^^^^STom^S^ "^^^^^GfCAL Stl*^ BS 500 .B853 Briggs, Charles Augustus Biblical study BIBLICAL STUDY. BIBLICAL STUDY ITS PRINCIPLES METPIODS AND HISTORY TOGETHER WITH A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS OF REFERENCE BY CHARLES AUGUSTUS' BRIGGS D.D. DAVENPORT PROFESSOR OF HEBREW AND THE COGNATE LANGUAGES IN THE UNION THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY NEW YORK CITY NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 1883. COPYRIGHT, 1883, BY CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS. EDWARD O. JENKINS, Printer and Stereotyfer^ 20 North William St., New York. ^ TO ROSWELL D. HITCHCOCK, D.D., LL.D., PRESIDENT OF THE UNION THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, NEW YORK, AND WASHBURN PROFESSOR OF CHURCH HISTORY IN THE SAME, AND TO ISAAC A. DORNER, D.D., PROFESSOR OF THEOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF BERLIN: THE SURVIVORS OF TWO NOBLE FACULTIES, TO WHOM THE AUTHOR OWES HIS THEOLOGICAL TRAINING, ^his Boob IS DEDICATED AS A TOKEN OF GRATITUDE AND AFFECTION. PREFACE. This work is the product of the author's experience as a student of the Bible, and a teacher of theological students in Biblical Study. From time to time, during the past fourteen years, he has been called upon to give special attention to particular themes in public addresses and review articles. In this way the ground of Biblical Study has been quite well covered. This scattered ma- terial has been gathered, and worked over into an or- ganic system. The following articles and addresses have been freely used wherever the material contained in them seemed appropriate: (i) Two articles on Biblical Theology in the American Presbyterian Review, 1870, pp. 105 seq., 293, scq. (2) An inaugural address on Exegetical The- ology on the author's induction into the chair of He- brew and Cognate Languages in the Union Theological Seminary, New York, October, 1 876 ; published in the Presbyterian Quarterly and Princeton Review, 1877, p. 5, seq. (3) An address before the Sunday-school Teach- ers' Association of New York on the Languages of the Bible, in the autumn of 1876, which was published in the volume God''s Word Mart's Light and Guide, New York, 1877, p. 37, seq. (4) An article in the Presbyte- rian Review, 1881, p. 551, seq., on the Right, Duty, and Limits of Biblical Criticism. (5) Two articles in the Homiletical Quarterly, London, 1881, pp. 398, seq., and 535, seq., on Hebrezv Poetry. (6) An article in the Pres- (vii) yl\[ PREFACE. byteriayi Review, 1882, p. 503, seq., on Biblical Theology. {7) An article in the Hebrew Student, 1882, p. 65, seq., on the Literary Study of the Bible. (8) An article in the Presbyterian Review, 1883, p. 69, seq., on the Critical Study of the Higher Criticism, with special reference to the Pentateuch. (9) An address upon the Scriptures as a Means of Grace, delivered before the Sunday-school Convention of the Presbytery of New York in the winter of 1882, and then enlarged and delivered before the Theological Seminary of the Reformed Church, at Lancaster, Pa., in May, 1883. (10) An address before the Union Theological Seminary, New York, at the opening of the term, September 20, 1883, on the Inter- pretatioft of Scripture. This material hasbeen used by the author when it suited his purpose, but it will be found that the additional matter is far greater than that already given to the public in these scattered pieces, and that the book is a complete and symmetrical whole. The author has aimed to present a guide to Bib- lical Study for the intelligent layman, as well as the theological student and minister of the Gospel. It is his conviction that the scientific study of the Word of God should be combined with a devout use of it. Piety and scholarship must be wedded in order to the best results. It is a misfortune that they should ever be divorced. A great revival of Biblical Study is now in progress in Great Britain and America. It is all-important that this revival should be guided in the right direction. Scholasticism and Rationalism are alike perilous. Scholasticism is largely responsible for the neglect of a scholarly study of the Scriptures for a century in Eng- lish-speaking lands. (See pp. 123, seq., 145, seq., 149, PREFACE. ix seq., 206, seq., 209, seq., 345-346, 373» -^^^O It is chiefly responsible for the reaction into the other extreme of Rationalism. As Scholasticism is the chief provocative to Rationalism, it can never by any possibility overcome it. The evangelical spirit of the Biblical authors, the vital and experimental religion of the Reformers and Puritan fathers is the only force that will be at all effective. It is necessary that we should react to their principles and methods, and build upon them. True progress in the- ology is to be found in the working out of the principles of the Reformation and of Puritanism, in carrying them on to higher and grander results. These principles have been neglected by British and American theo- logians of the past century. It has been a constant aim in this book to call attention to these principles and to the methods of Biblical Study based upon them, and to explain the doctrine of the Bible in the chief Puritan symbol, the Westminster Confession, by citations from its authors and their forerunners. (See pp. 114, seq., 167, s^'q-, 335, seq., iji, seq) At the same time a sketch of the entire history of each department of Biblical Study has been given, the stages of its development are traced, the normal is discriminated from the abnormal, and the whole is rooted in the methods of Christ and His apostles. The Literature of Biblical Study has been considered in its appropriate places in the system. But it has been deemed best to present a catalogue of a reference libra- ry for Biblical Study by itself at the end of the work. The labor that has been expended upon this part of the book will be appreciated by those who have had ex- perience in Bibliography. These will be ready to excuse any defects or errors that may have arisen from inadver- tence or lack of material. 3^ PREFACE. The ground of Biblical Study has been covered, with the exception of Biblical History. This department has been included in the Reference Library because it seemed necessary for completeness. It has been omit- ted from the discussions because it is usual to classify Biblical History with Historical Theology. The author did not care to determine this disputed question in a work already sufificiently extensive. In the use of Scripture the freedom which charac- terizes the Biblical authors, the fathers, the reformers, and the Puritan sires has been followed. The A. V. and R. V. have been quoted, or modified, or a new trans- lation from the originals has been given, just as it suited the author's purpose at the time. He has been con- cerned chiefly to give the sense of the originals of divine revelation. The three indexes have been prepared by the author's pupil and friend. Rev. Charles R. Gillett, A.M., the librarian of the Union Theological Seminary, New York, to whom he would express his thanks for the great pains taken in the work. With an implicit faith in the God of the Bible, and the power of grace contained in the holy Word ; and with an unwavering recognition, of the supreme excel- lence of the written Word, as the mirror of the eter- nal Logos ; and with an entire submission to its author- ity as supreme over all doctrines of men and ecclesi- astical decisions, this Biblical Study is submitted to the judgment of the intelligent reader. .. -^ -^ J Cr '• ^-^ TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. The Advantages of Biblical Study, p. i. Biblical Study the most important, p. i ; the most extensive, p. I ; the most profound, p. 2; the most attractive, p. 3, of all studies. CHAPTER n. Exegetical Theology, p. 10. Exegetical Theology the most general terra for Biblical Study, p. 10. I. Biblical Literature, p. 17 : (i) Biblical Canonics, p. 21 ; (2) Textual Criticism, p. 22 ; (3) The Higher Criticism, p. 24. II. Biblical Exegesis, p. 27. III. Biblical Theology, p. 37. • CHAPTER III. The Languages of the Bible, p. 42. The languages of the Bible the most suitable for decJat-ing the divine revelation to mankind, p. 42. I. The Hebrew Language, p. 46. II. The Aramaic Language, p. 59. III. The Greek Language, p. 63. CHAPTER IV. The Bible and Criticism, p. 75. The necessity of criticism to determine the true canon, text, and char- acter of the various writings of the Bible, p. 75. I. What is Criticism ? p. 78. II. Principles of Criticism, p. 82 : derived (i) from General Criticism, p. 82; (2) from Historical Criticism, P- 83 ; (3) from Criticism of the text, p. 85 ; (4) from Higher Criticism, p. 86; questions to be determined by Higher Criti- cism, p. 87 ; principles of Higher Criticism, p. 88 ; illustrations, (xi) xii CONTENTS. p. 92. III. Criticism of the Bible, p. 94; confronted by tradi- tional views, p. 95 ; based on the principles of the Reformation, p. lOI. CHAPTER V. The Canon of Scripture, p. 105, No official determination of the Canon in the ancient Church, p. 105. I. The Canon of the Reformers^ p. 106. The Reformation prin- ciple of determining the Canon, p. 107 ; its abandonment by the scholastics, p. 113. 11. The Puritan Canon, p. 114 : The Puri- tan principle discriminated from the Anglican, p. 114 ; the Puri- tan mystic, p. 119; abandonment of the Puritan principle, p. 124, III. Criticism of the Canon, p. 125. The LXX and the Canon of the Oi T., p. 126. The men of the great synagogue, p. 127. Evidence from Philo and Josephus, p. 128 ; The N. T. determination of the O. T. Canon, p. 131 ; The N. T. Canon in the early church, p. 132. The Protestant Canon, p. 133. The principles for determining the Canon, p. 136. CHAPTER VI. The Text of the Bible, p. 139. I. Textual Criticism in the Sixteenth Century, p. 140 ; of the Re- formers, p. 140; of the Scholastics, p. 141. II. Textual Criti- cism in the Seventeenth Century, p. 142 : Cappellus and Bux- torf, p. 143 ; Walton and Owen, p. 144. III. Textual Criticism in the Eighteenth a7td Nineteenth Centuries, p. 148 : New Test. Criticism, p. 148 ; Old Test. Criticism, p. 149. IV. The Text of the Old Testament, p. 151 : The Vowel points and accents, p. 151 ; the letters, p. 153; the versions, p. 153. V. Textual Criticism and Inspiration, p. 1 56 : Verbal inspiration rejected, p. 156; the external word instrumental, p. 158; the internal word inspired, p. 161. CHAPTER VII. The Higher Criticism, p. 164. I. The Higher Criticism in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centu- ries, p. 165 : The freedom of the Reformers and Puritans, p. 165. The new questions opened in the Eighteenth Centurj', p. 169. II. Criticism of the Traditional Theories, p. 171 : The true CONTENTS. Xiii method and its defence, p. 171. III. The Rabbinical Theories, p. 173, IV. Hellenistic and Christian Theories, p. 180, V. The New Testament View of the Old Testament Literature,^. 184. VI. The Rise of the Higher Criticism, p. 196: Spinoza and Simon, p. 197; Astruc, Lovvth, and Herder, p. 202; Eichhorn, p. 203. VII. The Higher Criticism in the Nineteenth Cent- ury, p. 207. CHAPTER VIII. Literary Study of the Bible, p. 214. I. The Integrity of the Scriptures, p. 216. II. The Authenticity of the Scriptures, p. 220 : (l) Anonymes, p. 222 ; (2) Pseudonymes, p. 223 ; (3) Compilations, p. 226. III. Literary forms of the Scriptures, p. 228 : (i) History, p. 230; (2) the Oration, p. 234; (3) the Epistle, p. 237 ; (4) Fiction, p. 238. IV. Credibility of the Scriptures, p. 240 : Inerrancy not a Protestant doctrine, p. 241. Higher Criticism strengthens the credibihty of Scripture, p. 244. CHAPTER IX. Hebrew Poetry, p. 248. The Hebrews a remarkably poetic people, p. 248. I. Characteris- tics of Hebrew Poetry, p. 250. II. Forms of Hebrew Poetry, p. 255. III. Parallelism of members, p. 272. IV. The Strophe, p. 272. V. Measurement by Words or Accents, p. 279. VI. Poetic Language, p. 283. Yll. Kinds of Hebrew Poetry, p. 284 : (i) Lyric, p. 284 ; (2) Gnomic, p. 285 ; (3) Composite, p. 288. CHAPTER X. ■ The Interpretation of Scripture, p. 296. The Word of God at first oral, p. 296 ; the interpretation of writings, p. 297. I. Rabbinical interpretation, p. 299: Rules of the Ha- lacha and Haggada, p. 301 ; the Sodh, p. 302 ; the Peshat, p. 303. II. Hellenistic Interpretation, p. 305: Rules of allegory, p. 306. III. Interpretation, of Scripture in the New Testa- ment, p. 307 ; Jesus' use of the Rabbinical and Hellenistic meth- ods, p. 309 ; the distinguishing features of Jesus' method, p. 311 ; the apostolic use of Haggada, Halacha, and Allegory, p. 315 ; the distinguishing features of apostolic interpretation, p. 319. xiv CONTENTS. IV. Interpretation of the Fathers and Schoolmen, p. 320 : The churchly tendency, p. 321 ; the allegorical tendency, p. 322 ; the Antiochan school, p. 325 ; the traditional interpretation of the middle age, p. 328. V. The Interpretation of the Reformers and their Successors, p. 331 ; The Humanists, p. 331 ; the reforma- tion principle of interpreting Scripture by Scripture, p. 332 ; the scholastic rule of faith, p. 333. VI. The Interpretation of the Puritans and Arminians, p. 335 : The Puritan principle of the Holy Spirit in Scripture, p. 336 ; Puritan practical interpreta- tion, p. 340; Puritan doctrine of the Covenants, p. 342; the Federalists and Pietists, p. 343 ; the Arminian historical inter- pretation, p. 345. Vn. Biblical Interpretation of Modern Times, p. 346 : The grammatico-historical method of Ernesti, Semler, and Keil, p. 347 ; the older Tiibingen school, p. 348 ; the organic method of the school of Schleiermacher, p. 349 ; the interpretation of the history of redemption, p. 351. VHI. Method of Biblical Interpretation, p. 351 : (i) Grammatical, p. 352 ; (2) Logical and Rhetorical, p. 353 ; (3) Historical, p. 357 ; (4) Comparative, p. 358; (5) Use of the literature of interpreta- tion, p. 360 ; (6) Doctrinal interpretation, p. 361 ; (7) Practical, P- 363- CHAPTER XI. Biblical Theology, p. 367. I. The Four types of Theology, p. 367 : The mystic, p. 368 ; scho- lastic, p. 369; speculative, p. 369; evangelical, p. 370 ; their his- toric struggles, p. 371. II, The Rise of Biblical Theology, p. 374: Zachariah and Ammon, p. 374; Gabler, p. 375 ; DeWette and Von Coin, p. 376. III. Development of Biblical Theology, p. 377 : The Tubingen school and the school of Neander, p. 377 ; Reuss, Kuenen, and Wellhausen, p, 386 ; the present problems, p. 389. IV. Position and importance of Biblical Theology, p. 390 : (i) The idea of Biblical Theology, p. 390 ; (2) Place of Biblical Theology, p. 397 ; (3) Method, p. 399 ; (4) Sys- tem and Divisions, p. 401 ; Unity and variety of the Bible, p. 404. CHAPTER XII. The Scriptures as a Means of Grace, p. 406. The principles of the Reformation, p. 406. I. The Gospel in the Scriptures, p. 407, II. The Grace of God in the Scriptures, CONTENTS. XV p. 410: (i) They contain the power of God unto salvation, p. 411 ; (2) The grace of redemption from sin to holiness, p. 412; (^0 The grace of regeneration, p. 413 I (<^) The grace of sancti- fication, p. 414. III. The efficacy of the Scriptures, p. 416. IV. The appropriation of the grace of the Scriptures, p. 41?: (0 By prayerful attention, p. 418; (2) by appropriating faith, p. 423; (3) by practicing faith, p. 426. A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY, p. 429. I. Biblical Study in Getieral, p. 429. II. The Languages of the Bible and Cognates, p. 430 ; Hebrew, p. 430; Aramaic, p. 432 ; Arabic and .^thiopic, p. 433'; Phoenician and Samaritan, p. 434; Assyrian and Babylonian, p. 435; Greek, p. 435; III. Canon of Scripture, p. 4^7. IV. Text of Scripture, p. 438 ; Originals and Versions, p. 438; Concordances, p. 441 ; Textual • Criticism of the Old Testament, p. 442; Textual Criticism of tlie New Testament, p. 448. V. The Higher Criticism, p. 444 ; of the Old Testament, p. 444 ; of the New Testament, p. 446. VI. Interpretation of Scripture, p. 447 ; (i) Hermeneutics, p. 447; (2) Commentaries on the whole Bible, p. 449; on the Old Testament, p. 453 ; on the New Testament, p. 460. VII. Biblical History, p. 468 ; Biblical Geography and Natural His- tory, p. 468 ; Old Testament History, p. 470 ; History of the Jews and their surroundings during the Greek and Roman pe- riods, p. 474; New Testament History, p. 476. YWl. Biblical Theology, p. 480 : of the whole Bible, p. 480 ; of the Old Testament, p. 481 : Theology of the Jews during the Greek and Roman periods, p. 484 ; New Testament Theology, p. 486. INDEXES. I. Texts of Scripture, p. 489. II. Topics, p. 493. III. Books and Authors, p. 499. CHAPTER I. THE ADVANTAGES OF BIBLICAL STUDY. Biblical study is the most important of all studies, for it is a study of the Word of God, which contains a divine revelation of redemption to the world. Nowhere else can such a redemption be found save where it has been derived from this fountain source or from those sacred persons, institutions, and events presented to us in the Bible. The Bible is the chief source of the Chris- tian religion. Christian theology, and Christian life. While other secondary and subsidiary sources may be used to advantage in connection with this principal source, they cannot dispense with it. For the Bible contains the revelation of redemption ; the Messiah and His kingdom are the central theme ; its varying contents lead by myriads of paths in converging lines to the throne of the God of grace. The Bible is the sure way of life, wisdom, and blessedness. / Biblical study is the most extensive of all studies, for its themes are the central themes which are inextri- cably entwined in all knowledge. Into its channels every other study pours its supply as all the brooks and rivers flow into the ocean. The study of the Bible is a study for men of every class and occupation in life, for all the world. No profound scholar in any department of in- vestigation can avoid the Bible.' Sooner or later his 2 • BIBLICAL STUDY. special studies will lead him thither. The Bible is an ocean of heavenly wisdom. The little child may sport upon its shores and derive instruction and delight. The most accomplished scholar finds its vast extent and mys- l terious depths beyond his grasp. We open the Bible and on its earliest pages are con- fronted with the origin of the world, the creation of man, the problem of evil. Its historie's present, in brief yet impressive outlines, the struggle of good and evil, the strife of tribes and nations, arid, above all, the inter- play of divine and human forces, showing that a divine plan of the world is unfolding. The springs of human action, the secrets of human experience and motive are disclosed in the measures of psalm and proverb. The character, attributes, and purposes of God are unveiled in the strains of holy prophets. The union of God and man in redemption is more and more displayed in the progress of its literature. Two great covenants divide the plan of redemption into two stages, the old cove- nant and the ne^^. The former presents us instructions which are a marvel of righteousness, holiness, and grace ; institutions that are symmetrical and grand, combining, as nowhere else, the real and the ideal, — the light and guide to Israel bearing on to the new covenant. In the latter the Messiah presents His achievements of redemp- tion in which are stored up the forces which have shaped the Christian centuries and the secrets of the everlasting future. All the sciences and arts, all the literatures, histories, and religions of the world gather about the Bible to contribute to its study and derive help from its revelations. f Biblical study is the most profound of all studies, for it has to do with the secrets of life and death, of God and man, of this 'world and other worlds. Its chief con- THE ADVANTAGES OF BIBLICAL STUDY. 3 tents are divine revelations. These were revealed be- cause man could not attain them otherwise. Even those contents of the Bible that are not revealed are colored and shaped by the revelations with which they are con- nected. All study which goes beyond the surface soon reaches the mysterious. There are many mysteries that patient and persistent investigation has solved, is solv- ing, or may be able to solve. But the mysteries revealed in the Bible are those which man has not been able to attain by inductive and deductive investigation. When the study of the other departments of human learning has reached their uttermost limits, there still remains a gulf between those limits and the contents of divine revelation. Divine revelation is to the other depart- ments of human knowledge what heaven is to earth. It is above them, it encircles them — it envelops them on every side. Like heaven, it discloses vast heights. Those things which are revealed lift the student of the Bible to regions of knowledge that reach forth to the in- finite. And yet profound as the divine rf^evelation is, it is simple. It is like the sunlight bearing its own evidence in itself. It is like the blue vault of heaven clear and bright. It is a revelation for babes as well as men, for the simple as well as the learned. The most profound study cannot master it. Any attentive study of it is rewarded with precious knowledge. Biblical study is the most attractive of all studies. '! The variety of topic, richness of material, beauty of form, wealth of illustration, the vast importance of its themes, the unity in which the amazing variety of au- thor, age, and topic is bound together — all make the Bible the most interesting and absorbing study for peasant and j prince, for child and sage, for all the world. . " If this is not the actual experience of all mankind, it 4 * BIBLICAL STUDY. is not the fault of the Bible, but of the religious teachers who have obtruded their traditions and theories upon the Bible as the Pharisees did in the time of our Lord Jesus (Matt. xv. 6 ; Col. ii. 8). The people and learned men have been too often driven from the Bible by Prot- estant ministers as^ well as Roman Catholic priests. The Bible has been hedged about with awe as if the use of it, except in solemn circumstances and with de- votional feelings, was a sin against the Holy Spirit. Men have been kept from the Bible as from the sacra- ments by dread of the serious consequences involved in their use. The Bible has been made an unnatural and unreal book, by attaching it exclusively to hours of de- votion and detaching it from the experiences of ordinary life. ) The study of the Bible will inevitably lead to holy and devout thoughts, will bring the student to the pres- ence of God and His Christ — but it is a sad mistake to suppose that the Bible can be approached only in spe- cial frames of mind and with peculiar preparation. It is not to be covered as with a funereal pall and laid away for hours of sorrow and affliction. It is not to be re- garded with feelings of bibliolatry, which are as perni- cious as the adoration of the sacrament. It is not to be used as a book of magic, as if it had the mysterious power of determining all questions at the opening of the book. It is not to be used as an astrologer's horoscope to determine from its words and letters, the structure of its sentences, and its wondrous symbolism, through seem- ing coincidences, the fulfilment of biblical prophecy in the events transpiring round about us or impending over us. The Bible is no such book as this — it is a book of life, a real book, a people's book. It is a blessed means of grace when used in devotional hours, — it has also holy lessons and beauties of thought and sentiment for hours THE ADVANTAGES OF BIBLICAL STUDY. 5 of leisure and recreation. It appeals to the aesthetic and intellectual as well as moral and spiritual faculties, the whole man in his whole life. -Familiarity with the Bible is to be encouraged. It will not decrease, but rather enhance the reverence with which we ought to approach the Holy God in His Word. The Bible takes its place among the masterpieces of the world's literature. The use of it as such no more interferes with devotion than the beauty and grandeur of archi- tecture and music prevent the adoration of God in the worship of a cathedral. Rather the varied forms of beauty, truth, and goodness displayed in the Bible will conspire to bring us to Him who is the centre and in- spiration of them all. Another sin against the Bible is often committed by the indiscriminate use of proof texts in dogmatic asser- tion and debate. They are hurled against one another in controversy with such difference of interpretation that it has become a proverb that anything can be proved from the Bible. The Bible has been too often used as if it were a text-book of abstract definitions giving ab- solute truth. On the contrary, the Bible was not made for ecclesiastical lawyers, but for the people of God. It gives the concrete in the forms and methods of general literature.) Its statements are ordinarily relative]; they depend upon the context in which they are imbedded, the scope of the author's argument, his peculiar point of view, his type of thought, his literary style, his position in the unfolding of divine revelation. There are occa- sional passages so pregnant with meaning that they seem to present, as it were, the quintessence of the whole Bible. Such texts were called by Luther little bibles. But ordinarily, the texts can be properly understood only in their context. To detach them from their place and g BIBLICAL STUDY. use them as if they stood alone, and deduce from them all that the words and sentences may be con- strained to give, as absolute statements, is an abuse of logic and the Bible. Such a use of other books would be open to the charge of misrepresentation. Such a use of the Bible is an adding unto the Word of God new meanings and taking away from it the true meaning. Against this we are warned by the Bible itself (Rev. xxii. 18-19). Deduction, inference, and application may be used within due bounds, but they must always be based upon a correct apprehension of the text and context of the passage. These processes should be conducted with great'caution, lest in transferring the thought to new con- ditions and circumstances, there be an insensible assimi- lation first of its form and then of its content to these conditions and circumstances, and it become so trans- formed as to lose its biblical character and become a tradition of man.* It is a melancholy feature of bibli- cal study that so much attention must be given to the removal of the rubbish of tradition that has been heaped upon the Word of God now as in the times of Jesus. The Bible is like an oasis in a desert. Eternal vigilance and unceasing activity are necessary to prevent the sands from encroaching upon it and overwhelming its fertile soil and springs of water. The Bible is given to us in the forms of the world's literature, and its meaning is to be determined by the reader as he determines the meaning of other literature by the same principles of exegesis. It is a Protestant principle that the Word of God should be given to the people in their own familiar tongue with the right of private judgment in its interpretation. It is a corollary * Westm. Confession 0/ Faith, I. 6. THE ADVANTAGES OF BIBLICAL STUDY. 7 of this principle that they be taught that it is to be under- stood in a natural sense, as other writings are understood. Any unnatural and artificial interpretation bears its own condemnation in itself. The saving truths of Scripture can be " savingly understood " only through the illumi- nation of the Spirit of God,* but this is not for the reason that they are not sufficiently plain and intelligible, or that some special principles of interpretation are needed of a scholastic or cabalistic sort — but owing to the fact that in order to salvation they must be applied to the soul of man by a divine agent, and appropriated by the faith of the heart and the practice of the life. We must call attention to a still more serious mistake in the use of the Bible. There a're those who think that they alone have the truth of God, that the highest wis- dom has already been attained, and that they are the guardians of orthodoxy. They presume to oppose the discoveries in science or philosophy, the improvements in theology and methods of church work, and even the deeper study of the Word of God itself, by isolated texts and traditional interpretations. Scarcely a pro- found thinker, since the days of Socrates, who has not been obliged to pause in his work and defend himself, like the apostle Paul, against these "dogs" and "evil workers " (Phil. iii. 2). Galileo was silenced by the quoting of the Bible against the Copernican theory of the revolution of the earth around the sun. Descartes had to defend his orthodoxy. The enemies of the Crit- ical philosophy of Kant charged that no critic who fol- lowed out the consequences of his positions could be a good man, a good citizen, or a good Christian.f * Westminster Confession^ I., 6. + These points are discussed by Krug, Ueher das Verhaltniss der Kritischen Philo Sophie zur mora'isc/ien, politischen und religioscn Kultur der Metischen. Jena, 179S. 3 BIBLICAL STUDY. The results of Geology have been opposed by those who insist that the world was made in six days of twen- ty-four hours. Biology has to fight its way against those who affirm that the doctrine of development is against the Scriptures. Such use of the Bible has too often the effect of driving scholars away from it, and especially from the Old Testament, the most abused part of it. As Dr. C. A. Row says : " The fact is therefore indisputable, that theologians have handled Scripture on such faulty principles, that they have laid down as truths indisputably divine, a number of dogmas which have brought reve- lation into direct collision with some of the greatest discoveries of modern science, and that after having, on their first enunciation, de- nounced them as inconsistent with the belief that Scripture contains the record of a divine revelation, they have been compelled to accept them as unquestionable verities. Moreover, the general distrust arising from failures of this kind has been intensified by the pertinac- ity with which theologians have clung to various unsound positions, which they have only abandoned when further resistance had be- come impossible. The history of the conflict between Science and Revelation is full of such instances, and the consequences have been disastrous in the extreme." * Such theologians as those here described have brought disgrace upon the Church and especially upon the Old Testament Scriptures. Other and better theologians have taken the side of truth and science, and through their help progress has been made. It is ever necessary for the friends of truth, and of progress in the Church to oppose and to overcome ob- structionists. It is the duty of all lovers of the Bible to break up the superstitions that cluster about it, to ex- pose the false dogmatic and polemic use of its texts, and to show that it favors all truth and every form of * Revelaiicn and Mcdern Theology Contrasted. London, 1S83. p^ 7. THE ADVANTAGES OF BIBLICAL STUDY. 9 scholarly investigation. The Bible is an honest book in all its parts, — it is the Word of God, and every sincere disciple of wisdom will find in its pages not only the real and the highest truth, but will be stimulated and encouraged to press forward under the guidance of the Holy Spirit unto all truth (John xvi. 13). The design of this book is to set forth the principles, methods, and branches of Biblical study, and to give sketches of their history. It is proposed, first of all, to survey the whole field, and then to examine the several departments. We shall aim to explain the true uses of the Bible and show throughout that Biblical study is, as we have claimed, the most important, extensive, pro- found, and attractive of all studies. 1* CHAPTER II. EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. The most general term for the various departments of Biblical study is Exegetical Theology. Exegetical Theology is one of the four grand divisions of Theolog- ical Science. It is related to the other divisions, his- torical, systematic, and practical, as the primary and fundamental discipline upon which the others depend, and from which they derive their chief materials. Exe- getical Theology has to do especially with the sacred Scriptures, their origin, history, character, exposition, doctrines, and rules of life. It is true that the other branches of theology have likewise to do with the sacred writings, in that their chief material is derived therefrom, but they differ from Exegetical Theology, not only in their methods of using this material, but likewise in the fact, that they do 'not themselves search out and gather this material directly from the holy writings, but depend upon Exegetical Theology therefor ; while their energies are directed, in Historical Theology in tracing the de- velopment of that material as the determining element in the history of the people of God ; in Systematic Theology, in arranging that material in the form most appropriate for systematic study, for attack and defence, in accordance with the needs of the age ; in Practical Theology, in directing that material to the conversion (10) EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. H of souls, and training them in the holy life. Thus the whole of theology depends upon the study of the Scriptures, and unless this department be thoroughly wrought out and established, the whole structure of theological truth will be weak and frail, and it will be found, in the critical hour, resting on the shifting sands of human opinion and practice, rather than on the rock of infallible divine truth. The work of Exegetical Theology is all the more im- portant, that each age has its own peculiar phase or department of truth to elaborate in the theological con- ception and in the life. Unless, therefore, theology freshen its life by ever-repeated draughts from the Holy Scriptures, it will be unequal to the tasks imposed upon it. It will not solve the problems of the thoughtful, dissolve the doubts of the cautious, or disarm the ob- jections of the enemies of the truth. History will not, with her experience, unless she grasp the torch of divine revelation, which alone can illuminate the future and clear up the dark places of the present and the past. Systematic Theology will not satisfy the demands of the age if she appear in the worn-out armor or antiquated costulne of former "generations. She must beat out for herself a new suit of armor from biblical material which is ever new ; she must weave to herself a fresh and sacred costume of doctrine from the Scriptures which never disappoint the, requirements of mankind ; and thus armed and equipped with the weapons of the Liv- ing One, she will prove them quick and powerful, con- vincing and invincible, in her training of the disciple, and her conflicts with the infidel and heretic. And so Practical Theology will never be able to convert the world to Christ, and sanctify the Church, without ever renewing its life from the Bible fbuntain. The pure, 12 BIBLICAL STUDY. noble, and soul-satisfying truths of God's Word must so pervade our liturgy, hymnology, catechetical instruc- tion, pastoral work and preaching, as to supply the ne- cessities of the age, for " man shall not live by bread alone, but by every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of God " (Matt. iv. 4; Deut. viii. 3). The history of the Church, and Christian experience, have shown that in so far as the other branches of the- ology have separated themselves from this fundamental discipline, and in proportion to the neglect of Exegetical Theology, the Church has fallen into a dead orthodoxy of scholasticism, has lost its hold upon the masses of mankind, so that with its foundations undermined, it has yielded but feeble resistance to the onsets of in- fidelity. And it has ever been that the reformation or revival has come through the resort to the sacred oracles, and the organization of a freshly-stated body of doctrine, and fresh methods of evangelization derived therefrom. We thus have reason to thank God that heresy and un- belief so often drive us to our citadel, the sacred Script- ures, and force us back to the impregnable fortress of divine truth, in order that, depending no longer merely upon human weapons and defences, we may use rather the divine. Thus we reconquer all that may have been lost through the slackness and incompetence of those who have been more anxious for the old ways than for strength of position and solid truth, and by new enter- prises we advance a stage onward in our victorious progress toward the end. Our adversaries may overthrow our systems of theology, our confessions and catechisms, our church organizations and methods of work, for these are, after all, human productions, the hastily thrown up out- works of the truth ; but they can never contend success- fully against the Word of God that liveth and abideth EXEQETICAL THEOLOGY. 13 forever (i Peter i. 23), which, though the heavens fall and the earth pass away, will not fail in one jot or tittle from the most complete fulfilment (Matt. v. 18), which will shine in new beauty and glory as its parts are one by one searchingly examined, and which will prove itself not only invincible, but all-conquering, as point after point is most hotly contested. We are assured that at last it will claim universal obedience as the pure and faultless mirror of Him who is Himself the brightness of the Father's glory and the express image of His person (2 Cor. iii. 18; Heb. i. 3). It is an important characteristic of the Reformed churches that they give the sacred Scriptures such a fundamental position in their confessions and cate- chisms, and lay so much stress upon the so-called formal principle of the Protestant Reformation. Thus in both Helvetic confessions and in the Westminster they constitute the first article,* while in the Heidelberg and Westminster catechisms they are placed at the founda- tion— in the former as the source of our knowledge of sin and- misery and of salvation ;t in the latter, as divid- ing the catechism into two parts, teaching " what man is to beheve concerning God, and what duty God re- quires of man";:j: and the authority of the Word of God as " the only rule of faith and obedience,"§ has ever been maintained in our churches. Exegetical Theology being thus, according to its idea, the fundamental theological discipline, and all-important as the fruitful source of theology, it must be thoroughly elaborated in all its parts according to exact and well- * Niemeyer, Collectio Con/ess., pp. 115, 467. Schaff, Creeds of Christendom^ 1877, iii., pp. 211, 237. t Quest, iii. xir. X Larger Catechism, Quest, v. ; Shorter Catechism, Quest, iii. § Larger Catechism, Ques. v. o 14 BIBLICAL STUDY. defined scientific methods. The methods proper to Exegetical Theology are the synthetic and the histor- ical, the relative importance of which has been con- tested. The importance of the historical method is so great that not a few have regarded the discipline, as a whole, as at once a primary division of Historical The- ology. The examination of the Bible sources, the sacred writings, being of the same essential character as the examination of other historical documents, they should be considered simply as the sources of biblical history, and thus the writings themselves would be most appropriately treated under a history of biblical literature (Hupfeld, Reuss, Fuerst, et al.), and the doc- trines under a history of biblical doctrine (the school of Baur).* But the sacred writings are not merely sources of historical information ; they are the sources of the faith to be believed and the morals to be practiced by all the world ; they are of everlasting value as the sum total of sacred doctrine and law for mankind, being not only for the past, but for the present and the future, as God's Holy Word to the human race, so that their value as historical documents becomes entirely subordinate to their value as a canon of holy Scripture, the norm and rule of faith and life. Hence the synthetic method must predomi- nate over the historical, as the proper exegetical method, and induction rule in all departments of the work ; for it is the office of Exegetical Theology to gather from these sacred writings, as the storehouse of divine truth, the holy material, in order to arrange it by a process of induction and generalization into the generic forms that may best express the conceptions of the sacred Script- ures themselves. * Compare the author's articles on Biblical Theology, American Presbyterian Review, 1S70, p. 122, seq., and Presbyterian Review^ July, 1ES2, p. 503, seq.^ and chap, xi, of this volume. EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 15 From this point of view it is clear that the analytic method can have but a very subordinate place in our branch of theology. It may be necessary in the work of separating the material in the work of gathering it, but this is only in order to the synthetic process, which must ever prevail. It is owing to the improper application of the analytic method to exegesis, that such sad mistakes have been made in interpreting the Word of God, making exegesis the slave of dogmatics and tradition, when she can only thrive as the free- born daughter of truth. Her word does not yield to dogmatics, but before her voice tradition must ever give way. For exegesis cannot go to the text with pre- conceived opinions and dogmatic views that will con- strain the text to accord with them, but rather with a living faith in the perspicuity and power of the Word of God alone, of itself, to persuade and convince ; and with reverential fear of the voice of Him v;ho speaks through it, which involves assurance of the. truth, and submission and prompt obedience to His will. Thus, exegesis does not start from the unity to investigate the variety, but from the variety to find the unity. It does not seek the author's view and the divine doctrine through an analysis of the v/riting, the chapter, the verse, down to the word ; but, inversely, it starts with the word and the clause, pursuing its way through the verse, paragraph, section, chapter, writing, collection of writings, the entire Bible, until the whole Word of God is displayed before the mind from the summit that has been attained after a long and arduous climbing. Thus Exegetical Theology is a science, whose pre- mises and materials are no less clear and tangible than those with which any other science has to do, and whose results are vastly more important than all other sciences IQ BIBLICAL STUDY. combined, as they concern our salvation and everlasting welfare ; and if, furthermore, this material, with which we have to do, be what it claims to be — the very word of God to man, — it is clear that here alone we have a science that deals with immutable facts and infallible truths, so that our science may take its place in the cir- cle of sciences, as the royal, yes, the divine science. But let it be remembered that this position will be accorded it by the sciences only in so far as theology as a whole is true to the spirit and character of its fundamental dis- cipline, is open-eyed for all truth, courts investigation and criticism of its own materials and methods, and does not assume a false position of dogmatism and tra- ditional prejudice, or attempt to tyrannize over the other sciences in their earnest researches after the truth. Exegetical Theology being thus fundamental and im- portant, having such thorough-going scientific methods, it must have manifold divisions and subdivisions of its work. These, in their order and mutual relation, are determined by a proper adjustment of its methods and the subordination of the historical to the inductive proc- ess. Thus at the outset there are imposed upon those who would enter upon the study of the sacred Script- ures certain primary and fundamental questions respect- ing the holy writings, such as: Which are the sacred writings ? why do we call them sacred ? whence did they originate? under what historical circumstances? who were their authors? to whom were they addressed? what was their design ? are the writings that have come down to us genuine? is the text reliable? and the like. These questions may be referred to the general depart- ment of Biblical Literature. Then the Scriptures are to be interpreted according to correct principles and meth- ods, with all the light that the study of centuries may EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 17 throw upon them. 1\\\s,\s Biblical Exegesis. Finally, the results of this exegetical process are to be gathered into one organic whole. This is Biblical Theology, These then are the three grand divisions into which Exegeti- cal Theology naturally divides itself, each in turn having its appropriate subordinate departments. I. Biblical Literature has as its work to deter- mine all those introductory questions that may arise re- specting the sacred writings, preliminary to the work of exegesis. These questions are various, yet may be grouped in accordance with a general principle. But it is, first of all, necessary to limit the bounds of our de- partment and exclude from it all that does not properly come within its sphere. Thus Hagenbach* bring* into consideration here certain questions which he assigns to the auxiliary disciplines of Sacred Philology, Sacred Archaeology, and Sacred Canonics. But it is difificult to see why, if these are in any essential relation to our de- partment, they should not be logically incorporated; while if they do not stand in such close relations, why they should not be referred to their own proper depart- ments of study. Thus Sacred Canonics clearly belongs to our discipline, whilst Sacred Archaeology no less cer- tainly belongs to the historical department ; and as for Sacred Philology, it should not be classed with theology at all, for the languages of the Bible are not sacred from any inherent virtue in them, but only for the reason that they have been selected as the vehicle of divine revelation, and thus their connection with the Script- ures is providential rather than necessary. And still further, all departments of theology are in mutual rela- tion to one another, and in a higher scale all the depart- ments of learning act and react upon one another— suqh * Encykhpadie^ gte Auf., p. 40. 18 BIBLICAL STUDY. as theology, philosophy, philology, and history. Hence, that one department of study is related to another does not imply that it should be made auxiliary thereto. Thus the languages of Scripture are to be studied pre- cisely as the other languages, as a part of General Phi- lology. The Hellenistic Greek is a dialect of the Greek language, which is itself a prominent member of the Indo-Germanic family, while the Hebrew and Chaldee are sisters with the Assyrian and Syriac, the Arabic and Ethiopic, the Phoenician and Samaritan, of the Shemitic family. The study of these languages, as languages, properly belongs to the college or university course, and has no appropriate place in the theological seminary. Valifable time is consumed in these studies that is taken from Exegetical Theology itself and never compensated for. The Shemitic languages are constantly rising into prominence, over against the Indo-Germanic family, and demand their appropriate place in the curriculum of a liberal education.* The time has fully come when phi- lologists and theologians should unitedly insist that a place should be found for them in the college course ; and that this valuable department of knowledge, upon the pursuit of which so much depends for the history of the Orient, the origin of civilization and mankind, as well as the whole subject of the three great religions of the world, should not give way to the physical sciences, which, while properly of subordinate importance as deal- ing mainly with material things, have already assumed an undue prominence in our institutions of learning over against philology, history, and philosophy, that deal with higher and nobler problems.f * See A Plea /or a more tJiorough study of the Semitic languages in Atnerica. Bjr Prof. S. I. Curtiss, Jr., Chicago, 1879. + German theolog;y has a great advantage, in that the theological student is already prepared in the gymnasium for the university with a knowledge of He- EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY, 19 Still further it is to be noticed, that there can hence- forth be no thorough mastery of the Hebrew tongue by cHnging reverently to the skirts of the Jew. We might^ as well expect to master the classic Latin from the lan- guage of the monks, or acquire evangelical doctrine from Rome. The cognate languages are indispensable. And it is just here that a rich treasure, prepared by divine Providence for these times, is pouring into our laps, if we will only use it. The Assyrian alone, as re- cently brought to light, and established in her position as one of the older sisters, is of inestimable value, not to speak of the Arabic and Syriac, the Ethiopic, Phoenician, Samaritan, and the lesser languages and dialects that the monuments are constantly revealing. Immense material is now at hand, and is still being gathered from these sources, that will considerably modify our views of the Hebrew language, and of the history and religion of the Hebrews in relation to the other peoples of the Orient. We are only beginning to learn that the Hebrew language has such a thing as a syntax, and that it is a highly organized and wonder- fully flexible and beautiful tongue, the result of centu- ries of development. As the bands of Massoretic tra- dition are one after another falling off, the inner spirit and life of the language are disclosing themselves, the dry bones are clothing themselves with flesh, brew relatively equivalent to his Greek. The Presbyterians of Scotland have advanced beyond lis in this respect, by requiring an elementary knowledge of Hebrew, in order to entrance upon the theological course, at the same time pro- viding such elementary training during the summer vacation. This is a step in which we might readily follow them. We cannot afford to wait imtil all the colleges follow the noble lead of the University of Virginia, Lafayette, and others, in giving their students the option of Hebrew instruction ; but must use all our influence to constrain them to fulfil their duty of preparing students for tlie study of theology, as well as of the other professions. 20 BIBLICAL STUDY. and rich, warm blood is animating the frame, giving to the features nobility and beauty.'* If the Church is to be renowned for its mastery of the Bible, if the symbols and the life of the Church are to harmon- ize, we must advance and occupy this rich and fruitful field for the Lord, and not wait for unbehevers to oc- cupy it before us, and then be compelled to contend at a disadvantage, they having the prestige of knowledge and success. While, therefore, we exclude the study of the Hebrew and cognate languages from the range of Exegetical Theology, we magnify their importance, not only to the theological student, but also to the entire field of schol- arship. Other scholars may do without them, but for the theologian these studies are indispensable, and we must at the very beginning strain all our energies to the mastery of the Hebrew tongue. If it has not been done before entering the seminaries, it must be done in the seminaries, and those who have no seminary or college advantages must use the best helps they can find.f Having excluded Sacred Philology from Exegetical Theology and from Biblical Literature, we now have to define more closely the proper field of Biblical Litera- ture. Biblical literature has to do with all questions * It is exceedingly gratifying that our American students are eagerly entering upon these studies. The large classes in Uie cognate languages, in our seminaries promise great things for the future in this regard. The classes in the Cognates in Union Theological Seminary, New York, in 1882-3, were, in Arabic, 10 ; in Assyrian, Junior and Senior, 10 ; in Chaldee, 23 ; in Syriac, 9. The Cognates are taught in many seminaries, such as Andover, Yale, Lane, Princeton, Auburn, Western, Northwestern. t Favorable opportunities are now afforded for the study of Hebrew by Prof. William R. Harper, Ph.D., of the Theological Seminary at Morgan Park, Chi- cago, He conducts with ability, enthusiasm, and success a Hebrew Correspond- ence school of several classes and also a Hebrew Summer school. Several hun- dred ministers and laymen have already been trained in them. EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 21 respectinp: the sacred Scriptures that may be necessary to prepare the way of Biblical Exegesis. Looking at the sacred Scriptures as the sources to be investigated, we see three fields of inquiry presenting themselves : the collection or canon, the text, and the individual writings ; or, in more detail, the three groups of ques- tions : I. As to the idea, extent, character, and author- ity of the ca?ion, collected as the sacred Scriptures of the church. 2. As to the text of which the canon is composed, the MSS. in which it is preserved, the trans- lations of it, and citations from it. 3. As to the origin, authorship, time of composition, character, design, and direction of the individual writings that claim, or are claimed, to belong to the sacred Scriptures. These sub- ordinate branches of Biblical Literature may be called Biblical Canonics, the Lower or Textual Criticism, and the Higher Criticism. I. Biblical Canonics considers the canon of sacred Script- ure as to its idea, its historical formation, its extent, character, authority, and historical influence. These in- quiries are to be made in accordance with the historical and synthetic methods. We are not to start with pre- conceived dogmatic views as to the idea of the canon, but derive this idea by induction from the sacred writ- ings themselves ; and in the same manner decide all other questions that may arise. Thus the extent of the canon is not to be determined by the consensus of the churches,* or by the citation and reverent use of them in the fathers, and their recognition by the earliest standard authorities,f for these historical evidences, so ■^ Indeed, they do not agree with reference to its extent whether it includes the Apocryphal books or not, and, still further, they dilTer in the matter of distin- guishing within the canon, between writings of jprimary and secondary authority. t These, indeed, are not entirely agreed, and if they were, could only give us a human and fallible authority. 22 BIBLICAX STUDY. important in Historical Theology, have no value in Ex- egetical Theology, as they had no influence in the for- mation of the canon itself ; nor, indeed, by their accord with orthodoxy or the rule of faith,* for it is not only too broad, in that other writings than sacred are ortho- dox, but again too narrow, in that the standard is the shifting one of subjective opinion, or external human authority, which, indeed, presupposes the canon itself as an object of criticism ; and all these external reasons, historical and dogmatic, after all, can have but a provis- ional and temporary authority — but the only authorita- tive and final decision of these questions is from the in- ternal marks and characteristics of the Scriptures, their recognition of one another, their harmony with the idea, character, and development of a divine revelation, as it is derived from the Scriptures themselves, as well as their own well-tested and critically-examined claims to inspiration and authority, and, above all, the divine au- thority speaking by and with them. These reasons, and these alone, gave them their historical position and au- thority as a canon. And it is only on this basis that the historical and dogmatic questions may be properly considered, with respect to their recognition by Jew and Christian, and their authority in the church. The writings having thus been considered collectively, we are prepared for the second step, the examination of the text itself. 2. Textual Criticism considers the text of the sacred Scriptures both as a whole and in detail. The sacred writings have shared the fate of all human productions in their transmission from hand to hand, and in the * It was in accordance with this subjective standard that Luther rejected the epistle of James, and Esther. Comp. Domer, Gesch, der Protest. TAeoIo^'e, 1868, p. 234, seq. EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 23 multiplication of copies. Hence, through the mistakes of copyists, the intentional corruption of the heretic, and supposed improvement of the over-anxious ortho- dox, the MSS. that have been preserved betray differ- ences of reading. This department has a wide field of investigation. First of all, the peculiarities of the Bible language must be studied, and the idiomatic individual- ities of the respective authors. ' Then the age of the various MSS. must be determined, their peculiarities, and relative importance. The ancient versions now come into the field, especially the Septuagint, the Chal- dee and Samaritan Targums, the Syriac Peshitto, and the Vulgate, which again, each in turn, has to go through the same sifting as to the critical value of its own text. Here, especially in the Old Testament, we go back of any MSS. and are brought face to face with differences that can be accounted for only on the supposition of original MSS., whose peculiarities have been lost. To these may be added the. citations of the original text in the Talmud and Christian scholars. Then we have the still more difficult comparison of parallel passages, where differences of text show a difference in MSS. reaching far back of any historical MSS., or even version.* Text- ual Criticism has to meet all these difificulties and answer all these questions, and harmonize and adjust all these differences, in order that, so far as possible, the genuine, original, pure, and uncorrupted text of the Word of God may be gained, as it proceeded directly from the original authors to the original readers. This * Comp. Psalm xiv. with Psalm liii. ; Psalm xviii. with 2 Samuel xxii., and the books of Samuel and Kings on one hand, %vith the books of the Chronicles on the other, and, indeed, throughout. Compare also the Canonical books of Ezra, Nehemiah, and Daniel, with the Apocryphal additions and supplements in the Septuagfint version, and finally tlie citation of earlier writings in the later ones, especially in the New Testament. 24 BIBLICAL STUDY. department of study is all the more difficult for the Old Testament, that the field is so immense, the writings so numerous, various, and ancient, the languages so little understood in their historical peculiarities, and, still fur- ther, in that we have to overcome the prejudices of the Massoretic system, which, while faithful and reliable so far as the knowledge of the times went, yet, as resting simply on tradition, without critical or historical investi- gation, and without any proper conception of the gen- eral principles of grammar and comparative philology, cannot be accepted as final ; for the time has long since passed when the vowel points and accents can be deemed inspired. We have to go back of them, to the unpointed text, for all purposes of criticism. 3. The Higher Criticism is distinguished from the Lower or Textual Criticism by presupposing the text and dealing with individual writings and groups of writings. The parts of writings should be first investigated, the individual writings before the collected ones. With ref- erence to each writing, or, it may be, part of a writing, we have to determine the historical origin and author- ship, the original readers, the design and character of the composition, and its relation to other writings of its group. These questions must be settled partly by ^jr. ternal historical G.v\(^er\ce, but chiefly by interna/ evidence, such as the language, style of composition, archaeolog- ical and historical traces, the conceptions of the author respecting the various subjects of human thought, and the like. Now with reference to. such questions as these, we have little to do with traditional views or dogmatic opinions. Whatever may have been the prevailing views in the church with reference to the Pentateuch, Psalter, or any other book of Scripture, they will not deter the conscientious exegete from accepting and teaching the re- EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 25 suits of a historical and critical study of the writings themselves. It is just here that Christian theologians have greatly injured the cause of the truth and the Bible by dogma- tizing in a department where it is least of all appropri- ate, and, indeed, to the highest degree improper, as if our faith depended at all upon these human opinions re- specting the Word of God ; as if the Scriptures could be benefited by defending the indefensible, whereas by fre- quent and shameful defeats and routs traditionalists bring disgrace and alarm even into the impregnable fortress it- self, and prejudice the sincere inquirer against the Script- ures, as if these were questions of orthodoxy or piety, or of allegiance to the Word of God or the symbols of the church. The Westminster standards teach that " the word of God is the only rule of faith and obedi- ence," * and that "the authority of the Holy Scripture, for which it ought to be believed and obeyed, depend- eth not upon the testimony of any man or church, but wholly upon God, the author thereof." f The other Prot- estant symbols are in accord with them. How unortho- dox it is, therefore, to set up another rule of prevalent opinion as a stumbling-block to those who would accept the authority of the Word of God alone. So long as the Word of God is honored, and its decisions regarded as final, what matters it if a certain book be detached from the name of one holy man and ascribed to another, or classed among those with unknown authors ? Are the laws of the Pentateuch any less divine, if it should be proved that they are the product of the experience of God's people from Moses to Josiah?:}: Is the Psalter to * Larger Catechism, Quest. iiL + Confess, of Faith, Chap. i. 4. X British and Foreign Evang. Review, July, 1868, Art, " The Progress of Old Testament Studies." 9. 26 BIBLICAL STUDY. be esteemed any the less precious that the psalms should be regarded as the product of many poets singing through many centuries the sacred m.elodies of God-fearing souls, responding from their hearts, as from a thousand-stringed lyre, to the touch of the Holy One of Israel? Is the book of Job less majestic and sublime, as, the noblest monument of sacred poetry, it stands before us in its solitariness, with unknown author, unknown birthplace, and from an unknown period of history ? Are the ethi- cal teachings of the Proverbs, the Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes, any the less solemn and weighty, that they may not be the product of Solomon's wisdom alone, but of the reflection of many holy wise men of different epochs, gathered about Solomon as their head? Is the epistle to the Hebrews any less valuable for its clear pre- sentation of the fulfilment of the Old Testament priest- hood and sacrifice in the work of Christ, that it must be detached from the name of Paul ? Let us not be so pre- sumptuous, so irreverent to the Word of God, so unbe- lieving with reference to its inherent power of convinc- ing and assuring the seekers for the truth, as to condemn any sincere and candid inquirer as a heretic or a ration- alist, because he may differ from us on such questions as these ! The internal evidence must be decisive in all questions of Biblical Criticism, and the truth, whatever it may be, will be most in accordance with God's Word and for the glory of God and the interest of the church.* Thus Biblical Literature gives us all that can be learned respecting the canon of Holy Scripture, its text and the * The whole of this paragraph was written and delivered before the outbreak of the Robertson Smith controversy in Scotland and the discussions respecting the Higher Criticism in the United States. These controversies emphasize the im- portance and the correctness of the principles we then stated. We shall come upon them again in Chapter VII., which is devoted to the subject EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 27 various writings ; and presents the sacred Scriptures as the holy Word of God, all the errors and improvements of men having been eliminated, in a text, so far as pos- sible, as it came from holy men who "spake as they were moved by the Holy Ghost " (2 Peter i. 21); so that we are brought into the closest possible relations with the living God through His Word, having in our hands the very fortn that contains the very substance of divine revelation ; so that with reverence and submission to His will we may enter upon the work of interpretation, confidently expecting to be assured of the truth in the work of Biblical Exegesis. n. Biblical Exegesis. And now first of all we have to lay down certain general principles derived from the study of the Word of God, upon which this exegesis it- self is to be conducted. These principles must accord with the proper methods of Exegetical Theology and the nature of the work to be done. The work of establish- ing these principles belongs to the introductory depart- ment of Biblical Hermeneutics. The Scriptures are human productions, and yet truly divine. They must be interpreted as other human writings, and yet their peculiarities and differences from other human writings must be recognized,* especially the supreme determining difference of their inspiration by the Spirit of God, in accordance with which they require not only a sympathy with the human element in the sound judgment and practical sense of the grammarian, the critical investiga- tion of the historian, and the aesthetic taste of the man of letters ; but also a sympathy with the divine element, an inquiring, reverent spirit to be enlightened by the Spirit of God, without which no exposition of the Script- * Comp. Immer, Hermeneutik der N. 7"., p. 9. 28 BIBLICAL STUDY. ures as sacred, inspired writings is possible. It is this feature that distinguishes the discipline from the other corresponding ones, as Sacred Henneneutics. Thus we have to take into the account the inspiration of the Scriptures, their harmony, their unity in variety, their sweet simplicity, and their sublime mystery ; and all this not to override the principles of grammar, logic, and rhetoric, but to supplement them ; yes, rather, infuse into them a new life and vigor, making them sacred grammar, sacred logic, and sacred rhetoric. And just here it is highly important that the history of exegesis should come into the field of study in order to show us the abuses of false principles of interpretation as a warn- ing ; and the advantages of correct principles as an en- couragement.* After this preliminary labor, the exegete is prepared for his work in detail. The immensity of these details is at once overpowering and discouraging. The extent, the richness, the variety of the sacred writings, poetr>', history, and prophecy, extending through so many cent- uries, and from such a great number of authors, known and unknown, the inherent difficulty of interpreting the sacred mysteries, the things of God — who is sufficient for these things? who would venture upon this holy ground without a quick sense of his incapacity to grasp the divine ideas, and an absolute dependence upon the Holy Spirit to show them unto him? (John xvi. 15). Truly, here is a work for multitudes, for ages, for the most profound and devout study of all mankind, for here we have to do with the whole word of God to man. The exegete is like the miner. He must free himself as * Compare especially Diestel, Gesch. d. A. T, in der Christ. Kirche. Jena, 1869. EXEQETICAL THEOLOGY. 29 far as possible from all traditionalism and dogmatic prej- udice, must leave the haunts of human opinion, and bury himself in the Word of God. He must descend beneath the surface of the Word into its depths. The letter must be broken through to get at the precious idea. The dry- rubbish of misconception must be thrown out, and a shaft forced through every obstacle to get at the truth. And while faithful in the employment of all these powers of the human intellect and will, Ihe true exegete fears the Lord, and only thereby hopes through his intimaty with Him for the revelation of wisdom.* I. The exegete begins his work with Grammatical Exegesis. Here he has to do with X\\q. form, the dress of the revelation, which is not to be disregarded or under- valued, for it is the form in which God has chosen to convey His truth, the dress in which alone we can ap- proach her and know her. Hebrew grammar must therefore be mastered in its etymology and syntax, or grammatical exegesis will be impossible. Here patience, exactness, sound judgment, and keen discernment are required, for every word is to be examined by itself, ety- mologically and historically, not etymologically alone, for Greek and Hebrew roots have not infrequently been made to teach very false doctrines. It has been forgot- ten that a word is a living thing, and has, besides its root, the still more important stem, branches, ahd prod- ucts— indeed, a history of meanings. The word is then to be considered in its syntactical relations in the clause, and thus step by step 'Oi\^ grammatical sense is to be as- certained, the false interpretations eliminated, and the various possible meanings correctly presented and classi- fied. Without this patient study of words and clauses * Job xxviii. 28 ; Ps. xxv. 14 ; Prov. viii. 17, seq. 30 BIBLICAL STUDY. no accurate translation is possible, no trustworthy expo- sition can be made.* It is true that grammatical exe- gesis leaves us in doubt between many possible con- structions of the sense, but these doubts will be solved as the work of exegesis goes on, and then, on the other hand, it eliminates many views as ungrammatical which have been hastily formed, and effectually prevents that jumping at conclusions to which the indolent and im- petuous are alike inclined. 2. The second step in exegesis is Logical and Rhetor- ical Exegesis. The words and clauses must be inter- preted in accordance with the context, the development of the author's thought and purpose ; and also in ac- cordance with the principles of rhetoric, discriminating plain language from figurative, poetry from prose, history from prophecy, and the various kinds of history, poetry, and prophecy from each other. This is to be done not after an arbitrary manner, but in accordance with the general laws of logic and rhetoric that apply to all writ- ings whatever. While the use of figurative language has led the mystic and the dogmatist to employ the most arbitrary and senseless exegesis, yet the laws of logic and rhetoric, correctly applied to the text, will clip the wings of the fanciful, and destroy the assumptions of the dogmatist, and, still further, will serve to determine many questions that grammar alone cannot decide, and, hence, more narrowly define the meaning of the text. 3. The third step in exegesis is Historical Exegesis. The author must be interpreted in accordance with his * Yes, we may say that no translation can be thoroughly understood after the generation in which it was made, without this resort to the original text, which alone can determine in many cases the meaning of the translators themselves, when we come upon obsolete terms, or words whose meanings have become modified or lost. EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 3X historical surroundings. We must apply to the text the knowledge of the author's times, derived from archaeol- ogy, geography, chronology, and general history. Thus only will we be able to enter upon the scenery of the text. It is not necessary to resort to the history of exegesis ; one's own observation is sufficient to show the absurdities and the outrageous errors into which a neglect of this principle leads many earnest but ignorant men. No one can present the Bible narrative in the dress of modern every-day life without making the story ridiculous. And it must be so from the very nature of the case. Historical circumstances are essential to the truthfulness and vividness of the narrative. Instead of our transporting Scripture events to our scenery, we must transport ourselves to their scenery, if we would correctly understand them and realize them. If we wish to apply Scripture truth we may, after having correctly apprehended it, eliminate it from its historical circum- stances, and then give it a new and appropriate form for practical purposes ; but we can never interpret Scripture without historical exegesis ; for it serves to more nar- rowly define the meaning of the text, and to eliminate the unhistorical materials from the results thus far at- tained in the exegetical process. 4. The fourth step in exegesis is Comparative Exegesis. The results already gained with reference to any partic- ular passage are to be compared with the results attained in a like manner in other similar passages of the same author, or other authors of the period, and in some cases from other periods of divine revelation. Thus, by a comparison of scripture with scripture, additional light will be thrown upon the passage, the true conception will be distinguished from the false, and the results at- tained adequately supported. 32 BIBLICAL STUDY. 5. The fifth step in exegesis is one of vast importance, which, for lack of a better name, may be called Literary Exegesis. Great light is thrown upon the text by the study of the views of those who, through the centuries, in many lands, and from the various points of view, have studied the Scriptures. Here on this battle- ground of interpretation we see almost every view assailed and defended. Multitudes of opinions have been overthrown, never to reappear ; others are weak and tottering — comparatively few still maintain the field. It is among these latter that we must in the main find the true interpretation. This is the furnace into which the results thus far attained by the exegete must be thrown, that its fires may separate the dross and leave the pure gold thoroughly refined. Christian divines, Jewish rabbins, and even unbelieving writers have not studied the Word of God for so many centuries in vain. No true scholar can be so presumptuous as to neglect their labors. No interpreter can rightly claim originality or freshness of conception who has not famil- iarized himself with this 7nass of material that others have wrought out. On the other hand, it is the best check to presumption, to know that every view that is worth anything must pass through the furnace. Any exegete who would accomplish anything should know that he is to expose himself to the fire that centres upon any combatant that will enter upon this hotly- contested field. From the study of the Scriptures he will come into contact with human views, traditional opinions, and dogmatic prejudices. On the one side these will severely criticize and overthrow many of his results ; on the other his faithful study of the Word of God will be a fresh test of the correctness of those hu- man views that have hitherto prevailed. Thus, from the EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 33 acting and reacting influences of this conflict, the truth of God will maintain itself, and it alone will prevail. We have thus far described these various steps of exegesis, in order that a clear and definite conception may be formed of its field of work— not that they are ever to be represented by themselves in any commen- tary, or even carried on independently by the exegete himself, but they should be regarded as the component parts of any thorough exegetical process ; and although, as a rule, naught but the results are to be presented to the public, yet these results imply that no part of the process has been neglected, but that all have harmonized in them, if they are reliable results. In advancing now to the higher processes of exe- gesis, we observe a marked difference from the pre- vious ones, in that they have had to do with the en- tire text, these with only select portions of it. And • still further we would remark, that while in these proc- esses the results are to be attained which vv'ill be most profitable to the great masses of mankind, we must severely criticize those who, without having gone through them themselves, either use the labors of the faithful exegete without acknowledgment, or else, accepting traditional views without examination, build on an unknown foundation ; for the world does not need theological castles in the air, or theories of Christian life, but a solid structure of divine truth as the home of the soul, and an infallible guide for living and dying. 6. The sixth step in exegesis is Doctrinal Exegesis, which considers the material thus far gathered in order to derive therefrom the ideas of the author respecting religion, faith, and morals. These ideas are then to be considered in their relation to each other in the section and chapter. Thus we get the doctrine that the author 2* 34 BIBLICAL STUDY. would teach, and are prepared for a comparison of it with the doctrines of other passages and authors. Here we have to contend with a false method of searching for the so-called sj>irii:ia/ sense, as if the doctrine could be independent of the form in which it is revealed, or, in- deed, so loosely attached to it, that the grammar and logic should teach one thing, and the spiritual sense another. There can be no spiritual sense that does not accord with the results thus far attained in the exe- getical process. The true spiritual sense comes before the inquiring soul as the product of the true exegetical methods that have been described. As the differences of material become manifest in the handling of it, the doctrine stands forth as divine and infallible in its own light. Any other spiritual sense is false to the Word of God, whether it be the conceit of Jewish cabalists or Christian mystics. 7. The seventh and final effort of exegesis is Practical- Exegesis, the application of the text to the faith and life of the present. And here we must eliminate not only the temporal bearings from the eternal, but also those ele- ments that apply to other persons and circumstances than those in hand. Everything depends upon the character of the work, whether it be catechetical, homiletical, evan- gelistic, or pastoral. All Scripture may be said to be prac- tical for sojne purpose, but not every Scripture for every purpose. Hence, practical exegesis must not only give the true meaning of the text, but also the true applica- tion of the text to the matter in hand. Here we have to deal with a false method of seeking edification and deriving pious reflections from every passage, thus constraining the text to meanings that it cannot bear, doing violence to the Word of God, which is not only not to be added to or taken from as a whole, but also as EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 35 to all its parts. This spirit of interpretation, while nom- inally most reverential, is really very irreverential. It originates from a lack of knowledge of the Scriptures, and the neglect to use the proper methods of exegesis, as if the Holy Spirit would reveal the sacred mysteries to the indolent, even if they should be pious ; for while He may hide the truth from the irreverent critic. He cannot be expected to reveal it except to those who not only have piety, but also search for it as for hidden treas- ures. This indolence and presumptuous reliance upon the Holy Spirit, which too often proves to be a depend- ence upon one's own conceits and fancies, has brought disgrace upon the Word of God, as if it could be mani- fold in sense, or were able to prove anything that might be asked of it. Nay, still worse, it leads the preacher to burden his discourse with material which, however good it may be in itself, not only has no connection with the text, but no practical application to the circumstances of the hour, or the needs of the congregation. Over against this abuse of the Scriptures, the exegete learns to use it properly, and while he cannot find everywhere what he needs, yet he can find by searching for it, far more and better than he needs ; yes, he will learn, as he studies the Word, that it needs no forcing, but aptly and exactly satisfies with appropriate material every phase of Christian experience, gently clears away every shadow of difficulty that may disturb the inquiring spir- it, proving itself sufficient for each and every one, and ample for all mankind. We have endeavored to consider the various proc- esses of exegesis by which results arc attained of es- sential importance to all the other departments of the- ology. The work of the exegete is foundation work. It Ts the work of the study, and not of the pulpit, or 36 BIBLICAL STUDY. the platform. It brings forth treasures new and old from the Word of God, to enrich the more prominent and public branches of theology. It finds the nugget of gold that they are to coin into the current concep- tions of the times. It brings forth ore that they are to work into the vessels or ornaments, that may minister comfort to the household and adorn the home and the person. It gains the precious gems that are to be set by these jewelers, in order that their lustre and beauty may become manifest and admired of all. Some think it strange that the Word of God does not at once reveal a system of theology, or give us a co7ifession of faith, or catechism. But Archbishop Whately correctly explains it when he says that, " Since no one of the first promulgators of Christianity did that which they must, some of them at least, have been naturatly led to do, it follows that they must have been supernaiurally withheld from it." . . . . " Each Church, therefore, was left through the wise foresight of Him who alone ' knew what is in man,' to provide for its own wants as they should arise ; — to steer its own course by the chart and compass which His holy word supplies, regulating for itself the sails and rudder according to the winds and currents it may meet with." * Indeed experience shows us that no body of divinity can answer more than its generation. Every catechism and confession of faith will in time become obsolete and powerless, remaining as historical monuments and sym- bols, as the worn and tattered banners that our veterans or honored sires have carried victoriously through the campaigns of the past — but not suited entirely for their descendants. Each age has its own peculiar work and needs, and it is not too much to say, that not even the * Essays on some of the Peculiarities of the Christian Religion. Fifth edi- tion, London, 1846. Essay vi., pp. 349, 355. EXEGETICAL THEOLOGr. 