W i o1^ i > i i i ii STORY A tlti :~N H ^1 ^ j: i n I n FOR ANSSSSii^^iSfS^^ ff^SHfUirr-i-^ « « e ■• • • ■ • '• (b ft e • « e •' • e® fr W 9 • •• is, :M^::: ft : .^ r : : : 1 » * « • • * . • • » • «":; •' ' • • • • « « «' ';^ • » • • • c % » e «^ *'» » '«t'«, «> « e • • GoipghtN"-:^^ COPYRIGHT DEPOSm CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS After St. Gaudens' Statue A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES FOR CATHOLIC SCHOOLS PREPARED A^D ARRANGED BY IE FRANCISCAN SISTERS^OF THE PERPETUAL ADORATION ST. ROSE CONVENT, LA CKOSSE, WIS. SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY CHICAGO NEW YORK ■ I CoPYIilGIIT 1014 BY SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY DEC -7 1314 >CIA387845 FOREWORD There are many histories of the United States, each bear- ing its message of patriotism. The purpose of this modest vol- ume, "A History of the United States for Catholic Schools," — the revised edition of "American History Briefly Told," — is not to multiply books, but rather to offer a text which sets forth not only all the usually taught historical facts, but also the too often forgotten efl'orts of the Church in American History. The venturesome explorer, the intrepid colonizer, the hardy pioneer, the noble warrior, the eloquent statesman, are all given their due praise ; but the quiet heroism of the loyal sons and daughters of the Catholic Church is also lifted from obscurity into the light of reverent knowledge. Our country is justly proud of the liberty she offers to all her children. But these children are many in faith, and diversi- fied in race peculiarities. Common interests may seem to unite them from time to time, but there can be no true, per- manent union except where the spirit and the faith are domi- nating forces. But where is found such a bond of unity except in the Catholic Church? Mother Church folds her arms about all her children and questions not their color or their race. The mind may travel with lightning speed from the At- lantic to the Pacific, from the frozen plains of the north to the sunny plantations of the south; it may grasp with keen perception all that this great country symbolizes and dis- plays; the heart may glow with righteous pride for our na- tional achievements. But in addition to all these, the great share that Catholics have had in the discovery and explora- tion of America should thrill with reverent joy the heart of every Catholic student, and cause him to love more sincerely 3 4 FOREWORD and serve more loyally the chosen country of God. For this is the land whose borders Ericson and Columbus first touched; whose Great Lakes were discovered and made known by Ghamplain; whose broad Mississippi Valley and fertile wes- tern plains were first traversed by intrepid and self -sacrificing men, such as Father Hennepin, Du Lhut, Joliet, Father Mar- quette, and La Salle — Catholics, every one of them. Further- more, it is the land whose virgin soil was hallowed by the blood of the Catholic missionaries; in whose council halls rang the voices of eloquent Catholic statesmen ; and on whose bat- tlefields fearless Catholic soldiers bled, and quiet Sisters of Charity served. We may not build a shrine at every spot consecrated by the glorious deeds of our unlaureled Catholic heroes and hero- ines who have helped to make our history, but we may set up these shrines in the hearts of the young. Here we may hope to build a temple in the inner sanctuary, in which the Blessed Mother, the Patroness of the Republic of Washington and Lincoln, may be honored with devotion undying. To Mary Immaculate this modest work is humbly dedicated. In the preparation of this book, the authors have had as- sistance from so many persons that it would be quite imprac- ticable in this restricted space to mention them all. Special thanks are due to the Jesuit Fathers of Prairie du Chien, Wis- consin, and St. Louis, Missouri ; as also to other scholarly mem- bers of the Catholic clergy who have read and re-read the manuscript and ofi^ered numerous valuable suggestions. Miss Mary E. Tobin, Principal of the Marquette School, Chicago, Illinois, among others, has read critically the proofs and has rendered important service in preparing this work for publication. TO THE TEACHER Each chapter in this book contains a unit of closely asso- ciated facts. The teacher may well read and discuss each en- tire unit with his class before assigning any part of it for study, even though this reading may take more than one recitation period. Only those dates should be memorized which serve to asso- ciate important facts more closely. Dates; however, are to the student what milestones are to the traveler, and they should not be neglected. In the "Chronological Review" at the end of each period, important dates are listed. Use maps daily when discussing voyages, explorations, set- tlements, etc. Trace routes and locate settlements on the map. It may serve well to quote Carlyle here, who says that chronology and geography are "the two great lamps of his- tory. '■ ' In the teaching of the different periods, or epochs, into which the history is divided, the following points should be made clear to pupils : 1. Be sure that the pupils appreciate the proper setting of United States history, before they begin to study it in de- tail. They should know the threefold chronological divisions of world history — Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. They should also understand the difference between Sacred liistory and Pro- fane, or Secular history; 2. Acquaint the pupil thoroughly with the important events of the period of Colonization, since our later history and the Constitution can be understood only in the light of our pio- neer history. Note : (a) how Christianity, though represented by conflicting 5 6 TO THE TEACHER creeds, existed in each colony, and how the Catholic Church, like the mustard seed of the Gospel, has flourished and grown, as it were, into a mighty tree ; (6) how the emigration from many different nations has given us that remarkable sobriety, thrift, and progressiveness for which our country is characterized. Call attention to the fact that the original traits can still be distinguished in the manners and customs of the direct descendants of the pioneer colonizers, who inhabit certain localities, (Pennsylvania, Mary- land, New York, Massachusetts) ; (c) how the early assemblies and other institutions of self- government in the colonies eventually developed into our present republican government vested in three departments ; (d) that the origin of our present Constitution may be traced back to the principles which were set out in the Mayflower compact of the Pilgrims, the charter of Lord Baltimore, Penn's Great Law, and the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut ; (e) how our present jjublic school sj^stem had its origin in the educational zeal of the northern colony builders, and how our cherished parochial schools grew from humble be- ginnings into the splendid system which now labors so zeal- ously for the spiritual and intellectual welfare of our country. CONTENTS INTEODUCTION Foreword 3 To THE Teacher 5 PEEIOD OF EARLIEST INHABITANTS CHAPTER I'AGia I. The Indians 15 PERIOD OF DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS II. European Conditions Preparatory to the Discovery OF America 20 III. The Discovery of the New^ World — The Route to India 27 IV. The Spanish in America 35 V. The Ei^GLisH in America 46 VI. The French in America 53 VII. The Dutch in America 69 PERIOD OF COLONIZATION VIII. The Southern Group op Colonies 76 IX. The Middle Group of Colonies 99 X. The New England Group of Colonies 112 XI. Inter-Colonial Wars 132 PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION AND THE CONFEDERATION XII. Preliminaries of the War 167 XIII. First Period of the War — 1775-1777 184 First Year of the War — 1775 184 Second Year of the War 190 Third Y^ear op the War 197 XIV. Second Period op the War — 1777-17S1 205 Fourth Year 205 Fifth Year 212 Sixth Year 216 Seventh Year 220 XV. The Critical Period op Our Histoiiv — 1781-1 789 227 Chronological Review 242 7 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES PERIOD OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES TO THE CIVIL WAR CHAPTER PAGE XVI. Condition op the New Nation 248 XVII. George Washington 's Administration 257 XVIII. John Adams 's Administration — 1797-1801 275 XIX. Thomas Jefferson 's Administration — 1801-1809 282 XX. James Madison's Administration — 1809-1817 295 XXI. James Monroe's Administration — 1817-1825 314 XXII. John Quincy Adams's Administration — 1825-1829 323 XXIII. Andrew Jackson's Administration — 1829-1837 331 XXIV. Martin Van Buren 's ^Administration — 1837-1841 344 XXV. The Harrison-Tyler Administration — 1841-1845 350 XXVI. James Polk's Administration — 1845-1849 357 XXVII. The Taylor-Fillmore Administration — 1849-1853 369 XXVIII. Franklin Pierce's Administration — 1853-1857 378 XXIX. James Buchanan's Administration — 1857-1861 384 PERIOD OF THE CIVIL WAR XXX. Abraham Lincoln 's Administration — 1861-1865 400 The War to the Battle of Gettysburg 400 First Year of the War 405 Second Year of the War 413 Third Year of the War 429 XXXI. From the Battle of Gettysburg to Lee 's Surrender at Appomattox 432 Political Affairs 437 Fourth and Last Year of the War 440 Chronological Review 456 PERIOD OF RECONSTRUCTION AND EXPANSION XXXII. Andrew Johnson's Administration— 1865-1869 461 XXXIII. Ulysses S. Grant's Administration — 1869-1877 476 XXXIV. Rutherford B. Hayes's Administration — 1877-1881 491 XXXV. The Garfield-Arthur Administration — 1881-1885 499 XXXVI. Grover Cleveland's Administration — 1885-1889 505 XXXVII. Benjamin Harrison's Administration — 1889-1893 512 XXXVIII. Grover Cleveland 's Second Administration — 1893-1897. 519 XXXIX. William McKinley's Administration— 1897-1901 526 Spanish-American War 528 CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE XL. A Century 's Progress 540 XLI. Theodore Roosevelt's Administration — 1901-1909 574 XLII. William H. Taft's Administration— 1909-1913 587 XLIII. WooDROw Wilson 's Administration — 1913 — 595 Chronologic \L Review 602 APPENDIX The Declaration of Independence 609 The Provisions of the Constitution Outlined 613 The Constitution of. the United States 616 Presidents, Vice-Presidents, Secretaries of State, and Chief Justices 634 States and Territories, Capitals, Governors, Legis- lature 635 INDEX 636 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Cliristoplior Columbus Frontispiece ludian Tepee 1" An Irociuois Long-house 17 Flint-tipix'd Arrows 19 Ruins uf a Norse Chureli 20 A AMking Ship 21 Early Printers 22 Depai'ture of Columbus 2S 'Ihe Fleet of Columbus 29 Bartholomew I>as Casas 35 Mexican Calendar Stone 36 DiscovEKKit.s AKD Exi'LOREUs Facing 39 Zuni Pueblos • 40 Spanish Mission of Santa Barbara 43 The Ship in Which Drake Sailed Around the World 48 Indian Village 50 Quebec As It Is Today 57 French Explorers and the Indians 58 Tadousac, Canada 60 Father Isaac Jogues 64 Lily of the Mohawks 6(; The Missionary's Blessing 67 Hudson's Ship, the Half Moon 69 The Trading Post at New Amsterdam 70 William and Mary College 84 George Calvert 85 Early Annapolis , 90 Blackbeard 94 James B. Oglethorpe 96 Dutch Maiden 100 New York in 1673 102 A Dutch Tavern 104 Brewster's Residence at Scrooby 113 A Group of Pilgrims 115 Now England Kitchen 118 The Stocks and Pillory 124 John Winthrop 127 French and Indians 132 Attacking a Fort 138 Fort Niagara 143 The Taking of Quebec 144 • Death of Wolfe 145 Wolfe's Pistol 146 Mansion at Westover, Virginia 148 Boston in 1743 151 Baltimore in 1752 152 Pine Tree Shilling 153 A Post Rider 154 Spinning Wheel 161 Puritan Costumes 1 62 Drilling the Colonists 167 George III 169 Patrick Ilenrv 17:'. Faneuil Hall Today 176 Old South Church". 