of “ideas,” but the faithfulness with which they adhere to the origi- inal both in order and in content, may be quite different. Fur¬ thermore the same number of ideas may appear in two repro¬ ductions, but they may differ greatly in importance. This important qualitative distinction was partially provided for by the method of scoring which gave much weight to the main points of the passages. Any qualitative differences, then, con- 30 HARRY DEXTER KITSON cerned only the minor points, and in the arrangement of the pas¬ sages, it was aimed to have these minor points of approximately equal importance. In general it might be added, that subjects who have most profuse “ideas” generally give the best presenta¬ tion from a qualitative standpoint, while those whose “ideas” are scanty generally give the poorest reproductions from a qualitative standpoint. On the whole, then, the above method of scoring represents the facts fairly satisfactorily. An important factor in measuring secondary memory is the mental attitude assumed toward the time of reproduction. If a subject memorizes for the purpose of retaining only a short time, there is likelihood that he will forget when the period for which he consciously memorized has passed. On the other hand if he intends to retain for a long time, he will likely retain better than if he formed no conscious intention. Allowance for this contingency could not be made in these tests, since it was feared that if announcement were made that deferred reproduction would be recjuired, there would be reviewing on the part of some persons. The amount of review could not be controlled, there¬ fore it was regarded as more practicable to say nothing about future reproduction. The attempt was made to have the two logical passages as near alike as possible. Each was constructed in the same manner, having a main proposition with three illustrations, of which the third was amplified. Each had about the same number of words. In subject-matter there is not the same equality, the material in Test No. 6 probably being easier to grasp and to retain than that in Test No. 4. This type of test calls for attention to logical connection and so has some reasoning involved. The activity is not a mere copying of facts; the mind looks for relations and retains the facts by means of the relations apprehended. During presenta¬ tion the mind is active and anticipates the next step, then repro¬ duction is a process of reinstatement. Those persons who char¬ acteristically look for logical connection between experiences, saw at once the relation between the parts of the passages and repro¬ duction of the main topics was an easy matter. Some of the THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE COLLEGE STUDENT 31 subjects reported that they kept track of the sub-topics on their fingers, relating each one to the main proposition. They habit¬ ually schematize experiences and place them in headings and sub-headings in their minds. Persons who do not follow con¬ nected trains of thought easily would not see the relation between the parts so clearly, therefore they would miss some sub-topics. Details, however, might be recalled in profusion regardless of propensity for straight thinking. Judging from the degree of correlation found between the results of the memory tests it appears that the most reliable test for memory is that for deferred rather than immediate reproduction. The scores in immediate reproduction of logical material heard and seen correlate, with an index of .26, but after an interval of two weeks the residuum is constant enough to produce a correlation coefficient of .54, showing that the subjects tend to assume the same positions in the group as time goes on. As might be expected, the losses correlate with a similar degree of correspondence, .54. The retention factor in the process is probably more influen¬ tial than the sense avenue utilized in making the impression. This is suggested by the low index of correlation between scores in Tests 5 and 7 and by the fact that the correlation between scores in immediate and deferred reproductions is higher, .49. Similarly that between scores in material seen and reproduced immediately and the same thing reproduced two w’eeks later is also higher, being .45. This conclusion is further strengthened by reference to the correlation between results of Numbers heard and Objects seen which is but .09. The results indicate that the more reliable measures of memory are obtained by the method of deferred reproduction. Of course the second reproduction was doubtless influenced somewhat by the “immediate” reproduction. This fixed the matter somewhat more firmly in mind than if immediate reproduction had not been required. It is easily seen, however, that in this preliminary investigation it was necessary to have both records for purposes of comparison. The memory tests on the whole seem good tools with which to study the mental ability of students. Marked differences 32 HARRY DEXTER KITSON were discovered between the two sense avenues as media of pre¬ sentation for certain students, and on questioning, they reported that their experience had borne out the findings of the tests. The tests also proved to be fairly consistent measures of the efficiency of