87 Bible could devote itself to the entire satisfaction of the wants of any particular age, without thereby sacrificing its value as the book of all ages. It is sufficient that the Bible gives us the material for all ages, and leaves to man the noble task of shaping that material so as to suit the wants of his own time. The word of God is given to us in the Bible, as His truth is displayed in physical nature — in an immense and varied storehouse of material. We must search the Bible in order to find what we require for our soul's food, not expecting to employ the whole, but recognizing that as there is enough for us, so there is sufficient for all mankind and for all ages. Its diversities are appropriate to the vari- ous types of human character, the various phases of human experience, and no race, no generation, no man, woman, or child, need fail in finding in the Scriptures the true soul-food, for it has material of abounding wealth, surpassing all the powers of human thought and all the requirements of human life. III. The work of Exegetical Theology does not end, however, with the work of Biblical Exegesis, but advances to its conclusion in Biblical Theology. Exegetical Theology not only, in the department of Biblical Exege- sis, produces the material to be used in the other depart- ment of theology, but it has as its own highest problem, the thorough arrangement of that material in accord- ance with its own synthetic method. As there is a his- tory in the Bible, an unfolding of divine revelation, a unity, and a wonderful variety, so Exegetical Theology cannot stop until it has arranged the biblical material in accordance with its historical position, and its relative value in the one structure of divine revelation. And here, first, we see the culmination of the exegetical proc- 38 BIBLICAL STUDY. ess, as all its departments pour their treasures into this basin, where they flow together and become compacted into one organic whole — for Biblical Theology rises from the exegesis of verses, sections, and chapters, to the higher exegesis of writings, authors, periods, and of the Old and New Testaments as wholes, until the Bible is discerned as an organism, complete and symmetrical, one as God is one, and yet as various as mankind is vari- ous, and thus only divine-human as the complete reve- lation of the God-man. In this respect Biblical Theology demands its place in theological study as the highest attainment of exegesis. It is true that it has been claimed that the history of Biblical Doctrine, as a subordinate branch of Historical Theology, fully answers its purpose ; and again, that Biblical Dogmatics, as the fundamental part of System- atic Theology, covers its ground. These branches of the sister grand divisions of theology deal with many of its questions and handle much of its material, for the reason that Biblical Theology is the highest point of exegesis where the most suitable transition is made to the other departments ; but it does not, it cannot, belong to either of them. As Biblical Theology was not the product of Historical or Systematic Theology, but was born in the throes of the exegetical process of the last centur}-, so it is the child of exegesis, and can flourish only in its own home. The idea, methods, aims, and, indeed, re- sults, are entirely different from those presented in the above-mentioned parts of Historical and Systematic Theology. It does not give us a history oi doctrine, al- though it uses the historical method in the unfolding of the doctrine. It does not seek the history of the doc- trine, but the formation, the organization of the doctrine ♦ EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 39 in history. It does not aim to present the systematic theology of the Bible, and thus arrange biblical doc- trine in the form that Systematic Theology must assume for the purposes of the day ; but in accordance with its synthetic method of seeking the unity in the variety, it endeavors to show the biblical system of doctrine, the form assumed by theology in the Bible itself, the organ- ization of the doctrines of faith and morals in the his- torical divine revelation. It thus considers the doctrine at its first historical appearance, examines its formation and its relation to others in the structure, then traces its unfolding in history, sees it evolving by its own in- herent vitality, as well as receiving constant accretions, ever assuming fuller, richer, grander proportions, until in the revelation of the New Testament the organiza- tion has become complete and finished. It thus not only distinguishes a theology of periods, but a theology of authors and writings, and shows how they harmonize in the one complete revelation of God.* It is only from this elevated point of view that many important ques- tions can be settled, such as the Relation of the Old Tes- tajuent to the New Testament — .1 fundamental question for all departments of theology. It is only when we recognize the New Testament as not only the historical fulfilment of the Old Testament, but also as its exe- getical completion, that the unity and the harmony, all the grander for the variety and the diversity of the Scriptures, become evident. It is only from this point of view that the apparently contradictory views, as, for instance, of Paul and James, in the article of justifica- * See author's articles on Biblical Theology, in American Presbyterian Re- view, 1870, and in the Presbyterian Review, 1882, and Chapter XI. of this volume. 40 BIBLICAL STUDY. tion, may be reconciled in their difference of types. It is only here that a true doctrine of inspiration can be given, properly distinguishing the divine and human elements, and yet recognizing them in their union. It is only thereby that the weight of authority of the Scripture can be fully felt, and the consistency of the infallible canon invincibly maintained. It is only in this culminating work that the preliminary processes of exegesis are delivered from all the imperfections and errors that still cling to the most faithful work of the exegete. It is only from these hands that Historical Theology receives its true keys, Systematic Theology its indestructible pillars, and Practical Theology its all- conquering weapons. Thus Exegetical Theology is a theological discipline, which, in its various departments, presents an inexhaust- ible field of labor, where the most ambitious may work with a sure prospect of success, and where the faithful disciple of the Lord may rejoice in the most intimate fellowship with the Master, divine truths being received immediately from the divine hand, old truths being il- luminated with fresh meaning, new truths filling the soul with indescribable delight. The Bible is not a field whose treasures have been exhausted, for they are inex- haustible. As in the past, holy men have found among these treasures jewels of priceless value ; as Atharrasius, Augustine, Anselm, Luther, and Calvin, have derived therefrom riew doctrines that have given shape not only to the church, but to the world ; so it is not too much to expect that even greater saints than these may yet go forth from their retirement, where they have been alone in communion with God through His Word, hold- ing up before the world some ?iew doctrine, freshly de- EXEGETICAJ. THEOLOGY. 41 rived from the ancient writings, which, although hith- erto overlooked, will prove to be the necessary comple- ment of all the previous knowledge of the church, no less essential to its life, growth, and progress than the Athanasian doctrine of the Trinity, the Augustinian doc- trine of sin, and the Protestant doctrine of justification through faith. CHAPTER III. THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. ' The languages of the Bible were prepared by Divine Providence as the most suitable ones for declaring the ^iiivine revelation to mankind. Belonging, as they do, to the two great families of speech, the Shemiticand the In- do-Germanic, which have been the bearers of civilization, culture, and the noblest products of human thought and emotion, they are themselves the highest and most per- fect developments of those families ; presenting, it is true, their contrasted features, but yet combining in a higher unity, in order to give us the complete divine revelation. Having accomplished this their highest purpose, they soon afterward became stereotyped in form, or, as they are commonly called, dead languages ; so that henceforth all successive generations, and indeed all the families of earth, might resort to them and find the common, divine revelation in the same fixed and un- alterable forms. Language is the product of the human soul, as are thought and emotion, and, therefore, depends upon the constitution of that soul, the historical experiences of the family or race speaking it, especially the stage of development in civilization, morals, and religion. The connection between language and thought is not loose, but an essential connection. Language is not merely a (43) THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 43 dress that thought may put on or off at its pleasure ; it is the body of which thought is the soul ; it is the flesh and rounded form of which thought is the life and en- ergy. Hence it is that language is moulded by thought and emotion, by experience and culture; it is, as it were, the speaking face of the race employing it, and it be- comes the historical monument of the experience of that race ; so that in many nations that have perished, and 'vhose early history is lost in primeval darkness, their language gives us the key to their history and experi- ence as truly as the Parthenon tells us of the Greek mind, and the Pyramids of the Egyptian. It is not a matter of indifference, therefore, as to the languages that were to bear the divine revelation ; for, alt lough the divine revelation was designed for all races, and may be conveyed in all the languages of earth, yet, inasmuch as it was delivered in advancing historical de- velopment, certain particular languages must be em- ployed as most suitable for the purpose, and indeed those which could best become the fountains for en- riching the various languages of the earth. Hence it is that, we can confidently claim that there are no lan- guages— not even the English and the German, which have drunk deepest from the classic springs of the He- brew and the Greek — that there are no languages that could so adequately convey the divine revelation in its simfHicity, grandeur, fulness, variety, power and impres- siveuess, as those selected by Divine Providence for the purpose. Hence it is that no translation can ever take the place of trie original Scriptures ; for a translation is, at the bcstj the work of uninspired men, who, though holy and [faithful, and guided by the Spirit of God, are yet unable to do more than give us their own interpretation 44 BIBLICAL STUDY. of the sacred oracles. They must enter into the very spirit and atmosphere of the original text ; they must think and feel with the original authors ; their hearts must throb with the same emotion ; their minds must move in the same lines of thinking; they must adapt themselves to the numerous types of character coming from various and widely different periods of divine rev- elation, in order to correctly apprehend the thought and make it their own, and then reproduce it in a foreign tongue. A mere external, grammatical, and lexico- graphical translation is worthless. Unless the spirit of the original has been not only apprehended, but con- veyed, it is no real translation. Hence it is requisite that all-sided men should be chosen for this work, or at least a body of men representing the various types ^-.nd phases of human experience and character. But even then the translation can only express the theological, ethical, and practical conceptions of the holiest and most learned men of the particular age ; and, inasmuch as the divine revelation was given through holy men who spake not only from their own time and for their own time, but from and for the timeless Spirit, the eter- nal ideas for all time ; the advancing generations will ever need to understand the Word of God better than their fathers, and must, if they are faithful, continyally improve in their knowledge of the original Scriptures, in their power of apprehending them, of appropriating them, and of reproducing them in speech and life. ■ How important it is, therefore, if the church is to maintain a living connection with the sacred Scriptures, and enter ever deeper into their spirit and mysterious life, that it should encourage a considerable portion of its youth to pursue these studies, and at all events in- sist that its ministry, who are to train it in the thfings THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 45 of God, should have not merely a superficial knowledge of the Bible, such as any layman may readily attain, but a deep and thorough acquaintance with the original per- ennial fountains of truth ; otherwise, as history has al- ready sufficiently shown, these uninspired versions will assume the place of the original inspired Word ; and the interpretations of a particular generation will become the stereotyped dogmas of many generations, and the life of a Christian people will be cut oft" from its only source of spiritual growth, and a barren scholasticism, with its stereotyped dogmas, mechanical institutions, and opera operata, will assume the place and importance of the divine word and living communion with God. The languages of the Bible being the only adequate means of conveying and perpetuating the divine revela- tion, it is important that we should learn them not mere- ly from the outside, with grammar and lexicon, but also from the inside, from a proper conception of the genius and life of these tongues as employed by the ancient saints, and especially of the historical genius of the lan- guages as the sacred channels of the Spirit's thought and life. For language is a living thing, and has its birth, its growth, its maturity, its decline, and its death. Language is born, not as a system of roots or detached words, that gradually come together by natural selection into sentences. As plants may grow from roots after they have been cut down, but do not have their birth in roots, but in the seed-germs which contain the plants in embryo ; so language, although it may be analyzed into roots, yet was not born in roots and never existed in roots, but came into being as sentences,* as thought is ever a sentence, and not a word. Then as the mind de- Sayce, Principles 0/ Comp. Philology^ p. 136, seq.^ 2d ed., London, 187^. 46 BIBLICAL STUDY. velops, thought is developed with its body, language, and thus the language grows with the culture of a peo- ple. All languages that have literary documents can be traced in their historical development. Especially is this the case with the languages of the Bible ; they have a long history back of them ; centuries of literary devel- opment were required to produce them. I. THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. The Hebrew language was long supposed to be the original language of mankind ; but this view can no lon- ger be held by any philologist, for the Hebrew language, as it appears to us in its earliest forms in the sacred Scriptures, bears upon its face the traces of a long-pre- vious literary development.* This is confirmed by com- paring it with the other languages of the same family. Thus the Shemitic family may be divided into four groups: I. The Southern group — Arabic, Ethiopic, and Himjaric. 2. The Aramaic group — Syriac, Chaldee, Samaritan, and Mandaic. 3. The Hebrew group — the Phoenician and Hebrew. 4. The Assyrian and Babylo- nian. Now these languages are more closely related to one another than those of the Indo-Germanic family, the people speaking them having been confined to com- paratively narrow limits, crowded on the north by the Indo-Germanic tongues, and on the south by the Tu- ranian. These languages are grouped in sisterhoods. They all go back upon an original mother-tongue of which all traces have been lost. In general the Arabic or Southern group present the older and fuller forms of etymology and syntax, the Aramaic or Northern group * Ewald, Gesch. des Volkes Israel, 3te Ausg. ; Gott., 1864, s. 78, seq.; Evvald, Atts/. Lehrb. des Heb. Spraclte, yte Ausg ; Gott., 1863, s, 23. THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 47 the later and simpler forms.. The Hebrew and Assyrian groups lie in the midst of this linguistic development, where the Assyrian is nearer to the Southern group and the Hebrew to the Northern group.* The differ- ences in stage of linguistic growth from the common stock depend not so much upon the period or distance of separation as upon literary culture. The literary use of a language has the tendency to reduce the complex elements to order, and to simplify and wear away the superfluous and unnecessary forms of speech and syn- tactical construction. These languages have, for the most part, given us a considerable literature ; they were spoken by cultivated nations of the ancient world, me- diating between the great centres of primitive Turanian culture — the Euphrates and the Nile. Everything seems to indicate that they all emigrated from a- common cen- tre in the desert on the south of Babylonia,t the Arabic group separating first, next the Aramaic, then the He- brew, while the Babylonian gained ultimately the mas- tery of the original Akkadian of Babylonia, and the As- syrian founded the great empire on the Tigris. The book of Genesis (xi. 31) represents Abram as going forth from this central seat of Ur of the Chaldees, at first northward into Mesopotamia, and then emigrating to Canaan, just as we learn from other sources the Canaan- ites had done before him. The monuments of Ur reveal that about this time, 2000 B.C., it was the seat of a great literary development.:}: The father of the faith- * See Gescnius, Heb. und Chald. Handworterbuch, gte Aufl. neu bearbeitet von Mulau und Volck, Leipzig, 1883. Von den Quellen, p. xx., sq. + Vide Schrader, Die Abstammung der Chaldaer und die Ursitze der Semi- ten, Zeitschrift d. Deutsch. M. G., 1873. X Geo. Smith, T/ie Chaldean Account 0/ Genesis, etc., p. 29, seg. New York, 1876. 48 BIBLICAL STUDY. ful, whose origin was in that primitive seat of culture, and who lived as a chieftain of military prowess (Gen. xiv.) and exalted religious and moral character among the cultivated nations of Canaan, and who was received at the court of Pharaoh (xii. 14) — that other great centre of primitive culture — on friendly terms, to some extent at least, made himself acquainted with their literature and culture. Whether Abraham adopted the language of the Canaanites, or brought the Hebrew with him from the East, is unimportant, for the ancient Assyrian and Babylonian are nearer to the Hebrew and Phoenician than they are to the other Shemitic families,* so that if the languages, as now presented to us, differ less than the Romance languages — the daughters of the Latin — in their earlier stages in the time of Abraham, their dif- ference could scarcely have been more than dialectic. The ancient Phoenician, the nearest akin to the Hebrew, was the language of commerce and intercourse between the nations in primitive times, as the Aramaic after the fall of Tyre, and the Greek after the conquest of Alex- ander. Thus the Hebrew language, as a dialect of the Canaanite and closely related to the Babylonian, had already a considerable literary development prior to the entrance of Abram into the Holy Land. The old idea that Egypt was the mother of Hebrew civilization and culture has been disproved ; for, though the Hebrews remained a long period in Egyptian bondage, they re- tained their Eastern civilization, culture, and language, so that at the Exodus they shook off at once all connec- tion with the Egyptian civilization and culture as alien and antagonistic to their own. For the very peculiari- ties of the Hebrew language, literature, and civilization * Sayce, Assyrian Grammar^ p. i, seq. London, 1872. THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 49 are those of the Babylonian. The biblical traditions of the Creation, of the Deluge, of the Tower of Babel, are those of the Assyrians and Babylonians. The sacred rest-day, with the significance of the number seven, the months, seasons, and years, the weights and measures, coins — all are of the same origin. Still further, that most striking feature of Hebrew poetry — the parallelism of members — is already in the oldest Akkadian hymns. Yes, the very temptations of the Hebrews to the worship of Ashtoreth and Baal, of Chemosh and Moloch, are those that have ruined the other branches of their com- mon race.* How shall we account for these thins^s un- less we suppose that they were brought with him by Abram in his emigration to Canaan? Fixing our atten- tion upon the single feature of the parallelism of mem- bers, how could the Hebrews have retained it as the es- sential feature of their poetry, if they had no poetic treasures preserved among them, and the poetic spirit had remained undeveloped with them ? Without ven- turing upon an opinion with reference to the amount of literature to be attributed to these early times, but. taking the Pentateuch as it is, we see therein a language admirably adapted for its purpose, the product of pre- vious literary development. Whether Moses wrote the 1 entire Pentateuch or not, most scholars will admit a con- [ siderable Mosaic nucleus. This being true, the princi- ' pies of language seem to require either that the ancient records have been improved by later editors, or that there must have been a body of sacred literature to give the language that stable character that marks it through- out the entire sacred Scriptures ; for while there is cer- tainly a development in the Hebrew language of the * Vide Schrader, Semitismus und Babylonismus. Jahrb. v. Prot. TheoL, 1875. 3 50 BIBLICAL STUDY. Bible, and three periods may be readily distinguished, yet the differences between the earlier and the classic period are but slight, the chief distinguishing features being in the later writings of the Chronicler, Ecclesi- astes, and Daniel, all showing a decline from the classic models and an approximation to the Aramaic, in ety- mology and syntax. Sacred books give languages a permanence such as no other literature can give them. This is evident not only from the German Bible of Luther, and King James' English version, which have kept these great languages comparatively stationary, but also from the Koran, which has kept the Arabic so fixed to its classic style that it has taken a thousand years for the vulgar Arabic to reach that stage of linguistic develop- ment presented in the earliest Hebrew of the Bible. Hence unless the language of the writings of Moses has been changed by later editors, at least a considerable portion of the Pentateuch must be assigned to his times. '• Moses is the father of the Hebrew language and litera- j ture, as Luther is of the German. He moulded its fun- ' damental types, and started it in those directions that it has ever since maintained. As Abraham had gone forth from the culture of Babylonia to enter upon the pilgrim life of believing communion with El Shaddai, so Moses went forth from the culture of Egypt to become the representative of Jahvek, and organize a kingdom of priests, a holy nation, a theocracy the vital principles of which became reverential fear and worship of the per- sonal God of the covenant. Thus the Hebrew language became, in its essential spirit and genius, a religious language, the holy tongue of the holy people of God, and Moses laid its founda- tions in a literature of sacred history, poetry, and proph- ecy. The histories contained in the Pentateuch are the THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 51 fountain of all subsequent history. The grand hymn (Exod. XV.), the prayer (Ps. xc), the prophetic didactic poem (Deut. xxxii.), are the great boughs of lyric poetry upon which the Psalter subsequently burst forth in all its glory ; and the prophetic discourses in Deuteronomy are the sources, as they give the key to all subsequent , prophecy. Looking now at the language as religious according to its genius, and considering it in its fundamental types and their historical development, we observe the follow- ing as some of its most prominent characteristics : I. It is remarkably simple and natural. This is indeed a common feature of the Shemitic family. As compared with the Indo-Germanic, they represent an earlier stage in the development of mankind, the childhood of the race. Theirs is an age of perception, contemplation, and observation, not of conception, reflection, and reasoning. Things are apprehended according to their appearance as phenomena, and not according to their internal char- acter as noumena. The form, the features, the expres- sions of things are seen and most nicely distinguished, but not their inward being ; the effects are observed, but these are not traced through a series of causes, but only either to the immediate cause or else by a leap to the ultimate cause. Hence the language that expresses such thought is simple and natural. We see this in its sounds, which are simple and manifold, disliking diphthongs and compound letters ; in its roots, uniformly of three con- sonants, generally accompanied by a vowel ; in its in- flections, mainly by internal modifications ; in its simple arrangement of clauses in the sentence, with a limited number of conjunctions. Thus the conjunction vav plays a more important part in the language than all conjunctions combined, distinguishing by a simple mod- 52 BIBLICAL STUDY. ification of vocalization, accentuation, or position, be tween clauses coordinate, circumstantial, or subordinate, and in the latter between those indicating purpose, or result. This is the most remarkable feature of the lan- guage, without a parallel in any other tongue. And so the poetry is constructed on the simple principle of the parallelism of members, these being synthetic, antithetic, or progressive ; and in the latter case advancing, like the waves of the sea, in the most beautiful and varied forms. Hence it is that the Hebrew language is the easiest to render into a foreign tongue, and that Hebrew poetry can readily be made the common property of mankind. 2. We observe a striking correspondence of the lan- guage to the thought. This rests upon a radical difference between the Shemitic and Indo-Germanic family in their relative appreciation of the material and the form of lan- guage.* The form, the artistic expression, is to the Hebrew a very small affair. The idea, the thought, and emotion flow forth freely and embody themselves with- out any external restraint in the speech. This is clear from the method of inflection, which is mostly by inter- nal changes in the root, expressing the passive by chang- ing the clear vowel into the dull vowel, the intensive by doubling the second radical, the pure idea of the root by the extreme shortness of the infinitive and the segholate, the causative and the reflexive by lengthening the stem from without, and, so far as cases and moods exist, ex- pressing them harmoniously by the three radical short vowels. How beautiful in form, as well as sense, is the abstract plural of intensity by which Elohi7n expresses the fulness * Vid. Grill, iiber d. Verhiiltniss d. indogerm. u. d. semit. Sprachivurzeln in the Zeitschri/t D. M. G. 1873. THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 53 of the idea of God conceived as the one to be revered ; by which chayyim expresses the fulness of life, and which is employed in such passages as Eccles. v. 8, where the exaltation of God over all earthly judges would be represented, " For high over high watcheth The Highest over them." So in the dependence of the construct relation, and the use of the suffixes. But perhaps this feature is most striking in Hebrew poetry where the absence of an ar- tistic form is more apparent. We see that, with a gen- eral harmony of lines and strophes, the proportion in length and number is frequently broken through. And though the Hebrew. poet uses the refrain, yet he likes to modify it, as in the lament of David over Jonathan, 2 Sam. i. 19-27, the 80th Psalm, and the magnificent prophecy, Isaiah 40-66. Again, though the Hebrew poet uses the alphabet to give his lines or strophes a sort of regularity in order, using it as so many stairs up which to climb in praise, in pleading, in lamentation, and in advancing instruction, yet he by no means binds himself to an equal number of lines, or even measure of length ; and, apparently without necessity at times, breaks through his alphabet itself. Free as the ocean is the poet's emotion, rising like the waves in majestic strivings, heaving as an agitated sea, ebbing and flowing like the tide in solemn and measured antitheses, sporting like the wavelets upon a sandy beach. 3. The Hebrew language has a wonderful majesty and sublimity. This arises partly from its original religious genius, but chiefly from the subhme materials of its thought. God, the only true God, JAHVEH, the Holy Redeemer of His people, is the central theme of the 54 BIBLICAL STUDY. Hebrew language and literature, a God not apart from nature, and not involved in nature, no Pantheistic God, no mere Deistic God, but a God who enters into sym- pathetic relations with His creatures, who is recognized and praised, as well as ministered unto by the material creation. Hence there is a realism in the Hebrew lan- guage that can nowhere else be found to the same ex- tent. The Hebrew people were as realistic as the Greek were idealistic. Their God is not a God thought out, reasoned out as an ultimate cause, or chief of a Pan- theon, but a personal God, known by them in His asso- ciation with them by a proper name, Jahveh. Hence the so-called anthropomorphisms and anthropopathisms of the Old Testament, so alien to the Indo-Germanic mind that an Occidental theology must explain them away, from an incapacity to enter into that bold and sublime realism of the Hebrews. Thus, again, man is presented to us in all his naked reality, in his weakness and sins, in his depravity and wretchedness, as well as in his bravery and beauty, his holiness and wisdom. In the Hebrew heroes we see men of like passions with ourselves, and feel that their experience is the key to the joys and sorrows of our life. So also in their con- ception of nature. Nature is to the Hebrew poet all aglow with the glory of God, and intimately associated with man in his origin, history, and destiny. There is no such thing as science ; that was for the Indo-Germanic mind ; but they give us that which science never gives, that which science is from its nature unable to present us : namely, those concrete relations, those expressive features of nature that declare to man their Master's mind and character, and claim human sympathy and protection as they yearn with man for the Messianic fut- ure. Now the Hebrew language manifests this realism THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE, 55 on its very face. Its richness in synonyms is remarka- ble. It is said that the Hebrew language has, relatively to the English, ten times as many roots and ten times fewer words;* and that while the Greek language has 1,800 roots to 100,000 words, the Hebrew has 2,000 roots to 10,000 words.f This wealth in synonyms is appal- ling to the Indo'-Germanic scholar who comes to the Hebrew from the Latin and the Greek, where the syno- nyms are more or less accurately defined. But nothing of the kind has yet been done by any Shemitic scholar, so far as we know. What will you do with a language \ that has fifty-five words for destroy, sixty for break, and seventy-four for take^X ^^ ^s exceedingly doubtful whether this richness of synonyms can be reduced to a system and the terms sharply and clearly defined ; the differences are like those of the peculiar gutturals of the Shemitic tongues, so delicate and subtle that they can hardly be mastered by the Western tongue or ear. So these synonyms can hardly be apprehended and con- veyed into languages so poor when compared with such wealth. This wealth of synonym is connected with a corre- sponding richness of expression in the synonymous clauses that play such an important part in Hebrew po- etry, and indeed are the reason of its wonderful richness and majesty of thought. Thus the sacred poet or prophet plays upon his theme as upon a many-stringed instrument, bringing out a great variety of tone and melody, advancing in graceful steppings or stately march- ings to the climax, or dwelling upon the theme with an * Grill, in /. c. t Bottcher, Ausf. Lehrbuch d. Heb. Sprache, I , p. 8. Leipzig, 1866. X Girdlestone, Synonyms 0/ the Old Test., p. 15. London, 1871. 56 BIBLICAL STUDY. Inexhaustible variety of expression and coloring. The Hebrew language is like the rich and glorious verdure of Lebanon, or as the lovely face of the Shulamite, dark as the tents of Kedar, yet rich in color as the curtains of Solomon, or her graceful form, which is so rapturously described as she discloses its beauties in the dance of the hosts.* It is true that Hebrew literature is not as exten- sive as the Greek ; it is confined to history, poetry, proph- i. ecy, and possibly romance ; f but in these departments it J presents the grandest productions of the human soul. Its history gives us the origin and destiny of our race, un- folds the story of redemption, dealing now with the in- dividual, then with the family and nation, and at times widening so as to take into its field of representation the most distant nations of earth ; it is a history in which God is the great actor, in which sin and holiness are the chief factors. Its poetry stirs the heart of mankind with hymns and prayers, with sentences of wisdom ; and in the heroic struggles of a Job and the conquering virtue of a Shulamite, there is imparted strength to the soul and vigor to the character of man and woman transcend- ing the influence of the godlike Achilles or the chaste Lucretia ; while the second half of Isaiah presents the sublimest aspirations of man. Where shall we find such images of beauty, such wealth of illustration, such grand- eur of delineation, such majestic representations ? It seems as if the prophet grasped in his tremendous soul the movements of the ages, and saw the very future mirrored in the mind of God. 4. The Hebrew language is remarkable for its life and fervor. This is owing to the emotional and hearty char- acter of the people. There is an artlessness, self-aban- * Song of Songs, L s ; vii. 1-7. t See Chapters VIII. and IX. THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 57 donment, and earnestness in the Hebrew tongue ; it is transparent as a glass, so that we see through it as into th,e very souls of the people. There is none of that re- serve, that cool and calm deliberation, that self-conscious- ness that characterize the Greek.* The Hebrew language is distinguished by the strength of its consonants and the weakness of its vowels ; so that the consonants give the word a stability of form in which the vowels have the greatest freedom of movement. The vowels circulate in the speech as the blood of the language. Hence the freedom in the varying expressions of the same root and the fervor of its full-toned forms. And if we can trust the Massoretic system of accentuation and vocalization, the inflection of the language depends upon the dislike of the recurrence of two vowelless consonants, and the law of the vocal sheva and the half-open syllable ; and on the power of the accent over the vocalization not only of the accented syllable, but also of the entire word, and the law of the pretonic Qdinetz. This gives the language a won- derful flexibility and elasticity. In the Hebrew tongue the emotions overpower the thoughts and carry them on in the rushing stream to the expression. Hence the lit- erature has a power over the souls of mankind. The language is as expressive of emotion as the face of a mode^ and untutored child, and the literature is but the speaking face of the heart of the Hebrew people. The Psalms of David touch a chord in every soul, and inter- pret the experience of all the world. The sentences of Solomon come to us as the home-truths, as the social and political maxims that sway our minds and direct our lives. The prophets present to us the objective omnipo- * Ewald, in /. c, p, 33; Bottcher, in /. r., p. 9. Bertheau, in Herzog, Real. EncychJ>ad,'e, I., Auji. Bd, v., p. 613. 3* 58 BIBLICAL STUDr. tent truth, which, according to the beautiful story of Zerubbabel,* is the mightiest of all, flashing conviction like the sun and cutting to the heart as by a sharp t\Aio- edged sword. So with the history ; it presents to us the simple facts of the lives of individuals and of nations in the light of the Divine countenance, speaking to our hearts and photographing upon us pictures of real life. These are some of the most striking features of the Hebrew language, which have made it the most suitable of all to give to mankind the elementary religious truths and facts of divine revelation. The great body of the Bible, four-fifths of the sum total of God's Word, is in this tongue. It is no credit to a Christian people that ; the Hebrew language has no place at all in the most of / our colleges and universities ; that its study has been confined, for the most part, to theological seminaries and the students for the ministry. It is not strange i that the Old Testament has been neglected in the pul- pit, the Sabbath-school, and the family, so that many minds, even of the ministry, have doubted whether it was any longer to be regarded as the Word of God. It is not strange that Christian scholars, prejudiced by their training in the languages and literatures of Greece and Rome\ should be unable to enter into the spirit, and appreciate the peculiar features of the Hebrew language and literature, and so fail to understand the elements of a divine revelation. Separating the New Testament and the words and work of Jesus and His apostles from their foundation and their historical preparation, stu- dents have not caught the true spirit of the Gospel, nor apprehended it in its unity and variety as the fulfilment of the law and the prophets. But this is not all, for * I. Esdras iv. 33-41. THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 59 we shall now attempt to show that the other languages of the Bible, the Aramaic and the Greek, have been moulded and transformed by the theological concep- tions and moral ideas that had been developing in the Hebrew Scriptures, and which, having been ripened under the potent influence of the Divine Spirit, were about to burst forth into bloom and eternal fruitfulness in these tongues prepared by Divine Providence for the purpose. The Hebrew language is, as we have seen, the language of religion, and moulded entirely by religious and moral ideas and emotions. The Greek and the Aramaic are of an entirely different character ; they were not, as the Hebrew, cradled and nursed, trained from infancy to childhood, armed and equipped in their heroic youth with divine revelation, but they were moulded outside of the realm of divine revelation, and only subsequently adapted for the declaration of sacred truth. And first this was the case with the Aramaic. II. THE ARAMAIC LANGUAGE goes back in its history to the most primitive times. It is the farthest developed of the Shemitic family, showing a decline, a decrepitude, in its poverty of forms and vocalization, in its brevity and abruptness, in its ple- onasm, and in its incorporation of a multitude of foreign words. It was the language of those races of Syria and Mesopotamia that warred with the Egyptians and Assyr- ians, and possibly, as Gladstone suggests, took part in the Trojan war,* who, according to Sayce,t used the earliest system of writing, and were the agents through whom both the Hebrew and the Greek alphabets were * Gladstone's Homeric Synchronism^ N. Y., 1876, p. 173. t The Hamathite Inscriptions, Trans, Society 0/ Bib. Arcliaology, London, J870, p. o"- QQ BIBLICAL STUDY. conveyed to those peoples. At all events the Aramaic became the language of commerce and intercourse be- tween the nations during the Persian period,* taking the place of the Phoenician, as it was in turn supplanted by the Greek. The children of Judah having been carried into captivity and violently separated from their sacred places and the scenes of their history, gradually acquired this commercial and common language of intercourse, so that ere long it became the language of the Hebrew people, the knowledge of the ancient Hebrew being con- fined to the learned and the higher ranks of society. Hence, even in the books of Ezra and Daniel, consider- able portions were written in Aramaic. This Aramaic is called the Biblical Chaldee, to distinguish it from the Chaldee of the Targums, but really gives us an older type of the language. The Aramaic continued to be the language of the Jews during the Persian, Greek, and Roman periods, and was the common speech of Palestine in the times of our Lordjf although it had long ceased to be the language of commerce and intercourse, the Greek having taken its place, which gradually penetrated from the commercial and official circles even to the lowest ranks of society. Thus there was a mingling of a Greek population with the Shemitic races, not only in the Greek colonies of the Decapolis and the cities of the sea-coast of Palestine, but also in the great centres of Tiberias, Samaria, and even in Jerusalem itself. Greek manners and customs were, under the influence of the Herodians and the Sad- ducees, pressing upon the older Aramaic and Hebrew, * It must also have been widely spoken in the Assyrian period, as we see from II. Kings xviii. ii ; see also Fried. Delitzsch, »V Z,a^ das Paradies. Leipzig, 1881, p. 258. t Schurer, Neutestament. Zeitgesch., p. 372, Leipzig, 1874. THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. gl not without the stout resistance of the Pharisees. The language of our Saviour, however, in which He deh'vered His discourses and instructions, was undoubtedly the Aramaic, although we could hardly deny Him the knowledge and use of the Greek. For not only do the Aramaic terms that He used, which are retained at times by the evangelists, and the proper names of His disciples, but also the very structure and style of His discourses, show the Aramaic characteristics. For our Saviour's methods of delivery and style of instruction were essentially the same as those of the rabbins of His time. Hence we should not think it strange, that from this Aramaic literature alone we can bring forward parallels to the wise sentences and moral maxims of the Sermon on the Mount, the rich and beautiful parables, by which He illustrated His discourses, and the fiery zeal of His denunciation of hypocrisy, together with the profound depths of His esoteric instruction. Our Saviour used the Aramaic language and methods, in order there- by to reach the people of His times, and place in the prepared Aramaic soil the precious seeds of heavenly truth. It is the providential significance of the Ara- maic language that it thus prepared the body for the thought of our Saviour. It is a language admirably adapted by its simplicity, perspicuity, precision, and definiteness, with all its awkwardness, for the associa- tions of every-day life. It is the language for the lawyer and the scribe, the pedagogue and the pupil ; indeed, the English language of the Shemitic family.* Thus the earlier Aramaic of the Bible gives us only ofificial docu- ments, letters, and decrees, or else simple narrative. As moulded by the Jewish people after the return from * Volck in Herzog's Real Encyklopadie, IL Aufl. i, p. 603. g2 BIBLICAL STUDY. exile, it was through the giving of the sense of the original Hebrew Scriptures (Neh. viii. 8). The whole life of the Jewish people, subsequent to the exile, was in this giving the sense of the Hebrew Scriptures, both in the Halacha of the rabbinical schools, and the Haggada of the synagogue and the social circle. It is true that the Halacha was developed in the rival schools of Sham- mai and Hillel into the most subtle questions of casu- istry, and our Saviour often severely reproved the Phar- isaic spirit for its subtlety and scholasticism ; yet not infrequently He employed their methods to the discom- fiture of His opponents,* as in Matt. xxii. 1 5-46, although His own spirit was rather that of the old prophets than of the scribes. The Haggada was developed by the rab- bins into a great variety of forms of ethical wisdom and legend. This we see already in the apocryphal books of Wisdom, in the stories of Zerubbabel, of Judith, of Susanna, and of Tobit.f This latter method was the favorite one of our Saviour, as calculated for the com- mon people, and to it we may attribute the parables, and the sweet sentences of the Sermon on the Mount, which, though after the manner of the scribes,! have yet a clearness and transparency as the atmosphere of the Holy Land itself, a richness and simplicity as the scarlet flower of the fields He loved so well, a calm rhajesty and profound mystery as the great deep, for He was the * Weissacker, Uniersuchungen uber die cv. Gescliichte, p. 358, seg., Gotha, 1864. t Zunz, Gottesdienstlichen Vortrage der Juden, Berlin 1832, pp. 42, 100, 120 ; Etheridge, Introduction to Hebrew Literature, London, 1856, p. 102, seq. Those who are interested in this subject may find a large collection of thLs Haggadistic literature in the Bibliotheca Rabbinica, Eiiie Sammlung Alter Mid- raschim ins Deutsche Obertragen von Aug. Wunsche, 20 Lief. Leipzig, 1880- 84. \ Hausrath, Die Zeit Jesus, Heidelberg, 1868, p. 90. THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. ^3 expositor of the Divine mind, heart, and being to man- kind (John i. 18). The office of the Aramaic language was still further to mediate between the old world and the new — the Hebrew and the Greek ; for the Greek language was the chosen one to set forth the divine revelation in its com- pletion. III. THE GREEK LANGUAGE was born and grew to full maturity outside of the sphere of the divine revelation, and yet was predestined " as the most beautiful, rich, and harmonious language ever spoken or written " " to form the pictures of silver in which the golden apple of the Gospel should be pre- served for all generations." * For, as Alexander the Great broke in pieces the Ori- ental world-monarchies that fettered the kingdom of God, and prepared a theatre for its world-wide expan- sion, so did the Greek language and literature that his veterans carried with them prove more potent weapons than their swords and spears for transforming the civili- zation of the East and preparing a language for the uni- versal Gospel. The Greek language is the beautiful flower, the elegant jewel, the most finished masterpiece of Indo-Germanic thought. In its early beginning we see a number of dialects spoken by a brave and warlike people, struggling with one another, as well as with ex- ternal foes, maintaining themselves successfully against the Oriental and African civilizations, while at the sajne time they appropriated those elements of culture which they could incorporate into their own original thought and life ; a race of heroes such as the earth has nowhere * Schaff, Hist, of the Apostolic Church, p. 145. New York, 1859. See also SchafT, History of the Christian Church, L, p. 78. New York, 18S2. 64 BIBLICAL STUDY. else produced, fighting their way upward into light and culture until they attained the towering summits of an art, a literature, and a philosophy, that has ever been the admiration and wonder of mankind. As Pallas sprang forth in full heroic stature from the head of her father Zeus, so Greek literature sprang into historical existence in the matchless Iliad. Its classic period was constituted by the heroism and genius of the Athenian republic, which worked even more mightily in language, literature, and art, than in the fields of politics and war, producing the histories of Thucydides and Xenophon, the tragedies of an ^schylus and Sophocles, the philos- ophy of a Socrates and Plato, the oratory of a Demos- thenes and yEschines. Looking at the Greek language before it became the world-language, and so the lan- guage of a divine revelation, we observe that its charac- teristic features are in strong contrast with those of the Hebrew tongue. I. The Greek language is complex and artistic. As the Hebrew mind perceives and contemplates, the Greek conceives and reflects. Hence the Greek ety- mology is elaborate in its development of forms from a few roots, in the declensions and cases of nouns, in the conjugations, tenses, and moods of the verb, giving the idea a great variety of modifications. Hence the syntax is exceedingly complex in the varied use of the conjunc- tions and particles, the intricate arrangement of the sen- tences as they may be combined into grand periods, which require the closest attention of a practiced mind to follow, in their nice discriminations and adjustments of the thought.* Hence the complex and delicate rules * Curtius, Griech. Gesck., Berlin, 1865, 2d Aufl., L, pp. 19, 20; History of Greece, New York, 1875, ^ol- '•» PP- 30» 32. THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. g5 of prosody, with the great variety of metres and rhythms. The Greek mind would wrestle with the ex- ternal world, would search out and explore the reason of things, not being satisfied with the phenomena, but grasping for the noiimena. Thus a rich and varied litera- ture was developed, complex in character, the epos, the drama, the philosophical treatise, and scientific discus- sion, which are purely Greek, and could have little place among the Hebrews.* 2. The Greek language is characterized by its atten- tion to the form or style of its speech, not to limit the freedom of the movement of thought and emotion, but to direct them in the channels of clear, definite, logical sentences, and beautiful, elegant, and artistic rhetorical figures. The Greek was a thorough artist ; and as the palaces of his princes, the temples of his gods, the im- ages of his worship, his clothing and his armor, must be perfect in form and exquisite in finished decora- tion, so the language, as the palace, the dress of his thought, must be symmetrical and elegant.f Hence there is no language that has such laws of euphony, in- volving changes in vocalization, and the transposition and mutation of letters ; for their words must be musi- cal, their clauses harmonious, their sentences and periods symmetrical. And so they are combined in the most exquisite taste in the dialogues of the philosopher, the measures of the poet, the stately periods of the histo- rian and the orator. The sentences " are intricate, com- plex, involved like an ivory cabinet, till the discovery of its nominative gives you the key for unlocking the * Donaldson, The New Cratylus, 3d ed., p. 153. t Curtius, GrUch. Gesch.^ L, pp. 20, 21 ; History of Greece^ New York, 1875, I., pp. 33-34. 66 BIBLICAL STUDY. mechanism and admiring the ingenuity and beauty of its rhetoric." * 3. The Greek language is thus beautiful and finished. The Greek mind was essentially ideal, not accepting the external world as its own, but transforming it to suit its genius and its taste. This was owing to its original hu- manizing genius and its central theme, man as the he- roic, man as the ideally perfect.f As the language and literature of the Hebrews were inspired to describe " the righteous acts of Jahveh's dominion in Israel and the victories of his holy arm" (Judges v. 11 ; Psa. xcviii, i), and thus were majestic and sublime ; so the language and literature of the Greeks were to sing the exploits of the godlike Achilles, the crafty Ulysses, and the all-conquer- ing Hercules ; to paint the heroic struggles of the tribes at Thermopylae, Salamis, and Platea, to conceive a model republic and an ideal human world, and thus were beautiful, stately, and charming. The gods are ideal- ized virtues and vices and powers of nature, and con- ceived after the fashion of heroic men and women, ar- ranged in a mythology which is a marvel of taste and genius. Nature is idealized, and every plant and tree and fountain becomes a living being. Indeed, every- thing that the Greek mind touched it clothed with its own ideals of beauty. Hence the drama is the most ap- propriate literature for such a people, and the dialogue the proper method of its philosophy.:}: 4. The Greek language has remarkable strength and * W. Adams, Charge on occasion of the induction of Dr. Shedd as Pro- fessor of Bib. Literature, New York, 1864, p. 10. + SchafT, Afostolic Church, New York, p. 145 ; Zezschwitz, Profangracitat und bitlischer Sj>rachgebrauch, Leipzig, 1869, p. x^- X Curtius, Griech. Gesch., III., p. 508 ; History of Greece, New York, 1875, vol. v., pp. 169, 170. THE LINGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 67 vigor. Its stems have been compressed, vowel and con- sonant compacted together. Its words are complete in themselves, ending only in vowels and the consonants n, r, and s ; they have a singular independence, as the Greek citizen and warrior, and are protected from muti- lation and change.* It is true it has a limited number of roots, yet it is capable of developing therefrom an in- definite variety of words ; f so that although it cannot approach the wealth of synonym of the Hebrew, yet its words are trained as the athlete, and capable of a great variety of movements and striking effects. Its syntax is organized on the most perfect system, all its parts compacted into a solid mass, in which the individual is not lost, but gives his strength to impart to the whole the weight and invincible push of the phalanx. Hence the Greek language is peculiarly the language of ora- tory that would sway the mind and conquer with invin- cible argument. It is the language of a Demosthenes, the model orator for the world. It wrestles with the mind, it parries and thrusts, it conquers as an armed host. Such was the language with which Alexander went forth to subdue the world, and which he made the com- mon speech of the nations for many generations. It is true that the Greek was required to forfeit somewhat of its elegance and refinement in its collision with so many barbarous tongues, but it lost none of its essential char- acteristics when it was adopted by the Egyptian, the Syrian, and the Jew. The Jews were scattered widely in the earth, engaged in commercial pursuits that re- * Curtius, Grieck. Gesch., I., p. i8; Hist, of Greece, New York, 1875, vol. I., p. 29. t Jelfs, Greek Gram., 4th. ed., Oxford, 1S64, p. 330. gg BIBLICAX STUDY. quired them, above all others, to master the common speech of the nations. Hence those of Europe, Asia Minor, and Africa, easily adopted the Greek as their vernacular, and it gradually became more and more the language of Syria and Palestine. This was furthered by the translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into the Greek at Alexandria, the centre of the Greek culture of the times, a translation which shows upon its face the diffi- culties of rendering for the first time foreign conceptions into a strange tongue,* but which nevertheless became of incalculable importance in preparing the way for the New Testament writers. The original productions of the Jews of Alexandria and Palestine, many of which are preserved in the apocryphal books of the Old Testa- ment, combined to produce the same result. Gradually the Jewish mind was modified by the Greek thought and culture, and the Greek language was, on the other hand, adapted to the expression of Hebrew and Ara- maic conceptions. The apostles of our Lord, if they were to carry on a work and exert an influence, world- wide and enduring, were required, from the very circum- stances of the times, to use the Greek; for the Aramaic would have had but a narrow and ever-diminishing in- fluence, even if their labors had been confined to the synagogues of the dispersed Jews. Hence we are not surprised that, without an exception, so far as we know, the New Testament writers composed their works in Greek, yes, even gave us the Aramaic discourses of our Saviour in the Greek tongue. Nor was this without its providential purpose ; for though our Saviour delivered His discourses in Aramaic, yet they were not taken * Reuss, HellenistiscJus Idiom, in Herzog, RealencyklopidiCy I. Aufl., p. 709, II., Aufl. p. 745. THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. ^9 down by the evangelists as they heard them in that tongue, but were subsequently recalled to their minds by the Holy Spirit, who, in accordance with the promise of our Lord, brought all things to their remembrance (John xiv. 26) ; so that they recalled the ideas, rather than the language, and gave the ideas, therefore, the Greek embodiment ; and so we have no translation of the words of Jesus, but the words of Jesus as they passed through the Hellenistic conception of the evangelists, colored by their minds and human characteristics ; * for it was evi- dently the design of God that the Saviour's words, as well as acts and His glorious person, should be presented to the world through those four typical evangelists, who appropriately represent the four chief phases of human character and experience. The New Testament writers used the common Greek of their time, yet as men who had been trained in the Hebrew Scriptures and in the Aramaic methods of ex- position, but above all as holy men who spake as they were moved by the .Holy Spirit. Hence, as the Greek language had now to perform a work for which it had providentially been preparing, and yet one which it had never yet attempted, namely, to convey the divine rev- elation to mankind, so it must be remoulded and shaped by the mind of the Spirit to express ideas that were new both to the Greek and the Jew, but which had been de- veloping in the languages and literatures of both nations, for each in its way prepared for the Gospel of Christ. f Hence we are not surprised that the biblical Greek should be distinguished not only from the classic ♦Winer, New Test. Gram., Thayer's edit., Andover, 1872, p. 27; Bleek's EinUit. in d. N. T., 2d Aud., Berlin, 1866, p. 76; Edin., 1869, p. 72, seq. t Schaff, Apostolic Church, p. 146 ; also SchalT, History of the Christian Church, I., p. 76, seq. 70 BIBLICAL STUDY. models, but also from the literary Greek of the time, although when compared with the Greek of the Septua- gint and the Apocrypha, it approximates more to the literary Greek, being." not the slavish idiom of a trans- lation, but a free, language-creating idiom, without, how- ever, denying its cradle." * It is true that much of its elegance and artistic finish has been lost, and the nicely- rounded sentences and elaborate periods, with their deli- cately-shaded conceptions, have disappeared, yet its dis- tinguishing characteristics, especially its strength and beauty, its perspicuity, and its logical and rhetorical power, have been preserved, while to these have been added the simplicity and richness, the ardor and glow of the Aramaic style ; but over and above all these, the language has been employed by the Spirit of God, and transformed and transfigured, yes, glorified, with a light and sacredness that the classic literature never possessed. It is true that the writings of the New Testament are not all on the same level of style and language.f The gospels of Matthew and Mark, and the epistles of Peter and James, together with the Apocalypse, have stronger Aramaic coloring, which disturbs the Greek lines of beauty, the Greek form being overpowered by the life and glow of the Aramaic emotion ; yet in the writings of Luke and John, but especially of Paul and the Epis- tle to the Hebrews, the strength and excellence of the Greek unite with the peculiarities of the Aramaic and the Hebrew in striving, under the potent influence of the Holy Spirit, to convey the new religion in the most adequate and appropriate language and style. * Reuss, HellenistiscJus Idiom, in Herzog, I, Aufl., V., p. 710; II. Aufl., v., p. 747 ; Winer, New Test. Gram., p. 39. + Immer, Hermeneutik des Neuen Testaments, Wittemberg, 1873, p. 106, seq. ; Amer. ed., Andover, 1S77, P- 132 ; Reuss, in /. c, p. 747. THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 71 Here the humanizing and idealistic tendencies of the Greek combine with the theological and realistic tenden- cies of the Hebrew and the Aramaic ; for to these New Testament writers the person of Christ assumes the central and determining position and influence, as JaJi- veh the one God did to the Old Testament writers. Christ became the emperor of the Scriptures, to use Luther's expression, and His person irradiated its lan- guage and literature with His own light and glory. Thus when the mind now strove to conceive no longer the simple idea of the one God Jahveh, but the complex idea of the person of Christ and the Trinity therein in- volved, the Hebrew language was entirely inadequate ; and the Greek, as the most capable, must be strained and tried to the utmost to convey the idea of the Logos, who was in the beginning, was with God, and was God, and yet became the Word incarnate, the God-man, the interpreter in complete humanity of the fulness of the Deity dwelling in Him (John i. 1-14) ; for notwithstand- ing the historical preparation for this conception in the theophanies of the Hebrews, the nous of Plato, the logos of Philo, and the wisdom of Solomon and Sirach, it was yet an entirely new conception, which, notwithstanding the preparation of the Hebrew and the Greek, the world could not appropriate without the transforming and en- lightening influence of the Spirit of God.* So in an- thropology the apostle Paul combines the Hebrew and Greek conceptions in order to produce a new and perfect conception. Taking the psychology of the Greek as a system, he gave the central place to the Hebrew ruach or * Domer, Eiitwicklungsgesckichte der Lehre von der Person ClirisU Stuttgart, 1845, If P- 64 ; Edin., T. & T. Clark, 1861, pp. 44, 45; Schaff, ia Lange, Com. on John, N. Y., p. 55, 72 BIBLICAL STUDY. spirit, finding, to use the words of Zezschwitz, its " un- disturbed centralization in living union with the Spirit of God."* He then brings out the strife of the flesh {aap^) with the spirit {jivevpia), and the false position of the psychical nature {'f^'vxfj) over against the spirit. So also for the first he gives to the world the true conception of the conscience {ffvveidr^ai?) as " the remnant of the spirit in the psychical man," " the divine voice," the consciousness of which Socrates felt as the " summit of the knowledge of the true wisdom by the Greek spirit." f Hence the development of the doctrine of sin with its technical terms, and of holiness with its new ideas and language. How infinitely deeper and higher than the Greek are these conceptions of the New Testament language, as the person of Christ, presented by the omnipotent Spirit, convinces the world of sin, of right- eousness, and of judgment (John xvi. 8). Jesus, as " the only-begotten of the Father, full of grace and truth " (John i. 14), assumes the place not only of the heroic ideal man of the Greeks, but even of the unapproachable holy Jahveh of the Hebrews. Hence the elevation of the graces of meekness, patience, long-suffering, self-sacrifice ; and the dethronement of the Greek virtues of strength, beauty, bravery, manhood. And so in all departments of Chris- tian thought, there was a corresponding elevation and degradation of terms and conceptions. We need only mention regeneration, redemption, reconciliation, justifi- cation, sanctification, life and death, heaven and hell, the church, the kingdom of God, repentance, faith, Christian love, baptism, the_ Lord's supper, the Lord's day, the advent, the judgment, the new Jerusalem, ever- * Zezschwitz, Pro/angracitat, etc., p. 36, seq. + Zezschwitz, in /. c, pp. 55-57. THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. Y3 lasting glory.* Truly a new world was disclosed by the Greek language, and the literature of the New Testa- ment, as the Hebrew and the Aramaic and the Greek combined their energies and capacities in the grasp of the Divine creating and shaping Spirit, who transformed the Greek language and created a new and holy Greek literature, as the earth heaves and subsides into new forms and shapes under the energy of the great forces of its advancing epochs. The especial literary development of the New Testa- ment is in the sermon and the theological tract. We trace these from the first beginning on the day of Pen- tecost through the discourses of the book of Acts, and parallel therewith the epistles of Peter and Paul and John. Looking at the sermons we observe that they are no longer on the Aramaic model as are the dis- courses of our Lord, but we see the Greek orator as well as the Aramaic rabbin. So with the epistles, espe- cially of Paul, although he reminds us of the rabbinical schools in his use of the halacha and haggada methods,f yet they exhibit rather the dialectic methods of the Greek philosopher. Thus the Greek orator and phi- losopher prepared the language and style of Paul the preacher and theologian no less than the Hebrew prophet and wise man gave him the fundamental prin- ciples of his wisdom and experience. And although the Greek literature of the New Testament has no De- mosthenes' " On the crown," or Plato's Republic, as it has no Iliad or Prometheus ; yet it lays the foundation of the sermon and the tract, which have been the literary * Bleek, Einleitun^, p. 71 ; Immer, Hermeneutik, p. 105 ; Am. ed,, Ando- ver, 1877, pp. 129- 131 ; Cremer, Bib. Tlieol. Worterbuck der Neu-Tcstament. Gracitat and Trench, New Testament Synonyms under the respective words. t Gal. iv. 22, seq. ; Rom. iii. i, seq., etc. 4 74 BIBLICAL STUDY. means of a world-transforming power, as, from the pulpit and the chair. Christian ministers have stirred the hearts and minds of mankind, and lead the van of progress of the Christian world — for the sermon combines the pro- phetic message of the Hebrew with the oratorical force of the Greek, as it not only fires the heart, but strives in the council-chamber of the intellect and pleads at the bar of the conscience ; while the epistle combines the sententious wisdom of the Hebrew with the dia- lectic philosophy of the Greek, in order to mould and fashion the souls of men and of nations, by great vital and comprehensive principles that constitute the invin- cible forces of Christian history. CHAPTER IV. THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. -t The Bible is composed of a great variety of writings of holy men under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, in a long series extending through many centuries, pre- served to us in three different original languages, the Hebrew, the Chaldee, and the Greek, besides numerous versions. These languages were themselves the prod- ucts of three different civilizations, which having accom- plished their purpose passed away, the languages no longer being used as living speech, but preserved only in written documents. They present to us a great variety of literature, as the various literary styles and the various literary forms of these three languages have combined in this one sacred book of the Christian church, making it as remarkable for its literary variety as for its religious unity. The Bible is the sacred canon of the church of Christ, the infallible authority in all matters of worship, faith, and practice. From this point of>view it has been stud- ied for centuries by Jew and Christian. Principles of in- terpretation have been established and employed in building up systems of religion, doctrine, and morals. The divine element, which is ever the principal thing, has been justly emphasized ; and the doctrine of inspiration has been extended by many dogmatic divines so as to (75) Y6 BIBLICAL STUDY. « cover the external letter, the literary form and style, in. * the theory of verbal inspiration. The fact has been- too often overlooked, that it has not seemed best to God to create a holy language for the exclusive vehicle of His ■ Word, or to constitute peculiar literary forms and styles- for the expression of His revelation, or to commit the keeping of the text of this Word to infallible guar- dians. But on the other hand, as He employed men rather than angels as the channels of His revelation, so He used three human languages with all the varieties of literature that had been developed in the various nations, using these languages in order that He might approach mankind in a more familiar way in the human ioxvas with which they were acquainted and which they could readily understand, and He permitted the sacred text to depend for its accuracy upon the attention and care of the suc- cessive generations of His people. Hence the necessity of biblical criticism to determine the true canon, the correct text, and the position and character of the vari- ous writings. These sacred writings might be studied from the histor- ical point of view under the title. History of Biblical Lit- erature, or from the dogmatic point of view as Biblical Introduction ; but both of these methods of treating biblical literature, unless they depend entirely upon traditional opinions, presuppose the work of criticism. The dogmatic method of Biblical Introduction is con- trary to the genius of biblical study. The Biblical In- troductions constructed on this plan have gathered a vast amount of material in a dry, scholastic, pedantic, and ill-adjusted mass, so as to prejudice the student against the Scriptures when he should be introduced by the best methods into the sacred halls of its literature. The addition of the attributes " historical," and " histori- THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. 77 co-critical," to " introduction " has been accompanied by a corresponding internal improvement through the in- troduction of the critical and the historical methods, but they have been kept in too subordinate a place even in the works most characterized by freedom of criticism. Through the influence of Reuss and Hupfeld the his- torical method came into use as the dominant one.* But such a history of biblical literature can be con- structed only after criticism has accomplished its work of destruction and of construction, and it will be shaped and controlled by criticism. Hermann Strackf thinks that such a history is at present impossible on account of the great diversity of opinion among critics. It is true that any such history will represent the subjective opinions of the historian and his school. The works of Fiirst and Reuss are built upon theoretical considera- tions rather than established facts. But a history of biblical literature might be constructed which would distinguish between facts and theories, and though it might be imperfect and not altogether satisfactory, it might prepare the way for something better, and it would certainly present, the material in a most attractive form. But the dominant method in all biblical studies should be the inductive and not the historical. The construc- tion of a history of biblical literature would not dis- pense with a system of biblical literature as a part of Exegetical Theology. In the construction of this sys- tem criticism will prove the most important method. * Reuss, die Gesch. d. heil. Schri/ten N. T., 1842, ste Aufl., 1874 ; Hupfeld, Bfgriff und Method d. sogenan. Hb. Einleit.y 1S44 ; Furst, Gesch. d. bib. Lit- eratur historisch und kritisch behandclt, 1867-70 ; Zahn, Einleitung in das N. T.y in Herzog, Real Encyk. ii. Aufl. iv., p. 147, 1879; Reuss, Gesch. d. heil. •Schri/ten Alien Test. 1881. t Zockler, Handbuch det- theologischen IVissemcIia/ten, I., 1882, p. 122. 78 BIBLICAL STUDY. It seems best, therefore, to distinguish the three depart- ments of Biblical Literature as. Biblical Canonics, Text- ual Criticism, and Higher Criticism. The distinction between the lower and the higher criticism has long been known to scholars. These terms have been more widely used than any others to discrim- inate between the criticism of the text and the criticism of the literary forms and contents. They are not al- together satisfactory, but we shall retain them as the best terms that have been suggested and in accordance with the established technics of criticism. Hagenbach * proposes to substitute internal and external criticism for higher and lower criticism, but we have yet to learn that any critic has adopted his proposition. We propose to give in this chapter a general discus- sion of criticism itself, its idea, divisions, principles, and methods, and the propriety of its application to the Bible ; in the three following chapters to treat the three departments of biblical criticism separately, and in the two subsequent chapters to present biblical literature in its two great literary forms, as prose and poetry. I. WHAT IS CRITICISM? K Biblical criticism is one of the departments of his- torical criticism, as historical criticism is one of the divisions of general criticism. Criticism is a method of knowledge, and, wherever there is anything to be known, the critical method has its place. Knowl- edge is gained by the faculties of the human mind through sense-perception, the intuitions, and the rea- soning powers. If these were infallible in their work- ing, and their results were always reliable, there would * Encyklopddie^ gte Aufl., 1874, p. 164. THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. 79 be no need of criticism ; but, in fact, these faculties are used by fallible men who do not know how to use them, or employ them in various degrees of imperfection, so that human knowledge is ever a mixture of the true and false, the reliable and the unreliable; and errors of individuals are perpetuated and- enhanced by trans- mission from man to man and from generation to gen- eration. Criticism is the test of the certainty of knowl- edge, the method of its verification. It examines the products of human thinking and working and tests them by the laws of thought and of history. It eliminates the false, the uncertain, the unsubstantial from the true, the certain, and the substantial. The unthinking rely upon their own crude knowledge which they have received from their fathers and friends or acquired by their narrow experience, without reflect- ing upon the uncertainty necessarily attached to it. But the reflecting mind which has experienced the un- certainty of its own acquisitions and of those things that have been transmitted to it, cannot rely upon anything as really known until it has been tested and found reli- able by criticism. For criticism reviews the processes of thought and the arguments and evidences by which its results have been acquired. It studies these prod- ucts in their genesis, examines them carefully in the or- der of their production, verifies and corrects them, im- proves upon them where improvement is possible, strengthens them where strength is needed, but also destroys them when they, are found to be worthless, misleading, or false, as mere conceits, illusions, or fraudu- lent inventions. Criticism is thus on the one side de- structive, for its o'ffice is to detect the false, eliminate it, and destroy it. This is not infrequently a painful process to the critic himself, and to those who have allowed so BIBLICAL STUDY. themselves to be deceived, and have been relying upon the unreliable ; but it is indispensable to the knowledge of the truth ; it is the path of safety for the intellect and the morals ; it removes the obstructions to progress in knowledge. The destruction of an error opens up a vision of the truth, as a mote removed from the eye or frost brushed from the window. For critic cism is also constructive. It tests and finds the truth. It rearranges truths and facts in their proper order and harmony. In accordance with the strictness of its methods, and the thoroughness of their application will be the certainty of the results. But criticism itself, as a human method of knowledge, is also defective and needs self-criticism for its own rectification, security, and prog- ress. It must again and again verify its methods and correct its processes. Eternal vigilance is the price of truth as well as of liberty. It improves its methods with the advancement of human learning. In the infancy or growth of a nation, or of an individual, or of the world, we do not find criticism. It belongs to the manhood and maturity of a nation and the world's civilization. Criticism requires for its exercise careful training. Only those who have learned how to use its tools and have employed them with the best masters, and have attained a mastery of the departments of knowledge to be criticised, are prepared for the delicate and difficult work of criticism ; for knowledge must be attained ere it can be tested. Criticism refines the crude oil of knowledge. It cleanses and polishes the rough diamond of thought. It removes the dross from the gold of wisdom. Criticism searches all departments of knowl- edge as a torch of fire consuming the hay, straw, and stubble, that the truth of God may shine forth in its majesty and certainty as the imperishable and eternal. THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. gl No one need fear criticism, save those who are uncer- tain in their knowledge, for criticism leads to certitude. It dissipates doubt. Fiat Lux is its watchword. We are not surprised that criticism has thus far been largely destructive, for there were many errors that had grown up and become venerable with age, and were so interwoven and embedded in systems of philosophy, of theology, of law, medicine, and science, as well as the manners and customs of men, that a long conflict was necessary to destroy them. Mankind in general are more ^ concerned with the maintenance of established positions ', and systems and vested interests than they are interested in the truth of God and of nature. Scholars, when they see the venerable errors, hesitate to destroy them for fear of damaging their own interests or those of their friends, and sometimes out of anxiety for the truth, with which the error is entangled. But in the providence of God, some great doubter like Voltaire, Hume or Strauss, or some great reformer like Luther or Zwingli, arises to lay violent hands upon the systems in which truth and error are combined, raze them to the ground and trample them in the dust, that from the ruins the imperishable truth may be gathered up and arranged in its proper order and harmony. The modern world since the Reformation has become more and more critical, until the climax has been reached in our day. The destruction of error has been the chief duty of criticism, but its constructive work has not been neglected, and this will more and more rise into importance in the progress of knowledge. It is not with- out significance that the age of the world most charac- terized by the spirit of criticism has been the age of the most wonderful progress in all departments of human knowledge. 4* 82 BIBLICAL STUDY. Criticism divides itself into various branches in accord- ance with the departments of knowledge : (i) Philosoph- ical Criticism ; (2) Historical Criticism ; and (3) Scientific Criticism. Limiting ourselves to historical criticism we distinguish it from other criticism, in that it has to do with the materials of the past, the sources of the his- tory of mankind ; as philosophical criticism has to do with the facts of human consciousness," and scientific criticism with the facts of external nature. Historical criticism deals with the various sources of history ; liter- ary documents, monuments, laws, customs, institutions, traditions, legends, and myths. The great importance of the literary sources justifies their separation in the distinct branch of literary criticism. Biblical criticism is one of the sections of literary criticism, as it has to do with the sacred literature of the Christian Church. II. THE PRINCIPLES OF CRITICISM. The principles and methods of Biblical Criticism will thus embrace (i) those of Criticism in general, (2) of His- torical Criticism, (3) of Literary Criticism, and (4) of Bibli- cal Criticism. Biblical Criticism has thus the advantage of all this preliminary work in other fields to guide and illustrate its own peculiar work. I. From General Criticism it derives the fundamental laws of thought, which must not be violated, such as the laws of identity, of contradiction, of exclusion, and of sufficient reason ; * also the laws of probation, which must be applied to all reasoning : There must be no begging of the question at issue, no reasoning backward and for- ward or in a circle, no jumping at conclusions, no set- * Sir Wm. Hamilton," Logic^ Boston, i860, p. 57 ; also McCosh, Laws 0/ Discursive Thought, N. Y., 1871, p. 195, seg. THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. 83 ting out to prove one thing and then insensibly sub- stituting another thing in its place.* These laws of probation are the sharp tools of the critic with which he tests all the acquisitions of the human mind and all the reasonings of scholars in all departments of knowledge.f 2. From Historical Criticism Biblical Criticism derives the principles of historic genesis. The evidences of history- belong to the past. They are oral, written, or monu- mental. They have passed through several stages before they reached us. They must be traced back to their origin in order to determine whether they are genuine ; or whether they have been invented as interesting sto- ries for hours of idleness and recreation, or as forgeries with the intent to deceive ; or whether there is a min- gling of these various elements that need to be separated and distinguished.:}: The order and processes of the development of the material must be considered in order to determine its integrity, or how far it has been modified by external influences or the struggle of internal inconsistencies, and how far the earlier and the later elements may be distin- guished and the excrescences removed from the original. The character of the material must be studied in order to determine how far it is reliable and trustworthy ; whether it is in accordance with the experience of man- kind, and so natural ; or contrary to that experience, and so unnatural or supernatural ; whether it is in harmony with itself and consistent with its own conditions and * Sir Wm. Hamilton, Logic, p. 369; McCosh, Laws of Discursive Thought, p. 183, seq. ^ An excellent application of these principles to Biblical Criticism is found in the article of Willis J. Beecher on the Logical Methods of Professor Kuenen, in the Presbyterian Review, 1S82, III., p. 701, seq. . 4 Gieseler, Text-Book of Church History. N. Y., 1857, I., p. 23. g4 BIBLICAL STUDY. circumstances ; whether there are disturbing influences that determine the material so as to warp or color it, and how far these influences extend.* The value of the materials of history depends upon such considerations as these; also upon the nearness or remoteness of the material to the matters concerning which they render testimony ; upon the extent and vari- ety of evidence, if that extent and variety are primitive and not derived from an original source upon which they all depend. The consistency and persistence of materials are also evidences of vitality and inherent strength of evidence. The sources of history that cannot bear this criticism are not reliable sources. The application of these sim- ple tests removes from the pages of history numberless legends, fables, and myths, and determines the residuum of truth and fact that underlies them. It is distressing to part with the sweet stories which have been told us in our early life, and which have been handed down by the romancers from the childhood and youth of our race. We may still use them as stories, as products of the imagination, but we dare not build on them as his- toric verities. As men we must know the truth. We cannot afford to deceive ourselves or others. Many of these legends and traditions have strongly intrenched themselves and lie like solid rocks in the path of historic investigation. They must be exploded to get at the truth, and this cannot* be done without noise and confusion ; and outcries of alarm from the weak and timid, and those who are interested in the maintenance of error and court popularity by an ap- peal to prejudices. Sometimes these traditions may be * See Droysen, Grundriss der Historik, Leipfig^, i868. pp. 16-17. THE BIBLE AND CKITICISM. 85 overcome by positive evidence obtained by careful re- search in ancient documents, and by parallel lines of evi- dence. But it is not always possible to obtain sufificient external positive evidence. Sometimes we have to rely upon a long-continued and unbroken silence, and some- times we have to challenge the tradition and reject it from sheer lack of evidence and the suspicious circum- stances of its origin and growth. 3. From Literary Criticism Biblical Criticism derives its chief principles and methods. As literature it must first be considered as text. The MSS., versions, and cita- tions are studied in order to attain, as far as possible, the originals.