177 George Washington 186 Craigie House 188 Independence Hall 191 Revolutionauy Leaders Facing 192 10 ILLUSTRATIONS 11 PAGE Hessian Soldipr ' 196 Continental Artillery 202 Valley Forge 205 A Sea Fight of the Period 214 Captain John Barry 215 Continental Currency 221 Makers and Inteiu'Keteus op the Constitution : John Marshall, Daniel Webster, James Madison, Alexander Hamilton I'ueiiig 235 Marquis de Lafayette 240 An Emigrant Wagon 249 Plowing in Early liavs 251 Hishop Carroll '. " 254 Washington's P'arewell to llis Mother Faciny 257 Federal Hall 258 Treasury Department Today 263 CiiiciiHiati in 1.S19 267 Eli Wliitiiey's Cotton Gin 270 (4eorseto\vn University 272 Washington's Coat of Arms 274 Washington's Tomb 279 The Capitol Today 283 Fulton's Steamboat 290 Monticello 294 Battle of Lake Champlain 309 Chicago in 1820 318 Early Railroad 326 National and States' Rights Leaders : Andrew Jackson, Stephen A. Douglas, John C. Calhoun, Henry Clay Facing 332 A Western Home of the Period 349 A Night on the California Trail 365 The Chapel of the San Gabriel Mission 367 Dispersing a Kansas Constitutional Convention 380 Lincoln and His Son "Tad" Facing 400 Tlie Monitor and the Merrimac 419 Union Comjiandeus : William T. Sherman, Ulysses S. Grant, David G. Farragut, Philip H. Sheridan Facing 445 Confederate Commanders : Robert E. Lee, Joseph B. Johnston, Jefferson Davis, Thomas J. Jackson Facing 448 Reconstruction Leaders: Andrew Johnson, Thaddeus Stevens, Charles Sumner. William R. Seward Facing 465 Alaskan Trading Post 473 Joining tlie Two Pacific Railroads 481 Caidinal McCloskcv 489 E:i(i>< Bridge 49G Late Pkksidents : Rutherford li. Hayes. James A. Garfield, Chester A. Arthur, (irover Cleveland, Beiiiamin Harrison Facing 409 A Cotton Field ." 502 U. S. Battleship Texas 507 The Statue of Libertv 509 The Opening of Oklahoma 516 Oahu College. Honolulu 522 William McKinley 526 Thatched Huts in Porto Rico 534 The Congressional Library 539 A Manila Scene 541 New York Waterfront 543 Modern Farm JNLTchinery 540 Notre Dame University 556 White House at Washington 562 American Authors: Ilenrv Wadsworth Longfellow. James Russell I-owell. Oliver Wendell Holmes. John Grecmlea.' Vvbittier Faciiui 505 Cardinal Gibbons ' .-,7-> Thiodore Roosevelt 575 Panama Canal 577 William H. Taft '. 587 Chief Justice White ' 592 President Wilson Facing 595 Pope Pius X 600 LIST OF MAPS PAGE Distribution of Indian Tribes 18 St. Brandon's Island 25 Line of Demarcation 32 Routes Around Africa 3.S Magellan's Voyage 3T Routes of Early Spanish Explorers 41 Routes of Early Discoverers 47 Map Illustrating European Idea of America in 1548 54 Jamestown and Vicinity 77 Captain .Tcihn Smith's Map of Virginia 79 Sontli Athuitic Coast . . 9-'! Philadclpliia and Vicinity 108 Chain of I'rcnch Forts IHo French and Indian War 139 Louisburg 1 41 Mao Illustrating the Revolutionary War 183 Bos'ton and Vicinity 184 Campaign of 177(5 194 Philadelphia and Vicinity 199 Wyoming Valley 207 Map of Southern Campaign 211 The Original Thirteen States Facing 248 Route of the Lewis and Clark Expedition 288 Map Illustrating War of 1812 298 F'ort Dearborn and Detroit 301 Campaign of 1813 306 and 307 Campaign Around Washington, 1814 308 The Cumberland National Road 317 The Erie Canal 325 Republic of Texas 341 The Oregon Country 355 Disputed Mexican Boundary 359 The Advance Toward Mexico 362 Harper's Ferry and Vicinity 387 Slavery and Secession ' Facing 389 Reference Map of the Civil War .Facing 404 Fort Sumter 405 Washington and Vicinity 407 Bull Run and Manassas 409 Down the Mississippi 415 An Insular Campaign 423 Gettysburg and Vicinity 430 Vicksburg Campaign 43:'. Chickamauga and Lookout Mountain 434 Chattanooga to Atlanta 442 Sherman's March North 443 The Wilderness District 444 Last Battles 449 Continental Expansion Follou-ing 472 United States Possessions, 1915 Facing 540 12 ^fU^C^ (^-^-^.c^ ^c/^-^ ^^ ^^^^ A ^ c^^^c /^<:y^ A History of the United States PERIOD OF EARLIEST INHABITANTS CHAPTER I THE INDIANS 1. Name and Origin. When Europeans discovered America they supposed it to be Asia, and they called the natives Indians, after India, which country they had hoped to reach by sailing westward. Whence the Indians came is not certain. We can only conjecture that the}^ must luive emigrated from Asia. One thing, however, is certain : the Indians had for long ages been spread over all of North and South America before white men came here. 2. Characteristics. The Indian was tall, straight, vigorous, and well-formed, of a cinnamon color, with a broad face marked with high cheek-bones and small, dull eyes. His long, straight hair was conspicuous for a scalp-lock which grew from the top of his head. This lock was cherished by every "brave," as the Indian warrior was called, as he believed without it he could not enter the "Happy Hunting Ground." The Indian was a keen and cruel enemy, but a courageous, faithful friend where he felt any love. 3. Manners and Customs. In winter or in cold climates the American Indian wore skins of animals, decorated with beads, feathers, shells, scalps, etc., while in summer or in very warm climates he wore little or no clothing. He lived in movable tents called wigwams; also in rude huts of earth or bark, or in caverns among mouiltain cliffs. The men hunted, fislied, or fought, while the women did the manual work, such 15 16 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES as gathering the scanty crops of maize, potatoes, and tobacco. Swift and stealthy of foot, the Indian followed the trail of the deer, buffalo, and other wild animals. The weapons used were bows and arrows, tomahawks, knives, and clubs. The birchbark canoe which he carried from one waterway to another served him as horse, steamboat, and railroad. The Indian had no written language, but sometimes recorded battles and other INDIAN TEPEE events by means of picture writing on bark, tanned skins, or the walls of his dwellings. 4. Religion, The Indian religion was a nature and ancestor worship. He recognized one Supreme Being, the Great Spirit, who, he believed, dwelt in every creature and brought sunshine, THE INDIANS 17 peace, and a good harvest. He also believed in an evil spirit, from whom came disease and famine. He looked to a life beyond the grave to be spent in the "Happy Hunting Ground." Singing and dancing were notable features in his religion, and these usually preceded, accompanied, or followed all im- portant undertakings. AN IROQUOIS LONG-HOUSE 5. Three Great Families. The Indians of our country were divided into several hundred tribes, which were again sub- divided by relationship into clans. Each tribe had for its name that of some animal. The turtle, bear, and w^olf were special favorites. The picture of this animal became the emblem of the tribe and was called totem. The Indian tribes located east of the Mississippi River were divided into three great families : (a) the Maskokis, or Mobilians, living south of the Tennessee River ; (&) the Iroquois, or Six Nations, occupying central New York, parts of North Carolina, and the country north and south of Lake Erie ; (c) tlie Algonquins, inhabiting the rest of the territory north of the Ohio River, and also the larger part of Canada. 6. Degrees of Civilization. The early Indians may be divided into three grades — savage, barbarous, and semi-civilized. The savage Indians occupied the country west of Hudson Bay and west of the Rocky Mountains as far south as the northern 18 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 'ibution of Indian the Mississippi ~' THE INDIANS 19 part of Mexico. They did not till the soil, or settle in villages, but lived on fish and game. The barbarous Indians inhabited all of North America south of Hudson Bay and east of the Rocky Mountains. Rudely tilling tlie soil, they raised such plants as maize, or "Indian corn," tobacco, pumpkins, squashes, beans, tomatoes, and sun- flowers. They settled in villages consisting of houses of bark or sunburnt clay and movable tepees. (See page 16.) They comprised chiefly the three great families living east of the Mississippi River. These Indians played a conspicuous part in the history of the United States, for with them our people flrst came into con- tact, and with them they had first to fight. The semi-civilized Indians lived chiefly in the mountainous country from New Mexico southward as far as Chili. They tilled and irrigated the soil and built houses and fortresses four or five stories high. Their dwellings, frequently grouped in villages, were called pueblos, and were sometimes built high up on cliffs for the sake of security against the savage Indians. 7. Mounds. Many thousands of mounds built by the pre- historic inhabitants of America are found in the valleys of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. At one time it was thought that these mounds were built by a mysterious race of very superior civilization, because of the skill shown in the sculptured relics discovered in them. These thousands of relics have been care- fully examined and it is now believed that the "Mound Builders" were but the ancestors of the Indians found in the country by the French and English pioneers. FLINT-TIPPED ARROWS PERIOD OP DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS CHAPTER II EUEOPEAN CONDITIONS PEEPAEATOEY TO THE DISCOVEEY OF AMEEICA 8. Early Discoveries and Explorations. This period extends from the discovery of America, 1492, to the settlement of James- town, Virginia, in 1607, and includes the discoveries and explo- rations made by the various European nations in the New World during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. 9. Causes that Led to the Discovery of America Were: — (a) the belief that the earth is round; (6) the demand for a nearer route to India; (c) the desire to acquire wealth and territory, and (d) the desire to spread the Catholic faith. 10. The Northmen. The descendants of the early inhabitants of Norway and Sweden were the first Europeans to set foot on the American continent. These bold sea-rovers discov- ered and colonized, succes- sively, Iceland (874), Green- land (984), and eventually the North American conti- nent (1002). This last achievement was made by Leif Ericson, who, on one of his voyages, sailed along the coast in the neighborhood of Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and New England. In this vicinity a Norse colony was founded. 20 RUINS OF A NORSE CHURCH IN GREENLAND CONDITIONS PREPARATORY TO THE DISCOVERY 21 Finding" wild grapes abundant, Ericson called the country Vinland. (Read Longfellow's "Skeleton in Armor.") The Northmen brought Christianity with them and the churches and monasteries established in Greenland maintained themselves for centuries. The Episcopal see, founded at Gardar, had a succession of sixteen or seventeen bishops. Th(} discovery of America by the Northmen was barren of all results, for the Vinland discoveries and explorations attracted no attention in southern Europe. The depopulation of Greenland by the "black death" cut off all communication between Vinland and Iceland. The knowledge of the route hither was lost and the existence of the continent almost for- gotten, even in Ice- land. The memory thereof, however, was handed down from generation to genera- tion in the Norse sagas. 11. Influence of the Crusades. For ages before the discovery of America by Co- lumbus ^there had been more or less trade between Europe and Asia, and this trade increased rap- idly after the Crusades (1095-1291) had brought the people of northern and western Europe to a closer knowledge of the oriental world. 