immediate versus secondary memory. These findings, also, corresponded closely with the introspections of the students. Altogether, these memory tests furnished data of value quantita¬ tively and qualitatively, and furnish a group of measures that balance or “compensate” for those tests which emphasize par¬ ticularly rapidity of the mental processes. The form in which these tests were administered makes them easy to give, but there is great need for standardization of passages suitable to college students. Many kinds of material should be studied from the standpoint of equality in difficulty, interest-value and familiarity. Test No. lo. Opposites .i Materials: List of Easy and Hard Opposites. Easy Opposites List Hard Opposites List long soft white far up smooth early dead hot asleep lost wet high dirty east day yes wrong empty top north sour out weak good after above sick slow large rich dark front love tall open summer new come male ^•3 Woodworth and Wells, op. cit., p. 6o. THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE COLLEGE STUDENT 33 Directions: “I am going to give you two lists of words and ask you to say the opposite to each word as quickly as possible. Do not say the word you see on the card. Give the opposite. Examples: Give opposite of better, of glad.” The subject Avas handed each of these lists and was directed to say the opposites aloud. Method of Scoring: The work was scored both for speed and accuracy, the former being represented by the number of seconds from the beginning of the first response to the end of the last one. In scoring accuracy, each list was graded on the basis of 100 with 5 deducted for every wrong response or failure to respond within 15 seconds. These scores were com¬ bined into a net index by dividing the time by the accuracy. The score thus represents the time required for forty reactions divided by the accuracy score. In cases where no errors were made, the score represents time alone. In such a comparatively simple test as this, it is readily apparent that accuracy is obtained with comparatively little difficulty on the part of college students. Almost half of this group of subjects obtained a score of 100 in each list. Of the forty students, 31 scored 100 in accuracy for the Easy test and 21, for the Hard test, indicating that they are rightly designated. Easy and Hard. The scoring of Opposites tests is always made difficult by the fact that some words have more than one opposite. An arbitrary system must be adhered to in evaluating responses. The two lists here used are free from these difficulties to some extent, thanks to the work of the Committee on Standardization. Ac¬ cordingly it was decided to score words only right and wrong, and not to give half-credits. In the case of a few words, however, there still remains some ambiguity. To each of the following words more than one opposite is possible, and either one was counted correct. above below, under slow quick, fast front back, rear, behind dead alive. living open shut. closed come §■0. gone, went empty full. filled far near. close 34 HARRY DEXTER KITSON There are a few more words in the lists that present ambiguities, but any responses to them other than the generally accepted opposites were not counted as correct so they are not included in the above list. They offer a serious obstacle to the success of the test, however, and should be eliminated. The disadvantage of ambiguous words connects itself not only with the production of two or more words from which scoring must be made; it also concerns the mental attitude of the subject. In the opinion of the writer, these ambiguous words are productive of long pauses and incorrrect responses because of conflict of impulses. The conflict may be of a logical nature, or as Jung^^ opines, of an essentially emotional character. The process probably consists of an impulse to say one word, then before the response can be made, an impulse arises to say another word. The result is a long pause, or a complete inhibition of response, or an incorrect response. Two examples will illustrate the point. The word “come” was a stumbling-block to many of the subjects. On the theory just presented, the long pauses or failures may be due to the fact that the word has two opposites depending on the tense in which it is interpreted. In the present tense, the proper response is “go,” but in the perfect tense, the opposite is “gone.” “Went” was given most frequently next to the correct opposite. The word “love” was another stumbling-block. The difficulty here may be two-fold. In the first place it may consist in the fact that the word can be regared either as verb or noun. The words commonly associated with it are, “hate” and “hatred” and the conflict might produce a long pause or a complete dead¬ lock. There is another type of explanation, however, which instantly occurrs to one in the light of recent pronouncements from Freudian sources. It may be that the word “love” is pro¬ vocative of such strong emotional reaction in these adolescents that its usually associated opposite can come into consciousness only with great difficulty. Again, there may be only an aversion to saying “hate,” the pause representing a search for a milder word. It might further be questioned whether