* The laws of the transmission of books are to be determined. The sources of error in the text are the carelessness, ignorance, or inadvertence of the copy- ists. We have to consider the mistakes which they were liable to make, such as in words of similar sound, in letters of like form, in the repetition of words in passing from line to line, in the omission or insertion of words or clauses by slips of the eye, in the transfer of explana- tory notes from the margin to the text. The errors in translation arise from lack of knowledge of the original, or inability to give adequate expression to the idea of the original, save by paraphrase, and in defective judg- ment as to the best way of rendering it. Errors in cita- tion arise from slips of the memory and the desire to use a part and not the whole of the passage, or the adaptation of it to circumstances beyond the scope of the original. There are also errors in the text because of the wear and tear of time in the destruction of MSS., ren- * A statement of the principles of Textual Criticism in relation to the New Testament may be found in the Jirticle of Prof. B, B. Warfield on The Greek Testament of Westcott and Hort. Presbyterian Review, III., 1S82, p. 334, seq. 86 BIBLICAL STUDY. dering them illegible, indistinct, or mutilated, and through the efforts to restore them.* The value of the MSS, must first be considered, their interrelation and antiq- uity and history. They must be arranged in families or groups that their relative authority may be estab- lished.f The value of the MSS. having been deter- mined, we are prepared to examine the relative value of the readings. The principles on which this is done are : (i) The reading which lies at the root of all the varia- tions and best explains them is to be preferred. (2) The most difificult reading is more likely to be correct from the natural tendency of the scribe to make his text as easy and intelligible as possible, and the natural process of simplification in transmission.:}: (3) The reading most in accordance with the context, and especially with the style and usage of the author and his times, is to be preferred. This is on the principle of consistency and " intrinsic probability." § 4. Having secured the best text of the writings, criti- cism devotes itself to the higher task of considering them as to integrity, authenticity, literary form, and re- liability. This is appropriately called Higher Criticism. This branch of criticism has established its principles * See Capellus, Critica Sacra, 1650, Lib. I. ; Scrivener, Introduction to the Criticism 0/ the New Testament, 1874, p. 7, seq. ; Isaac Taylor, History of the Transmission of Ancient Books to Modern Times, new edition. Liver- pool, 1879, p. 22 ; also Westcott and Hort, New Testament in the Original Greek, Vol. XL, Introduction, N. Y., 1882, p. 5, seq. t See Scrivener in /. c, p. 404, seq. Westcott and Hort deserve great credit for their elaboration of this principle in /. c, p. 39, seq. \ These two principles are combined by Westcott and Hort in /. c., p. 23, seq., under the term " transcriptional probability." § See Westcott and Hort in /. c, p. 20, seq. Scrivener expands these princi- ples to seven in number in /. c., p. 436, seq. ; Davidson, Treatise of Biblical Criticism, Boston, 1853, p. 386, seq.^ g^ivcs principles of Textual Criticism for the Old Testament. THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. 87 and methods of work. Thus the learned Roman Cath- olic, Du Pin, in the introduction to his magnificent work on ecclesiastical writers, gives an admirable state- ment of them with reference to those ecclesiastical writ- ers before the higher criticism of the Scriptures had fairly begun. We shall build largely upon him in the statement of principles.* The questions to be determined by higher criticism are : (i) As to the integrity of the writings. Is the writing the work of a single author or is it a collection of writ- ings of different authors ? Is it in its original condition, or has it been edited or interpolated by later writers ? Can the parts be discriminated, the original form of the writing determined, and the different steps in interpola- tion and editing traced ? (2) As to the authenticity of the writings. Is the writ- ing anonymous, pseudonymous, or does it bear the au- thor's name? If the author's name is given, is the title genuine or is it a forgery ? What reliance can be placed upon tradition with regard to the authorship of anony- mous writings ? ' (3) As to literary features. What is the style of the author, his method of composition .? What literary form does he assume, poetry or prose, and what variety of these general forms ? (4) As to the credibility of the writings. Is the writ- ing reliable? Do its statements accord with the truth, or are they colored and warped by prejudice, supersti- tion, or reliance upon insufficient or unworthy testimony ? What character does the author bear as to prudence, good judgment, fairness, integrity, and critical sagacity ? ■ * Nouvelle Bibliotheque des Auteurs Ecclesiastiguej, Paris, 1694 ; New His tory 0/ Ecclesiastical Writers^ London, 1696, 88 BIBLICAL STUDY. These questions of the higher criticism are to be de- termined by the following principles:* (i) The writing must be in accordance with its sup- posed historic position as to time and place and circum- stances. " Time is one of the most certain proofs ; for nothing more evi- dently shows that a book cannot belong to that time wherein it is pretended to have been written, than when we find in it some marks of a later date. These marks, in the first place, are false dates ; for 'tis an ordinary thing for impostors, that are generally ignorant, to date a book after the death of the author to whom they ascribe it, or of the person to whom they ascribe it, or of the person to whom it is dedicated, or written ; and even when they do fix the time right, yet they often mistake in the names of the consuls,, or in some other circumstances : All which are invincible proofs that he that dated this book did not live at that time. Secondly, impostors very often speak of men that lived long after the death of those persons to whom they attribute those spurious discourses, or they relate the his- tory of some passages that happened afterwards, or they speak of cities and people that were unknown at the time, when those authors wrote " t (2) Differences of style imply differences of expe- rience and age of the same author, or, when sufficiently great, differences of author and of period of composition. "In short, stile is a sort of touchstone, that discovers the truth or falsehood of books; because it is impossible to imitate the stile of any author so perfectly as that there will not be a great deal of dif- ference. By the stile, we are not only to understand the bare words and terms, which are easily imitated; but also the turn of the dis- course, the manner of writing, the elocution, the figures, and the •- A brief statement of these principles is presented in relation to Biblical Criti- cism by Prof. Henry P. Smith, in his article on the Critical Theories of Julius Vr'elUiauseit, Presbyterian RejAew, 1882, III., p. 370. t Du Pin, New History of Ecclesiastical Writers. 3d edition, corrected. London, 1696, p. vii. seq. THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. 89 method : All which particulars, it is a difficult matter so to counter- feit as to prevent a discovery. There are, for instance, certain au- thors, whose stile is easily known, and which it is impossible to im- itate : We ought not, however, always to reject a book upon a slight difference of stile, without any other proofs ; because it often hap- pens that authors write differently, in different times : Neither ought we immediately to receive a book as genuine, upon the bare resem- blance of stile, when there are other proofs of its being spurious ; because it may so happen, that an ingenious man may sometimes counterfeit the stile of an author, especially in discourses which are not very long. But the difference and resemblance of stile may be so remarkable sometimes, as to be a convincing proof, either of truth or falsehood " (in /. c, p. viii.). (3) Differences of opinion and conception imply dif- ferences of author when these are sufficiently great, and also differences of period of composition. " The opinions or things contained in a book, do likewise discover the forgery of it : (i) When we find some opinions there, that were not maintained till a long time after the author, whose name it bears. (2) When we find some terms made use of, to explain these doc- trines, which were not customary till after his death. (3) When the author opposes errors, as extant in his own time, that did not spring up till afterwards. (4) When he describes ceremonies, rites and customs that were not in use in his time. (5) When we find some opinions in these spurious discourses, that are contrary to those that are to be found in other books, which unquestionably belong to that author. (6) When he treats of matters that were never spoken of in the time when the real author was alive. (7) When he relates histories that are manifestly fabulous " (in /. c, p. viii.). (4) Citations show the dependefnce of the author upon the author or authors cited, where these are definite and the identity of the author cited can be clearly estab- lished. In cases of doubt as to which author uses the other, or whether two or more authors may not depend upon an earlier author ; this doubt can be resolved only by the careful determination of the exact interrelation 90 BIBLICAL STUDY. of the passages and the genesis of the one out of the other. This is the most difficult principle of the higher criticism in its application. Du Pin simply attaches it to No. (i), " or lastly, they cite authors that wrote and lived after those whom they make to mention them." These four principles are embraced under the internal evidence. To them we must now add two principles of external evidence. (5) Positive testimony as to the writing in other writ- ings of acknowledged authority. (6) The silence of authorities as to the writing in ques- tion. These are combined by Du Pin : . " The external proofs are, in the first place, taken from ancient manuscripts ; in which either we do not find the name of an author : or else we find that of another : The more ar^cient or correct they are, the more we ought to value them. Secondly, from the testimony or silence of ancient authors ; from their testimony, I say. when they formally reject a writing as spurious, or when they attribute it to some other author ; or from their silence when they do not speak of it, though they have occasion to mention it : This argument, which is commonly called a negative one, is oftentimes of very great weight. When, for example, we find, that several entire books which are attributed to one of the ancients, are unknown to all antiquity; When all those persons that have spoken of the works of an author, and besides, have made catalogues of them, never mention such a particular discourse : When a book that would have been service- able to the Catholics has never been cited by them, who both might and ought to have cited it, as having a fair occasion to do it, 'tis ex- treamly probable that it is supposititious. It is very certain that this is enough to make any book doubtful, if it was never cited by any of the ancients ; and in that case it must have very authentik char-. acters of antiquity, before it ought to be received without contradic- tion. And on the other hand, if there should be never so few con- jectures of its not being genuine, yet these, together with the silence of the ancients, will be sufficient to oblige us to believe it to be a forgery " (in /. c, p. viii.). THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. 91 The argument from silence has risen to so much greater importance than it was in the seventeenth cent- ury that we shall venture to define it more narrowly. {a) Silence is a lack of evidence, for the reason that the matter in question did not come within the scope of the author's argument. {b) It is an evidence that it had certain characteristics that excluded it from the author's argument. {c) The matter in question lies fairly within the au- thor's scope, and was omitted for good and sufficient reasons that may be ascertained. The omission was in- tentional. {d) The silence of the author as to that which was within the scope of his argument was unconscious and implies ignorance of the matter. {e) When the silence extends over a variety of writings of different authors, of different classes of writings and different periods of composition, it implies either some strong and overpowering external restraint such as divine interposition, or ecclesiastical or civil power, or it im- plies a general and wide-spread public ignorance which presents a strong presumptive evidence in favor of the non-existence of the matter in question.''^ The internal evidence must be used with great caution and sound judgment, for an able and learned forger might imitate so as to deceive the most expert, and the author of a pseudepigraph might intentionally place his writing in an earlier age of the world and in circum- stances best suited to carry out his idea. But sooner or later a faithful and persistent application of the critical * For an elaboration and explanation of these principles we must refer to the author's paper on the arg;unient e stientio, read before the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis in June last, and shortly to be published in their Jour' tta/. 92 BIBLICAL STUDY. tests will determine the forgeries and the pseudepigraphs and assign them their real literary position. As to the relative value of the internal and external evidence we cannot do better than use the judicious words of Sir Wm. Hamilton : " But if our criticism from the internal grounds alone be, on the one hand, impotent to estab- lish, it is, on the other hand, omnipotent to disprove." ^ The importance of this higher criticism is so well stated by Du Pin, that we will again quote him : " Criticism is a kind of torch, that lights and conducts us in the obscure tracts of antiquity, by making us to distinguish truth from falsehood, history from fable, and antiquity from novelty, 'Tis by this means, that in our times we have disengaged ourselves from an infinite number of very common errors, into which our fathers fell for want of examining things by the rules of true criticism. For 'tis a surprising thing to consider how many spurious books we find in antiquity ; nay, even in the first ages of the Church " (in /, c, p. vii.). In order to illustrate these principles of the higher criticism, we shall present a few specimens of their appli- cation. The first illustration that we shall give is with refer- ence to the question of integrity. The so-called Apos- tles' Creed is the most sacred writing exterior to the canon of Scripture. " Till the middle of the seventeenth century it was the current be- lief of Roman Catholic and Protestant Christendom that the Apos- tles' Creed was ' membratum articulatumque,' composed by the apos- tles in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost, or before their separation ; to secure unity of teaching, each contributing an article (hence the somewhat arbitrary division into twelve articles)," The arguments adduced by Dr, Schaff to prove that this tradition is false, are: (i) The intrinsic improba- * LoS'C, p. 471. THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. 93 bllity of such a mechanical composition. (2) The silence of Scripture. (3) The silence of the apostolic fathers and all the Ante-Nicene and Nicene fathers and synods. (4) The variety in form of the creed down to the eighth century. (5) The fact that the Apostles' Creed never had any currency in the East where the Nicene creed occupies its place.* Lumby goes into the matter of the structure of the creed more fully, and shows the process of its formation and all the changes through which it passed, until it gradually, in 750 A.D., assumed its present stereotyped form.f The best illustration of the higher 'criticism with reference to the question of authenticity, is afforded by Bentley in his celebrated work on the epistles of Phalaris.ij; Bentley proves these epistles to be forgeries of a sophist: I. By internal evidence, (i) They do not accord with their presumed age, but with other ages. They mention id) Aloesa, a city which was not built till 140 years after the latest year of Phalaris ; {I)) Theridean cups, which were not known until 120 years after the death of Phalaris ; [c) Messana, as a different city from Zaude, whereas it was a later name for the same city, and not changed till 60 years after the death of Pha- laris ; {d') Taurominium, 140 years before it was ever thought of. (2) Differences of style : {a) the use of the Attic dialect instead of the Doric, the speech of Phalaris, and indeed not the old Attic, but the new Attic that was not used till centuries after Phalaris' time. * Schaff, Creeds of Christendom^ New York, 1877, I., p. 19. t Lumby, History of the Creeds, Cambridge, 1873, p. 169, seq. X A Dissertation upon the Epistles of Phalaris, London, 1699, a new edition, edited by Wilhelni Wagner, London, 1883. 94 BIBLICAL STUDY. (3) Differences of thought : (a) reference to tragedy be- fore tragedy came into existence ; (d) use of Attic and not Sicilian talents in speaking of money ; (c) use of the word Ttpovota for Divine Providence, which was not used before Plato, and Hoajiio? for the universe, which was not so used before Pythagoras ; {d) inconsistencies between the ideas and matter of the epistle, which are those of a sophist, and the historical character of Phalaris as a politician and tyrant. (4) Relation to other writers. He uses Herodotus, Demosthenes, Euripides. II. The external evidences are : [^^ testimony. Atossa is said to have been the first inventor of epistles. Hence those that carry the name of Phalaris two gener- ations earlier must be impostures. (6) Silence. There is a thousand years of silence as to these epistles. " For had our letter been used or transcribed during that thousand years, somebody would have spoken of it, especially since so many of the an- cients had occasion to do so ; so that their silence is a direct argument that they never had heard of them."* We have dwelt at some length upon the principles and methods of the higher criticism, because of their great importance in our day with reference to the Scriptures and the lack of information concerning them that pre- vails to an, astonishing degree among men who make some pretensions to scholarship. III. THE CRITICISM OF THE BIBLE. Thus far Biblical Criticism has derived from other branches of criticism the principles and methods of its work. Has it not, however, some peculiar features of * New edition, 1883, p. 481. THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. 95 its own, as it has to do with the sacred canon of the Christian Church? Does the fact that the canon of sacred Scripture is holy, inspired, and of divine author- ity, hft it above criticism, or does it give additional features of criticism that enable us to test the genuine- ness of these claims respecting it ? We hold that the latter is the true and only safe position, and that it should be our effort to determine these principles and methods. We reserve this question for our following chapter. In the meanwhile we have to meet on the threshold of our work the a priori objections that would obstruct our progress in the application of the principles and methods of criticism to the Bible. Biblical Criticism is confronted by traditional views of the Bible that do not wish to be disturbed, and by dog- matic statements respecting the Bible which decline reinvestigation and revision. The claim is put forth that these traditional views and dogmatic statements are in accordance with the Scriptures and the symbols of the Church, and that the orthodox faith is put in peril by criticism. It should be distinctly recognized at the outset that such claims as these can only influence the adherents of the church, and, at the utmost, debar them from the exercise of criticism. They cannot be more than amus- ing to the unbelieving and the sceptical, who care but little for the church and still less for theologians and their orthodoxy. They will use the tests of criticism without restraint. We cannot prevent them. The question is whether Christian scholars also shall be entitled to use them in defence of the Scriptures, or whether that defence is to be left in the hands of dog- , matic theologians and scholastics. A still further re- mark is necessary just here in the interests of truth 96 BIBLICAL STUDY. and honesty. Why should the Scriptures fear the most searching investigation? If they are truly the Word of God they will maintain themselves and vindicate them- selves in the battle of criticism. If we are sure of this, let us rejoice in the conflict that will lead to victory ;• if we are in doubt of it, it is best that our doubts should be removed as soon as possible. Then let the tests be applied, and let us know in whom and what we believe.* It is pretended that the Church doctrine of inspira- tion is in peril, and that the authority of the Scriptures is thereby undermined. If there were one clearly de- fined orthodox doctrine of inspiratipn to which all evangelical men agreed, as supported by Scripture and the Protestant confessions, our task would be easier. But, in fact, there are various theories of inspiration, and several ways of stating the doctrine of inspiration that are without support in Scripture or symbol. It is necessary, therefore, to discriminate, in order to deter- mine exactly what is in peril, whether inspiration itself and the authority of the Scriptures, or some particular and false theory of inspiration and the authority of some theologian or school of theology. The doctrine of inspiration may be constructed (i) by a careful, painstaking study of the sacred Scriptures themselves, gathering together their testimony as to their own origin, character, design, value, and authority. This gives us the biblical doctrine of the Scriptures and the doctrine of inspiration as a part of Biblical Theology. (2) The doctrine of inspiration may be constructed from a study of the symbolical books of the Church, which express the faith of the Church as attained in the great * Robert Rainy, Bibie and Criticism, London, 1878, p. 33. THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. 97 crises of its history, in the study of the Scriptures, in the experiences and life of men. This gives us the symbol- ical, or orthodox, or Church doctrine of inspiration. (3) The doctrine of inspiration may be constructed by a study of Scripture and symbol, and the logical unfold- ing of the results of a more extended study of the whole subject in accordance with the dominant philo- sophical and theological principles of the times. This gives us the dogmatic, or school, or traditional doctrine of inspiration as it has been established in particular schools of theology, and has become traditional in the long-continued teaching of the Church and the pulpit, in the various particular theories of inspiration that have been formulated. As we rise in the doctrinal process from the sim- ple biblical statements, unformulated as they lie in the sacred writings or formulated in Biblical Theology, to the more complex and abstract statements of the sym- bols expressing the formulated consensus of the leaders of the Church in the formative periods of history, and then to the more theoretical and scholastic statements of the doctrinal treatises of the theologians, while the doctrine becomes more and more complex, massive, con- sistent, and imposing, and seems, therefore, to become more authoritative and binding ; in reality the authority diminishes in this relative advance in systematization, so that what is gained in extension is lost in intension ; for the construction is a construction of sacred materials by human and fallible minds, with defective logic, failing sometimes to justify premises, and leaping to conclu- sions that cannot always be defended, and in a line and direction determined by the temporary and provisional conditions and necessities of the times, neglecting modj^ fying circumstances and conditions. The concrete that 5 98 BIBLICAL STUDY. the Bible gives us is for all time, as it is the living and eternal substance ; though changeable, it reproduces and so perpetuates itself in a wonderful variety of forms of beauty, yet all blending and harmonizing as the colors of the clouds and skies under the painting of the sun- beams ; but the abstract is the formal and the perish- able, as it is broken through and shattered by the pulsa- tions and struggles of the living and developing truth of God, ever striving for expression and adaptation to every different condition of mankind, in the different epochs and among the various races of the world. The course of religious history has clearly established the principle that there is a constant tendency in all re- ligions, and especially in the Christian religion, in the systematic or dogmatic statement to constrain the sym- bol as well as the Scriptures into the requirements of the particular formative principle and the needs of the particular epoch. The dogmatic scheme is too often the mould into which. the gold of the Scriptures and the silver of the creed are poured to coin a series of defini- tions, and fashion a system of theology which not only breaks up the concrete and harmonious whole of the Scriptures into fragments, stamping them with the im- print of the particular conception of the theologian in order to their reconstruction; but not infrequently the constructed system becomes an idol of the theologian and his pupils, as if it were the orthodox, the divine truth, while a mass of valuable scriptural and symboli- cal material is cast aside in the process, and lies neg- lected in the workshop. In course of time the symbols as well as the Scriptures are overlaid with glosses and perplexing explanations, so that they become either dark, obscure, and uncertain to the ordinary reader, or else have their meanings deflected and perverted, until THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. 99 they are once more grasped by a living, energetical faith in a revived state of the Church, and burst forth from their scholastic fetters, that Scripture, creed, and life may once more correspond. While traditionalism and scholasticism have not prevailed in the Protestant Church to the same extent as in the Greek and Roman churches, for the right of private judgment and the uni- versal priesthood of believers have maintained their ground with increasing vigor in Western Europe and America since the Reformation ; yet it is no less true that the principle of traditionalism is ever at work in the chairs of theology and in the pulpits of the Church ; so that in seeking for truth and in estimating what is binding on faith and conscience, even Protestants must distinctly separate the three things : Bible, symbol, and tradition ; the Bible, the sole infallible norm ; the sym- bol, binding those who hold to the body of which it is the banner ; while tradition demands at the most our re- spect, and reverence, and careful consideration, and the presumption in its favor; but must be tried and criti- cised by every thinking man, and every living, energetic Christian. It is of vast importance that we should make these distinctions on the threshold of the study of the critical theories ; for there is no field in which tradition has been more hasty in its conclusions, more busy in their formation, more dogmatic and sensitive to criticism, more reluctant and stubborn to give way to the truth, than in the sacred fields of the Divine Word. Thus criticism is confronted at the outset now as ever with two a priori objections. 1st. There are those who maintain that their tradi- tional views of the sacred Scriptures are inseparably bound up with the church doctrine of inspiration, so 100 BIBLICAL STUDr. that even if they should be in some respects doubtful or erroneous, they must be left alone for fear of the de- struction of the doctrine of inspiration itself. This is true of those traditional theories of inspiration which in some quarters have expanded so as to cover a large part of the ground of Exegetical Theology, and commit them- selves to theories of text and author, date, style, and in- tegrity of writings, in accordance with a common, but, in our judgment, an injudicious method of discussing the whole Bible under the head of bibliology in the pro- legomena of the dogmatic system ; but this is not true of the symbolical doctrine of inspiration, still less of the scriptural doctrine. The most that this objection can require of the critics is, that they should be careful and cautious of giving offence, or of needlessly shocking prej- udices ; that they should be respectful and reverent of the faith of the people and of revered theologians ; but it is not to be supposed that it will make them recreant to their trust of seeking earnestly, patiently, persist- ently, and prayerfully for the truth of God. It may be found that the school doctrines of inspiration have ob- truded themselves in place of the symbolical and script- ural doctrine, and it may be necessary to destroy these school doctrines in order to the safety of the biblical and symbolical doctrine. However distressing this may be to certain dogmatic divines and their adherents, it may afford gratification to all sincere lovers of the truth of God. 2d. There are those who claim that their traditional theory is the logical unfolding of the doctrine of the Symbols and the Scriptures. But this is begging the very question at issue which will not be yielded. Why should dogmatic theologians claim exemption from criti- cism and the testing of the grounds of their systems? THE BIBLE AND CRmCISM. IQl Such an arbitrary claim for deductions and conse- quences is one that no true- critic or historian ought to concede; for, by so doing, he abandons at once the right and ground of criticism, and the inductive meth- ods of historical and scientific investigation, and sacri- fices his material to the dogmatist and scholastic, sur- rendering the concrete for the abstract. The very sensi- tiveness to criticism displayed in some quarters justifies the critics in their suspicion that the theories are weak and will not sustain investigation. Traditional theories cannot overcome critical theories with either of these a priori objections of apprehended peril to faith or logical inconsistencies, but must submit to the test of the symbol and the Scriptures to which the critics appeal as the arbiters against tradition. The characteristic principle of Puritanism is that : " God alone is Lord of the conscience, and hath left it free from the doctrines and commandments of men, which are in anything contrary to His Word or beside it in matters of faith and worship ; so that, to believe such doctrine, or to obey such commandments out of conscience, is to betray true liberty of conscience ; and the requiring an implicit faith, and an absolute and blind obedience, is to destroy liberty of conscience and reason also."*. Biblical criticism bases its historic right on the princi- ples of the Reformation and of Puritanism over against the Roman Catholic principle of the supremacy of tradi- tion and dogma. On this basis the Protestant symbols have been accepted and subscribed by honest and faith- ful men for ^€\x face value for all that is fairly contained therein, and not for certain unknown and undiscovered consequences which n^^y have a chance majority or the most authoritative teachers. Symbols of faith are the ex- » Westminster Con/. 0/ Faith, xx. 2 ; see also A. F. Mitchell, The Westmin- ster Assembly : its History and Standards, London, 1883, pp. 8, seq., 465. 102 BIBLICAL STUDY. pression of the faith of those who constructed them, and of those who subsequently- adopted them, so far as they give expression to Christian doctrine ; but, with regard to those questions not covered by their statements, which they may have held in abeyance, or purposely omitted on account of disagreement, and in order to lib- erty, or because they were not suited for a national con- fession or a child's catechism, or because they had not yet arisen in the field of controversy, — to bring these in by the plea of logical deduction, is to elaborate and en- large-.the creed against the judgment of those who framed it, is to usurp the constitutional methods of revision, is to dogmatize and obstruct those active, ener- getic scholars, who, having accepted them for their face value as a genuine expression of their faith, push forth into the unexplored fields of the Bible and theology, in order, by the inductive method and the generalization of facts, rather than by deductions from symbolic or scholastic statements, to win new triumphs for their Divine Master. These preliminary observations are necessary, in order to clear the ground and make the distinction evident between the symbolical, the truly orthodox doctrine of inspiration from which true criticism has nothing to fear, and any traditional, scholastic, or professedly orthodox doctrine of inspiration, such as those that have waged war with criticism so often since the Reformation. Recent critical theories arise and work as did their pred- ecessors, in the various departments of exegetical the- ology. Here is their strength, that they antagonize scholastic dogma with the Bible^^tself, and appeal from scJiool 'CtxitoXo^ \.o biblical \.\v&o\o^ . Unless traditional theories of inspiration can vindicate themselves on Bible grounds, meet the critics, and overcome them in fair THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. J 03 conflict, in the sacred fields of the Divine Word, sooner or later traditional theories will be driven from the field. It will not do to antagonize critical theories of the Bible with traditional theories of the Bible, for the critic ap- peals to history against tradition, to an array of facts against so-called inferences, to the laws of probation against dogmatic assertion, to the Divine Spirit speaking in the Scriptures against external authority. History, facts, truth, the laws of thought, are all divine prod- ucts, and most consistent with the Divine Word, and they will surely prevail. It is significant that the great majority of professional biblical scholars in the various universities and theologi- cal halls of the world, embracing those of the greatest learning, industry, and piety, demand a revision of tradi- tional theories of the Bible, on account of a large induc- tion of new facts from the Bible and history. These critics must be met with argument and candid reasoning as to these facts and their interpretation, and cannot be overcome by mere cries of alarm for the Church and the Bible which, in their last analysis, usually amount to nothing more than peril to certain favorite views. What peril can come to the Scriptures from a more profound critical study of them ? The peril is to scholastic dog- mas and to tradition. But what then are we contending for as evangelical men, for the faith of the Scriptures, the faith of Wittenberg, of Geneva, and of Westminster, or for the faith of the Reformed scholastics, and the faith of certain schools of theology and their chiefs? We must recognize in order to meet this issue, upon which every- thing depends, that biblical critics cannot afford to carry the load of the school theology into the conflicts of the nineteenth century, but must strip to the symbols for a conflict with rationalism and materialism ; and we should 104 BIBLICAL STUDY. not fear as evangelical biblical scholars to accept the challenge of our adversaries and go forth from the breast- works of our symbols to meet them in fair and honor- able warfare in open field with the biblical material itself on the principles of induction.* ' The sword of the Spirit alone will conquer in this warfare. Are Christian men afraid to put it to the test ? For this is a conflict after all between true criticism and false criticism ; be- tween the criticism which is the product of the evangel- ical spirit of the Reformation, and critical principles that are the product of deism and rationalism. Evan- gelical criticism has been marching from conquest to conquest, though far too often at a sad disadvantage, like a storming party who have sallied forth from their breast- works to attack the trenches of the enemy, finding in the hot encounter that the severest fire and gravest peril are from the misdirected batteries of their own line: Shall evangelical criticism in searching the Scriptures be per- mitted to struggle unhindered with rationalistic criticism, or must it protect itself also from scholastic dogmatism? We do not deny the right of dogmatism and th.Q a priori method, nor the worth of tradition, within their proper spheres ; but we maintain the equal right of criticism and the inductive method, and their far greater importance in the acquisition of true and reliable knowledge. If criticism and dogmatism are harnessed together, a span of twin steeds, they will draw the car of theology rap- idly toward its highest ideal ; but pulling in opposite di- rections, especially in the present crisis, they will tear it to pieces. * See author's article on the Right, Duty, and Limits of Biblical Criticism, Presbyterian Review, II., p. 557, seq. ; Willis J. Beecher, art. Logical Meth- ods of Prof. Kuenen, Presbyterian Review, III., p. 703 ; Francis L. Patton, art. Pentateuchal Criticism, Presbyterian Review, IV., p. 356, seq. CHAPTER V. THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. Biblical Criticism in its larger sense, embracing the several departments of biblical literature after its early activity in the Christian schools of Alexandria and Syria, and in the rabbinical schools of Tiberias and Babylon, in the study of the canon and the text of Scripture, gave place to a long supremacy of dogma and tradition. The Septuagint version became the in- spired text to the Greek church, the Massoretic text of the Hebrew Scriptures to the Jews, and the Vulgate version to the Roman church. The canon of the Old Testament having been determined by the assembly at Jamnia toward the close of the first Christian century by rabbinical authority, became limited in the Talmud to the 24 books. These are mentioned in the order: (i) The five books of the law; (2) eight books of the prophets — Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Isaiah, and the twelve minor prophets ; (3) eleven other books — Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Eccle- siastes, Song of Songs, Lamentations, Daniel, Esther, Ezra, and Chronicles.* The Christian church made no official determination of the canon of Scripture save in provincial synods, such as the Council of'Laodicea and the synod of Carthage, * Talm. Bab It, Bala BatJira, p. 14 «• 5* (105) IQQ BIBLICAL STUDY. both in the fourth century, whose decisions express the differences of opinion which have always been in the church. In part the theologians have followed the stricter Hieronymian canon which corresponds with the Talmudic with reference to the Old Testament, but chiefly the fuller Hellenistic and Augustinian canon including the apocryphal books of the Old Testament. In the New Testament, by general consent, the four gospels, the book of Acts, the thirteen epistles of Paul, the epistle to the Hebrews, the first epistle of Peter, and first epistle of John were recognized, while the doubts of the early church as to the epistles of James, Jude, 2d Peter, 2d and 3d John, and the Apocalypse became more and more feeble and infrequent.* These sacred books were interpreted by the body of tradition that had become solidified in the Talmud among the Jews, and in the fathers and schoolmen in the various Christian churches. I. THE CANON OF THE REFORMERS. The Protestant Reformation was a great critical revival, due largely to the new birth of learning in Western Europe. The emigration of the fugitive Greeks from Constantinople after its capture by the Turks, had planted a young Greek culture. A stream of thought burst forth, and poured like a quicken- ing flood strong and deep over Europe. Cardinal Ximenes, with the aid of a number of Christian and Jewish scholars, such as Alphonso de Zamora, Demetrius Ducas, and Alphonso de Alcala, issued' the world-re- nowned Complutensian Polyglot, 15 13-17. The Greek * Reuss, Histoire du Canon des Saintes Ecritures 11. edition, Strasbourg^, 1864, pp. 191 seq., 218 seq.y 221 seq.^ 274 seq. ; Charteris, The New Testa- ment Scriptures, N. Y., 1882, p. 163, seq. THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. IQT New Testament was studied with avidity by a series of scholars, among whom Erasmus was pre-eminent. He published the first Greek Testament in 1516. Elias Levita and Jacob ben Chajim, in whom Jewish learning culminated, introduced Christians into a knowledge of the Hebrew Scriptures. Reuchlin laid the foundation for Hebrew scholarship among Christians, by publish- ing the first Hebrew grammar and lexicon combined in 1506.* This return to the original text of the Old and New Testaments aroused the suspicions of the scholas- tics and monks, and the new learning was assailed with bitterness. Even Levita had to defend himself against the charge of heterodoxy for teaching Christians the Hebrew language, the law of Moses, and the Talmud.f But the reformers took their stand as one man for the critical study of the sacred Scriptures, and investigated the original texts under the lead of Erasmus, Elias Levita, and Reuchlin, and laid down what must be regarded as the fundamental principle of Biblical Criti- cism for the determination of the canon. Thus Luther in his controversy with Eck said, " The Church cannot give any more authority or power than it has of itself. A council cannot make that to be of Scripture which is not by nature of Scripture." % Calvin says : " But there has very generally prevailed a most pernicious error that the Scriptures have only so much weight as is conceded to them by the suffrages of the Church, as though the eternal and in- violable truth of God depended on the arbitrary will of men." .... " For, as God alone is a sufiBcient witness of Himself in His own * Gesenius, Gesch. d. hebr. Sprach.y p. io6, seq. + See his Massoreth Ha-Massoreth, edited by Ginsberg, London, 1867, p. 97, scq. X Disputatio excel, theolog. Joh. Eccii. et Lutheri, hist. III., 129, seq.; Berber, Zji Bible au Siezihne Siicle, Paris, 1879, P- 86. 108 BIBLICAL STUDY. Word, so also the Word will never gain credit in the hearts of men till it be confirmed by the internal testimony of the Spirit. It is necessary, therefore, that the same Spirit, who spake by the mouths of the prophets, should penetrate into our hearts, to convince us that they faithfully delivered the oracles which were divinely in- trusted to them." * This principle is well expressed in the 2d Helvetic Confession, the most honored in the Reformed church : "We believe and confess the canonical Scriptures of the holy prophets to be the very true Word of God and to have sufficient authority of themselves, not of men " (Chap. I.). "Therefore in controversies of religion or matters of faith we cannot admit any other judge than God Himself, pronouncing by the holy Scriptures what is true and what is false ; what is to be followed, or what is to be avoided " (Chap. II.). The Galilean Confession gives a similar statement : " We know these books to be canonical, and the sure rule of our faith, not so much by the common accord and consent of the Church, as by the testimony and inward persuasion of the Holy Spirit, which enables us to distinguish them from other ecclesiastical books " (IV. Art.).t Thus while other testimony is valuable and important, yet, the evangelical test of the canonicity and interpre- tation of the Scriptures was, God Himself speaking in and through them to His people. This alone gave the fides divina. This was the so-called formal principle of the Reformation, no less important than the so-called material principle of justification by faith.:|: The reformers applied this critical test to the tradi- * Institutes, I. 7. + See also the Belgian Confession, Article V. X Domer, Gesch. Prot. Theo., p. 234, seq., 379, seq. Julius MQller, Das Verhaltniss zwischen der Wxrksamkeit des heil. Geistes und dem Gnaden- mittel des gottlichen Wortes, in his Dogntqf, Abhfindiungen, 1871, p. 139, seq. Reuss, Ristoire du Canon, p. 308, seq. THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 109 tional theories of the Bible, and eliminated the apocry- phal books from the canon. They also revived the an- cient doubts as to Esther, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Epistle of James, 2d Peter, Jude, and the Apocalypse. The Reformed symbols elaborated the formal principle further than the Lutheran, and ordinarily specified the books that they regarded as canonical. In this they re- jected the traditions of the early Christian church which followed the Hellenistic rather than the Palestinian Jews, and, in their use of the Septuagint version, used also the apocryphal writings, and did not sharply separate them from the canonical ; indeed, with the exception of a few critics, such as Origen and Jerome, they cited without discrimination the many Jewish apocalypses and Sibyl- line oracles which sprang up in the first and second cent- uries of our era, as well as in the first and second centu- ries B.C.* The church of Rome, in accordance with its reliance upon the support of tradition, determined the apocryphal books to be canonical at the Council of Trent. That the reformers accepted only the present canon of our symbols, excluding the apocryphal books, was not due to the Jewish tradition, which they did not hesitate to dispute, as they did that of the church itself. It is doubtless truef that the reformers fell back on the authority of Jerome in their determination of the canon, as they did largely upon Augustine for the doctrine of grace ; but this was in both cases for support against Rome in authority which Rome recognized, rather than as a basis on which to rest their faith and criticism. They went further back than Jerome to * Sanday, Value of the Patristic Writings for the Criticism and Exegesis of the Bible. Expositor, Feb., 1880. Davidson, Canon, p. loi, seq. t Robertson Sniith, Old Testament in the Jevuish Church, 1881, p. 41. 110 BIBLICAL STUDY. the evangelical Christian and genuine Hebrew principle^ of the common consent of the believing children of God, which in course of time eliminated the sacred canonical books from those of a merely national and temporary- character, because they approved themselves to their souls as the very word of God. As Dr. Charteris says : " The Council of Trent had formally thrown down a challenge. It recognized the canon because of the traditions of the Church, and on the same ground of tradition accepted the unwritten ideas about Christ and His apostles, of which the Church had been made the custodian. The reformers believed Scripture to be higher than the Church. But on what could they rest their acceptance of the canon of Scripture ? How did they know these books to be Holy Script- ures, the only and ultimate divine revelation ? They answered that the divine authority of Scripture is self-evidencing, that the regener- ate man needs no other evidence, and that only the regenerate can appreciate the evidence. It follows from this, if he do not feel the evidence of their contents, any man may reject books clainiing to be Holy Scripture." * It is true this evangelical critical test did not solve all questions. It left in doubt several writings which had been regarded as doubtful for centuries. But uncer- tainty as to these does not weaken the authority of those that are recognized as divine ; it only affects the extent of the canon, and not the authority of those writ- ings regarded as canonical. " Suppose we were not able to give positive proof of the divine in- spiration of every particular Book that is contained in the Sacred Records, it, does not therefore follow that it was not inspired ; and yet much less does it follow that our religion is without foundation. Which I therefore add, because it is well known there are some par- ticular Books in our Bible that have at some times been doubted of in the church, whether they were inspired or no. But I cannot con- » Tke New Testament Scriptures; their Claims, History, and Authority: Croall Lectures, i832. N. Y., 1883, p. 2C33. THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. m ceive that doubt concerning such Books, where persons have sus- pended their assent, without casting any unbecoming reflections, have been a hindrance to their salvation, while what they have owned and acknowledged for truly divine, has had sanctifying effect upon their hearts and lives." * This is the true Protestant position. For unless these books have given us their own testimony that they are divine and therefore canonical, we do not re- ceive them with our hearts ; we do not rest our faith and life upon them as the very Word of God ; we give mere intellectual assent ; we receive them on authority, tacitly and without opposition, and possibly with the dogmatism which not unfrequently accompanies incipi- ent doubt, but also without true interest and true faith and assurance of their divine contents. We believe that the canon of Scripture established by the Reformed symbols can be successfully vindicated on Protestant critical principles. We are convinced that the church has not been deceived with regard to its inspiration. Esther, Ecclesiastes, the Song of Songs, and the Apoc- alypse will more and more establish themselves in the hearts of those who study them. But we claim that it is illegitimate to first attempt to prove their canonicity and then their inspiration, or to rely upon Jewish rab- binical tradition any more than Roman Catholic tradi- tion, or to anathematize all who doubt some of them in the spirit of Rabbi Akiba and the Council of Trent. The only legitimate method is that of our fathers, the Reformers and Puritans: first prove their inspiration from their own internal divine testimony,- and then ac- cept them as canonical because our souls rest upon them as the veritable divine word. " For he that believes that * Ed, Calamy, Inspiration of the Holy Writings, Lond., 1710, p. 4a. 112 BIBLICAL STUDY. God saith, without evidence that God saith it ; doth not believe God, while he believes the thing that is from God, et eadem ratione, si conttguissei Alcorano Turcica cre- didisset." * The same critical principle was applied by the re- formers to the text of Scripture. They rejected the inspiration of the ancient versions, the Greek and the Vulgate, and against the Greek and Roman churches resorted to the original text. They bat- tled against the Vulgate version, in behalf of versions for the people, and for a simple grammatical exegesis against traditional authority and the manifold sense. They laid down the hermeneutical rule that the Spirit of God, speaking in His Word, alone could decide the meaning of the text ; and that difficult passages must be interpreted by plain ones. In the various departments of exegesis they went diligently to work. Hebrew and Greek grammars, lexicons, texts, versions, and commen- taries poured from the press. If the reformers were great dogmatic theologians, they were greater biblical scholars, and their theology was fresh, warm, and vigor- ous, because derived from a critical study of Scripture. The greatest dogmatic writer of the Reformation, John Calvin, was also its greatest exegete.f So long as the controversy with Rome was active and energetic, and ere the counter-reformation set in, the Protestant critical principle maintained itself; but as the internal conflicts of Protestant churches began to absorb more and more attention, and the polemic with * Whichcote, Eight letters of Dr. A. Tiickney and Benj. Whic/tcote, 1753, p. III. t Tholuck ( Vermisclile Schriften, II., 341) correctly describes him as distin- guished alike for dogmatic impartiality, exegetical tact, maiiy-sided scholarship, and deep Christian spirit. THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 113 Rome became less and less vigorous, the polemic against brethren more and more violent, the Reformed system of faith was built up by a series of scholastics over against Lutheranism, and Calvinistic orthodoxy over ag-ainst Arminianism. The elaboration of the Protest- ant Reformed system by a priori deduction carried with it the pushing of the peculiar principles of Protestantism more and more into the background. The authority of the Reformed faith and tradition assumed the place of a Roman faith and tradition, and the biblical scholarship of Protestant churches, cut off from the hne of Roman tra- dition, worked its way along the line of Jewish rabbini- cal tradition, and began to establish a Protestant ortho- doxy— in the Swiss schools under the influence of Bux- torf, Heidegger and Francis Turretine; and in the Dutch schools under the influence of Voetius. Lutheran theology had the same essential develop- ment through internal struggles. The school of Calix- tus at Helmstadt had struggled with the scholastic spirit, until the latter had sharpened itself into the most radical antagonism to the Reformed church and the Melancthon type of Lutheran theology. Carlov stated the doctrine of verbal inspiration in the same es- sential terms as the Swiss scholastics, and was followed therein by the Lutheran scholastics generally. " It treated Holy Scripture as the revelation itself, instead of as the memorial of the originally revealed, ideal, actual truth ; the con- sequence being that Holy Scripture was transformed into God's ex- clusive work, the human element was explained away, and the orig- inal living power thrust away behind the writing contained in let- ters. Faith ever draws its strength and decisive certainty from the original eternally living power to which Scripture is designed to lead. But when Scripture was regarded as the goal, and attestation was sought elsewhere than in the experience of faith through the pres- ence of truth in the Spirit, then the Reformation standpoint was 114 BIBLICAL STUDY. abandoned, its so-called material principle violated, and it became easy for Rationalism to expose the contradictions in which the in- quirers had thus involved themselves." * II. THE PURITAN CANON. The Thirty-nine Articles take an intermediate position between the reformers and the Roman Catholic church in their doctrine of the canon : " In the name of holy Scripture, we do understand those Canon- ical books of the Old and New Testament, of whose authority was never any doubt in the Church." The 24 books of the Hieronymian canon of the Old Testament are then mentioned. It then continues : " And the other books (as Hierome saith) the Church doth read for example of life and instruction of manners : but yet doth it not ap- ply them to establish any doctrine." It then names 14 apocryphal books, and concludes : " All the books of the New Testament, as they are commonly received, we do receive and account them for Canonical." (Art. VI.). The Thirty-nine Articles thus base themselves on the Hieronymian tradition as the Roman Catholic church did on the stronger Augustinian tradition. The Scotch Confession of 1560, however, maintains the position of the reformers : " As we beleeve and confesse the Scriptures of God sufficient to instruct and make the man of God perfite, so do we affirme and avow the authoritie of the same to be of God, and nether to depend on men nor angelis. We affirme, therefore, that sik as allege the Scripture to have na uther authoritie bot that quhilk it hes re- ceived from the Kirk, to be blasphemous against God, and injurious to the trew Kirk, quhilk alwaies heares and obeyis the voice of her awin spouse and Pastor ; bot takis not upon her to be maistres over the samin." (Art. XIX.). Thos. Cartwright, the chief of the English Puritans, takes the same view : * Domer, System of Christian Doctrine, Vol II., p. 186. THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 115 " Q. How may these bookes be discerned to bee the word of God ? " A. By these considerations following' : " First, they are perfectly holy in themselves, and by themselves : whereas all other writings are prophane, further then they draw holinesse from these ; which yet is never such, but that their holi- nesse is imperfect and defective. " Secondly, they are perfectly profitable in themselves, to instruct to salvation, and all other are utterly unprofitable thereunto, any further then they draw from them. " Thirdly, there is a perfect concord and harmonie in all these Bookes, notwithstanding the diversity of persons by whom, places where, and time when, and matters whereof, they have been written. " Fourthly, there is an admirable force in them, to incline men's hearts from vice to vertue. " Fifthly, in great plainenesse and easinesse of stile, there shineth a great Majesty and authority. " Sixthly, there is such a gracious simplicity in the writers of these Bookes, that they neither spare their friends, nor themselves, but most freely, and impartially, set downe their owne faults and infirmi- ties as well as others. " Lastly, God's owne Spirit working in the harts of his children doth assure them, that these Scriptures are the word of God." * The Westminster Confession gives expression to the mature Puritan faith respecting the Scriptures : § 2. " Under the name of Holy Scripture, or the word of God written, are now contained all the books of the Old and New Testa- ment, which are these " (mentioning the 66 books commonly re- ceived). "All which are given by inspiration of God to be the rule of faith and life." § 3. " The books commonly called Apocrypha, not being of divine inspiration, are no part of the canon of the Scripture ; and therefore are«of no authority in the Church of God, nor to be any otherwise approved, or made use of, than other human writings." § 4. " The Authority of the Holy Scripture, for which it ought to be believed and obeyed, dependeth not upon the testimony of any man or church, but wholly upon God, (who is truth itself,) the au- * Thos. Cartwright, Treatise of the Christian Religion. London, 1616. 116 BIBLICAL STUDY. thor thereof; and therefore it is to be received, because it is the word of God." § 5. " We may be moved and induced by the testimony of the church to an high and reverent esteem for the Holy Scripture ; and the heavenliness of the matter, the efficacy of the doctrine, the maj- esty of the style, the consent of all the parts, the scope of the whole, (which is to g^ve all glory to God,) the full discovery it makes of the only way of man's salvation, the many other incomparable excel- lencies, and the entire perfection thereof, are arguments whereby it doth abundantly evidence itself to be the word of God ; yet, not- withstanding, our full persuasion and assurance of the infallible truth, and divine authority thereof, is from the inward work of the Holy Spirit, bearing witness by and with the word in our hearts." (I.. § 2-5). The Westminster Confession distinguishes in its state- ments (i) the external evidence, the testimony of the church ; (2) the internal evidence of the Scriptures themselves; {'^) the fides divina. Here is an ascending series of evidences for the authority of the Scriptures. The fides humana belongs strictly only to the first class of evidences. This testimony of the church is placed first in the Confession because it is weakest. The sec- ond class not only gives fides humana, but also divina, owing to the complex character of the Scriptures them- selves ; but the third class as the highest gives purely fides divina. The Confession carefully discriminates the weight of these evidences. The authority of the church only induces " an high and reverent esteem for the Holy Scripture." The internal evidence of the " excel- lencies and entire perfection thereof are arguments whereby it doth abundantly evidence itself to be the word of God "; but our " full persuasion and assurance of the infallible truth and divine authority thereof " come only from the highest evidence, " the inward work of the Holy Spirit, bearing witness by and with the word THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. ^^ in our hearts." In accordance with this, " The authority of the Holy Scripture dependeth wholly upon God " (§4). On this principle, then, the canon is determined. The books of the canon are named (§ 2), and then it is said, "All which are given by inspiration of God to be the rule of faith and life." The apocryphal books are no part of the canon of Scripture because they are not of divine inspiration (§ 3). It is, therefore, the authority of God himself, speaking through the Holy Spirit, by and with the word to the heart, that determines that the writings are infallible as the inspired Word of God, and it is their inspiration that determines their canonicity. Thus the' Westminster divines maintained the Refor- mation point of view. They were not as a body scho- lastics, though there were scholastics among them ; but were preachers, catechists, and expositors of the Script- ures, with a true evangelical spirit. They were called from the active work of the ministry, and from stubborn resistance to dogmatic authority, to the active work of reforming the church of England into closer conformity with the Reformed churches of the continent. Among the doctrines to be reformed was the doctrine respecting the Scriptures. There was a difference between the Puritans and Prelatists on this subject, as we have seen, in placing the XXXIX Articles alongside of the Scottish Confession and the statement of Thos. Cartwright. This difference was still further developed. The Prelatical view is stated by Bishop Cosin :* " For though there be many Internal Testimonies belonging to the Holy Scriptures, whereby we may be sufficiently assured, that they are the true and lively oracles of God, .... yet for the par- ticular and just number of such books, whether they be more or less. * Scltolastic History of the Canon. London, 1657, p. 4, seq. lig BIBLICAL STUDY. then either some private persons, or some one partictdar church o! late, have been pleased to make them, we have no better nor other external rule or testimony herein to guide us, then the constant voice of tlie catholic and universal church, as it hath been delivered to us upon record from one generation to another." The Puritans in the Westminster Assembly in revis- ing Article VI. of the XXXlX Articles, erased the state- ments upon which the Prelatists built : " Of whose au- thority was never any doubt in the church "; " And the other books (as Hierome saith) the church doth read for example of life and instruction of manners ; but yet doth it not apply them to establish any doctrine." And they changed the statement : " All the books of the New Testament, as they are commonly received, we do receive and account them for canonical "; so as to ex- press the Puritan doctrine : " All which books, as they are commonly received, we do receive and acknowledge them to be given by the inspiration of God ; and in that regard, to be of the most certain credit, and high- est authority." Chas. Herle, the Prolocutor, admirably states the Protestant position over against the Romish : " They (the Papists) being asked, why they believe the Scripture to be the Word of God? Answer, because the Church says 'tis so ; and being asked againe, why they beleeve the Church ? They an- swer, because the Scripture saies it shall be guided into truth ; and being asked againe, why they beleeve that very Scripture that says so ? They answer, because the Church says '\\% Scripture, and so' (with those in the Psalm xii. 8), they walk in a circle or on every side. They charge the like on us (but wrongfully) that we beleeve the Word, because it sayes it self that it is so ; but we do not so re- solve our Faith ; we believe unto salvation, not the Word barely, because it witnesses to itself, but because the Spirit speaking in it to our consciences witnesses to them that it is the Word indeed ; we resolve not our Faith barely either into the Word, or Spirit as its THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 119 single ultimate principle, but into the testimony of the Spirit speak- ing to our consciences in the Word." * It has been objected by a recent writer: " It does not tend in the slightest degree to reconcile us to these opinions to say that the reformers entertained them. It would not be strange if in their opposition to the claims of the church of Rome, they went to the opposite extreme and were in danger of falling into the errors of the mystics." t It is true that in this matter the reformers and Pu- ritans were in radical opposition to Rome. This was the so-called formal principle, one of the essential prin- ciples of Protestantism. If they had not taken this po- sition they would have been powerless against the Roman claim of tradition. As Reuss well says : " Nothing was more foreign to the spirit of Luther, of Calvin, and their illustrious fellow-laborers, nothing was more radically contrary to their principles, than to base the authority of the sacred scriptures upon that of the Church and its tradition, to go in effect, to mount guard over the fathers, and range their catalogfues in line, cause their obscurities to disappear by forced interpretations and their contra- dictions by doing violence to them, as is the custom of our day. They very well knew that this would have been the highest inconsistency, indeed the ruin of their system, to attribute to the church the right of making the Bible after they had contested that of making the doc- trine ; for that which can do the greater can do the less." % It is true that the mystic element was strong among the reformers and the Puritans. This is indeed the chief feature which distinguishes them from the Swiss, Dutch, and Lutheran scholastics and their modern followers. * Detur Sapienti, pp. 152-3. London, 1655. t Francis L. Patton, article, Pentaleuchal Criticism, Presbyterian Review, IV., p. 346. X Reuss, Histoire du Canon, p. 313. 120 BIBLICAL STUDY. But their mystic was not mysticism. There never have been times in the history of the church when mys- ticism prevailed in such a variety of forms and persist- ence of energy as in the times of the Reformation and of the Westminster divines. They had to guard their doctrines at every point against mysticism. It is strange reading of history to represent either the re- formers or the Puritans as going too far in the direction of mysticism. The statements of the Westminster divines were made in the face of the strongest force of mysticism that has ever manifested itself. Thus, in 1647, the London min- isters (many of whom were members of the Westminster Assembly) issued their testimony against this false mys- ticism and the heresies of their time. They mention as " Errors against the Divine Authority of the Holy Scripture, That the Scripture, whether true Manuscript or no, whether Hebrew, Greek, or English, it is but human ; so not able to discover a divine God. Then where is your command to make that your rule or disci- pline, that cannot reveal you God, nor give you power to walk with God } That, it is no foundation of Christian Religion, to believe that the English Scriptures, or that book, or rather volume of books called the Bible, translated out of the originall Hebrew and Greek copies, into the English tongue are the Word of Cod. That, ques- tionless no writing whatsoever, whether translations or originalis, are the foundation of Christian Religion."* Wm. Lyford, an esteemed Presbyterian divine, invited to sit in the Westminster Assembly, but preferring his pastoral work, wrote a commentary on this testimony of the London ministers.f *A Testimony to the TrutJt of Jesus Christ and to our solevm League and Covenant. Subscribed by the ministers of Christ within the Province of Lon- don, Dec 14, 1647. London, 1648. ' + The Plain man's sense exercised to discern good and evil, or A Discovery THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 121 In his chapter on ihe Divine Authority of Scripture, he says : " I shall not trouble you with the Popish controversies concerning the Scripture, but apply myself to the errors of the present age." He then quotes the language from the Testimony given above. He then goes on to give the properties of Scripture, and after brief men- tion of the error of making " the Church the judge over Scriptures " (p. 7), he says : " But the error I am now to deale with, is that of the blasphemous Antt-Scripturist, under which name I comprehend all such as either deny them to be divinely inspired and given of God, or else allowing their divine authority, yet refuse to submit to Script- ure as the supreme and all-sufficient Judge, pretending to other divine revelations, besides and beyond the written word, unto which upon all occasions they appeal, as if the Scriptures were not able to ac- quaint the soul with the highest discoveries of God's truth and mind. If they be urged with any proof out of the Old Testament, they re- ject it, as if the Old Testament were antiquated, and out of date : if they be pressed with a place in the New Testament, then they say, that is not the meaning, which we produce because (say they) you have not the spirit, the spirit teacheth us otherwise. And thus under pretence of Inspirations of the Holy Ghost, and improvements beyond and above all Scripture, they strike at the root, and blow up the very foundations of all faith and religion, of all our hopes and comfdrts ; these are the devill's engineers — ."(p. 17). Our author knows how to steer between the Scylla of Romanism and the Charybdis of mysticism. The re- formers and Puritans knew their work better than some of our modem theologians. " It is one thing to say the Spirit teacheth us by Scripture, and another thing to pretend the Spirit's teaching besides or beyond, or contrary to the Scripture ; the one is a divine truth, the other is vile montanisme" (p. 20). After controverting the " foure fold error: (i) of them of the Errors, Heresies, and Blasphemies of these Times, and the Toleration of them, as they are collected and testified against by the ministers of London, in their Testimony to the Truth of Jesus Christ. London, 1655. 122 BIBLICAL STUDY. that would place this authority (of scripture) in the Church ; (2) of them who appeale from scripture to the spirit ; (3) of them that make reason the supreme Judge ; (4) of them that expound scripture according to Provi- dences," he goes on to expound the position of our Protestant symbols : " The authority and truth of God speaking in the Scripture, is that upon which our faith is built, and doth finally stay itselfe : The min- istry of the Church, the illumination of the Spirit, the light use of reason are the choicest helps, by which we believe,, by which we see the law and will of God ; but they are not the law itself; the divine truth and authority of God's word, is that which doth secure our consciences If you ask what it is that I believe? I answer, I believe the blessed doctrines of salvation by Jesus Christ ; if you ask, why I believe all this, and why I will venture my soul to all eter- nity on that doctrine ? I answer, because it is the revealed will of God concerning us. If you ask further. How I know that God hath revealed them ? I answer, by a two-fold certainty ; one of faith, the other of experience ; (i) I do infallibly by faith believe the Revela- tion, not upon the credit of any other Revelation, but for itselfe, the Lord giving testimony thereunto, not only by the constant Testimony of the Church, which cannot universally deceive, nor only by miracles from heaven, bearing witness to the Apostle's doctrine, but chiefly by its own proper divine light, which shines therein. The truth contained in Scripture is a light, and is discerned by the sons of light : It doth by its own light, persuade us, and in all cases, doubts, and questions, it doth clearly testifie with us or against us ; which light is of that nature, that it g^veth Testimony to itself, and receiv- eth authority from no other, as the Sun is not seene by any light but his own, and we disceme sweet from soure by its own taste (2) Whereunto add, that other certainty of experience, which is a certainty in respect of the Affections and of the spiritual man. This is the Spirit's seal set to God's truth (namely), the light of the word ; when it is thus shewnen unto us, it doth work such strange and su- pernatural effects upon the soul ; . . , .It persuades us of the truth and goodness of the will of God ; and of the things revealed ; and all this by way of spiritual taste and feeling, so that the things ap- prehended by us in divine knowledge, are more certainly discerned \ THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 123 in the certai'nty of experience, than anything is discerned in the light of naturall urt\derstanding " (p. 39). "They that are thus taught, doe know assuredly that they have heard God himselfe : In the former way, the light of Divine Rea- son causeth approbation of the things they beheve. In the later, the Purity and power of Divine Knowledge, causeth a taste and feel- ing of the things they heare : And they that are thus established in the Faith, doe so plainly see God present with them in his Word, that if all the world should be turned into Miracles, it could not re- move them from the certainty of their perswasion ; you cannot un- perswade a Christian of the tmth of his Religion, you cannot make him thinke meanly of Christ, nor the Doctrine of Redemption, nor of duties of Sanctification, his heart is fixed trusting in the Lord. So then we conclude, that the true reason of our Faith, and ground, on which it finally stayeth itself, is the Authority of God himself, whom we doe most certainly Jiscerne, and feele to speake in the word of faith, which is preached unto us " (p. 39.) This is the true dactrine of the Reformation and of the Westminster divines, in which they know no antago- nism between the human reason, the religious feeling, and the Divine Spirit in the Word of God. It is a mer- ciful Providence that they were guided to this position, for, if they had gone with the Swiss scholastics in basing themselves on rabbinical tradition as to the Old Testa- ment, they would have committed the churches of the Reformation to errors that have long since been ex- ploded by scholars. This is the true Puritan mystic in conflict with mysticism and its best antidote. It is the mystic element that needs above all things to be revived in the British and American churches. It brings the people face to face with the Bible and with the Divine Spirit working in and with it, so that they need no mediat- ing priesthood of theologians, no help of apologetics or of polemics to convince them of the authority of the Bible and enable them to maintain it against all cavilling. It is also objected that this resting upon the fides divina 124 BIBLICAL STUDY. / for the proof of the inspiration and canonicity of ihe Script- ure implies that " every Christian makes his own Bible."f True, but this right of private judgment is tbt Protestant position. Are we prepared to abandon^ \i r Shall it be maintained with reference to other do.ctrines and aban- doned with reference to the source of th^se doctrines ? This would be a fatal inconsistency to Protestantism. The right of private judgment must applfy to the authority, in- spiration, and canonicity of Scripture, as well as to the doc- trines of atonement, justification by faith, and original sin. It is no more difficult of] application in the one case than the others. It may b,e an unfamiliar practice to those who rest on the authority of the church for the authority of Scripture. But !*• is no more unfamiliar to them than the right of private judgment itself is unfa- miliar to those who rest upon the authority of an infal- lible church for all doctrines. The right of private judgment with reference to the authority of a book of Scripture no more prevents the consensus of individuals in a confession of faith on this subject than on any other. It is important that the individual Christian should have his own convictions on all of these sub- jects. The consensus of such Christians who know what they believe is much stronger than the consensus of those who rest merely upon the external authority of the testimony of the church. We accept the doc- trine of the Westminster Confession with reference to the Bible, because it coincides with our convictions and experience with reference to the Bible. We would not subscribe to it otherwise. Our faith in divine things rests upon divine and not on human authority. It is still further objected that, " If, however, canon- • F. L. Patton in /. c, p. 350. THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 125 icity be, as we believe it is, a purely historical question, it is only in a very limited way that subjective tests can be employed in determining it." * If canonicity be a purely historical question, then the reformers and the Westminster Confession and "the other reformed creeds were in error when they made it purely a question of inspiration and of the internal divine au- thority of the Scriptures themselves. To abandon this position is to accept essentially the Roman Catholic position. The difference then amounts to this : At what historic point shall we stand, or on what historic names shall we base our faith in the canon ? Shall we go with Rome and base the canon on the authority of the living church as the heir of Catholic tradition, or shall we go with the XXXIX Articles and rely on the authority of Jerome and the Jewish assembly at Jamnia, or shall we accept the consensus of the Ante-Nicene church and share their doubts as well as their certainties ? Which- ever of these positions we may take, we still build on uncertain and fallible authority, and dishonor the suffi- ciency and authority of the Scriptures themselves. We violate one of the Reformation principles upon which our Protestantism depends, and the most consistent course would be to follow Cardinal Newman in his path- way to Rome. III. CRITICISM OF THE CANON. It is all the more necessary to apply to the canon the critical test established by the reformers, now that we are much better informed as to the relation of the Jews to the canon than they were. The New Testament writers and the fathers generally depended upon the Septuagint * F. L. Patton in /. f., p. 349. 126 BIBLICAL STUDY. version of the Old Testament. The story of its transla- tion by means of seventy-two accomplished scholars chosen from the twelve tribes of Israel, with the co-oper- ation of Ptolemaeus Philadelphus, king of Egypt, and the Jewish high-priest of Jerusalem, and inspired to do their work by the Divine Spirit, — which prevailed for many centuries in the Eastern and Western ehurches, — has been traced to its simpler form in Josephus* and Philo,f and from these to the original letter of Aris- teas, and that has been proved to be a forgery ^ and its statements wide of the truth. For an internal examina- tion of the translation itself proves it to have been made by different men on different principles and at different times. Frankel is followed by a large number of scholars in the opinion that it was a sort of Greek Targum which grew up gradually at first from the needs of the syna- gogue worship, and then from the desire of the Hellen- istic Jews to collect together the religious literature of their nation, as the Palestinian and Babylonian Targums were subsequently made for the Jews speaking Aramaic.§ Some of the sacred books — such as Daniel, Esther, and Jeremiah — have additional matter not found in the Hebrew Massoretic text. The apocryphal writings are mingled with those taken into the Hebrew canon with- out discrimination. As Deane j says : " If we judge from the MSS. that have come down to us, it would be impossible for any one, looking merely to the Septuagint version and * Anitg. XII. 2. t ^ffa Mosts, II., § 5-7. X The ori^nal text of the letter is best given in Ment., Arckiv fur IVissen- schaftliche Erforsckung des Alien Testamenls, I., p. 24a, seq. Halle, 187a § Frankel, Vorsludien z. d. Seftuaginta, Leipzig, 1841 ; Scholtz, Alexand. Uebersetz. d. Buck lesaias, 1880, p. 7, seg. \ Book 0/ Wisdom, Oxford, 1881, p. 37, seq. THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 127 its allied works, to distinguish any of the books in the collection as of less authority than others. There is nothing whatever to mark off the canonical writings from what have been called the deuterocanon- ical. They are all presented as of equal standing and authority, and, if we must make distinctions between them, and place some on a higher platform than others, this separation must be made on grounds which are not afforded by the arrangement of the various documents themselves." The scholastics depend upon the tradition that the Old Testament canon was determined by the so- called men of the great synagogue. They rely for this upon Elias Levita* and the long Jewish tradition that goes back to a slender support in the Misnaic tract, Aboth (I. l-2).t But back of this there is no historical evidence whatever. The silence of all the writings from the first century A.D. backwards is absolute. They could not have omitted to mention such a body as this if it ever had an existence, and determined the canon and everything else upon which the Jewish religion depended.* The Apocryphal Literature, in its wide and varied extent, knows of no such body. The numerous pseu- depigraphical writers are also silent. Philo and Josephus know of nothing of the kind. The New Testament writers do not recognize it. On the other hand, the apocalypse of Ezra, from the first century A.D., repre- sents the whole canon as determined by Ezra, who com- mitted the whole to writing by divine inspiration.:}: How could it do so in the face of the great synagogue? There are well-established disputes as to the canon among the Jews in the first Christian century which * Massoreth Ha-Massoreth, edited by Ginsberg, 1867, p. 112, seq. t Strack, Die Sprucher der Vater ; Ein ethischer Mischna-Traktat, Karls- ruhe, 1882. Taylor, Sayings 0/ tJu Jewish Fat hers, Cambridge, 1877. X XIV. 19, seq. 128 BIBLICAL STUDY. could not have taken place if a venerable body like the supposed men of the great synagogue had determined everything. This tradition must go with the letter of Aristeas out of the field of history into the realm of shadowy and unsupported legends. Another evidence for the fixture of the Old Testament canon has been found in a supposed writing of Philo of the first Christian century.* This work speaks of the law, the prophets, hymns, and other writings, making either three or four classes, but without specification of partic- ular books. But this writing has recently been proved to have been written in the third century A.D., and wrongly attributed to Philo.f The position has been accepted by scholars, if and is invincibly established. The testi- mony of Philo is therefore reduced to the books that he quotes, as of divine authority. He omits to mention Nehe- miah, Ruth, Esther, Chronicles, Ezekiel, Lamentations, Daniel, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Songs. § - He uses Proverbs and Job. This we would expect from Philo's type of thought and the subject-matter of his writings. But his omission of Ecclesiastes and the Song of Songs is surprising. These writings belong to the same class of wisdom-literature as Job and Proverbs. They would have given him the very best field for his peculiar method of allegory. The omission in this case weighs against them. Ezekiel and Daniel, the symbolical proph- ets, we would expect him to make use of. Josephus| mentions 22 books as making up his canon — 5 of the law, 13 of the prophets, and 4 of poems and precepts, but * De Vita Contetnp., s. III. t Lucius, Die Therapeutcn und ihre Stellung in der Askese„ Strassburg, 1880. X Strack, art. Kanon in Herzog, II. Aufl., vii., p. 425. § Eichhom, Einleitmtg, 3te, Ausgabe, 1803, I., p. 98. I Contra Apion, I., 8. THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 129 does not define which they are. He uses all of the Talmudic canon except Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, and Job.