12. Commercial Centers — Routes. Genoa and Venice, two Italian cities, controlled the commerce of the Mediterranean Sea, and became enriched by trade with the East. ' ' India, ' ' an indefinite and almost unknown region, comprising what is now India, Persia, China (Cathay), and Japan (Cipango), supplied Europe with dyestuffs, spices, costly shawls, silks, precious A VIKING SHIP 22 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES stones, and ivory, in exchange for the iron, tin, lead, grains, wool, soap, and furs of the Mediterranean and Baltic countries. Venice controlled the route to India by way of the Adriatic Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Alexandria (chief port), the Isthmus of Sue/, the Red Sea, and the Indian Ocean. Genoa controlled the route by way of the Mediterranean Sea, the Aegean Sea, the Bosporus (Constantinople, chief port), the Black and Caspian Seas, overland through the desert to India and Eastern Asia. There was still a third, or middle route across Syria (Antioch, Damascus, Bagdad as chief centers) by way of the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean. When Constantinople, for more than a thousand years the chief center of Christendom, was conquered by the Turks in 1453, and the Crescent sup- planted the Cross, the Turks refused the use of the Bos- porus and the Black Sea to the Christian trader. Thus the route of Genoa was closed. About the same time excessive dues were ex- acted by Egypt, and the commerce of Venice became unprofitable. Hence, the great problem of the age, which eventually led to the discovery of America, was, how to reach India by sea. If this could be accomplished, a nearer, safer, and cheaper route to the rich products of the East would be assured. 13. Aids to Discovery. The compass, pointing out to the sailor the direction in which he was moving, and the astrolabe, an instrument for ascertaining latitude, encouraged tlie mari- ner to venture far out into the sea. Gunpowder made easy the conquest of uncivilized people, and the printing press spread abroad the knowledge of newly found lands, inspiring men EARLY PRINTERS CONDITIONS PREPARATORY TO THE DISCOVERY 23 with a longing to go into far countries in search of wealth and fame. 14. A Great Traveler. Marco Polo, a native of Venice, accompanied his father on a trading tour to China, whence he returned to Venice after an absence of twenty-four years. Soon after his return, 1295, he wrote a book in which he told the story of his travels in the wonderful eastern country known as China, Japan, East India, and Farther India. In this book he confirmed the growing belief that there was an ocean east of Asia, and, as the earth was thought to be a globe, it was but natural to conclude that the ocean east of Asia and that west of Europe might be but one body of water, and that a voyage westward would bring the mariner to India. Marco Polo's book was widely read, and exerted great influence in the fifteenth century, inspiring men with the desire to reach the golden land described in it. 15. The Earth a Globe, Aristotle, a famous Greek philoso- pher, three centuries before the Christian era, proved that the earth is spherical in shape ; as did also Claudius Ptolemy, an Egyptian astronomer of about the middle of the second century after Christ. Ptolemy likewise maintained the theory that the circumference of the earth at the equator is about 21,600 miles. The globular theory of the form of the earth was preserved during the Middle Ages partly by the Arab philosophers, but chiefly by the great monastic and secular scholars of the Catholic Church ; for example. Cardinal D 'Ailly, Roger Bacon, Prince Henry of Portugal, Copernicus, Galileo, and Toscanelli. In the time of Columbus, nearly all men of learning believed the earth to be a sphere, although the general public thought that the earth was flat, surrounded by the oceans and the dome-like heavens. 16. Rotation — Revolution — Universal Gravity. Scholars and philosophers had proved the earth spherical, but they thought it stood still, and that all other heavenly bodies revolved around it daily. 24 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543), a Polish priest, philosopher, and astronomer, broke loose from the theory of Ptolemy, which held that the heavenly bodies moved about the earth, and laboriously thought out the now known facts that: (a) the earth makes a complete rotation on its axis every day; (&) the sun, and not the earth, is the center of motion. Catholic churchmen raised no question concerning the teach- ing of Copernicus until Galileo (1564-1642), a great Florentine philosopher, denied the accuracy of certain Scriptural state- ments. Galileo, not confining himself to his own province of science, confused revealed truths with physical discoveries and claimed that in Scripture are found statements which, taken literally, are false — such as the sun's staying its course at the prayers of Joshua, or the earth's being ever immovable. Ac- cused before the Inquisition, he continued his attacks upon the traditional interpretation of Holy Writ and was condemned to imprisonment. Pope Urban VIII, however, changed' the sen- tence to an honorable confinement in commodious apartments, where Galileo quietly pursued his studies. Five years before his death he became totally blind. He died professing his unshaken faith in the Church and with the special blessing of Pope Urban VIII. The Catholic Church has been accused of persecuting science in the person of Galileo. This accusation is untrue. Had Galileo not falsely interpreted Scripture he might have gone on undisturbed with his observations and discoveries. Although it had been proved that the earth is spherical, men could not understand why people living on the opposite side of this globe did not fall off, or how they walked with their heads downward. Isaac Newton, an English mathema- tician (1642-1727), born on the same day on which Galileo died, discovered the law of gravity. 17. Cape of Good Hope Reached. Italy was the most ad- vanced nation in' navigation and geographical knowledge at this period, and the leading discoverers of the time— Columbus, Cabot, Vespucius, and Verrazano— were Italians. The position CONDITIONS PREPARATORY TO THE DISCOVERY 25 of Italy, however, prevented her from taking the lead in dis- covery, and Portugal became the foremost country in searching for a vv^aterway to the Indies around Africa. Beginning early in the fifteenth century, and continuing for seventy years of brave struggle, her vessels and seamen cautiously skirted the coasts of Africa. Finally, in 1487, Bartholomew Diaz, a Portu- guese, completed a voyage from Lisbon along the African coast to the extreme southern point, which he called the Cape CATHAJA AZORES ^ CANAROS' Antilla " INS. DE C.VERDE St. Brandons Island ST. BRANDON'S ISLAND AS SHOWN ON BEHAIM 'S GLOBE of Storms, and thence far into the Indian Ocean. The cape was significantly named Cape of Good Hope by the monarch of Portugal. Diaz's voyage was the greatest in history up to that time. It gave rise to the belief that India could be reached by sailing around Africa, and proved that the "sea monsters" and "fiery zones" were but phantoms. 26 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 18. Precursors of Columbus. Cardinal Peter D'Ailly, or AUiacus (1350-1420), surnamed the Eagle of the French Doctors of the Church, wrote the Imago Mundi, a Latin trea- tise upon geography, in which he gives the geographical ideas of great men even from the early times. Columbus carefully studied this book, a copy of which, bearing annotations in his own handwriting, is still preserved at Seville, Spain, Prince Henry of Portugal, surnamed the Navigator (1394- 1463), noted for his learning, valor, generosity, and piety, a liberal patron of science, directed a partial circumnavigation of Africa. The use of the compass in navigation, and, in part, the invention of the astrolabe, are ascribed to him. The enter- prises of this celebrated man did much to kindle the aspira- tion of Columbus. Paul Toscanelli (1397-1482), a famous Catholic astronomer living in Florence (1474), entered into correspondence with Columbus, encouraging his proposal, and furnishing him a map projected partly according to Marco Polo and partly according to Ptolemy. Martin Behaim, a friend of Columbus, made a globe to rep- resent the view^s of those who believed that the earth is a sphere. This globe was finished in 1492 before Columbus set out on his famous voyage and is still in existence at Nurem- berg. On this globe is shown the island of St. Brandon, so named from the Irish saint who, according to legend, crossed the Atlantic nearly one thousand years before Columbus. CHAPTER III THE DISCOVEEY OF THE NEW WORLD— THE EOUTE TO INDIA 19. Sailing West to Reach the East. The places in Palestine hallowed by some event of our Lord's life, and, above all, the Holy Sepulcher of Christ, have always been looked upon by Christendom as the visible embodiment of the mysteries of Redemption, and as such have ever been held in great venera- tion by the faithful. In 637 the city of Jerusalem fell into the hands of the Mohammedans in whose exclusive possession, except for a short interval of time, it has been ever since. Columbus was of a deeply religious nature. He purposed to carry the gospel of Christ to heathen lands and to use the possible wealth he should acquire for the recovery of the Holy Sepulcher. Although learned men for a thousand years had believed the earth a sphere, and that Asia could be reached by sailing west- ward across the "Sea of Darkness," as the Atlantic was, then called, no one had ventured on a journey so perilous, until Columbus planned to test the truth of the theory, upon which he had pondered for many years. He had, however, no idea of the real size of the earth, thinking that by sailing three thousand miles directly west from the Canary Islands, he could reach India. 20. In Quest of Help. For the carrying out of such a costly enterprise the support of some government was necessary. Columbus first sought to interest the king of Portugal in his project; but, receiving no encouragement, in 1485 he turned to Spain. Here he learned that Ferdinand and Isabella could not engage in any new uncertain enterprise, since Spain was then at war with the Moors. 27 28 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES The Conquest of Granada ended Moorish power in Spain. Then Queen Isabella, guided by her confessor, Juan Perez, the friend of Columbus, summoned the great navigator to her court and listened to his plea. His suspense seemed ended, but as Ferdinand and Isabella would not agree to the terms he desired he once more set out to seek aid, this time from France. The queen, however, generously recalled him, offering, if necessary, to sell her jewels to assist. She at once issued orders for the necessary arrangements for his voyage. DEPAKTURE OF COLUMBUS (FROM AN OLD ENGRAVING) 21. Columbus Prepares for the Voyage. Columbus now went to Palos, Spain, to make the necessary preparations for the voyage. This was a difficult task. Even the most daring seamen shrank from joining such a foolhardy undertaking as the expedition was felt to be. At length Columbus succeeded in fitting out three small ships manned with one hundred and DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD 29 twenty men, many of whom were forced into service by order of the crown. Thus with the Santa Maria, the Nina, and the Finta, tilled for the most part with unwilling men, the world- finder was at last ready to begin his great western voyage. Had it not been for Jnan Perez, the Father Guardian of La Rabida, Columbus would scarcely have succeeded in securing the necessary number of men to fit out his expedition. Through the influence of this good Father, the Pinzon brothers, expe- rienced mariners of good family, entered warmly into the views of Columbus, and, offering assistance and means, agreed to THE FLEET OF COLUMBUS accompany him. The worthy priest also exerted no little influ- ence over the townspeople of Palos ; he made his rounds among them trying to convince them of the feasibility of the voyage and of the unreality of the imaginary ocean terrors. 