or not “hate” is the true opposite of love. The attempt was made to secure some The Association Method, A. J. of P. 21, 1910. Pp. 223 fif. THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE COLLEGE STUDENT 35 introspections on these points from those who experienced special difficulty, but without success. When asked what was in their minds at such pauses, the subjects usually replied “nothing.” Of course they were untrained observers and could not throw much light upon the problem. It is not unreasonable, however, to suppose that a conflict may have been present, though the subject was not aware of its significance. The following list, compiled from the records of 137 students taking the test for the first time during the years 1913-14 and 1914-15, shows the effect of the ambiguities. In the case of the two words “come” and “love” are included some of the incorrect responses in order to show how frequent is the tendency toward incorrect responses. above under 7 times slow quick 4 times, swift i time front behind 6 times; rear 4 times dead living 3 times open closed 8 times come went 14 times; gone 7 times; stay or stay away 6 times empty filled i time; vacant i time far close 6 times love dislike i time; distaste i time; detest i time; disre¬ gard I time; good i time; ill i time; no re¬ sponse 13 times. It will be noted that the majority of these undesirable words are found in the Hard list. It is possible that its difficulties may be due to these words alone, and that when the ambiguous words in both lists are eliminated, they will be equal in difficulty. The Opposites test, regarded as a measure of speed of mental processes, has proved acceptable in the present investigation. Reference to Table IV (p. 51) shows that this test ranks second in degree of correlation with all the tests combined. As one of a group of “speed” tests it has considerable symptomatic value. It calls for the exercise of a type of mental gymnastics quite common in everyday life, and in the experience of the ordinary person, the two ideas are so commonly coupled as to be almost automatic. Readiness of speech seems to demand such facility. 36 HARRY DEXTER KIT SON ' Test No. II. Constant Increment® i Materials: Card containing one hundred two-place numbers. 64 72 47 30 49 35 43 56 62 51 35 44 57 30 64 31 68 56 49 37 74 44 67 60 53 36 28 71 67 73 46 48 25 63 55 53 40 47 65 61 61 43 70 36 71 66 41 42 33 69 62 34 38 37 25 39 28 39 40 33 65 32 57 73 41 59 26 38 50 31 68 63 42 60 66 58 58 48 27 32 52 54 51 59 70 46 69 52 26 55 29 45 34 27 74 72 45 29 50 54 Directions: “I am going to give you a list of lOO numbers and shall ask you to add four to each number as quickly as possible, giving the sum aloud. You may practice on this list: 22 , 34 , 92 . Begin at the top of each of the four columns and add four to each number. You need not be afraid to go fast, for the test is easy and you are not likely to make mistakes. You should be accurate, however, because every error will take off one point from your score. The main thing is to add as rapidly as possible.” Method of Scoring: Accuracy was scored by subtracting one unit for every error. The time is represented by the number of seconds required for the 100 additions. A net index was obtained by dividing the number of seconds by the accuracy score. Of the 40 students in this group, only 4 obtained perfect scores in ac- Woodworth and Wells, op. cit., p. 47 THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE COLLEGE STUDENT 2>7 curacy, but there were very few low accuracy scores, most of the errors numbering from two to five. This test, like the preceding one, aims to measure reaction time for almost automatized response. It is easy to administer and easy to score, and when used in company with other measures of speed of mental processes, undoubtedly has some symptomatic value. However, the activity is rather highly specialized and is so patently influenced by practice that on the whole it is not recommended as desirable for a series of general utility. Its use with the present subjects was probably attended with less diffi¬ culty than with the ordinary academic group inasmuch as the members of this group had nearly all had considerable experience with adding. It is probable, however, that a less specialized type of activity would be preferable in measuring speed of mental processes. If use is made of the test in such measurements as this, the author suggests that one hundred additions is an un¬ necessarily large number to require. It is quite likely that twenty-five would give as useful a measure. Test No. 12. Hard Directions^® (Instructions printed) i Materials : Blanks, like sample, laid face downward. Directions: “On the reverse side of this paper will be found a series of directions which I wish you to carry out as rapidly as possible. The direc¬ tions will require you to write certain words and to answer certain ques¬ tions in spaces provided for the purpose. The object is to complete the work correctly as quickly as possible, so do not stop till you have finished.” Method of Scoring: The work was scored as to time and ac¬ curacy. Every error, of which twenty were possible, counted five off except the last direction where 2.5 was counted off for each wrong initial. A net index was secured by dividing the time by the accuracy. Fourteen of the 40 subjects scored 100 in accuracy. With your pencil make a dot over any one of these let¬ ters, F G H I J, and a comma after the longest of these three words: boy mother girl Then, if Christmas comes in March, make a cross right here.but if not, pass along to the next question, and tell where the sun rises. Woodworth and Wells, op. cit. 38 HARRY DEXTER KITSON If you believe that Edison discovered America, cross out what you just wrote, but if it was some one else, put in a number to complete this sentence: “A horse has.feet.” Write yes, no matter whether China is in Africa or not.; and then give a v/rong answer to this question: “How many days are there in the week?”