^ The silence of Josephus as to these cannot be pressed, because they did not clearly come within his scope. Various efforts have been made to determine his books, but without conclusive results. The lists of subsequent writers have been used. Here, if on the one hand the lists of Origen and Jerome favor the Talmudic, the list of Junilius Africanus favors the exclusion of Chronicles, Ezra, Job, Song of Songs, and Esther.f Graetz ^ seems to us to come nearer the mark in excluding the Song of Songs and Ecclesiastes from the list of Josephus. He falls, then, by his 22, just these two short of the Talmudic list of 24. We are left by Josephus in uncertainty as to certain Old Testament books. Moreover, the state- ments of Josephus do not carry with them our confi- dence as to the views of the men of his time ; for we know that several books were in dispute among the Pharisees, such as Ezekiel, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, and Esther. They were generally, but not unanimously acknowledged. The Sadducees are said by some of the fathers to have agreed with the Samaritans in rejecting all but the Pentateuch. This must be a mistake. But we can hardly believe that they accepted Ezekiel and Daniel in view of their denial of angels and the resurrec- tion. The Essenes and the Zelots agreed in extending the canon to esoteric tvritings. The apocalypse of Ezra mentions 70 of these as given to Ezra to interpret the 24, and so of even greater authority. These parties * Eichhom in /. r., I., p. 123. t See Prof. Kihn, Theodore von Mopsuestia und Julius A/ricanus ah Exfgeten, Frei., 1880, p. 86. X Gesch. d. Juden, III., p. 501, Leipsig;, 1863. n* 130 BIBLICAL STUDY. differ from the Pharisees only in that they committed the esoteric wisdom to writing, whereas the Pharisees handed it down as an infallible tradition, and prohibited the committing it to writing, until at last it found em- bodiment in the Misnayoth and the Talmuds. The eminent Jewish scholar, Zunz, is correct in his statement : " Neither Philo nor Josephus impart to us an authentic list of the sacred writings."* It seems clear that the Jewish canon was not definitely settled until the assembly at Jamnia, during the Jewish war with Titus (about 70 A.D.), and the decisions were car- ried through by a majority of votes, accompanied with acts of violence toward the dissenting parties.f We doubt not that the canon of the Palestinian Jews re- ceived its latest addition by common consent not later than the tirne of Judas Maccabeus,:}: and no books of later composition were added afterward ; -yet the schools of the Pharisees continued the debate with reference to some of these writings until the assembly at Jamnia, and the Hellenistic Jews had a wider and freer conception of the canon.§ We cannot rely upon the determination of the canon of the Old Testament by the authority of the Pharisees, who, after the rejec- tion of the true Messiah, brought on the ruin of their nation in the Jewish war. We cannot yield to the authority of Rabbi Akiba, the supporter of Bar Khokba, the false messiah, and his coadjutors, any more on this ♦ Gottesdienst lichen Vortrage der yuden, 1832, p. 18. t Graetz, Gesck. d. yuden, 1863, IIL, p. 496, seg. ; Robertson Smith, Tht Old Testament in tke Jewish Church, N. Y., 18S1, p. 172, seq., and 412 seq. ; S. Ives Curtiss in Current Discussions in Theology, p. 63 ; see also the Misnaic tract, Jadaim, III. 5. X Strack, Herzog, Real Encyk., II. Aufl., vii., p. 426 ; Evrald, Lehre d. Bibel von Gott, I., p. 363. § Ewald in /. c, p. 364. THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 131 subject of the canon than we can accept their dicta with regard to Jesus Christ, the observance of the Sabbath, or the faith of ancient Israel. Nor does the New Testament determine the canon of the Old. Jesus gives His- authority to the law, the proph- ets, and the psalms (Luke xxiv. 44), which alone were used in the synagogue in His times ; but the psalms only of the Hagiographa are mentioned. There are no suffi- cient reasons for concluding that by the psalms Jesus meant all the other books besides law and prophets. The New Testament uses for the Old Testament the following general terms : (i) the term scriptures for the whole (Acts xvii. 2 ; xvii. 1 1 ; xviii. 24; xviii. 28) ; ox sacred writings (2 Tim. iii. 15) ; (2) law (John x. 34 referring to the Psalter ; xii. 34 referring to several passages of the prophets; xv. 25 to the Psalter; i Cor. xiv. 21 to Isa- iah) ; {-^prophets (Luke xxiv. 25 ; Acts xiii. 27) ; (4) law and prophets (Matt. v. 17; Acts xiii. 15), Moses and prophets (Luke xvi. 29, 31; xxiv. 27; Acts xxvi. 22); law of Moses and the prophets (Acts xxviii. 23) ; (5) law of Moses and prophets and psalms (Luke xxiv. 44). This fluctuation shows that in the minds of the writers of the New Testament there was no definite division known as law, prophets, and other writings.* Indeed the New Testament carefully abstains from using the writings disputed among the Jews. It does not use at all Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Esther, Ezra, Nehemiah ; * The statement of the prologue of Ecclesiasticus or the Wisdom of Sirach as to the three classes : " Law, Prophets, and other books of our fathers," does not prove that the last was a technical term of a special class. How could Jose- phus have given such a different arrangement of the writings from that found anjrwhere ebe, if that had been the case ? How could he have given up the technical " other writings," and used hymns, etc. ? The term, other writings, to Sirach means nothing more than an indefinite number which did not belong to the classes law and prophets. j^32 BIBLICAL STUDY. and only incidentally Ezekiel and Chronicles in the same way as apocryphal books and the pseudepigraphical are used. Was this silence discretionary, in order to build only on books recognized by all, or does it rule from the canon those books so ignored?.* Prof. Charterisf says: " It may be a mere coincidence, but it is at least noteworthy, that the only books of the Old Testament not quoted in the New are the tliree books of the writings of Solomon, Esther and Ezra and Nehe- miah. Ezra and Nehemiah are historical books, which there was probably no occasion to quote : but the other four unquoted books — Esther, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles — are those books which were not accepted by all at the time of our Lord." We shall confine ourselves to the same competent au- thority for a summary as to the canon of the New Tes- tament : :}: " We see that there were other books accepted by most, .but not with the same heartiness by all ; and the notes we have made on ear- lier lists have prepared us to learn what these books were. They are James and Jude, 2d Peter, and 2d and 3d John. Some add the Apocalypse of John. All these books, save James, were wanting in the New Testament of the Syriac Church, which being the earliest collection of Christian Scriptures for the East, had great influence on the views of all the Oriental Churches for which Eusebius was specially qualified to speak. When we turn to the Western or Latin Church, we find that James was probably omitted in the old Italic collection current in Africa, and that 2d Peter certainly was. What Eusebius, therefore, tells ue with his usual candid trustfulness, is what we should have known from those other sources ; and it may be regarded as established beyond dispute." The criticism of the canon has thus determined a gen- * Eichhom in /. f., L, p. 104. t The New Testament Scriptures : Their Claims, History, and Authority. Croall Lectures for 1882. New York, 1882, p. 88. J In /. c, p. 169. THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 133 eral consent to the most of the books defined as canon- ical in the Reformed creeds, and that with regard to those others about which there has always been dispute, the preponderance of testimony is in their favor. The books of primary and secondary authority have kept the same relative position. Those doubted among the Jews were doubted by Christians. Those doubted in the early church were doubted by the reformers, and are doubted by some critics now. In giving our 'testimony to the canonicity of all the books specified in the Reformed creeds, we do it on the principles of criticism laid down by the reformers and tested by the fires of modern in- vestigation. But we recognize that the evidence for some is less than for others. The conflicts of conformists and non-conformists, and the struggle between evangelical faith and deism in Great Britain, and of scholasticism with pietism on the continent, caused the scholastics to antagonize more and more the human element in the Scriptures, and to assert the external authority of traditional opinions and Protestant orthodoxy, over the reason, the conscience, and the religious feeling; while the apologists, following the deists into the field of the external arguments for and against the religion and doctrines of the Bible, built up a series of external evidences which are strong and powerful, and which did, in fact, overcome the deists intellectually, or rather drive them into atheism and pantheism ; but at the expense of vital piety in the Church — the true Puritan inheritance ; for the stronger internal evidence was neglected. The dogmatists for- got the caution of Calvin : " Those persons betray great folly who wish it to be demonstrated to infidels, that the Scripture is the Word of God, which cannot be known 134 BIBLICAL STUDY. without faith " * and exposed the church to the severe criticism of Dodwell : " To give all men Liberty to judge for themselves and to expect at the same time that they shall be of the preacher's mind, is such a scheme for unanimity as one would scarce imagine any one would be weak enough to devise in speculation, and much less that any could ever prove hardy enough to avow and propose to practice," t and led some to the conclusion that there was an " ir- reconcilable repugnance in their natures betwixt reason and belief.":}: The efforts of the more evangelical type of thought which passed over from the Puritans into the Cambridge men, and the Presbyterians of the type of Baxter and Calamy, to construct an evangelical doctrine of the rea- son and the religious feeling in accordance with Protestant principles, failed for the time, and the movement died away, or passed over into the merely liberal and compre- hensive" scheme, or assumed an attitude of indifference between the contending parties. The Protestant rule of faith was sharpened more and more, especially among the Independents, and the separating Presbyterian churches of Scotland, after the fashion of John Owen, rather than of the Westminster divines ; whilst the apolo- gists pressed more and more the dogmatic method of demonstration over against criticism.§ The Reformed faith and evangelical religion were about to be extinguished when, in the Providence of God, the Puritan vital and experimental religion was revived in Methodism which devoted itself to Christian life, and so proved the saving element in modern British and Amer- ican Christianity. The churches of the continent of ♦ Institutes, VIII., 13, f Religion not founded on Argument, p. 90, seq. X In /. f., p. 80. § Lechler, Cesch. d. Deismus, 1841, p. 411, seg. THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 135 Europe were allowed, in the Providence of God, to meet the full force of rationalism and pay the penalty of the criminal blunders of the scholastics. Schleiermacher was raised up to be the father of modern evangelical German theology. He began to recover the lost ground and to build the structure of modern theology in the true mystic spirit on the religious feeling apprehending Jesus Christ as Saviour. A series of intellectual giants have ci^rried on his work, such as Neander, Tholuck, Rothe, Miiller, and Dorner. It is not safe to follow these foreign divines in all their methods and statements. These depend upon the cent- ury of conflict which lies back of them and through which we have not passed. British and American theology has its own peculiar principles, methods, and work to perform. It is rapidly approaching the crisis of its his- tory, the same essentially that German theology had to nveet at the close of the eighteenth century. The tide of thought has ebbed and flowed between Great Britain and the continent several times since the Reformation. The tide has set strongly now in our direction. It is perilous to follow the blind guides of British and Amer- ican scholasticism, and fall in the ditch that lies in their path (Matt. xv. 14). It is wise to learn from the expe- rience of those who have passed through the conflict and achieved the victory. It is prudent to do all that is pos- sible to prevent the ruin to American Christianity that is sure to come if we commit the old blunders over again. It is our conviction that the revival of true evangelical religion, and the successful progress of the theology of our Reformed churches, in the working out of the princi- ples inherited from the Reformation, depend upon a speedy reaction from the scholastic theology of the Zu- rich Consensus and the Puritanism of John Owen, and 136 BIBLICAL STUDY. an immediate renewal of the evangelical life and unfet- tered thought of the Reformation and the Puritans of the first half of the seventeenth century. It has become more and more evident since Semler* reopened the question of the canon of Scripture, that the only safe position for evangelical men is to build on the rock of the Reformation principle of the Scriptures. This principle has been enriched in two directions — first by the study of the unity and harmony of the Scsiptures as an organic whole, and second by the apprehension of the relation of the faith of the individual to the consen- sus of the churches. The principles on which the canon of Scripture is to be determined are, therefore, these : (i) The testimony of the church, going back by tradition and written documents to primitive times, presents prob- able evidence to all men that the Scriptures, recognized as of divine authority and canonical by such general con- sent, are indeed what they are claimed to be. (2) The Scriptures themselves, in their pure and holy character, satisfying the conscience ; their beauty, har- mony, and majesty satisfying the aesthetic taste ; their simplicity and fidelity to truth, together with their ex- alted conceptions of man," of God, and of history, satis- fying the reason and the intellect ; their piety and devo- tion to the one God, and their revelation of redemption, satisfying the religious feelings and deepest needs of mankind — all conspire to more and more convince that they are indeed sacred and divine books. (3) The Spirit of God bears witness by and with the particular writing, or part of writing, in the heart of the believer, removing every doubt and assuring the soul of its possession of the truth of God, the rule and guide of the life. * Abltandlung von freier Untersuchung des Kanon. 4 Bde., 1771-1775, THE CANON OF SCRIPTUKE. 137 (4) The Spirit of God bears witness by and with the several writings in such a manner as to assure the be- liever in the study of them that they are the several parts of one complete divine revelation, each writing having its own appropriate and indispensable place and importance in the organism of the canon. (5) The Spirit of God bears witness to the church as an organized body of such believers, through their free consent in various communities and countries and cent- uries, to this unity and variety of the Scriptures as the one complete and perfect canon of the divine word to the church. And thus the human testimony, the external evidence, attains its furthest possible limit as probable evidence, bringing the inquirer to the Scriptures with a high and reverent esteem of them, when the internal evi- dence exerts its powerful influence upon his soul, and at length the divine testimony lays hold of his entire nature and convinces and assures him of the truth of God and causes him to share in the consensus of the Christian church. " Thus the Canon explains and judges itself; it needs no foreign standard. Just so the Holy Spirit evokes in believers a judgment, or criticism, which is not subjective, but in which freedom and fidelity- are combined. The criticism and interpretation, which faith exercises, see its object not from without, as foreign, or as traditional, or as in bondage, but from within, and abiding in its native element becomes more and more at home while it ascribes to every product of apostolic men its place and proper canonical worth." " True faith sees in the letter of the documents of Revelation the religious content brought to an immutable objectivity which is able to attest itself as truth by the divine Spirit, which can at once warm and quicken the letter in order to place the living God-man before the eyes of the believer," * * Dorner, System der Christlicfien Glaulenslehre, Berlin, 1879, ^-i PP- 667, seq. ; System 0/ Christian Doctrine, Edin., 1881, II., p. 229, seq. 138 BIBLICAL STUDY. The reason, the conscience, and the religious feeling, all of which have arisen during these discussions of the last century into a light and vigor unknown and unantic- ipated at the Reformation, should not be antagonized the one with the other, or with the Spirit of God, but will all be included in that act and habit of faith by which we apprehend the Word of God. These cannot be satis- fied with the external authority of scholars or schools, of Church or State, of tradition or human testimony, however extensive, but only by a divine authority on which they can rest with certainty. Men will recognize the canonical writings as their Bible, only in so far as they may be able to rise through them as external media to the presence of their divine Master, who reigns in and by the Word, which is holy and divine, in so far and to that extent that it evidently sets Him forth. CHAPTER VI. THE TEXT OF THE BIBLE. Biblical Criticism suffered an eclipse in the 17th century among the reformed scholastics of Switzerland and Holland, but maintained itself in France and among the Puritans of Great Britain, where the conflict with Rome continued as a life and death struggle. The re- formed scholastics and the Lutheran scholastics alike fell back upon Jewish rabbinical tradition and formu- lated that tradition in Protestant forms of scholasticism and with hair-splitting results. The reformers had given their chief attention to the criticism of the canon, the establishment of the sole authority of the Scripture, and to its proper interpretation, but they had not overlooked the criticism of the text. With reference to the Old Testament, they had been chiefly influenced by two Jew- ish scholars, the one Elias Levita, who lived and died in the Jewish faith, the other Jacob ben Chajim, who be- came a Christian. Chajim edited the second edition of Bomberg's Rabbinical Bible and issued an elaborate in- troduction to it. He also edited, for the first time, the Massora. It was a common opinion among the Jews that the vowel points and accents of the Hebrew Script- ures came down from Ezra, and even Moses and Adam. Levita explodes these traditions by the following simple line of argument : (139) ^40 BIBLICAL STUDY. "The vowel points and the accents did not exist either before Ezra or in the time of Ezra or after Ezra till the close of the Talmud. And I shall prove this with clear and conclusive evidence (i) In all the writings of our Rabbins of blessed memory, whether the Talmud, or the Hagadah, or the Midrash, there is not to be found any men- tion whatever of, or any allusion to the vowel points or accents." (2) and (3) The Talmud in its use of the Bible discusses how the words should be read and how divided. This is inconsistent with an accented official text. (4) " Almost all the names of both the vowel points and the accents are not Hebrew, but Aramean and Babylonian." * I. TEXTUAL CRITICISM IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. The reformers rejected the inspiration of the Mas- soretic traditional pointing and only accepted the un- pointed text. Luther does not hesitate to speak of the points as new human inventions about which he does not trouble himself, and says, " I often utter- words which strongly oppose these points," and " they are most assuredly not to be preferred to the simple, correct, and grammatical sense." f He goes to work with the best text he can find to give the Word of God to the people. So Calvin X acknowledged that they were the result of great diligence and sound tradition, yet to be used with care and selection. Zwingli gave great value to the LXX and the version of Jerome, and disputed the Massoretic signs.§ Though searching for the nearest grammatical and logical sense, they were not anxious as to the inspiration of the grammar or the logic of the au- thors. Luther does not hesitate to dispute the validity of Paul's argument in Galatians iv. 22, seq. ; Calvin does * Levita, Massoreth Ha-Massoreth, edited by Ginsberg, p, 127, seg. London, 1867. t Com. on Gen. xlvii. 31 ; on Isaiah ix. 6. X Com. on Zech. xi. 7. ' § Opera ed. Schult., V., p. 556, seq. THE TEXT OF THE BIBLE. 141 not meet the objection that Paul violently and inaptly- wrested the words of Moses and David, by showing that he gives the meaning, syllable by syllable, but represents the apostle as polishing and embellishing and applying the words to his own purposes.* He is not anxious about the error of Matthew xxvii. 9, in the citation of Jeremiah instead of Zechariah. So Luther points out two errors or slips of memory in the discourse of Stephen, Acts vii. The reformers laid down no theory of inspiration, such as would cover accent and letter, word, logic, and grammar. They regarded the external word as the instrument ; they sought the sense, the infal lible Divine Word contained in the Scriptures, applied by the Holy Spirit to their souls.f It is astonishing how far the Swiss Protestant divines had allowed themselves to drift away from this position of liberty, and how greatly they had entangled them- selves once more in the bonds of traditionalism. This was chiefly due to another Jewish scholar, Azzariah de Rossi,:}; who claims, to use the concise statement of Dr. Ginsberg : § " That as to the origin and development of the vowels their force and virtue were invented by, or communicated to, Adam, in Para- dise ; transmitted to and by Moses ; that they had been partially forgotten, and their pronunciation vitiated during the Babylonian captivity ; that they had been restored by Ezra, but that they had been forgotten again in the wars and struggles during and after the destruction of the second temple ; and that the Massorites, after the close of the Talmud, revised the system, and permanently fixed the pronunciation by the contrivance of the present signs. Th."s accounts * Com. on Rom. x. 6 ; Heb. iv. 4. t Compare Tholuck, art. Inspiration in Herzog Ency., I. Aufl., VI., 696, seq. X Tht Light of tlu Eyes, t]"'D"'^ "n5<73 III. 59, 1574-5- § U/e 0/ Elias Levita, in connection with his edition of Levita's Massoreth Ha-Massoreth, London, 1867, p. 53. 142 BIBLICAL STUDY. for the fact that the present vowel points are not mentioned in the Talmud. The reason why Moses did not punctuate the copy of the law vyhich he wrote, is that its import should not be understood without oral tradition. Besides, as the law has seventy different meanings, the writing of it, without points, greatly aids to obtain these various interpretations ; whereas the affixing of the vowel signs would preclude all permatations and transpositions, and greatly restrict the sense by fixing the pronunciation." His principal reliance was upon some passages of the book Zohar and other cabalistic writings, which he claimed to be older than the Mishna, but which have since been shown to be greatly interpolated and of ques-* tionable antiquity.* Relying upon these the elder Buxtorf with his great authority misled a large number of the most prominent of the Reformed divines of the continent to maintain the opinion of the divine origin and authority of the Mas- soretic vowel points and accents.f In England, Fulke,:(: Broughton,§ and Lightfoot \ adopted the same opinion. These rabbinical scholars exerted, in this respect, a dis- astrous influence upon the study of the Old Testament. II. TEXTUAL CRITICISM IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. • The Protestant critical principle reasserted itself mightily through Ludwig Cappellus, of the French school of Saumur, where a freer type of theology had maintained itself. A new impulse to Hebrew scholar- ship had been given by Amira, Gabriel Sionita, and * Ginsberg ia /. c, p. 52 ; Wogue, Histoire de la Bible, Paris, 1881, p. 121. t Tiberius sive Commentarius Masorethicus, Basle, 1620. X A defence 0/ the sincere and true translations 0/ the Holy Scriptures into the English Tongue^ etc., 1583 ; Parker Society edition, 1843, pp. 55 and 578. § Daniel: his ChaJdee visions and his Hebrew, London, 1597, on chap. iz. 26. I Chorographical Century, c. 81 ; Works, Pitman's edition, 1823, Vol. IX., p. 150, seq. THE TEXT OF THE BIBLE. 143 Other Maronites who brought a wealth of Oriental learning to the attention of Christian scholars. Po- cock journeyed to the East, and returned with rich spoils of Arabic literature. France, Holland, and Eng- land vied with one another in their use of these literary- treasures, and pushed them for the study of the Hebrew Scriptures over against the rabbinical tradition. Erpen- ius in Holland, the great Arabist, was the teacher of Cappellus, and first introduced his work to the public. Cappellus fell back on the views of Elias Levita, the teacher of the reformers, and the reformers themselves, and denied the inspiration of the Hebrew vowel points and accents, and the common Massoretic text, and in- sisted upon its revision, through the comparison of MSS. and ancient versions.* Cappellus was sustained by the French theologians generally, even by Rivetus, also by Cocceius, the father of the Federal school in Holland, who first gave the author's name to the pub- lic, and the body of English critics.f In this connection a series of great Polyglots ap- peared, beginning with the Antwerp of the Jesuit Arias Montanus, assisted by And. Masius, Fabricus Boderianus, and Franz Rapheleng ; :j: followed by the Paris Polyglot of Michael de Jay,§ edited by Morinus and Gabriel Sionita; and culminating in the London Polyglot of Brian Walton, in which he was aided by Ed. Castle, Ed. Pococke, Thos. Hyde, and others 1 — the greatest critical achievement of the 17th century, * His work was published anonymously in 1624 at Leyden uilder the title Ar- canum putictuationis revelatum, though completed in 1621. t Comp. Schnedermann, Die Controverse des Lud. Cappellus mil den Bux- tor/en^ Leipzig:, 1879. X Biblia Regia, 8 vols, folio, 1569-73. § 1629-45, 10 vok. folio. I 6 vols, folio, 1657. 144 BIBLICAL STUDF. which remains as the classic basis for the comparative study of versions until the present day. The work of Cappellus remained unanswered, and worked powerfully until 1648. In the meantime the Roman Catholic Frenchman, Morinus, taking the same position as Cappellus, pressed it in order to show the need of Church authority and tradition.* This greatly complicated the discussion by making the view a basis for an attack on the Protestant position. The younger Buxtorf was stirred up to maintain the scho- lastic position against Cappellus.f The three universities of Sedan, Geneva, and Leyden were so aroused against Cappellus that they refused to allow the publication of his great work, Critica Sacra, which, however, appeared in 1650; the first of a series of corresponding produc- tions.:}: Heidegger and Turretine rallied the universities of Zurich, Geneva, and Basle to the Zurich Consensus, which was adopted in 1675, against all the distinguish- ing doctrines of the school of Saumur, and the more liberal type of Calvinism, asserting for the first and only time in the symbols of the church the doctrine of verbal inspiration, together with the inspiration of accents and points. Thus the formal principle of Protestantism was strait- ened, and its vital power destroyed by the erection of dogmatic barriers against biblical criticism. "They for- got that they by this standpoint again made Christian faith entirely dependent on church tradition: yes, with respect to the Old Testament, on the synagogue." § The controversy between Brian Walton and John * Exercitationes biblicce, 1633. t Tract, defunct, vocal, et accent, in libr. V., T., heb. origine antiq.^ 1648. X See Tholuck, Akadem. Leben, II., p. 332. § Domer, Gesch. Prot. Theologie, p. 451. THE TEXT OF THE BIBLE. I45 Owen is instructive just here. John Owen had pre- pared a tract,* in which he takes the scholastic ground, " Nor is it enough to satisfy us that the doctrines men- tioned are preserved entire ; every tittle and iota in the Word of God must come under our consideration, as be- ing as such from God." f Before the tract was issued he was confronted by the Prolegomena to Walton's Biblia Polyglotta, which, he perceived, undermined his theory of inspiration, and, therefore, added an appendix,:}: in which he maintains that: " The Scriptures of the Old and New Testament were immedi- ately and entirely given out by God himself, His mind being in them represented unto us without the least interveniency of such mediums and ways as were capable of giving change or alteration to the least iota or syllable." Brian Walton admirably replies to him : " For when at the beginning of the Reformation, divers questions arose about the Scriptures and the Church ; the Romanists observ- ing that the punctuation of the Hebrew, text was an invention of the Masorites, they thereupon inferred that the text without the points might be taken in divers senses, and that none was tyed to the read- ing of the Rabbins, and therefore concluded that the Scripture is ambiguous and doubtful without the interpretation and testimony of the Church, so that all must flee to the authority of the Church and depend ujkmi her for the true sense and meaning of the Script- ures. On the other side, some Protestants, fearing that some ad- vantage might be given to the Romanisis by this concession, and not considering how the certainty of the Scriptures might well be main- tained though the Text were unpointed, instead of denying the con- * The Divine Original^ Authority, and Self-evidencing Light and Purity 0/ the Scriptures. \ Works, rvi. p. 303. X 0/ the integrity and purity of the Hebrew Text of the Scriptures, with considerations of the Prolegomena and Appendix to the late ^^ Biblia Poly- glot ta," Oxford, 1659. 146 BIBLICAL STUDY. seqttence, which they might well have done, thought fit ' rather to deny the assumption, and to maintain that the points were of 2?/- vine original, vihtr^hy they involved themselves in extreme laby- rinths, engaging themselves in defence of that which might be easily proved to be false, and thereby wronged the cause which they seemed to defend. Others, therefore, of more learning and judg- .tnent knowing that this position of the divine original oi iht points could not be made good ; and that the truth needed not the patron- age of an untruth, -would not engage themselves therein, but granted it to be true, that the points were invented by the Rabbins, yet de- nied the consequence, maintaining, notwithstanding, that the reading and sense of the text might be certain Wiihoxst punctuation, and that therefore the Scriptures did not at all depend upon the authority of the Church : and of this judgment were .the chief Protestant Di- vines, and greatest linguists that then were, or have been since in the Christian world, such as I named before ; Luther, Zwinglius, Calvin, Beza, Musculus, Brentius, Pellicane, Oecolampadius, Mercer, Piscator, P. Phagius, Drusius, Schindler, Martinius, Scaliger, De Dieu, Casaubon, Erpenius, Sixt. Amana, Jac. and Ludov. Capellus, Grotius, etc. — among ourselves. Archbishop Ussher, BisTiop Pri- deaux, Mr. Mead, Mr. St^lden, and innumerable others, whom I for- bear to name, who conceived it would nothing disadvantage the cause, to yield that proposition, for that they could still make it good, that the Scripture was in itself a sufficient and certain rvXe. for faith and life, not depending upon any human authority to sup- port it." * We have quoted this extract at length for the light it casts upon the struggle of criticism at the time. John Owen, honored as a preacher and dogmatic writer, but certainly no exegete, had spun a theory of inspiration after the ^/r?<7r/ scholastic method, and with it did bat- tle against the great Polyglot. It was a Quixotic at- tempt, and resulted in ridiculous failure. His dogma is crushed as a shell in the grasp of a giant. The indigna- tion of Walton burns hot against this wanton and un- reasoning attack. But he consoles himself with the * The Considerator Considered, London, 1659, p. 220, seq. THE TEXT OF THE BIBLE. I47 opening reflection that Origen's Hexapla ; Jerome's Vulgate ; the Complutensian Polyglot ; Erasmus' Greek Testament ; the Antwerp and Paris Polyglots have all in turn been assailed by those whose theories and dog- mas have been threatened or overturned by a scholarly induction of facts. The theory of the scholastics prevailed but for a brief period in Switzerland, where it was overthrown by the reaction under the leadership of the younger Turretine. The theory of John Owen did not influence the West- minster men : " In fact, it was not till several years after the Confession was completed, and the star of Owen was in the ascendant, that under the spell of a genius and learning only second to Calvin, English Puritanism so generally identified itself with what is termed his less liberal view." * Owen's scholastic type of theology worked in the doc- trine of inspiration, as well as in other dogmas, to the detriment of the simpler and more evangelical West- minster theology ; and in the latter part of the seven- teenth century gave Puritan theology a scholastic type which it did not possess before. But it did not prevent such representative Presbyterians as Matthew Poole, Edmund Calamy, and the Cambridge men, with Baxter, from taking the more evangelical Westminster position. The critics of the Reformed church produced master- pieces of biblical learning, which have been the pride and boast of the churches to the present. Like Cappel- lus, they delighted in the name critical, and were not afraid of it. The Critici Sacri of John Pearson, Anton Scattergood, Henry, Gouldman, and Rich. Pearson, fol- lowed up Walton's Polyglot in 1660 (9 vols, folio), and * Mitchell, Minutes 0/ Westminster Assembly, p. xx. 148 BIBLICAL STUDY. this was succeeded by Matthew Poole's Synopsis Criii- corum in 1669 (5 vols, folio). III. TEXTUAL CRITICISM IN THE EIGHTEENTH AND NINETEENTH CENTURIES. Biblical criticism continued in England till the midst of the eighteenth century. Mill issued his critical New Testament in 1707, the fruit of great industry, and was assailed by unthinking men who preferred pious igno- rance to a correct New Testament.* But Richard Bent- ley espoused the cause of his friend with invincible arguments, and he himself spent many years in the collection of manuscripts, but died leaving his magnifi- cent work incomplete, and his plans to be carried out by foreign scholars. » For " now original research in the science of Biblical Criticism, so far as the New Testament is concerned, seems to have left the shores of England to return no more for upwards of a century ; and we must look to Germany if we wish to trace the further progress of investigations which our countrymen had so auspiciously begun." t Bishop Lowth did for the Old Testament what Bent- ley did for the New. In his works % he called the atten- tion of scholars to the necessity of emendation of the Massoretic text, and encouraged Kennicott to collate the manuscripts of the Old Testament, which he did and published the result in a monumental work in 1776- l78o.§ This was preceded by an introductory work in 1753-59-1 * Scrivener, Introduction to the Criticism of the N. T., ad edit. 1874, p. 400. t Scrivener in /.«■., p 402. X De Sacra Poesi Hebraeorum, 1753, and Isaiah : A New Translation, with a Preliminary Dissertation and Notes, 1778, 2d edition, 1779. § Vetus Test. Heb. cum var. lectionibus, 2 torn., Oxford. I The state 0/ the printed Hebrew Text of the Old Testament considered, 2 vols., Svo. Oxford. THE TEXT OF THE BIBLE. {^^Q After this splendid beginning, Old Testament criti- cism followed its New Testament sister to the conti- nent of Europe and remained absent until our own day. On the continent the work of Mill was carried on by J. A. Bengel * J. C. Wetstein,t J. J. Gries- bach,:{: J. M. A. Scholz,§ C. Lachmann,! culminating in Const. Tischendorf, who edited the chief uncial authori- ties, discovered and edited the Codex Sinaiticus,^ and issued numerous editions of the New Testament, the earliest in 1841. He crowned his work with the eighth critical edition of the New Testament, which he lived to complete, but had to leave the Prolegomena to another.** Tischendorf is the greatest textual critic the world has yet produced. In the Old Testament, De Rossi carried on the work of Kennicott.ft Little has been done since his day until recent times, when Baer united with Delitzsch in issuing in parts a revised Massoretic text, 1 869-1 882; Hermann Strack examined the recently-discovered Ori- ental manuscripts, the chief of which is the St. Petersburg codex of the Prophets of the year 916 A.D,:{::{: and Frens- dorf undertook the production of the Massora Magna.%% * Prodromus, A'. T. Gr., 1725. Novum Test., 1734, t yew Test. Gr. cum lectionibus variantibus Codicum, etc. Amst, 1751-2. X Syvibolae Criticae, II. torn., 1785-93. § Bib. krit. Reise Leipzig, 1823 ; N. T. Graece, 2 Bde, Leipzig, 1830-36. I Xuvum Test. Graece et Latine, 2 Bde., Berlin, 1842-50. ^ Bibliorum Codex Sinaiticus Petropolitanus, St. Petersburg, 1862 ; Die SinaiUbel, Ihre Entdeckung, Herausgabe und Erwerbun^, Leipzig, 1871! -^-* Novum Test amentum Graece. Editio octava: Crilica Major, Lipsiae, 1S65-72. The Prolegomena is in the hands of an American scholar. Dr. C. R. Gregory. tt Variae lectioms Vet. Test., 4 torn., Parm., 1784-1788. XX Prophet arum Posteriorum Codex Babylonicus Petropolitanus, Pcuopoli, 1S76. §§ Die Massora Magna; Erster Theil, Massoretisches Worterbuch, Hanover und Leipzig, 1S76. 150 • BIBLICAL STUDY. Within recent times textual criticism has taken strong hold again in England. S. P. Tregelles,"* F. H. Scrivener,t B. F. Westcott, and F. J. A. Hort X have advanced the textual criticism of the New Testament beyond the mark reached by continental scholars. In Old Testa- ment criticism England is advancing to the front rank. The work of Ginsberg on the Massora § is the greatest achievement since the unpublished work of Elias Levitei. But the Massoretic text is only the beginning toward a correct text of the Old Testament. The Textual Criticism of the Old Testament is at least half a century behind the New Testament. f And the reason of it is, that scholars have hesitated to go back of the Massoretic text. Few have given their at- tention to the literary features of the Bible and espec- ially its poetic structure. But it is just here that the eyes of the student are opened to the necessity of emen- dation of the text where we can receive no help from the Massorites, who seem to have been profoundly igno- rant of the structure of Hebrew poetry. Prof. Gratz, the Jewish scholar, has recently said that we ought not to speak of a Massoretic text that has been made sure to us, but rather of different schools of Massorites, and follow their example and remove impossible readings from the text.^ » 77/e, Robert Lawth\s yeiaias neu Hbersctzt nebst einer Einleitung .... mit Zusatze und Anmerkungen, 4 Bde., Leipzig, 1779-80. \ In 1780 he published his Briefe fiber das Studium der Theologie, and in 1782 his Geist der Heb. Foesie. § Herder in his ist Brie/ sa.ys : " Richard Simon is the Father of the Criticism of the Old and New Testaments in recent times." — "A Critical Introduction to the Old Testament, as it ought to be, we have not yet." 1780. In 2d Auf., 1785. It is said on the margin, "We have it now in Eichhorn's valuable Pin- leit. ins Alt. Test., 1780-83." j Dorner in yohnson's Encyclopadia, II., p. 528. 1] Einleit. ins Alt. Test. As Bertheau remarks in Herzog's Real Ency., I. Aufl., iv., 115: "In Eichhorn's writings the ap>ologetic interest is everywhere manifest, to^ explain, as he expresses it, the Bible according to the ideas and methods of thought of the ancient world, and to defend it against the scorn of the enemies of the Bible. He recognized the e:cact problem of his times clearer 204 BIBLICAL STUDY. the results of Simon and Astruc, Lowth and Herder, embracing the various elements in an organic method which he called the Higher Criticism. In the preface to his second edition, 1787, he says : " I am obliged to give the most pains to a hitherto entirely un- worked field, the investigation of the internal condition of the par- ticular writings of the Old Testament by help of the Higher Criti- cism (a new name to no Humanist). Let any one think what they will of these efforts, my own consciousness tells me that they are the result of very careful investigation, although no one can be less wrapt up in them than I their author. The powers of one man hardly suf- fice to complete such investigations so entirely at once. They de- mand a healthful and ever-cheerful spirit, and how long can any one maintain it in such toilsome investigations ? They demand the keen- est insight into the internal condition of every book ; and who will not be dulled after a while } " He begins his investigation of the books of Moses with the wise statement : "Whether early or late ? That can be learned only from the writ- ings themselves. And if they are not by their own contents or other internal characteristic traces put down into a later century than they ascribe to themselves or Tradition assigns them, then a critical in- vestigator must not presume to doubt their own testimony — else he is a contemptible Rasonneur, a doubter in the camp, and no longer an historical investigator. According to this plan I, shall test the most ancient Hebrew writings, not troubling myself what the result of this investigation maybe. And if therewith learning, shrewdness, and other qualifications which I desire for this work should fail me, yet, certainly no one will find lacking love of the truth and strict in- vestigation." than most of his contemporaries ; he worked with unwearied diligence over the whole field of Biblical literature with his own independent powers ; he paved the way to difiScult investigations; he undertook many enterprises vnih good success, and conducted not a few of them to safe results. With Herder in common he has the credit of having awakened in wide circles love to the Bible, and especially the Old Testament writings, and excited enthusiasm carefully to ipvestigate then}." TUE HIGUER CRITICISM. 205 These are the principles and methods of a true and manly scholar, the father of higher criticism. It is a sad reflection that they have been so greatly and generally ignored on the scholastic and rationalistic sides. Eich- horn separates the Elohistic and Jehovistic documents in Genesis with great pains, and with such success that his analysis has been the basis of all critical investiga- tion since his day. Its great advantages are admirably stated : " For this discovery of the internal condition of the first books of Moses, party spirit will- perhaps for a pair of decennials snort at the Higher Criticism instead of rewarding it with the full thanks that arc due it, for (i; the credibility of the book gains by such a use of more ancient documents. (2) The harmony of the two narratives at the same time with their slight deviations proves their independence and mutual reliability. (3) Interpreters will be relieved of difficulty by this Higher Criticism which separates document from document. (4) Finally the gain of Criticism is also great. If the Higher Criti- cism has now for the first distinguished author from author, and in general characterized each according to his own ways, diction, fav- orite expressions, and other peculiarities, then her lower sister who busies herself only with words, and spies out false readings, has rules and principles by which she must test particular readings."* Eichhorn carried his methods of higher criticism into the entire Old Testament with the hand of a master, and laid the foundation of views that have been main- tained ever since with increasing determination. He did not always grasp the truth. He sometimes chased shadows, and framed visionary theories both in relation * In /. c, II., p. 329; see also Urgeschichte in Repertorium, 1770, V., p. 187. We cannot help calling: attention to the fine literary sense of Eichhorn as manifest in the following extract : " Read it (Genesis) as two historical works of antiquity, and breathe thereby the atmosphere of its age and country. Forget then the century in which thou livest and the knowledge it affords thee ; and if thou canst not do this, dream not that thou wilt be able to enjoy the book in the spirit of its origin," 206 BIBLICAL STUDY. to the Old and New Testaments, like others who have preceded him and followed him. He could not tran- scend the limits of his age, and adapt himself to future discoveries. The labors of a large number of scholars, and the work of a century and more, were still needed, as Eichhorn modestly anticipated. These discussions produced little impression upon Great Britain. The conflict with deism had forced the majority of her divines into a false position. If they had maintained the Jides divina and the critical position of the reformers and Westminster divines, they would not have hesitated to look the facts in the face, and strive to account for them ; they would not have com- mitted the grave mistakes by which biblical learning was almost paralyzed in Great Britain for half a century.* Eager for the defence of traditional views, they, for the most part, fell back again on Jewish rabbinical authority and external evidence, contending with painful anxiety for authors and dates, and so antagonized higher criti- cism itself as deistic criticism and rationalistic criticism, not discriminating between those who were attacking the Scriptures in order to destroy them, and those who were searching the Scriptures in order to defend them. It is true that the humanist and the purely literary in- terest prevailed in Eichhorn and his school ; they failed to apply the fides divina of the reformers, but this was lacking to the scholastics also, and so unhappily tradi- tional dogmatism and rationalistic criticism combined to crush evangelical criticism. * Mozley in his Reminiscences, 1882, Am. edit., Vol. IL, p. 41, says : " There •was hardly such a thing as Biblical Criticism in this country at the beginning of this century. Poole's Synopsis contained all that an ordinary clergyman could wish to know. Arnold is described as in all his glory at Rugby, with Poole's Synopsis on one side, and Facciolati on the other." THE HIGHEK CRITICISM. 207 VII. THE HIGHER CRITICISM OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. There is a notable exception to the absence of the critical spirit in Great Britain, and that exception proves the rule. In 1792 Dr. Alexander Geddes, a Roman Catholic divine, proposed what has been called the frag- mentary hypothesis to account for the structure of the Pentateuch and Joshua.'^ But this radical theory found- no hospitality in Great Britain. It passed over into Germany through Vater,f and there entered into conflict with the documentary hypothesis of the school of Eich- horn. Koppe had proposed the fragmentary hypothesis to account for the literary features of the book of Isaiah (see p. 203), and so it was extended to other books of the Bible. -Eichhorn had applied the documentary hypoth- esis to the gospels, Isaiah, and other parts of Scripture. The first stadium of the higher criticism is characterized by the conflict of the documentary and fragmentary hy- potheses along the whole line. The result of this dis- cussion was that the great variety of the elements that constitute our Bible became more and more manifest, and the problem was forced upon the critics to account for their combination. De Wette:}: introduced the second stadium of the higher criticism by calling the attention of the critics to * The Holy Bible ; or, the books accounted sacred by yews and Christians^ etc. London, I., p. xviii., seq. t Commentar Uber den Pentateuch mit Einleitungen zu den einxelnen Ab~ schnitten der eingeschalteten von Dr. Alex. Geddes'' merkwitrdigeren kritischen und excgetischen Anmerkungen, etc. Halle, 1805. \ Kritik der isrculitischen Geschichte, Halle, 1807 ; Beitrage zur Einleit. 1806-7 ; Lehrb. d. hist. krit. Einleit. in d. Bibel Alien und Neuen Testaments^ Berlin, 1817-26. 208 BIBLICAL STUDY. the genesis of the documents.* Gesenius supported him,f and sharply opposed the fragmentary hypothesis of Koppe, and strove to account for the genesis of the documents of Isaiah and their combination. Other crit- ics in great numbers worked in the same direction, such as B! :cl-c, Ewald, Knobel, Hupfeld, and produced a great mass of historical and critical work upon all parts of the Old Testament. The same problems were discussed in the New Testament, especially with reference to the gospels, the order of their production, and their int*- relation.:}: A great number of different theories were advanced to account for the genesis of the different books of the Bible. The result of the conflict has been the conviction on the part of most critics that the unity of the writings in the midst of the variety of docu- ments, has been accomplished by careful and skilful editing at different periods of biblical history. It became more and more evident that the problems were assuming larger dimensions and that they could not be solved until the several edited writings were compared with one another and considered in their relation to the development of the biblical religion. The higher criti- cism thus entered upon a third stadium of its history. This stadium was opened for the New Testament by the Tubingen school, and for the Old Testament by the school of Reuss. These entered into conflict with the older views and soon showed their insufficiency to ac- count for the larger problems. They reconstructed the biblical writings upon purely naturalistic principles, so * See author's article A Critical Study of the History of the Higher Criti' cistn, Tvit/t special reference to the Pentateuch^ Presbyterian Reveiw, IV., p. 94, seq. t Com. H. d. jfesaia, Leipzig, 1821. X See Weiss, Leben yesu, I,, p. 30, seq. THE HIGHER CRITICISM. £09 emphasizing differences as to make them irreconcilable, and explaining the development in biblical history and religion and literature, by the theory of antagonistic forces struggling for the mastery. These critics were successfully opposed by the schools of Neander, Hof- mann, and Evvald, and have been overcome in the New Testament by the principle of diversity of views com- bining in a higher unity. The same principle will over- come them in the Old Testament likewise, so soon as evangelical critics learn to apply it.* The higher criticism during the first and second stadia of its development in Germany made little impres- sion upon Great Britain and America. In 1818 T. Hart- well Home issued his Introduction to the Critical Study and Knotvledge of the Holy Scriptures,^ which has been highly esteemed for its many excellent qualities by several generations of students. His statement in the preface to the second edition of his work shows how far Great Britain was behind the continent at that time : " It (the work) originated in the author's own wants many years since .... when he stood in need of a guide to the reading of the Holy Scriptures At this time the author had no friend to assist his studies; — or remove his doubts, — nor any means of pro- curing critical works. At length a list of the more emi- nent foreign Biblical critics fell into his hands, and di- rected him to some of the sources of information which he was seeking ; he then resolved to procure such of them as his lim.ited means would permit, with the design in the first instance of satisfying his own mind on those * See author's article Critical Study of the Higher Criticism, etc., Preshy- terian Review, IV., p. io6, seq. ; also Chap. VIII., p. 225 ; Chap. XL, p. 387 of this book. + It passed through many editions, 4th, 1823 ; loth, 1S56. 210 BIBLICAL STUDY. topics which had perplexed him, and ultimately of laying before the Public the results of his inquiries, should no treatise appear that might supersede such a publication." This dependence of Great Britain and America on the biblical scholarship of the continent continued until the second half of our century. Most students of the Bible contented themselves with more or less modified forms of traditional theories. Some few scholars made occa- sional and cautious use of German criticism. Moses Stuart, Edward Robinson, S. H. Turner, Addison Alex- ander, Samuel Davidson, and others depended chiefly upon German works which they translated or reproduced. At last the Anglo-Saxon world was roused from its un- critical condition by the attacks of Bishop Colenso, on the historical character of the Pentateuch and book of Joshua, and by a number of scholars representing free thought in the " Essays and Reviews." * These writers fell back on the older deistic objections to the Pentateuch as history, and as containing a supernatural religion, and mingled therewith a reproduction of German thought, chiefly through Bunsen. They magnified the discrep- ancies in the narratives and legislation, and attacked the supernatural element, but added nothing to the sober higher criticism of the Scriptures. So far as they took position on this subject they fell into line with the more radical element of the school of De Wette. They called the attention of British and American scholars away from the literary study of the Bible and the true work of the higher criticism, to a defence of the supernatural, and the inspiration of the Bible. They were successfully attacked by several divines in Great Britain and Amer- * The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua critically examined. Part i.-vii., iS6a- 79 ; Recent Inquiries in Theology by eminent English Churchmen , being Essays and Reviews, 4th Am. edition from 2d London, 1862. THE HIGHER CRITICISM. 211 ica.* The work of -Colenso had little support in Great Britain or America at the time, but it made a great im- pression upon the Dutch scholar, Kuenen, who had al- ready advanced to the most radical positions. Through Kuenen's influence it has, however, again come into no- tice.f It is only within a few years that any general interest in matters of the higher criticism has been shown in Great Britain or America. This has been due chiefly in Great Britain to the influence of Bishop Lightfoot :j: and Dr. W. Robertson Smith,§ and in the United States to the discussions of the higher criticism in the Presbyterian Review, Bibliotheca Sacra, Journal of the Society of Bib- lical Literature and Exegesis, and other periodicals. The ground had, in part, been prepared for these discus- sions by the translation of many of the most important foreign works of criticism, and their publication, especial- ly by T. & T. Clark, of Edinburgh, the Foreign Transla- tion Fund Society, and others. Starting in the churches of England and France, the higher criticism was not de- veloped in the lands of its birth, but passed over into Lutheran Germany and Reformed Switzerland to the headwaters of the Reformation, to attach itself to the * Among these we may mention the authors of Aids to Faith, being a reply to '■'■Essays and Reviews" American edition, 1S62 ; W. H. Green, The Pent a- teuch vindicated from the Aspersions of Bishop Colenso, N. Y., 1S63. t Godsdienst van Israel, 1869-70, the Enghsh edition. Religion of Israel, 1S74 ; De vijf Boeken van Mazes, 1872 ; De Profeten en de profetieon e'er Israel, 1875, translated into English, The Prophets and Prophecy in Israel, 1S77, and numerous articles in Theo'.ogisch. Tijdsckrift since that time, and last of all, Hibbert Lectures, National Religions and Universal Religioru, 1S82. Kuen- en's views are presented in a popular form in the Bible for Learners, 3 vols., 18S0. X Articles in the Contemporary Review, against the author of Supernatural Religion, xxv. and xxvi. § The Old Testament in the Jevjish Church, 1881 ; The Prophets of Israel^ 1882. 212 BIBLICAL STUDY. principles of the Reformation after a hard and long struggle with rationalism, atheism, and pantheism. In its historic unfolding in Germany and Switzerland in the nineteenth century, we observe that biblical crit- icism is represented by three antagonistic parties : scho- lastic critics, evangelical critics, and rationalistic critics. That the discussion has until recently been chiefly con- fined to the continent of Europe and foreign tongues, may account for the prejudice against it in Great Brit- ain and America during the long neglect of biblical studies and the almost exclusive attention to the discussion of dogmas and the practical work of the church. But the renewed attention to biblical studies in Great Britain and America has brought us face to face with the critical theories of Germany, Holland, and Switzerland, and the question arises how to meet them. Shall it be with dog- matic opposition to criticism altogether? This would be unreasonable, unhistoric, and unprotestant. Or shall we not rather take our stand with the evangelical critics of Europe against the rationalistic critics, and conquer the latter by a more profound critical interpretation of the literature, the history, and the religion of the Bible ? We should not allow ourselves to be influenced by the circumstance that the majority of the scholars who have been engaged in these researches have been rationalistic or semi-rationalistic in their religious opinions ; and that they have employed the methods and styles peculiar to the German scholarship of our century. Whatever may have been the motives and influences that led to these investigations, the questions we have to determine are: (i) what are the facts of the case? and (2) do the theo- ries account for the facts? We have thus far been, at the best, spectators of the battle that has raged on the continent of Europe over THE HIGHER CRITICISM. 213 the biblical books. The Providence of God now calls us to take part in the conflict. Our Anglo-American schol- ars are but poorly equipped for the struggle. We should prepare ourselves at once. We should give our imme- diate attention to the history of this great movement, the stadia through which it has passed, and the present state of the question, in order that as soon as possible our scholars may attain the highest marks reached by our foreign brethren and advance to still greater achieve- ments. CHAPTER VIII. LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. The sacred Scriptures are composed of a great variety of literary products, the results of the thinking, feeling, and acting of God's people in many generations. Though guided by the Divine Spirit so as to give one divine rev- elation in continuous historical development, they yet, as literary productions, assume various literary styles in accordance with the culture, taste, and capacity of their authors in the different periods of their composition. Especially is this true of the Old Testament, which contains the sacred literature of the Hebrews through a long period of literary development. For their proper interpretation, therefore, we need not only the relig- ious spirit that can enter into" sympathetic relations with the authors, and through vital union with the Divine Spirit interpret them from their inmost soul ; we need not only training in grammar and logic to understand the true contents of their language and the drift of their discourse ; we need not only a knowledge of the archae- ology, geography, and history of the people, that we may enter into the atmosphere and scenery of their life and its expression ; we need not only a knowledge of the laws, doctrines, and institutions in which the authors were reared, and which constituted the necessary grooves of their religious culture* but in addition to all these ^214) ' LITER AEY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 215 we need also a literary training, an cBsthetic culture, in order that by a true literary sense, and a sensitive and refined aesthetic taste, we may discriminate poetry from prose, fact from fiction, the bare truth from its artistic dress and decoration, the fruit of reasoning from the products of the imagination and fancy. Every race and nation has its peculiarities of literary culture and style, so that while the study of the best lit- erary models of the Greeks and Romans, and modern European languages, may be necessary to develop the best literary taste ; yet in entering upon the study of Hebrew literature we come into a field that was not in- fluenced at all by any of these, — to the literature of a race radically different from all the families of the Indo- Germanic race — one which declines to be judged by the standards of strangers and foreigners, but requires an independent study in connection with the literature of its own sisters, especially the Arabic, Syriac, and Assyr- ian. A special training in these literatures is, therefore, necessary in order to the proper estimation of the He- brew literature ; and criticism from the point of view of our ordinary classic literary culture alone is unfair and misleading.' And it is safe to say that no one can thor- oughly understand the Greek New Testament who has not made himself familiar with the Old Testament liter- ature, upon which it is based. The student must enter into sympathetic relations with the spirit and life of the Orient that pervades it. The literary study of the Bible is essentially the higher criticism of the Bible. A reader may enjoy the literary' features of Shakespeare, Milton, and Homer without him- self taking part in critical work, but consciously or un- consciously he is dependent upon the literary criticism of experts, who have given him the results of their la- 216 BIBLICAL STUDY. bors upon these authors. So is it with the Bible : the ordinary reader may enjoy it as literature without being a critic — but the labors of critics are necessary in order that the Bible may be presented to him in its proper literary character and forms. Biblical literature has the same problems to solve, and the same methods and prin- ciples for their solution, as have been employed in other departments of the world's literature (p. 87 seg.) It has to determine the integrity, authenticity, literary form, and credibility of the writings. I. THE INTEGRITY OF THE SCRIPTURES. The first questions with reference to a writing are : is it the product of one mind as an organic whole or composed of several pieces of the same author; or is it a collection of writings by different authors? Has it retained its original integrity or has it been inl:erpoIa- ted ? May the interpolations be discriminated from the original ? * The twelve minor prophets are regarded as one book in most of the ancient Jewish and Christian catalogues. The Baba Bathra represents them as edited by the men of the great synagogue after the exile (p. 176). This is a conjecture without historical evidence. These proph- ets in modern times have ordinarily been treated sepa- rately and their original combination to a great extent forgotten. Each one of them may be tested as to its integrity. The only one about which there has been any general questioning, is Zechariah. The earlier doubts were based upon Matt, xxvii. 9, which ascribes Zech. xi. * For general statements of the problems of higher criticism in our time, see Hermann Strack and L. Schulze, in Zockler, Handbuch d. theologischen Wis- senscha/ten, I., 1882, pp. 135, seq.^ 382 seq. ; also, S. I. Curtissand H. M. Scott, in Current Discussions in Theology^ Chicago, 1883, p. 26 seq. LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 217 12-13 to Jeremiah (p. 169). If that passage be free from error, the section of Zechariah in which the citation is contained must be separated from that prophet and at- tached to the prophecies of Jeremiah. It is now gener- ally conceded that this cannot be done, and that the evangeHst has made a sHp of memory in citation. The integrity of Zechariah has been disputed in recent times from literary grounds. Many scholars of the present day attribute the second half to one or more pre-exilic prophets. . Others, as Wright* and Delitzsch,f still maintain the integrity of the book. The book of Proverbs is represented by the Baba Bathra (p* 176) as edited by the college of Hezekiah. This is based upon a conjecture founded on Proverbs xxv. i. It has also been held that it was edited by Solomon himself, and, indeed, that Solomon was the author of the whole. It is now generally agreed that the book is made up of several collections, and that it has passed through the hands of a number of editors at different times.;}: The Psalter is composed of 150 Psalms in 5 Books. The Baba Bathra (p. 176) makes David the editor, and states that he used with his own Psalms those of ten ancient worthies. It has been held by some that David wrote all the Psalms (p. 188). Calvin, Du Pin, and others make Ezra the editor (p. 201). It is now generally agreed that the psalm-book is made up of a number of collections, and, like the book of Proverbs, has passed through a number of editings. Some have thought it to be the psalm-book of the first temple. Others, and indeed most * Zechariah and Ms Prophecies, considered in relation to Modern Criticism, Hampton Lectures, 1878, London, 1879, p. xxzv. + Messianic Prophecies, translated by S. 1. Curtiss, Edinburgh, 1881. J Delitjssch, Bib. Com. on the Proverbs, T. & T. Clark, Edinburgh, 1874; Zockler in Lange, Biblework, Com. on the Proverbs, N. Y., 1870. 10 218 BIBLICAL STUDY. moderns, think that it was edited in its present form for the second temple.* Gratz thinks that the Psalter was finally edited for the worship of the synagogue.f Isaiah is represented by the Baba Bathra as edited by the col- lege of Hezekiah (p. 176). Its integrity was disputed by Koppe (p. 203), who maintained that it was a collection of pieces of various prophets loosely associated. It is generally held by foreign scholars that the first half of Isaiah is composed of groups of prophecies gathered about those of Isaiah as a nucleus, and that the second half (xl.-lxvi.) is by an unknown prophet of the exile.:}: The integrity of Isaiah has recently been defended by W. H. Cobb.§ There are interpolations in the Septuagint version in connection with Jeremiah, Daniel, and Esther. They are also found in the New Testament by the general consent of scholars — in Mark xvi. 9-20 ; \ in the gospel of John viii. i-ii \\ in the famous passage of the heav- enly witnesses, the first epistle of John v. 7, and elsewhere. We have seen that many scholars of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries found such interpolations in the Pentateuch (p. 200). They are found by scholars in other books of the Bible. It will be sufficient to give the judicious remarks of Perowne on the Psalter: * Perowne, Book of Psalms, 2d edition, London, 1870, p. 78 ; 3d edition, Andover, 1876, p. 63; Murray, Lectures on the Origin and Growth 0/ the Psalms, N. Y., 1880. + Com. zu. d. Psalmen, I., p. 62, seq. X Ewald, Die Propheten, Gottingen, i868, 2te Ausg., III., p. 20, seq. ; De- litisch, Messianic Prophecies, 1881, p. ; Cheyne, Prophecies of Isaiah, 1881, II., p. 201 seq. ; Cross, Introductory Hints to English Readers of the Old Testa- mcnt, London, 1882, p. 238. § Several articles in the Bibliotheca Sacra, April and October, 1881, Jan. and July, 1882. I See the marginal note of the revisers in the Revised Version of 1881. \ Bracketed in the Revised Version of 1881. LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 219 " It is plain tliat these ancient Hebrew songs and hymns must have suffered a variety of changes in the course of time, similar to those which maybe traced in the older religious poetry of the Chris- tian Church, where this has been adapted by any means to the object of some later compiler. Thus, hymns once intended for private use became adapted to public. Words and expressions applicable to the original circumstances of the writer, but not applicable to the new purpose to which the hymn was to be put, were omitted or altered. It is only in a critical age that any anxiety is manifested to ascertain the original form in which a poem appeared. The practical use of hyrhns in the Christian Church, and of the Psalms in the Jewish, far outweighed all considerations of a critical kind, or rather these last never occurred. Hence it has become a more difficult task than it otherwise would have been to ascertain the historical circumstances under which certain Psalms were written. Some traces we find leading us to one period of Jewish history ; others which lead to another. Often there is a want of cohesion between the parts of a Psalm ; often an abruptness of transition , which we can hardly account for, except on the hypothesis that we no longer read the Psalm in its original form."* All these questions are to be determined by the prin- ciples of the higher criticism. The authority of the Bible does not depend upon the integrity of particular writings. If the editing and interpolating were done under the influence of the Divine Spirit, this carries with it the same authority as the original document. If the interpolations are of a different character, such as are found to be the case in the apocryphal additions to Daniel and Esther, they should be removed from the Bible. If the authority of the Bible depended upon our first finding who wrote these interpolations and who edited the books, and whether these interpolators and editors were inspired men, we could never reach convic- tion as to many of them. But inasmuch as the author- ity of the Bible depends not upon this literary question » * In /. c, p. 82. 220 BIBLICAL STUDY. of Integrity of writing, but upon the Word of God recognized in the writing ; and we prove the inspiration of the authors from the authority of the writings rather than the authority of the writings from the inspiration of the authors ; the authority of the Bible is not dis- turbed by any changes in traditional opinion as to these writings. The only question of integrity with which inspiration has to do is the integrity of the canon, whether the interpolations, the separate parts, the writings as a whole are real and necessary parts of the system of divine revelation — whether they contain the Divine Word. This can never be determined by the higher criticism, which has to do only with literary in- tegrity and not with canonical integrity. We doubt not the canonicity of Mark xvi. 9-20, although it seems necessary to separate it from the original gospel of Mark. II. THE AUTHENTICITY OF THE SCRIPTURES. Several questions arise under this head. Is the author's name given in connection with the writing? Is it anonymous? Can it be pseudonymous? Is it a compilation ? All these are ordinary features of the world's literature. Is there any sound reason why they should not all be found in the Bible ? There has ever been a tendency in the synagogue and the church to ascribe the biblical books to certain well-known holy men and prophets. Tradition has been busy here. There is no book of the Bible that has not one or more traditional authors. And so in all departments of liter- ature there is scarcely a great name which has not been compelled to father writings that do not belong to it. The genuine writings of Athanasius, Jerome, Augustine, LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 221 and Ambrose have to be separated by careful criticism from the spurious ; for example : " Of the thirty to a hundred so-called Ambrosian hymns, however, only twelve in the view of the Benedictine editor of his works are genuine, the rest being more or less successful imitations by un- known authors. Neale reduces the number of the genuine Am- brosian hymns to ten." * It is well known that Shakespeare's genuine plays have to be discriminated from the large number of others that have been attributed to him. Shakespearian criticism is of so great importance as to constitute a literature of its own.f Sometimes the writings of a well- known author have been, in the process of time, attrib- uted to another. We have an example of this in the Paradoxes of Herbert Palmer, which have been regarded as Lord Bacon's.;]: To question the traditional opinion as to authorship of a writing is not to contest the autheyiticity of the writing. Authenticity has properly to do only with the claims of the writing itself, and not with the claims of traditional theories. The Baba Bathra does not dis- criminate between editorship and authorship (p. 178). It is evident that to the Tanaim of the second century the principal thing was official committing to writing and not the original production of the writing. The Tal- mudic statements as to authorship are many of them absurd conjectures. Josephus and Philo, when they make Moses the author of the narrative of his own death, go beyond the Baba Bathra and indulge in folly. The titles found in connection with the biblical books * Schaff, History 0/ the Christian Church, III., 1868, p. 591. + Knight's Shakespeare, Supplemental Volume. X See Grosart, Lard Bacon not the author of the '■'^ Chistian Paradoxes.''* Printed for private circulation, 1S65. 222 BIBLICAL STUDY. cannot always be relied upon, for the reason that we have first to determine whether they came from the original authors, or have been appended by inspired editors, or have been attached in the rabbinical or Chris- tian schools. Thus the difference in the titles of the several psalms between the Septuagint version and the Massoretic text are so great as to force the conclusion that many of the titles are of late and uncertain origin, and that most, if not all, are of doubtful authority.* In considering the question of authenticity, we have first to examine the writing itself. If the writing claims to' be by a certain author, to doubt it is to doubt the credibility and authority of the writing. If these claims are found to be unreliable, the credibility of the writing is gone, and its inspiration is involved. But if the credi- bility of the writing is not impeached, its inspiration has nothing to do with the question of its human author- ship. The higher criticism has been compelled by Deism and Rationalism to meet this question of forgery of biblical writings. This phase of the subject has now been settled so far that no reputable critics venture to write of any of our canonical writings as forgeries. (i) There are large numbers of the biblical books that are anonymous: e.g., the Pentateuch, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, Job, Jonah, Ruth, many of the Psalms, Lamentations, and the epistle to the Hebrews. Tradition has assigned authors for all of these. It is also maintained that the internal statements of some of these books point to their authorship by certain persons. « Murray, Lectures on the Origin and Growth of the Psalms^ i88o, p. 79, seg. ; Perowne in /. <•., p. 94, seq. LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. £23 These latter are questions of interpretation. The vast weight of the biblical scholarship of the present day is, however, with reference to the books mentioned above, against any such interpretation of them as discovers authorship in their statements. Such interpretation is forced, and is regarded as based on preconceptions and dogmatic considerations. (2) Are ihevQ pseudonymous books in the Bible? This is a well-known and universally recognized literary style which no one should think of identifying with forgery or deceit of any kind. Ancient and modern literature is full of pseudonymes as well as anonymes. One need only look over the bibliographical works devoted to this subject,* or have a little familiarity with the history of literature, or examine any public library, to settle this question. There is great variety in the use of the pseu- donyme. Sometimes the author uses a surname rather than his own proper name, either by it to conceal him- self from the public or to introduce himself by a title of honor. Thus Calvin follows the opinion of some of the ancients that the prophecy of Malachi was written by Ezra, who assumed the surname Malachi in connection with it. Then again some descriptive term is used as by the authors of the celebrated Martin Marprelate tracts. Then a fictitious name is constructed as in the title of the famous tracts vindicating Presbyterianism against Episcopacy ; the authors Stephen Marshall, Ed- mund Calamy, Thomas Young, Matthew Newcommen, and William Spurstow coined the name Smectymnuus from the initial letters of their names. Among the ancients it was more common to assume the names of * Barbier, Dictionnaire des Ouvrages anonymes et pseudonymes, 4 torn., Paris, 1872-78; Halkelt and Lang, Dictionary 0/ the Anonymous and Pseudonymoui Literature 0/ Great Britain, 1S82, seq.. Vol. I., A-E, II. F-N. 224 BIBLICAL STUDY. ancient worthies. There is an enormous number of these pseudonymes in the Puritan literature of the i6th and 17th centuries. The descendants of the Puritans are the last ones who should think of any dishonesty or impropriety connected with their use. Why should the pseudonyme be banished from the Bible? Among the Greeks and Romans they existed in great numbers. Among the Jews we have a long list in extra canonical books, e. g. : The apocalypses of Enoch, Baruch, Ezra, Assumption of Moses, Ascen- sion of Isaiah, Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, the Psalter of Solomon, covering several kinds of literature. Why should there not be some of these in the Old Tes- tament ? It is now conceded by most scholars, even Keil and Delitzsch, that Ecclesiastes is such a pseudo- nyme, using Solomon's name.* It is claimed by some that Daniel f and Deuteronomy :j: are also pseudonymes. If no a priori objection can be taken to the pseudonyme * This is invincibly established by Wright, Book of Koheleth, London, 18S3, p. 79, seq. : " Solomon is introduced as the speaker throughout the work in the same way as Cicero in his treatise on 'Old Age,' and on ' Friendship,' selects Cato the elder as the exponent of his views, or as Plato in his Dialogues brings forward Socrates." See Presbyterian Review, IV., p. 649, seq. t See Strack in /. <:., p. 164, seq., and p. 189 of this vol. X So Riehm, Gesetzgehung Mosis im Lande Moab, 1854, p. 112, represents the Deuteronomic code as a literary fiction. The author lets Moses appear as a prophetic popular orator, and as the first priestly reader of the law. It is a liter- ary fiction as Ecclesiastes is a literary fiction. The latter uses the person of Solo- mon as the master of wisdom to set forth the lessons of wisdom. The former, uses Moses as the great lawgiver, to promulgate divine laws. This is also the view of Noldeke, Alttest. Literatur, 1868, p. 30 ; and W. Robertson Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish Church, N. Y., 1881, p. 384, seq., who uses the term legal fiction as a variety of literary fiction. We cannot go with those who regard this as an absurdity, or as involving literary dishonesty. Drs. Riehm and Smith, and others who hold this view, repudiate such a thought with abhorrence. The style of literary fiction was a familiar and favorite one of the later Jews. And there can be no a priori reason why they should not have used it in Bible times. LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 225 as inconsistent with divine revelation, — if or\t pseudonyme, e. g., Ecclesiastes, be admitted in the Bible, then the question whether Daniel and Deuteronomy are pseudo- nymes must be determined by the higher criticism, and it does not touch the question of their inspiration or authority as a part of the Scriptures at all. All would admit that no forger or forgery could be inspired. But that every one who writes a pseudonyme is a deceiver or forger is absurd. The usage of literature ancient and modern has established its propriety. If it claims to be by a particular author, and is said by a critic to be a pseudonyme, then its credibility is attacked, and the question of its inspiration is raised. In the New Tes- tament the gospel of John is thought by some to be a pseudonyme of the second Christian century. The gos- pel of John has been the centre of the conflict of the higher criticism in the New Testament. Here the lines of battle were sharply drawn by the schools of Baur and Neander. The vindication of the Johanaic authorship is the grandest critical achievement of our century, for which all men ought to be grateful to the principles and methods of the higher criticism. Traditionalists have contributed nothing of value to this discussion, but have only impeded the evangelical critics in their struggles with the rationalistic critics.* We shall give an extract from Weiss as it not only bears on the authenticity of John, but also on the general question of the pseu- donyme : "There was certainly in antiquity a pseudonymous literature, which cannot be criticized from the standpoint of the literary cus- * See Gcxlet, Com. on the Gospel of John, T. & T. Clark, Edin., 1876, I., p. 8, seq. Luthardt, St. John's Gospel, T. & T. Clark, Edin., 1876, I., pp. 211, seq. ; Ezra Abbot, Authorship 0/ the Fourth Gospel, Boston, 1880 ; Weiss, Leben Jcsu, 18S2, I., p. 88, seq. 10* 226 BIBLICAL STUDY. toms of our day, or judged as forgery. For it is just the naiveti with which the author strives to find a higher authority for his words by laying them in the mouth of one of the celebrated men of the past, in whose spirit he desires to speak, which justifies this literary form. Quite otherwise is it in this case ; the author mentions no name ; he only gives it to be understood that it is the unnamed dis- ciple so repeatedly introduced who is writing here from his own per- sonal knowledge ; he leaves it to be inferred from the comparison of one passage with another that this eye-witness cannot be any one but John. It was Renan, who in the face of modern criticism, said that it was not a case of pseudonymous authorship such as was known to antiquity, it was either truth or refined forgery — plain de- ception." * The authenticity of the Pauline epistles of the im- prisonment, and the pastoral epistles has been contested in a similar way. The higher criticism has shown that the differences in the Pauline epistles represent three stages of growth in the experiences and doctrinal teach- ing of the apostle Paul himself. And it is not neces- sary to think of his disciples as their authors, or to de- scend into the second century.f The Apocalypse has been disputed from ancient times. It has been assigned by some of the ancients to a presbyter John. Recent criticism is more and more decided in favor of the au- thorship of the apostle John and against placing it with the pseudonymous apocalypses of Peter and Paul. The differences, which are recognized to be very great in language and style, and in doctrine, are best explained by regarding the Apocalypse as an earlier writing, and the gospel as the most mature writing of the apostle.:|: (3) Compilations. The historical books of Kings and * Weiss, Life of Jesus, T. & T. Clark, Edin., 1883, I., p. 94. + See SchafI, History of the Christian Church, 1882, p. 784, seq. ; Weiss, Bib- lical Theology of the New Testament, Edinburgh, 1882, I., p. 285. X Schaff, History of the Christian Church, N. Y., <882, pp. 716, seq. ; 834. literaky: study of the bible. 