22. The Voyage. Columbus sailed from Palos on Friday, August 3d, 1492, at 8 a. m. He steered straight into the track- less ocean, relying firmly on God and on his own scientific theory. This fact alone suffices to make him one of the most 30 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES sublime figures in history. Before sailing, Columbus and his crew partook of the sacraments of Penance and the Holy- Eucharist and assisted at Holy Mass offered by Father Juan Perez in the monastery of Rabida. Columbus delayed for some weeks at the Canary Islands for the purpose of re- fitting his vessels. From here the little fleet sailed westward wafted along by light easterly breezes. Belts of calms and the Sargasso Sea, as also the variation of the magnetic needle of the compass, and other real and imaginary causes for alarm, rendered the nearly frenzied crew ripe for mutiny. They resolved to cast Columbus into the sea, should he refuse to return to Spain. The Grand Admiral, sustained by strength from on high, quelled the mutiny with gentle eloquence, and declared boldly that nothing could turn him from his course. On the night of October 11, Columbus intently watching for land, suddenly saw a light moving up and down in the dis- tance. Finally, on Friday, October 12, 1492, land was sighted, at which event Columbus and his men fell on their knees and chanted the Te Deum. 23. The Landing. At daybreak of the memorable twelfth of October, 1492, Columbus stepped on shore and, kneeling with his crew, gave thanks to God. He took possession of the land in the name of the Spanish sovereigns and called it San Salvador (Holy Savior). Which of the three thousand islands of the Bahama group San Salvador was, no one knows. He then solemnly planted a large cross midst the chanting of the Vexilla Regis: Behold the Eoyal ensigns fly, Bearing the Cross's mystery; Where Life itself did death endure, And by that death did life procure. Columbus cruised from island to island, discovered Cuba and Haiti, and left on the latter thirty-nine men to form a colony. This colony was soon destroyed by the natives, whose hostility some of its members had imprudently provoked. DISCOVERY OP THE NEW WORLD 31 Columbus also discovered tobacco and the sweet potato, heretofore unknown to civilization. Both products became important factors in the markets of the world. Thinking that he had reached Asia, Columbus called the newly discovered lands West Indies, and the native people Indians. 24. Return Voyage. In January (1493) Columbus set out on his return voyage with only the Nina and the Pinta. the Santa Maria having been wrecked on the island of Haiti. He took with him gold, cotton, native birds, strange plants and animals, and six Indians. After a fearfully stormy voyage he at last cast anchor in the harbor of Palos, on Friday, the fifteenth of March (1493), He soon went to Barcelona, where the most distinguished attention was lavished upon him by the Si:>anisli crown and people. The Indians were duly instructed and baptized. Queen Isabella stood at the font of baptism as their godmother. 25. Later Voyages of Columbus. Columbus made three other voyages to the New World. In 1493 he discovered Porto Rico, the Windward Islands, Jamaica; in 1498, the island of Trin- idad ; later, in the same year, the continent of South America at the mouth of the Orinoco River; and in 1502, Central America and Panama. He was not aware, however, that he had discovered a continent and never doubting that all the land found was Asia, wondered that he did not find Asia 's vast riches. On his second expedition Columbus took with him fifteen hundred Spaniards in seventeen vessels with necessary sup- plies. And now, with strict commands from the crown to Christianize the Indians and always to treat them well, he brought the first missionaries to America. They were twelve in number, the Vicar-Apostolic, Father Bernard Boil, and eleven other priests. The Holy Sacrifice of the Mass was offered for the first time on the shores of America by Father Juan Perez. Columbus founded the city of Isabella on the island of Haiti and here in January (1494) the first church 32 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES was built and High Mass was therein solemnly celebrated on the sixth of January. "Washington Irving says this pious mission was provided with all things necessary for the digni- fied performance of its functions, from the queen's own chapel. The city of Isabella, however, had a short existence. At the present day it is overgrown with forests in the midst of which are to be seen the ruins of the old church, the storehouse, and the residence of Columbus, all built of hewn stone. 26. Immediate Results of the Voyages of Columbus. Colum- bus gave to Spain and the world a new continent. The spirit of discovery was intensi- fied, and fresh life was in- fused throughout Europe. Such was the impulse which he gave to voyages of discovery, that, in less than forty-five years, the eastern coast of North and South America was toler- ably well known ; while, in the interior, great empires had been conquered. 27. Line of Demarcation. Spain and Portugal, the Catholic powers of Europe, fearing that they might come into collision in the rapid progress of their discoveries, appealed by mutual consent, to the common father of the faithful as a freely chosen arbitrator, to mark out the limits of their prospective territories. The Pope, Alexander VI (1493), feeling that his powerful mediation might prevent war and bloodshed, willingly acceded to the proposal. He therefore fixed what is known as the Line of Demarcation, extending from the north pole to the south pole at a distance of one hundred leagues west of the Azores and the Cape Verde LINE OF DEMARCATION DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD 33 Islands. He decreed that all the lands discovered west of this lin(» were to belong to Spain, those east to Portugal. A treaty, between Spain and Portugal shortly after, fixed the line three hundred and seventy leagues west of tlie Cape Verde Islands, thus unwittingly apportioning Brazil to Portugal. This treaty, based on the papal partition, settled without a drop of blood a question which otherwise might have involved the two countries in a costly war. 28. The New Route to India. Vasco de Gama, a Portuguese, in 1497, sailed from Lisbon around the Cape of Good Hope to Hindustan, thus finding the long-searched-for route to India. DIAN CEAN •— • — • — •— •- Da Gam a i-++-i-+-t- Cabral . \'ospucius ROUTES AROUND AFRICA AND TO SOUTH AMERICA Upon his return to Portugal, there was no doubt as to where he had been, for his ships were laden with the riches of the East. The goal was reached at last ! 29. The Discovery of Brazil. The Amazon River was dis- covered (1500) by Vincente Pinzon, one of the companions of Columbus on his first voyage. About three months later, the Portuguese navigator, Pedro Cabral, on his way to India by way of the Cape of Good Hope, sighted the coast of Brazil, 34 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 30. The Origin of the Name America. Americus Vespucius, a Florentine, skilled in geography and astronomy, sailed first in the employ of Spain (1499) and afterwards in that of Portngal. He made several voyages including one which made known a large part of the Atlantic coast of South America. In 1507, a year after the death of Columbus, a German professor named Martin Waldseemuller, in a little treatise upon geography, commented upon the explorations of Vespucius and said, "But now these parts have been extensively explored and another fourth part has been discovered by Americus Ves- pucius, therefore I do not see what is rightly to hinder us from calling it Amerige or America ; i. c, the land of Americus, after its discoverer Americus.'-' Eventually the name suggested by Waldseemiiller was given to the whole western continent. Europe, Asia, and Africa were considered three parts of the earth. Mela, a famous Spanish geographer, 30 a. d., believed in the existence of a great unvisited continent south of the Eurasian continent and the equator. He called it Opposite .World or Fourth Part. It was believed that Columbus had reached Asia and that Americus had coasted along a great continent south of Asia, called Opposite World or Fourth Part which should be named after him. Hence, the naming of America was incidental and meant no injustice to Columbus. CHAPTER IV THE SPANISH IN AMERICA 31. Columbus — Summary. Columbus discovered: (a) San Salvador, Cuba, and Haiti (1492) ; (h) Jamaica, Porto Rico, Windward Islands (1493-1498) ; (c) Trinidad Island, near the mouth of the Orinoco River, and South America (1498) ; (d) Central America and the' Isthmus of Panama (1502). 32. Bartholomew Las Casas (1474-1566). This bishop of Chiapa in Mexico, a Dominican missionary among the Indians, was the first priest ordained in America, The title "Protector General of the Indians "has been bestowed upon him for the un- tiring zeal with which he served them for sixty years. Notwith- standing the purity of his life and the beauty of his ideas, his views of the Indians were so in- fluenced by his love for them that he failed to fully under- stand their characters. His writ- ings have influenced many prej- udiced non - Catholics against Spain. 33. First City — First Spaniards in the United States. Ponce de Leon, liaving heard stories from the Indians of a land rich in gold and containing a fountain of youth, began a vain search for it during whicli he discovered Florida. As gov- ernor of Porto Rico he had founded (1511) San Juan, the oldest city on United States' territory. Two years later, on 35 BAKTHOLOilEW LAS CASAS 36 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Easter Sunday, he planted a cross and raised the Spanish flag on the territory which he named Florida (Flowery Easter). 34. Discovery of the Pacific Ocean. Balboa, a Spanish ad- venturer, looking from the crest of the Cordilleras, on the Isthmus of Panama, discovered (1513) the Pacific Ocean. He took possession of it and of all land bordering on it for Spain and named it the South Sea. Magellan later named it the MEXICAN CAI.EXDAK STONE Pacific (peaceful) because he found it so much smoother than the Atlantic. 35. A Rich Empire in the Interior. Cordova (1-517) sailed from Cuba across the Yucatan channel, and explored the north coast of Yucatan. Grijalva (1518) explored the southern coast of Mexico, and found that the Indians of this region were comparatively advanced in civilization and that they possessed considerable wealth. He heard of a rich city in the interior, which he believed to be one of those described by Marco Polo. THE SPANISH IN AMERICA 37 36. The Conquest of Mexico. In consequence of the ex- ploits of Cordova and Grijalva, Cortez was sent (1519) by the governor of Cuba to explore Mexico. He built a fort on a favorable point which he called Vera Cruz, and then pene- trated into the interior of the country. He overthrew the empire of the Aztec Indians and thus conquered Mexico, which, with its rich mines, became a Spanish province. The Aztec Indians, a numerous and powerful people, had extended their sway over the adjacent tribes for three hundred years. They dressed in colored cotton cloth, were skilled in agriculture, and had constructed an excellent system of irri- gation. They recorded events by means of hieroglyphics, and ''Ji\,Slrait of Maqellan m MAGELLAN'S VOYAGE possessed a high degree of skill in metal and feather work, weaving, and pottery. Their most celebrated ruler, Monte- zuma, was reigning when Cortez landed in Mexico. 37. Circumnavigation of the Globe. Magellan, a Portuguese in the service of Spain (1519), searching for a strait leading to the South Sea (Pacific Ocean), led a Spanish fleet across the Atlantic, coasted along South America to Tierra del Fuego, threaded the strait now bearing his name, and sailed out upon the great ocean discovered by Balboa. He next struck west- ward for thousands of miles and discovered the Philippine Islands, where he was killed in an encounter with the natives. 