.Write any letter except g just after this comma, and then write no if 2 times 5 are 10 . Now, if Tuesday comes after Monday, make two crosses here.; but if not, make a circle here.or else a square here. Be sure to make three crosses be¬ tween these two names of boys: George.Henry. Notice these two numbers: 3, 5. If iron is heavier than water, write the larger number here., but if iron is lighter write the smaller number here. Show by a cross when the nights are longer: in summer ?.in winter ?. Give the correct answer to this question: “Does water run uphill?” . and repeat your answer here. Do nothing here (5 + 7=.), unless you skipped the preceding question; but write the first letter of your first name and the last letter of your last name at the ends of this line: Two difficulties are to be found with the test in its present form. It was found by experimenting with a preliminary group of subjects, that there was a tendency to misinterpret the first direction. Several persons thought they were to place a dot over the five letters whenever they appeared in the entire text. Ac¬ cordingly the precaution was taken to draw a line through this direction in giving the test to the college students being studied. The test is also embarrassed by the fact that the last direction, as printed on the blanks now available is open to misinterpretation. The line at the ends of which the subject is asked to place his initials, resembles a decoration on the page. By far the greater number of subjects so regarded it, and placed their initials at the end of the printed line after the colon. Accordingly the posi¬ tion of the initials was disregarded in scoring. This test seems to demand more than mere ability to follow directions. Most of the tasks are of such a nature that they can THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE COLLEGE STUDENT 39 not be performed according to the first suggestion. The impulse is checked by a conflicting or alternate command. Accordingly the activity seems to partake largely of the nature of a resistance to suggestion, or of any effort to resist impulses. In comparing the reactions of individual students to this test, it was noticeable that those who had exhibited the power to “hold their heads” in distracting circumstances stood high in this test, while those of opposite tendency were seriously disturbed. It gives opportunity to observe the student under trying circumstances, and throws considerable light upon his habits of attacking new situations. Test No. 13. Directions. (Oral) Materials: Two pieces of type-writer paper folded ready for insertion in a long envelope. Electric switch-board, in two rooms; in the ante-room, a clock, table, book, one chair on which assistant is seated. Directions: “I am going to give you a series of tasks which I wish you to execute as quickly and correctly as possible. There are a number of things to be held in mind, so listen to the directions very carefully.” 1. Go to the room at the end of the hall and lay this paper on the chair. 2. Then hide this paper where it can not readily be found. 3. Then open switch number six. 4. Then look at the clock and see what time it says. 5. If it says it is after ten o’clock, leave the door open as you come out . 6. Bring me a book off the table. Be as quick as possible and do not ask any questions. On his return, the subject was asked what time it was by the clock. Method of Scoring: The accuracy with which the directions were carried out was scored on the basis of 100 by giving a credit of 16^ for each task. The net index was found by dividing the time by the accuracy. Only eight of the forty sub¬ jects performed the tasks exactly as directed. There is a ques¬ tion as to what is the fairer method of scoring. Should the basis be speed or accuracy? Though a combination of both was 40 HARRY DEXTER KITSON adopted, some doubt was entertained as to the justice of the plan. Scores in speed and accuracy show no positive corre¬ lation (—.ii). Furthermore the accuracy scores vary widely —from 50 to 100—and one would suppose that the low scores would prevent a high correlation between scores in speed and index. The correlation seems surprisingly high, however, being .95. Thus it appears that the rather low scores in accuracy did not seriously alter the standing of the individuals with respect to speed. As final evidence that the net index as thus obtained does measure speed, is the fact that scores in speed of carrying out printed directions correlate with those in the oral