227 Chronicles,* and the gospel of Luke (i. 1-4) represent themselves as compilations. They use older documents which are sometimes mentioned by name. The ques- tion then is, how far this compilation has extended, and whether it has been once for all, or has passed through a number of stages. Thus the books of Kings refer to books of Chronicles which are not our books of Chronicles, and our books of Chronicles refer to books of Kings which are not our books of Kings. Both of these historical writers seem to depend upon an an- cient book of Chronicles — only our book of Chronicles has used it in its citation in another book of Kings than the one presented to us in the canon, for it gives material not found therein.^ The question arises whether the other historical books are not also compilations. In the New Testament the chief dis- putes have been as to Matthew and Mark ; ^ in the Old Testament as to the Pentateuch. It is now con- ceded by most critics that the Pentateuch is composed of four separate historical narratives, each with its code of legislation, and that these have been compacted into their present form by one or more editors. The Bada Bathra makes Moses the editor or author of the Penta- teuch. If the inspiration of the Pentateuch depends upon the sole Mosaic authorship, then criticism has come into irreconcilable conflict with its inspiration. But this is only a presumption of tradition. The inspiration and authority of the Pentateuch are as safe, yes, safer, * I Kings xi. 41 ; xiv. 19, 29 ; xvi. 5 ; 2 Kings i. 18 ; viii. 23 ; xx. 20 ; i Chron. ixix. 29 ; 2 Chron. ix. 29 ; xii. 15 ; xiii. 22 ; xvi. 11 ; xxiv. 27 ; xxvi. 22, etc. ; xxxiii. 18, 19 ; xxxv. 27 ; Neh. xi, 23. t Noldeke, Altiest. Literatur, Leipzig, 1868, p. 57, seg. X Weiss, Leben Jesu, L, 1882, p. 24,^^7., gives the latest and best statement of this discussion and its results. -228 BIBLICAL STUDY. with the view that these books were compiled, as were the other historical books of the Old Testament.* The question as to the authenticity of the Bible is whether God is its author ; whether it is inspired. This cannot be determined by the higher criticism in any way, for the higher criticism has only to do with human author- ship, and has nothing to do with the divine authorship, which is determined on different principles, as we have seen in our study of the canon (Chapter V.). III. THE LITERARY FORMS OF THE SCRIPTURES. The literary forms have not shared to any great extent in the revival of biblical studies. And yet these are ex- actly the things that most need consideration in our day, when biblical literature is compared with the litera- tures of the other religions of the ancient world, and the question is so often raised why we should recognize the Bible as the inspired word of God rather thian the sacred books of other religions; and when the higher criticism is becoming the most important factor in biblical studies of our day. Bishop Lowth in England, and the poet Herder in Germany, toward the close of the last century called the attention of the learned world to this neglected theme, and invited it to the study of the Scriptures as sacred literature ; but little advance has been made since that day, owing, doubtless, to the fact that the conflict between the churches and rationalism has been raging about the history, the religion, and the doctrines ; the original text, and the higher criticism in questions of authenticity, integrity, and credibility of writings ; but * See Critical Study of the Histgry of the Higher Criticism, Presbyterian Review, IV., pp. los, 129, seq. LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 229 the finer literary features have not entered into the con- troversies to any extent until quite recent times. De Wette, Ewald, and especially Reuss, have made valuable contributions to this subject, but even these masters of exegetical theology have given their strength to other topics. There lies open to the student of our day one of the most interesting and inviting fields for research, whence he may derive rich spoil for himself and the church. The most obvious divisions of literature are poetry and prose. These are distinguished on the surface by different modes of writing, and to the ear by different modes of reading ; but underneath all this is a difference of rhythmical movement. It is indeed difficult to draw the line scientifically between poetry and prose even here, for as Lanier says : " Prose has its rhythms, its tunes and its tone-colors, like verse ; and, while the ex- treme forms of prose and verse are sufficiently unlike each other, there are such near grades of intermediate forms, that they may be said to run into each other, and any line claiming to be distinctive must necessarily be more or less arbitrary." * Hence rhetorical prose and works of the imagination in all languages approximate closely to poetry. The poetry of the Bible is written in the MSS., and is printed in the Hebrew and Greek texts, as well as the versions with few exceptions exactly as if it were prose ; and the Hebrew scribes who divided the Old Testament Scriptures and pointed them with vowels and accents dealt with them as if they were prose and even obscured the poetic form by their ignorant and careless divisions of verse and sections, so that the poetic form in many cases can be restored only by a careful study of * Science of English Verse, N. Y,, i8£o, p. 57. 230 BIBLICAL STUDT. the unpointed text and a neglect of the Massoretic sections. We reserve the subject of Hebrew Poetry for our next chapter, limiting ourselves in this chapter to the Prose Literature of the Bible. This is found in rich variety. (i) History constitutes a large portion of the Old and New Testaments. In the Old Testament there are two distinct kinds of history: the priestly and the prophetic. The priestly is represented by Chronicles, Ezra, and Ne- hemiah, and extends backward into the Elohistic section of the Pentateuch. It is characterized by the annalistic style, using older sources, such as genealogical tables, letters, official documents, and entering into the minute details of the Levitical system, and the organization of the State, but destitute of imagination and of the artistic sense. The prophetic is represented by the books of Samuel and Kings and extends backward into the Jeho- vistic sections of the Pentateuch. It is characterized by the descriptive style, using ancient stories, traditions, poetic extracts, and entire poems. It is graphic in de- lineation, using the imagination freely, and with fine artistic tact.* In the New Testament we have four biographical sketches of the noblest and most exalted person who has ever appeared in history, (the God-Manl Jesus Christ, in their variety giving us memoirs in four^distinct types, the highest in the gospel of John, where the person of Jesus is set in the halo of religious philosophical reflec- tion from the point of view of the Christophanies of Patmos.f The book of Acts presents the history of * Dlllmann, Genesis, 4te. Aufl., Leipzig, 18S3, p.' xi. seg. ; Noldeke, Altteat, Literatur, Leipzig, 1868, p. 15, seq. \ Weiss, Ltbcn Jesu, Berlin, 1882, 1., p. 103. LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 231 the planting and training of the Christian church, using various sources and personal reminiscences. All these forms of history and biography use the same variety of sources as histories in other ancient literature. Their historical material was. not revealed to the authors by the Divine Spirit, but gathered by their own industry as historians from existing material and sources of information. The most that we can claim for them while distinguishing inspiration from revelation, is that they were inspired by God in their work so that they were guided into truth and thereby preserved from error — certainly as to all matters of relig- ion, faith, and morals ; but to what extent further in the details and external matters of their composition is still in dispute among evangelical men. It is also disputed to what extent their use of sources was limited by in- spiration, or, in other words, what kinds of sources were unworthy of the use of inspired historians. There are those who would exclude the legend and the myth which are found in all other ancient history. If the legend in it- self implies what is false, it would certainly be unworthy of divine inspiration to use it; but if it is the poetical em- bellishment of bare facts, one does not readily see why it should be excluded from the sacred historians' sources any more than snatches of poetry, bare genealogical ta- bles, and records often fragmentary and incomplete, such as are certainly found in the historical books. If the myth necessarily implies in itself polytheism or panthe- ism, or any of the elements of false religions it would be unworthy of divine inspiration. It is true that the classic myths which lie at the basis of the history of Greece and Rome, with which all students are familiar, are essential- ly polytheistic ; but not more so than the religions of these peoples and all their literature. It is also true 232 BIBLICAL STUDY. that the myths of Assyria and Babylon as recorded on their monuments are essentially polytheistic. Many scholars have found such myths in the Pentateuch. But over against this there is the striking fact that stands out in the comparison of the biblical narratives of the creation and the flood, with the Assyrian and Babylo- nian ; namely, that the biblical are monotheistic, the Assyrian polytheistic. But is there not a monotheistic myth as well as a polytheistic ? In other words, may not the poetic form of the myth be appropriate to mo- notheistic as well as to polytheistic conceptions ? May it not be an appropriate literary form for the true bibli- cal religion as well as the other ancient religions of the world ? * However we may answer this question a priori, it is safe to say that the term myth at least has become so associated with polytheism in later usage and in the common mind, that it is unwise, if not altogether im- proper, to use it in connection with the pure monothe- ism and supernatural revelation of the Bible, if for no other reason — at least for this — to avoid misconception, and in order to make the necessary discriminations. For the discrimination of the religion of the Bible from the other religions must ever be more important than their comparison and features of resemblance. There is no such objection to the term legend,f which in its earliest and still prevalent use, has a prevailing religious sense, and can cover without difficulty all those elements in the biblical history which we are now considering. There is certainly a resemblance to the myth of other nations * Lenormant, Beginnings of History , N. Y., 1882, p. 187. t George P. Marsh, article Legend, in Johnson's New Universal Cyclofadia, 1876, II., p. 1714, and the Legenda Aurea, or Historia Lombardica, of Jacobus de Voragine, of the 13th century. LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 233 in the close and familiar association of the one God with the ancestors of our race, and the patriarchs of Israel, however we may explain it. Whatever names we may- give to these beautiful and sacred traditions which were transmitted in the families of God's people from genera- tion to generation, and finally used by the sacred histo- rians in their holy books ; whatever names we may give them in distinction from the legends and myths of other nations, none can fail to see that poetic embellishment natural and exquisitely beautiful, artless and yet most artistic, which corhes from the imagination of the com- mon people of the most intelligent nations, in these sources that were used by divine inspiration in giving us ancient history in its most attractive form. Indeed the imagination is in greater use in Hebrew history than in any other history, with all the oriental wealth of color in the prophetic historians. The dialogues and discourses of the ancient worthies/ are simple, natural, and profound. They are not to ba regarded as exact reproductions of the words originallyX spoken, whether preserved in the memory of the people ] and transmitted in stereotyped form or electrotyped on / the mind of the historian, or in his writing by divine in-/ spiration ; but they are rather reproductions of the situ- ation in a graphic and rhetorical manner, differing from the like usage in Livy and Thucydides, Herodotus and\ Xenophon only in that the latter used their reflection/ and imagination merely; the former used the same fac- ulties guided by divine inspiration into the truth and restrained from error. In biblical history there is a wealth of beauty and re- ligious instruction for those students who approach it not only as a work of divine revelation from which the maximum of dogma, or of examples and maxims of prac- A 234 BIBLICAL STUDY. tical ethics are to be derived ; but with the higher appreciation and insight of those who are trained to the historian's art of representation, and who learn from the art of history, and the styles and methods of his- tory, the true interpretation of historical books, where the soul enters into the enjoyment of the concrete, and is unwilling to break up the ideal of beauty, or destroy the living reality, for the sake of the analytic process, and the abstract resultant, however important these may be in other respects, and under other circum- stances. (2) Advancing from historical prose, we come to the Oration. The Bible is as rich in this form of literature as in its history and poetry. Indeed, the three run in- sensibly into one another in Hebrew prophecy. Rare models of eloquence are found in the historical books, such as the plea of Judah (Gen. xliv. 18-34); the charge of Joshua (Jos. xxiv.) ; the indignant outburst of Jotham (Judges ix.) ; the sentence pronounced upon Saul by Samuel (i Sam. xv.) ; the challenge of Elijah (i Kings xviii.). The three great discourses of Moses in Deuter- onomy are elaborate orations, combining great variety of motives and rhetorical forms, especially in the last discourse, to impress upon Israel the doctrines of God, and the blessings and curses, the life and death, involved therein. The prophetical books present us collections of in- spired eloquence, which for unction, fervor, impressive- ness, grandeur, sublimity, and power, surpass all the elo- quence of the world, as they grasp the historical past and the ideal future, and entwine them with the living present, for the comfort and warning, the guidance and the restraint of God's people. Nowhere else do we find such depths of passion, such heights of ecstasy, such LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 235 dreadful inlprecations, such solemn warnings, such im- pressive exhortations, and such sublime promises. Each prophet has his own peculiarities and excel- lences. "Joel's discourse is like a rapid, sprightly- stream flowing into a delightful plain. Hosea's is like a waterfall plunging down over rocks and ridges ; Isaiah as a mass of water rolling heavily along." * Micah has no superior in simplicity and originality of thought, spirituality and sublimity of conception, clearness and precision of prophetic vision. " Isaiah is not the espec- ially lyrical prophet, or the especially elegiacal prophet, or the especially oratorical or hortatory prophet, as we would describe a Joel, a Hosea, or Micah, with whom there is a greater prevalence of some particular colors ; but just as the subject requires, he has readily at com- mand every different kind of style, and every different change of delineation ; and it is precisely this, that, in point of language, establishes his greatness, as well as, in general, forms one of his most towering points of ex- cellence. His only fundamental peculiarity is the lofty, majestic calmness of his style, proceeding out of the perfect command which he feels that he has over his matter." f Jeremiah is the prophet of sorrow, and his style is heavy and monotonous, as the same story of woe must be repeated again and again in varied s. rains. Ezekiel was, as Hengstenberg represents, of a gigan- tic appearance, well adapted to struggle effectively with the spirit of the times of the Babylonian captivity — a spiritual Samson, who, with powerful hand, grasped the pillars of the temple of idolatry and dashed it to the earth, standing alone, yet worth a hundred prophetic schools, and, during his entire appearance, a powerful * Wunsche, Weissagungen des Prophten Joel^ Leipzig, 1872, p. 38. t Ewald, Die Prophet en, Gottingen, 1867, L, p. 279. 230 BIBLICAL STUDY. proof that the Lord was still among His people, although His visible temple was ground to powder.* Malachi closes the line, "Although like a late evening closing a long day, he is yet at the same time the gray of dawn, bearing a noble day in its bosom." f In the New Testament the three great discourses of Jesus and His parabolic teaching present us oratory of the Aramaic type ; simple, quiet, transparent, yet reach- ing to unfathomable depths, and as the very blue of heaven, — every word a diamond, every sentence alto- gether spirit and life, illuminating with their pure, searching light, quickening with their warm, pulsating, throbbing love.ij: The discourse of Peter at Pentecost will vie with Cicero against Catiline in its conviction of the rulers of Israel, and in its piercing the hearts of the people. The dis- courses of Paul on Mars' Hill, and before the Jews in Je- rusalem, and the magnates of Rome at Caesarea, are not surpassed by Demosthenes on the Crown. We see the philosophers of Athens confounded, some mocking, and others convinced unto salvation. We see the Jewish mob at first silenced, and then bursting forth into a frantic yell for his blood. We see the Roman governor trembling before his prisoner's reasonings of justice and judgment to come. We do not compare the orations of Peter and Paul with those of Cicero and Demos- thenes for completeness, symmetry, and artistic finish ; this would be impossible, for the sermons ot Peter and Paul are only preserved to us in outline ; but, taking them as outlines, we maintain that for skilful use of * Hengstenberg, Christology, T. &. T. Claxk, Edin., 1864, Vol. II., p. 3. t Nagelsbach, article Maleachi, in Herzog, i Aufl., viii., p. 756. X See A. B. Bruce, Parabolic Teaching of Christ, London, 1882, for a fine appreciation of the literary forms of the parables. LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 237 circumstance, for adaptation to the occasion, for rhetor- ical organization of the theme, for rapid display of argu- ment, in their grand march to the cHmax, and above all in the effects that they produced, the orations of Peter and Paul are pre-eminent. Nowhere else save in the Bible have the oratorical types of three distinct languages and civilizations com- bined for unity and variety of effect. These biblical models ought to enrich and fortify the sermon of our day. If we should study them as literary forms, as much as we study Cicero and Demosthenes as models of sa- cred eloquence, the pulpit would rise to new grandeur and sublimer heights and more tremendous power over the masses of mankind. (3) The Epistle may be regarded as the third form of prose literature. This is the contribution of the Ara- maic language to the Old Testament in the letters con- tained in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. But it is in the New Testament that the epistle receives its mag- nificent development in the letters of James, Peter, Paul, Jude, and John — some familiar, some dogmatic, some ecclesiastical, some pastoral, some speculative and pre- dictive, and in the epistle to the Hebrews we have an elaborate essay. How charming the letters of Cicero to his several fa- miliar friends ! What a loss to the world to be de- prived of them ! But who among us would exchange for them the epistles of the apostles? And yet it is to be feared that we have studied them not too much as doc- trinal treatises, perhaps, but too little as familiar letters to friends and to beloved churches, and still less as lit- erary models for the letter and the essay. It might re- fresh and exalt our theological and ethical treatises, if their authors would study awhile with Paul in his style 238 BIBLICAL STUDY. and method. They might form a juster conception of his doctrines and principles. They certainly would un- derstand better how to use his doctrines, and how to apply his principles. (4) Fiction is represented in the New Testament in the parables of Jesus. It is also represented in the apoc- ryphal books of Tobit and Susanna, and in the 4th book of Maccabees in the story about the seven heroic Maccabee sons, and, in i Esdras iv., in the legend about Zerubbabel and Truth. It is true these are not canonical, but they illustrate the part that fiction played in the lit- erature of the Hebrews of the centuries between the Testaments. We might also bring into consideration the fiction of the Haggada of the Jews in the various midrashim* Many divines have thought that the books of Esther and Jonah should be classed as fiction.f Any a priort objection to fiction as unworthy of inspiration is de- barred by the parables of Jesus. With reference to these books it must, therefore, be entirely a question of induc- tion of facts. The beautiful story of Zerubbabel and Truth, with its sublime lesson, " Truth is mighty,, and will prevail," loses nothing in its effect by being a story and not history. The wonderful devotion and self-sac- rifice of the Maccabee mother, and the patient endur- ance of the most horrible tortures by her sons, which have stirred and thrilled many a heart, and strengthened many a pipus martyr to the endurance of persecution, are no less powerful as ideal than as real. So it would be with Jonah and Esther if they could be proved to be fiction. The model of patriotic devotion, the lesson of * See the great collection in Wflnsche, Bibliotheca Rabbinica, Leipzig, X880-84. • + Noldeke, Alttest. Literatur, i868, p. 71, seq. LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. £39 the universality of divine providence and grace, would be still as forcible, and the gain would be at least equal to the loss, if they were to be regarded as inspired ideals rather than inspired statements of the real. The sign of the prophet Jonah as a symbol of the resurrection of Je- sus Christ is as forcible, if the symbol has an ideal basis, as if it had an historical basis. Be this as it may, the element of fiction is sufficiently well represented in the Old Testament in the story of the Shulamite in the Song of Songs, and in the elaboration of the historical person and trials of Job into one of the grandest ideals of the imagination, and in the soul struggles of Kohe- leth. These are then the most general forms of prose litera- ture contained in the sacred Scriptures. They vie with the literary models of the best nations of ancient and modern times. They ought to receive the study of all Christian men and women. They present the greatest variety of form, the noblest themes, and the very best models. Nowhere else can we find more admirable resthetic as well as moral and religious culture. Chris- tian people should urge that our schools and colleges should attend to this literature, and not neglect it for the sake of the Greek and Roman, which with all their rare forms and extraordinary grace and beauty, yet lack the oriental wealth of color, depths of passion, heights of rapture, holy aspirations, transcendent hopes, and transforming moral poweT. Our college and university training and the drift of modern thought lead us far away from oriental thought and emotion, and the literature that expresses them. Few there are who have entered into the spirit and life of the Orient as it is presented to us in the sacred Scriptures. It is not remarkable that the Old Testa- 240 BIBLICAL STUDY. ment has been to many a dead book, exciting no living, heartfelt interest. Here is a new and interesting field for the student of our day. The young men are enter- ing into it with enthusiasm. The church of Christ will be greatly enriched by the fruits of their labors. IV. THE CREDIBILITY OF THE SCRIPTURES. This is the most delicate and difficult question of the higher criticism with reference to all literature, but es- pecially with reference to biblical literature. That there are errors in the present text of our Bible, and inconsist- encies, it seems to us vain to deny. We have come upon some of them in the course of our investigations (pp. 191, 192). There are chronological, geographical, and other circumstantial inconsistencies and errors which we should not hesitate to acknowledge. These errors arise in the department of exegesis more than in higher criti- cism. It does not follow, however, that circumstantial, incidental errors, such as might arise from the inadver- tence or lack of information of an author, are any im- peachment of his credibility. If we distinguish between revelation and inspiration, and yet insist upon inerrancy with reference to the latter as well as the former, we vir- tually do away with the distinction ; for no mere man can escape altogether human errors unless divine revela- tion set even the most familiar things in a new and in- fallible light, and also so control him that he cannot make a slip of the eye or the hand, a fault in the imagi- nation, in conception, in reasoning, in rhetorical figure, or in grammatical expression ; and indeed so raise him above his fellows tha;t he shall see through all their errors in science and philosophy as well as theology, and anticipate the discoveries in all branches of knowl- edge by thousands of years. Errors of inadvertence in LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 241 minor details, where the author's position and charac- ter are well known, do not destroy his credibility as a witness in any literature or any court of justice. It isi not to be presumed that divine inspiration lifted the author above his age any more than was necessary to convey the divine revelation and the divine instruction with infallible certainty to mankind. We have to take into account the extent of the author's human knowl- edge, his point of view and type of thought, his meth- ods of reasoning and illustration. The question of credi- bility is to be distinguished from infallibility. The form is credible, the substance alone is infallible. It is claimed by some divines that the inerrancy'^ of Scripture is es- sential to (he inspiration of the Scriptures, and that " a proved error in Scripture contradicts not only our doc- trine, but the Scripture claims, and therefore its inspira- tion in making those claims."f But inerrancy is neither a scriptural nor a symbolical nor a historical term in connection with the subject of Inspiration. These rep- resentations of the doctrine of inspiration have no suf>- port in the symbols or faith of the Reformation, or in the Westminster Confession, or in the Scriptures. We hold with our revered instructor, the late Henry B. Smith, to plenary inspiration rather than verbal. It may be as it is stated. " It (plenary inspiration) is in itself indefinite, and its use contributes nothing, either to the precision or the emphasis of the definition "; % but this is as far as the Scriptures or the symbols of faith war- rant us in going ; it is as far as it is at all safe in the present juncture to advance in definition. Verbal inspi- ration is doubtless a more precise and emphatic defini- * 1" L. Patton, Pentateuchal Criticism, Presbyterian Review, IV., p. 363, t Dis. Hodge and Warfield, art. Inspiration, Presbyterian Review, II., p. X Drs. Hodge and Warfield in /. c, p. 232. 11 242 BIBLICAL STUDY. / tion than plenary inspiration ; but this very emphasis I and precision imperil the doctrine of inspiration itself ! by bringing it into conflict with a vast array of objec- / tions along the whole line of Scripture and history, which must be met and overcome in incessant warfare, where both sides may count on doubtful victories, but where the weak, ignorant, and hesitating, stumble and fall int.o divers temptations, and may make shipwreck of their faith. From the point of view of biblical criticism, we are not prepared to admit errors in the Scriptures in the original autographs, until they shall be proven. Very many of those alleged have already received suffi- cient or plausible explanation ; others are in dispute between truth-seeking scholars, and satisfactory explana- tions may hereafter be given. New difficulties are con- stantly arising and being overcome. It is difficult on the one side to demonstrate an error, as it is on the other side to demonstrate that the Scriptures must be absolutely errorless. It is a question of fact to which all theories and doctrines must yield. It cannot be deter- mined by « /r/- resentations of better things to follow.* Many of the supposed inconsistencies result from the popular and unscientific language of the Bible, thus approaching the * Hebrews viii. 5 ; x. i ; xi. 40 ; Col. ii. 17. LITER.VEY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 245 people of God in different ages in concrete forms and avoiding the abstract. The inconsistencies have resulted from the scholastic abstractions of those who would use the Bible as a text-book, but they do not exist in the concrete of the Bible itself. Many of the supposed in- consistencies arise from a different method of logic and rhetoric in the Oriental writers and the attempt of mod- ern scholars to measure them by Occidental methods. Many of the inconsistencies result from the neglect to appreciate the poetic and imaginative element in the Bible and a lack of aesthetic sense on the part of its in- terpreters. The higher criticism has already removed a large number of difficulties and will remove many more when it has become a more common study among scholars. " The Bible conveys to us its didactic lesson in a very occasional, indirect, and indefinite way. Its method is literary, not dogmatic. It teaches, as it were, without intending to teach ; relates a history, and leaves us to infer the lesson ; indites a psalm expressive of the sentiments awakened in the writer's mind by contemplation of the manifestation which God has made of Himself, and leaves us to find out by poetic sympathy the thought embodied. The Bible contains all sorts of literature — histories, prophecies, poems lyric and dramat- ic, proverbs, parables, epistles. All are profitable for doctrine, but none are dogmatic ; all are excellent for religious edification, but dis- appointing from the point of view of scholastic theology. Not even the epistles of Paul can properly be characterised as dogmatic in the scholastic sense. The four great epistles are full of doctrine of the most important character, but it is conveyed in an occasional, ab- rupt, vehement way, by a man engaged in a great controversy as to the meaning of Christianity, — whose bosom is agitated by strong .emotion, and whose language is a faithful reflectipn of his feelings — eloquent, but inexact ; crowded with deep, grand thoughts, but with thoughts that struggle for utterance, and are sometimes only half uttered in broken sentences, in which grammar is shipwrecked on the rock of heroic- passion. The writing is noble. Divine, inspired in every sense of the term, most profitable for doctrine ; but how dif- 246 BIBLICAL STUDY. ferent from the style of dogmatic theology, with its careful defini- tions, and minute distinctions, and cold, passionless, scientific dic- tion !" * The literary study of the Bible is appropriately called higher criticism to distinguish it from lower criticism which devotes itself to the study of original texts and versions. There are few who have the patience, the per- sistence, the life-long industry in the examination of the minute details that make up the field of the lower or textual criticism. But the higher criticism is more at- tractive. It has to do with literary forms and styles and models. It appeals to the imagination and the aesthetic taste as well as to the logical faculty. It kindles the en- thusiasm of the young. It will more and more enlist the attention of men of culture and the general pub- lic. It is the most inviting and fruitful field of bibhcal ' study in our day. Many who are engaged in it are ra- tionalistic and unbelieving, and they are using it with disastrous effect upon the Scriptures and 'the orthodox faith. There is also a prejudice in some quarters against these studies and an apprehension as to the results. This prejudice is unreasonable. This apprehension is to be deprecated. It is impossible to prevent discus- sion. The church is challenged to meet the issue. It is a call of Providence to conflict and to the triumph of evangelical truth. The Divine Word will vindicate it- self in all its parts. These are not the times for negli- gent Elis or timorous and presumptuous Uzzahs. Brave Samuels and ardent Davids who fear not to employ new methods and engage in new enterprises and adapt them- selves to altered situations, will overcome the Philistines with their own weapons. The higher criticism has rent * A. B. Bruce, The due/ End of Revelation^ London, 1881, p. 284, seq. LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 247 the crust, with which rabbinical tradition and Christian scholasticism have encased the Old Testament, overlay- ing the poetic and prophetic elements with the legal and the ritual. Younger biblical scholars have caught glimpses of the beauty and glory of biblical literature. The Old Testament is studied as never before in the Christian church. It is beginning to exert its charming influence upon ministers and people. Christian theology and Christian life will ere long be enriched by it. God's blessing is in it to those who have the Christian wisdom to recognize and the grace to receive and employ it. CHAPTER IX. HEBREW POETRY. The Hebrews were from the most ancient times a re- markably literary and poetic people. Poetry pervaded and influenced their entire life and history. The Bible has preserved to us a large amount of this poetry, but it is almost exclusively religious poetry. And notwith- standing that the most ancient poetry of Assyria, Baby- lon, and Egypt is likewise religious, we yet have abun- dant evidence from the poetic lines and strophes quoted in the historical books, as well as statements with regard to other poetry not included in the collections known to us, — abundant evidence that a large proportion of the poetic literature of the Hebrews, relating to the every- day life of the people, and to those national, social, and historical phases of experience that were not strictly re- ligious, has been lost to us. For reference is made to the book of the wars of Jahveh (Num. xxi. 14), and the book of Yashar (Josh. x. 13 ; 2 Sam. i. 18), anthologies of poetry earlier than any of the poetic collections in the Hebrew Scriptures ; and also to a great number of songs and poems of Solomon with reference to flowers, plants, trees, and animals (i Kings iv. 32, 33). The mention of Ethan, Heman, Chalcol and Darda, the sons of Mahol, in connection with the wisdom and poems of Solomon, (348) HEBREW POETRY. 249 opens a wide field of conjecture with regard to the great amount of their poetry which has been lost (i Kings iv. 31). And if we consider that such a masterpiece as the book of Job is the product of a sacred poet whose name, or at least connection with the poem, has been lost, how many more such great poems and lesser ones may have disappeared from the memory of the Hebrew people during their exile and prolonged afflictions. For we cannot believe that such sublime odes as Exod. xv. .and Judges v. could exist alone. These masterpieces of lyric poetry must have been the flower and fruit of a long and varied poetical development. Prof. Reuss admirably states the breadth of Hebrew poetry : " All that moved the souls of the multitude was expressed in song ; it was indispensable to the sports of peace, it was a necessity for the rest from the battle, it cheered the feast, and the marriage (Is. v. 12 ; Amos. vi. 5 ; Judges xiv.), it lamented in the hopeless dirge for the dead (2 Sam. iii. 33), it united the masses, it blessed the individual, and was everywhere the lever of culture. Young men and maidens vied with one another in learning beautiful songs, and cheered with them the festival gatherings of the villages, and the stiri higher assem- blies at the sanctuary of the tribes. The maidens at Shilo went yearly with songs and dances into the vineyards (Judges xxi. 19), and those of Gilead repeated the sad story of Jeptha's daughter (Judges xi. 40), the boys learned David's lament over Jonathan (2 Sam. i. 18) ; shep- herds and hunters at their evening rests by the springs of the wilder- ness sang songs to the accompaniment of the flute (Judges v. 11). The discovery of a fountain was the occasion of joy and song (Num. xxi. 17). The smith boasted defiantly of the products of his labour (Gen. iv. 23). Riddles and witty sayings enlivened the social meal (Judges xiv. 12 ; i Kings x.). Even into the lowest spheres the spirit of poetry wandered and ministered to the most ignoble pursuits " (Is. xxiii. 1 5 seq^.* Aii.f/el>. Poesie, Yi^rzo^ Encyklopadie, ii. Aufl., V., p. 672, seq. 250 BIBLICAL STUDY. I. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF HEBREW POETRY.. In the Hebrew poetry preserved to us in the sacred Scriptures we observe the following characteristics : I. // is religious poetry. Indeed it was most suitable that Hebrew poetry should have this as its fundamental characteristic; for the Hebrews had been selected by God from all the nations to be His own choice possession, His first-bom among the nations of the earth (Exod. iv. 22; xix. 5); and therefore it was their distinctive inher- itance that they should be a religious people above all things else. And it is of the very nature of religion that it should express itself in song; for religion lays hold of the deepest emotions of the human soul, and causes the heart-strings to vibrate with the most varied and power- ful feelings of which man is capable, which can only find expression through the voice and pen in those forms of human language which alone by their varied movement can express these varied emotions. From this point of view Hebrew poetry has unfolded a rich and manifold literature that not only surpasses in this regard the no- blest products of the most cultivated Indo-Germanic races, the Greek, the Roman, and the Hindu ; but also lies at the root of the religious poetry of the Jewish synagogue and the church of Christ, -as their fruitful source, their perennial well-spring of life and growth. No poetry has such power over the souls of men as He- brew poetry. David's psalms, Solomon's sentences, Isa- iah's predictions, the trials of Job, are as fresh and potent in their influence as when first uttered by their masterly authors. They are world-wide in their sway ; they are everlasting in their sweep. The songs of Moses and the Lamb are sung by heavenly choirs. S. It is simple and natural. Ewald states that^" He- HEBREW POETRY. 251 brew poetr>- has a simplicity and transparency that can scarcely be found anywhere else — a natural sublimity that knows but little of fixed forms of art, and even when art comes into play it ever remains unconscious and careless of it. Compared with the poetry of other ancient peoples, it appears as of a more simple and child- like age of mankind, overflowing with an internal fulness and grace that troubles itself but little with external or- nament and nice artistic law."* Hence it is that the distinction between poetry and rhetorical prose is so slight in Hebrew literature. The Hebrew orator, espec- ially if a prophet, inspired with the potent influences of the prophetic spirit, and stirred to the depths of his soul with the divine impulse, speaks naturally in an elevated poetic style, and accordingly the greater part of prophecy is poetic. And so when the priest or king stands before the people to bless them, or lead them in their devo- tions, their benedictions and prayers assume the poetic movement. Thus there is the closest correspondence between the emotion and its expression, as the emotion gives natural movement and harmonious undulations to the expression by its own pulsations and vibrations. These pulsations are expressed by the beat of' the accent, which, falling as a rule on the ultimate in Hebrew words, strikes with peculiar power ; and the vibrations are ex- pressed in accordance with the great variety of movement of which they are capable in the parallelism of members. As Robertson Smith correctly says : "Among the He- brews all thought stands in immediate contact with liv- ing impressions and feelings, and so if incapable of rising to the abstract is prevented from sinking to the unreal."f This faithful mirroring of the concrete in the poetic ex- * Die Dic/iter, I., p. 15. f British Quarterly, January, 1S77, P- 36. 252 BIBLICAL STUDY. pression is the secret of its power over the masses of mankind who are sensible of its immediate influence upon them, although they may be incapable of giving a logical analysis of it. 3. It is essentially subjective. The poet sings or writes from the vibrating chords of his own soul's emotions, presenting the varied phases of his own experience, in sorrow and joy, in faith and hope, in love and adoration, in conflict, agony, and despair, in ecstasy and transport, in vindication of himself and imprecation upon his ene- mies. Even when the external world is attentively re- garded, it is not for itself alone, but on account of its relation to the poet's own soul as he is brought into contact and sympathy with it. This characteristic of Hebrew poetry is so marked in the Psalter, Proverbs, and book of Job, as to give their entire theology an an- thropological character. Man's inmost soul, and all the vast variety of human experience, are presented in He- brew poetry as the common experience of humanity of all ages and of all lands. 4. It is sententious. The Hebrew poet expresses his ethical and religious emotions in brief, terse, pregnant sentences loosely related with one another, and often without any essential connection, except through the common unity of the central theme. They are uttered as intuitions, that which is immediately seen and felt, rather than as products of logical reflection, or careful elaborations of a constructive imagination. The parts of the poem, greater and lesser, are distinct parts, the distinction often being so sharp and abrupt that it is dif- ficult to distinguish and separate the various sections of the poem, owing to the very fact of the great variety of possibility of division, in which it is a question simply of more or less. The author's soul vibrates with the beat- HEBREW POETRT. 253 ings of the central theme, so that the movement of the poem is sometimes from the same base to a more ad- vanced thought, then from a corresponding base, or from a contrasted one ; and at times, indeed, step by step in marching or climbing measures. As Aglen says, " He- brew eloquence is a lively succession of vigorous and in- cisive sentences, producing in literature the same effect which the style called arabesque produces in architect- ure. Hebrew wisdom finds its complete utterance in the short, pithy proverb. Hebrew poetry wants no fur- ther art than a rhythmical adaptation of the same sen- tentious style."* Hence the complexity and confusion of Hebrew poetry to minds which would find strict logical relations between the various members of the poem, and constrain them after occidental methods. Hence the extravagance of Hebrew figures of speech, which transgress all classic rules of style, heaping^ up and mixing metaphors, presenting the theme in such a variety of images, and with such exceeding richness of coloring, that the western critic is perplexed, confused, and bewil- dered in striving to harmonize them into a consistent whole. Hebrew poetry appeals through numberless con- crete images to the emotional and religious nature, and can only be apprehended by entering into sympathetic relations with its own poetic spirit, and by following the guidance of its members to their central theme, to which they are all in subjection as to a prince, while in com- parative independence of one another. 5. It is realistic. Professor Shairp says : " Whenever the soul comes into living contact with fact and truth, .whenever it realizes these with more than common viv- idness, there arises a thrill of joy, a glow of emotion. » Biile Educator, Vol II., p. 340. 254 BIBLICAL STUDY. And the expression of that thrill, that glow, is poetry. The nobler the objects, the nobler will be the poetry they awaken when they fall on the heart of a true poet." * Now the Hebrew poets entered into deep and intimate fellowship with external nature, the world of animal, veg- etable, and material forces ; and by regarding them as in immediate connection with God and man, dealt only with the noblest themes. For to the Hebrew poet all nature was animate with the influence of the Divine Spirit, who was the agent in the creation, brooding over the chaos, who conducts the whole universe in its devel- opment toward the exaltation of the creature to closer communion with God, so that it may attain' its glory in the divine glory. Hence all nature is aglow with the glory of God, declaring Him in His being and attributes, praising Him for His wisdom and goodness. His minis- ters to do His pleasure, rejoicing at His advent and tak- ing part in His theophanies. And so it is the represen- tation of Hebrew poetry that all nature shares in the destiny of man. In its origin it led by insensible grada- tions to man, its crown and head, the masterpiece of the divine workman. In his fall it shared with him in the curse ; and to his redemption it ever looks forward, with longing hope and throes of expectation, as the redemp- tion of the entire creation. And so, there is no poetry so sympathetic with nature, so realistic, so sensuo'us and glowing in its representations of nature, as Hebrew poe- try. This feature of the sacred writings, which has ex- posed them to the attacks of unbelieving men of science, presenting a wide and varied field of criticism, is really one of their most striking features of excellence ; com- mending itself to the believing student of nature in that. * Poetic Interpretation of Nature, p. 15. HEBREW POETRY. 255 V while it does not teach truths and facts of science in sci- entific forms, yet it alone, of ancient poetry, has laid hold of the eternal principles, the most essential facts and forms of objects of nature, with a sense of truth and beauty that none but sacred poets, enlightened by the Spirit of God, have been enabled to do. Hence it is that not even the sensuous romantic poetry of modern times, enriched with the vast stores of research of mod- em science, can equal the poetry of the Bible in its faithfulness to nature, its vividness and graphic power, its true and intense admiration of the beauties of nature and reverence of its sublimities. II. THE FORMS OF HEBREW POETRY. I The leading characteristics of Hebrew poetry deter- mine its forms of expression ; its internal spirit sways and controls the form with absolute, yea, even capricious, power. The Hebrew poets seem acquainted with those various forms of artistic expression used by the poets of other nations to adorn their poetry, measure its move- ments, and mark its lines and strophes ; yet they do not employ them as rules or principles of their art, constrain- ing their thought and emotion into conformity with them, but rather use them freely for particular purposes and momentary effects. Indeed Hebrew poetry attained its richest development at a period when these various external beauties of form had not been elaborated into a system, as was the case at a subsequent time in other nations of the same family of languages. I . The form of the verses. There are various ways em- ployed in the poetry of the sister languages of measur- ing and adorning the verses. Thus rhyme is of exceed- ing importance in Arabic poetry, having its fixed rules* * Wright, Arabic Grammar^ 2d edit., II., pp. 377-81. 256 BIBLICAL STUDY. carefully elaborated. But no such rules can be found in Hebrew poetry. Rhyme does exist, and is used at times with great effect to give force to the variations in the play of the emotion by bringing the variations to har- monious'conclusions; but this seldom extends beyond a couplet or triplet of verses. So also the Hebrew poet delights in the play of words, using their varied and contrasted meanings, changing the sense by a slight change of a letter, or contrasting the sense all the more forcibly in the use of words of similar form and vocali- zation, and sometimes of two or three such in the paral- lel verses. Alliteration and assonance are also freely employed. All this is in order that the form may cor- respond as closely as possible to the thought and emo- tion in their variations, as synonymous, antithetical, and progressive ; and that the coloring of the expression may heighten its effect. The principle of rhyme, however, remains entirely free. It is not developed into a system and rules of art. So also the measurement of the verses, or the princi- ple of metres, is thoroughly developed in Arabic poetry, where they are ordinarily reckoned as sixteen in number.* Repeated efforts have been made to find a system of me- tres in Hebrew poetry. Thus Josephusf represents Exod. XV. and Deut. xxxii. as written in hexameters, and that the Psalms were written in several metres, such as trimeters and pentameters. Eusebius % says that Deut. xxxii. and Ps. xviii. are in heroic metre of sixteen syllables, and that trimeters and other metres were em- ployed by the Hebrews. Jerome § compares Hebrew poetry with that of the Greek poetry of Pindar, Alcaeus^ * Wright, Arabic Grammar, ad edit., II., p. 387. + Antiquities, ii. 16 ; iv. 8 ; vii. 12. X De Preep. Evang., xL 5. § Pre/ace to the look o/yob. HEBREW POETRY, 257 and Sappho, and represents the book of Job as composed mainly of hexameters with the movement of dactyls and spondees; and*" finds in the Psalter iambic trimeters, and tetrameters. But these writers seem to have been misled by their desire to assimilate Hebrew poetry to the great productions of the classic nations with which they were familiar. No such system of metres can be found in connection with the accepted system of Hebrew accentuation and vocalization. The Jews, who became for many centuries the sole custodians of the Hebrew text, did not accept any such system, but arranged the system of poetic accentuation simply for cantillation in the synagogues. More recent attempts have been made to explain and measure Hebrew verses after the methods of the Arabic and Syriac. Thus William Jones f endeavored to apply the rules of Arabic metres to Hebrew poetry ; E. J. Greve, also, in 1791 and 18 10; but this involves the rev- olutionary proceeding of doing away with the Massoretic system entirely, and in its results is far from satisfactory. The Arabic poetry may be profitably compared as to spirit, characteristics, figures of speech, and emotional language, as Wenrich has so well done,:}: but not as re- gards metres, for these, as the best Arabic scholars state, are of a comparatively late period when compared with Hebrew poetry, and were possibly preceded by an earlier and freer poetic style. Saalchutz§ endeavored to construct a system of He- brew metres, retaining the Massoretic vocalization, but * In his Epist. ad Paulam. t Com. Poet. Asiat. curav., Eichhom, 1777, p. 61, se^. X De Poeseos Heb. atque Arabic, orig. indole mutuoque consensu atque dis- crimine, Lipsiae, 1843. § Von der Form der Hebraischen Poesie, 1825. 258 BIBLICAX STUDY. contending that the accents do not determine the ac-. cented syllable, and so pronouncing the words in accord- ance with the Aramaic, and the custom of Polish and German Jews, on the penult instead of the ultimate. More recently, Bickell''^ strives to explain Hebrew poetry lifter the analogy of Syriac poetry. His theory is that Hebrew poetry is essentially the same as Syriac, not measuring syllables, but counting them in regular order. There is a constant alternation of accented and unac- cented syllables, a continued rise and fall, so that only iambic and trochaic feet are possible. The Massoretic accentuation and vocalization are rejected and the Ara- maic put in its place. The grammatical and rhythmical accents coincide. The accent is, like the Syriac, general- ly on the penult. The parallelism of verses and thought is strictly carried out. Dr. Bickell, whose familiarity with Syriac literature and Hebrew scholarship are well known, has, as must be admitted, carried out his theory with a degree of mod- eration and thoroughness which must command admira- tion and respect. Not distinguishing between long and short syllables, and discarding the terminology of classic metres, he gives us specimens of metres of 5, 7, 12, 6, 8, 10 syllables, and a few of varying syllables. He has ap- plied his theory to the whole of Hebrew poetry,t and arranged the entire Psalter, Proverbs, Job, Lamentations, Song of Songs, most of the poems of the historical books, and much of the prophetic poetry in accordance with these principles. He has also reproduced the effect in a translation into German, with the same number of * Metrices Biblica, 1879 ; Carmina Veteris Testamenti Metrice, 1882. t Zeitschrift d. D. M. G., 1880, p. 557 ; Carmina Veteris Testamenti Me- trice, 1882. HEBREW POETRY. 259 syllables and strophical arrangement.* The theory is attractive and deserves fuller consideration than can be given to it here ; yet it must be rejected on the ground that it does away with the difference between the He- brew and the Aramaic families of the Shemitic lan- guages ; and would virtually reduce the Hebrew to a mere dialect of the Aramaic. It overthrows the tradi- tional accentuation upon which Hebrew vocalization and the explanation of Hebrew grammatical forms largely depend. Hebrew poetry, as Ewald has shown, may, on the Mas- soretic system of accentuation and vocalization, be re- garded as generally composed of verses of seven or eight syllables, with sometimes a few more or a few less, for reasons that can be assigned.f This is especially true of the ancient hymns,:}: and those Psalms having certain melodies indicated in their titles ; yet even here we must regard Hebrew poetry as at an earlier stage of poetic development than the Syriac. The poet is not bound to a certain number of syllables. While in the main making the length of the verses correspond with the parallelism of the thought and emotion, he does not constrain himself to uniformity as a principle or law of his art ; but increases or diminishes the length of his verses in perfect freedom in accordance with the rhythmical movements of the thought and emotion them- selves. The external form is entirely subordinated to the internal emotion, which moves on with the utmost free- dom, and assumes a poetic form merely as a thin veil which does not so much clothe and adorn as shade and color the native beauties of the idea. This movement * Dicktungen der Hebraer. I. Geschichtlicheund Prophetische Lieder.II.Hiob. He promises soon the Psalter, the Solomonic poetry, and Jesus Sirach. + Dic/iler, I., p. io8, scg. % Exod. xv., Deut. xxsii., and Judges y. 260 BIBLICAL STUDY. of emotion gives rise to a general harmony of expres- sion in the parallelism of structure in lines and strophes -7- a parallelism which affords a great variety and, beauty of forms. Sometimes the movement is like the wavelets of a river flowing steadily and smoothly on, then like the ebbing and flowing of the tide in majestic antitheses, and again like the madly-tossed ocean in a storm, all uniformity and symmetry disappearing under the passionate heaving of the deepest emotions of the soul. The first to clearly state and unfold the essential prin- ciple of Hebrew verse was Bishop Lowth,* although older writers, such as Rabbi Asanas, and especially Schoettgen,f called attention to various forms of paral- lelism. Lowth distinguishes three kinds. (i) Synonymous. " O Jehovah, in Thy strength the king shall rejoice ; And in Thy salvation how greatly shall he exult ! The desire of his heart Thou hast granted unto him, And the request of his lips Thou hast not denied." Ps. xxi. I, 2. (2) Antithetical. " A wise son rejoiceth his father ; But a foolish son is the grief of his mother." Prov. X. I. (3) Synthetic. " Praise ye Jehovah, ye of the earth ; Ye sea monsters, and all deeps : Fire and hail, snow and vapor, Stormy wind, executing His command." Ps. cxlviii. 7, 8. * De Sacra Poesi Hebr. xix., 1753 ; also Preliminary Dissertation to hts. work on Isaiah, 177S. t Ilora Heb.y Diss, vi., De Exergasia Sacra. HEBREW POETRY. 261 Bishop Lowth's views have been generally accepted, although open to various objections ; for the majority of the verses are synthetic, and these in such a great va- riety that it seems still more important in many cases to classify and distinguish them than to make the dis- criminations proposed by Bishop Lowth. There is a general mingling of the three kinds of parallelism in Hebrew poetr>% so that seldom do the synonymous and antithetical extend beyond a couplet, triplet, or quartette of verses. . The poet is as free in his use of the various kinds of parallelism as in the use of rhyme or metre, and is only bound by the principle of parallel- ism itself. Bishop Jebb * added a fourth kind, which he called the introverted parallelism, where the first line corresponds with the fourth, and the second with the third, thus : • " My son, if thine heart be wise, My heart also shall rejoice ; Yea, my reins shall rejoice, When thy lips speak right things." Prov. xxiii. 15, 16. But this is a difference in the structure of the strophe and of the arrangement of the parallelism, rather than of the parallelism itself, as Wright properly states.f Other schemes have been proposed, but none have been exhaustive and satisfactory, and none have found acceptance generally among scholars. It is sufficient for us at present to recognize in Hebrew poetry the es- sential principle of parallelism itself. This parallelism of members was until recently thought to be a peculiar- ity of Hebrew poetry, as a determining principle of po- * Sacred Literature, § iv., 1820. + Art. Hebrew Poetry in Smith's Diet, of the Bible. 262 BIBLICAL STUDY. etic art, although it Is used among other nations for cer- tain momentary effects in their poetry ; but recent dis- coveries have proved that the ancient Assyrian, Baby- lonian, and Akkadian hymns have the same dominant feature in their poetry, so that the conjecture of Schra- der,* that the Hebrews brought it with them in their emigration from the vicinity of Babylon, is highly prob- able. Indeed, it is but natural that we should go back of the more modern Syriac and Arabic poetry to the more ancient Assyrian and Babylonian poetry for illus- trations of the poetry of the Hebrews, which was histor- ically brought into connection with the latter and not with the former. Taking these ancient Shemitic poe- tries together, we observe that they have unfolded the principle of parallelism into a most elaborate and or- nate artistic system, which among other nations has been known and used, but remained comparatively un- developed, whilst other nations have developed the prin- ciples of rhyme and metre which have been known and used, but remain undeveloped by the Hebrews, Assyr- ians, and Babylonians. 2. In addition to the principle of parallelism, others have sought a principle of measurement of the verses of Hebrew poetry by the accent. Thus Lautwein,t Ernst Meier,:{:and more recently Julius Ley.§ The latter has elaborated quite a thorough system, with a large number of examples. He does not interfere with the Massoretic system, except in the use of the maqqeph and metheg, and his theory of a circumflex accentuation in m6nosyllables at the end of * yahrb.f. Prot. Theo., i., 122. + Versuch einer ricktigcn Theorie von d. hiblischen Verskunst, 1775. X Die Form der Hebr. Poesie, 1853. § Grundzuge d. Rkythmus des Vers-und Strophenbaues in d. Hcbr. PoesiCf X87S. HEBREW POETRY. 263 a verse ; but his arrangement of Hebrew poetry into hexameters, octameters, decameters, etc., depends largely upon his views of substitution and compensation, which are to account for the irregularities of the verses ; and upon the variety of the breaks or caesuras, as, for in- stance, in the octameter, which may be composed of 4 + 4 tones, or 2 + 6, 3 + 5, or 5 + 3. His theory also re- sults in producing longer verses than seem suited to the principle of the parallelism, and the spirit of Hebrew po- etry. At the same .time it seems to us evident that the accent has great power in Hebrew verse. The thought is measured by the throbbings of the soul in its emotion, and this is naturally expressed by the beat of the accent. The accent has no unimportant part to play in English verse, but in Hebfew, as the poetic accent always cor- responds with the logical accent, and that is as a rule on the ultimate, it falls with peculiar power. Even in prose the accent controls the vocalization of the entire word, and in pause has double strength. How much more is this the case in poetry, where the emotion ex- pressed by homogeneous sounds causes it to beat with exceeding power and wonderful delicacy of movement. This can hardly be reproduced or felt to any great ex- tent by those who approach the Hebrew as a dead lan- guage. We can only approximate to it by frequent practice in the utterance of its verses. The accent may be used as a principle of measurement to a very large extent in Hebrew poetry, but it is not an absolute law, for whilst many poems and strophes are uniform in this respect, the poet breaks away from it and increases or diminishes the number of accents, as well as words, to correspond with the movements of his thought and emotion. Upon these two principles of the parallelism of mem- 264 BIBLICAL STUDY. bers and the play of the accent the form of Hebrew verse depends. The ancient verse divisions have been obscured and lost, even if they were ever distinctly marked. We can recover them only by entering into the spirit of the poetry, and allowing ourselves to be carried on in the flow of emotion, marking its beats and varied parallelism. These features of Hebrew poetry make it a " universal poetry," for the parallelism can be reproduced in the main in most languages into which Hebrew poetry may be translated, and even the same number of accents may be to a great extent preserved ; only that the coloring of the words, and the varied rhythm of their utterance, and the strong beating of the accent, can only be experienced by a Hebrew scholar in the careful and practiced reading of'the Hebrew text. III. THE PARALLELISM OF MEMBERS. Having considered the characteristics of Hebrew poetry and the forms of its verses in general, we have now to examine more particularly the various kinds of parallelism. The simplest form of the parallelism of Hebrew poetry is the distich, where two lines or verses balance one another in thought and expression, as in the earliest specimen of poetry in the Bible (Gen. iv. 23, seq^, called the sword song of Lemekh : " 'Adah and Zillah, hear my voice ; Wives of Lemekh, oh, give ear to my song ; Surely a man do I slay for wounding me, And a boy for hurting me. If sevenfold Cain be avenged. Then Lemel- wards of five hundred distinct couplets, synonymous, antithetical, parabolical, comparative, emblematical, be- sides fifty larger pieces of three, four, five, six, seven, and eight lines, with a few poems, such as the temperance poem (xxiii. 29-35), the pastoral (xxvii. 22-27), the pieces ascribed to the poets Aluqah, Agur, and Lemuel, the alphabetical praise of the talented wife (xxxi. 10-31), and the great admonition of Wisdom in fifteen advanc- ing discourses (i.-ix.). A few specimens of this kind of poetry will suffice to illustrate it. There are several riddles ascribed to Aluqah in Prov. XXX. : (i) The riddle of the insatiable things, xxx. 15- 16: " Two daughters | (cry) : give ! | give ! Three | are they | which cannot be satisfied ; Four I say not | enough." * See Wunsche, EHe Rathselweisheit bet d. Nebracrn, Leipzig, 1883. HEBREW POETRY. 287 The answer : • Sheol, I and a barren | womb ; Land | cannot be satisfied | with water ; And fire | says not | enough." (2) The riddle of the little wise people, xxx. 24-28 : " Four I are ] little ones of earth ; But they | are wise | exceedingly." The answer : " The ants | are a people | not strong. But they prepare | in summer | their food ; Conies | are a people | not mighty. But they make | in the rock | their home ; A king I the locusts j have not, But they march forth | in bands | — all of them ; The spider ( with the hands | thou mayest catch. But she I dwells in the palaces | of kings." A beautiful temperance piece is found in xxiii. 29-35, composed of ten lines of five tones each : " Who hath woe ? | who hath wretchedness ? B who hath | stripes ? I who hath murmuring? Who hath wounds | without cause ? j who hath | dark flashing | eyes ? Those tarrying long | at the wine J : those going j to seek j spiced wine. Look I not I on wine | when it | sparkleth red ; When it giveth ] in the cup | its glance | ; floweth | smoothly : Its end is | that as a serpent | it biteth, j and like an adder [ it stingeth. Thine eyes | will see j strange things, J and thine heart utter 1 perverse things ; So that thou wilt become | like one Ijning down | in the heart ol the sea J ; and like one lying down | on the top of a mast. They have smitten me | (thou wilt say), but I am not | hurt ] : they have wounded me, | I feel it not : How long I ere I shall arise | that I may seek it | yet | again ? " 288 BIBLICAL STUDY. Another choice piece is the representation of the slug- gard, xxiv. 30-34, eleven lines of three tones each : •* By the field | of a slothful man | I passed, And by the vineyard | of a man | without understandinff And lo, its wall | was grown up | with thorns, Its face I covered over | with nettles, And its wall | of stones | was broken down ; So that I gazed | to give it | attention ; I saw I — I received | instruction. A Httle sleep, | a little | of slumber A little folding | of the hands | to lie down ; And thy poverty ] comes | walking on. And thy want | as a man | armed with a shield." (3) Composite poetry starts in part from a lyric base as in prophecy, beginning with the blessings of Jacob and Moses, and the poems of Balaam, and in lesser and greater pieces in the prophetical writings, the Song of Songs, and Lamentations ; in part from a gnomic base as in the book of Job, and Ecclesiastes. We shall present a few specimens. The first Act of the Song of Songs will give an illus- tration of the use of the dramatic element : Scene I. Solo. Let him kiss me with some kisses of his mouth, For thy caresses are better than wine ; For scent thine ointments are excellent ; O thou sweet ointment, poured forth as to thy name ! Therefore the virgins love thee. Solo. Oh ! Draw me ! Chorus. After thee we will run ! Solo. O that the king had brought me to his apartment I Chorus. We will rejoice and we will be glad with thee, We will celebrate thy caresses more than wine. Rightly they love thee. Scene II; Shtilamite. Dark am I — Chorus. — but lovely — HEBREW POETRY. 289 Shulamite. — daughters of Jerusalem, as the tents of Kedar. Chorus. — as the curtains of Solomon. Sh. Gaze not upon me because I am swarthy, Because the sun scanned me : My mother's sons were angary with me. They set me as keeper of the vineyards ; My vineyard, which is my own, have I not kept. O tell me, thou whom my soul loveth : Where feedest thou thy flock ? Where dost thou let them couch at noon ? Why should I be, as one straying After the flocks of thy companions? Ck. If thou knowest not of thyself, thou fairest among women. Go forth for thyself at the heels of the flock. And feed thy kids at the tabernacles of the shepherds. Scene III. Solomon. To my mare in the choice chariot of Pharaoh I liken thee my friend, Lovely are thy cheeks in rows (of coin), thy neck in thy neck- lace ! Rows of gold we will make thee, with chains of silver. Sk. While the king was in his divan my nard gave its scent. A bundle of myrrh, is my beloved to me, that lodgeth between my breasts ; A cluster of henna, is my beloved to me, in the vineyards of En Geddi. Sol. Lo thou art lovely, my friend, Lo thine eyes are doves. Sh. Lo thou art lovely, my beloved. Yea sweet, yea our arbour is green. Sol. The timbers of our houses are cedar. Our wainscoting cypress. Sh. I am the flower of Sharon, The anemone of the valleys. Sol. As the anemone among the thorns. So is my friend among the daughters. Sh. As the apricot among the trees of the wood. So is my beloved among the sons. In its shadow I delighted to sit, 13 g<)() BIBLICAL STUDY. And its fruit was sweet to my taste. 0 that he had brought me to the vineyard. His banner over me being love — Sustain me with raisin-cakes, support me with apricots; For I am love sick His left hand would be under my head. His right hand would embrace me. 1 adjure you, daughters of Jerusalem, by the gazelles. Or by the hinds of the field that ye arouse not. And that ye stir not up love till it please. The finest piece of ethics in the Old Testament is found in Job xxxi. : " (l) A covenant have I concluded with my eyes ; How then should I consider a maiden ? Else what portion of Eloah from abov£. Or inheritance of Shadday from on high ? Is there not destruction for the evil doer ; And calamity for the worker of iniquity ? Is He not seeing my ways ; And all my steps counting ? " (2) If I have walked with falsehood. And my foot has made haste unto deceit ; Let Him weigh me in righteous balances. That Eloah may know my integrity ! If my step used to incline rom the way. And after my eyes my heart did walk. And to my palms a spot did cleave. Let me sow and let another eat, And as for my crops, let them be rooted out. " (3) If my heart hath been seduced unto a woman. And at the door of my neighbour I have lurked. Let my wife grind the mill for another, . And over her let others bend ; For that were infamy ; And that were an iniquity for the judges ; For it is a fire that devoureth unto Abaddon, And in all my increase it rooteth up. HEBREW POETRY. 291 " (4) If I used to refuse the right of my slave. Or my maid servant, when they plead with me ; What could I do when God should rise up, And when He would investigate, what ciuld I respond to Him ? Did not, in the womb, my maker make him. And one being form us in the belly? " (5) If I used to keep back the weak from his desire. And caused the eye of the widow to fail. And ate my portion alone. And the orphan did not eat of it : Nay— from my youth did he grow up unto me as a father; And from the womb of my mother I was accustomed to giiide her. " (6) If I could see a man ready to perish without clothing And the poor having no covering . Surely his loins blessed me. And from the fleece of my sheep he warmed himself. If I lifted up my hand over the orphan. When I saw my help in the gate My shoulder— let it fall from its blade. And my arm— let it be broken from its bone ! For there was fear unto me of calamity from God, •And because of His majesty I could not. " (7) If I have made gold my confidence. And unto fine gold said, thou art my tnlst ; If I used to rejoice that my wealth was great. And that my hand had found vast resources ; " If I used to see the light that it was shining brightly. And the moon moving in splendour. So that my heart was enticed in secret. And my hand kissed my mouth : This also were an iniquity forjudges. For I had denied El on high. " (8) If I was accustomed to rejoice in the calamity of the one hat- ing me, Or was excited with joy when evil overtook him ; . 292 BIBLICAL STUDY. Nay ! I did not give my palate to sinning, In asking with a curse his life. Verily the men of my tent say : Who can shew us one not filled with his meat ? Without the stranger used not to lodge, My doors to the caravan I used to open. " (9) If against me my land crieth. And together its furrows weep ; If its strength I have eaten without silver. And the life of its lord I have caused to expire ; Instead of wheat let thorns come forth, And evil weeds instead of barley. " (10) If I have covered as man my transgression. Hiding in my bosom my iniquity ; Because I feared the great multitude. And the contempt of the clans made me afraid ; And so was silent, would not go out to the gate : — O that I had one to hear me — Behold my mark ! — Let Shadday answer me I - - 0 that I had the bill (of accusation) my adversary has written ! Surely I would lift it up on my shoulder, , 1 would bind it as a crown of glory upon me. The number of my steps would I declare to him. As a prince I would approach him." We shall finally present a specimen of Prophetic Poe- try, and indeed the most sublime piece in the Old Tes- tament, as well as one of the most artistic (Is. Hi. 13- liii.), consisting of five gradually increasing strophes : " (i) Behold my servant shall prosper, He shall be lifted up and be exalted and be very high. According as many were astonished at thee — So disfigured more than a man was his appearance. And his form than the sons of men ; — So shall he startle many nations ; Because of him kings will stop their mouths ; For what had not been told them they shall see. And what they had not heard they shall attentively consider. HEBREW POETRY. 293 " (2) Who believed our message. And the arm of Jehovah, unto whom was it revealed ? When he grew up as a suckling plant before us, And as a root out of a dry ground ; He had no form and no majesty that we should see him, And no appearance that we should take pleasure in him ; Despised and forsaken of men ! A man of sorrows, and acquainted with grief! And as one before whom there is a hiding of the face ! Despised, and we regarded him not ! " (3) Verily our griefs he bore And our sorrows — he carried them. But we regarded him as stricken, Smitten of God, and humbled. But he was one pierced because of our transgressions, Crushed because of our iniquities ; The chastisement for our peace was upon him ; And by his stripes there is healing for us. We all like sheep strayed away ; Each one turned to his own way. Whila Jehovah caused to light on him the iniquity of us all. ' (4) He was harassed while he was humbling himself, - And he opens not his mouth ; Like a sheep that is being led to the slaughter And as an ewe that before her shearers is dumb ; — And he opens not his mouth. From oppression and from judgment he was taken away. And among his cotemporaries who was considering. That he was cut off from the land of the living. Because of the transgression of my people, one smitten for them ? With the wicked his grave was assigned. But he was with the rich in his martyr death ; Because that he had done no violence. And there was no deceit in his mouth. " (5) But yehpvah was pleased to crush him with grief! When he himself offers a trespass offering, 294 BIBLICAL STUDY. He shall see a seed, he shall prolong' days ; And the pleasure of Jehovah will prosper in his hands: On account of his own travail he shall see ; He shall be satisfied with his knowledge ; My righteous servant shall justify many. And iheir iniquities he shall carry. Therefore will I give him a portion consisting of the many ; And with the strong shall he divide spoil. Because that he exposed himself to death. And he was numbered with transgressors. And he did bear the sin of many ; And for transgressors was suffering infliction." In such pieces as these we find the climax of He- brew poetic art, where the dramatic and heroic ele- ments combine to produce in a larger whole ethical and religious results with wonderful power. While these do not present ys epic or dramatic or pastoral poems in the classic sense, they yet use the epic, dra- matic, and pastoral elements in perfect freedom, com- bining them in a simple and comprehensive manner for the highest and grandest purposes of the prophet and sage inspired of God, giving us productions of po- etic art that are unique in the world's literature. The dramatic, epic, and pastoral elements are means used freely and fully, but not ends. These forms of beauty and grace are simply forms which do not retard the im- agination in admiration of themselves, but direct it to the grandest themes and images of piety and devotion. The wise men of Israel present us in the ideals of the Shulamite, Job, and Koheleth, types of noble character, moral heroism, and purity, that transcend the heroic types of the Iliad or ^Eneid, wrestling as they do with foes to their souls far more terrible than the spears and javelins and warring gods of Greek or Trojan, advanc- ing step by step, through scene after scene and act after HEBREW POETRY. 295 act to holy victory in the fear of God ; victories that will serve for the support and comfort of the human race in all time, which has ever to meet the same incon- sistencies of evil, the same assaults on virtue, the same struggle with doubt and error, therein so vividly and faithfully portrayed to us. The prophets of Israel play upon the great heart of the Hebrew people as upon a thousand-stringed lyre, striking the tones with divinely- guided touch, so that from the dirge of rapidly succeed- ing disaster and ruin, they rise through penitence and petition to faith, assurance, exultation, and hallelujah, laying hold of the deep thoughts and everlasting faith- fulness of God, binding the past and present as by a chain of light to the impending Messianic future ; seeing and rejoicing in the glory of God, which, though now for a season shrouded behind the clouds of disaster, is soon to burst forth in a unique day.* * Zecb. xiv. 6 seq. CHAPTER X. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. The word of God came to man at first orally, in con- nection with theophanies. These theophanies are divine manifestations in forms of time and space. From them, as centres, went forth the supernatural influences in word of revelation and deed of miracle. These theophanies attained their culmination in Jesus Christ,/the incarnate God, the risen, ascended, and glorified Savioun; and the divine word reached its completion in His Gos- pel. The word of God, issuing from these theophanic centres, was appropriated more and more by holy men, upon whom the divine Spirit came, taking possession of them, influencing and directing them in the exercise of prophetic ministry. An important part of this min- istry was the oral delivery of the divine word to the people of God in ascending stages of revelation. This word was gradually committed to writing, and assumed the literary forms that are presented to us in the canon of Scripture. " It pleased the Lord, at sundry times and in divers manners, to reveal Himself, and to declare that His virill unto His Church, and afterward for the better preserving and propagating of the truth, and for the more sure establishment and comfort of the Church against the corruption of the flesh, and the malice of Satan and of the world ; to commit the same wholly unto writing ; which maketh the Holy (296) THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 297 Scripture to be most necessary ; these former ways of God's reveal- ing His will unto His people being now ceased." ( Westminster Confession, I. i). The word of God, as written, is to be appropriated by man through reading it, meditating upon it, and putting it in practice. Reading is an appropriation through the eye and ear and sense perception, of letters, words, and sentences as signs of thought. Meditation is the use of the faculties of the mind in the apprehension of the substance of thought and emotion contained in these signs, the asso- ciation of it with other things, and the application of it to other conditions and circumstances. This appropria- tion must be in accordance with the laws of the appre- hending human soul, with the principles of the compo- sition of written documents, and also with the nature of the things contained in and expressed by the sensible signs. Biblical interpretation is a section of general in- terpretation, and it difTers from other special branches in accordance with the internal character of the contents of the Bible. Interpretation is usually regarded as a sec- tion of applied logic* Schleiermacher defines it as the art of correctly understanding an author.f Klausen,:}: as " the scientific establishment and development of the fundamental principles and rules for the understanding of a given discourse." We are constrained to think that this is too narrow a definition. We agree with most in- terpreters in the opinion that it embraces not only the art of understanding an author, but also the art of ex- * See Carpzov, Frimae Lineae Herm., Helmstadii, 1790, p. 5 ; SirWm. Ham- ilton, Logic^ p. 474 ; KJausen, Hermeneutik des Neuen Testaments, Leipzig, J841, p. 7. t Hermeneutik und Kritik, Berlin, 1838, p. 3. % In /. c, p. I. 298 BIBLICAL STUDY, position or explanation of an author to others.* We are also compelled to go still further and include as a part of interpretation, the practical application of the sub- stance of the writing to other appropriate conditions and circumstances. The older interpreters, especially among the Puritans, regarded this latter as the chief feature. The interpreter needs according to the older writers, oratio, meditatio, et tentatio. This tentatio, trial, experience, is the most important of all. This was urged by Jesus : " If any man willeth to do His will he shall know of the teaching, whether it be of God, or whether I speak from myself" (John vii. 17). Bernard says: " He rightly reads Scripture who turns words into deeds." Francis Roberts says: "The mightiest man in practice, will in the end prove the mightiest man in Scripture. Theory is the guide of practice, practice the life of theory ;■ where Scripture contemplation and ex- perience meet together in the same persons, true Script- ure understanding must needs be heightened and doubled.f Biblical interpretation is the central department of biblical study whence all other departments derive their material. In this field the strifes and struggles of cent- uries have taken place. There is no department of study where there has been so many differences, and where there still remains so much confusion. The Bi- ble has human features and divine features. To under- stand them in their harmonious combination is the se- cret of interpretation. This secret is the philosopher's * Emesti, Institutio Interp. N. 71, 1761, § 10 ; Principles of Interpretation^ ed. Moses Stuart, Andover, 4th edition, 1842, p. 14, seq. ; Moms, Hermeneutica N. 7"., ed. Eichstadt, Lips., 1797, I., p. 3, seq. \ Immer, Hermeneutics, Ando- vt.r edition, 1877, p. 10. t Clavis Bibliorum^ 4th edit., London, 1675, p. 11 ; see jdso Rambach, Insti- tutiones Uermeneuticae, Jena, 1723, 8th edit., 1764, p. 2, seq. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. £99 stone after which multitudes of interpreters have been seeking through the Christian centuries. As Lange ap- propriately says : * " As Christ has overcome the world by his cross, as the blood of the martyrs has become the seed of the Church, so also the miscon- ceptions and abuse of the Bible have been obliged to more and more redound to its glorification. The battle of Biblical criticism in the first four centuries brought about the collection and establishment of a purified canon ; the arbitrariness of copyists occasioned the col- lection of codices and the criticism of the text ; the exegesis of the allegorical method, called into life the vindication of the historical sense of Scripture ; the fourfold enchaining of the Bible by exegeti- cal tradition, hierarchical guardianship, ecclesiastical decisions, the Latin language, raised the Bible in the Protestant world almost above the dignity of a historical revelation of God ; the humanistic exposition, as well as the naturalistic explanation of miracles, called into life along with the New Testament Grammar, also the under- standing of the New Testament idiom, over against its customary depreciation in comparison with the classic models ; and finally the pantheistic criticism occasioned the revival and rich unfolding of evangelical history." We shall first consider the history of Biblical interpre- tation, then on the basis of its history state its princi- ples and methods. I. RABBINICAL INTERPRETATION. The Jewish Rabbinical schools from the most ancient times recognized alongside of the written Word "bf God, another oral or traditional word of much greater extent and authority delivered to the ancient teachers and handed down from generation to generation in the eso- teric teaching of the faithful scribes, as the official inter- pretation of the written word. This was not only the view of the Pharisees, who subsequently committed this * Grundriss der biblischen Hermeneutik, Heidelberg:, 1S78, p. xxi. 300 BIBLICAL STUDY. tradition to writing in the Mishnas and Talmuds,* but also of the Zelots and Essenes (see p. i8i). It was claimed that this oral divine word had been faithfully handed down from Ezra, who received it by divine in- spiration as esoteric wisdom for the initiated disciples. Others claimed a still higher antiquity for it, going back to Joshua and the elders, and even in part to the twelve patriarchs, Enoch and Adam : hence the large number of pseudepigraphs in which this wisdom is contained, as well as in the Talmuds. This traditional interpretation was of two kinds, Hala- cha and Haggada. The Halacha was legal, containing an immense number of casuistic distinctions, making fences about the law in wider and wider sweep -till the law itself became for the people of God as inaccessible as the temple of Ezekiel, into which none but the priests of the line of Zadok might enter. The Haggada was illustrative and practical, embracing a wealth of legend apd allegory that so colored and enlarged Biblical his- tory that it became as obscure as the New Testament history upon the palimpsests under the legends of the monks that were written over it. From the older Halacha and Haggada methods of iYi- terpretation, were subsequently separated the Peshat and the Sodh. The Peshat is the determination of the literal sense, and is really a branch of the Halacha. The Sodh is the determination of the mystical or alle- gorical sense and is a species of the Haggada.^ The rules of Rabbinical interpretation gradually in- creased in extent. Seven rules of' the Halacha are as- * Weber, System d. Altsynagogalen Palestiniscken Tkeot^tf 1880, Le!p« zlg, p. 92, seg. t Wogue in /. c, pp. 134, 164, seq. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 30I cribed to Hillel in the Siphra.* These are enlarged in the Beraitha of R. Ismael to thirteen.f These rules are : (i) That which is true of the easier or less is true of the greater or more difficult, and the reverse ; (2) Two similar passages supplement one an- other ; (3) That which is clearly established in one part of Scripture is to be presumed in interpreting others ; (4)-(ii) Eight rules with reference to the relation of the genus to the species, by inclusion, exclusion, contrast, and their relation to a third term, in the forms of Rabbinical logic; (12) The word is determined by the context, and the sentence by the scope of the passage; (13) When two verses contradict, we must wait for a third to explain them. Some of these rules are excellent, and so far as the practical logic of the times went, cannot be disputed. The fault of Rabbinical exegesis was less in the rules than in their application, although latent fallacies are not difficult to discover in them, and they do not sufficiently guard against slips of argument. The Haggada method was elaborated by R. Eliezar into thirty-two rules.:]: The principles of the two methods are admirably summed up by Wogue : " These forty-five rules may all be reduced to two fundamental considerations, (i) Nothing is fortuitous, arbitrary, or indifferent in the Word of God, Pleonasm, ellipsis, grammatical anomaly, trans- position of words or facts, everything is calculated, everything has its end and would teach us something. TTie casual, the approxi- * These are given by Schurer, N. T. Zeitgesckichte, 1874, p. 447, and Ilausratli, Zeit Jesu. Heidelberg, p. 96. + Chiarini in /. c, I., p. 66, seq. ; Weber in /. c, p. 106, seq. The best state- ment of them, with ample illustrations, is given by Waehner, Antiquitates Ebraeorum, Gottingae, 1743, p. 422, seq. X Selections of these are given by Chiarini in /. c, I., p. Si. A full statement, with ample illustration, is given by Waehner in /. r., I., p,, 396, seq. 302 BIBLICAL STUDY. mate, the insignificant and inconsequential flower of rhetoric, all that belongs to the setting in human language, are strange to the severe precision of Biblical language. (2) As the image of its au- thor, who is one by Himself and manifold in His manifestations, the Bible often conceals in a single word a crowd of thoughts ; many a phrase, which appears to express a simple and single idea, is sus- ceptible of diverse senses and numberless interpretations indepen- dent of the fundamental difference between literal exegesis and free ' exegesis, in short, as the Talmud says after the Bible itself, the divine word is like fire which divides itself into a thousand sparks, or a rock which breaks into numberless fragments under the ham- mer that attacks it. These two points of view, I repeat, are the soul of the Midrash in general; the latter above all serves as the common basis of the Halacha and Haggada, and it explains, better than any other theory, the long domination of the midrash exegesis in the synagogue."* This admirable statement shows the radical errors of the Rabbinical idea of the Scriptures : (i) everything must be interpreted in accordance with that severe pre- cision, which alone is worthy of God ; (2) the Scriptures are altogether divine and have the same attributes of unity and infinity that God Himself has. The human features of the Bible are entirely ignored. The Sodk was used in the most ancient times by the Essenes and Zelots and found expression in the numer- ous apocalypses and pseudepigraphs of the four centu- ries in the midst of which the Messiah appeared. It at- tained its culmination in the Cabalistic system of the thirteenth century.f These mystics regarded every let- ter of the Bible as so highly important that it contained a secret sense for the initiated. The book of SoharJ describes the system in the following parable : " Like a beautiful woman, concealed in the interior of her palace * Wogue in /. f., p. 169. f Ginsberg:, Kabbalah, London, 1865. J II. 99. ^ THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 393 who when her friend and beloved passes by, opens for a moment a secret window and is seen by him alone, and then withdraws herself immediately and disappears for a long time, so the doctrine only shows herself to the chosen, (/. e., to him who is devoted to her body and soul) ; and even to him not always in the same manner. At first she simply beckons at the passer-by with her hand, and it gen- erally depends upon his understanding this gentle hint. This is the interpretation known by the name t72"l- Afterwards she approaches him a little closer, lisps him a few words, but her form is still cov- ered with a thick veil which his looks cannot penetrate. This is the so-called "©"I'm. She then converses with him with her face cov- ered by a thin veil; this is the enigmatical language of m^n. After having thus become accustomed to her society, she at last shows herself face to face and entrusts him with the innermost se- crets of her heart. This is the secret of the law ^^13," * There are three principles of Cabalistic interpretation : (i) Notariqon — to reconstruct a word by using the ini- tials of many, or a sentence by using all the letters of a single word for initial letters of other words ; (2) Ghema- tria — the use of the numerical values of the letters of a word for purposes of comparison with other words which yield the same or similar combinations of numbers ; (3) Temiira — the permutation of letters by the three Cabal- istic alphabets, called 'At bach, 'Albam, and Athbash.\ The Peshat, or literal interpretation, is used in the Tar- gum of Onkelos, and the Greek version of Aquila, with reference to the law — but found little expression among the ancient Jews. The Qarites were the first to empha- size it in the eighth century. Before this time there is no trace of Hebrew grammar, or Hebrew dictionary. The Qarites threw off the yoke of Rabbinical Halacha, and devoted themselves to the literal sense and became * We give the translation of Ginsberg in /. c, p. 130 ; comp. Siegfried, Phila von Alexandria als AusUger des Alt. Test., 1875, Jena, p. 291. t See Ginsberg, The Kabbalah, London, 1865, p. 131, seq. ; Wogue in /. r., p. 274, seq. ; Chiarini in /. c, p. 95, seq. ; Siegfried in /. c, p. 290, seq. 304 BIBLICAL STUDY. extreme Hteralists. Influenced by them Saadia intro- duced the literal method into the Rabbinical schools, and used it as the most potent weapon to overcome the Qarites. He became the father of Jewish exegesis in the middle ages, and was followed by a large number of distinguished scholars who have left monuments of Jewish learning.* Wogue attributes this rise of the lit- eral method to the influence of Arabic learning at Bag- dad, Bassora, and Cairo. But the Arabs and the Per- sians received their impulses from the Nestorian schools of Edessa and Nisibis, which mediated the transition of Greek learning to the Orient, which also from the times of Theodore of Mopsuestia, and Lucius of Samosata, had been chiefly characterized by their historic method of exegesis (see p. 325). Thus in Judaism there grew up three great parties which struggled with one another during the middle ages. The sacred Scriptures of the Old Testament were buried under a mass of tradition that was heaped upon them more and more for centuries until it became necessary for the interpreter, who would understand the holy word itself, to force his way through this mass, as at the present day one who would find the ancient Jeru- salem must dig through eighteen centuries of debris under which it has been buried in the strifes of nations. There is doubtless truth at the bottom of all these systems. There is a certain propriety in distinguishing the fourfold sense. The literal sense will not apply ex- cept to the plainest matter-of-fact passages ; the Haggada method is necessary in the rhetorical parts of Script- ure. The Halacha method is necessary for the deter- mination of the principles embedded in the Scriptures. * Wogue in /. c, p. 208, sff. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 305 The Sodh method is necessary in the interpretation of prophetic symbolism, and the esoteric instruction of the Bible. If each of these four methods had been restricted to its own appropriate sphere in the Bible, they would have co-operated with great advantage — but where these methods are applied at the same time to the same pas- sages with the view that the Scripture has a manifold sense ; where again these methods are applied arbitrarily to all passages ; where they are used to remove difficul- ties, and to maintain traditional opinions ; or where any one method is made to usurp the functions of all ; — there can only result — as there did result in fact — the utmost arbitrariness and confusion. The Bible was no longer interpreted — it was used as the slave of traditional sys- tems and sectarian prejudices. II. HELLENISTIC INTERPRETATION. The Hellenistic Jews were largely under the influence of the Platonic philosophy which they sought to recon- cile with the Old Testament Scriptures. The chief of the Hellenistic Jews is Philo of Alexandria. Philo was not a Hebrew scholar, but was acquainted with the Aramaic of Palestine, and probably also with the ancient Hebrew.'^ He does not use the Hebrew text, but bases himself entirely on the LXX, and uses tradition in its two forms of Halacha and Haggada, but especially the latter, which he elaborates in the direction of the Sodh or al- legorical method. He distinguishes between the literal sense and the allegorical as between the body and the soul,t the sense like a fluid pervades the letter. The al- legory is a wise architect which builds on the ground of the Scriptures an architectural structure,:}: * Siegfried in /. c, p. 141, seq. f De migr, Abraham xvi. XDe Somn. ii. 3. 300 BIBLICAL STUDY. The allegorical method of Philo is so well stated by Siegfried, that we shall build upon him in detail, while we pursue our own method in a more general arrange- ment. There are three rules to determine when the literal sense is excluded ; (i) when anything is said un- worthy of God ; (2) when it presents an insoluble diffi- culty ; (3) when the expression is allegorical. The last rule alone is sound, the others are a priori, and result in the imposition on the Scriptures of the preconcep- tions and prejudices of the interpreter. The rules of Philo's allegorical method given by Siegfried are twenty- three in number.* We shall arrange them under four heads in a somewhat different order. I. Grammatical allegory. An allegory is indicated in the use of certain particles ; in the modifications of words by prefixes or affixes ; in stress upon number of noun and tense of verb ; in gender of words ; in the use or absence of the article. Here grammatical exegesis is insufficient ; there are mysterious hidden meanings to be found in these grammatical peculiarities. II. Rhetorical allegory is found: in the repetition of words ; in redundancy of style ; in reiteration of state- ment ; in changes of expression ; in synonyms ; in play upon words ; in striking expressions ; in position of words ; in unusual connections of verses ; in the omission of what would be expected ; in the unexpected use of terms. Here rhetorical exegesis is insufficient ; there must be a hidden sense in any departure from the plain prosaic form. III. Allegory by means of new combinations is gained : by changing the punctuation ; by giving a word all its possible meanings ; by internal modifications of the * In /. f., p. 165, seq. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 307' word ; by new combinations of words. This method was more fully wrought out by the Cabalists (see p. 303), and is the most abnormal of all the forms of allegory. IV. Symbolism is of three kinds : of numbers, of things, and of names. This method is the most appropriate of the forms of allegory; its propriety is recognized by modem exegesis when used within due bounds. To Philo and his school the inner sense attained by allegory was the real sense designed by God. The method of Philo was doubtless used to a great extent among the Essenes and the Zelots. There are traces of it in the pseudepigraphs and apocryphal books that were composed in the time of Philo. Josephus was also in- fluenced by Philo, and was inclined to the use of alle- gory; as we see from his treatment of the tabernacle.* There is truth at the bottom of the allegorical method, namely, that human language is inadequate to convey the thoughts of God to man. At the best it can only be a sign and external representation. We must go back of the sign to the thing signified. The mistake of the alle- gorical method is in extending it beyond its legitimate bounds, and making every word and syllable and letter of Scripture an allegory of some kind, and in using it to escape difficulties of philosophy and theology, and in order to maintain peculiar religious views. III. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE IN THE NEW TESTAMENT. The writings of New Testament Scripture use and in- terpret Old Testament Scripture. It is important for us to determine the nature and principles of this interpre- • Antiq. iii. 7, 7 ; Siegfried in /. c, p. 278, seq. 308 BIBLICAL STUDY. tatlon, and its relation to the Rabbinical and Hellenistic methods. In the Old Testament prior to the exile, the prophets use earlier writings by way of citation rather than inter- pretation. This use is in the nature of free reproduction and application rather than an exposition of their sense. During the periods of oral revelation and prophecy, the interpretation of ancient Scripture was of little im- portance. It was only when prophecy ceased, and oral revelations were discontinued, that it was necessary to ascertain the divine will by the interpretation of ancient written documents. After the exile, Ezra introduced the more systematic study of the Scripture, and established the midrash method, in seeking for the meaning of ancient Scriptures, and their application to the present. The people were assembled, and Ezra and the Levites " read in the book in the law of God distinctly, and gave the sense, and they understood in the reading " (Neh. viii. 8). The aim of Ezra and his associates was to make the law of God so plain that the people generally could under- stand it. The New Testament writers constantly use the Old Testament. Do they employ the methods in use by the Palestinian and Hellenistic Jews of their time? Different answers have been given to this question from partisan points of view. It is important to ascertain the real facts of the case. The most important use of the Scripture is ever the last and the highest in the process of interpretation, namely, practical interpretation, or ap- plication ; for the divine revelation has in view, above all, human conduct. This is most frequently employed in the New Testament by Jesus and His apostles. The most familiar example is in the temptation of Jesus THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 309 when He overcomes Satan by the application of the words of the law : " Man shall not live by bread alone, but by every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of God "; " Thou shalt not tempt the Lord thy God "; , " Thou shalt worship the Lord thy God, and Him only shalt thou serve " (Matt. iv. 4-10). These will suffice, also, as specimens of the literal interpretation as used by Jesus. In conflict with the Pharisees He sometimes employs the Halacha method as most appropriate to controversy with them, defeating them with their own weapons. Thus in John x. 34-36, He employs Ps. Ixxxii. 6, argu- ing from the greater to the less. " Is it not written in your law I said, ye are gods ? If He called them gods, unto whom the word of God came (and the Scripture cannot be broken), say ye of him, whom the Father sanctified and sent into the world, Thou blasphemest ; because I said, I am the Son of God ? " In Matt. xxii. 43-45, He uses the Halacha method of arguing from the inner contrast of general and particu- lar in Ps. ex. I. " How then doth David in the Spirit call him Lord, saying : The Lord said unto my Lord, Sit thou on my right hand, till I put thine enemies underneath thy feet ? If David then calleth him Lord, how is he his son ? " Again in Matt. xii. 3 seq., in the interpretation of the Sabbath-law He quotes from i Sam. xxi. 1-7 ; Num. xxviii. 9-10; Hos. vi. 6; on the principle that Scripture passages may be used to supplement one another. " Have ye not read what David did, when he was an hungered, and they that were with him ; how he entered into the house of God, and did eat the shew-bread which it was not lawful for him to eat, neither for them that were with him, but only for the priests ? Or have ye not read in the law how that on the Sabbath day the 310 BIBLICAL STUDY. priests in the temple profane the sabbath and are guiltless ? But I say unto you, that one greater than the temple is here. But if ye had known what this meaneth; I desire mercy and not sacrifice, ye would not have condemned the guiltless." In these and similar instances Jesus interprets Script- ure, as a Jewish rabbin, after the Halacha method, with which the Pharisees were familiar, and to which they were accustomed in discussion and argument. Jesus also employs the Haggada method. This in- deed is His own favorite method of teaching, inasmuch as His discourses were in the main addressed to the peo- ple. His method of illustration and enforcement of truth is perfect in its kind as only a divine master could fashion it. If we take the series of parables in Luke xv. as an example, what could be more simple, appropriate, beautiful, and impressive ? They have been the gospel of redemption to millions of our race. We shall present some examples of this method of interpretation. He replies to the bald literalism of the ruler of the syna- gogue, Luke xiii. 14 seq. : " There are six days in which men ought to work : on them come and be healed, and not on the Sabbath "; " Ye hypocrites, doth not each of you on the Sabbath loose his ox or his ass from the stall, and lead him away to the watering ? And ought not this woman, being a daughter of Abraham, whom Satan had bound, lo, eighteen years, to have been loosed from this bond on the day of the Sab- bath ? •* In the interpretation of prophecy and history Jesus comes into connection with the allegorical method of in- terpretation, and it has been claimed that He applies it with the freedom of a Hellenist. In His first discourse in the synagogue of Nazareth (Luke iv. 16-22) He inter- prets the prophecy (Is. Ixi.) as applying to Himself. This prophecy is in its nature figurative, as it presents THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 3^1 the servant of Jehovah in his faithful preaching to the people. Jesus correctly sees the inner sense of the pas- sage and finds His own likeness depicted there. In Matt. xxi. 42, Jesus interprets the corner-stone of Ps. cxviii. 22-23 ^s referring to Himself and His kingdom. This is not a prophecy in the original passage, but a symboli- cal representation of the re-establishment of the king- dom of God. The work of Jesus was pre-eminently such a work. Hence the inner sense affords the connection that makes the use of the symbol appropriate. A touch- ing example of the historical allegory is the caution of Jesus (Luke xvii. 32): "Remember Lot's wife "(Gen. xix. 26) in connection with his prediction of the judg- ment upon Jerusalem and the nations. We shall now examine some of the most striking pas- sages, in which certain distinguishing features of our Saviour's interpretation appear. The Sadducees came to Him (Matt. xxii. 23-32) with a difficult question un- der the law (Deut. xxv. 5) : " If a man die, having no children, his brother shall marry his wife and raise up seed unto his brother." The case is, " Now there were with us seven brethren : and the first married and deceased, and having no seed, left his wife unto his brother ; in like manner the second also, and the third, unto the seventh. And after them all the woman died. In the resurrection therefore whose wife shall she be of the seven ? for they all had her." Jesus does not determine this case by an appeal to the Scripture, but on His own authority, delivers a doctrine which settles it : " In the resurrection they neither marry, nor are given in marriage, but are as the angels in heaven." He takes occasion, however, to overcome the Sadducean denial of a resurrection by an appealto Ex. iii. 6 : " Have ye not read that which was spoken unto you by God, saying, ' I am the God of Abraham, and the God 312 BIBLICAL STUDY. of Isaac, and the God of Jacob ' ? God Is not the God of the dead, but of the living." It is clear that our Sav- iour takes the passage out of its context and gives it a meaning which no one would ever have thought of on any principles of exegesis. Where then is the justifica- tion, and what is the method ? We observe that He de- rives from the statement of the covenant relation be- tween God and the patriarchs, the principle that God being a living God, the relation is a vital relation, and those who are in this relation are living ones as possess- ors of the life they have received from God. This per- petuity of life after death tends to the resurrection. Jesus here interprets as the interpreter of the mind of God, with the fulness' of the Spirit (John i. i8). It is a transfiguration of the Halacha method. No principle of exegesis can be derived from His example in this case that it will be safe for human exegesis to follow. - In the sermon on the mount (Matt. v. 21, seq^, in His use of the laws of the tables, He contrasts His own in- terpretation of them with the traditional. The latter looked at the external letter and warped this into ac- cordance with traditional theory and practice. He en- ters into the internal spirit. He goes in His interpreta- tion beyond any human propriety, and interprets them from the point of view of the divine lawgiver Himself. No human interpreter would be justified in following the Master thither. It is His sovereign prerogative so to interpret. Jesus recognizes the principle of accommodation in the use of the Old Testament (Matt. xix. 3, seq^. The law of divorce was granted by Moses, owing to the hardness of the hearts of the people of his time. That law was, however, inconsistent with the original divine ideal at the creation. And here again Jesus interprets from the THE INTERPRETATlOxV OF SCRIPTURE. 313 mind of God in the Halacha method, the words of Gen. ii. 24: " For this cause shall a man leave his father and mother, and shall cleave to his wife ; and the twain shall become one flesh." This He interprets by laying hold of the great thought : " one Jlesh." " So that they are no more twain, but one flesh. What therefore God hath joined together, let not man put asunder." No one would ever have thought of this interpretation but Jesus, who interpreted the mind of God, the creator of man and the author of marriage. In Luke xxiv. 44 seq., Jesus said : " These are my words which I spake unto you, while I was yet with you, how that all things must needs be fulfilled, which are writ- ten in the law of Moses, and the prophets, and the psalms concern- ing me. Then opened he their mind, that they might understand the Scriptures; and he said unto them, Thus it is written, that the Christ should suffer, and rise again from the dead the third day, and that repentance and remission of sins should be preached in his name unto all nations, beginning from Jerusalem." Here our Saviour grasps the entire Old Testament revelation in its unity, and represents Himself and His kingdom as its central theme. The same is the case in the institution of the Lord's supper where He represents the feast as the new covenant feast over against the old covenant sacrifice. Jesus Christ in His method of interpretation thus laid down the distinctive principles of scriptural interpreta- tion which enabled His apostles to understand the Old Testament, and delivered them from the perils of the allegorical and legal methods of His times. He uses the four kinds of biblical interpretation, in accordance with the usage of the various classes of men in His times, in those ways that were familiar to the rabbinical school, the synagogue instruction, the popular audience, and the esoteric training of the disciple. He uses, all that was ^H BIBLICAL STUDY. appropriate in these methods ; but never employs any of the casuistry or hair-spHtting Halacha of the scribes ; or any of the idle tales and absurd legends of the Hagga- da ; or any of the strange combinations and fanciful re- constructions of the Sod/i of the Alexandrians. His use of Scripture is simple, beautiful, profound, and sublime. One sees through the Divine Master that the written Word is the mirror of the mind of God ; and the eter- nal Word interprets the former from the latter. The rabbins interpreted the Scriptures to accord with the traditions of the elders: Jesus interpreted them to ac- cord with the mind of God their author. Hence the characteristic authority with which He spake ; the free- dom with which He added to the ancient Scriptures, and substituted a higher revelation for the lower wherever it was found necessary. As Dorner appropriately says : "This is the wondrous charm of His words, their unfathomable, mysterious depth, despite all their simplicity, that they are ever ut- tered, so to speak, from the heart of the question ; for the harmony which binds together and comprehends in one vz'ew the opposite ends of things, is lovingly and consciously present to Him, since everything is related to His kingdom. Other words of men, this or that man might have spoken ; nay, most that is spoken or done by us is merely a continuation of others through us ; we are simply therein points of transmission, for tradition. But the words which He drew from - different. He introduced the methods of the school of Nisibis in his Institutions. This was an impor- tant text-book in the middle age and exerted a health- ful influence. He urges to use the fathers as a Jacob's ladder by which to rise to the Scriptures themselves. He insists upon the comparison of Scripture with Script- ures, and points out that frequent and intense medita- tion is the way to a true understanding of them.§ Jerome seems to have occupied an intermediate and not altogether consistent position. He strives for his- torical and grammatical exposition, yet it is easy to see * Inst: tut a Regular ia Divinae Legis. t Kihn in /. f., p. 526. X Kihn in /. f., p. 210. § Kihn in /. c, pp. 211-212; Prae/. de Jnstit. div. lift., Migne, T. 70^ p. 1 105, seg. 328 BIBLICAL STUDY. that at the bottom he is more inclined to the allegorical method. He lays down no principles of exegesis, but scattered through his writings one finds numerous wise remarks : " The sacred Scripture cannot contradict itself." * " Whoever in- terprets the gospel in a different spirit from that in which it was written, confuses the faithful and distorts the gospel of Christ." t " The gospel consists not in the words of Scripture but in the sense, not in the surface but in the marrow, not in the leaves of the words but in the roots of the thought." J Thus there grew up in the ancient church three great exegetical tendencies : the literal and traditional, the al- legorical and mystical, the historical and ethical, and these three struggled with one another and became more and more interwoven, in the best of the fathers, but took on all sorts of abnormal forms of exegesis in others. In the middle age the vital Christian spirit was more and more suppressed, and ecclesiastical authority as- sumed the place of learning. The traditional principle of exegesis became more and more dominant and along- side of this the allegorical method was found to be the most convenient for reconciling Scripture with tradition. The literal and the historical sense was alrnost entirely ignored. The fourfold sense became fixed, as expressed in the saying : the literal sense teaches what has been done, the allegorical what to believe, the moral what to do, the anagogical whither we are tending.§ In the middle age exegesis consisted chiefly in the re- production of the expositions of the fathers, in collec- tions and compilations, called epitomes, glosses, postilles, chains. In the Oriental church the chief of these com- ♦ Epist. ad Marcellam. t Epist. ad Gal. i. 6. % Epist. ad Gal. i. ii. § Litera gesta docet^ quid credas allegoria, moralis quid agas, quo tendas Anagogia. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 339 pilers were: Oecumenius (1999), Theophylact (f 1007), and Euthymius Zigabenus {fill 8). These contain chiefly the exegesis of Chrysostom, Theodoret, and the Anti- ochan school. In the Occidental church, there is more independence and greater use of the allegory. The chief Latin expositors of the middle age are, Beda (f 735), Al- cuin (f 804), Walafrid Strabo (f 849), Rhabanus Maurus (1856), Peter Lombard (11164), Thomas Aquinas (ti274),* Hugo de St. Caro (f 1260). The only exegete of the middle age who shows any acquaintance with the Hebrew text of the Old Testament is the converted Jew, Nicolaus de Lyra (f 1340). He seems to have appre- hended better than any previous writer the proper exe- getical method, but could only partly put it in practice. He was doubtless influenced greatly by the grammatical exegesis of the Jews of the middle age, from Saadia's school, and especially by Raschi.f He wrote postilles on the entire Bible. He mentions the four senses of Scripture and then says : " All of them presuppose the literal sense as the foundation. As a building, declining from the foundation, is likely to fall, so the mys- tic exposition, which deviates from the literal sense, must be reck- oned unbecoming and unsuitable." And yet he adds : " I protest, I intend to say nothing either in the way of assertion or determination, except in relation to such things as have been clearly settled by Holy Scripture on the authority of the church. All besides must be taken as spoken scholastically and by way of exer- * His Catena Aurea on the Gospels have been translated by Pusey, Keble, and Newman, 6 vols., Oxford, 1870 ; and may be consulted as the most accessible specimen of the intetpretation of the middle age. t See Siegfried, RaschVs Einfluss an/ Nicolaus von Lira und Luther in der Anslegung der Genesis, in Merx, Arc/iiv, I., p. 428, seg. ; II., p. 39, seg. 330 BIBLICAL STUDY. cise ; for which reason, I submit all I have said, and aim to say, to the correction of our holy mother the church." * In such bondage to the infallable church, it is astonish- ing that he accomplished so much. He exerted a health- ful, reviving influence in biblical study and in a measure prepared for the Reformation. There is truth in the saying, " If Lyra had not piped, Luther would not have danced." f Luther thought highly of Lyra, and yet Luther really started from a principle entirely different from the literal sense. For this he was rather prepared by Wicklif and Huss. Wicklif was a contemporary of Lyra, and opposed the abuse of the allegorical method from the spiritual side, and in contrast with Lyra recog- nized the authority of the Scriptures as above the au- thority of the church. He makes the all-important state- ment which was not allowed to die, but became the Puri- tan watchword in subsequent times': "The Holy Spirit teaches us the sense of Scripture as Christ opened the Scriptures to His apostles.":}: Huss and Jerome of Prague followed Wicklif in this respect. § With reference to the interpretation of the middle age as a whole, the remarks of Immer are appropriate : | " It lacks the most essential qualification to scriptural interpreta- tion, linguistic knowledge, and historical perception This de- fect inheres in the mediaeval period in general. Hence there could be no advance in interpretation. But what it could do it did : it col- lected and preserved ; and what was thus preserved waited for new fructifying elements, which were to be introduced in the second half of the fifteenth century." * Postillae perpctuae, sen brevia commentaria in Universa Biblia, prol. ii. , Davidson in /. c, p. 175. seq. + Si Lyra non lyrasset, Lutherus non saltasset. X Lechler, Johann von Wiclif, Leipzig, 1873, I., p. 483, seq. ; Lorimer's edi- tion, London, 1S78, II., p. 29, seq. % Gillett, Life and Times 0/ John Huss, Boston, 1864, 2d ed., L, p. 295, seq. I In /. c, p. 37. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 33;^ The mediceval exegesis reached its culmination at the Council of Trent, where Roman Catholic interpretation was chained forever in the fourfold fetters: that it must be conformed to the rule of faith, the practice of the church, the consent of the fathers, and the decisions of the councils. But the seeds of a new exegesis had been planted by Lyra and Wicklif which burst forth into fruitful life in the Protestant Reformation. V. THE INTERPRETATION OF THE REFORMERS AND THEIR SUCCESSORS. The Reformation was accompanied by a great revival of Biblical Study in all directions, but especially in the interpretation of the Scriptures. The Humanists were influenced, by their studies of the Greek and Hebrew languages and literatures, to apply this new learning to the study of the Bible. Erasmus is the acknowledged chief of interpreters of this class. He insisted that the interpretation of the Scriptures should be in accordance with the original Greek and Hebrew texts, and urged the giving of the grammatical and literal sense over against the allegorical sense, which had been the ally of tradition.* The Humanists, however, did not go to the root of the evil ; they were too deferential to the author- ity of the Church, and sought to correct the errors in exegesis by purely scholarly methods. The Reformers, however, revived the principle of Wicklif and Huss, strengthened it, and made it invincible. They urged the one literal sense against the fourfold sense, but they still more insisted that Scripture should be its own in- terpreter, and that it was not to be interpreted by tra- dition or external ecclesiastical authority. Thus, Luther says : * Klausen in /. c, p. 237. 332 BIBLICAL STUDY. "Every word should be allowed to stand in its natural meaning, and that should not be abandoned unless faith forces us to it."* .... " It is the attribute of Holy Scripture that it interprets itself by passages and places which belong together, and can only be under- stood by the rule of faith." t Tyndale says : " Thou shall understand, therefore, that the Scripture hath but one sense, which is the literal sense. And that literal sense is the root and ground of all, and the anchor that never faileth, whereunto if thou cleave, thou canst never err or go out of the way. And if thou leave the literal sense, thou canst not but go out of the way. Neverthelater, the Scripture useth proverbs, similitudes, riddles, or allegories, as all other speeches do ; but that which the proverb, similitude, riddle, or allegory signifieth, is ever the literal sense, which thou must seek out diligently : as in the English we borrow words and sentences of one thing, and apply them unto another, and give them new significations." . . . . " Beyond all this, when we have found out the literal sense of the Scripture by the process of the text, or by a like text of another place, then go we ; and as the Scripture borroweth similitudes of worldly things, even so we again borrow similitudes or allegories of the Scripture, and apply them to our purposes ; which allegories are no sense of the Script- ure, but free things besides the Scripture, and altogether in the liberty of the Spirit." " Finally, all God's words are spiritual, if thou have eyes of God, to see the right meaning of the text, and whereunto the Scripture pertaineth, and the final end and cause thereof." J The view of the Reformed churches is expressed in the 2d Helvetic Confession (ii. i) : " We acknowledge that interpretation of Scripture for authentical and proper, which being taken from the Scriptures themselves (that is, from the phrase of that tongue in which they were written, they being also wayed according to the circumstances and expounded according to the proportion of places, either like or unlike, or of * Walch, xix., p. 1601. t Walch, iii., p. 2042. X The Obedience 0/ a Christian Man, 1528 ; Parker edition, Doctrinal Treat- ises, p. 307, scq. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 333 more and plainer), accordeth with the rule of faith and charity, and maketh notably for God's glory and man's salvation." ♦ The Reformers produced masterpieces of exegesis by these principles, and set the Bible in a new light before the world. Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin especially were great exegetes;t Bullinger(ti575), Oecolampadius(ti53i), Me- lancthon, Musculus (11563), were worthy to stand by their side. Their immediate successors had somewhat of their spirit, although the sectarian element already influences them in the maintenance of the peculiarities of the dif- ferent churches. The Hermeneutical principles of the Lutherans are well stated by Matth. Flacius ; :j: those of the Reformed by And. Rivetus.§ The weakness of the Reformation principle was in the lack of clear definition of what was meant by the analogy or rule of faith. It is clear that the Reformers set the rule of faith in the Scriptures themselves, — in the substance of doctrine ap- prehended by faith. But when it came to define what that substance was, there was difficulty. Hence, so soon as the faith of the church was expressed in sym- bols, these were at first unconsciously, and at last avow- edly, identified with this Scripture rule of faith. The Lutheran scholastic Gerhard says : " From these plain passages of Scripture the rule of faith is col- lected, which is the sum of the celestial doctrine collected from the most evident passages of Scripture. Its parts are two — the former concerning faith, whose chief precepts are expressed in the apostles' creed ; the latter concerning love, the sum of which the decalogue explains." I * We give the English version oi Harmony of the Confessions , London, 1643, on account of its historical relations. t Klausen in /. c, p. 223 ; also, p. 112. X Clavis Scripturae Sacrae^ Antwerp, 1567 ; Basilese, 1609. Best edition, ed. Musaeus, 1675. § Isagoge, 1627. I Gerhard, Loci, Tubingae, 1767, Tom. I., p. 53. 334 BIBLICAL STUDY. Hollazius* defines the analogy of faith: "the funda- mental articles of faith, or the principal chapters of the Christian faith collected from the clearest testimonies of the Scriptures." Carpzovf makes it: "the system of Scripture doctrine in its order and connection." If this system of doctrine had been that found in the Scriptures themselves, in accordance with the modern discipline of Biblical Theology,:}: there would have been some propriety in the definition ; but inasmuch as the scholastic theologians proposed to express that system of doctrine in their theological commonplaces, in other methods and forms than those presented in the Script- ures, practically the rule or analogy of faith became these theological systems, and so an external rule was substituted for the internal rule of the Scriptures them- selves; the Reformation principle was more and more abandoned ; and the Jewish Halacha, and the mediaeval scholastic re-entered, and took possession of Protestant exegesis. § The Reformed church was slower in attaining this result than the Lutheran church, owing to the exegetical spirit that had come down from Oecolampadius, Calvin, and Zwingli ; but already Beza leads off in the wrong direction ; and notwithstanding the great stress laid upon literal and grammatical exegesis by Cappellus and the school of Saumur in France ; by Drusius, De Dieu, and . Dan. Heinsius in Holland ; the drift was in the scholastic direction ; and wheri the Swiss churches arrayed them- selves against the French exegetes ; and the churches of Holland were divided by the Arminian controversy, and the historical and literal exegesis came to characterize * Exam. Tkeologici Acroamatici, 1741, Holmiae, p. 1777. + Prima Lineae Herm. Helmstad., 1790, p. 28. J See Chap. XI. § Volck, in Zockler, Handb. Theo. fViss., p. 657 ; Klausen in /. c, p. 354. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 335 more and more the latter; the scholastic divines more and more employed the dogmatic method, and urged to interpret in accordance with the external rule of faith. VI. THE INTERPRETATION OF THE PURITANS, AND THE ARMINIANS. British Puritanism remained true to the Reformation principle of interpretation till the close of the seventeenth century. The views of Tyndale and the Puritans went deeper into the essence of the matter than those of the continental reformers. This was doubtless owing to the fact of their conflict against ecclesiastical authority and the prelatical party, and their protests against the obtru- sion of Popish ceremonies on the Christians of England. They urged more and more the principle of the Script- ures alone as the rule of the church, and made the/z^j divinufn the supreme appeal. Thus Thomas Cartwright : " Scripture alone being able and sufficient to make us wise to salvation, we need no unwritten verities, no traditions of men, no canons of councels, or sentences of fathers, much less decrees of popes, to supply any supposed defect of the written word, or to give us a more perfect direction in the way of life, then is already set down expressly in the canonicall Scriptures They are of di- vine authority. They are the rule, the line, the squyre and light, whereby to examine and trie all judgements and sayings of men, and of angels, whether they be such as God approveth, yea or no ; and they are not to be judged or sentenced by any." * Especially noteworthy is the statement that no ex- ternal rule is to be used to supply any supposed de- fects of the written word, and that plain direction is given by what is set down expressly in the Scripture. ♦ Treatise 0/ Christian Religion, 1616, p. 78. 336 BIBLICAL STUDY. John Ball * gives an admirable statement of the Puritan position : " The expounding of the Scriptures is commanded by God, and practiced by the godly, profitable both for the unfolding of obscure places, and applying of plaine texts. It stands in two things, (i) In giving the right sense. (2) In a fit application of the same. Of one place of Scripture, there is but one proper and natural! sense, though sometimes things are so expressed, as that the things themselves doe signifie other things, according to the Lord's ordinance : Gal. iv. 22, 23, 24 ; Ex. xii. 46, with John xix. 36 ; ^s. ii. I, with Acts iv. 34, 25, 26. We are not tyed to the expositions of the Fathers or councels for the finding out the sense of the Scripture, the Holy Ghost speaking in the Scripture, is the only faithful interpreter of the Scripture. The meanes to find out the true meaning of the Scripture, are conference of one place of Scripture with another, diligent consideration of the scope and circumstances of the place, as the occasions, and coherence of that which went before, with that which followeth after ; the matter whereof it doth intreat, and cir- cumstances of persons, times and places, and consideration, whether the words are spoken figuratively or simply ; for in figurative speeches, not the outward shew of words, but the sense is to be taken, and knowledge of the arts and tongues wherein the Scriptures were originally written. But alwayes it is to bee observed, that obscure places are not to bee expounded contrary to the rule of faith set downe in plainer places of the Scripture." The analogy or rule of faith is expressly defined by him as " set downe in plainer places of the Scripture," and it is maintained that " the Holy Ghost speaking in the Scripture is the only faithful interpreter of Script- ure." This improvement of the Protestant principle by lifting it to the person of the Holy Spirit speaking in the word to the believer, prevents any substitution of an external symbol or system of theology for the rule of * Short Treatise containing all the principall Grounds of Christian Religion. Tenth Impression. London, 1635. p. 39. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 337 faith of the Scriptures themselves. Archbishop Usher takes the same position as Ball : * " The Spirit of God alone is the certain interpreter of His word written by His Spirit. For no man knoweth the things pertaining to God, but the Spirit of God (I. Cor. ii. 11) The interpreta- tion therefore must be of the same Spirit by which the Scripture was written ; of which Sp'irit we have no certainty upon any man's credit, but onely so far forth as his saying may be confirmed by the Holy Scriptures How then is the Scripture to be interpreted by Scripture? According to the analogy of faith (Rom. xii. 6), and the scope and circumstance of the present place, and conference of other plain and evident places, by which all such as are obscure and hard to be understood ought to be interpreted, for there is no matter necessary to eternal life, which is not plainly, and sufficiently set forth in many places of Scripture." These extracts from the Puritan fathers, who chiefly- influenced the Westminster divines, will enable us to understand the principles of interpretation laid down in the Westminster Confession (I. 9-1OJ, which are in ad- vance of all the symbols of the Reformation in this par- ticular : " The infallible rule of interpretation of Scripture is the Scripture itself; and therefore, when there is a question about the true and full sense of any Scripture (which is not manifold, but one), it myst be searched and known by other places that speak more clearly " (§9). " The supreme judge, by which all controversies of religion are to be determined and all decrees of councils, opinions of ancient writ- ers, doctrines of men, and private spirits, are to be examined, and in whose sentence we are to rest, can be no other but the Holy Spirit, speaking in the Scripture " (§ 10). These principles of interpretation give the death-blow to the manifold sense, and also to any external analogy of faith for the interpretation of Scripture. It has been * Body 0/ Divtnitie, London, 1645. Fourth Edit., London, 1653, pp. 24, 25. 15 338 BIBLICAL STUDY. made contra-confessional in those churches which adopt the Westminster symbols to believe and teach any but the one true and full sense of any Scripture, or to appeal to " doctrines of men," or any external rule or analogy of faith, or to make any other but the Holy Spirit Him- self the supreme interpreter of Scripture to the believer and the church. It was not without good and sufificient reasons that the Westminster divines substituted the " Holy Spirit speaking in the Scripture " for the analogy of faith which had been so much abused, and which was to be still more abused by the descendants of the Puri- tans, after they had forgotten their Puritan fathers, and resorted to the Swiss and Dutch scholastics for theolog- ical instruction. Edward Leigh (a lawyer and member of the Long Parliament, and said to have been a lay member of the Westminster Assembly,) clearly states the Puritan posi- tion * in his chapter on the Interpretation of Scripture : " The Holy Ghost is the judge, and the Scripture is the sentence or definitive decree. We acknowledge no publick judge except the Scripture, and the Holy Ghost teaching us in the Scripture, He that made the law should interpret the same." . . . . " The Papist says, that the Scripture ought tp be expounded by the rule of faith, and therefore not by Scripture only. But the rule of faith and Scripture is all one. As the Scriptures are not of man, but of the Spirit, so their interpretation is not by maA, but of the Spirit likewise," t We shall call attention to some other features of the interpretation of the seventeenth century in England, because it has been neglected by British and American * Systeme, or Body o/ Divinity. London, 1654, pp. 107, 119. t Thomas "Watson, in bis Body 0/ Practical Divinity, in exposition of the Westminster Shorter Catechism, London, 1692, p. 16, takes the same position : " The Scripture is to be its own interpreter, or rather the Spirit speaking in it ; nothing can cut the diamond but the diamond ; nothing can interpret Scripture but Scripture ; the sun best discovers itself by its own beams." THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 339 scholars, and consequently also by German critics and historians, upon whom many of our modern Anglo-Saxon interpreters depend, conservative and progressive alike. Henry Ainsvvorth says : " I have chiefly laboured in these annotations upon Moses, to ex- plain his words and speech by conference with himself, and other prophets and apostles, all which are commenters upon his lawes, and do open unto us the mysteries which were covered under his veile ; for by a true and sound literal! explication, the spiritual mean- ing may be the better discerned. And the exquisite scanning of words and phrases, which to some may seeme needlesse, will be found (as painful to the writer) profitable to the reader."* Francis Taylor, a Westminster divine, a great Hebrew scholar and Talmudist, author of many commentaries and other practical and theological works, says rf " The method used by me is new, and never formerly exactly fol- lowed in every verse, by any writer, Protestant or Papist, that ever I read, (i) Ye have the grammatical sense in the various significa- tions of every Hebrew word used throughout the Old Testament, which gives light to many other texts ; (2) Ye have the rhetorical sense, in the tropes and figures ; (3) The log^call, in the several arguments ; (4) The theological in divine observations." This is an exact and admirable method which would have delighted Ernesti in the next century, if he had known of it, with the exception of the last point in which the Puritan practical interpretation comes in play. Edward Leigh :}: also lays down excellent principles : " The word is interpreted aright, by declaring (i) the order, (2) the summe or scope, (3) the sense of the words, which is done by framing a rhetorical and logical analysis of the text. In giving the sense, three rules are of principal use and necessity to be observed. * Pentateuch^ Preface, 1626. t Epist. dedicatory to the Exposition 0/ t/ie Proverbs, London, 1655. I In /. c, p. 119. 340 BIBLICAL STUDY. (i) The literal and largest sense of any words in Scripture nnust not be embraced further when our cleaving thereto would breed some disagreement and contrariety between the present Scripture, and some other text or place, else shall we change the Scripture into a nose of wax. (2) In case of such appearing disagreement, the Holy Ghost leads us by the hand to seek out some distinction, restriction, limitation or signe for the reconcilement thereof, and one of these will always fit the purf>ose ; for God's word must always bring per- fect truth, it cannot fight against itself. (3) Such figurative sense, limitation, restriction or distinction must be sought out, as the word of God affordeth either in the present place or some other ; and chiefly those that seem to differ with the present text, being duly compared together." We do not know where a more careful statement, of this delicate problem of harmonizing Scripture with Scripture, can be found.* The Puritan interpreters laid stress upon the practical interpretation, or application of Scripture. The best statement is found in the Key of the Bible, by Francis Roberts, 4th edition, London, 1675, p. 5, seq. : "That the Holy Scriptures may be more profitably and clearly un- derstood, certain rules or directions are to be observed and followed : " I. Some more special afid peculiar, more particularly concerning scholars. As (i) The competent understanding of the original lan- * This same Edward Ldgh was one of the best Biblical scholars of the seven- teenth century. He published Annotations upon all the New Testament, phil- log^call and Theologicall wherein the emphasis and elegance of the Greeke is ob- served, some imperfections in our translation are discovered, divers Jewish rites and customes tending to illastrate the text are mentioned, many antilogies and seeming contradictions reconciled, severall darke and obscure places opened, sundry passages vindicated from the false glosses of Papists and Heretics. Lon- don, 1650, folio. The title is descriptive of a sound method. He also published Critica Sacra on the Hebrew of the Old Testament. 4to, London, 1639. Crit' tea Sacra on the Greek 0/ the New Testament. 4to, London, 1646. These were combined in a folio, 1662. They were translated into Latin by Henry Mid- doch and published at Amsterdam, 1679, and then at Leipzig, 1696, with Pref- ace by John Meyer, a Hebrew Professor there, and in this way exerted a great influence on the continent until the close of the century. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 341 guages (2) The prudent use of Logick (3) The sub- servient help of other arts, as Rhetoric, Natural Philosophy, etc. .... (4) The benefit of humane histories to illustrate and clear the theme. (5) The conferring of ancient translations with the origi- nals (6) The prudent use of the most orthodox, learned, and judicious Commentators, (7) Constant caution that all tongues, arts, histories, translations, and comments be duly ranked in their proper places in subserviency under, not in regency or predomi- nancy over the Holy Scriptures which are to controle them all." " II. Some more general and common directions, which may be of use to all sorts of Christians learned and unlearned (i) Beg wisdom of the onely wise God, who gives liberally and upbraids not (2) Labour sincerely after a truly gracious spirit, then thou shalt be peculiarly able to penetrate into the internal marrow and mysteries of the hoHy Scriptures (3) Peruse the Scripture with an humble self-denying heart (4) Familiarize the Script- ure to thyself by constant and methodical exercise therein (5) Understand Scripture according to the theological analogy, or cer- tain rule of faith and love (6) Be well acquainted with the order, titles, times, penman, occasion, scope, and principal parts of the books, both of the Old and New Testament. (7) HeedfuUy and judiciously observe the accurate concord and harmony of the Holy Scriptures. (8) Learn the excellent art of explaining and under- standing the Scriptures, by the Scriptures. (9) Endeavor sincerely to practice Scripture, and you shall solidly understand Scripture." We have given these rules at length, both on account of their intrinsic excellence and also to call attention to a work of great value which has been lost sight of for a long time in the history of interpretation. This same Francis Roberts, — who was a Presbyterian minister of London during the Commonwealth period, and at the restoration remained with the Established church, — is the author of a massive work in two folio volumes, which construct a system of theology on the doctrine of the covenants.* * T\\^ Mysterte and Marrow 0/ the Bible: viz., God's Covenants with man, in the first Adam, be/ore the Fall ; and in the last Adam, Jesus Christ, a/tei' 342 BIBLICAL STUDY. In his epistolary introduction he says : " I began my weekly lectures, to treat of God's Covenants, on Sept. 2, 165 1, and have persisted therein till the very publica- tion of this book, in May, 1657." In the same introduction he describes his treatise as " A Work of vast extent,.comprising in it : all the methods of divine dispensations to the Church in all ages ; all the conditions of the Church under those dispensations ; all the greatest and precious promises, of the life that now is, and of that which is to come ; all sorts of blessings promised by God to man ; all sorts of duties re- promised by man to God ; all the gradual discoveries of Jesus Christ, the only Mediator and Saviour of sinners ; the whole mystery of all true religion from the beginning to the end of the world ; and which as a continued thred of gold runs through the whole series of all the Holy Scriptures, .... because I have set my heart exceedingly to the Covenants of my God, which (in my judgment) are an universal basis or foundation of all true religion and happiness, I have shunned no diligence, industry^ or endeavor that to me seemed requisite for the profitable unveiling of them." Francis Roberts in this work carries out a plan de- vised and partially executed by John Ball.* According to Thomas Blake,t " his purpose was to speak on this subject of the covenant, all that he had to say in all the whole body of divinity. That which he hath left behind gives us a taste of it." In this Ball anticipated .Cocce- ius and the Dutch Federal theology, as indeed his system of the covenants is of a purer type, having all the ad- vantages of the historical method of the Dutch Federal school without its far-fetched typologies. Indeed the tke Fall; from the Beginning to the End of the World; Unfolded and Illus' trated in positive Aphorisms and their Explanations, a vols., London, 1657. * Treatise of the Covenant of Grace, London, 1645, 4to, published after his death by his friend Simeon Ashe, and with commendatory notices by five other Westminster divines. t Treatise of tlu Covenant of God entered xuith mankinde in the several kindes and degrees of it. Preface, London, 1653. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 343 theology of the covenants had been embedded in Puri- tan theology since Thomas Cartwright.* The covenant principle is also in Usher's Body of Divinity, and the Westminster symbols. In truth, the historical principle that characterizes the covenant theology is better wrought out by John Ball and Francis Roberts than by Cocceius. It will be found that the doctrine of the covenants passed over from England with the Puritan spirit into Holland, into the Federal school, and thence into Spener and the German Pietists. The essential mystic spirit is common to these three great movements which were the historic successors of one another in the order, England, Hol- land, Germany, although each assumed a form adapted to its* peculiar circumstances and conditions.f The Federal school in Holland was characterized by a tendency to allegorize, which was foreign to the best Puritan type, although Thomas Brightman, in his Com- mentaries on Revelation, Song of Songs, and Daniel, reintroduced the allegorical method into the Protestant church and carried it to great lengths. He had not a few followers in Great Britain, and on the continent where his works were republished. This element is united with the principle of the cove- nant in the Federal theology, and proved its greatest weakness. The Federal theology, however, exerted a wholesome influence in preserving the mystic spirit of interpretation over against the purely external historical method of the Arminians ; and in maintaining the his- toric method of divine revelation over against the exter- * In his Treatise 0/ Christian Religion, 1616, he treats first of the doctrine of God and then of man ; next of the Word of God, and this he divides into two parts : the doctrine of the Covenant of Works, called the law, the Covenant of Grace, the gospel ; and treats of Christology and Soteriology under the latter. t Cocceius was a pupil of Ames, the British Puritan. See Mitchell, IVestmin- ster Assembly, London, 1883, p. 344, seq. 344 * BIBLICAL STUDY. nal and mechanical systematizing of the Dutch scholas- tics. Spener and the German Pietists also represented the mystic spirit of interpretation and adopted many of the chief features of Puritanism. They laid stress upon personal relations to God and experimental piety in or- der to the interpretation of Scripture. This was accom- panied among the best of them with true scholarship. The Pietistic interpretation may be found stated by Franke,* but especially by Rambach,f whose work was fruitful for many generations and still retains its value. The best exegete in this direction is the celebrated Ben- gel, whose interpretation is a model of piety and accu- racy.:}: His principle of interpretation is briefly stated : " It is the especial office of every interpretation to ex- hibit adequately the force and significance of the words which the text contains, so as to express everything which the author intended, and to introduce nothing which he did not intend " (xiv. Preface). The principles of interpretation of the Puritans worked mightily during the seventeenth century in Great Britain, and produced exegetical works that ought to be the pride of the Anglo-Saxon churches in all time. Thomas Cartwright, Henry Ainsworth, John Reynolds, John Fox, Nicholas Byfield, Paul Bayne, Hugh Broughton, J. Davenant, Francis Taylor, William Gouge, John Lightfool, Edward Leigh, Wm. Attersol, Thos. Gataker, Joseph Caryl, Samuel Clark, John Trapp, William Green- hill, Francis Roberts, and numerous others have opened up the meaning of the Word of God for all generations. Among the last of the Puritan works on the more learned * Manducatio ad lectionem, S.S. 1693; PraeUctiones Hermeneut., 1717. t Institutiones Hermemuticae^ 1723, 8th edit., Jenae, 1764, ed. Buddeus. X Gnomon, N. T., Tflbingen, 1742, English edition by T. Carlton Lewis and Marvin R. Vuicent, Philadelphia, 1860-62. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 345 side was the Synopsis Criticorum of Matthew Poole ; but the more practical side of interpretation continued to advance until it attained its highest mark in Matthew Henry.^ Other practical commentaries have been of great service to the churches, such as those of Ph. Dod- dridge f and Thomas Scott,:}: but the Puritan interpreta- tion soon lost its strength by the neglect of theological education. Excluded from the universities by their re- ligious principles, the non-conformists were unable to organize educational institutions of their own that were at all adequate, arid hence the ministry fell back upon dogmatizing or spiritualizing, equally perilous, without an exact knowledge of the Biblical text.§ In the meanwhile, the Humanistic spirit had main- tained itself in the Prelatical party in the church of Eng- land and found expression among the Arminians of Holland. The chief interpreter of the seventeenth cent- ury, who revived the spirit of Erasmus, was Hugo Gro- tius. He laid stress upon historical interpretation.! He was followed by the Arminians generally, especially Clericus. In Great Britain Henry Hammond had the same spirit and methods.^^ Edward Pocock** also seeks as the main thing " to settle the genuine and literal mean- * Expositions of ike Old and New Testaments, London, 1704-6. t Family Expositor. 6 vols. 4to, London, 1760-62. X Family Bible, with notes. 4 vols. 410, 1796. § It is. the merit of C. H. Spurgeon that he has recently called attention to the neglected Puritan commentators and expressed his great obligations to them. See his Commenting and Commentaries, N. Y., 1876, and also Treasury 0/ David, London, 6 vols. , 1870, seq. , which contains copious extracts from the Puri- tan commentaries. I Annotationes in lib. evang., Amst., 1641 ; Annot. in Vet. Test., Paris, 1664. If Paraphrase and Annotations upon all the books 0/ the New Testament, 1653, 8vo, 3d edition, folio, London, 1671. In a Postscript concerning new light or divine Ulaminatlon, over against the Quakers, he insisted upKDn the plain, literal, and historical sense. ** Com. on Micah, 1677, Hosea, 1685, Joel, 1691. 15* 346 * BIBLICAL STUDY. ing of the text." Dan. Whitby* also represents this tendency ; and still later Bishop Lowth (see p. 203) and John Taylor of Norwich.f The latter says : "To understand the sense of the Spirit in the New, 'tis essentialVf necessary that we understand its sense in the Old Testament. But the sense of the Spirit cannot be understood unless we understand the language in which that sense is conveyed. P'or which purpose the Hebrew Concordance is the best Expositor. For there you have in one view presented all the places of the sacred code where any words are used ; and by carefully collating those places, may judge what sense it will, or will not bear, which being once settled I'.iere lies no appeal to any other writing in the world : because there are no other books in all the world in the pure original Hebrew, but the books of the Old Testament. A judgment therefore duly founded upon them must be absolutely decisive." J Taylor acknowledges his great indebtedness to the philosopher Locke,§ and shows the influence of that philosophy in his exegesis. Toward the close" of the century Biblical interpretation more and more declined in Great Britain, and we must go to the continent and especially to Germany for the exegesis as well as the higher and lower criticism of modern times.| VIL BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION OF MODERN TIMES. We have seen in our studies of Biblical literature that there was a great revival of Biblical studies, especially in Germany toward the close of the eighteenth century, which extended to all departments. For Biblical inter- pretation Ernesti was the chief of the new era. Ernesti was essentially a philologist rather than a * Paraphrase and Commentary on the New Testament. 2 vols., 1703-g, folio, t Hebrew Concordance, 2 vols, folio, London, 1754. X Preface of Hebrew Concordance. See also his Paraphrase with notes on the Epistle to the Romans, London, 1745, pp. 114, 127, 146. § In /. f., p. 149. I See pp. 149, 206, seq. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 347 theologian, and he applied to the Bible the princi- ples which he had employed in the interpretation of the ancient classics. He began at the foundation of inter- jjretation, grammatical exegesis, and placed it in such a position before the world that it has ever since main- tained its fundamental importance. He published his principles of interpretation in 1761.* Ernestiwas fol- lowed by Zacharia,f Morus,:}: C. D. Beck,§ and others. Moses Stuart translated Ernesti with the notes of Morus abridged. II About the same time as Ernesti, Semler urged the importance of historical interpretation.^ Semler was an open-minded, devout scholar, and appropriated freely the material wherever he could find it, and reproduced it in forms fashioned by his own genius. He was greatly influenced by foreign interpreters and was the channel through whom the historical interpretation, still linger- ing in Reformed lands, made its way into Lutheran Ger- many. Among those who influenced Semler may be mentioned: J. A. Turretine, who had introduced the Swiss revolt against scholasticism,** John Taylor of Nor- * Institutio Interpret is N. T. 1761, 3te Auf., 1774; 5te Aufl. ed. Ammon, 1809. It was translated into English and edited by Bishop Terrot in 1809 from Amnion's edition, for the Biblical Cabinet, I. and IV., Edinburg. t Einleit. in d. Auslegekunst, 1778. X Acroases. acad. super Herm., N. 1 . 1797 and 1802, ed. by Eichstadt. § Monogram, hermeneutices librorum N. Foed., Lips., 1803. I Elementary Principles 0/ Interpretation, translated from the Latin of J. A. Ernesti, accompanied by notes, with an appendix containing extracts from Mo- ms, Beck, Keil, and Henderson. 4th edit., Andover, 1842. The earlier edition was republished in England with additional observations by Dr. Henderson, London, 1827, which were used in Stuart's fourth edition. IT Vorbereit. zurtkeol. Harm., 1760-69; Apparatus ad liheralem, N. T. In- terp., 1767. ** De S, S. interp. tractatus bipartitus, 1728. This was an unauthorized and defective edition and it was repudiated by the author. A better edition was ed- ited by Teller in 1776. \ 348 BIBLICAL STUDY. wich and Daniel Whitby,* and L. Meyer, the Spinozist.f Semler was followed by J. G. Gabler, G. L. Baur, K. C. Bretschneider, and others. These elements of interpretation were combined in the grammatico-historical method of C. A. G. Keil.:|: Th^ grammatico-historical method was introduced into the United States of America chiefly by Moses Stuart and his school. The defects of the grammatico-historical method were discovered and attacks were made upon it from both sides. Kant and his school urged rational and moral ex- egesis, to which the historical must yield as of vastly less importance. There was truth in this rising to the moral sense, but as it was stated and used by the Kant- ians it resulted in binding the Bible in the fetters of a philosophical system that was far more oppressive than the theological system had been. Staudlein,§ Stern,| Stark,^ and Kaiser,** and above all Germar,tt rendered great service by urging that the interpreter should enter into sympathy with the spirit of the Biblical authors. On the other side the little band of Pietists of the older Tubingen school urged the inadequacy of the grammatico-historical method and insisted upon faith and piety in the interpreter.:}::}: The chief of these were Storr,§§ Flatt and Steudel of Tubingen, Knapp of Halle, and Seller of Erlangen.|||| ♦ See p. 346, also Tholuck, Vermischte Schri/ten, Hamburg:, 1839, pp. 30, 40, t Author of an anonymous treatise : Philosophiae Script interpres., 1666. X Lehr. d. Herm., 1810. § De interp. N. T., 1807. I Ueberden Begriff und obersten Grundsatz d. hist, interp. d. N. T., 1815. H Beitr. z. Herm., 1817. ** System Herm., 1817. +t Beitrag zur allgemein. Hermeneutik, Altona, 1828. \X Reuss, Gesch. d. H. S. N. T., 4te Aufl., 1854, p. 582, seg. ' §§ De sensu Aistorico, 1778. II Bid. Herm., 1880, edited in Holland bj Hering^a; and translated from the Holland edition and edited with additions by Wm, Wright, Londoir, 1835. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 349 This conflict of principles worked more and more con- fusion. If the older exegesis was at fault in neglecting the human element and the variety of features of the Bible on the human side ; the newer interpreters of the grammatico-historical school were still more at fault in neglecting the divine element and the unity of the Bible. A healthful method of interpretation had been intro- duced from England in the translation of the works of Bishop Lowth, which urged literary interpretation. Herder, Eichhorn, and others exerted their influence in the same direction. Schleiermacher deserves the credit for combining all that had thus far been gained into a higher unity, by his organic method of interpretation.* Schleiermacher lays down his principles in a series of theses : " In the application (of Hermeneutics) to the New Testament the philological view, which isolates every writing of ever^' author, stands over against the dogmatic view, which regards the N. T. as the work of one author. Both approach one another when one considers that, in the view of the religious contents, the identity of the school comes in, and in the view of the details, the identity of language. . . . The philological view lags behind its own principle when it rejects the general dependence for the sake of the individual culture. The dog- matic view transcends its needs when it rejects individual culture for the sake of dependence, and so destroys itself. The only question that remains, is, which of the two is to be placed above the other ; and this must be decided by the philological view itself in favor of its own dependence. When the philological view ignores this it an- nihilates Christianity. When the dogmatic view extends the canon of the analogy of faith beyond these limits it annihilates Scripture." t Liicke, of Schleiermacher's school, well states the prin- ciple when he says that we must * His Hermeneutik und Kritik is a posthumous work by his pupil, F. Lucke, published Berlin, 1838, but the influence of his method was felt at an earlier date, and expressed by his disciples. t In /. 18* 418 BIBLICAL STUDY. faith. Faith is the hand of the soul which grasps and takes to itself the grace of God. But the nature of this appropriation by faith needs unfolding. The Westmin- ster Shorter Catechism* gives the best answer to the question : " That the Word may become effectual to salvation, we must at- tend thereunto with diligence, preparation and prayer; receive it with faith and love, lay it up in our hearts, and practice it in our lives." (i) The first thing we have to do in our study of the Word of God is to give it our attention. Indeed atten- tion is the first requisite of all study and of all work. Diligence and preparation are necessary for all under- takings. No one can fulfil his calling in life without these qualifications. But there is an attention to be given to the Word of God which is peculiar, and vastly higher than the attention given to ordinary avocations of life. It is an attention that is distinguished by prayer, for the study of the Bible is a study of redemp- tion, a search for the power of God in Jesus Christ, a quest for the grace of salvation. Such study must be pointed with prayer, for prayer is the soul's quest after God. Prayer directs the student of the Bible to God in the Bible. It withdraws the attention from all other things that might absorb and attract it, and concentrates it on God. Prayer is the arrow-head that bears the ar- row of attention to its mark — God. If the grace of God in the sacred Scriptures, the prevenient grace, — always preceding and anticipating the quest of man, ready to be found, waiting to impart itself to us, — be directed by the Holy Spirit ; then the attention of the Bible student, directed by prayer, comes in immediate contact with this *Ques. 90. THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 419 Spirit of grace and receives the power of salvation in personal union with Him. Hence it is that prayer is associated with the Word of God and the Sacraments as a means of grace. It is not a means of grace in the same way as the Word of God, but it is a means of grace of no less importance ; for if the Word of God is the instrument, the means by which the grace of God is given to us by the Holy Spirit, prayer is the instrument or means of grace whereby we are able to receive and use the grace of God. It is of prime importance, there- fore, that the student of the Bible should be bathed in prayer, and that the spirit of prayer should be the animating influence in all our investigations of the Scriptures. Prayerful attention seeks and finds God, appropriates His grace and the redemptive influence of His Word. Robert Boyle * well says : "And surely this consideration of the Bible's being one of the conduit pipes, through which God hath appointed to conveigh his Truth, as well as graces to his children, should methinks both largely animate us to the searching of the Scriptures, and equally refresh us in it. For as no Instrument is weak in an omnipotent hand : so ought no means to be looked upon as more promising than that which is like to be prospered by Grace, as 'tis devised by Omniscience. We may confidently expect God's blessing upon his own institutions, since we know, that whatsoever we ask according to the will of God, he will give it us, and we can scarce ask anything more agreeable to the will of God, than the competent understanding of that book wherein his will is contained." In order to emphasize this all-important point and give it its proper position in Biblical study, it will be necessary for us to make some discriminations,. * Some Considerations touching the Style of the H. Scrij^tures. Londoa, 1661, p. 50. 420 BIBLICAL STUDY. (a) The first work in the scientific and systematic study of the Scriptures is called textual criticism, or the Lower Criticism. It is first of all necessary to know the text in which the Scriptures are contained. Hence the candidates for the ministry devote a large portion of their time to a study of the sacred languages, the various versions and MSS. of the Word of God. All transla- tions must be derived from a faithful study of the orig- inals. It is indispensable that a living church should have a ministry who are brought into immediate contact with the divine originals. The Bible in unknown tongues is a Paradise fenced and barred (see Chaps. III. and VI.). The acquisition of the original text removes the barrier; the translation into the tongue of the people opens the gates, that all who will may enter in. Hence our Prot- estant churches have made it an article of faith that the Bible must be given to the people in their own tongue, and continually interpreted to the people by ministers, who know themselves the originals, and are able to re- move misapprehensions that will always arise, to some extent, in connection with all translations and reproduc- tions. But this first step of the mastery of the divine original text may be accomplished and yet the grace of God that is in the Scriptures remain entirely unknown. It is as if a man should enter the king's garden and de- vote his entire attention to the study of the gates and walls. (d) The second step in Biblical study is literary criti- cism or Higher Criticism (see Chaps. VII., VIII. , and IX.). The sacred Scriptures are composed of a great variety of writings of different authors in different pe- riods of history, writing in many different styles, such as poetry and prose, history and story, epistle and prophecy. Borne of this literature is exceedingly choice from a THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 421 purely literary point of view. An anthology of the choicest pieces af Biblical literature would certainly be a very profitable study for many of God's people. Their eyes would be opened to the wondrous forms of beauty in which God has chosen to reveal His grace of redemp- tion. But to study the Bible as sacred literature is not to study it as a means of grace. Exclusive devotion to that theme is as if one should enter the king's garden, and instead of going at once to his gracious presence, in accordance with his invitation, we should devote our- selves to the beautiful trees and flowers and ornamental shrubs and landscape. (c) The third work of Biblical study is Biblical exegesis (see Chap. X.). In this department the student in every way endeavors to get at the true meaning of the Script- ures. The particular passage and the entire writing under consideration must be studied with the most minute accuracy, and, at the same time, the most com- prehensive summation of evidence. But even this may be carried on in a most thorough and successful manner in all its stages, except the last and highest (see p. 363), without finding God in Jesus Christ. Some of the best exegetes have not been true Christians. The peril in exegesis is, the becoming absorbed in details, and in giving ourselves to the quest after truth and scholarly accuracy. It is as if one entered the king's garden and devoted himself at once to a scientific examination and classification of its contents, the survey and mapping out of its sections. {d) The fourth work of Biblical study is the study of the theology of the Bible (see Chap. XL) — its religion, its doc- trines, and its morals. This is the highest attainment of Biblical scholarship, but it is not the study of the Bible as a means of grace. It is as if we entered the king's 422 BIBLICAL STUDY. palace and devoted our attention to the principles and maxims of his administration, the rules of his household, while the king himself was graciously waiting to receive us into his own presence and give us the kiss of fatherly salutation. All of these various subjects of Biblical study are vastly important. The Church has not yet awakened to the vast possibilities and the wonderful fruitage to be derived from Biblical study. No one could exalt these departments, each and all of them, more highly than we are disposed to do, but notwithstanding, it must be said that if all these studies could be accomplished in a most scholarly manner, the chief thing, the one supreme thing, might still remain unaccomplished — namely, the study of the Bible as a means of grace. This is the highest achievement of Biblical study. For prayer will seek first the presence and the person of God, It will not be de- tained by anything in the Bible. It will press on through the text, the literature, the exegesis, and the theology, giving them but slight attention, a mere passing glance, firmly advancing into the presence-chamber of God. It will run in the footsteps of the divine Spirit until the man is ushered into the presence of the Heavenly Father and bows in adoration and love to the dear Saviour and has the adoption and recognition of sonship. Then first will he be assured that the Bible is indeed the Word of God, the inspired canon, when he has found God in the Bible (see Chap. V.) ; then first will he understand the Script- ures at their centre, in their very heart, when he has recog- nized his Saviour in them (see Chap. X., p. 364) ; then in the light of the Redeemer's countenance, the student may go forth to the enjoyment of all the beauties and glories and wondrous manifestations of truth and love in the Scriptures, and find them radiant with the love of Christ> THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 423 and pervaded throughout with the effectual grace of God. As an ancient Puritan divine has said : " Thus in the Scriptures ye find life, because the Word is so effect- ual to doe you good, to convert your soul, to pull down Satan's throne, and to build up the soul in g^ace. It is a hammer to break the hard heart, a fire to purge the drossie heart, a light to shine into the darke heart, an oyle to revive the broken heart, armour of proof to stablish the^eake and tempted heart. If these precious things be matters of Christian religion ; then surely the written word is the foundation of it. Eternal life is in the Scriptures, because they testify of Christ, they set forth Christ who is the way the truth and the life ; in them ye find life, because in them ye find Christ. So far as by Scripture we get acquaintance with Christ ; ^o far we are acquainted with salvation and no farther. For if you knew all Histories and all the prophecies, if ye had the whole Bible by heart, if by it you could judge of all disputes, yet until you find Christ there, you cannot find life ; the Scriptures are to us salvificall because they bring us unto Christ." * (2) Faith in the form of prayerful attention and inves- tigation is followed by appropriatiyig faith. The atten- tion becomes more and more absorbed in its object. Prayer having attained its quest is satisfied and grateful. The grace of God, so evidently set forth in the Script^ ures in Jesus Christ the Saviour, is appropriated in this" personal contact. The affections are generated and im- part to faith new vigor. The Holy Spirit grasps the hand of prayer and pours into it the treasures of grace, and they are clasped as infinitely precious to believing and loving hearts. As a distinguished modern divine says : " Holy Scripture gives faith its object. It puts Christianity in its purity and attractiveness before our eyes as an object which is itself a challenge and inducement to enter into union with it by faith." . . . . " The Holy Spirit perpetually glorifies Christ as He is set * Lyford, Plain Man's Senses exercised, 1655, pp. 59, 60. 