38 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES His companions made their way back to Spain around the Cape of Good Hope (1522). Thus was completed the first circumnavigation of the globe (1519-1522), the greatest voy- age recorded in the annals of the sea. 38. Conquest of Peru (1531-1536). Francisco Pizarro con- quered Peru, tlie rich Inca Empire, and founded the city of Lima. Although much slandered and maligned by historians, he now stands forth in the clear, true light of real history not only a man of remarkable military genius, but of great integrity and high moral purpose. The valiant conqueror was murdered by a Spanish conspirator in his palace at Lima. Just before his death he called upon his Redeemer, and tracing with his bloody finger a cross upon the floor, he kissed the sacred symbol and expired. His remains are interred in the Cathedral of Lima, which had been erected by him. The Incas were the only shepherd Lidians. They possessed great flocks of llamas, which, like little camels, served as valu- able beasts of burden. They also supplied wool used in weav- ing coarse cloth which even the Spanish ladies of rank were proud to wear. Never before in the history of the world had so much gold and silver been discovered ; vessels, utensils, images, and beads of pure gold, and great planks and bars of solid silver were found. 39. Exploration of the Atlantic Coast. Vasquez D'Ayllon and Estevan Gomez (1526) followed our coasts northward from Florida, taking notice of the rivers and bays. Somewhere on the coast between the mouth of the Cape Fear River and the James, they attempted to found a colony, which they called San Miguel. However, sickness soon broke out in the colony, D'Ayllon died, and the discouraged settlers returned to Haiti. In compliance with the wish of the Spanish sovereign Charles V, D'Ayllon was accompanied by two Dominican missionaries, who were the first to oft'er Divine worship within the limits of the present United States. 40. The Attempted Conquest of Florida. Narvaez (1528) MAGELLAN VESPtJCIUS BALBOA SEBASTIAN OABOT Discoverers and Explorers THE SPANISH IN AMERICA 39 led from Cuba an unsuccessful expedition of four hundred men to conquer Florida. The company perished miserably ; only four of the nund)er survived to tell one of the saddest tales of history. Several Franciscan missionaries, one of whom, Father Juan Juarez, had been consecrated bishop of Florida, accompanied the unfortunate expedition and shared its fate. Cabeza de Vaca and three companions, the only survivors, were made slaves by the Indians, who regarded them as supernatural beings and hence spared their lives. In the course of eight years they wandered from Florida to the Gu]f of California, over two thousand miles, suffering incredible dangers and tor- tures. At California Vaca found Spanish friends from Mexico. He was an educated man, and made use of what he had seen on his astounding journey, by writing two interesting books, which roused the earnest exploration and colonization of what is now the United States. 41. Exploration of New Mexico and Arizona. Friar Marcos, an Italian Franciscan, Avas sent (1539) by the viceroy of Mexico to ascertain the truth of Vaca's wonderful tales, and to find the "Seven Cities of Cibola." Inflamed with zeal for the conversion of the Indians he traveled from Mexico across the intervening desert and discovered New Mexico and Arizona. Directed by the Indians, through whose villages he passed, he came at last in sight of the Zuni pueblos. Understand- ing the name of the city he saw to be Cibola, he called the pueblos "The Seven Cities of Cibola."' He planted a cross, took possession of the wild region which he called San Fran- cisco, and claimed it for Spain. The Indians proved hostile and killed one of his companions. Friar Marcos learned what he could of the strange terraced towns of wliich he had had but a glimpse, and returned to Mexico with great news, which he told, free from misrepresentation and exaggeration. 42. Grand Canon Discovered. Coronado, a young Spanish governor of one of the Mexican provinces, was sent (1540) by the governor of Mexico to conquer Cibola. With the tireless 40 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Friar Marcos as guide, he led a company of one hundred and eleven men from the Gulf of California northward, but found Cibola to be only the pueblos of the Zuni Indians. Later one of his companions discovered the canon of the Colorado River. Then turning eastward, Coronado pushed on as far as north- eastern Kansas. He found no wealthy cities, and no gold or silver, and returned (1542) to the city of Mexico. After the arrival of Coronado at Zuni, Friar Marcos returned to Mexico -^V^^^ // X±m-f^^ .-^^Kgrr -^ -. -« »u » ■js.^jT^r.:,^. 1 A. -*--^' ZUNI PUEBLOS on account of his physical infirmities. His three Franciscan companions labored among the Indians and became the first martyrs to their faith in the United States. 43. Exploration of the Pacific Coast. While Coronado was still roaming over the desolate plains of Oklahoma and Kansas, his countryman, Hernando de Alarcon (1540-1541), explored the Colorado River to a great distance from the gulf ; and Juan Cabrillo (1542) explored the Pacific coast as far north as Oregon. THE SPANISH IN AMERICA 41 44. Discovery of the Mississippi River. Fernando de Soto, governor of Cuba, landed at Tampa Bay, Florida, with neaily six hundred men, equipped for the conquest of a kingdom like that of Peru or Mexico. He found no treasures, only hard- ships and disappointments, but discovered (1541) the Missis sippi River at the present site of Memphis. De Soto died in 1542 and was buried in the great river he had discovered. The Spaniards called the Mississippi the River of the Holy Ghost. ADO 1540-1542 De Soto, 1 539-1542 Alarcon, 1540-1541 ROUTES OF EARLY SPANISH EXPLORERS 45. The Reformation — Effects in America. A religious change had taken place in Europe since the discovery of America. Western Europe had held one faith, the Roman Catholic, and all explorations in America up to this time had been made by Catholics. But in 1517 began what is called the "Protestant Reformation," which spread over many coun- tries of Europe. Subsequent disorders, bloody persecutions, and devastating wars in all the countries infested by the new heresies drove many to seek refuge in America. First of these were the Huguenots, or French heretics, who settled in Carolina and Florida. 42 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 46. Oldest City in the United States Proper. Menendez (1565) founded St. Augustine, the oldest city within the pres- ent limits of the United States. He cruelly destroyed the little French Huguenot settlement, called Fort Carolina, which was located north of St. Augustine. This deed was revenged shortly afterwards by the French adventurer, De Gourgues, who, on his own responsibility, attacked St. Augustine and mercilessly slew the colonists. 47. Second Oldest City. Juan de Onate, established (1605) on the site of an Indian pueblo, Santa Fe (contracted from a Spanish name meaning Holy Faith of St. Francis), the second oldest white settlement in the United States. Espejo explored New Mexico (1582), but died before he could carry out his project of colonizing any part of it. 48. Spain and the Indians. The policy of Spain toward the Indians was one of humanity, justice, education, and moral suasion. Both explorers and conquerors were commanded by the Spanish authorities to convert the Indians and to protect them against ill treatment. In spite of the good intentions of the Spanish government, however, individual Spaniards bi^ke. the strict law of their country and treated the Indians with utmost cruelty. 49. Spanish Settlements and Claims. During the sixteenth century Spain established colonies in the West Indies, Mexico, and Central America, and on the west and north coasts of South America. St. Augustine and Santa Fe were her two settlements within the limits of the present United States. Spain confined her explorations and settlements to the south- ern states, the Pacific coast, the West Indies, Mexico, Central America, and all of South America, except Brazil, which Avas claimed by Portugal. She based her claims on the rights of discovery, exploration, and conquest. Spanish occupancy in the New World began with the discovery of America by Co- lumbus (1492). It continued with the numerous discoveries, explorations, and conquests of other Spanish pioneers. It THE SPANISH IN AMERICA 43 flourished in hundreds of Spanish towns and colonies. Since 1898, however, Spain holds no possessions in the New World. 50. Spain and the New World. To Spain is due the dis- covery of the New World ; she it was who opened it to civiliza- tion. Her teachers taught the Spanish language and Christian faith to thousands of aborigines. There were Spanish schools for Indians in America as early as 1524. Many books in different Indian languages were printed by the Spanish in Mexico, where a printing press was set up as early as 1536. On the other hand, the only Indian book printed in America SPANISH MISSION OF SANTA BARBARA (CALIFORNIA) by the English, Avas John Eliot's Indian Bible. Spanish uni- versities in America were ready to celebrate their first centen- nial when Harvard was founded (1636). A great proportion of the Spanish pioneers were college-bred men, and intelligence went hand in hand with heroism in the early settlement of the New World. 51. First Churches — First Convent. The first church in what is now the United States was founded at St. Augustine, Florida (1565) ; the second in New Mexico, near Santa Fe (1598) ; the third at Santa Fe (about 1606) ; and the fourth also at Santa 44 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES Fe (1627). The original walls of the church of San Miguel, which was built in Santa Fe (1636), are still standing, and they form a part of a church which is used today. The oldest con- vent in the United States is the historical institution of the Ursulines in New Orleans, established in 1727. 52. Missionary Contribution to History. As historians, the early Spanish missionaries have made a great contribution to the world's knowledge. They bequeathed to posterity huge historical volumes which have become the greatest and most indispensable aids to a study of the real history of America. Of the many writers belonging to the monastic orders who made valuable contributions to history, some of the most prominent are the Franciscans Motolinia, Sahagun, Mendieta, and Torquemada, and the Jesuit Clavijero, 53. The Pioneer Missionaries. The missionaries Avere the pioneers not only of the cross and religion but also of civili- zation. At the very time when the Reformation was tearing whole nations from the bosom of the Church, this Church, through her missionaries, reared her glorious banner of the cross in the very heart of new nations and new peoples. , Amid untold hardships, with persevering zeal the pioneer mission- aries preached the gospel to the Indians, until eventually half of the natives of the continent became converted to Chris- tianity. These pious men lost no time in the good work of civilizing the Indians. They studied the language of the natives, won their confidence, and rooted out cannibalism. They gathered the dwellers of the Avilderness into settled habi- tations, and taught them to read and write and to sow and reap. Thus, in the course of about a century and a half from the date of discovery, a free, happy, and innocent population of more than a 'million Indians was instructed and civilized by zealous missionaries. The conversion of the Indians was accomplished chiefly by the religious orders, the first of which were the Benedictines and the Franciscans who arrived in the last decade of the THE SPANISH IN AMERICA 45 fifteenth century. These were followed by the Dominicans (1510) and the Jesuits (1549). All these orders had their examples of heroic virtue and glorious martyrdom. The Fran- ciscans, however, were preeminently the Apostles of Spanish America. 