test by .23, and the indices of the two tests correlate with the same coefficient. Of course this still does not answer the question as to whether accuracy would not be a truer measure of this ability. Memory plays a rather important part in the oral directions test. Success in it demands that one retain a number of details in a certain order. It also requires the ability to “hold one’s head” in spite of distractions. Several distractions were intro¬ duced such as might occur in any business situation. With refer¬ ence to the first direction there was only one chair in the room, and the assistant was seated on that. This disturbed many of the subjects. All were obliged to make quick decisions as to what disposition they should make of the paper. Some obeyed the instructions implicitly and asked the assistant to rise; others tucked it behind her. Still others, however, made no attempt to obey the direction and deposited the paper on the table. A fur¬ ther distraction was presented in making the closing of the door contingent upon the time as told by the clock on the table. The hands of the clock were always set at 10:30 and it did not run. The surprise encountered here caused some to forget the instruc¬ tions about closing the door. The peculiar wording given to this direction was also slightly disconcerting. Lastly there were twelve switches in a row, and it was necessary to remember which one to throw oft*. The whole situation called up by this test serves to throw considerable illumination upon the way a person meets novel and complex situations. The experience with this test shows need for several changes. THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE COLLEGE STUDENT 41 It would be better to have all the tasks performed in the same room and to dispense with the need for an assistant. The direc¬ tion about the time of day might well be omitted. It was found that some subjects did not look at the clock, reporting, when they came back to the test-room, that they got the time from their watches. Of course this counted against the score, constituting a deviation from the directions, but it should be omitted from the test because it offers opportunity for misinterpretation. Test No. 14. Word-building^^ g Materials: Blank sheet of paper with capital letters, B, M, T, A, E, O across the top laid face-downward upon the desk. Directions: “On the reverse side of the paper before you are six letters which I wish you to use in building words. Make as many words as possi¬ ble from the six letters. For example, out of the letters e, a, r, i, 1, p, you might form words like rap, lip, etc. You may use any number of letters from one to six, but no other letters than these six are to be used. Any English words will do—proper names, interjections: only be sure that they fulfill the above conditions. Five minutes will be given.” Test No. 15. Sentence-building.^® g Materials; Blank paper and pencil. Directions: “I will give you five minutes in which to make as many sen¬ tences as possible containing three words which I will give you presently. For example, if I gave you the words money, river, Chicago, you might make a sentence like this : “Chicago spends much money improving its river.” You may use either singular or plural forms of the words, nom¬ inative, objective or possessive case. Simply use all three of the words in a sensible sentence and make as many different sentences as possible. The three words are citizen, horse, decree." Method of Scoring: The score represents the number of sen¬ tences formed. Tests No. 14 and 15 suffer under the handicap of small range of scores. The steps between the scores are too large to reveal slight differences in achievement. In the cases of the sentences, the papers which contained a relatively large number of sentences Whipple, op. cit., p. 441 ff. 18 Whipple, op. cit., p. 436 ff. 42 HARRY DEXTER KIT SON necessarily showed much sameness in subject-matter and structure. Both these tests call for a certain amount of ingenuity and alertness. They are probably influenced somewhat by the size of the vocabulary at the command of the subject. The amount of work done in each of these five-minute periods is small in com¬ parison with the length’of time devoted to the tests. It would be desirable to arrange tests that allow greater amount of work to be performed in comparison with the time devoted to it. The results of the two tests do not correlate very highly with each other, as is shown by Table III p. 50. They hold similar positions however, in correlation with the scores of the tests combined. Test No. 16. Business Ingenuity g Materials: Mimeographed copies of the following “problem.” lilr. A. is in the manufacturing business—manufacturing knit underwear. He inherited the business from his father who was sole owner and proprietor. On the death of the latter, which occurred a year ago, the business, which aside from the homestead comprised the entire estate, passed into the hands of Mr. A., Jr., and his sister. The elder Mr. A. had conducted the business for forty years with remark¬ able success. Under his wise and careful management it had grown from a small work-shop employing a dozen persons, to a plant of considerable proportions. Its employees now number 250 ; there