424 BIBLICAL STUDT. forth in Scripture, makes Him emerge, so to speak, from the letter and stand out in living form before us. He thus brings us through the medium of Holy Scripture into communion with the living Christ." * Thus faith and love are the two eyes of the soul that see the living Christ present in His Word. They are the spiritual appetites by which we partake of the bread of heaven and living water. Such a receiving is an ever- increasing enjoyment of the infinite riches of divine grace, the inexhaustible treasures of redemptive love. The supply of grace in the Scriptures is inexhaustible. The possibilities of the growth of the affections of faith and love are only limited by the possibilities of grace itself. This system of grace is compared by the prophet Zechariah to a vast self-feeding lamp-stand with its seven branches and lighted lamps, supplied by the ever-living, growing, and oil-producing olive-trees that stand by its sides and overshadow it (Zech. iv.). The oil of grace is ever fresh and new — the light is ever bright and brilliant. Faith's eye sees and understands it more and more. But just here it is necessary to guard against a too common error. It is true that the grace of God per- vades the Scriptures and Christ is the master of the Scriptures, but it is not equally easy for 'faith to see and appreciate the grace of God in every passage. The Bible contains supplies of grace for all the world, and for all time, for the weak and baby Christians, for the strong and manly Christians, for the immature Christian centuries, and for the church in its highest development as the Bride of thef Lamb. Training in the school of grace is indispensable for the appropriation of the grace of the Scriptures. There are buf few who are able to appropriate more than the grace that lies on the surface * Domer System q/ Christian Doctrine^ IV., pp. 260, 261. ^ THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 425 of the plainest passages of Scripture. The Church is constantly learning new lessons of grace from the Script- ures. We have a right to expect still greater light to break forth from the Scriptures when the Church has been prepared to receive it. The Church did not attain its maturity at the Nicene Council. Augustine was not the highest achievement of Christian faith and experi- ence. The Protestant Reformation did not introduce the golden age. A church that is not growing in grace is a lukewarm, if not a dead church. A theology that is not progressive is bedridden, if not a dead theology. The Church needs a greater Reformation than it has ever yet enjoyed — a more extensive pouring out of the Holy Spirit, a deeper quickening, a more intense devo- tion in love and service to our Saviour and the interests of His kingdom. We are convinced that the seeds of such a Reformation are embedded in the Bible, only waiting a new spring-time of the world to shoot forth. The grace of God will reveal itself to another Luther and another Calvin at no very distant day, in vastly greater richness and fulness, for the sanctification of the Church and the preparation -of the Bride for her Bride- groom. In the meantime it behooves us all to turn away from the abnormal, immature, and defective expe- riences and systems of very poor Christians so often held up to us as models for our attainment, and to set our faces as a flint against every wresting of Scripture in the interest of any dogma, new or old, and concentrate our faith and love upon the image of the grace of God in Jesus Christ, the crucified, risen and glorified Redeemer, He is the one object that concentrates the grace of God — the fountain source of supply for all believers. Into His image as the divine likeness we are to be trans- formed, and we ought to think of no other. 426 BIBLICAL STUDY. The Scriptures are indeed means, not ends. They are to bring us to God, to assimilate us to Christ, to unite us in organic union with Him. If this has not been ac- complished, there has been very great failure, however much we may have accomplished in Biblical scholarship, or Dogmatic Theology, in the History and Polity of the Church, in devotional reading and preaching, in the ap- plication of particular passages to our souls. But those who have become personally attached to Jesus Christ have found the Master of the Scriptures. He is the key to its treasures, the clue to its labyrinths. Under His instruction and guidance believers search the Scriptures with ever-increasing pleasure and profit. They ever find treasures new and old. They understand the secret of grace. They know how to extract it from the varied forms in which it is enveloped. They explore the deepest mines and bring forth lustrous gems of truth. They climb the highest peaks and rapturously gaze on the vast territories of their Lord. With the Psalmist they exclaim (Ps. cxix. 97, 103, 127, 160) : " O how I love thy instruction ! It is my meditation all the day. • " How sweet are thy words unto my taste ! Sweeter than honey to my mouth, " I love thy commandments above gold, Yea above fine gold. " The sum of thy words is truth, And everlasting all thy righteous judgments." (3) But the grace of God in the Scriptures can be fully appropriated only by practicing faith. Our Saviour taught His disciples : " If any man willeth to do his will he shall know of the teaching, whether it be of God or THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 427 whether I speak from myself " (John vii. 17). Experi- ment is ever the victor of doubt. Faith is tested by- practice. Abraham's faith was proved by his willingness to sacrifice his well-beloved son. Mere faith is seeming faith, a shadow, a dead vanity. A real, genuine, living faith apprehends and uses divine grace. The grace of God is effectual. It is dynamic in its application of re- demption. It is no less dynamic after it has been ap- propriated by man. The light of the world lights up Christian lamps. The water of life becomes in the be- liever a fountain, from which shall flow rivers of living water (John vii. 38). The grace of God is made effect- ual by " laying it up in our hearts and practicing it in our lives." The grace of God becomes a grace of expe- rience. Unless the divine grace continue to flow forth from a man in his life and conduct, the source of supply is stopped. As a reservoir which has no outlet . will have no incoming waters. A lamp that does not burn will not be able to receive fresh supplies of oil. From this two things follow: (a) If a Christian man would use the Scriptures as a means of grace he must continually put them in prac- tice in his heart and life. If the church would appre- hend more and more the riches of the grace of Jesus Christ contained in the Scriptures it must become a more practical, earnest, Christ-like church. The source of supply from the Scripture reservoir is feeble because the outflowing of grace from Christian men and women is feeble. {d) Christians become secondary sources of supply. The Word of God, the Gospel of Jesus Christ, when ap- propriated by the Christian, assimilated to his needs, transformed into his life, does not cease to be the Gos- pel of the grace of God. The external form has been 428 BIBLICAL STUDY. changed, but the internal substance of grace is the same. The Word of God does not cease to be the Word of God when wrapped in other than Scripture language. Hence it is that the Christian becomes a living epistle of God (2 Cor. iii. 3), and the Church, as a body of such epis- tles, a means of grace, conveying the divine grace in an- other form to the world. It is ever the grace of God that is the effectual divine force and not the form in which for the time it may be enveloped. Happy the church when its ministers have become more really such living epistles, written with the Spirit of the living God ! Blessed will that time be, when the entire membership of the church shall become such epistles, when Christ, who so loved the Church and gave Himself for it, shall have sanctified it, having cleansed it by the washing of water with the Word (Eph. v. 25) ! Then will the ancient prophecy be realized (Heb. viii. lo-i i) : " I will put my laws in their mind. And on their heart also will I write them : And I will become their God, And they shall become my people : And they shall notteach every one his fellow-citizen. And every one his brother, saying. Know the Lord : For all shall knovV me, From the least to the greatest of them." A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. *^ This catalogue has been prepared for those who desire to pursue Biblical study in three grades : ( i ). The books marked with a star and placed first in each division, are recom?nended to the general public. (2). The books marked with a cross, following those marked with a star, are recommended for theological students and ministers. (3). The remainder of the books mentioned have been selected for a reference library in a theological seminary, as an introduction to a more schol- arly study of the Scriptures. The arrangement is first topi- cal, and second in accordance with relative importance to the several classes of students. Honorary and ofiUcial titles of authors or editors have been omitted. I.— Biblical Study in General. ♦ScHAFF, Philip. A Dictionary of the Bible, including Biog- raphy, Natural History, Geography, Topography, Archae- ology, and Literature. Philadelphia : American Sunday- school Union. 3d edition. 1883. *HiTCHCOCK, RoswELL D. A New and Complete Analysis of the Holy Bible. The Old and New Testaments arranged by Subjects on the basis of M. Talbot, with Indexes and Tables by N. West. With Cruden's Concordance, revised by J. Eadie. New York : A. J. Johnson & Co. 1870. fSMiTH, William. Dictionary of the Bible, comprising its Antiquities, Biography, Geography, and Natural History. 3 vols. London : John Murray, 1860-63. Revised and ^ edited by H. B. Hackett, with the co-operation of Ezra Ab- bot. 4 vols. New York: Hurd & Houghton. 1868-70. f ZoECKLER, Otto. Handbuch d. Theologischen WissenschafUn in Encyklopddischer Darstellung mit besonderer Riicksicht auf der einzelnen Disciplinen in verbindung mit Cremer, 430 BIBLICAL STUDY. • Grau, Harnack, Kubel,Luthardt,von Scheele, F.W, Schultz, L. Schultz, Strack, Volck, von Zezschwitz, Plath und Schafer. Nordlingen : C. H. Beck. 1882-3. [4 half vols, have appeared. A translation is in press. T. & T. Clark, Edinburgh]. HoRNE, T. Hartwell. An Introduction to the Critical Study and Kno^vledge of the Holy Scriptures. 13th edition, re- vised and corrected by J. Ayre and S. Tregelles. 4 vols. London : Longmans, Green & Co. 1872. WoGUE, L. Histoire de la Bible et de r Exeghse Biblique j'usqu' a nosjours. Paris ^ I'lmprimerie Nationale. 1881. Hagenbach, K. C. Encyklopddie und Methodologie der TheologischenWissenschaften. lote Aufl. von E. Kautzsch. 1880. Leipzig: C. Hirzel. 1874. Diestel, Ludwig, Geschichte des Alten Testamentes in der Christlichen Kirche. Jena : H. Dufft. 1869. Roberts, Francis. Clavis Bibliorum. The Key to the Bible, unlocking the richest Treasures of the Holy Scriptures. 4th edition, folio. London : P. Parker. 1675. KiTTO, John. A Cyclopcedia of Biblical Literature, originally edited by John Kitto. 3d edition, greatly enlarged and improved. Edited by W. L. Alexander. 3 vols. Lon- don : A. & C. Black. Philadelphia : J. B. Lippincott & Co. 1865. Riehm, Edward. Handwdrterbuch des Biblisches Altertums fur gebildete Bibelleser. Bielefeld und Leipzig ; Belhagen & Klasing. 1875-83 (still unfinished). II. — The Languages of the Bible and Cognates. (i) The Hebrew Language. f Davidson, A. B. An Introductory Hebrew Grammar, with Progressive Exercises in Reading and Writing. 5th edition. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1883. fGESENius, WiLHELM. Hebrew Grammar. Translated by Benj. Davis from Rodiger's edition. Thoroughly revised BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDF. 43I and enlarged on the basis of the latest edition of E. Kautzsch, and from other recent authorities, by Edward C Mitchell. Andover : W. F. Draper. 1880. f Driver, S. R. A Treatise of the Tenses in Hebrew^ and some other Syntactical Questions. Oxford : At the Clar- endon Press. 2d edition. i88t. f Robinson, Edward. A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, including the Biblical Chaldee. From the Latin of William Gesenius, with corrections and large ad- ditions, partly furnished by the author in manuscript, and partly condensed from his larger Thesaurus. 3d edi- tion. Boston : Crocker & Brewster. 1849. fPoTTER, Joseph Lewis, An English- Hebreiv Lexicon, be- ing a complete Verbal Index to Gesenius' Hebrew Lexi- con, as translated by Edward Robinson. Boston : Crocker & Brewster. 1872. f Harper, W. R. Hebrew Vocabularies. Chicago : Max Stern, Goldsmith & Co. 1882. f Green, William Henry. A Grammar of the Hebrew Language. 4th edition (in press). New York : John Wiley & Sons. 1883. EwALD, Heinrich. Syntax of the Hebrew Language. Trans- lated from the 8th German edition by James Kennedy. Edinburgh. T. & T. Clark. 1879. Nordheimer, Isaac. A Critical Grammar of the Hebrew Language. 2 vols. 2d edition. New York : Wiley & Putnam. 1842. EwALD, Heinrich. Ausfuhrlic^es Lehrbuch der Hebrdischen Sprache des Alien Bundes. 8te Ausgabe. Gottingen. J. C. Dieterich. 1870. BoTTCHER, Friedrich. AusfUhrlichcs Lehrbuch der Hebra- ischen Sprache, nach dem. Tode des Verfassers herausge- geben von Ferd. Miihlau. 2 Bde. Leipzig : J. A. Barth. 1866. Olshausen, Justus. Lehrbuch der Hebrdischen Sprache. Braunschweig f F. Vieweg und Sohn. 1861. 432 BIBLICAL STUDY. Gesenius, Wilhelm. AusfUhrliches grammatisch-kritisches Lehrgebaude der Hebraischen Sprache tnit vergleichung der verwandten Dialekte. Leipzig: C. W. Vogel. 1817. Strack, Hermann. Hebrdische Grammatik mit Uebungs- stiicken, Litteratur und Vokabular. Karlsruhe und Leip- zig : H. Reuther. 1883. EiCKEL, GusTAVUS. Outlines of Hebrew Grammar. Re- vised by the author and annotated by the translator, S. L Curtiss, Jr. Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus. 1877. Gesenius, Wilhelm. Thesaurus philologicus criticus linguae Hebraeae et Chaldaeae Veteris Testamenti. Editio' altera. 3 Tom. 1835-53. Lipsiae : F. C. G. Vogel. (The work was completed by Aemilius Roediger.) Gesenius, Wilhelm. Hebrdisches imd Chalddisches Hand- u'drterbuch. pte Aufl. von F. Miihlau und W. Volck. Leipzig : F. C. W. Vogel. 1882-83. Fuerst, Julius. Hebrdisches und Chaldaisches Handwdrter- buck Uber das Alte Testament. Leipzig : B. Tauchnitz. A Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament. 4lh edition. Translated from the German by Samuel David- son. London : Williams & Norgate. 187 1. Meier, Ernst. Hebrdisches Wurzelwdrterbuch. Manheim : F. Bassermann. 1845. Girdlestone, R. B. Synonyms of the Old Testament : their bearing on Christian Faith and Practice. London : Long- mans, Green & Co. 187 1. (2) Aramaic. fRiGGS, Elias. a Manual of the Chaldee Language, con- taining a Chaldee grammar, chiefly from the German of G. B. Winer ; a Chrestomathy consisting of selections from the Targums, and including notes on the Biblical Chaldee, etc. 4th edition. New York : A. D. F. Ran- dolph & Co. 1858. f CowpER, B. Harris. The Principles of Syriac Grammar. Translated and abridged from the work of Hoffmann. London : Williams & Norgate. 1858. +Castell, Edmund. Lexicon Syriacum ex eius Heptaglotto seorsim typis describi curavit atquesua adnotata adjecit J. D. Michaelis. Gottingae : J. C Dieterich. 1788. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 433 f ROEDIGER, Aemilius. Chrestomathia Syriaca quam glossa- rio et tabulis grammaticis. Editio altera. Halis : Sump- titus Orphanotrophei. 1868. LuzzATTO, S. D. Grammar of the Biblical Chaldaic Lan- guage and the Talmud Babli Idioms. Translated from the Italian, and largely renewed by J. S. Goldammer. New York : John Wiley & Sons. 1876. Geiger, Abraham. Lehr und Lesebuch zur Sprache der Mischnah. Breslau : F. C. G. Leuckart. 1845. Levy, Jacob. Chalddisches Wdrterbuch iiber die Targumim und einen grossen Theil des rabbinischen Schriftthums. 2 Bde. 2te Ausgabe. Leipzig: Baumgartner. 1876. Levy, Jacob. Neuhebrdisches und Chalddisches Worterbuch iiber die Talmudim und Midraschim nebst beitragen von H. L. Fleischer. 4 Bde. Leipzig : F. A. Brockhaus. 1876-83. (The fourth vol. has not yet appeared.) Phillips, George. A Syriac Grammar. 3d edition. Cam- bridge : Deighton, Bell & Co. i866. Nestle, Eberard, Brevis Linguae Syriacae. Carlsruhe und Leipzig : H. Reuther. i88i- Merx, Adalbert. Grammatica Syriaca quam post Hoff- manni. Halis : Lib. Orphanotrophei. 1867. SxMiTH, R, Payne. Thesaurus Syriacus collegerunt S. M. Quatremere, G. H. Bernstein, .G. W. Lorsbach, A. J. Ar- nold, C. M. Agrell, F. Field, A. Roediger, auxit, digessit, exposuit, edidit. Oxonii, e typographeo Clarendomano. 1868-83. (6 Fasciculi as far as page 2256 have been pub- lished completing the letter Mem.) Noeldeke, Theo. Mandaische Grammatik. Halle : Wais- enhaus. 1875. (3) Arabic and iEthiopic. tWRiGHT, William. A Grammar of the Arabic Language. Translated from the German of Caspari and edited with numerous additions and corrections. 2d edition. 2 vols. London : F, Norgate. 1874-5. fPETERMANN, J, H. Brevis Linguae Arabicae grammatica, litteratura, chrestomathia cum glossario. Editio secunda. Berolini: G. Eichler. 1867. 19 434 BIBLICAL STUDY. f Freytag, G. W. Lexicon Arabico-Latinum. 4 Tom. Halis : C. A. Schwetschke et Filium. 1830-37. fDiLLMANN, August. Grammatik der Aethiopischen Sprache, Leipzig: T. O. Weigel. 1857. f DiLLMANN, August. Chrestomathia Aethiopica. Lipsiae : T.O. Weigel. 1866. fDiLLMANN, August. Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae. Lip- siae : T. O. Weigel. 1865. Arnold, F. A. Chrestomathia Arabica. Halis : C- E. M. Pfeffer. 1853. Catafalgo, Joseph. An English and Arabic Dictionary. 2d edition. London : Bernard Quaritch. 1873. Wahrmund, Adolph. Handworterbuch der Arabischen iind Deutschen Sprache (Modern Arabic). 2 Bande. Giessen : J. Ricker. 1870-77. Penrice, John. A Dictionary and Glossary of the Koran. London: H. S. King & Co. 1873. Lane, Eward William. An Arabic Lexicon^ derived from the best and most copious Eastern sources, comprising a very large collection of words and significations omitted in the Kamoos, with supplements to its abridged and de- fective explanations, ample grammatical and critical com- ments, and examples in prose and verse. Vols. I.-V. Williams & Norgate. 1863-74. Continued under the editorship of Stanley Lane Poole. Vol. V., 1877, Vol. VL 1-2, 1 881-2. (Completed as far as 2640 pages of the whole work.) Dozy, R. Supplement aiix Dictionaires Arabes. 2 Tomes. Leyde : E. J. Brill. 1881. Pretorius, Franz. Amharische Sprache. Halle : Waisen- haus. 1879. (4) Phoenician and Samaritan. fScHROEDER, P. Die Phonizische Sprache. Entwurf einer Grammatik nebst Sprach und Schriftproben. Halle : Wai- senhaus. 1869. f Levy, M. A. Phonizisches IVorterbiich. Breslau : H. Skutsch. 1864. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDJ. 435 fPETERMANN, J. H. Brcvis Linguae Samaritanae. Bero- lini : G. Eichler. 1873. (5) Assyrian and Babylonian. fDELiTzscH, Fried. Assyrische Lesestiicke. 2te Aufl. Leip- zig: J. C. Heinrichs. 1878. f Sayce, a. H. An Assyrian Grammar for comparative pur- poses. London : Trubner & Co. 1872. fSCHRADER, Eberhard. Assyrtsckes Syllabar fur den Ge- brauch in seinen Vorlesungen zusammengestellt. Berlin : Koniglichen Acad. d. Wissenschaften. i88o. Schrader, Eberhard. Die Assyrisches-babylonische Keilin- schriften. Kritische Untersuchungen der Grundlagen ihrer Entzifferung. Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus. 1872. Norris, Edm. Assyrian Dictionary. 3 vols. London : Williams & Norgate. 1868-72. Sayce, A. H. Lectures upon the Assyrian Language and Syl- labary. London : S. Bagster & Sons. 1877. Sayce, A. H. Babylonian Literature. Lectures delivered at the Royal Institution. London : Samuel Bagster & Sons. . 1879. Oppert, Jules. Eliments de la Grammaire Assyrien'e. 2me Edition. Paris: A. Franck. 1868. (6) Greek. f Winer, G. B. Grammatik des Neulest. Sprachidioms. 7 Aufl. von G. Liinemann. Leipzig : F. C. W. Vogel. 1867. A Treatise of the Grammar of New Testament Greek^ re- garded as a sure basis for New Testament Exegesis. Translated from the German, with large additions and full indices. 2d edition by W. F. Moulton. 8th English edition. T. & T. Clark. 1877. A Grammar of the Ldiom of the New Testament. 7 th edition, enlarged and improved by G. Liinemann. Revised and authorized translation. By J. H. Thayer Andover: W. F. Draper. 1877. f Robinson, Edward. A Greek and English Lexicon of the New Testament. A new edition. New York : Harper & Brothers. 1872. 436 • BIBLICAL STUDY. fCREMER, Hermann. Biblisch-theologisches Worterbuch der Neictestamentlichen Grdcitdt. 3te sehr vermehrte und ver- besserte Auflage. Gotha : F. A. Perthes. 1881-83. Biblico- Theological Lexicon of New Testament Greek. Translated from the German of the 2d edition with ad- ditional matter and corrections by the author. By Wil- liam Urwick. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1878. fScoTT, Robert. A Greek-English Lexicon. Compiled by H. G. Liddell and Robert Scott. 7th edition, revised and augmented throughout with the co-operation of Professor Drisler. New York : Harper & Brothers. 1883. f Green, T. S. A Grammar of the New Testament Dialect. London : S. Bagster & Sons. 1872. BuTTMANN, Alexander. Grammatik des Neutestament. Sprachgebrauchs. 2 Abtheil. Berlin: Diimraler. 1857-59. A Grammar of the New Testament. Authorized translation by J. H. Thayer, with numerous additions and corrections by the author. Andover : W. F. Draper. 1873. Jelf, W. E. Grammar of the Greek Language. 4th edition. 2 vols. Oxford : James Parker & Co. 1866. WiLKE, C. G. Clavis N. T. philologica. 3 Edit, emendata et aucta von W. Grimm. Leipzig: Lib. Arnoldiana. 1879. CuRTius, George. Grundzilge der Griechischen Etymologic. 2 Aufl. Leipzig : B. G. Tuchner. 1866. Principles of Greek Etymology. Translated with the sanction of the author by A. S. Wilkins and E. B. England. 2 vols. London : John Murray. 1875-6. Schmidt, J. H. Synonymik der Griechischen Sprache. 3 Bande. Leipzig : B. G. Treubner. 1876-79. Trench, R. C. Synonyms of the New Testament. The two parts in one. 9th edition, revised. London : Macmillan & Co. 1880. Webster, William. The Syntax aud Synonyms of the Greek Testament. London : Rivingtons. 1864. Sophocles, E. A. A Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzan- tine Periods. Boston: Little, Brown & Co. 1870. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 437 III.— The Canon of Scripture. ♦Charteris, a. H. The Neiv Testament Scriptures : their claims, history, and authority. Being the Croall Lectures for 1882. London : James Nisbet & Co. New York : Robert Carter & Brothers. 1882. fSxuART, Moses. Critical History and defence of the Old Testament Canon. Andover : W. F. Draper. 1865. Ed- ited, with occasional notes and references, by Peter Lori- mer. London : William Tegg & Co. 1849. fWESTCOTT, B. F. A General Survey of the History of the ^ Canon of the New Testament. 5 th edition. London : Macmillan & Co. 1881. Charteris, a. H. a Collection of Early Testimonies to the Canonical Books of the New Testament. Based on Kirch- hofer's Quellensammlung. Edinburgh : William Black- wood & Sons. 1880. Reuss, Edward. Histoire du Canon des Saintes-Ecritures dans r£glise Chr^tienne. 2 edition. Strasbourg : Treut- tel et Wurtz. 1863. CosiN, John. Scholastical History of the Canon of the Holy Scriptures. London : R. Norton. 1657. In Vol. IlL of Works. Oxford : J. H. Parker. 1849. Fuerst, Julius. Der Kanon des Alt. Test, nach den Ueber- lieferungen in Talmud und Midrasch. Leipzig: Dorf- fling & Franke. 1868. Davidson, Samuel. The Canon of the Bible : its formation, history, and fluctuations- 3d edition. London : C. Ke- gan Paul. 1880. Credner, C a. Gesch. d. neutest. Kanon herausgegeben von G. Volkmar. Berlin : G. Reimer. i860. Zahn, Theodor. Forchungen zur Gesch. des neutest. Kanons ^ u. der altkirchl. Literatur. I Theil : Tatian's Diatessaron. ^ II Thiel : der Evangeliencommentar des Theophilus von Antiochen. Erlangen : A. Deichert. 1881-3. 438 BIBLICAL STUDY. IV.— The Text of Scripture. ■ (i) The Originals and Versions. (a) Of the whole Bible. * The Holy Bible, coniaXmng the Old and New Testaments. Translated out of the original tongues, and with the former translations diligently compared and revised. New York : American Bible Society. '''The Holy Bible, con\.a\nmg the Old and New Testaments. Translated out of the original tongues, and with the form- er translations diligently compared and revised, by his majesty's special command. The S. S. Teacher's edition. Oxford : Printed at the University Press. ^Cambridge Paragraph Bible of the Authorized English Ver- sion, with the text revised, the marginal references remod- elled, and a critical introduction prepared by F. H. Scriv- ener. Cambridge : Deighton, Bell & Co. 1873. fSxiER, R., and K. G. W. Theile. Polyglotten-Bibel zum praktischen Handgebrauch. Die Heilige Schrift Alten und Neuen Testaments in iibersichtlicher Nebeneinander- stellung des Urtextes, der Septuaginta, Vulgata, und Lu- theriibersetzung, so wie der wichtigsten Varianten der vornehmsten deutschen Uebersetzungen. 5 Bande. Bie- lefeld : Velhagen & Klasing. 1864. Walton, Brian. ^. S. Biblia-Polyglotta. Complectentia Textus Originales Hebraicum cum Pentateucho Samari- tano Chaldaicum Graecum Versionumque Antiqarum Sa- maritanae Graeco-Sept., Chaldaicae, Syriacae, Lat. Vulg. Arabicae, Aethiopicae, Persicae, quicquid comparari pote- rat. 6 vol. folio. London: Thos. Roycroft. 1657. Bibliorwn Codex Sinaiticus Petropolitanus ed. Constantinus Tischendorf. 4 vol. Petropoli. 1862. Bibliorum sacrorum graecus codex Vaticaniis coUatis studiis Caroli Vercellone et Josephi Cozza, editus. Folio. 6 Tom. Roma. 1869-1881. DiLi.MANN, A. Biblia Veteris Testamenti Aethiop. Tom i. Octateuchus, 1853-55. II. Libri Re gum, Paralipome- non EsdraCf Esther. Leipzig : F. A. Brockhaus. 1861-72. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 439 Codex Alexandrinus, facsimile, printed in photo-lithography. 4 Parts folio. An absolute fac-simile produced by order of the Trustees of the British Museum. London. 1879-81. (The New Testament and Part I. of the Old Testament have appeared.) (b) Of the Old Testament. \Biblia Hebraica ad optimas editiones imprimis Ev. van der Hooght. cur. etc. C G. Guil. Theile. Ed. Steor. V. Lip- siae : B. Tauchnitz. 1873. \Liber Genesis Textum Massoreticum accuratissime expressit, e fontibus masorae varie illustravit, notis cnticis confir- mavit S. Baer. ' Praefatus est. Fr. Delitzsch. Lipsiae : B. Tauchnitz, 1869 ; L. Jesajae, 1872 ; L. Jobty \2>TS ; L. duodecim Prophet. 1878 ; L. Fsalmorum, 1880 ; Z. Fro- verbiorum, 1880 ; Libri Danielis Ezrae et Nehetmae, 1882. \ Testament urn Vetus, graece jiixta LXX interpretes Text. Vatic rom. emend, ed. argum. et locos n. test, parall. notavit, omnem lect. variet. cod. vetus. Alex., Ephr. Syri., Fr. August, subjunxit, proleg. uberrimis instr. Const, de Tischendorf. Ed. VI. Prolegomena rec. Nestle. 2 tom. Lipsiae: F. A. Brockhaus. 1880. Prophetarum posteriorum codex B(}bylonicus Petropolitanus, ed. Herm. Strack. Editio Biblio. impenahs. Petropoli. 1876. Biblia Hebrae, cum utraque Masora et Targum item cum com." mentariis sabbinorum studio. Joan. Buxtorfii 5 Tom. folio. Basileae : L. Kbnig. 1618-20. Etheridge, J. W. The Targums of Onkelos and Jonathan ben Uzziel on the Pentateuch j with the fragments of Je- rusalem Targum. From the Chaldee. 2 vols. London: Longmans, Green & Co. 1862-1865. Petermann, J. H. Pentateuchus Satnaritanus Ad fidem Hbro- rum mss. apud Nablusianos repertorum I. Genesis. Ber- lin : Moeser. 1872. Petermann, J. H. Versuch einer hebr. Formenlehre nach der Aussprache der heut. Samaritaner. Leipzig : F. A. Brock- • haus. 1868. (Contains variation of Samaritan MSS. from the Massoretic.) 440 BIBLICAL STUDY. Ceriani, a. M. Codex Syro-hexaplaris Ambrosianus photo- lithographice editus curante. Mailand : Biblio. Ambrosi- anae. 1874. Origenis Hexaplorum quae snpersunt j sive veterum interpre- tum Graecorum in totum V. T. fragmenta, adhibita etiam versione syro-hexaplari concinnavit emendavit et multis partibus auxit. 2 vols. Oxford: Fred. Field. 1867-75. (c) Of the New Testament. * The New Testament of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ translated out of the Greek : being the version set forth A.D. 161 1, compared with the most ancient authorities and revised a.d. 1881. Printed for the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. Oxford : At the University Press. 1881. *The New Testament of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ translated out of the Greek : being the version set forth A.D. 161 1, compared with the most ancient authorities and revised a.d. 1881, with the readings and renderings pre- ferred by the American Committee of Revision, incorpo- rated into the text. By Roswell D. Hitchcock. New York: Fords, Howard & tturbert. 1881. \ The New Testament in the Original Greek. The Text re- vised by B. F. Westcott and F. J. A. Hort, with Introduc- tion and Appendix by the editors. 2 vols. Cambridge : Macmillan & Co. 1881. New York : Harper & Brothers. 1881-2. f Gardiner, F. A Harmony of the Four Gospels in Greek, according to the text of Tischendorf, with a collation of the Textus Receptus, and of the Texts of Griesbach, Lachmann, and Tregelles. Andover : W. F. Draper. Edinburgh: T. & T.Clark. 187 1. Novum Testamentum Graece. Ad antiquissimos testes denuo recensuit apparatum criticum omni studio perfectum ap- posuit commendationem isagogicam praetexuit C Tischen- dorf. Editio octava critica major. 2 Bde. Lipsiae : Gie- secke & Devrient. 1869-72. Tregelles, Samuel P. The Greek New Testament. Edited from ancient authorities. London : Bagster & Sons. 1857-72. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 4.41 K.USHBROOKE, W. G. Synopticon. An exposition of the com- mon matter of the Synoptic Gospels, with Appendices. London: Macmillan & Co. 1880. Novum Testamentum Graece et Latine. Car. Lachmannus re- censuit, Phil Buttmannus graecae lectiones auctoritates apposuit. 2 Tom. Berolini : G. Reimer. 1832-50. Novum Testamentum Graecum. Textus Stephanici 1550. Accedunt variae lectiones editionum Bezae, Elzeviri, Lach- manni, Tischendorfii et Tregellessii. Curante F. H. Scrivener. Cambridge: Deighton, Bell & Co. 1872. Robinson, Edward. A Harmony of the Four Gospels in Greek, according to the text of Hahn. Revised edition. Boston : Crocker & Brewster. 1872. TisCHENDORF, CoNST. Synopsis rvangelica. IV. evang. or- dine chronolog. concinnavit, brevi comment, illustr. 4te Aufl. Leipzig: Mendelssohn. 1878. The English Hexapla. Six translations of the New Tes- tament: Wiclif, 1380; Tyndale, 1554; Cranmer, 1539; Genevan, 1557 ; Anglo-Rhemish, 1582 ; Authorized, 161 1 ; arranged in parallel columns, beneath the original Greek text, by Scholtz. With a History of English translations and translators. London : Samuel Bagster & Sons. "o- (2) Concordances. *YouNG, Robert. Analytical Concordance to the Bible, on an entirely new plan, containing every word in alphabetical order, arranged under its Hebrew or Greek original, with the literal meaning of each and its pronunciation. 3d re- vised edition. Edinburgh : G. A. Young & Co. New York: L K. Funk & Co. 1880. *Cruden, Alexander. A Complete Concordance to the Holy Scriptures. New York: Dodd & Mead. 1870. fTnOMS, J. A. A complete Concordance to the revised Version of the New Testament. Embracing the marginal readings of the English Revisers as well as those of the American Committee. Published under the authorization of the Oxford and Cambridge Universities. New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. 1883. 19* 44:2 BIBLICAL STUDY. f Hudson, C. F. A Critical Greek and English Concordance of the New Testament. Revised and completed by Ezra Abbot. 3d edit. Boston: H.L.Hastings. 1875. f Davidson, B. Englishman s Hebrew and Chaldee Concord- ance of the Old Testatnent. 3d ed. 2 vols. London : S. Bagster & Sons. 1874. FuERST, Julius. Librorum SacroKum Veteris Testamenti Concardantiae Hebraicae atque Chaldaicae. Lipsiae : B. Tauchnitz. 1840. NoLDius, Christianus. Concordantiae particularum Ebraeo- Chaldaicarum. J. G. Tympius recensuit. Jena : J. F. Bielck. 1734. Tromius, Abraham. Concordantiae Graecae Versio vulgo dic- tae LXX interpretum. 2 Tomi. Amstelodami : Sumpti- bus Societatis. 1718. Bruder, a. v. H. Concordantiae omnium vocum Novi Testa- mentum Graecae. 5 edit. Lipsiae: Ernest Bredt. 1880. (3) Textual Criticism of the Old Testament. fSxRACK, Herm. L. Prolegomena Critica in Vetus Testamen- turn Hebraicum. Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs. 1873. Davidson, Sam. Treatise on Biblical Criticism. 2 vols. Boston: Gould & Lincoln. 1853. Ginsberg, C. The Massorah. Compiled from manuscripts alphabetically and lexically arranged. Vol. I. Aleph- Jodh. London. 1880. Levita, Elias. The Massoreth Ha-Massoreth, being an ex- position of the Massoretic notes on the Hebrew Bible, or the ancient critical apparatus of the Old Testament in Hebrew, with an English translation and critical and ex- planatory notes. By C D. Ginsberg. London : Long- mans, Green, Reader & Dyer. 1867. BuxTORF, John. Tiberius sive commentarius Masorethicus. Basle : Lud. Konig. 1620. Cappellus, Ludovic. Critica Sacra s. de variis quae in sacris. V. T. libris occurrunt lectionibus libri VL Lute- tiae Parisiorum : Sebast. Cramoisy. 1650. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 443 Kennicott, Benj. Vetus Test. Heb. cum variis lectionibus. 2 Tom. folio. Oxonii, e typo Clarend. 17 76-1 780. DeRossi, J. B. Variae lectiones Vet- Test. 4 Tom. Parma. 1784-1788 ; also, Scholia critica in V. T. libros seu sup- plementa ad varias sacri textus lectiones. Palma : Ex regio typographeo. 1798. Frensdorf, S. Die Massora Magna ; Erster Theil, Masso- retisches Worterbuch. Hanover und Leipzig : Cohen & Risch. 1876. WiCKES, William. Treatise on the Accentuation of the three so-called poetic books of the Old Testament. Oxford : Clarendon Press. 188 r. Frankel, Z. Vorstudien zu der Septuaginta. Leipzig: F. C W. Vogel. 1841. RoNSCH, H, Itala und Vulgata. Das Sprachidiom der ur- christl. Itala und Kathol. Vulgata unter Berucksichtigung der Rom. Volkssprache erlautert. Marburg : N. G. El- wert. 1869. Ziegler, L. Die Lateinischen Bibelilbersetzung vor Hierony- mas und die Itala des Augustinus. Ein Beitrag zur Gesch. d. Heil. Schrift. Munchen : Th. Riedel. 1879. Walton, Brian. In Biblia Polyglotta Prolegomena specialia recognovit Dathianisque et variorum notis suas immis- cuit F. Wrangham. 2 Tom. Cantabrigiae : T. Smith. 1828. (4) Textual Criticism of the New Testament. *Mombert, J. I. A Handbook of the English Versions of the Bible. New York : A. D. F. Randolph & Co. 1883. f Scrivener, F. H. Introduction to the Criticism of the New Testament. 3d edit. Cambridge : Deighton, Bell & Co. 1883. f SCH.A.FF, P. Companion to the Greek Testament and the En- glish Version. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1883. Kaulen, Fr. Handbuch zur Vulgata. Eine systeraatische Darstellung ihres lateinischen Sprachcharakters. Mainz : Kirchheim, 1870. 444: BIBLICAL STUDF. Eadie, John. The English Bible. An external and critical History of the various English Translations of Scripture. 2 vols. Macmillan & Co. 1876. Tholuck, a. Das Alte Teslamenf im Neuen Testament. 6 Aufl. Gotha : F. Perthes. 1868. BoEHL, Edward. Die alttestamentlichen Citate im Neuen Tes- tament. Wein : W. Braumiiller. 1878. TuRPiE, D. M. The Old Testament in the New. A Contri- bution to Biblical Criticism and Interpretation. London : Williams & Norgate. 1868. V. — The Higher Criticism. (i) The Old Testament. *Cross, J. A. Introductory Hints to English Readers of the Old Testament. London : Longmans, Green & Co. 1882. *Smith, W. Robertson. The Old Testament in the Jewish Church. London : Longmans, Green & Co. 1881. New York : D. Appleton & Co. 1881. fBLEEK, Fred. Einleitung in das N. T. 4te Aufl. Bearbeitet von J. Wellhausen. Berlin : G. Reimer. 1878. Trans- lated from the 2d German edition by G. H. Venables. 2 vols. London. 1875. Davidson, Samuel. An Introduction to the Old Testament, critical, historical, and theological. 3 vols. London : Williams & Norgate. 1862-3. Keil, K. F. Lehrbuch der historisch-kritisch. Einleitung in d. kanonischen und apokryphischen Schriften d. A. T. Frank- furt-a-Maine : Heyder & Zimmer. 3te* Aufl. 1873. Trans, by C. M. Douglas. 2 vols. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1869. DeWette, W. M. L. Lehrbuch der historisch-kritischen Ein- leitung in die kanonischefi tmd apokryphischen Biicher des Alten Testaments. Neu bearbeitet von Eberhard Schrader. 8te Ausgabe. Berlin : G. Reimer. 1869. Translated from the German edition and enlarged by Theodore Par- ker. 2 vols. Boston : Little & Brown. 1843. Kleinert, Paul. Abriss der Einleitung zuin A. Tin Tabellen- form. Berlin : G. W. F. Muller. 1878. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 445 Simon, Richard. Histoire Critique dii Vieux Testament. Rotterdam : R. Leers. 1685. EiCHHORN, J. G. Einleitung in das Alte Testament. 4te Aufl. 5 Bde. Gottingen : Lauffer. 1823-4. NoLDEKE, Theo. Die Alttestamentliche Literatur in einer Reihe von Aufsatzen. Leipzig: Quardt & Handel. 1868. Reuss, Edward. Die Geschichte der heiligen Schriften Al- ien Testaments. Braunschweig : C- A. Schwetschke & Sohn. 188 r. Haevernick, H. a. C. Handbuch der historisch-kritischen Einleitung in das Alte Testament. 3 Bande. Erlangen : Carl Heyden. 1836-49. 2te Aufl. von C. F. Keil. Frankfurt und Erlangen. L i, 1854 ; IL 2, 1856. (2) Higher Criticism of parts of the Old Testa- ment. *Murray, Thomas C. Lectures on the Origin and Grmvth of the Psalms. New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. 1880. *Smith, W« R. The Prophets of Israel. London : Long- mans, Green & Co. New York : D. Appleton & Co. 1882. *Green, William Henry. Moses and the Prophets. New York : Robert Carter & Brothers. 1883. *Taylor, Isaac. The Spirit of Hebretv Poetry. London : Bell & Daldy. 186 1. New York: Rudd & Carleton. 1862. With a biographical introduction by Wm. Adams. LowTH, Wm. De Sacra Poesi Hebraeorum, .... cum notis et epimetris, J. D. Michaelis, . . . . ed. E. F C. Rosen- miiller, Oxonii, 1821. Lectures on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews. Translated from the original Latin by G. Gregory. A new edition, with notes by C. E. Stowe. Boston : Crocker & Brewster, 1829. Herder, J. G. Vom Geist der Hebr. Poesie. Dessau. 1782- 83. The Spirit of Hebretv Poetry. Translated from the German by James Marsh. 2 vols. Burlington, Vt. : E. D. Smith. 1833. BiCKELL, G. Carmina Veteris Testamenti Metrice. Oeni- ponte: Academica Wagneriana. 1882. 446 BIBLICAL STUDY. KuENEN, A. De Profeten en de profetie in der Israel. Leiden, 1875. The Prophets and Prophecy in Israel. Translated from the Dutch by the Rev. Adam Milroy. London : Longmans, Green & Co. 1877. Wellhausen, J. Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels. 2te Ausgabe der Gesch. Israels. Band L Berlin : G. Reimer. 1883. Binnie, William. The Psalms : their History, Teachings, and Use. London : T. Nelson. 1870. Bruston, Charles- Histoire critique de la littirature proph- dtiqiie des H^breux depuis les origines jusqua la mort d' Isaie. Paris: G. Fischbacher. 188 1. PusEY, E. B. Daniel the Prophet. Nine Lectures, delivered in the Divinity school of the University of Oxford. 3d edition. Oxford : J. Parker & Co. 1869. (3) The Higher Criticism of the New Testament. jBleek, Fred. FJnleitung in d. N. T. nach dessen Vorle- sungen herausgegeben von J. Bleek. 3te Aufl. von Man- gold. Berlin: G. Reimer. 1875. An Introduction to the New Testament. Translated by W. Urwick. 2 vols. Edin- burgh : T. & T. Clark. 1869-70. Davidson, Samuel. An Introduction to the study of the New Testament, critical, exegetical, and theological. 3 vols. London : S. Bagster & Sons. 1848-51. Reuss, Edward. Die Geschichte der h. Schriften N. T. 5 Aufl. Braunschweig: Schwetschke & Sohn. 1874. DeWette, W. M. L. Lehrbuch d. hist.-krit. Einleit. in die ka- non. BUcher des N. T. 6te Aufl. von Messner «Sc Liine- mann. Berlin : G. Reimer. i860. MiCHAELis, J. D. Einleitung in d. gottl. Schriften des N. Bundes. 4te Aufl. Gottingen : Vandenhok. 1788. In- troduction to the New Testament. Translated into En- glish with additions by Herbert Marsh. 6 vols. 4 edi- tion. London : F. C & J. Rivington. 1823. Hertwig, O. R. Tabellen zur Einl. ins N. T. 4 Aufl. von H. Weingarten. Berlin : G. W. F. Miiller. 1872. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 447 (4) The Higher Criticism of parts of the New Testament. *Westcott, B. F. Introduction to the Study of the Four Gos- pels, with historical and explanatory notes. 6th edition. London: Macmillan & Co. 1881. f Sand AY, W. The Gospels in thr Second Century. London : Macmillan & Co. 1876. f Abbot, Ezra. The Authorship of the Fourth Gospel. Ex- ternal evidences. Boston : G. H. Ellis. 1880. Mill, W. H. Observations on the attempted application of Pantheistic Principles to the theory and historical criticism of the Gospel. 2d edition edited by B. Webb. Cam- bridge : Deighton, Bell & Co. 186 r. TiSCHENDORF, CoNST. Wann wurden unsere Evangelien ver- fasst. 4te Aufl., J. C Heinrichs, 1880. Origin of the Four Gospels. Translated into English. Boston : Am. Tract Society. 1868. Lardner, Nathaniel. The Credibility of the Gospel His- tory. 5 vols. London : W. Ball. 1838. Ebrard, J. H. A. Wissenschaftliche Kritik der evangelischen Geschichte. 3te Aufl. Frankfurt-a-M. : Heyder & Zim- mer. 1868. Weiss, Bernard. Das Matthdus Evangelium und seine Lu- cas-parallelen erklart. Halle : Waisenhaus. 1876. Weiss, Bernard. Das Marcus Evangelium und seine syn- optischen Farallelen erklart. Berlin : W. Hertz. 1872. VI. — The Interpretation of Scripture. (i) Hermeneutics. *Spurgeon, C. H. Commenting and Commentaries. Two Lectures addressed to the students of the Pastor's College, .... together with a catalogue of -Biblical Commen- taries and Expositions. London : Passmore «& Alabaster. New York : Sheldon & Co. 1876. tLMMER, A. Henneneutik des N. T. Wittenberg : H. Koel- ling. 1873. Hermeneutics of the New Testament. Trans- lated from the German by A. H. Neuman. Andover : W. F. Draper. 1877. 44S BIBLICAL STUDY. SCHLEIERMACHER, Fred. Hermefuutik und Kritik mit be- sorderer Beziehung auf das Neue Test. Aus Schleier- macher's handschrift. Nachlasse und nachgeschriebenen Vorlesungen herausgegeben von F. Liicke. Berlin : G. Reimer. 1838. Davidson, Samuel. Sacred Hermeneutics. Developed and applied, including a history of Biblical Interpretation from the earliest of the Fathers to the Reformation. Edinburgh : Thomas Clark. 1843. Klausen, H. N. Hermeneutik des Neuen Testaments aus. dem Danischen ubersetzt von C D. Schmidt-Phiseldek. Leipzig: K. F. Kohler. 1841. Rambach, J. J. Institutiones Hertneneuticae Sacrae. Editio octava, cum praef. J. F. Buddei. Jenae : J. W. Hartun- gil. 1764. Lange, J. D. Grundriss d. biblischen Hermetieutik. Heidel- berg : C. Winter. 1878. McClelland, Alex. A brief treatise on the Canon and In- terpretation of the Holy Scriptures. New York : Robert Carter & Bros. i860. Ernesti, J. A. Institutio Interpretis N. T. 5 edit. ed. C. F. Amnion. 1809. Lipsiae : Weidmann. Elementary Principles of Interpretation. Translated from the Latin, and accompanied by notes, with an appendix, containing extracts from Morus, Beck, Keil, and Henderson. By Moses Stuart. 4th edition. Andover : Allen, Morrill & Ward well.. 1842. Ginsberg, C. D. The Kabbalah : its doctrines, develop- ment, and Literature. London : Longmans, Reader & Dyer. 1865. KiHN, Heinrich. Theodor von Mopsuestia zmd Junilius Af- ricanus als Exegeten. Freiburg, im Breisgau : Herder. 1880. Siegfried, Carl. Philo von Alexandria als Ausleger des Al- ien Testaments. Jena: H. Dufft. 1875. DopKE, J. C. C Hermeneutik der neutestamentlichen Schrift- stcller. Leipzig : F. C W. Vogel. 1829. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDT. 449 Terry, Milton S. Biblical Hermeneutics. A Treatise on the Interpretation of the Old and New Testaments. New York : Phillips & Hunt. 1883. (In press.) (2) Commentaries. (A) On the whole Bible. *Henry, Matthew. An exposition of the Old and New Tes- taments ; wherein each chapter is summed up in its con- tents ; the sacred Text inserted at large, in distinct Para- graphs, etc. Edited by the Rev. Edward Bickersteth. 6 vols. London: H. G. Bohn. 1846. 9 vols. New York : R. Carter & Bros. 1876. fLANGE, J. P. Critical, doctrinal, and homiletical Commentary on the Holy Scriptures, with special reference to ministers and students, in connection with a number of eminent European divines. Translated, enlarged, and edited by Philip Schaff, in connection with American scholars of va- rious evangelical denominations. 25 vols. New York : Chas. Scribner's Sons. 1867-82. G^^«^j/>, with a General Introduction to the Old Testament, By J. P. Lange. Trans- lated from the German, with additions, by Tayler Lewis and A. Gosman. — Exodus ^ by C. M. Mead ; Leviticus, by F. Gardiner, with General Introduction, by H. Osgood. — Num- bers. By J. P. Lange. Translated and enlarged by Samuel T. Lovvrie and A. Gosman ; Deuteronomy, by F. W. J. Shroe- der, translated and enlarged by A. Gosman. — Joshua, by F. R. Fay, translated, with additions, by George R. Bliss ; Judges arid Ruth, by Paulus Cassel, translated, with addi- tions, by P. H. Steenstra. — \Samjiel, by C. F. D. Erdmann, translated, enlarged, and edited by C. H. Toy and J. A. Broa- dus. — f Kings. By K. G. W. F. Bahr. Book I. ^ translated and enlarged by Edwin Harwood. Book II., translated and en- larged by VV. G. Sumner. — Chronicles I. and 11.^ hyir Otto Zockler, translated, enlarged, and edited by James G. Mur- phy ; f£zra, by Fr. W. Schultz, translated, enlarged, and edited by Chas. A. Briggs ; Nehemiah, by Howard Crosby ; Esther, by Fr. VV. Schultz, translated, enlarged, and edited by James Strong. — \Job. A Rhythmical Version, with an Introduction and Annotation by Tayler Lewis. A Com- mentary by Otto Zbckler, translated from the German, with additions, by L. J, Evans. Together with an Introductory 450 BIBLICAL STUDY. Essay on Hebrew Poetry by Philip Schaff. — The Psalms. By Carl Bernhard Moll. Translated, with additions, byC. A, Briggs, John Forsyth, J. B. Hammond, and J. F. Mc- Curdy. With a new Metrical Version of the Psalms, .and ■ Philological notes, by T. J. Conant. — \Proverls,\iy Otto Zockler, translated by C. A. Aiken ; Ecclesiastes, by O. Zockler, translated by Wm. Wells, with additions, and a new Metrical Version by Tayler Lewis ; The Song of Solomon, by O. Zockler, translated, with additions, by W. H. Green. — Isaiah. By C. W. E. Naegelsbach. Translated, with ad- ditions, by Samuel T. Lowrie and Dunlo}) Moore. — Jeremiah, by C. W. E. Naegelsbach, translated and enlarged by S. R. Asbury ; Lamentations, by C. VV. E. Naegelsbach, translated and enlarged by W. H. Hornblower. — Ezekiel. By F. W. J. Schroeder. Translated, edited, and enlarged by Patrick Fairbairn and William Findlay, aided by Thomas Crerar and Sinclair Manson ; Daniel, translated, edited, and enlarged by James Strong. — The Minor Prophets, Hosea, Joel, and Amos, by Otto Schmoller, translated, with additions, by Jas. E. McCurdy, John Forsyth, and Talbot W. Chambers, re- spectively ; Obadiah, Jonah, and Micha, by Paul Kleinert, translated, with additions, by George R. Bliss ; JVahum, Ha- bakkiik, and Zephaniah, by Paul Kleinert, translated, with additions, by Chas. Elliott ; Haggai, by James E. McCiirdy ; Zechariah, by T. W. Chambers ; Malachi, by Joseph Pack- ard, Index to the 14 vols, on the Old Testament, by B. Pick. — \The Apocrypha of the Old Testament. . With historical introductions, a revised translation, and notes critical and explanatory. By E. C. Bissell. — Matthew. With a General Introduction to the New Testament. By J. P. Lange. Translated, with additions, by Philip Schaflf. — Mark. By J. P. Lange. Revised from the Edinburgh translation, with ad- ditions, by W. G. T, Shedd ; Luke, by J. J. Van Oosterzee, translated, with additions, by Philip Schafif and Charles C. Starbuck.— /^///z. By John P. Lange. Translated by E. D, Yeomans and Evelina Moore. With additions by E. R. Craven and Philip Schaff. — Acts. By G. V. Lechler and Chas. Gerok. Translated, with additions, by C. F. Schaef- fer. — \Romans. By J. P. Lange and F. R. Fay. Trans- lated by J. F. Hurst. Revised and enlarged by P. Schaff and M. B. Riddle. — Corinthians. By Christian F. Kling. Translated, with additions, by D. W. Poor. — Galatians, by Otto Schmoller, translated by C. C. Starbuck, with additions by M. B. Riddle ; Philippians, by Karl Braune, translated BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 4.5X and enlarged by H. B. Hackett ; Ephesians and Colossians, by Karl Braune, translated and enlarged by M. B. Riddle. — Thessalonians, by Auberlen and Riggenbach, translated with additions, by John Lillie ; Timothy^ by J. J. Van Oosterzee, translated, with additions, by E. A. Washburn and E. Har- wood ; Titus, by J. J. Van Oosterzee, translated, with addi- tions, by Geo. E. Day ; Philemon, by J. J. Van Oosterzee, translated, with additions, by H. B. Hackett ; Hebrews, by Carl B. Moll, translated, with additions, by A. C. Kendrick. — James, by J, P. Lange, J. J. Van Oosterzee ; Peter, by P. F. C. Fronmiiller ; John, by Karl Braune ; Jude, by P. F. C. Fronmiiller, all translated, with additions, by Isidor Mombert. — \The Revelation of John. By J. P. I.ange. Translated by Evelina Moore. Enlarged and edited by E. R. Craven. Together with double alphabetical Index to the ten volumes on the New Testament, by John H. Woods. The Holy Bible according to the authorized Version (a.d. 16 j i), with an explanatory and critical Commentary and a revision of the translation, by bishops and other clergy of the Angli- can Church. Edited by Y. C. Cook. 10 vols. London : John Murray. 1871-81. 77/*? -^<7/y ^/^/(?, according to the Author- ized Version. With explanatory and critical notes, and a re- vision of the translation by bishops and clergymen of the Church of England. — New York : Chas, Scribner's Sons. 1871-81. Genesis^ by E. H. Browne; Exodus, Chapters I.-XIX. by F. C. Cook, and XX. to the end, by Samuel Clark ; Leviticus, by Samuel Clark ; Numbers and Deuter- onomy, by T. E, YjS^m.— Joshua, by T. E. Espin ; Judges, Ruth, and Samuel, by Arthur Hervey ; \First Kings, by -George Rawlinson. — \Second Kings, Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther, by George Rawlinson. — Job, by . F. C. Cook ; Psalms, by G. H. S. Johnson and C. J. Elliott ; Proverbs, by E. H. Plumptre ; Ecclesiastes, by W. T. Bullock ; Song of Solomon, by T. L. Kingsbury. — Isaiah, by W. Kay ; Jeremiah and Lamentations, R. Payne Smith. — Ezekiel, by G. Curry ; Daniel, by H. J. Rose and J. M. Fuller; The Minor Prophets, by E. Huxtable, F. Meyrick, R. Gandell, Sam"l Clark, F. C. Cook, and W. Drake. — St. Matthew, by H. Longueville Mansel ; St. Mark, by F. C. Cook ; St. Luke, by VV. Basil Jones and F. C. Cook, with a General Introduction by Wm. Thompson. — St. John, Introduction, Commentary, and Critical Notes, by B. F. Westcott ; The Acts of the Apostles, Introduction by F. 452 BIBLICAL STUDY. C. Cook, Commentary and Critical Motes by William Jacob- son. — Romans, by E. H. Gilford ; Corinthians, by Evans and Joseph Waite ; Galatians, by J. S. Howson ; Ephesians, by F. Meyrich ; Philippians, by J. Gvvynn ; Colossians, Thessa- lonians, and Philemon, by Win. Alexander ; Timothy and Titus, by H. Wace and John Jackson. — Hebrews, by W. Kay ; St. James, by Robert Scott ; St. John, by Wni, Alexander ; Si. Peter and St. Jiide, by J. B. Lightfoot and J. R. Lumby ; Revelation, by Wm. Lee. The Pulpit Commentary. Edited by H. D. M. Spence and Joseph S. Exell. London : C. Kegan Paul & Co. 1880- ?>T,. New York : A. D. F. Randolph & Co. Genesis, by T. Whitelaw, with Homilies by J. F. Montgomery, R. A. Red- ford, F. Hastings, VV. Roberts. An Introduction to the Study of the Old ^festament by F. VV. Farrar, and Litro- diictions to the Pentateuch by H. Cotterill and T. White- law. 7th edition. — Exodus, by G. Rawlinson, with Homilies by J. Orr, C. A. Goodliart, D. Young, J. Urquhart, and H. T. Robjohns. 4th edition. 2 vols. — Leviticus, by Freil. Meyrick, with Introductions by R. Colhns, A. Cave, and Homilies by R. A. Redford, J. A. Macdonald, W. Clark- son, S. R. Aldridge, and McCheyne Edgar, 3d edition. — Numbers, by R. Winterbotham, with Homilies by E. S. Prout, W. Binnie, D. Young, J. Waite, and an Introduction by Thomas Whitelaw. 4th edition. — Deuteronomy, by W. L. Alexander, with Homilies by Dickerson Davies, C. Clemance, J. Orr, and R. M. Edgar. 2d edition. — Joshua, by J. J. Lias, with Homilies by R. Glover, E. De Pressense, S. R. Aldridge, W. F. Adeney, J. Waite, and Introductions to the Historical Books by A. Plummer and J. J. Lias. 4th edition. — Judges by A. C. Hervey, with Homilies by A. F. Muir and VV. F. Adeney ; Ruth, by J. Morison, with Homilies by VV. M. Statham and J. R. Thomson. 4th edi- tion.— /. Samuel, by R. Payne Smith, with Homilies by Donald Eraser, C. Chapman, and B. Dale. 5th edition. — /. Kings, by Joseph Hammond, with Homilies by E. de Pressensd, J. Waite, A. Rowland, J. A. Macdonald, and J Urquhart. 3d edition. — Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, by G Rawlinson, with Homilies by J. R. Thomson, R. A. Red ford, VV. S. Lewis, J. A. Macdonald, A. Mackennal, VV, Clarkson, F. Hastings, W. Dinwiddie, D. Rowlands, G Wood, P. C. Barker, and J. S. Exell. 5th edition. — St Mark, by E. Bickersteth, with Homilies by J. R. Thom BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 453 son, E. Johnson, J. J. Given, A. Rowland, A. F. Miiir, R. Green. 2d edition. 2 vols. Wordsworth, Christopher. The Holy Bible, in the Author- ized Version. With Notes and Introduction. New Edition. 7 vols. London: Rivingtons. 1872. Critici Sacri sive dodissimorum virorum in S. S. Biblia Anno~ tationes et Tractatus. Edited by J. Pearson, A. Scattergood, F. Gouldnian, and R. Pearson. 9 vol., folio. London : C. Bee. 1660. 13 vol., folio. Amsterdam. 1669. Poole, Matth. Synopsis Criticorum. 4 vols, in 5, folio. London: J. Flescher & T. Roycroft. 1669. Utrecht, 1684. Reuss, Edward. La. Bible Traduction nouvelle avec intro- ductions et commentaires. 15 Part. Paris: Sadoz et Fisch- bacher. 1874-1881. (B) The Old Testament. (a) The Old Testament as a whole. \Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Alt. Test. Leipzig : S. Hirzel. 1838-83. In 17 Biinden. \Genesis, 4. Aufl., von A. Dillmann, 1883 ; \Exodus cr" Levit., 2. Aufl., von A. Dillmann, 1880 ; Num., Deut., Jos., von A. Knobel, 1861 ; Richter, Ruth, von E. Bertheau, 1845 ; Samuel, von O. Thenius, 2. Aufl., 1864; Kdnigc, von O. Thenius, 2. Aufl., 1873 ; \Jcsaja, 4. Aufl., von L. Diestel, 1872 ; Jerem., von F. Hitzig, 2. Aufl., 1866 ; \Ezechicl, 2. Aufl., von R. Smend, 1880 ; \Klein. Propheten, 4. Aufl., von H. Steiner, 1881 ; Psalmen, von J. Olshausen, 1853 ; \Hiob.^ 3. Aufl., von A. Dillmann, 1869 '■> Spriiche, von E. Bertheau, u. Koheleth, von F. Hitzig, 1847 ; Hohelied, von F. Hitzig, u. Klaglieder, von O. Thenius, 1855 ; Daniel, von F. Hitzig, 1850 ; Esra, Neh., Esther, von E. Bertheau, 1862 ; Chron- ik., von E. Bertheau, 1862. tKEiL, C. F., und Franz Delitzsch. Biblische Commentar iiber das A. T. 14 Bande. Leipzig : Dorffling & Franke. 1861-83. Translated as Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament. 25 vols. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1864- 78. (The Commentaries on Psalms, 3d German edition, 1873-4 ; Job, 2d edition, 1876 ; Proverbs, 1873 ; Song oj Songs ^^ Koheleth, 1875 ; Isaiah, 3d edition, 1879, all by F. l3elitzsch, are excellent. The Commentaries by Keil 454 BIBLICAL STUDY. upon the Minor Prophets, 2d edition, 1873 '. Daniel, 1876 ; and Ezekiel, 2d edition, 1883, are valuable; the others are of less importance.) f BoETTCHER, F. Neue exegetish-kritsche Aehrejilese zum Alien Testament. 3 Abtheil. Leipzig : J. A. Earth. 1863-5. RosENMUELLER, C. F. K. SchoUa in Vettis Testamentum. 23 vol. Leipzig: J. A. Earth. 1820-34. WuENSCHE, A. Bibliotheca Rabbinica : Eine Sammlung Alte Midraschim {23 Lief, published). Leipzig: Otto Schiiltze. 1880-83. (b) Historical Books. fCALViN, John. In librum Geneseos commentarius cur. E. Hengstenberg. 2 Pts. Eerlin : G. Bethge 1838. Coin- vientaries on the First Book of Moses, called Genesis. Translated from the original Latin and compared with the French edition. By John King. 2 vols. Edin- burgh: T. & T. Clark. 1847-50. f Delitzsch, Franz. Commentar fiber d. Genesis mit Beitragen von Fleischer u. Wetzstein. 4te 'Aufl. Leipzig : Dorffling und Franke. 1872. fScHULTZ, F. VV. Das Deuteronomium erkldrt. Berlin : G. Schlawitz. 1859. f Kalisch, M. M. Historical and Critical Commentary o?i the Old Testament. With a new translation. Vol. I., Genesis, 1858. Vol. IL, Exodus, 1855. Vols. lU. and IV., Z^t-///- cus, iS6'j-'j2. London: Longman, Brown & Co. 1858. Masius, Andreas. Josuae imperatoris historia illustrata atque explicata. Antwerpiae : C. Plantin. 1574. Also in Critici sacri. AiNSWORTH, Henry. Annotations on the Five Books of Moses, the Psalms, and the Song of Solomon. Folio. London. 1639. Kalisch, M. M. Bible Studies. Part I., The Prophecies of Balaam. London : Longmans. 1877. Murphy, James. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Genesis. With a new translation. Edin- burgh : T. & T. Clark. 1863. Andover : W. F. Draper. 1866. Commentary on Exodus. Edinburgh and Andover. 1866. Leviticus* Edinburgh and Andover. 1872. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 455 TuCH, Fried. Commentar iiber die Genesis. 2. Aufl. bes. von Arnold und Merx. Halle: Waisenhaus. 1871. Bush, George. Notes, Critical and Practical^ on the Book of Numbers. Designed as a general help to Biblical reading and instruction. New York : Ivison, Phinney & Co. 1863. Bush, George. Notes, Critical and Practical, on the Book of Joshua. 2d edition. New York : Ivison, Phinney & Co. 1862. . Wright, C. H. H. Book of Ruth in Hebrew- With gram- matical and critical commentary. London : Williams & Norgate. 1864. Davidson, A. B. Lectures, Expository and Practical.^ on the Book of Esther. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 1859. Bachmann, J. Das Buck der Richter. Bd. I., Cap. I.-V. Berlin : Wiegandt & Grieben. 1868-69. (c) Psalter. *Spurgeon, C. H. The Treasury of David. Containing an original exposition of the Book of Psalms ; a collection of . illustrative extracts from the whole range of literature ; a series of homiletical hints upon almost every verse ; and a list of writers upon each psalm. 6 vols. London : Passmore & Alabaster. 1870-78. * Vincent, Marvin R. Gates into the Psalm-country. New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. 1878. fCALViN, John. In librum Psalmorum cotnmentarius. 2 Part., ed. A. Tholuck. Berlin : G. Eichler. 1836. Com- mentaries on the Psalms of David. 3 vols. London : Thomas Tegg. 1840. fEwALD, Heinrich. Die Dichter des alten Bundes erkldrt. 2. Ausg. ; 3 Bde. ; Gottingen : Vanderhock & Ruprecht ; 1866-1867. Commentary on the Psalms, translated by E. Johnson ; 2 vols. Commentary on the Book of Job, trans- lated by J. F. Smith ; London : Williams & Norgate ; • 1880-82. fPEROWNE, J. J. S. The Book of Psalms ; a new translation, with introduction and notes, critical and explanatory. 5th edition. London: G. Bell & Sons. 1883. Andover : W. F. Draper. 1876. 456 BIBLICAL STUDY. fHuPFELD, H. Die Psalmen iibersetzt und ausgelegt, mit Zu- satzen und Berichtigungen von E. Riehm. 2te Aufl. 4 Bde. Gotha: F.A.Perthes. 1867-72. Alexander, Joseph Addison. The Psalms, translated and explained. 6th ed- 3 vols. New York : Charles Scrib- ner. 1866. Barnes, Albert. Notes, Critical, Explanatory and Practi- cal, on the Book of Psalms. 3 vols- New York : Harper & Brothers. 1868-69. HoRNE, George. A Co?nmentary on the Book of Psalms with an introductory essay by Edward Irving. Glas- gow : Thomas Tegg. i860. New York : R. Carter & Brothers. 1849. Murphy, J. G. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Psalms, with a new translation. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1875. Andover : W. F. Draper. 1875. Neale, J. M., and R. F. Littledale. A Commentary on the Psalms, from the primitive and mediaeval writers; and from the various office books and hymns of the Roman, Mozarabic, Ambrosian, Gallican, Greek, Coptic, Armen- ian, and Syrian rites. 4 vols. London : J. Masters & Co. 1860-74. Hengstenberg, E. W. Commentar titer d. Psalmen. 2te Aufl. 4 Bde. Ludwig Oehmigke. 1849-52. Augustine, Aurelius. Expositions on the Book of Psalms. Translated by J. Tweed. Vols. XXIV., XXV., XXX., XXXII., XXXVII., XXXIX. of Library of the Fathers of the Holy Catholic Church. Oxford : J. Parker & Co. 1848. Graetz, H. Kritischer Cojnmentar zu den Psalmen nebst Text und Uebersetzung. 2 Bde. Breslau : S. Schott- laender. 1882-3. (d) The Wisdom Literature. *Cox, Samuel. A Commentary on the Book of Job, with a translation. London : Kegan Paul & Co.. 1880. *Plumptre, E. H. Ecclesiastes ; or, the Preacher, with Notes and Introduction. Cambridge: University Press. 1881. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 457 *Hamilton, James. The Royal Preacher. Lectures on Ec- clesiastes. London : James Nisbet. 1865. New York : Robert Carter & Bros. fSxuART, Moses. A Commentary on the Book of Proverbs. New York : M. W. Dodd. 1852. f Ginsberg, C. D. The Song of Songs ; with a commentary, historical and critical. London : Longman, Brown & Co. 1857. fWRiGHT, C. H. H. The Book of Koheleth, considered in relation to modem Criticism and to the doctrines of modern Pessimism, with a critical and grammatical Com- mentary. London : Hodder & Stoughton. 1883. Davidson, A. B. A Commentary on Job, grammatical and exegetical, with a translation. Vol. I. London : Will- iams & Norgate. 1862. Stuart, Moses. A Cojnmentary on Ecclesiastes. New- York : G. P. Putnam. 1871. WiTHiNGTON, Leonard. Solomons Song, Translated and Explained. Boston : J. E. Tilton & Co. 186 1. Boettcher, F. Die dltesten BUhnendichtung ; der Debora- Gesang und das hohe Lied, dramatisch dargestellt und neu iibersetzt. Leipzig: J. A. Barth. 1850. Taylor, Francis. Observations upon I.-IX. Chapters of Proverbs. 2 vols. London : George Eversden. 1645- 57- Ginsberg, C. D. Coheleth or Ecclesiastes ; translated, with a Commentary. London: Longman, Brown & Ccr. 1857. Durham, James. Clavis Cantici ; or, an Exposition of th^ Song of Solomon. Edinburgh. 1668. Aberdeen. 1840. Gregory the Great. Morals on the Book of Job, trans- lated, with notes and indices, in vols. XVIII., XXI., XXIII., XXXI. of The Library of the Fathers of the Holy Catholic Church. Oxford : J. H. Parker. 1848. Ren AN, Ernest. L' EccUstaste, traduit de I'Hebreu avec une 6tude sur I'age et le caract^re du livre. 2. Edition. Paris : Caiman Ldvy. 1882. 20 458 BIBLICAL STUDY. (e) The Prophets. fEwALD, Heinrich. Die Propheten des Alien Bundes er- klart ; Neue Bearbeitung ; 3 Bde. ; Gottingen : Vander- hoeck & Ruprecht ; 1867-68. Commentary on the Prophets of the Old Testament ; translated by J. F. Smith ; 5 vols. ; London : Williams & Norgate ; 1875-81. f Cheyne, T. K. The Prophecies of Isaiah. A new transla- tion, with commentary and appendixes. 2 vols. Lon- don : C. Kegan Paul & Co. 1880-1 881. Umbreit, F. W. C. Praktischer Commentar iiber die Pro- pheten des Alt. Bundes. 4 Bde. Hamburg : F. Perthes. 1841-46. Gesenius, Wilhelm. Der Prophet J esaja iibersetzt, und mit vollst. phil.-krit. u. histor. Commentar begleitet. 3 Bde. Leipzig : F. C. W. Vogel. 1821. The 53^ Chapter of Isaiah according to the Jewish interpreters. Texts edited from printed books and MSS. by Ad. Neu- bauer ; translation by S. R. Driver and Ad. Neubauer. With an introduction to the translations by E. B. Pusey. 2 vols. Oxford : J. Parker & Co. 1876-77. Alexander, J. A. The Prophecies of Isaiah. Translated and explained. Revised edition. 2 vols. New York : C. Scribner & Co. 1869. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1874. LowTH, Robert. Isaiah. A new translation, with a pre- liminary dissertation and notes, critical, philological, and explanatory. 2d edition. London: J. Dodsley. 1779. Henderson, E. The Book of the Prophet Jeremiah, and that of the lamentatiofis. Translated from the original He- brew. With a Commentary, critical, philological, and exegetical. London: Hamilton. 1851. Andover : W. F. Draper. 1868. ScHOLZ, Anton. Commentar zum Buche des Propheten Jere- mias. Wiirzburg : L. Woerl. 1880. Graf, K. H. Der Prophet Jeremia erkldrt. Leipzig : T. O. Weigel. 1862. Haevernick, H. a. C. Conwientar iiber den Propheten Ezechiel. Erlangen : Carl Heyder. 1843. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDT. 459 Fairbairn, Patrick. Ezekiel and the Book of His Prophecy. 2d edition. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1855. Hengstenberg, E. W. Die Weissagungen des Propheten Ezech- iel\ 2Bde. ; Berlin: Gustav Schlawitz ; 1867-1868. The Prophecies of Ezekiel elucidated ; translated by A. C. and J. G. Murphy; Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark; 1869. Greenhill, Wm. Exposition of Ezekiel. 5 vols. 1645-67. Revised and corrected by James Sherman. Edinburgh: James Nichol. ^^^Z- (f) Minor Prophets and Daniel. fPusEY, E. B. The Minor Prophets ; with a Commentary explanatory and practical, and introductions to the several books. Oxford : J. Parker & Co. 1877. f Wright, C. H. H. Zechariah and His Prophecies considered in relation to Modern Criticism ; with a critical and gram- matical Commentary and new Translation. London : Hodder & Stougliton. T879. fWuENSCHE, A. Der Prophet Hosea iibersetzt und erklart mit Benutzung der Targumim u. der jiid. Ausleger. Leip- zig: T. O. Weigel. 1868. fWuENSCHE, A. Die Weissagungen des Propheten Joel flber- setzt und erklart. Leipzig: R. Reisland. 1872. f Kranichfeld, R. Das Buck Daniel erklart. Berlin : Gustav Schlawitz. 1868. Henderson, E. The Books of the Twelve Minor Prophets. London: Hamilton & Co. 1845, Andover: W. F. Draper, i860. BuRROUGHES, Jeremiah. An Exposition of the Prophecies of Hosea. 4 vols. London: 1643-51. Edinburgh: J. Nichol. 1863. PococK, Edward. Commentary on Hosea ; Oxford, At the Theatre. 1685. On Joel, Micah, and Malachi j Oxioxd, 1691. Rainolds, John. The Prophecies of Obadiah opened and ap- plyed. 1613. Edinburgh: J. Nichol. 1864. 460 BIBLICAL STUDY. King, John. Lectures upon Jonah. Oxford. 1600. Edin- burgh : J. Nichol. 1864. Kalisch, M. M. Bible Studies. Part II., The Book of Jonah. London : Longmans, Green & Co. 1878. More, Henry. A Plaine and continued Exposition of the several Prophecies of Daniel. London. 1681. Stuart, Moses. A Commentary on the Book of Daniel. Boston : Crocker & Brewster. 1850. Haevernick, H. a. C. Commentar iiber das Buch Daniel. Hamburg: Fried. Perthes. 1839. Commentaries on the New Testament. (a) The New Testament as a whole. *-^ Popular Commentary on the New Testament. Prepared by a number of American and British scholars of the leading Evangelical Denominations, under the General Editorship of Philip Schaff. 4 volumes. Each volume profusely illus- trusted with cuts of Bible Lands and Bible Scenes, made from recent ^'hotographs, and prepared under the supervision of Wm. M. Thomson, and with maps prepared under the super- vision of Arnold Guyot. — I. Matthew, Mark and Luke. With an Introduction. By Philip Schaff and Matthew B. Riddle. — II. "^John, by VVm. Milligan and Wm. F. Moulton ; Acts of the Apostles, by J. S. Howson and Donald Spence. — III. * Ro- mans, by Philip Schaff and M. B. Riddle ; Corinthians, by Da- vid Brown ; *Galatians, by Philip Schaff; Ephesians, by Matt. B. Riddle ; Philippians, by J. Rawson Lumby ; Colossians, by M. B. Riddle ; Thessalonians, by Marcus Dods ; Timothy, by Edward Hayes Plumptre ; Titus, by J. Oswald Dykes ; Philemon, by J. Rawson Lumby. — IV. Jlebrews, by Joseph Angus ; James, by Paton J. Gloa^ ; Peter, by G. D. F. Sal- mond ; John, by Wm. B. Pope and Wm. F. Moulton ; Jude, by Joseph Angus ; Revelation., by Wm. Milligan and Wm. F. Moulton. (In preparation.) ♦Butler, J. G. The Bible-Reader s Commentary. The New Testament in Two Volumes. The Text arranged in sec- tions ; with brief readings and complete annotations, selected from the " choice and best observations " of more than 300 eminent Christian Thinkers of the Past and Present. New York : D. Appleton & Co. 1878-9. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 4C1 fBENCEL, J. A. Gnomon N. Zl, 5 editio von J. Steudel ; Stutt- gartiae : J. F. Steinkopf, i860. Gnomon of the New Tcsta- 7nent, edited by Charlton T. Lewis and Marvin R. Vincent ; 2 vols. Philadelphia: Perkenpine & Higgins. i860. fiVlEYER, H. A. VV. Krit. ex. Comm. iiber d. N. T. Hotting- en : Vanderhoek & Ruprecht, 1832-83. 16 Abtheiliingen. Matth., 7 Aufl. von B. Weiss, 1876 ; Markus, Lukas, Johan- nes, 6 Aufl. von B. Weiss, 1878-80; Apostelgeschichte von H. H. Wendt, 5 Aufl., 1881 ; Romerbrief, 6 Aufl. von B. Weiss, 18S1 ; /. Corinth. 6 Aufl. von C. F. G. Heinrici, 1881 ; //. Corinth., 6 Aufl. von Heinrici, 1883.; Galater von F. Sieffert, 6 Aufl., 1881 ; Epheserbrief \'0x\ W. Schmidt, 5 Aufl., 1878; Phil., Col., Philem., 4 Aufl. von H. A. W. Meyer, 1874; Thess., 4 Aufl. von G. Liinemann, 1878; Tim., Titus, Petrus, Judd, Johannes, 4 Aufl. von J. E. Huther, 1876-80 ; Jacobus, 4 Aufl. von W. Beyschlag, 1882 ; Hcbrderbrief, 4 Aufl. von Liinemann, 1878 ; Offenb. Johan., 3 Aufl. von F. Diisterdiek, 1877. Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament. From the German, with the sanction of the author, 10 vols. Edinburgh : T. 6 T. Clark. 1876-79. a jCalvin, John. In Novum Testamentum Commentarii, curavit A. Tholuck. 7 vol. Editio altera. Berolini : G. Thome. 1838. Alford, Henry. New Testament for English Readers ; con- taining the authorized version, with a revised English Te.xt ; marginal references, and a critical and e.xplanatory Com- mentary. New edition. 4 parts, in 2 vols. l.,ondon : Riv- ingtons. 1868. Chrysostom, John. Homilies on the New Testament. Vols, IV., v., VI., VII., XL, XII., XIV,, XV„ XXVII., XXVIIL, XXXIIL, XXXIV., XXXV., XXXVI, of the Library of the Fathers of the Holy Catholic Church. Oxford : J. H. Parker. 1848. De Wette, W, M. L. Kurtzgef assies exeget. Handb. z. N. T. 3 Bde. II Abtheil.. Nach seinem Tode, bearbeitet von Messner, Bruckner, Overbeck & Moller. Leipzig : Weid- mann. 1836 seq. HOFMANN, von J. Ch. Die Heilige Schriften Neuen Testa- ments zusammenhdngend untersucht. 9 Teilen. Nord- lingen : C. H. Beck. 1862-83. 462 BIBLICAL STUDY. Ellicott, C. J. A New Testament Commentary, for English Readers, by various writers. 3 vols. London : Cassell, Petter, Galpin & Co. 1878 seg. New York : E. P. Button & Co. Spiess, Ed. Logos Spermatikos. Parallelstellen zuni Neuen Testament aus den Schriften der alten Griechen. Leipzig : Wilhelm Engelmann. 1871. ScHOETTGEN, Ch. Horae hebraicae et talmudicae in universum Novum Testamentum. Dresdae : C. Hekel. 1 733. (b) The Gospels and Book of Acts. *Bruce, a. B. The Parabolic Teaching of Christ. A sys- tematic and critical study of the Parables of our Lord. London: Hodder & Stoughton. 1882. New York : A. C. Armstrong & Co. 1883. fMoRisoN, James. Mattheivs Memoirs of Jesus Christ. Lon- don : Hamilton, Adams & Co. 1870. f MORISON, James, A Practical Commentary on the Gospel ac- cording to Mark. 2d edition. London : Hamilton, Adams & Co. 1876. Boston : N. J. Bartlett. 1882. fGoDET, F. Commentaire sur V^vangile de St. Luc. 2 Edition. 2 vol. Neuchatel : J. Sandoz. A Commentary on the Gospel of St. Luke, translated by E. VV. Shalders and IVf. D. Cusin. 2 vols. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1875. f GoDET, F. Com. sur t evangile de St. Jean. 3 vol. 2 edition. Paris: Lib. Francois €l Itrang^re, 1876-77. Commentary on the Gospel of St. John, with a critical introduction, trans- lated from the 2d French edition by M. D. Cusin and S. Taylor; 3 vols.; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, iSy -77. f Trench, R. C. Notes on the Parables, nth edition, Lon- don, Macmillan & Co., 1870. 9th edition. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1858. Tholuck, a. F. Die Bergpredigt, 5. Aufl., 1872 ; Gotha: F. A. Perthes, 1872. Commentary on the Sermon on the Mount, translated from the 4th revised and enlarged Ger- man edition by R. I,. Brown ; Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, i860; Philadelphia: Smith, English & Co. Alexander, J. Addison. The Gospel according to Mark Ex- plained. New York : Chas. Scribner. X858. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY, 4^3 LuTHARDT, C. E. Das Johanneische Evangelium ; 2 Thle.; 2 Aufl. ; Niirnberg : Geiger, 1875-6. St. John s Gospel, de- scribed and explained according to its peculiar character ; 3 vols. ; Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1876-8. Aquinas, Thomas. Catena Aurea. Commentary on the four Gospels, collected out of works of the Fathers. 4 vols. Oxford: J. H. Parker. 1841-44. Greswell, E. B. D. Exposition of the Parables and other parts of the Gospels. 5 vols. Oxford : J. G. & F. Rivington. 1834. EuTHYMius, ZiGABENUS. Commentar in IV. evangelia. Gr. et Eat. ed. C. F. Matthaei. 3 torn. Lips. : Weidniann. 1792. AcHELis, E. Die Bergpredi^j;t nach Matthaeus und Lucas. Bielefeld: Velhagen & Klasing. •1875. GoEBEL, S. Die Parahlen Jesu methodisch ausgelegt. Gotha : F. A. Perthes. 1879-80. LuECKE, G. C. F. Commentar iiber die Schriftcn des Evan- gelisten Johannes. 3. Aufl. 4 Bde. Bonn : E. Weber. 1850-1856. WuENSCHE, August. JVeue Beit rage zur Erlaiiterung der Evangelien aus Talmud &> Midrash. Gottingen : Van- derhoeck & Ruprecht. 1878. fGLOAG, P. J. A Cntical and Exegetical Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles. 2 vols. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1870. Hackett, H. B. a Commentary on the Original Text of the Acts of the Apostles. New edition. Andover : W. F. Draper. 1877. Alexander, J. A. The Acts of the Apostles Expounded. 3d edition. 2 vols. New York ; C. Scribner & Co. 1867. (c) Pauline Epistles. f GoDET, F. Commentaire sur F^pttre aux Rotnains. 2 Tom. Neuchatel : J. Sandoz. Cofnmentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans. Translated from the French by A. Cusin. 2 vols, Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. 1880-81. 4G4 BIBLICAL STUDY. f Hodge, Chas. Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans. New edition. Revised and ia a great measure rewritten. Philadelphia: R. & H. Claxton. J856. Shedd, W. G. T. a Critical .and Doctrinal Commentary on the Epistle of St. Paul to the Romans. New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. 1879. Stuart, Moses. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans. 3d edition. Edited and revised by R. D. C. Robbins. New edition. Andover : VV. F. Draper. 1876. Beet, Joseph A. A Commentary on St. PauVs Epistle to the Romans. 2d edition. London : Hodder & Stoughton. 1881. Philippi, F. a. Commentar U. d. brief Pattli an die Romer j 3 Auti. ; Frankfurt a. M.: Heyder & Zimmer, 1866. Com- mentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans j translated from the 3d edition by J. S. Banks ; 2 vols.; Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 1878-9. f Stanley, A. P. The Epistles of St. Paid to the Corinthians, with critical notes and dissertations. 5th edition. London : J. Murray. 1882. f Beet, Joseph A. A Cotnmentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Corinthians. London : Hodder & Stoughton. 1882. Hodge, Charles. An Exposition of the First Epistle to the Corinthians. New York: R. Carter & Brothers. 1857. Hodge, Charles. An Exposition of the Second Epistle to the Corinthians. New York: R. Carter & Brothers, i860. Heinrici, C. F. G. Das erste Sendschreiben des Apostel Paulus an die Korinthier. Berlin : W. Hertz. 1 880. fLiGHTFOOT, J. B. St. PauVs Epistle to the Galatians. 5 th edition. London: Macmillan & Co. 1880. Andover: VV. F. Draper. 1870. f Luther, Martin. A Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians. Philadelphia: Smith, English & Co. i860. Ellicott, C. J. Commentary, Critical and Grammatical, on St. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians. London : Longmans & Co. Andover: W. F. Draper. 1867. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 465 Eadie, John. Commentary on the Greek Text of the Epistle of Paul to the Galatiam. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1869. JEadie, John. Commentary on the Greek Text of the Epistle of Paul to the Ephesians. 2d edition. London : 1861. New York: R. Carter & Brothers. 1861. fELi icoiT, C. J. A Critical and Grammatical Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians. With a revised trans- lation. 3d edition. London: Longmans & Co. 1864. Andover: W. F. Draper. 1862. Hodge, Charles. A Commentary on the Epistle to the Ephe- sians. New York : R. Carter & Brothers. 1856. f LiGHTFOOT, J. B. St. Pauts Epistle to the Philippians. A revised text, with Introduction, Notes, and Dissertations. 3d edition. London : Macmillan & Co. 1873. fEixicoTT, C. J. A Comjnentary, Critical and Grammatical^ on St. Pauts Epistles to the Philippians, Colossians, and to Philemon. 3d edition. London: Longmans & Co. An- dover : W. F. Draper. 1865. tLiGHTFOOT, J. B. St. Pauts Epistles to the Colossians and to Philemon. A revised text, with Introduction, Notes, and Dissertations. 2d edition. London: Macmillan & Co. 1875. Bayne, Paul. An Entire Commentary upon the whole of the Epistle of Paul to the Ephesians. London. R. Milbourne. 1643. Edinburgh : James Nichol. 1866. Airay, Henry. Lectures upon the whole Epistle of St. Paul to the Philippiafis. London, 1 6 18. Edinburgh : J. Nichol. 1864. Byfield, N. An Exposition upon the Epistle to the Colossians. Folio. London: N. Butler. 1617. f Ellicott, C. J. A Critical and Grammatical Commentary on St. Paul's Epistles to the Thessalonians, with a revised translation. London : Longmans & Co. Andover: W. t. Draper. 1865. Eadie, John. A Commentary .on the Greek Text of the Epistles of Paul to the Thessalonians. Edited by W. Young. With a Preface by John Cairns. London : Mac- millan & Co. 1877. 20* 4,QQ BIBLICAL STUDY. LiLLiE, John. Lectures on the Epistles of Paid to the Thessa- lonians. New York : R. Carter & Brothers, i860. f Ellicott, C. J. A critical and grammatical Commentary on the Pastoral Epistles, with a revised translation. London : Longmans, Green & Co. Andover: VV. F. Draper. 1865. Fairbairn, Patrick. The Pastoral Epistles. Greek text, and translation, with introductions, expository notes, and dissertations. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1874. Barlow, John. Exposition of II. Timothy, Chaps, i.-ii. London : George Latham. 1632. Hall, Thomas. Commentary on II. Timothy, C Hi. and iv. Folio. London : J. Starkey. 1658. Taylor, Thomas. Commentarie upon Titus. Cambridge. 1 61 9. Folio, 1668. (d) General Epistles. ■|"Delitzsch, Franz. Cotnmentar zum Brief e an die Hebrder. Leipzig: Dorffling & Franke. 1857. Comttientary on the epistle to the Hebrews. Trans, by T. L. Kingsbury. 2 vols. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. 1868-70. Bleek, F. Der Brief an die Hebrder erlautert durch Einlei- tung, Uebersetzung und fortlaufenden Commentar. 2 Ab- theil. Berlin : F. Diimmler. 1828-40. Der Hebrderbrief erklart, herausg. von K. A. Windrath. Elberfeld : Frider- icks. 1868. Stuart, Moses. A Comtnentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews. New edition. Andover: W. P\ Draper. 1876. , Gouge, William. Commentary on the whole Epistle to the He- brews. 2 vols., folio, London, Joseph Kirton, 1655, 3 Vols. Edinburgh : James Nichol. 1866-67. Owen, John. Exposition of Hebrews. 4 vols., folio, Lon- don, 1668-74. Edited by W. A. Goold. 7 vols. Edin- burgh : T. & T. Clark. M ANTON, Thomas. A Practical Exposition on the Epistle of James. London. 1651. Revised and corrected by James Sherman. London : S. Holdsworth. 1842. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY, 457 Bassetf, F. T. The Catholic Epistle of St. James. Lon- don : Sanniel Bagster & Sons. 1876. tLEiGHTON, Robert. Commentary upon \st Peter. 2 vols., 1613-1684. 2 vols. Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Publication. 1864. LiLLiE, John. Lectures on the First and Second Epistles of Peter. New York : Charles Scribner & Co. l^ondon : Hodder & Stoughton, 1869. Adams, Thomas. An Exposition upon the Second Epistle of Peter. P'olio, London, 1633; revised and corrected by James Sherman. Edinburgh: James Nichol. 1862. tCANDLiSH, Robert. First epistle of John expounded, a vols. Edinburgh : A. & C. Black. 1870. fEBRARD, J. H. A. Die Brief e Johannis. Konigsberg : A. W. Unzer. 1859. Commentary on the epistles of St. John. Translated by W. B. Pope, Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. t86o. Cotton, John. Comtnentary upon the first epistle of John. Folio, 2d edition. London : Thomas Parkhurst, 1658, Jenjcvn, \^''ili,iam. An exposition upon the epistle of Jude. 2 vols., Samuel Gellibrand, 1652; revised and corrected by James Sherman. I^ondon : Samuel Holdsworth. 1839. (e) The Book of Revelation. 'Glasgow, James. The Apocalypse translated and expounded. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1862. tSTUART, Moses. A Commentary on the Apocalypse. 2 vols. Andover : Allen, Morrill & Wardwell. 1845. tELLiOTT, C. B. Horae Apocalypticae. A Commentary on the Apocalypse, critical and historical. 5th edition. 4 vols. London : Seeley, Jackson & Halliday. 1862. ViTRiNGA, C. Anakrisis Apocalypsios Johannis aposfoli. Amsterdam: H. Strick. 1719. Leucopetiae : J. F. Wehr- mann. 1721. Brightman, Thomas. The Revelation of the Revelation. Amsterdam, 16 15. Leyden, 1644. 468 BIBLICAL STUDY. Durham, James. A Commentarie upon the book of the Reve- lation. Glasgow. 1658. New edition, Glasgow, 1788. EiCHHORN, J. G. Commentarius in apocalypsin Joa?inis. 2 vol. Gottingen : J. C. Dieterich. 1791. Kliefoth, Th. Die Offenbarung des Johanties. 3 Abtheil. Leipzig : Dorffling & Franke. 1874. VII. Biblical History. (i) Biblical Geography and Natural History. *Tristram, H. B. The Topography of the Holy Land. A succinct account of all the places, rivers, and mountains of the land of Israel, mentioned in the Bible, so far as they have been identified, together with their modern names and his- torical references. London : Society for Promoting Chris- tian Knowledge. 1876. New York: Pott, Young & Co. 1878. ♦Tristram, H. B, The Natural History of the Bible. Being a review of the physical geography, geology, and meteorolo- gy of the Holy Land ; with a description of every animal and plant mentioned in Holy Scripture. London : Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 1867. New York : Pott, Young & Co. ♦Thomson, VV. M. The Land and the Book ; or, Biblical Il- lustrations drawn from the manners and customs, the scenes and scenery of the Holy Land. 2 vols. New York : Har- per & Brothers. 