54. Some Pioneer Martyrs. Father Juan Padilla, one of the companions of Friar Marcos, was the first martyr on the soil of Kansas. Father Louis Cancer and Father Tolosa, two Dominicans, suffered martyrdom immediately after setting foot on the soil cf Florida (1549). The Jesuits (1566) entered Florida, where Father Martinez was slain, while Father Segura and five companions won their crown in Avhat is now the state of Virginia. The Franciscans (1577) attempted anew the con- version of the natives of Florida and labored among them for many years. In 1597 Father Corpa was slain at the altar by the Indians. Subsequently all the missionary stations in Florida were destroyed. CHAPTER V THE ENGLISH IN AMEEICA 55. First English Voyage to the New World. England was finally stirred to activity by the efforts of her rivals, Spain and Portngal, and by the belief that Columbus had found a new route to India. John Cabot, a native of Genoa and a former citizen of Venice, was a resident of Bristol, England, at the time when Columbus discovered America. Commissioned by Henry VH of England, in May, 1497, one year before Columbus discovered the mainland of South America, Cabot sailed west from England and discovered the continent of North America, on June 24th of the same year, probably at Labrador or Cape Breton Island. He, like Columbus, thought that the newly found land was a part of Cathay. 56. Second English Voyage. John Cabot made a second voyage, probably accompanied by his son, Sebastian, sailing southward as far as the region now called North Carolina. England later claimed the whole of the Atlantic seaboard on the ground of Cabot's discoveries, but for more than sixty years after they were made she showed no further interest in them. Cabot had twiced failed to find India with its wealth, but he planted the cross on the shores of the New "World, as a Catholic priest accompanied the expeditions. 57. English Slave Trade. Like many other people of his time, Sir John Hawkins could see nothing wrong in slavery. He regarded negroes as property similar to domestic animals, and he actually felt proud of his share in opening up this shameless traffic in America. In 1562 he began kidnapping negroes from the west coast of Africa. He sold them in the West Indies, and from there carried valuable cargoes to England. 46 TTTE ENGLISH IN AMERICA 47 48 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 58. Second Circumnavig-ation of the Globe. Sir Francis Drake (1570-1573) made three phnulering voyages to the West Indies, where he raided Spanish towns and despoiled Spanish vessels. From Panama lie saw tlie Paeific Ocean and deter- mined to sail on its waters. He set out from England in 1577 with a fleet of five vessels and sailed through the strait discovered by Magellan fifty years before. With only one ship, the Pelican, he followed the Pacific coast as far north as Oregon, plundering Spanish vessels and capturing stores of THE SHIP IN WHICH DRAKE SAILED AKOL ND THE WORLD gold and silver. He named the coast of California and Oregon New Albion. He next crossed the Pacific and passed the Philippine Islands, discovered by Magellan, and, making his way across the Indian Ocean, around the Cape of Good Hope, finally reached England in 1580. 59. In Search of a Northwest Passage. Frobisher made an unsuccessful attempt to go north of America to Asia. During his three voyages he explored a part of the Pacific Ocean and discovered a few bays and inlets on the coast of North America (1576-1579) among which was Frobisher Bay. THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA 49 John Davis (1585) persistently attempted to push his way north of America to Asia. Like Frobisher, he left only his name on the map of that region of perpetual winter. William Baffin (1616) explored Baffin Bay and discovered Lancaster and Smitirs souiids, two Jiortliern arms of this bay. 60. Motives for Colonization — Attempts. In the coloniza- tion of America the English had various objects in view. They hoped to find gold and planned to make the American colonies stopping places on their voyages to Asia, as well as stations from which Spanish treasure-ships might be plundered. Sir Humphrey Gilbert made several ill-fated voyages to America, the last (1583) of which was an unsuccessful attempt to found a colony at Newfoundland. He was wrecked, with all his crew, in mid-ocean on the homeward voyage. Although Sir Walter Raleigh, the half-brother of Gilbert, never actually visited the shores of the United States, he made an exploring expedition to the valley of the Orinoco and two unsuccessful attempts to plant colonies in Virginia, Raleigh planned these expeditions and furnished a large part of the funds to fit them out. In 1584 he sent out Amidas and Barlowe, who explored Albemarle and Pamlico sounds, and visited Roa- noke Island. LTpon their return to England, Queen Elizabeth called the country which they described Virginia, in honor of her own maiden state. Raleigh next sent out (1585) a company of men under the leadership of Ralph Lane and Sir Richard Grenville. These established a colony on Roanoke Island. The colonists spent their time in searching for gold and for a western passage. Soon their provisions were exhausted and they went back to England with Sir Francis Drake, who was returning from one of his expeditions to the West Indies. Raleigh sent another colony (1587) to Roanoke Island. This time the company consisted of men and women under the command of John White. Governor White soon returned to England in the interest of the colony. There he found the 50 A HISTORY OF THE "UNITED STATES f :<^z attention of the whole kingdom directed toward the Invincible Armada, hence he was unable to revisit the island for some years. When at length he arrived at Roanoke Island in 1590 the colony had disappeared. 61. Results of Ra- leigh's Efforts. Though Raleigh was not success- ful in planting a colony in America, he lived long enough to see his plans realized in 1607, when England founded her first permanent settle- ment at Jamestown, Vir- ginia. Raleigh's American colonists introduced into England the white potato or "New Root," tobacco or "New Weed," and maize or "Indian Corn." The potato soon became the leading product in Ireland, and is now called the Irish potato. The smoking of tobacco is now world-wide. Its pro- duction constituted the chief source of wealth of several of the early English colonies. The soil and climate of Europe proved unsuited to the growth of Indian corn, and America still leads the world as a corn-producing country. 62. The Defeat of the Invincible Armada. The crushing overthrow of the Invincible Armada established the sea power of England and marked the downfall of Spain's maritime su- INDIAN VILLAGE. FROM A DRAWING BY GOVERNOR WHITE THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA 51 premaey. The Atlantic Ocean became alive with English cruisers and hundreds of Spanish ships fell victims to their attacks. Spain, weakened by lier conquest of the New World and by her long wars in Europe, never recovered from the blow England dealt her by the crushing overthrow of the Invincible Armada. 63. First Englishman in New England. Bartholomew Gos- nold (1602) by sailing directly west, shortened the route across the Atlantic by more than one thousand five hundred miles. He explored the Massachusetts coast; named Cape Cod and Martha's A^ineyard; and attempted to make a settlement at Cuttyhunk Island, at the entrance of Buzzard's Bay, When he returned to England lie gave such glowing accounts of the country that the Plymouth and London Companies were formed for the purpose of encouraging colonization. Until Gosnold's expedition, no voyagers, except John Cabot, had undertaken the direct course across the Atlantic. His prede- cessors had followed the track of Columbus by way of the Canary Islands and the West Indies. 64. Cause of England's Failure at Colonization. All the attempts made by England during the sixteenth century to colonize America proved failures. This was due to the follow- ing causes : (a) the main object of most of the colonists was to search for gold ; (6) the search for gold led to neglect of agriculture and to consequent starvation ; (c) the Indians proved hostile; (d) the Invincible Armada so absorbed the interest of the mother country that she paid little attention to her starving American colonies. 65. The Virginia Company, This company was a commer- cial corporation somewhat like the stock companies of our day, composed of joint stockholders, many of whom were mer- 52 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES chants and adventurers. It was organized for the purpose of trade and settlement in the New World and was chartered by James I (1606). It consisted of two divisions, the London and the Plyraoutli Companies, named from the cities in England in which they were organized. The king lived in London and to the London Company he gave the choicest land, wdiich was the fertile region between 34° and 38° north latitude, extending one hundred miles in- land. The grant of the Plymouth Company included the land between 41° and 45° north latitude, also extending one hun- dred miles inland. The Plymouth Company attempted to plant its first settlement south of the Kennebec River in Maine (1607). This proved a complete failure, and the Company passed out of existence. A new corporation, however, was organized at Plymouth, Eng- land (1620), called the Council of Plymouth, with a grant of land similar to that of the old company. The first settle- ment in the territory granted to the Council of Plymouth was made by the Puritan Separatists at Plymouth, Massachusetts (1620). The first settlement made under the auspices of the London Company was at Jamestown, Virginia (1607). 66. English Claims. England established her colonies only along the Atlantic coast from Nova Scotia to Florida. How- ever, she claimed territory from ocean to ocean, because of the discoveries of John Cabot, Sir Walter Raleigh, and Gos- nold. The English claims and occupancy in the New World began with the discovery of North America by John Cabot. They continued with the subsequent English enterprises and suc- cessful colonization along the Atlantic seaboard. England still occupies in the New World : Canada in North America, Belize in Central America, British Guiana in South America, the Bermuda Islands in the Atlantic, some of the islands of the West Indies — the Bahamas, Barbados, Jamaica, and most of the lesser Antilles. CHAPTER VI THE FEENCH IN AMERICA 67. Discovery of Newfoundland Fisheries. The great de- mand for fish in Europe early exhausted the neighboring fishing grounds. While England at first sought the codfisheries about Iceland, the hardy French fishermen, prompted by the reports of John Cabot, ventured farther west each year, until at last they came upon the immense shoals of codfish on the banks of Newfoundland, probably as early as 1504. They opened up a great fishing industry in these waters and traded with the Indians of the adjacent coasts of Labrador and Nova Scotia. 68. First French Voyage. Giovanni Verrazano, like Colum- bus and Cabot, was a native of Italy. Commissioned by Francis I, he set out in search of a passage to India (1524). Leaving Dieppe, France, on the frigate Dolphin, which was manned by trusty fishermen from the Breton ports, he sailed for the IVIadeira Islands and thence to the American coast where he landed after a stormy voyage of fifty-five days, near what is now called Cape Fear. Coasting northward to Nova Scotia, he landed at diiTerent points and discovered the mouth of the Hudson River and Narragansett Bay. Owing to wars and political contentions in Europe, which arose from the Prot- estant reformation, ten years elapsed before another expedi- tion could be sent out from France. 69. Discovery of the St. Lawrence. James Cartier, a promi- nent French mariner, made three voyages (1534-1541) to the New World under the authority of Francis I. On his first voyage he sailed through Belle Isle Strait and entered the estuary of the St. Lawrence River, which he named in honor of the saint of the day. He planted the cross and the French 53 54 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES banner on the shores of the gulf. On his second voyage he ascended the St. Lawrence, saw the great rock on which Quebec now stands, and pushed on to an Iroquois village which he called Montreal. His third expedition was fitted out by Sieur Eoberval for the purpose of planting a colony at the present site of Quebec, but the attempt proved a failure. ^^r^ ^ |]f>^- :ir-~~^w^^^'^'^m^^^^t^^^^^ su*^ ■^ ^y^^f^ :§ \r%octAm'/j ^J W^ fe -mi C^ \cATAyo \____ Gl 2 -yxS^ ^ t ^ s 8 '^ zSasjiii- m W\ ^■^'{a ^"^''1 -l!iiii^^^^*^/y M ^ 1 i ^ o/cuio MJiamo I 1 S & E- f ^ / / ■^ pi ^s ^ N iv / // /"^ P--cf^ I^S'HHe?