are 10 salesmen, and the product of the mills is surpassed in quality by none on the market. Although the plant had expanded greatly under the guidance of its founder, still for the past 10 or 15 years it has just been holding its own. Rival firms have been making great inroads upon its trade. The old gentleman scorned the artifices of modern advertising and otherwise refused to make any concessions to the cheaper trade, depending upon the continued excellence of “Excelsior” brand goods to win. Consequently, at his demise, the business was paying only moderate dividends. With the removal of the powerful personality that had always dominated the affairs of the “Excelsior Knitting Mills,” business fell off alarmingly. Salesmen daily reported the loss of old customers. The best salesman of the force tendered his resignation, having accepted a position with a rival house. Furthermore, Congress recently raised the tariff on raw wool, thus increasing the cost of production. In addition to these reverses, Mr. A. has been experiencing considerable financial pressure for several months. It is now the middle of January, and he is facing a crisis. Last summer, being hard pressed by his importing house for settlement of an overdue bill for raw material, he had gone to the bank and borrowed $ 8 , 000 , giving two notes THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE COLLEGE STUDENT 43 for $ 4,000 each, one due in six months, and the other, in one j^ear. The first note falls due February i, two weeks off. He had expected to meet this obligation in February with remittances from his customers, who by this time should have turned over a great part of their winter stock. In this he was disappointed, however, as collections are extremely slow of late, being barely sufficient to cover the pay-roll. And now as Mr. A. sits at his desk, pondering over the difficulties that confront him, the aged bookkeeper who had served the firm for 25 years enters and sadly lays before him a statement from the bank, showing an overdraft of $900 for the last payroll. This is especially ominous, as another payroll is due in two weeks. Mr. A. greatly dislikes to shut down the factory. It constitutes the chief means of support for the town of 2,500 inhabitants. A severe winter is at hand, and it would work great hardship upon many families to throw his force out of work at this time. Besides, to close the factory would be disadvantageous to the business itself in more ways than one. As Mr. A. studies the situation in all its phases, he sees thalt it is not perfectly hopeless. He has buildings and grounds worth $ 75 , 000 , machinery and equipment worth $ 30 , 000 —all in good condition. His books show bills receivable, amounting to about $ 10 , 000 , but it should be said in explanation of this that he fears to collect any part of it by pressure, inasmuch as it has been his father’s policy to be very lenient with his customers, and since patronage has already fallen off so markedly within the past year, he dares not risk any more defection by drastic collection proceedings. Perhaps his most valuable asset is the “Excelsior” trade-mark and the untarnished reputation of the house. This and other features of the situation give him encouragement, and he seeks the best course to follow. There are several ways in which this situation might be met. Describe briefly all the solutions you can think of, any one or all of which miglht be used not only (i) to meet the present crisis, but also ( 2 ) to put the business on a good running basis. Directions: “Study the contents of this paper carefully and obey the directions given in the last paragraph. There is no time limit.” Method of Scoring: Caution was observed in scoring the results of this test, to eliminate any bias in evaluating answers. It would plainly be unfair for the experimenter to set a value arbitrarily upon each possible solution, as such evaluation would be based upon wider experience than that possessed by the mem¬ bers of the group tested. Neither would a mass judgment made by financial experts furnish an adequate standard. The fairest way seemed to be to count all the solutions offered and to grade each paper with respect to the judgment of the total group. This was accomplished by tabulating every solution offered and count¬ ing the number of times it was offered. The number of different 44 HARRY DEXTER KITSON solutions offered was 46. Each of these was mentioned from i to 56 times by the 68 persons who took the test the first year. For example, 58 persons suggested “advertising campaign” along modern lines”; 45 suggested “mortgage some property”; one person suggested that the factory be closed temporarily, etc. The 46 solutions were offered altogether 363 times. In order to grade on a basis of 100, 100 was divided by 363, leaving .275 as a unit. It was then easy to evaluate the different solutions by multiplying the number of times each was mentioned, by .275. Thus the reply “advertising campaign” received a value of 15.9; “mortgage property,” 12.4; “close factory, .275, etc. Each paper was then scored by crediting each solution with the value which the combined judgments of the entire group placed upon it. ^^AMB Test Highest Lowest ^Average Score Dev; — Dev. + 3cr - 2