1859. New edition, illustrated. 3 vols. 1880-83. ♦Stanley, Arthur P. Sinai and Palestine in connection with their history. New edition. London : John Murray. New York : A. C. Armstrong & Son. 1883. tBAEDEKER, K. Paldstina und Syrien. Handbuch fiir Rei- sende. 2te Aufl. Leipzig : Karl Baedeker, 1880. Pal- estine and Syria. Boston : J. R. Osgood & Co. tRoHiNSON, Edward. Biblical Researches in Palestine and in the adjacent regions. A journal of travels in the year 1838. 2 vols. 2d edition. Boston : Crocker & Brewster, i860. +R0BINSON, Edward. Later Biblical Researches in Palestine and in the adjacent regions. A journal of travels in the year 1852. 2d edition. Boston : Crocker & Brewster. 1857. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 4^9 tRoBiNSON, Edward. Physical Geography of the Holy Land. Boston: Crocker & Brewster. 1865.. fiVlERRiLL, Selah, Edst of the Jordan. A record of travel and observation in the countries of Moab, Gilead, and Bashan during the years 1875-77. New York : Chas. Scribner's Sons. i88f. New edition, 1883, tToBLER, Titus. Descriptiones Terrae Sanctae ex saeculo VIII., IX., XII., et XV, Leipzig : J. C. Heinrichs. 1874. fToBLER, Titus. Bibliographia Geographica Palestinae. I^eipzig : Hirzel. 1867. f Delitzsch, Fried. Wo lag das Paradies ? Eine Biblisch- Assyriologische Stiidie mit zahlreichen assyriologischen Beitriigen ziir biblischen Lander und Volkerkunde, Leip- zig: J. C. Heinrichs. 1881. CoNDER, C. R. Tent Work in Palestine. A record of dis- covery and adventure. Published for the Committee of the Palestine Exploration Society. 2 vols. I-ond.on : R. Bent- ley & Son. New York : D. Appleton & Co. 1878. ti¥iz/ of Western Palestine. In 26 sheets. By C. R. Conder and H. H. Kitschener. London. 18S0. tMENKE, Theo. Bibelatlas in acht Bldttern. Gotha : J. Perthes. 1868. Lynch, W. F. Narrative of the United States Expedition to the river Jordan and the Dead Sea. Philadelphia : Lee & Blanchard. 1 849. Ebers, G. Diirch Gosen zum Sinai. Atis dem Wanderbuch und der Bibliothek. 2te Auf. Leipzig : W. Engelmann. 1881. Wetzstein, J. G. Reisebericht ilber Hauran und die Tracho- nen, nebst einem Anhange iiber die Sabaischen Denkraaler in Ostsyrien. Berlin; D. Reimer. i860. Palmer, E. H. The Desert of the Exodus. 2 vols. Cam- bridge : Deighton, Bell & Co. 1871. New York : Harper & Brothers. 1872, Wilson, John. The Lands of the Bible Visited and Described. 2 vols. Edinburgh : Longmans. 1847. 4Y0 BIBLICAL STUDY. Burton, Richard F., and Charles Drake. Unexplored Syria. 2 vols. London : Tinsley Bros. 1872. Tobler, T. Topographie von Jerusalem undseinen Umgebungen. 2 Bde. Berlin ; G. Reinier. 1853-4. Tobler, T. Nazareth in Faldstina. Berlin: G. Reimer. 1868. Tobler, T. Bethlehem in Faldstina. St. Gallen. Huber & Comp. 1849. Warren, Charles. Underground Jerusalem. An account of some of the principal difficulties encountered in its explora- tion and the results obtained. London : Richard Bentley & Son. 1876, Wilson, Chas VV., and Warren, Chas. The Recovery of Jer- usalem. A Narrative of Exploration and Discovery in the city and Holy Land. Edited by W. Morrison. New York : D. Appleton & Co. 1871. Tristram, H. B. The Land of Israel. A journal of travels in Palestine, undertaken with special reference to its physi- cal character. 2d ed. London : Soc. Prom. Christian Knowledge. 1866. Tristram, H. B. The Land of Moab. Travels and Discov- eries on the East side of the Dead Sea and the Jordan. Lon- don : J. Murray. New York : Harper & Brothers. 1873. RiTTER, Carl. The complete Geography of Palestine and the Sinaitic Peninsula. Translated by W. L. Gage. 4 vols. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1866. New York : D. Apple- ton & Co. 1870. Williams, George. The Holy City. Historical, topographi- cal, and antiquarian notices of Jerusalem. 2d ed. 2 vols. London : Parker & Son. 1849. (2) Old Testament History. (a) Archaeolog^y of the Old Testament *CoNDER, F. R. A Handbook to the Bible. Being a guide to the study of the Holy Scriptures, derived from ancient mon- uments and modern exploration. London : Longmans, Green & Co. New York : A. D. F. Randolph & Co. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 47I *Lane, E. W. An account of the manners and customs of the modern Egyptians. 2 vols. 5 th edition. London : J. Murray. 187 1. *Lane, E. W. The Thousand and One Nights, commonly called, in England, The Arabian Nights' Entertainments. A new translation from the Arabic, with copious notes. A new edition, edited by E. S. Poole. 3 vols. London : Routledge, Warne & Routledge. 1865. tEwALD, Heinrich. Die Alterthiimer des Volkes Israel. 3 Ausg. Gottingen : Dieterich, 1866. The Antiquities of Israel. Translated from the German by H. S. Solly. Lon- don : Longmans, Green & Co. 1876. fKEir., C. F. Handbuch der Biblischen Archdologie. 2te. Aufl. . Frankfurt-a-M. : Heyder & Zimmer. 1875. Van Lennep, H. J. Bible Lands : their modern customs and manners illustrative of Scripture. New York : Harper & Brothers. 1875. Saalschutz, J. \j. Archdologie der Hebrder, fur Freunde des Alterthums und zum Gebrauche bei akademischen Vorle- sungen. 2 Theile. Konigsberg : Gebriider Borntriiger. 1855-6. Madden, F. W. Coins of the Jews. 2d edition. London : B. Quaritch. Boston : J. R. Osgood & Co. 1881. UeVVette, W. M. L. Lehrbuch der hebrdisch-judischen Arch- dologie nebst einem Grundrisse der hebraisch-jiidisch-Ge- schichte. 4 Auf. bearbeitet von F. J. Raebiger. Leipzig : F. C W. Vogel. 1864. Waehner, a. G. Antiquitates Ebraeorum de Israeliticae Gen- tis. 2 volL Gottingae : A. Vandenhoeck. 1 742-3. (b) The History of the Jews. *Smith, William. The Old Testament History. London : J.Murray. 1865. New York : Harper & Brothers. 1871. *Milman, H. H. The History of the Jews-, from the earliest Period down to Modern Times. 3 vols. London : Ward, Lock & Co. New York : A. C. Armstrong & Son. 1882. ♦Stanley, A. P. Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church. 3 Parts. 7th edition. London : J. Murray. New York : Scribner, Annstrong & Co. 1877. 4Y2 BIBLICAL STUDY. tEwALD, Heinrich. Geschichte des Volkes Israel ; ^ Bande, 3 Aiisg. ; Gottingen : Dieterich, 1864-68. The History of Israel, translated from the German ; edited by R. Mar- tineau and J. E. Carpenter. London : Longman, Green & Co. 1871. tJosEPHUS, Flavius. Opera omnia Graecae et latinae, curavit F. Oberthiir, 3 tom., Lipsiae, 1782-85 ; Opera recog., G. Dindorf, 2 voll., Paris, 1845-49 ; £diiio Stereotypa, 6 voll., Lips., Tauchnitz, 1850; trans, W. Whiston, 4 vols., London, 1737 (many editions). Hengstenberg, E. \N. Geschichte d. Reiches Gottes unter d. alien Bufide ; 3 Theile; Berlin: G. Schlawitz, 1869-71. History of the Kingdom of God under the Old Testament, translated from the German ; 2 vols. ; Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 1871-3. JosT, J. M. Geschichte des Judenthums tind seiner Secten. 3 Bde. Leipzig: Dorffling & Franke. 1857-9. Graetz, H. Geschichte der Juden von den dltesten Zeiten bis auf die Gegenwart. 1 1 Bde. 2 Aufl. Leipzig : Oskar Leiner. 1864-1870. (c) Cotemporary History of the Old Testament. ♦Rawlinson, G. The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World. 4 vols. London : J. Murray. 1862-67. ♦Brugsch Bey, Henry. Geschichte Aegyptens unter den Pha- raonen. Leipzig, J. C. Heinrichs. A History of Egypt under the Pharaohs, derived entirely from the monuments. Trans- lated and edited from the German by Philip Smith. 2d edition. 2 vols. London : J. Murray. 1881. tLENORMANT, Francois. les Origines de fhistoire ; 2 Tom.; Paris: Maisoneuve & Cie, 1880-83. The Beginnings of History according to the Bible and tne traditions of Oriental peoples, from the creation of man to the deluge; trans, from the 2d French edition, with an introduction by Francis Brown ; New York : Charles Scribner's Sons, 1882 (2d volume in press). fEBERS, G. Aegypten und die Pitcher Moses. Sachl. Com- mentar zu den Aegypt. Stellen in Genesis u. Exodus. Leip- zig: Engelmann. 1868. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 473 tScHRADER, E. Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament., init einem Beitrage von Paul. Haupt. 2 Aufl. Giessen : J. Ricker. 1883. ViGOUROUX, Y. La Bible et les d^couvertes modernes en Pales- tine, en Egypte et en Assyrie. 3 edition. 4 Tom. Paris : Berche et Tralin. 1882. Hengstenberg, E. W. Die Bucher Moses und Aegypten ; Berlin: L. Oehmigke, 184T. Egypt and the Books of Moses, translated by R. D. C. Robbins ; New York : Robert Carter & Brothers, 1850. SCHRADER, E. Die Keilischriften und Geschichtsforschimg. Ein Beitrag zur monumentalen Geographic, Geschichte und Chronologic der Assyrer. Giessen: J. Ricker. 1878. DuNKER, Max. Geschichte des Alterthum. 3 Aufl. 5 Bandc. Berlin. 1 880-81. History of Antiquity. From the Ger- man. By E. Abbott. 6 vols. London : Richard Bentley & Son. 1877-82. Rawlinson, Geo. History of Ancient Egypt. 2 vols. Lon- don : Longman, Green & Co. 1881. Smith, George. The Chaldean Account of Genesis. New edition. London : Sampson Low, Marston & Co. 1880. New York : Scribner, Armstrong & Co. 1876. Smith, George. Assyrian Discoveries ; an Account of Ex- plorations and Discoveries on the site of Nineveh during 1873 ^"d 1874, with illustrations. New edition, edited by A. H. Sayce, t88o. London : Sampson I^ow & Co. New York : Scribner, Armstrong & Co. 1875. Budge, Earnest A. The History of Esarhaddon, translated from the Cuneiform inscriptions upon Cylinders and Tablets in the British Museum. Boston : J. R. Osgood & Co. 1881. Wilkinson, J. G. Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. New edition, revised and corrected by Samuel Birch. 3 vols. London : J. Murray. 1878. Smith, Geo. History of Assurbanipal. Translated from the Cuneiform Inscriptions. London : Williams & Norgate. 1871. 474 BIBLICAL STUDY. Smith, Geo. The Assyrian Eponym Canon-, containing trans- lations of the documents, and an account of the evidence, on the comparative chronology of the Assyrian and Jewish Kingdoms, from the death of Solomon to Nebuchadnezzar. London : Samuel Bagster & Sons. 1875. LoTZ, W. Die Inschriften Tiglathpilesers in transkribierten Assyrischen Grundtext mit Uebersetzung und Kommentar. Leipzig: J. C. Heinrichs. 1880. Lenormant, Y. Histoire ancienne de F Orient jusqu' aux giierres mediques. Neuvieme Edition. 3 Tom. Paris : A. Levy. 1881-83. Sharpe, Samuel. The History of Egypt, from the earliest times till the conquest of the Arabs. 2 vols. London : George Bell & Son. 1876. ZiNCKE, F. B. Egypt of the Pharaohs and the Khedive. 2d edition, London : Smith, Elder & Co. 1873. Kenrick, J. Phoenicia. London: B. Fellows. 1855. Wii.KiNS, A. Phoenicia and Israel. A Historical Essay. London : Hodder & Stoughton. 1871. NuTT, J. VV. A Sketch of Samaritan History, Dogma and Literature. London : Triibner & Co. 1874. Records of the Past, being English translations of the Assyr- ian and Egyptian nionuments, published under the sanction of the Society of Biblical Archaeology. 11 vols. London: S. Bagster & Sons. 1873-78. Cooper, VV. R. An Archaic Dictionary ; Biographical, His- torical, and Mythological, from the Egyptian, Assyrian, and Etruscan monuments and papyri. London : Samuel Bagster & Sons. 1876. (3). The History of the Jews and their Sur- roundings during the Greek and Roman Periods. (a) The Apocryphal Books of the Old Testament. *The Apocrypha, Greek and English in parallel columns. London : S. Bagster & Co. 187 1. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 475 tBissELL, E. C. The Apocrypha of the Old Testament, with historical introductions, a revised translation, and notes, critical and explanatory. New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. 1880. Kurtzgefasstes Handbuch z. d. Apokryphen des Alten Testa- mentes, erklart von O. F. Fritzsche u. C. L. W. Grimnu 6 Bde. Leipzig: S. Hirzel. 1851-60. Deane, W. J. The Book of Wisdom. The Greek text, the Latin Vulgate, and the authorized English version, with an introduction, critical apparatus, and a Commentary. Ox- ford : Clarendon Press. 188 r. Neljbauer, a. The Book of Tobit. A Chaldee text, from a unique MS. in the Bodleian Library, with other Rabbinical texts, English translation and the Itala. Oxford : Clarendon Press. 1878. Keil, C. F. Commentar uber die Bucher der Makkabder. Leipzig: Dorffling & Franke. 1875. Kneucker, J. J. Das Buck Baruck. Geschichte und Kritik, Uebersetzung und Erkliirung, mit einem Anhang fiber den pseudepigraphischen Baruch. Leipzig : F. A. Brockhaus. 1879. Volkmar, G. Handbuch der Einleitung in die Apokryphen. 3 Bde. Leipzig: J. Fues. 1860-67. (b) Pseudepigraphs. ♦ScHODDE, G. H. The Book of Enoch, translated from the Ethiopic, with introduction and notes. Andover : W. F. Draper. 1882. fFABRlCius, J. A. Codex Pseudepigraphi Veteris Testamenti. Editio altera. 2 voll. Hamburg : apud Viduam Felginer- iam et Bohmium. 1722-23. tDiLLMANN, A. Das Buck Henoch; iibersetzt und erklart. Leipzig : F. C. W. Vogel. 1853. fHiLGENFEi.D, A. Mcssias Judaeorum ; libris eorum paulo ante et paulo post Christum natum conscriptis illustratus. Lipsiae : R. Reisland. 1869. fFRiEDLiEB, J. H. Oracula Sibyllina, ad fidem codd. MSS. quotquot extant recensuit, praetextis jirolegominis illustravit, versione Germanica instruxit, annotaiiones criticas et rerum indicem adjecit. Lipsae : T. O. Weigel. 1852. 470 BIBLICAL STUDY. fLANGEN, J. De Apocalysi Baruchy commentatio anno sii- pericis prumium edita. Freiburg: Herder. 1867. Dii.i.MANN, A. Liber Henoch Aclhiopicae, ad quinque codi- cnm fidein editus cum variis lectionibus. Lipsiae : F. C. W. Vogel. 18 SI. DiLLMANN, A. Ascensio Isaiae Aethiopiae et. Latine. iJpsiae : F. A. Brockhaus. 1877. RoENSCH, H. Das Buck der Jubilaen oder die kleine Genesis. Unter beifugung des revirdirten Textes der in der Ambro- siana aufgefundenen lat. Fr.agmente, sovie einer von A. Dillmann aus 2 athiop. Handschrift. gefertigten lat. Ueber- tragung erlaiitert und untersucht. Leipzig : J. Fues. 1874. (c) History. *Prideaux, Humphrey. The Old and New Testaments con- nected in the history of the Jews and neighboring nations, from the declension of the kingdom of Israel and Judah to the time of Christ. New edition, revised, with notes, anal- yses, and introductory reviews, by J. Talboys Wheeler. 3d edition. 2 vols. London : Thomas Tegg. 1876. *CuRTius, Ernst. Griechische Geschichte. 3 Aufl. 3 Bde. Berlin : VVeidmann. 1868. The History of Greece. 5 vols. Translated by A. W. Ward. New York : Scribner, Armstrong & Co. 1874. *MoMMSEN, Theo. Romische Geschichte., 5 Aufl. 3 Bde. Berlin : Weidmann. 1868. The History of Rome. Trans- lated by W. P. Dickson. 2d edition. 4 vols. London : Rich- ard Bentley. New York : Charles Scribner. 1864-6. tMoNTET, Edouard. Essai sur les origines des partis Sadu- cien et Pharisien et leiir Hi stair e fusqu a la naissance de Jdsus Christ. Paris : Fischbach, 1883. Lucius, P. E. Der Essenismus in seinem Verhdltniss zum Judenthum. Strassburg : C. F. Schmidt. 1881, AVellhausen, J. Die Pharisder und die Sadducder. Greifs- wald : Bamberg. 1874. (4). New Testament History. (a) Cotemporary History. *JosEPHUS, Flavius. The Jewish War., with his autobiography. A new translation, by R. Traill, edited, with notes, by Isaac Taylor. London : Houlston & Wright. 1868. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 477 tScHUERER, Emil. Lchrbuch der Neittestamentliche Zeitge- schichte. Leipzig : J. C. Heinrichs. 1874. Hausrath, a. Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte. 2 Aufl. 4 The. Heidelberg: F. Bassermann, 1874-77. History of the Netv Tesfament Times. Translated by C. T. Foynting and P. Queuzer. Williams & Norgate. 1878-83. (Two vols, only have appeared.) DoLLiNGER, J. J. I. Heidenthum und Judenthum. Vorhalle zur Geschichte des Christenthums. Regensburg : C, J. Manz. 1857. Friedlander, L. Darstellung aus der Sittengeschichte Roms. in der Zeit von August bis zum Ausgang der Antonine, 5 Aufl, 3 Theile. Leipzig : S. Hirzel. 1881. (b) Apocryphal and Pseudepigraphical books relat- ing to the origin of Christianity. tTiscHENDORF, C. Evatigelia apocrypha. Leipzig : Avenarius & Mendelssohn. 1853. tTiscHENDORF, C. Apocalypses apocryphae. Mosis, Esdrae, Pauli, Johannis, item Mariae dormito. Leipzig : H. Men- delssohn. 1866. tLiPSius, P. A. Die Apokryphen Apostelgeschichten und Apos- telle^enden. Ein Beitrag' zur altchristlichen Literaturgesch- ichte. Braunschweig : C. A. Schwetschke & Sohn. 1883. TisCHENDORF, C. Acta Apostolorum apocrypha. Leipzig : Avenarius & Mendelssohn. 185 1. Baring-Gould, S. The lost and hostile Gospels. An Essay on the Toledeth Jeschu and the Petrine and Pauline Gospels of the first three centuries, of which fragments remain. Lon- don : Williams & Norgate. 1874. Wright, William. Apocryphal Literature of the New Testa- ment London : Williams & Norgate. 1865. Cooper, B. Harris. Apocryphal Gospels and Documents relat- ing to Christ. London : Williams & Norgate. 1867. Bonnet, Max. Acta Thomae. Graece partim cum novis cod- icibus contulit primus edidit Latine recensuit praefaetus est. Lipsiae : H. Mendelsohn. 1883. 478 BIBLICAL STUDY. (c) Life of Jesus Christ. ♦Farrar, F. VV. The Life of Christ. 2 vols. London : Petter, Galpin & Co. New York : E. P. Button & Co. 1874. ♦Geikie, C. The Life and Words of Christ. New edition. London: Strahan & Co. J878, New York : D. Appleton & Co. 1877. +Weiss, Bernhard. Das Leben Jesu. 2 Bde. Berlin : Wil- helm Her^. 1882-3. Translated by J. W. Hope. Edin- burgh : T. & T. Clark. 1883. (The first vol. only has ap- peared.) f Ullmann, C. Die Siindlosigkeit Jesu. 7 Aufl. Gotha : F. A. Perthes. 1863. The Sinless ness of Jesus. Translated from the 6th German edition by R. C. Brown. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. New edition, translated by Sophia Taylor. 1870. tCASPARi, C. E. Chronolog-geograph. Einleitung in d. Leben Jesu Christi. Hamburgh : Agentur des Rauen Hauses. 1869. A Chronological and Geographical Introduction to the Life of Christ. Translated by M. J. Evans. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1876. Keim, Th. Geschichte Jesu von Nazara in ihrer Verkettung mit dem Gesammtleben seines Volkes. 3 Bde. Ziirich : Orell, Fiissle & Co. 1867-72. The History of Jesus of Nazareth. Translated by Ransom & Gilbert. 5 vols. Williams & Norgate. 1873 "8^- Andrews, S. J. The Life of our Lord upQn earth. Consid- ered in its historical, chronological, and geographical rela- tions, 4th eilition. New York : Charles Scribner & Co. 1868. Strauss, David. Das Leben Jesu kritisch bearbeitet. 3 Aufl. 2 Bde. Tubingen: C. F. Osiander. 1838-39. Das leben Jesu fiir das deutsche Volks. 3 Aufl. Leipzig : F. A. Brockhaus. 1874. Life of Jesus. Authorized translation. 2d edition. 2 vols. London: Williams & Norgate. 1879. Neander, a. Das Leben Jesu in seinen geschichtlichen Zusam- menhange and seiner geschichtlichen Entwickelung darge- stellt. 7 Aufl. Gotha : F. A. Perthes. 1873. The Life of Jesus. Translated from the 4th (jerman edition by J. McClintock and C. E. Blumenthal. 3d edition. New York : Harper & Brothers, 1850. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 479 Hase, K. Geschichte Jesu. Leipzig : Breitkopf & Hartel. 1876. Hervey, Arthur. Genealogies of our Saviour, from Matthew and Luke, London : Bell & Daldy. 1853. Trench, R. C. Notes on the Miracles of our Lord. loth edi- tion. London : Macrnillan & Co. 1874. New York : D, Appleton & Co. 1858. Renan, Ernest. Vie de J^sus. 17 ed. Paris: Calmann Levy. 1882. Life of fesus. Translated from the original French, by C. E. Wilbour. New York : G. W. Carleton & Co. 1862. Stroud, William. A Treatise on the physical cause of the death of Christ, and its relation to the principles and prac- tice of Christianity. 2d edition. London : Hamilton, Adams & Co, New York : D, Appleton & Co. 1871. Jameson, Anna, and E. Eastlake. The History of our Lora as exemplified in Works of Art, with that of His types ; St, John the Baptist ; and other Persons of the Old and New Testament. Commenced by the late Mrs. Jameson, con- tinued and completed by Lady Eastlake. 2 vols. London : Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, & Green. 1864. LuDOLPHUS DE Saxonia. Vita Jesu Christ e quat. evang et scriptoribus orthodox, concinnata, Strasburg, 1470, Ed, Bolard et Carnandes. Bruxelles. 1870. (d) The Apostolical Church. *Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church. A new edition, thoroughly revised and enlarged. Vol. L Apostoli- cal Christianity, A-.d. i-ioo. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1882. ♦Conybeare, W. J., and J. S. Howson. The Life and epistles of St. Paul. 2 vols. London : Longmans, Green & Co. 1875. New edition, 1877. 2 vols, in i. New York; Charles Scribner's Sons. ♦McDonald, J. M. Life and writings of St. John. Edited with an introduction by J, S. Howson. New York : Scribner, Armstrong «& Co. 1877. ♦Howson, J. S. Horae Petrinae ; or. Studies in the life of St. Peter. London : Religious Tract Society, 1883, 480 BIBLICAJ. STUDY. *HowsoN, John S. TJie Companions of St Paul London : A. Strahan. 187 1. fLEWiN, Thomas. The life aud epistles of St. Paul 3d edi- tion. 2 vols. London : Geo. Bell & Sons. 1875. +Neander, a. Geschichte der Pflanzung und Leitung der christlichen Kirche dtirch die Apostel. 5 Aufl. Gotha : F. A.Perthes. 1862. History of the Planting and Training of the Christian Church. Translated from the German by J. E. Ryland. Revised and corrected according to the 4th German edition by E. G. Robinson. New York : Sheldon & Co. 1865. Baumgarten, M. Die Apostelgeschichte o^qx der Entwicke- lungsgang der Kirche von Jerusalem bis Rom. 2 Thle. Halle : G. A. Schwetscke & Sohn. 1852. Farrar, F. W. The life and work of St. Paul. 2 vols. London : Cassell. 1879. New York : E. P. Dutton & Co. Smith, James. The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul. 4th edition, revised and corrected by VV. E. Smith. I^ondon : Longmans, Green & Co. 1880. • Renan, Ernest. Histoire des Origines du Christianisme. 7 vol. Paris : Calmann Levy. 1 882-1 883. VIII.— Biblical Theology. (i) Theology of the Bible. (a) The Theology of the whole Bible. f Ewald, Heinrich. Lehre der Bibel von Gott oder Theologic des Alten und Neuen Bundes. 4 Bde. Leipzig : F. C. W. Vogel. 1871-76. (b) Special Topics. •f Delitzsch, Franz. System d. Biblischen Psychologic. 2 Aufl. Leipzig : Dorffling & Franke. 1863. System of Biblical Psychology. Trans, by R. E. Wallis. 2 edit. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1867. fCAVE, Alfred. The Scriptural Doctrine of Sacrifice. Edin- burgh: T. &T. Clark. 1877. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 481 I.AiDLAW, John. The Bible doctrine of man. Edinburgh : T. &T. Clark. 1879. Fairbairn, Patrick. The Revelation of Law in Scripture. Considered with respect both to its own nature and to its relative place in successive dispensations. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1868. Fairbairn, Patrick. The Typology of Scripture. Viewed in connection with the whole series of the divine dispensations. 6th edition. 2 vols. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1876.* New York : N. Tibbals & Sons. 1880. Beck, J. T. Umriss d. bibl. Seclenlehre. 3 Aufl. Stuttgart : J. F. Steinkopf. 1871. Outlines of Biblical Psychology. Translated from the 3d German edition, 1871. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. 1877. (2) Theology of the Old Testament. (a) Theology of the old religions. *Rawlinson, George, The Religioiis of the Ancient World, London : Religious Tract Society. 1882. New York : Charles Scribper's Sons. 1883. fLE NORM ANT, F. Lcs Scienccs occultes en Asie. La Magie chez les Chaldeens et les origineaux Accadiennes. Paris : Maison- neuve et Cie, 1874. Chaldean Magic Its origin and development. Translated from the French, with consider- able additions, by the author, and notes by the editor. London : S. Bagster &: Sons, 1877. ScHRADER, E. Die Hollenfahrtder Lstar. Ein altbabylonisches Epos nebst Proben assyrischer Lyrik. Giessen : J. Ricker. 1874. Krehl, L, Ueber die Religion der vorislamischen Araber. Leipzig: Serig. 1863. *»• 33-37 270 XXII 23 xxiii. 1-7 274 I. Kings. |v. 31 249 >v. 32, 33 248 X; 249 XI. 41 227 xiii. 3 118 xiv. 19, 29 227 xvi. 5 227 xviii 234 II. Kings. i. i8 227 viii. 33 227 xvii 199 xviii. II 60 XX. 30 227 490 BIBLICAL STUDY. I. Chronicles. xii. 8 370 xii. 18 271 xvi 156 xxix. 29 337 II. Chronicles. ix. 39 337 xii. 15 337 xiii. 33 337 xvi. II 227 xxi V. 27 227 xxvi. 33, etc 327 xxxiii. 18,19 237 XXXV. 27 337 NSHEMIAH. viii. 8 62, 308 xi. 33 227 Job. xxviii. 28 29 xxxi. 1-37 390 xxxix. 19-25 373 xlii. 7 196 Psalms. i 189, 381 ii 189 it. 1 336 ij. I seq 187 iii. I 188 iv 280 V:..9 317 vni 277 yiii. a 415 ix 278 X 278 X. 7 317 XII 278 xii. 8 118 xiv 23, 156 xiv. 1-3 317 xvi. 8-11 187 xyiii 23, 156, 256 xix 282 xix. 4 316 xxi. 1-2 260 xxiii 282 XXV 278 XXV. 14 29 xxxii. I 317 xxxii. 1 ieq 187 xxxi V 278 xxxvi. 2 317 xxxvii 378 xlii 275 xliii 27s xiv 277 liii 23, 156 Ixix. 32-23.. '87 Ixix. 35 187, 31S Ixxii. I 188 Ixxx S3< 277 Ixxxii. 6 309 Ixxxviii 188 Ixxxix 188 xc 51,188,284 xcii.-c 385 Psalms. xcv. 7 188 xcv. 8 189 xcviii. 1 66 cix. 8 187, 315 ex. 1 187 cxi . _._. 278 cxviii. 22-23 311 cxix 278 cxjx. 97, 103, 127, 160 426 cxix. 105 411 cxx vi 188 cxxvii 188 cxxxvii 188 "1-3 317 cxlv._. 278 cxiviii. 7-8 a6o Proverbs. i.-ix 286 iij; 34 3'7 vui. 17 seq 29 X. 1 260 X. i-s 265 xiii. 24 266 xvi. 9 266 xxiii. IS, i6 261 xxiii. 29-35 286, 287 xxiv. 30-34 288 XXV. 1 179,217 xxvii. 22-27 386 XXX. 15-16 286 XXX. 24-28 287 xxxi. 10-30 7 386 Song of Solomon. i. 2-ii. 7 i%Zff. Isaiah I: 9 191 u 156 V. 12 249 vi. 9 191 vi. 9 seq 191 ix. \ seq 191 X. 22 seq 191 xi. 10 191 xxiii. 15 seq 249 XXV. 8 318 xxvi. 1-6; 283 xxviii. II-I2 317 xxix. 13 191 xl. 3 191 xl.-fxvi 53 xlii. 1-4 191 xliv. 28 188 xiv. I... 188 Hi. 13-liii 293 liii- I, 4i 7 191 lix. 7 3'7 Ix. 3-5 191 Ixi • 310 Ixi. 1-2 191 Ixv. I seq 191 \x\.iTSeq 318 Jeremiah. xxxi. 15 191, 316 INDEX OF TEXTS OF SCRIPTURE. 491 ./ EZEKIEL. xxxviii.-xxxix. Daniel. VU. I vii. Q stq. xi. 31 ... xii xii. II HosEA. 1. lo. . ii. 23. vi. 6. xi. I. Joel. ii. 28-32. Amos. vi. 5. MlC.\H. Zechariah. IV xi. 7 xi. 12-13. xiv. 6 seq. Malachi. M.MTHEW. ii. 13-18 ii. 17 i"-3 >v. 4 iv. 4-10 iv. 14 v. 18 V. 21 seq viii. 17. .... .. xii. 3 seq xii. 17 xii. 39-41.... xiii. 14 XV. 6 XV. 7 XV. 14 xix. -iseq xix. 7 xix. 8 xxi. 42 xxii. 15-46- ■ • xxii. 23-32. .. xxii. 43-45- • xxiv. 15 318 1S9 318 189 318 189 190 190 309 315 191 319 249 Mark. vii. 6 vii. 10. . .■ xii. 26 xii- 36, 37 ,-;» xvi. 9-20 '""' Luke. 4H 191 193 192 187 220 I. 1-4. 111. 4. IV. 16-22. iv. 17.... ^:J 156 424 1 40 191, 216-7 29s xiu. 14 seq . . . xiv. 25 XV xvi. 29, 31 xvii. 32 XX. 42 XX. 42-44 xxiv. 27 xxiv. 44 xxiv. 44 seq. . 227 . ... 191 310 .... J91 . ... 193 .... 310 .... 131 .... 3'o .... 131 .... 3'i 169, 188 .... 187 131, 192 .... 131 ..•• 313 191 3^5 191 191 12 309 191 13 312 191 309 J91 190 191 4 191 135 3" 193 i8s 3" 62 3" . . . . 187, 309 189 xxvii. 9 Mil 1691 i9i» 2'° Mark. John. i. 1-14 i:'^.-.v..v.v.-.-..:.v.v.v.;v.-.v;;-63,3" : .... iqi »• 23 »:.45-; 111. 16 v. 46, 47 vi. 63 vii. 17 vii. 19 vii. 23 vii. 38 viii. i-ii *■^^■■■ X- 34-30 xii. 34 xii. 38 xii. 39-41 . . . xiii. 7 xiv. 26 XV. 3 XV. 25 xvi. 8 xvi. 13 xvi; IS xvii. 17 xix. 36 Acts. i. 16-20 i.2o ii. j6 ii. 16 seq. . . ii. 25-29 ii. 34 iii. 22 iii. 22-24. . . iii. 24 1. 2 i. 44, etc. 191 193 iv. 24, 25,26. iv. 25 vii. . / vii. 37 viii. 28-30. . . 7t 72 ... 193 ... 410 ... 193 ... 414 298, 427 , . . . 193 . . . . 192 427 . .. 218 . ... 131 . ... 3°9 .... 131 .... 191 .... 191 .... 186 .... 69 414 .... 131 . . . . 72 9 .... 28 .... 414 .... 330 ... 187 ... 315 ... 191 ... 319 ... 187 ... 187 ... 193 ... 193 190, 192 336 187, i88, 192 141 193 »9i 492 BIBLICAL STUDY. Acts. xiii. IS 131 xiii. 33 189 XV 320 xv.ai 192 xvii. 2 131 xvit. n 131 xviii. 24 131 xviii. 28 131 xxvi. 22 ; 131, 193 xxviii. 23 131, 192 XX viii. 23 191 Romans. i. 16 411 iii. I ieq 73 iii. 9-18 317 iii. 21 408 iv 320 iv.'iseq 317 iv. 6 187 ix. as 190 ix. 27, 29 191 X. 5, 19 193 X. 6-10 316 X. 16 191 X. 18 316 X. 20 191 xi. 9 187 xii. 6 337 XV. 12 191 I. Corinthians. ii. 2 408 "• " 337 iii 320 ix. 9 ff<7 316 ix. 14 193 X- 4 317 XI. 23 J^y 193 xiv. 21 131 xiv. 21 seg 317 II. Corinthians. iii. 3 428 iii. 7 316 iii. IS 192 iii. 18 13 Galatians. ii 320 iv. 23 seq '. . . . 73, 140 iv. 22, 23, 24 336 iv. 24 317 Ephesians. v. 25 428 Philippians. iii. 2 7 COLOSSIANS. ".3 413 iL 8 4 ». 17 244.320 I, TfMOTHV. >» ^ 3*0 II. Timothy. iii. 8 316 '"• IS i3»i4" Titus. ii. 1 1 406 ii. 11-14 41^ Hebrews. 1-3 13 IV 317 IV. 7 188, 192 iv. 12 411 .vii 318 vii. 14 193 viii. 5 I93> 244 viii. lo-ii 428 ix. 19 193 X. 1 244 X. I seq 320 X. 28 193 xi ■ 316 xi. 40 244 xii. 21 193 Ja-mes. ii 320 ii- 7-13 3'7 ii. 21 seq 316 v. 11 316 v. 17 316 I. Peter. i. 23 13, 4". 413 ii. 9 seg ; 319 II. Peter. i. 21 27 ii. 4 seg 316 I. John. v. 7 218 JUDE. 9 J'7 316 14 »9a Revelation. ii 320 xii. I seg 318 xii. 6 318 xiii. 5 318 xiij. 18 ■. 318 xvi. 12 318 xvi. i6 318 xvii. 5 318 xviii. 2 318 xxi.-xxii 318 xxii. 18-19 6 I. ESDRAS. IV iv. 33-41. '3? 58 n.—INDEX OF TOPICS. Accents 152,231 in Hebrew verse and prose 263 place of 153-3 System ofPolish and German Jews 258 Accommodation, Principle of 185,312 Acts 73, 230 Akkadian language 47 Hymns 262 Allegorical method 317 Jesus' use of 3'° m the Latin Church 324^- Orieen the father of 322 of Philo 306 Truth and failure of 307 Allegory ... ; ■ 305 Allegory not unbecoming to J esus 318 Alliteration 256 Aloesa 93 Alphabet...; 53 Amoraim 177 Anonyraes 222 Anthropology... 7' Anthropomorphism 54 Anlioch, School of 325 Antwerp polyglot i43 Apocalypse 70, 109, iii, 165, 226 Apocalypse of Ezra 127,129 Apocalypses, Jewish apocryphal. 109,224 Apocrypha 6i, 70 Apostles' creed 92 Apostolic church. Elements of 320 Appropriation of the Grace of the Scriptures 4^7 Appropriation of the Word of God — 297 Arabic language 18,19,46,50 Aramaic language ■ .,• • 5° '• character and his- tory 59^- written character 133 Aramaisms 284 Archaisms, Poetic 284 Archaeology, Sacred 17 Arminianism "3 Ascension of Isaiah , ■ 224 Ashtoreth 49 Assonance 'S^ A.ssuraption of Moses 224 Assyria and Babylonia, monuments of 284 Assyrian language 18,19,46,48 Hymns 202 Authenticity 87,93 of the Scriptures. 220^. Questions which arise 220 Authority of the Bible no, 219/, 243 Baal. 49 Babylonia 47 Babylonian hymns 262 language 46, 48 vowel system 152 Bagdad 304 Baptism 243 Basle, University of 144 Bassora 304 Bfraitha 174,177 Bethhoron 271 Bible... ... 75,99,245,248,363,417 and criticism 75 Forms and meaning 6 German, of Luther 50 Literary study of 214 material for all ages 37 Text of 139^- Traditional views of 95 Use of 4 Version of King James .so Biblical Books, View of Du Pin 201 Study, attractive 3 " extensive 1 " important x " profound 2 " Renewed attention to 212 Book of Jubilees 13S Book of the wars of Jahveh 248 Cook of Yashar 248 Cabalistic Syste.m 303 Cairo 304 Calixtus, School of 373 Calvinistic orthodoxy 113 Cambridge men 134 Platonists 373 Canon of Scripture 21, 105 Augustinian 106 Hellenistic 106 Hieronymian 106 Italic 132 Jewish 13° Josephus' 180 Puritan 114 of the Reformers 106 Syriac 132 criticism of 125 determination of 21 extent of no of the New Testament 132 " " Old •' 127 — — O. T. not determined by N. T... 131 not determined' by consensus.. .. 2t Principles for determination of 107, 136 Results of criticism of 132 (493) 494 BIBLICAL STUDY. Canonics, Biblical 21, 78 Sacred .■•••: *7 Canonicicy not a purely historical ques- tion 125 Carthage, Council of 105 Chaldee, Biblical 18, 46, 60 Chemosh 49 Christ the centre of Scripture 364 Person of •.. .. 7'i 4'° Chronicles. ..50, 128, 129, 187, 197, 198, 222, 227, 230 Citation .._. 89 Errors in 85 of O. T., in N. T 131 Compilations 226 Conception, Differences of. .... .. 88, 94 Constraint of symbol and Scripture. . . 98 Construct relation 53 Council of Trent 331 Coven an ts _ 402 Apostles' use and view of 3T9 Theology of 343 Credibility 87 of the Scriptures. 240 — — distinguished from infallibility. .. 241 Creed, Docirine of the 243 Critical conflicts 102 Evangelical, test no theories, Recent 102 Criticism, in general 77.^. Bible and liff- Biblical _ 78,82,94,139 - " Historic right of loi " necessity of. . . . ._ 76 has been largely destructive 81 Distinction bery»een Higher and Lower 78 1 )ivisions of 82 Evangelical 104, 172 Higher. .21, 24, 78, 86, 164 ffy 204, 420 " attractive _. .. 246 " and the authority of Script- ure 243 " and the credibility of Scripture _. . . . 244 " Illustrations of its princi- ples 92 y. " Importance of 92 " in America. 210/". " in Great Britain... . 206,209/^ " in the XVI.-XVII. Cent. 1657: " " XIX. Cent :•. 207/: . '■ notdeterminedby tradition 196 " Prejudice against 212,246 " Principles of 170 " Questions to be determined by 87,212 " Rise of... 196 " Three stadia of 207-8 " Unfolding in Germany, etc 212 Historical 82^., 198 Literary 82,85 Lower, vid. — — Tejttual. a t>riori objections.. 99 Objections to application to the Bible 95 Principles and methods 82 Textual or Lower, .ai, 22, 78, 246, 420 - " and Inspiration is6^. ■ " of O. T. behind that of N. T 150 Criticism, Textual, of XVI., XVII., XVIII., XIX. Cent.. 140-8 Textual, icope of 23 The true 163 Daniel.. so, 60, 128, 129, 187, 197, 218, 224 Decalogue 243 Deism 206, 222 Deuteronomic code 386 Deuteronomy 51, 167, 194, 224, 234 Dialogues of the ancient worthies 233 Dirge. The 285 Distich 264 Distinction between poetry and prose slight 251 Documentary theory 200, 202^., 207 Documents, Genesis of the 208 Dogmatics, Biblical 392 Dogmatic method 194 Ebionites 320 Ecclesiasles..26, 50, 109, in. 128, 129, it>5, 167, 187, 224, 286 Ecclesiasticus 131 Edessa, School of 304, 326 Syrian school at 152 Editing and interpolating of Scripture 219 Editorship. . . . _ 178 Efficacy of Scripture 4'6 Egypt • 48 Eloquence, Biblical models of. 234 Epistles of the apostles as models 237 Epistles as prose literature 236 Errors in the original autographs 242 Errors in the present text 240 Essenes 129, 300, 302, 307 Esther. .109, in, 128, 129, 187, 197, 218, 222, 238 Ethics 395i403 Ethiopic language 18, 19, 46 Evangelical spirit 37^ Evidence, External 9° Internal 88y. Exegesis, Biblical ;••.■•• ^/i 421 ** general principles. .. 27 Comparative 3^ 1- Doctrinal 33 Four kinds of Augustine 324 Grammatical 29 Historical 30 History of aS Literary 32 Logical and rhetorical 30 The proper method of 194 Synthetic method 14 of the middle age 328 in the Oriental church 328 Practical 34 Process of I '» Proper spirit of 16 Exegete, The work of 28, 35 How far influenced by history. . . 360 Exodus 48 Ezekiel 128,129,190 Ezra 60, 129, 187, IQ7, 222, 230, 2^ tzra. Restoration of O. T. by liiff. Faith, Appropriating — 423 Practicing 42* Fiction in the Bible 938 /• Fidetdivina xo8, 123,906 INDEX OF TOPICS. 495 Fides divina and humana ii6 Figures of speech 253 Forgeiy, Theory of aaa Foi ms, Poetic 283 Fragmentary Hypothesis, The 207 Gemara 174, 180 Genesis. R. C. support of documentary theory 202 Geneva, Univeisity of 144 German theology 135 Germany 346 God, Hebrew conception of 53 Gospel in the Scriptures 407 Gospels, The _ 230 Grace of God in the Scriptures 410 Greek language 60, 63 ff. '' beautiful and finished. 66 " characteristics of. 64 - " complex and artistic. 64 " form and style of speech 6s " strength and vigor. . 66_/". Biblical 69 Hellenistic 18 of the New Testament 353 N. T. writers used 69 Haggada... 62, 73, 238, 300, 304, 310, 315 Hagiocrapha ^^1 .ff- Halacha 62, 73, 174, 3cx>, 304, 316 method of Jesus 309 Halacha and Haggada, Principles of. . 301 Hebrew Grammar 29 " Thefirst 107 History 56 Language 18, 46, 48, 49, 60, 71, 107 religious 50 " correspondence to thought 52 " life and fervor 56 " majesty and sublimity.. 53 " simple and natural 51 " characteristics 51 " and the cognates \i/. " culture, BaDylontan ori- gin 48 Letters, forms used 153 Literature different from Indo- Germanic 215 Poetic art, Climax of 294 P°«"T 52155.56,150,248^. Text 151 " Thepresent 153 Hebrews, The 250 a literary and poetic people 248 Epistle to. . . .26, 70, 165, 166, 167, 222, 237, 316, 317 Hellenistic and Christian theories. I'ioff. Hermeneutics, Biblical ; . . . 27 Hermeneutical principles, Lutheran. . 333 Herodians 60 Hexastich 271 Himjaric language 46 History, Hebrew 56 Two kinds, priestly, prophetic. .. 230 Sources of 84 Holy Spirit, the interpreter of Script- ure 365 Hosea 190,23s Huguenots, French 371 Humanists 331 Hymn, The 284 Inconsistencies, The supposed, of the Bible 244 Independents 134 Inductive method in Biblical Study. .. 76 Inerrancy of Scripture 240^". Inflection, Method of Hebrew 52, 57 Inspiration 220, 41 1 Church doctrine 99,243 Dogmatic 97 not confined to particular words. 158 Plenary 241 Scriptural doctrine 96 Symbolical '" 96,242 Textual Criticism and 156.^. Traditional doctrine ico Various theories <^ ff- Verbal 76,113,144,156 241 Integrity 87, 92 of the Scriptures 216 Interpolations in the Pentateuch 218 in the New Testament 218 in the Septuagint 218 Interpretation of Scripture 296^. IVIethod of 351 History of Biblical 299 Literature of . 300 Requisites to proper 2i4y. True Christian method 320 Jesns gave oo rules of 315 Comparative 358 Doctrinal 36 1 of the Fathers and Schoolmen yioff. General 297 Grammatical 352 Hellenistic 305,321 Historical 357 Logical and Rhetorical ZSiff- Pietistic 344 Practical 308, 362 Puritan 340 Puritan and Arminian 335 Rabbinical 299 of the Reformers yi^ ff- Roman Catholic 331, 360 in the New Testament JPl ff- of the middle age 330 of modem times 346 of XVII. Cent, in England 338 Palestinian methods 320 Principles of Antiochian School. . 326 " " Cabalistic 303 " " Puritan 344 " " Schleiermacher 349 " " Westminster Confes- sion 337 Organic method 350 methods of apostles 315 Rules of Rabbinical 300 Seven Rules of Tychonius 323 Features of our Saviour's 311 Defects of ancient and medizval. 352 " " grammalico-historical. 348 Introduction, Biblical 76 Home's 309 First extant, by Junilius 183 Isaiah 190, 191, 218, ris, 278 Jahveh 54, 71 496 BIBLICAL STUDY. James, Epistle 70, 109, 237 Jam nia, Assembly at 105 130 Jeremiah 190, igi, 217, 218 Jesus Christ, Authority of 186 ews 67 Job, Book of... 26, 128. 129, 168, 198, 222, 249, 253, 257, 258, 288 Joel, " " 190 ohn, Epi.stles 73. 237 Gospel 70, 225 Jonah 190,222,238 Joshua 190, 207, 222 ude 109, 237 Judges 190,222 Judith 62 Justification by faith 406 Kings, Books of 190, 198, 222, 226 Koran 50, 151 Language 42 Connection between thought and 42 ) Poetic 283 /. I of our Saviour 61 Languages of the Bible i3, \i ff. Lamentations 128,222,258,278,286 Laodicea, Council of IC5 Legend 23 1 preferable to term, myth 232 Legends and fables, N. T. use of .... 316 Leyden, University of . . 144 Literal interpretation of Jesus 309 sense excluded. Rules of Philo.. . 305 Literature, Biblical 16 " Field of 20 " History of 76 " Problems of 216 Hebrew 56 " Divisions into poetry and prose 229 Literary features 87 study of the Bible is Higher Crit- icism 215, 246 usage. The common 195 London Polyglot..... 143 Lord's Prayer 243 Supper 243 Luke, Gospel 70 Luther 50 Lutheranism 113 Maccabees, Book of 238 Maccabeus, Judas 130 Malachi 223, 236 Man, Hebrew conception of 54 Mandaic language 46 Jiark, Gospel 70, 227 Massoretic system. 24, 57, 105, 140, 142, 257. 239 te.xt.. 148^., 150, 154 tradition 19 Mas.sorites 141, 145, 178 Matthew, Gospel 70,227 Measures of time, etc 49 Mesopotamia 47 Messana 93 Methodi.sm 372 Metres 256 Micah 33s Midrash 158 method 308 Minor Prophets 216 Mishna 130, 142, 174, 300 Modern training and oriental thought. 230 Moloch 49 Moravians 373 Mosaic code igg Moses, represented as lawgiver, not as author 19J Mystic 119, 173 spirit 368 Mysticism ivijf. Myth, term associated with polytheism 233 Myths of Assyria and Bab> Ionia 232 Nature, Hebrew conception of. . S4i ^54 Nehemiah. 128, 187, 197, 222, 230, 236, 237 I Nezikin 173 Nisibis, School of 304, 326 Intluence of 327 Opinion and conception. Differences of 88, 94 Oration in the Bible 234 Palestinian vowel system 152 Parallelism 49, 52, 203, 259, 261, 264 Introverted 261 ordinarily progressive 266 not prediction 315 Paris polyglot 143 Patmos 230 Paul, Epistles 70,73,237 Pauline Epistles, Authenticity 226 Pentastich 270 Pentateuch. 24, 25, 49, 50, 129, 165, 181, 192, 197, 199, 200, 207, 210, 222, 227, 230, 232, 3S6 Investigation byEichhorn C04 Theory of R. Simeon 198 Three codes 387 Pentecost 73 Person of Jesus Christ 71, 410 Peshat, or literal interpretation.. 300, „ . . 3031 304 Peshitto 23 Peter, Epistles 7°! 73i 109. 1661 237 Phalaris, Epistles of 93 Pharisees 61, 129, 130, 299, 310 Philo. Logos of 71 Philolo^, Sacred 17 Phoenician language. ... 18, 19, 46, 48, 60 Pietism, German 372 Pietists, German 344 Plato, Nous of 7t Platonic Philosophy 305 Play of Words 256 Plural of intensity 52 Poetic forms 283 Poetry, Arabic 255 y^, 262 of Assyria and Egypt 248 of the Bible 229 Composite 288 Gnomic 285 Hebrew 52, 55, s6, 15°. 248^. " Apprehension of 253 " Breadth of 249 " Characteristics 250, 255 " Composed of verses 219 INDEX OF TOPICS. 497 28s "7 134 134 86 124 s 234 Poetry, Hebrew, External form subor- '' dinated to internal emotion 'S") " Forms of aJS " " Lyric, Gnomic, Composite 284 . " Measurement ^ ^ — words or accent 279^. " Parallelism of mem- bers, 49, 52, 203, 259. , 261, 264 " Realistic 253 " Religious 250 " Sententious 253 " Subjective 253 Lyric 284 Prophetic... • ^ Syriac 258,262 Polyglots ••■ 1*1 Prayer 4", 4^2 Prayers of the Bible Prelatists Presbyterians Scotch .■••■••," J Principles for detemjination of read- ings ■ Private judgment. Right of Proof texts. Indiscriminate use of. Prophetical books - Prophets '9°-/- Prose of the Bible 230 Characteristics of Scripture 239 Historical 230 Protestant critical principle 142^- - — position. The true m Protestantism, Formal principle of. 13, 108, 407 Proverbs. 26, 128, 129, 169, 187, 197, 217, 252, 258, 205/., 28J Psalms, or Psalter. 24, 25, 5^, '66, 168, its7, 197, 217. 222, 252, 256, 257, 258 Psalter. Davidic authorship 187 of Solomon 224 Pseudonyme, Use of 223 Pseudonymes 223 among the Jews 224 in Puritan literature 224 Ptolemaeus Philadelphus 126 Puritanism loi, 335 Puritans Ii7i "8, 134, 371 Puritan Theology '47 Qarites 3°3 R\BBiNic\i.ideas of Scripture, Errors of 302 Theories i73 Rationalism 222 Realism in the Hebrew language. ... 54 Redactio'i of the O. T. Scriptures 179 Redemption by grace alone 406 Reformation, The i7'i 33i Formal principle of the Protest- ant 13,108,407 Merit of the British 409 " " Calvinistic 408 " " Lutheran 408 Protestant, a critical revival 106 Preparation for. . . 330 Reformers.Principles for determination of Canon used by 107 Refrain, The • , 53' »7S Religion, Biblical, Development of the ao8 Revision, Demand for »°3 Ste.-.;;v.v-;:::::;:::::::::::| Rome, Church of^. .■....■■■■■■■■■■ ■ '"^ Rule of Faith. Defined by John Ball.. 3^0 " " of the Puritans 3JS >i " " Reformers 333 Ruth .28,187,222 Sabb.\th r- ^ Sadducees „^ '»9 Samaritan language. 18, 19^ 4° Samaritans '^^ Samuel 19°. I94. 222, 230 Scenery of the text jl Scholastic spirit 3"9 Scholasticism 99 Science. Opposition to 7 Scripture, Authority of 25 Fourfold sense 322 Literary forms of 228 Text of "'"' Scriptures, The i6a fundamental position of ^3 as literary productions 214 as means of grace V*> as sources ■ *' Human elements in the ^33 Sedan, University of ^44 Selah in the Psalter Septuagint. . .68, 70, 105, 125, 140. i53. 278 155. 305, 321 . . .. 120 A Greek Targum Shemitic lar^uages Shulamite, The Sibyline oracles. • ■ Silence. Argument from 9°yt Sirach, Wisdom of Sodh method 300.302, Sohar, Book of 302 Solomon, Wisdom of 7^ Song, The „ Song of Songs.... 26, 109, m, "8, 129^, 46 239 109 94 71 305 285 187, 239, 238, 278, 286 Sources of Biblical bistory 231 Speculative spirit Spiritual sense Strophe. The.. ■•■••••;;•■. marked by the alphabet Style. Differences of <»• Poetic ; ■ •, Subscription of Protestant symboU. . . SuflSxes, Hebrew Symbol Synonyms, Hebrew a",,S Syriac language »», i9» vowel system Talmud 105, 107, i3°. M '^-^ 4^ ^^ Talmuds, Babylonian and Jerusalem.. 173 Tanaites I' Targums ^ Taurominium • • V "" Testament, New • '36,243 " Canon of ^°° " Citations of the iSS Literary development of 73 - 369 • 34 - 272 273 93 283 10 1 53 99 55 46 152 498 BIBLICAL STUDY. Testament, New, Use of the Old 308 *' Variety in writings. 70 " Writers 68 Old 243 " Canon of 105 " Citation in 308 " New Testament view of.. 184,^. Relation of Old and New .... 39, 350 Testaments of the Twelv-e Patriarchs. 324 Testimony, Positive 90 Tetrastich 269 Text, Differences of 155 of the Bible ^Viff- of the Old Testament xc,\ ff. of Scripture 112 So urces of error In 85 Transmission of 22 Theology' 420 American 135 British 135 Biblical 17, 367 " Belongs to Exegetical Theology 379 " Culmination of Exegeti- cal Theology 397 " Development of 377 " Historical principle of. .. 375 " Idea of 390 " Method of 399 " Methods and aims 37 " Place of 397 " Position and importance of- 390 " Presents the Biblical sys- tem of doctrine 39 " Problem of 400 " Rise of '74 " System and divisions of. 401 " Term is broad 392 " Traces historical forma- tion 396 Exegetical, a science 15 " Divisions and subdi- visions 16 " Methods izff. - " " analytic 15 " " historical.... 14 " " synthetic... 14 " Neglect of 12 " The primary disci- pline 10 " Work of II ■ Federal 343 Four types of 367 Historical 10 Theology, Practical 10 Systematic 10, 394 Theophanies 296 Thirty-nine articles ^^Ij- Tihenan vowel system 152 Titles of Biblical Books 221 Titus 130 Tobit 62, 238 Toseptkn 174, 177 Tradition 99, 220, 222 Traditional theories. Criticism of 170 " Scholastic de- fence of 200 Traditionalism 99 Translation 43 Process of 157 Sources of error in 85 Trent, Council of 109 y. Trinity 71 Tristich 267 Tubingen school 208 Union Theological Seminary 20 Unity in the Scriptures 359 of statement of the Scriptures.... 244 Ur of the Chaldees. ., 47 Verse 255 Hebrew, its essential principle... 260 " Measurement by the ac- cent 262 " Synonymous, antitheti- cal, synthetic 260 Versions 23, 153 Vowel points and accents. 24, 139, 144, 151- 156 Vulgate 23, 105, 112, 166 Westtminster Assembly 409 Divines 117, 134 Standards 25 Wisdom, Book of 62 of Sirach 131 of Solomon 71 Writings, Historic position of 88 Individual 21 Order of 177 Zaudb 93 Zechariah _ 216 Integrity disputed 217 Zelots 129, 300, 302, 307 Zohar, Book 142 Zurich Consensus 135, 144 University of 144 III.— INDEX OF BOOKS AND AUTHORS. Abbot, Ezra 225,447 Aboth 127 Acha 127 Achelis, E 463 Adams, Th 467 Wm 66, 445 Adeney, W. F 452 iEneid 294 iEschincs 64 ^schylus 64 Aglen, A. S 233 Aids to Fai:h 211 Ainsworth, Henry 339^ 344. 454 Airay, Henry 465 Akiba, Rabbi m, 130, 154, 174 AlcsEus 256 Alcala, Alphonsode 106 Alcuin 32f) Aldridge, S. R . . 452 Alexander, Addison 210 J. A 435,458,462,463 Wra 452 W. 1 452 Alford, Henry 461 Alexandrinus, Codex 438 Amana.Sixt.. 146 Ambrose 221,323 American Presby. Review 14, 29 Ames, Wm. 343,355.372,373 Amira 142 Ammon, C. F 374 Andrews, S. J 478 Angus, Joseph 460 Antwerp I'olyglot i47 Apocrypha 474 Aquila 154,303 Aquinas, Thomas 329,463 Arias Montanus 143 Aristeas 126 Aristion 321 Arminius, J 373 Arnold, F. A.. 434 Asarias. Rabbi 260 Ascensio Isaiae 476 Ashe, Simeon 342 Assembly's Annotations i6i Astruc, J 169, 202, 204 Athanasius , .. . 220, 356 Aitersol, Wm 344 Atwater, E. E 482 Auberlen, C. A . ._ 431 Augustine, Aurelius.182, 220, 323, 324, 32s. 425. 451 Baba Bathra (Talm. Babli) . . 105, 173 175, 216, 217, 218, 221, 227 Babylonicus Petrop., Codex 439 Bachman, J. 455 Bacon, Francis 221 Baedeker, Karl 468 Baehr, K. C. W. F 449. 483 Baer, S 149, 439 Ball, John 336, 342. 343 Barbier, A. A 223 I'ar Cappara 174 Baring-Gould, S 477 Bar Khokba 130 Barker, P. C 452 Barlow, John 466 Barnabas 322 Baruch Apocalypsis 476 Buch 475 Basil 182 Bassett, F. T 467 Baudissen, W 481 Baumgarten, A. G 374, 481 Banmgarten-Crusius, L. F. 0 376 Baur. F. C. 377, 381, 382, 384, 387, 395, 486, 487 Lorenzo 375, 376 Baxter, Richard 147, 155, 243 Bay ne, Paul 344, 465 Beck, CD 347 J.T.. 481 Beda Vencrabilis 329 Beecher, Willis J 83, 104 Beet, J. A ._ 464 Belgian Confession 108, 167 Bellarmine, R 182 Bengel, J. A 149, 344. 372, 461 Bentley, Richard 93, 148, 169 Berger, Samuel i-7 Bernard. T. D 298, 385, 486 Bertheau, E 57,203,450,453 Beyschlag, W .- 461 Beza, T 33^ Bible, Bomberg's Rabbinical 139 Holy 43S Bible for Learners 2n Biblia Hebraica.... 439 Bibliothcca Rabbinica 62 Sacra 211, 218 Bickell.G 153,258, 432, 445 Bickersteth, E 452 Biddle,! 373 Binnie, W 446, 452 Bissell. E. C 450,475 Blake, Thomas 342 Bleek, Fr. . . 69, 73, 208, 350, 444, 446, 466 Boderianus, Fabricius I43 Boehl, Edw 155.444 Boettcher, Fr. . . 55. 57. 431, 454, 457, 483 (409) 500 BIBLICAL STUDY. Bonnet, Max 477 Boyle, Robt i6q, 412, 419 Braune, K 449, 450, 451 Brentius, J 146 Bretschneider, K. C 348, 485 Briggs, C. A.... 14,29,104,153,1711 208, 209, 228, 387 Brightman, Th 343, 467 Brit, and For. Evang. Rev 25 British Quarterly 25 1 Broughton, Hugh 142,344 Brown , D 460 Francis 187, 189 Browne, E. H 451 Bruce, A. B 236, 246, 389, 462, 486 Briider, A. v. H 442 Brugsch Bey, H 472 Bruston, Charles 446 Budge, E. A 473 BuUinger, Henry 333 Bullock, W. T 451 Bunsen, C. C. J 210 Burroughs, Jer 459 Burton, Ricn. F 470 Bush, G 455 Butler, J. G 460 Biittmann, A 436 Buxtorf, J. 113, 144, 156, 170, 184, 353, 439, 442 Byfield, Nicholas 344, 465 Cairns, John 163 Calamy, Edmund m, 147, 223 Calixtus, George 113, 373 Calmet,A 200 Calvin, John... 107, 112, 133, 140, 146, 16s, 166, 217, 223, 333, ^ „. , „ . 334. 37J.4S4, 455. 4'5i Candlish, Rob 467 Canus, Melchoir 167 Capel, Richard 158 Cappellus, Lud..86, 142, T43, 144, 147, ^ , , , '64, 170, 184, 334, 342 Lud. and Jac 146 Carlov, A. C 113 Carlstadt, And i6g Carpzov, J. G 184,200,297,334 Cartwnght, Thomas. 114, 167, 335, 343, 344 Caryl, Joseph 344 Casaubon. I .... 146,168 Caspari, C. E _ 478 Cassel, Paulus 449 Cassiodorus 327 Castell, Edm X43i 353. 432 Catafalgo, J 434 Cave, Alf 452, 480 Cereani, A.M 440 Chamber?, T. W 387, 450 Chapman, C 452 Charteris, A. H 106,110,132,437 Cheyne, T. K 218, 458 Chiarini, L. A »7S, 301, 303. 485 Chija-Rabbi 174 Chrysostom, J 182, 326, 329, 461 Cicero, M. T 224, 236 Letters of 237 Clark, Samuel 344, 451 Clarkson, W 4^2 Clemance, C 452 Clement of Alexandria 182, 322 of Rome 323 Clementine Pseudograph 321 Clericus, J 184,199,345 Cobb, W. H 218 Cocceius, J.. 143.342, 343. 35°, 372 Colenso, J. W 210, 21X Collins, R • 452 Complutensian Polyglot 106, 147 Conant, J. T 450 Conder, C. R 469 F. R 470 Contemporary Review an Conybeare, W. J 479 Cook, F. C 451 Cooper, B. H 477 r-.W.R. 474 Cosin, John 117,437 Cotterill, H 452 Cotton, John 467 Cowper, B. H 432 Cox, Samuel 456 Credner, C. A 437 Cremer, H 73, 436 Critici sacri 453 Crosby, Howard 449 Cross, J. A ai8, 444 Cruden, Alex 429, 44: Curry, G 451 Curtius, E 64, 6s, 66, 67, 476 G 436 Curtiss, S. I., Jr 18, 130, 216, 217 Cyprian 321 Daehne, a. F 388 Dale, B ^ 452 Davenant, J 344 Davidson, A. B 430, 455, 457 H 442 Samuel. 86, lo^, 150, 2x0, 320, 324, 330, 432, 437, 442, 444, 446, 448 Davies, D 452 Day, G. E 380 Deane, W. J 126,475 De Dieu, L '4^,334 Delitzsch, Franz... 149,217,218,224, 350, 4.'}9, 454, 466, 480 Fried 60,435,469 Demarest, J. T 467 Demosthenes 64,236 DeRossi,J. B 149,443 Descartes, R 7 Deutsch, Emanuel .. 174 De Wette, W. M. L.207. 210, 229, 350, 375, 376, 377, 444, 446, 461. 471 Piestel, Lud. 28, 165, 325, 326, 401, 430, 453 Dillmann, Aug.,152, 153, 155, 156, 230, . . 434, 438, 453, 475, 47^ Dinwiddle, W 452 Diodorus of Tarsus 326 Doddridge, Philip 345 Dods, Marcus 460 Dodwell, Henry .• 134 Doepke, J. C. C 448 Dollinger, J. J. 1 477 Donaldson, J. W 65 Dorner, Isaac A... 22, 70, 108, 114, 137, 203, 3«4, 323, 424 August 32s Doxy, R 434 Drake,W 451 Driver. S. R 431, 458 Droysen, J. G 84 INDEX OF BOOKS AND AUTHORS. 501 Drummond, James • 485 Drusius.J 146,33 + Ducas, Demetrius i°° Dneslerdiek, F 461 Dunker, Max 473 Du Pin, L. E 87, 88, 93, 200, 217 Durham, James 457, 4o8 Dury, John 37^ Dykes.J.O 460 Eadie, John 444, 465 Eastlake, E • • 479 Ebers, G 469,472 Ebrard, J. H. A 447, 467 Eck, J '°7 Edereheim, A 483 Edgar, McCheyne 452 R. M 452 Eichhorn, J. CnS, 129, 132, 1G9, 202, 203, 205, 207, 349. 375, 445, 408 Eichstadt, H. K. A =98 Eliezar, Rabbi •• .•■•••■■ 3°' F.llicott,C. J 462,464,465, 466 Elliott, C. B 467 C.J 45' Enoch, Book of 475, 47° Ephraiin the Syrian 320 Erasmus 33', 345 Greek Testament '47 Erdmann, C. F. D 449 Ernesu, J. A 298,339.346, 353,440 H. F. T. L 489 Erpenius '43, '46 Espin, T. E • 451 Essays and Reviews •• 210,211 Etheridge, J. W 02,439 Eucherius of Lyons •• 323 Eusebius 256, 32' Euthymius. Zigabenus 329- 403 Evans, T. S ■• 452 M. J.. 384 Ewald, Heinr. . . 46, 57, '3°- 2°8- 209, 2J9, 235, 250, 253, 353, 385, 404, 43', 455, 458, 471, 472, 480 Exell, J. S 452 Expositor ^°9 Fabricius, J. A 182,475 Fairbairn, Patrick 459, 466, 481 Farrar, F. W 452, 478, 480 Fay, F. R 449,45° Flacius, Matthew. 333 Flatt,C. C 348 Fleury, Abbe Claude 202 Fox, John 344 Francois, Abb^ Laurent 20a Franke, H •• 344 Franke!, Z "61 443 Eraser, Donald 452 French Confession 4o8 Frensdorf, S 149.443 Frey tag, G. H 434 Friedlander, L 477 Friedlieb,J.H • 475 Fritzsche, O. F 475 FronmUller, P. F. C 45' Fuerst, Juiius '4,77,432,437, 442 Fulkc, Wm 142 Fuller, J. M 45' Gabler, J. G 348,389 Galileo 7 Galilean Confession io3 Gandell, R 45' Gardiner, F 440, 4+9 Gataker, Thomas 344 Gebhardt, Herm 389, 488 Geddes, Alex 207 Gelger, Abr 433 Geike.C 478 Genesis, Textum Massoreticum 439 Gerhard, J 333 Germar, F. H 348 Gerok, Chas ■ ■ 45° Gesenius, W 47,107,152,208, 353, 43°, 432, 453 Gess,W. F 488 Gieseler, J. C. L 83 GifTord, E. H 452 Gillett, E. H 330 Ginsberg, CD.. 107, 141, '42, '5°, '52, 302, 303, 442, 448, 457 Girdlestone, R. B 55, 432 Given, J.J 453 Gladstone, W. E 59 Glasgow, James ... ■ ■ • 467 Gloag,P. J 46°, 463 Glover, R • • • 4" Godet, F 225, 462, 463 Goebel, S •. 463 Goodhart, C. A 452 Goodwin, John 373 Ihomas 372 Gouge, Wm 188, 344, 372, 466 Gouldman, Henry '47 Graetz, H 129, '5°, '54, '74, '75, 218, 456, 472 Graf, K. H 386, 458 Green, R 453 T. S 436 W. H 211,431, 445 dreenhiU, Thomas 344 Wm 459 Gregory the Great 325, 457 Gregory, C. R M9 Gresswell, E. B. D 463 Greve, E.J 257 Griesbach, J. J »49. 375 Grill,J 52, 55 Grimm,C. L. W 436,475 Grosart, A. B ■• 221 Grotius,Hugo 146, 345 Guyot, Arnold 40o Gwynn, J 452 Hacket, H. B.. •• 463 Haevernick,H. A. C... 380, 445, 4'8, 460 Haeenbach, K. C '7,78, 430 Hahn, G. L -. • • • 38', 384 Halkett, Samuel 223 Hall, Thomas 466 Hamilton, James •. •• 457 Wm 82,83,92,297 Hammond, Henry 169,19', 345 J ••• 452 Hardwick,C -. 487 Harmony of the Confessions 333 Harper, VV.R 20, 43' Hase.ll 479 Hastings, F *'' 502 BIBLICAL STUDY. Haupt, Erich 488 Hausrath, A 62, 301, 477 Heidegger, J. H 113, 144, 156, 184, 200 Heidelberi; Catechism 13,408, 410 Heiiirici, C. F._G 461, 464 Heinsius, Daniel. 334 Helvetic Confession (II.) 108, 33a - — -Confessions 13 Henderson, E 458, 459 Hengstenberg, E. W... 184,235,456, 4S9< 472- 473. 484 Henry, Matthew 34Si 449 Herder, J . G 169, 203, 204, 228, 349i 37Si 445 Heringa, J 348 Herle, Chas n8 Herodotus 233 Hertwig, O. R 446 Hervey, A 4Sii 479 A.C 452 Hexapla, English 441 Hilary 323 Hilgenfeld, A 47s Hillel, Rabbi 62, 301 Hirzel, S 453 Hitchcock, R. D 429, 440 Hitzig, F 386, 4^3 Hobbes, Thos i6g, 373 Hodge, A. A 161, 241 — —Chas 464, 465 Hofmann, J. C 209, 350, 351, 461, 482 Hollazitis, M. D 334 Holsten, C 389.487, 488 Home, G 456 T. Hartwell 184,209,430 Hort, F. J. A 86, 150, 440 Howson, J. S 452, 460.479, 480 Hudson, C. F 442 Huet, P. D 200 Hume. D 8r Hupfeld, H 14, 77, 208, 45$ Huss, John 330 Huther, J. E 461 Huxtable, E 451 Hyde, Thomas 143 Iliad 64, 294 Immer, A. .. 27, 70, 73, 298, 330, 388, 447 Irenaeus _ 182,321,325 Irish Articles 167 Irons, W. J 487 Ismael, Rabbi 301 Jabuonsky, p. E 175 Jackion, J . . __ 452 Jacob ben Chajim 139 Jacob, G. A 488 Jacobson, W 452 Jadaim. Tract 130 Jameson, Anna 479 \Vm 167 Jannai, Rabbi 174 Jay, Michael de 143 Jebb, J 261 Jehuda, Rabbi i74, '77 Jelf, W. E 67, 436 Jenkyn,Wm 467 Jerome... 109, 129, 140, 182, a20, 356, 329 Jerome's Vulgate 147 Jerome of Prague 330 Jerusalem, J. F. W aoa Joel, M 154 Johanan, Rabbi 176 Johnson, E 453 G. H. S 451 Jonathan ben Uzziel 439 Jones, Wm 257 W.B 451 Josephus, Flavius 126, 127, 128, 130, 180, 221, 256, 307, 472, 476 Jost, J. M 473 Journal Soc. Bib. Lit. and Exeg.. 91, 187, 211 JubiI3en, Buch der 476 Junilius Africanus 129,183,184, 327 Justin Martyr 322 Kahle, Alb 484 Kaiber. P C 348,375 Kalisch, M. M 454, 460 Kant, Immanuel 7, 348 Kaulen, Fr 443 Kay, W 4SI, 4S3 Keble, J 329 Keil, C. A. G 153, 184,224, 348 K. F 444,471, 476 Keim, Th 478 Kennicott, B 148, 149, 443 Kenrick, J 474 Kidder. R 169, 191 Kihn, Heinr 129,323,326,327,448 King, John 460 Kingsbury, T. L 451 Kitto, John 430 Klausen, H. N..297, 320, 322, 324, 325, 331, 333, 334, 350, 448 Kleinert, Paul 444,450 Khefoth, Th 468 Kling, C. F 450 Knapp, G. C 348 Kneucker, J. J. 473 Knight, Charles 221 KnoDel, A 208, 453 Knox, J 371 Koenig, F. E 482 Koestlin, K. R 3b9 Koppe, J. B 203, 207, 208, 218 Kranichfeld, R 459 Krehl, L 48X Krug,W.T 7 Kuenen, A 211,376,386,391,446, 482 Kueper 482 Kurtz, J. H 483 Laidlaw, T 481 Lane, E.W 434,471 Lang, J 223 Lange, J. P.... 317, 299, 354, 359, 448, 449, 4Sa, 45i Langen, J 476, 485 Lamer, S 229 Lardner, Nath 447 Lautwein 363 Lechler, G 134, 330, 450 Lee, Wm 453 Leigh, Edward 338, 339, 340, 344 Leighton, Robert 467 Lenormant, Fr 232,472,472,481 Levita, Elias... 107, 127, 139, 140, 141, X43. ISO, 353. 44a INDEX OF BOOKS AND AUTHORS. 503 Levy, Jacob 174, 433 M. A 434 Lewin, Thomas 480 Lewis, T. Carlton 344 Tajrler 449i 45°. 484 Ley, Julius 262, 278 Lias, J. J 452 Library of the Fathers of the Holy Roman Catholic Church 456, 461 Liddell, H. G 436 Lightfoot, John 142, 211, 318, 344 J. B 452, 464, 465 Lillie, John 466, 467 Lipsius, P. A 477 Littledale, R. F 456 Livy, T 233 Locke, J 346 Lombard, Peter 329 London Ministers, 1647 120 Lotz, W 474 Lowth, Wm.... 148, 151, 154, i6q, 203, 204, 228, 260, 261, 346, 349, 445, 458 Lucius 128 - — - P. E 476 of Samosata 304, 325 Ludolphus de Saxonia 479 Luecke, F 349 G.C.F 463 Luenemann, G 435, 461 Lumby. J. R 93, 452, 460 Luthardt. C. E 225, 463 Luther, M 22, 71, 81, 107, 140, 141, 146. 165, 330, 331, 333, 365, 371, 408, 464 Lutterbeck, J. A. B 383, 486 Lutz, J. L. S 350, 358 Luzzato. S. D 175, 433 Lyford, Wm 120, 157, 423 Lynch, W. F 469 Lyra, Nicolas de 329 Macdonald, J. A 452 Mackennel, A 452 Madden, F. W 471 Makkabiier, Biicher der. 475 Mansel, H. L 451 Man ton, Th 466 Map of Western Palestine 469 Maresius, S 184 Marsh, Geo. P 233 Marshall, Stephen 223 Martin Marprelate 223 Martinius, M 146 Masius, And 143, 169, 454 Massora Magna 149, 442 McClelland, A 355, 448 McCosh.J 82, 83 McCurdy, J. E 450 McDonald, J. M 479 Mead, C. M 449 Mede, Joseph 146, 169, 191 Meier, Ernst 262, 432 M elancthon, P 333 Menke, Theo 469 Mercer, J ^ 146 Merrill, S 469 Merx, A 126, 433 Messias Judaeorum 475 Messner. H 381, 396 Meyer, H. A. W 350, 461 John 340 Meyer, L 348 Meyrick, F 451, 453 Michaelis, J. D 203,375,483 Middock, Henry.... 340 Mill, John 148 W.H 447 Millijian, Wm , 460 Milman, H. H 471 Mitchell, A. F 101, 167 Mocha, Rabbi 153 Moll, C. B 450, 451 Mombcrt, J. 1 443 Mommsen, Theo 476 Montet, Edouard 476 Montgomery, J. F 452 Moore, Henry 373 More, Henry 460 Morinus, 1 143, 144 Morison, J 452, 462 Morus, S.F.N 298, 347 Moulton, W. F 435, 460 Movers, 'T.C 481 Mozley, Tr 206 MUhlau, F 432 Miiller, Julius 108 Muir, A. F 453 Murphy, James 454 Murray, T. C 218, 222, 445 Musculus, W 1461333 Naegelsbach, C. W. E 236, 450 K. F 484 Neale. J. M 221, 456 Neander, A 209, 350, 378, 380, 381, 382, 383, 384, 388, 389, 396, 478, 480 Nehemiah, Rabbi 177 Nestle^ E 433, 439 Nestorius 326 Neubauer, Ad 458, 475 Newcommen, M 223 Newman, J. H 329 Niemeyer. A. H 13 Noeldeke, Theo... 154, 15s, 224,227, 238, 433. 445 Noldius, C 442 Norrii. E 435 Nutt,J.W 474 Oecolampadius, J 146, 166, 333, 334 Oecumenius 329 Oehler, G. F... 350, 376, 380, 388, 395, 396, 483 Olshausen, J 431, 453 Onkelos, Targum 303, 439 Opitz, Hermann 388, 488 Oppert, J 435 Orelli, C. von 483 Origen 109, 129, 323 Origenis Hexapla 147, 440 Orr,J 4Sa Owen, John. .. 134, 145, n6, 147, 156, 170, 184, 372, 466 Packard, J ' 45° Palmer, E. H 469 Herbert 23X Papias 320 Paris Polyglot i47 Parousia, The 488 Patton, Francis L.. 104, 119, 124, 125, 171, 341 604 BIBLICAL STUDY. Paul of Nisibis 183, 327 Pearson. John 147, 4<;3 r-r.R'ch- 147. 453 Pellican, K 146 Penrice, John 434 Perkins, Wm 373 Perowne, J. J. S 218, 222, 455 Petermann, J. H 433, 435, 439 Peyrenus, 1 184 Pfleiderer, 0 388 Phagius, P 146 Philippi, F. A 464, 488 Phillips, G 433 Philo of Alexandria 126, 127, 128, 130, i8i, 221, 305, 321 Pick, B 450 Pin, L. E. Du 87, 88, 92, 200, 217 Pindar 256 Piscator, J 146 Planck, G.J 186, 352 Plato 64, 224 Plummer, A 452 Pltimptre, E. H 4^, 456, 460 Pococke, Edw 143, 345, 459 Poole, Matthew.. .. 147,148,157, 167, „, X, 345, 453 Pope, Wm. B 460 Potter, J. L 431 Prake, Charles 470 Presbyterian Review. ... 14, 39, 83, 85, 88, 104, 119, 12=. 153, 161, 171, 20 f, 209, 211, 228, 241, 329, 387, 410 Pressel, F 175 Pressens^, E. de 452, 484 Pretorius, Fr 434 Prideaux, H 146, 200, 476 Prout, E. S 452 Pusey, E. B 329, 446, 458, 459 Rainolds, John -44, 459 Rainy, Robert 96 Rambach, J. J 298, 344, 448 Raphelenp, Franz. 143 Rashi, Rabbi 178, 329 Rawlinson, G 451,432,472,473, 481 Records of the Past 474 Redford, R. A 452 Reinke, L 484 Renan, Ernst 226, 457, 479, 480 Reuchlin, J 107, 353 Reuss, Edw. . . i(, 68, 70, 77. 106, 108, 119, 229, 249, 323, 348, 376, 382, 386, 391, 437, 445, 446, 453, 486 Reynolds, John 344 Rhambanus, Maurus 329 Riddle, M. B .. 460 Riehm, Edw. . . 224, 318, 389, 401, 430, 483. 488 Riggenbach, C. J 451 Riggs, Elias 432 Kitter, Karl 470 Rivetus, Andrew 143, 167, 333 Roberts, Francis. .. 298, 340, ^41, 342, 343, 344. 351. 361, 362, 430 W 452 Robinson, Edw. .210, 43T, 435, 441,468, 469 E. G 378 Robjohns, H. T 452 Roediger, Aemil 433 Roensch, H 443, 476 Rose, H. T 4S1 RosenmUlIer, C. F. K 320, 454 Rossi, Azzari.-ih de 141 Row C. A 8 Rowland, A 452, 453 Rowlands, D 452 Rushbrooke. W. G 441 Ryland,J.E 378 Saadia,. Rabbi 304, 329 Saalschtitz, J. L 257,471, 483 Sabatier, A 388, 487 St. Caro. flugo de... 329 St. Petersburg, Codex 149, 152 Salmond, G. D. F 460 Sanday , W log, 447 Sappho 257 Sayce, A. H 45. 48, 59, 435 Scaliger, J. J 146 Scattergood, A 147, 453 Schaff, P 13, 63, 66, 69, 71, 92, 93, 221, 226, 429, 443, 450, 460, 479 Schindler • 146 Schleiermacher, F 297, 349, 350, , . , ^ ^ 352, 373. 448 ^chmld, C. F.. 379, 380, 388, 389, 395, 396, 486 Schmidt, J. H 436 W. G 389, 461, 488 SchmoUer, Otto 450 Schnedermann, G 143 Schodde, G. H ^75 Schoettgen, Ch 260, 462 Scholz, A 458 J. M. A 149 Schrader, Eb 47, 49, 262, 435, 473, 481 Schroeder, F. W. J 449, 450 — -P 434 Schuerer, E 60,175,301,477 Schultens, A 353 Schultz, F. W 449, /r4 Hermann 381,384,395,401, 482 Schutze, L 216 Schwab, M 485 Sch wegler, A 391 Scotch Confession of 1560 114, 117 Scott, H. M 216 Robert 436 Thomas 345, 453 Scrivener, F. H 86, 148, 150, 438, Seller, G. F 348 Selden, J 146 Semler, J. S 136, 199, 347, 357 Shairpe, J. C 253 Shakespieare, W 221 ShammaL Rabbi 6a Sharpe, Samuel 474 Shedd, W. G. T 464 Sibyllina, Oracula 475 Sieflfert, F 461 Siegfried, Karl 198, 303, 305, 306, 307. 323. 329, 448 Simon, Rich. .: 182, 198, 199, 201, 204, 445 Simeon, Rabbi 177 Sinaiticus Petropolitanus, Codex. 149, 438 Sionita, Gabriel 142,143 Smeaton, George 487, 488, 489 Smectymniius 323 Smend, R 453 INDEX OF BOOKS AND AUTHORS. 505 Smith, George 47. 473. 474 James • • • 48° H B 162,241 H.P' 88, 387 R. P 433. 4SI. 452 Wm 429.471 \V. Robertson.. 109, 130, 154, 211, 224, 251, 444. 445 Socrates 64, 72 Sophocles °4 E. A 436 Spanheim, F 20° Spence, D 40o _— H.D.M 452 Spener, P. J 343, 344 Spiess, Edm 402, 4«i Spinoza. B • '97 Spurgeon,C. H 345.300,447. 455 Spurstow, Wm 223 Staudlein, C. F ••• 348 Stanley, A. P 464.468, 47i Stark, C. L.W 348 Statham.W. M 453 Stein, C.W •• 348 Stendel, J. C. F 348. 370 Sterry. Peter 372 Stier,k 433 Storr, G. C 348 Strabo,Walafrid 329 Strack, Hermann L.. 77, 127, 128, 130, 149, 153. 178. 216, 224, 432, 439, 442 Strauss, i^avid 81, 377, 385, 478 Stroud, Wm • 479 Struthers, J • ^07 Stuart, Moses. . 210, 298, 347, 348, 437, 457. 400, 464. 400. 407 Supernatural Religion 211 Surenhusius, G 485 Syro-he.\apl3ris Ambrosianus 44° Tati.\n 437 Taylor, C 127 Francis 168, 169, 339, 344. 457 Isaac 86, 445 John, of Norwich 346,347. 353 Thomas 466 Terry, M.S 449 TertuUian 182,321, 325 Testament, New 44° Testamentum (N). Graece 440, 44' (V) 439 Thayer, J. H 435. 43° Theile, K. G.W 438 Thenius, O 453 Theodore of Mopsuestia 304. 326 Theodoret 182, 326, 3=9 Theophilus of Antioch 437 Theophylact 329 Thirty-nine Articles "4. 409 Tholuck, A.... 112,141,316,317,348, 374. 444, 462, 4=2 Thoma, Alb 389. 488 Thompson, W 45' Thoms, J. A 441 Thomson, J. R 452 Wm. M 460. 468 Thucydides 64, 233 Tiele, C. P 482 Tischendorf, Const 149, 189, 439, 440, 441, 447, 477 Tobit, Book of 47S Tobler, Titus 469, 47° Trans. Soc. Bibl. Archxology 59 Trapp, John 344 Tregelles, S. P '50, 44° Trench, R. C 73, 436, 462, 479 Trip. J • 482 Tristram, H. B 468,470 Tromius, A 442 Tuch, Fried 455 Turner, S. H i86, 210. 35' Turpie. D. M -444 Turretine. J. A i47, 347 Francis I'S, i44. 156 Tychonius 323 Tyler, W. S 484 Tyndale, W 163,332, 335 Ui.LMANN, C 478 Umbreit, F. W. C 458 Urquhart,J 452 Usher, J 146. 167, 337, 343, 37* Usteri, L 388, 487 Van Dale, Anton '99 Van Lennep, H. J 47* Van Oosterzee, J. J 384,395.396, 450, 451, 486 Vater, J.S • 207 Vaticanus, Codex 438 Vatke, W 376, 386 Vigouroux, F 473 Vincent, M. R 344, 455 Vitringa, C 200, 202, 467. 485 Voetius, G i'3. '56 Volck, W 61,334.351. 433 Volkmar, G 475 Von Coeln, Daniel 370,377 Voltaire, F 8i Voragine, Jacobus de 232 Wage, H 452 Waehner. A. G 301, 47' Wahrmund, A ■• 434 Waite, J. •-■ 452 Walch, J.C 163, 332 Wallis, John 159 Walton, Brian.. 143, 144, J45. 164, 184, 438, 443 Warburton, Wm 483 Warfield, B. B 85,161, 241 Warren, Charles 47° Watson , Thomas 338 Weber, F 300,3°'. 485 Webster, Wm 436 Weiffenbach, W 401, 487 Weiss, Bemhard... 195,208,225,226, 227, 230, 384, 389, 395, 396, 401, 447, 461, 478, 486 Weizsaecker, C 62 Wellhausen, J 376,384,386,446, 476 Wendt, H. H 461 Wenrich, J. G 257 Westcott, B. F.. 86, 150, 437, 440, 447. 45' and Hort 86, 150, 440 Westminster, Confession of Faith.. .6, 13, 25, loi, 115, 160, 167, 241, 297, 337. 36s, 409 Larger Catechism 13,25,416 Shorter " 13, 3*'. 4^8 Symbols 343, 372 506 BIBLICAL STUDY. Wetsteln, J. C 149 Wetzstein, J. G 469 Whately, R 36 Whichcote, B in Whitby, Daniel 346, 348 Whitelaw. T 452 Wickes, W 152, 443 Wicklif, 1 330 Wilke,C.G 436 Wilkins, A 474 Wilkinson, J. G 473 WiHiams, George 470 Wilson, John 469 Wilson, Chas. W 470 Winer, G. B 69, 70, 435 Wines, E. C 483 Winterbotham, R 452 . Wisdom, Book of. 475 Withington, L 457 Witsius, Hermann 185, 200 Wogue, L 142, 174, 178, 300, 301, 303. 304, 430 Wood, G 452 Woods, J. H 45» Wordsworth, C 453 Wright, C. H. H 455,457, 459 Wm. .... 178, 217, 224, 25s, 256, ,„ , . , 261. 348, 433, 477 Wuensche, Aug ... . 62, 235, 238, 286, 4S4, 459, 463, 484 Xenophon 64,233 Ximenes, Card 106 Young, D 453 Thomas 223, 441 Zachabia, G. T 347, 374 Zahn, Theo 77, 437 Zamora, Alphonso de 106 Zeitschrift d. D. M. G 52, 258 Zezschwitz, C. A. G. v 66, 72 Ziegler, L 443 Zincke, F. B 474 Zoeckler, Otto. . .77, 216, 217, 429, 449, 450 Zschokke, H 389 Zunz, L 62, 130, 175, 485 Zurich Consensus 156 Zwingli, U 81, 140, 146, 166, 333, 334 The Theory of Preaching, OR LECTURES ON HOMILETICS. By Professor AUSTIN PHELPS, D.D. One volume, 8vo, ^ _ _ _ _ $2. BO This work, now offered to the public, is the growth of more than thirty years' practical experience in teaching. While primarily designed for professional readers, it will be found to contain much that will be of interest to thoughtful laymen. The writings of a master of style of broad and catholic mind are always fascinating; in the present case the wealth of appropriate and pointed illustration renders this doubly the case. CRITICAIi NOTICES. " In the range of Protestant homiletical literature, we vtrnlure to affirm that its equal cannot be found for a conscientious, scholarly, and exhaustive treatment of the theory and ^Jractlce of preachiiiff. * • ♦ To the treatment of his subject Dr. Phelps brings su h qualifications as very few men now living possess. His is one of those delicate and sensitive natures which are instinctively critical, and yet full of what Matthew Arnold happily calls sweet reasonableness. * * • 'I'o this characteristic ^aciousness of nature Dr. Phelps adds a style which is preeminently adapted to his special work. It is nervous, epigrammatic, and racy." — The Examiner and Chronicle. " It is a wise, spirited, practical and devout treatise upon a topic of the utmost con- sequence to pastors and people alike, and to the salvation of mankind. It is elaborate but not redundant, rich in the fruits of experience, yet thoroughly timely and current, and it easily takes the very first rank among volumes of its class. — The Con^rega- tionalist. "The layman will find it delightful reading, and ministers of all denominations and of all degrees of experience will rejoice in it as a veritable mine of wisdom." — New York Christian Advocate, "The volume is to be commended to young men as a superb example of the art in which it aims to instruct them." — The Iiidepetident. "The reading of it is a mental tonic. The preacher cannot but feel often his heart burning within him under its influence. We could wish it might be in the hands of every theological student and of every pastor." — The Watchman. i "Thirty-one years of experience as a professor of homiletics in a leading American Theological Seminary by a man of jrenius, learning and power, arc condensed into this valuable volume." — CArjj//rt» Intelligencer. " Our professional readers wi^l mike a great mistake if they suppose this volume is simply a heavy, monotonous discussion, chiefly adapted to the class-room. It is a delightful volume for general reading.'" — Boston Zion^s Herald. *^* For sale by all booksellers^ or sent, post-paid., upon receipt oj frice, by CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, Publishers, 743 AND 745 Broadway, New York The Religions of the Ancient World Including Egypt, Assyria and Babylonia, Persia, India, Phoenicia, Etruria, Greece, Rome. By GEORGE RAWLINSON, M.A. One Volunief 12nio, - _ _ - $1.00, Uniform with " The Origin of Nations." Canon Rawlinson's great learning and his frequent contribu- tions to the history of ancient nations qualify him to treat the subject of this volume with a breadth of view and accuracy of knowledge that few other writers can lay claim to. The treatise is not intended to give an exhaustive review of ancient religions, but to enable the students of history to form a more accurate apprehension of the inner life of the ancient world, " The historical studies which have elevated this author's works to the highest position have made him familiar with those beliefs which once di- rected the world's thought ; and he has done literature no better service than in this little volume. . . . The book is. then, to be accepted as a sketch, and'as the most trustworthy sketch in our language, of the re- ligions discussed." — N. Y. Christian Advocate. THE ORIGIN OF NATIONS By Professor GEORGE RAWLINSON, M.A. One Volume, 12mo, With maps, - - $1.00, The first part of this book, Early Civilizations, discusses the antiquity of civilization in Egypt and the other early nations of the East. The second part. Ethnic Affinities in the Ancient World, is an examination of the ethnology of Genesis, showing its accordance with the latest results of modern ethnographiczJ science. " An attractive volume, which is well worthy of the careful consideration of every reader." — Observer. " A work of genuine scholarly excellence and a useful offset to a great deal of the superficial current literature on such subjects." — Conffreg-ationalist. " Dr. Rawlmson brings to this discussion long and patient r»'search, a vast knowledge and intimate acquaintance with wnat has been written on both sides of the question." — Brooklyn Union-Argus. *^* For Sale by all booksellers, or sent, post-paid, upon receipt of price, by CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, Publishers, 743 AND 745 Broadway, New York, Old Faiths in New Light BY NEWMAN SMYTH, Author of " The Religious Feeling.'''' One Volume, 12mo, cloth, _ _ - $1.S0. This work aims to meet a growing need by gathering materials of faith which have been quarried by many specialists in their own depart- ments of Biblical study and scientific research, and by endeavoring to put these results of recent scholarship together according to one leading idea in a modern construction of old faith. Mr. Smyth's book is remark- able no less for its learning and wide acquaintance with prevailing modea of thought, than for its fairness and judicial spirit. CRITICAL NOTICES. "The author is logical and tht-refore clear. He also is master of a singularly attractive literary style. Few writers, whose books come under our eye, succeed m tre.-itin.T metaphysical and philosophical themes in a manner at once so forcible and so interesnn'T. We speak strongly about this book, because we think it exceptionally valuable." It is just such a book as ought to be in the hands of all intelligent men and women who have received an education sufficient to enable them to read intelligently about such subjects as are discussed herein, and the number of such persons is very much larger than some people think."— Cou^rr^afio/talist. "■ We have before had occasion to notice the force and elegance of this writer, and hi<; new book shows scholarship even more advanced. * * * When we s.iy, with some knowled'^e of how much is undertaken by the saying, that there is probably no book of moderate compass which combines m greater degree clearness of style with profundity of subiect and of reasoning, we fulfil simple duty to an author whose success is all the more marked and gratifying from the multitude of kindred attempts with which we have been flooded from all sorts of pens."— Fresi_yieria». "The hook impresses us as clear, cogent and helpful, as vigorous in style as it is honest in purpose, and calculated to render valuable service in showing that rehgion and science are not antagonists but allies, and that both lead up toward the one God. We fancy that a good many readers of this volume will entertain toward the author a feeling of sincere personal gratitude." — Boston Journal. "On the whole, we do not know of a book which may better be commended to thoushiful persons whose minds have been unsettled by objections of modem ttiougnt. It will be found a wholesome work for every minister in the land trt read. Examiner and. Chronicle. "It is a longtime since we have met with an abler or fresher theological treatise than OIU Fail/is in New Li?kt,by Newman Smyth, an author who in his work on "Ihe Religious Feeling" has already shown ability as an expounder ot Christian doctrine." — Independent. *^*For sale by .all boekselUrs, or sent postpaid, vj>on receipt of price, ^ CHART.ES SCRIBNER'S SONS, Nos. 743 AND 745 Broadway, New York THE BEGINNINGS OF HISTORY According to the Bible and the Traditions of the Oriental Peoples. From the Creation of Man to the Deluge. By Francois Lenormant, Professor of Archoeology at the Mational Library of France, etc. (Translated from the Second French Edition). With an introduction by Francis Brown, Associate Professor in Biblical Philology, Union Theological Seminary. 1 Vol., 12mOr, 600 pages, - - - $2.50, " What should we see in the first chapters of Genesis ? " writes M. Lenor- mant in his preface — "A revealed narrative, or a human tradition, gathered up for preservation by inspired writers as the oldest memory of their race ? This is the problem which I have been led to examine by comparing the nar- rative of the Bible with those which were current among the civilized peo- ples of most ancient origin by which Israel was surrounded, and from the midst of which it came." The book is not more erudite than it is absorbing in its interest. It has had an immense influence upon contemporary thought ; and has approached its task with an unusual mingling of the reverent and the scientific spirit. " That the ' Oriental Peoples ' had legends on the Creation, the Fall of Man, the Deluge, and other primitive events, there is no denying. Nor is there any need oi: denying it, as this admirable volume shows. Mr. Lenormant is not only a believer in revelation, but a devout confessor of what came by Moses ; as well as of what came by Christ. In this explanation^ of Chaldean, Babylonian, Assyrian and Phenician tradition, he discloses a prodigality of thought and skill allied to great variety of pur- suit, and diligent manipulation of what he has secured. He ' spoils the Egyptians ' by boldly using for Christian purposes materials, which, if left unused, might be turned against the credibility of the Mosaic records. " From the mass of tradition here examined it would seem that if these ancient legends have a common basis of truth, the first part of Genesis stands more generally related to the religious history of mankind, than if it is taken primarily as one account, by one man, to one people. . . . While not claiming for the author the setting forth of the absolute truth, nor the drawing from what he has set forth the soundest conclusions, we can assure our readers of a diminishing fear of learned un- belief after the perusal of this work." — TAe Neiu Englander. " With reference to the book as a whole it may be said : (i). That nowhere else can one obtain the mass of information upon this subject in so convenient a form; (zj. That the investigation is conducted in a truly scientific manner, and with an eminently Christian spirit ; (3). That the results, though very different from those in commoa acceptance, contain much that. is interesting and to say the least, plausible ; (4). That tha author while he seems in a number of cases to be injudicious in his state- ments and conclusions, has done work in investigation and in working out details that will be of service to all, whether general readers or specialists. ' — The Htbreio Student. ' The work is one that deserves to be studied by all students of ancient history, and in particular by ministers of the Gospel, whose office requires them to interpret the Scriptures, and who ought not to be ignorant of the latest and most interesting con- tribution of science to the elucidation to the sacred volume." — New York Tribune, *^* For Sale by all booksellers, or sent, post-paid, upon receipt of price, CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, Publishers, 743 AND 745 Broadway, New York, Final Causes. MEMBER OF THE FRENCH ACADEMY. Translated /rom the Second French Edition. With a Preface by Robert Flint, D.D., LL.D. One Vol. 8vo., - - _ Price, $2.50 " Here is a book to which we give the heartiest welcome and the study of which — not reading merely — we commend to all who are seeking to solve the question whether the universe is the product of mind or of chance. . . . Perhaps no living author has been more thoroughly trained by previous studies for the work done here than Mr. Janet; and no one is better fitted for it by original g^ifts." — l/niversalist Quarterly, " I regard 'Janet's Final Causes' as incomparably the best thing in litera- ture on the subject of which it treats, and that it ought to be in the hands of every man who has any interest in the present phases of the theistic problem. I am very glad that you have brought out an edition for the American public and at a price that makes the work acceptable to ministers and students. I have commended it to my classes in the seminary, and make constant use of it in my instructions." — From a letter of Professor Francis L. Patton, D. D. " I am delighted that you have published the translation of Janet's ' Final Causes ' in an improved form and at a price which brings it within the reach of many who desire to possess it. It is in my opinion the most suggestive treatise on this im- portant topic which is accessible in our language, and is admirably fitted to meet many of the misleading and superficial tendencies of the philosophy of a popular but superficial school." — Extract from a letter of Noah Porter, D.D., LL.D., President of i'ale College. " The most powerful argument that has yet appeared against the unwar- ranted conclusions which Haeckel and others would draw from the Darwinian Theory. That teleology and evolution are not mutually exclusive theories, M. Janet has demonstrated with a vigor and keenness that admit of no reply." — The Examiner. " No book of greater importance in the realm of theological philosophy has appeared during the past twenty years than Paul Janet's ' Final Causes.' The central idea of the work is one which the whole course of scientific discussion has made the burning question of the day, viz : That final causes are not inconsistent with physical causation." — Independent. * *^* For sale by all booksellers, or sent, post-paid, upon receipt of price, by CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, Publishers, 743 AND 745 Broadway, New York. OUTLINES OF PRIMITIVE BELIEF among the Indo-European Eaces. By CHARLES FRANCIS KEARY, M.A., of the British Museutn. One vol, crown Svo,, - _ _ - $2,50, Mr. Keary's Book is not simply a series of essays in comparative myth- ology, it is a history of the legendary beliefs of the Indo-European races drawn from their language and literature. Mr. Keary has no pet theory to establish ; he proceeds in the spirit of the inquirer after truth simply, and his book is a rare example of patient research and unbiased opinion in a most fascinating field of exploration. " We have an important and singularly interesting contribution to our knowledge of pre-historic creeds in the Outlines of pre-historic Belief amojig the Indo- European Races^ by Mr. C. F. Keary, of the British Museum. No contemporary essayist in the field of comparative mythology — and we do not except Max Miiller — has known how to embellish and illumine a work of scientific aims and solid worth with so much imaginative power and literary charm. There are chapters in this volume that are as persuasive as a paper of Matthew Arnold's, as delightful as a poem. The author is not only a trained inquirer but he presents the fruits of his research with the skill and felicity of an artist." — Neiu York iiun. "Mr. Keary, having unusual advantages in the British Museum for studying comparative philology, has gone through all the authorities concerning Hindoo, Greek, early Norse, modern European, and other forms of faith in their early stages, ahd there has never before been so thorough and so captivating an exposition of them as that given in this book." — Philadelphia Bulletin. THE DAWN OF HISTORY. AN INTRODUCTION TO PRE-HISTORIC STUDY. Edited by C. F. KEARY, M.A., OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM. One Volume, 12mo., _ _ - $1.25. This work treats successively of the earliest traces of man in the re- mains discovered in caves or elsewhere in different parts of Europe ; of language, its growth, and the story it tells of the prehistoric users of it ; of the races of mankind, early social life, the religions, mythologies, and folk- tales of mankind, and of the history of writing. A list of authorities is appended, and an index has been prepared specially for this edition. "The book may be heartily recommended as probably the most satisfactory summary of the subject that there is." — Nation. " A fascinating manual, without a vestige of the dullness usually charged against scientific works. ... In its way, the work is a model of what a popular scientific work should be ; it is readable, it is easily understood, and its style is simple, yet dig- nified, avoiding equally the affectiqn of the nursery and of the laboratory." — Boston Sat. Eve. Gazette. *^(.* For sale hy all booksellers, or sent, post-paid, upon receipt oj price, by CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, Publishers, 743 AND 745 Broadway, New York. IN COMPUANCE WITH CURRENT COPYRIGHT LAW OCKER & TRAPP INC. AND PRINCETON THEOLOGICAL PRODUCED THIS REPLACEMENT VOLUME ON WEYERHAEUSER COUGAR OPAQUE NATURAL PAPER, THAT MEETS ANSI/NISO STANDARDS Z39.48-1992 TO REPLACE THE IRREPARABLY DETERIORATED ORIGINAL. 1999 1 1012 01152 6953