^ ^^--"^yvl J \ \\ \ MAP ILLUSTRATING EUROPEAN IDEA OF AMERICA IN 1548 Though Cartier failed in his original object to find a western route to India and to discover mines of precious metal, and also in his efforts to plant an American colony, he nevertheless procured valuable information concerning the country and its people, and discovered and explored the St. Lawrence River and Gulf. 70. French Huguenots in the South. France became so occupied with her wars that she gave but little thought to America for the next half-century, attempting only the mem- THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 55 orable Huguenot settlements in Carolina and Florida. Gaspard Coligny, the leader of the French Huguenots, planned to establish a Huguenot state in America, and under his auspices Jean Ribault (1562) made an unsuccessful attempt to plant a settlement on the coast of South Carolina. He called the liarbor Port Royal and the newly constructed fortress Fort Carolina in honor of the reigning French sovereign, Charles IX. Laudonniere (1564), the leader of the second colonizing expedition organized by Coligny, built a second Fort Carolina on the St. John's River farther south. This was the settle- ment which was broken up and destroyed by Menendez, the founder of St. Augustine. France made no further attempt to colonize that section of the country. 71. French Settlements. Sieur de Monts was granted by Henry IV a monopoly of the fur trade between the present site of Pliiladelphia and Cape Breton Island (40°-46°), a region called Acadia, which name in later years was restricted to what is now known as Nova Scotia. Under De Monts (1605) Port Royal, now Annapolis, Nova Scotia, was founded. Two years later'the colony was abandoned but was reoccupied (1610) and became a central station for the Jesuit missionaries among the Indians. De Monts was a Protestant, but the royal patent au- thorizing his enterprise provided that the natives be taught the Catholic faith. 72. First Permanent French Settlement. Samuel de Cham- plain was the ruling spirit and prominent figure in French exploration and early colonization, and may justly be called the "Founder of Canada." He saw the possibility of great wealth to be gained from the fur trade and the discovery of gold and piously hoped to convert the Indians to the Catholic faith. The illustrious Champlain established (1608) a trading colony at Quebec, the first permanent French settlement in America. 73. Champlain's Explorations — His Encounter with the Iroquois. Champlain explored and described our northeast 56 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES coast, discovered the beautiful Lake Champlain (1609) and pushing into the interior, was the first white man to see Lakes Ontario and Huron. He made friends with the neighboring Huron and Algonquin Indians, who lived in bitter enmity with the Iroquois Nations located in New York and about Lake Erie. He (1609) accompanied an expedition of Hurons and Algon- quins against the Mohawks, an eastern tribe of the Five Nations, and defeated the hostile Indians near the present site of Crown Point. The Iroquois were the bravest, most powerful, and most bloodthirsty of the North American Indians. This victory of the French over the Iroquois had two far-reaching effects : (a) it made the Iroquois the deadly enemies of the French. This kept the latter from occupying New York and the Hudson Valley, and, consequently, obliged them to extend their settlements westward; (6) it rendered the Iroquois friendly to the Dutch and English, with whom they established a profitable fur trade. 74. Motives Prompting French Exploration and Coloniza- tion. The early French pioneers sought : (a) a western passage to India : (h) mines of precious metal; (c) the industries afforded by the fish and fur trade; (d) the extension of French dominion; (e) especially and above all, did they seek the conversion of the Indian. With the French, traffic was second to religion. The illustrious founder of Canada, Champlain, writes, ''The salvation of a single soul is Avorth more than the conquest of an empire." 75. The First Missionaries in Quebec. Three Franciscan priests and one lay brother came to Canada at the invitation of Champlain, whose first care was to provide apostolic men for the neighboring Indian tribes. The Jesuits joined the Franciscans (1625) and the two orders labored conjointly for the conversion of the American Red Man. A little convent and THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 57 chapel were erected at Quebec, and Holy Mass was for the first time celebrated on the banks of the mighty St. Lawrence, June 25th, 1615. This was the beginning of Catholicity in Canada. During a century and a half the church of Quebec was the only center of faith (the Catholic colony of Maryland excepted) in the immense region extending from Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico. 76. The French Win the Indians. The French knew how to win the stern and silent Indians of the north. They formed alliances and traded with the tribes in the neighborhood. Their missionaries came without weapons, shared the life of the Indians, and surpassed them in endurance. Consequently the savages respected the Frenchmen and submitted to their authority and many of them accepted their faith. Parkman QUEBEC AS IT IS TODAY says, "France aimed to subdue, not by the sword but by the cross. She invaded only to convert, to civilize, and to embrace the natives among her children." 77. Prosperity of Quebec. Champlain, governor of Canada, returned (1633) to Quebec which had for a short time been in the hands of the English. From now on the colony advanced with rapid strides on the road to prosperity. Immigrants flowed in, the Jesuits resumed the work commenced in 1625, and Quebec became the flourishing center from which missionaries went forth to discovery, to spiritual conquest, or to martyrdom. 58 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Bancroft writes: "Not a cape was turned or a river entered, but a Jesuit led the way." 78. Exploration of the Mississippi. Count Frontenac, an able governor of New France (1672-1681; 1689-1698), used his influence to advance the exploration of the waterways of the Mississippi Valley and to effect peace with the Iroquois Indians. Jean Nicolet, commissioned by Champlain to find a waterway to the Pacific, ascended the Ottawa River, and passing through lakes Huron and Michigan to Green Bay, began the explora- FRENCH EXPLORERS AND THE INDIANS tions which were eventually followed by Father Marquette and Louis Joliet. Father Marquette, a Jesuit missonary, and Joliet, a French explorer and fur trader, were commissioned by Frontenac to search for a passage to the South Sea. Joliet started from Quebec (1673) and, joined by Father Marquette at Mackinac, and several other Frenchmen, made his way through Green Bay, up the Fox River, and down the beau- tiful Wisconsin and the majestic Mississippi as far as the Arkansas River. On their way down the Mississippi, they disembarked for a time at the mouth of the Des Moines River, THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 59 and were thus the first white men in the state of Iowa. They were joyfully welcomed by the Illinois Indians, a mild, digni- fied, and hospitable race. This event is well described in the following extract from Longfellow's Hiawatha: From the farthest reahns of morning Came the Black-Eobe chief, the Prophet, He the Priest of Prayer, the Pale-face, With his guides and his companionso Then the joyous Hiawatha Cried aloud and spoke in this wise: "Beautiful is the sun, O strangers, When you come so far to see us! All our town in peace awaits you, All our doors stand open for you; You shall enter all our wigwams, For the heart's right hand we give you." And the Black-Eobe chief made answer: "Peace be with you Hiawatha, Peace be with you and your people. Peace of prayer, and peace of pardon. Peace of Christ and joy of Mary! " All the warriors of the nation Came to bid the strangers welcome, "It is well, ' ' they said, ' ' O brothers, That you come so far to see us ! " Then the Black-Kobe chief, the Prophet, Told them of the Virgin Mary, And her blessed Son, the Saviour. And the chiefs made answer saying: "We have listened to your message. We have heard your words of wisdom, We will think on what you tell us. It is well for us, O brothers. That you come so far to see us." At the mouth of the Arkansas they became convinced that the river would not carry them to the Pacific, and they retraced their course by way of the Illinois. After spending some time at the mission of St. Francis Xavier, Green Bay, Joliet returned to Quebec to report to Frontenac. 60 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES The humble and saintly Father Marquette preached the gospel to the Miamis, who dwelt in the north of Illinois, around the present site of Chicago. Father Marquette named the Missis- sippi (so-called by the Indians) the river of the Immaculate Conception. 79. Results of the Discovery of the Mississippi. Father Marquette, by his extraordinary voyage, revealed to the world the wonderful fact that the St. Lawrence communicates with the Gulf of Mexico by an almost uninterrupted chain of lakes and rivers. The whole Mississippi Valley, the richest, most, fertile and accessible part of North America, was open to France. 80, Further Explorations. Robert La Salle, second only to Champlain among the French explorers, a sincere Catliolic, a man of strong mind and iron will, set out from Canada to TADOUSAC, CANADA. FATHER MARQUETTE LIVED HERE MANY YEARS complete the work of Father Marquette and Joliet. His aims were twofold : (a) to establish military and trade centers at various points; (h) to plant a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi River. The accomplishment of these two objects, would put within French control the valuable fur trade of the interior. It w^ould also give them a waterway on which the furs could be trans- ported more conveniently than on the St. Lawrence, which is frozen for a considerable part of the year. La Salle, having discovered the Ohio River (1669), established THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 61 (1679) Fort Frontenac on Lake Ontario where Kingston now stands, and from here he made a series of explorations which lasted nearly ten years. He built and launched on the Niagara River, the Griffin, which was the first vessel to sail upon the waters of the Great Lakes. Accompanied by a small band including three Franciscan priests, he navigated lakes Erie, St. Clair, Huron, and Michigan. From Lake Michigan he made his way to the Illinois River where he established a fort near the present site of Peoria. In 1682 La Salle floated down the Mississippi to its mouth, planted the cross and took possession of the great central valley of the continent for France, naming it Louisiana in honor of Louis XIV. Two years later he attempted to plant a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi, but failing to find the river, he landed instead on the shores of Texas. While trying to reach Canada to secure aid. La Salle was treacherously killed by one of his company. Father Hennepin, a Franciscan in La Salle's company, dis- covered Niagara Falls. Exploring the northern Mississippi, he ascended as far as the present site of St. Paul, where he dis- covered and named the Falls of St. Anthony of Padua. On this expedition, he was captured by the Sioux Indians, from whom he was rescued by Du Lhut, the French fur trader (1679). 81. French Posts. To make good their claims to the Mis- sissippi Valley, the French built a chain of forts from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico, about sixty in all — among them Detroit (1686), Duluth (1701), and Vincennes (1702). They also planted several settlements on the gulf itself — Biloxi (1699), Mobile (1700), and New Orleans (1718). 82. French Territory. France claimed : (a) Acadia (comprising what is now New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and a part of Maine) by virtue of the explora- tions of Verrazano and De Monts; (&) the St. Lawrence and Great Lake basins by virtue of the explorations of Cartier and Champlain; 62 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES (c) the basin of the Mississippi River by virtue of the explora- tions of Joliet, Fathers Marquette and Hennepin, and La Salle. The English also laid claim to this region because of the previous discovery by John Cabot, hence these rival claims nececsarily became the cause of future contention and vv^ar. 83. French Claims. The French claims in the New World began with the exploring voyage of Verrazano (1-524). They were strengthened by the subsequent French explorations, and the numerous posts and settlements established along the St. Lawrence, Great Lakes, and the Mississippi, and ended with the treaty of Paris, 1763, which was the outcome of the French and Indian war. France still holds in the New World : French Guiana in South America, three of the islands of the West Indies — Martinique, St. Bartholomew, Guadeloupe — and two small islands south of Newfoundland, Miquelon, and St. Pierre. 84. The Missionary Pioneers. The Catholic missionaries in French America, like those in Spanish America, were the pio- neers of the cross, of exploration, of colonization, and of civ- ilization. The cross always accompanied, and sometimes even preceded, the banner of earthly conquest. With sublime faith and patience the intrepid Franciscan and Jesuit missionaries pressed their toilsome way to the widely-spread Indian tribes of Canada, Maine, New York, Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, Minne- sota, and Iowa ; never pausing in spite of snows and frost and pathless wilds and waters, till Catholicity had made the circuit of New France from the estuary of the St. Lawrence to the mouth of the Mississippi. While the Franciscans were the leading evangelizers of the Indians in the South, the Jesuits were preeminently the Apostles of the North. 85. Father Druillettes — Father Rasle. Father Druillettes, S. J. (1646), the Apostle of the Hurons, penetrated the forests lying between the St. Lawrence and the Kennebec Rivers, and completely won the hearts of the Abnakis. He joined Fathers THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 63 Marquette, Allouez, and Dablon, who were laboring in northern Wisconsin and Michigan (1669). Fatlier Rasle, S. J., with seven of his Abnaki chiefs, was killed (1724) at the mission cross by a band of English and their allied pagan Mohawks who bore down npon the little Christian Abnaki village while most of the warriors were absent. After the murder of Father Rasle the Puritans would not allow a Catholic priest to live among the Abnakis. Nevertheless, these Indians remained firm in their faith. Every Sunday, before the priestless altars, the words of the Mass were said, vespers were chanted, and parents baptized their children. The Abnakis fought in the army of Washington beside their Eng- lish persecutors, and were then distinguished for their bravery, just as their descendants of today are distinguished for their tried and ardent faith. 86. Father James Marquette, S. J. (1637-1675). Father Marquette was the first to labor among the Ottawas on the south shore of Lake Superior, Sault Ste. Marie and La Point being the centers of his work. He next preached to the Hurons of Mackinac. After his exploration of the Mississippi, he returned to the gentle Illini (Illinois and Iowa) whom he had met on his way down the river, and founded a mission at Kaskaskia. Conscious that death was near, he attempted to return to Mackinac ; but expired in the thirty-eighth year of his life (1675), on the shores of a small river of Michigan which bears his name. He was buried near where he died, but twelve years later his body was exhumed and interred beneath the church at Mackinac. The Indians frequently came to pray at his tomb, and French mariners never failed to invoke Father Marquette when they were in peril on Lake Michigan. 87. Father Isaac Jogues (1607-1646). Father Jogues en- tered the Jesuit novitiate at Paris at the age of seventeen and immediately after his ordination (1636), at his own request, was sent to the Huron missions in Canada. He visited the Chippewa Indians and later Avas captured by the Mohawks who 64 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES carried him to New York, where he was subjected to all the horrors of Indian cruelty — was made to run the gauntlet three times; his finger nails were torn out; his hands and feet dislo- cated and mutilated, and his left thumb cut off. He was held captive by the Indians for fifteen months. Concerning the cap- tivity of Father Jogues, Bancroft writes: "Roaming through the- stately forests of the Mohawk Valley, he wrote the name of Jesus on the bark of the trees, graved the cross, and entered into possession of these regions in the name of God, often lift- ing up his voice in a solitary chant." Through the kind- ness of the Dutch Governor Kieft, Father Jogues escaped and from New York was con- veyed to France. He was everywhere received with honor, and, notwithstanding his mutilated hands. Pope Urban VIII granted him special permission to read Holy Mass, saying: ' ' It would be wrong to prevent the martyr of Christ from drink- ing the Blood of Christ. ' ' His heart, however, was with the Indians, and he boarded the first vessel that left France for America. Returning to Canada and once more entering New York, the scene of his former suffering, he received the long-coveted crown of martyrdom at the hands of the Mohawks (1646). 88. Fathers Breboeuf and Lallemand. Father Breboeuf, S. J. (1593-1649), styled by Spalding the "Xavier of the Hurons," came to the Canadian missions (1625). He soon mas- tered the difficult Huron language and became "all to all, in order to gain all to Christ." Father Gabriel Lallemand, S. J. (1610-1649), the "Aloysius of the Huron Mission," called by Bancroft the "Gentle FATHER ISAAC JOGUES THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 65 Lallemand," was a co-laborer of Father Breboeuf. Both of these illustrious missionaries were seized by the Iroquois and cruelly tortured. Father Breboeuf suffered for nearly three hours; Father Lallemand much longer. Spalding, speaking of the death of Lallemand and Breboeuf, says : "The former was a lamb, the latter a lion. The lion and the lamb were immolated together for their love of God and of their neighbor. Yet did the lamb die much more slowly than the lion." 89. Father Daniel — Father Rene Menard — Father Claude Allouez. Father Daniel, S. J. (1648), while employed in mis- sionary labors among the Hurons, was killed at the foot of the altar during an Iroquois massacre. Father Rene Menard, S. J., a survivor of the Huron missions and former companion of Fathers Jogues and Breboeuf, labored among the Ottawas, and after incredible hardships and wan- derings, founded a mission on Keweenaw Bay, northern Michi- gan. He was lost in the forests and never again heard from (1661). Father Claude Allouez, S. J., undismayed by the fate of Father Menard, carried the gospel through what is now Wis- consin and northern Michigan, and established a mission at Green Bay. He was joined by Fathers Marquette and Dablon, and the three founded (1669) St. Mary's, the oldest city in Michigan. They employed themselves in evangelizing the vast regions extending from Green Bay to the head of Lake Superior. 90. Noted Indian Converts. Most of the early missionaries in French America met a violent death. Their noble ranks, thinned by hardships, fierce tortures, and agonizing deaths, were filled anew by great souls who pressed forward to share in the toil and dangers of the missionaries. Step by step, vast numbers from every tribe were won over for Christ and civili- zation. Even the fierce Iroquois finally yielded to the benign influences of faith. Foremost among them was Garacontie, the great chief of the Five Nations, who was baptized by Bishop 66 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES Laval in the Cathedral of Quebec and became the bulwark of Christianity. At his baptism were present, the French governor as sponsor, and other Frenchmen of noble rank, lordly sachems from the Hurons on Lake Huron, gentle Mohegan chiefs from the banks of the Hudson, faithful Abnakis from the valley of the St. Lawrence, stately Chippewas from Lake Superior, and noble Iro- quois from every tribe in New York. Another notable Indian convert was the great Mohawk chief, Kryn. Coming under the influence of the Christian village of La Prairie, he soon became a devout Catholic. "When his tribe would not listen to his pleadings that they become wor- shipers of the true God, he raised his wild war cry for the last time in the streets of the village, and, gather- ing a number of devoted followers, knelt with them amid the graves of his fathers and uttered a fervent prayer for his nation. Then he arose, and, with streaming eyes, led his followers to the village of La Prairie on the St. Lawrence. Catherine Tekawitha, styled the "Lily of the Mohawks," was born in New York on the very soil drenched with the blood of Father Jogues. Becoming an orphan at an early age, she lived with an uncle who has hostile toward the Christians. She was secretly baptized and henceforward gave herself entirely to God, devoting her time to prayer, to the practice of austerities and kindly deeds. She fled from her uncle's rage to La Prairie, where, after a chaste, austere, and saintly life, she died as she had lived, with the holy names of Jesus LILY OF THE MOHAWKS THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 67 and Mary upon her lips. Catherine's grave became an object of veneration where the rich and poor of every race came and knelt to pay her homage. This devotion, rewarded by God with miraculous cures, still subsists, and a large cross marks the spot where repose the remains of the "Lily of the Mohawks." 91. The Missionaries, the Pioneers of Discovery, Explora- tion, and Civilization. The missionaries were the first white men to sail on our great rivers and lakes, to admire our mighty THE missionary's BLESSING cataracts and rapids, to penetrate and traverse our majestic forests. A Jesuit discovered the salt springs of New York (Father Le Moyne, 1654) ; a Franciscan drew attention to the oil springs of Pennsylvania (Father de la Roche, 1627) ; a Jesuit lay brother first worked the copper mines on Lake Superior; the first sugar cane was raised by Jesuits in New Orleans. The missionaries introduced the cultivation of wheat and the use of the plow. They founded the first schools and the first college (Quebec, 1635) and set up the first printing press (Father Richard) in the North. 68 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES The pioneer missionaries wrote descriptions of all they had seen and experienced and sent them to the superior in France. This remarkable series of letters has been collected into seventy-five volumes called the "Jesuit Relations" (1610-1691) of which there is an English translation edited by Reuben G. Thwaites. 92. First Nuns in New France. The hospital nuns from Dieppe opened a public hospital at Quebec. They received into it not only the sufferers among the emigrants, but the maimed, the sick, and the blind from the numerous tribes between the Kennebec and the St. Lawrence. The Ursuline nuns came to Quebec (1639) and established a convent into which they re- ceived the dusky daughters of the wilderness for religious and secular instruction. 93. Devotion to the Blessed Virgin Mary in North America. The early Spanish explorers came with the banner of Mary; the name of the ship of Columbus was St. Mary; the earliest shrines were reared under her invocation ; bay and river and mountain received the hallowed name ; the first city on the mainland that became a bishop's see was St. Mary's. The ardent sons of France chose the icy realms of Canada to plant the Lilies of France, but its rigors could not chill devotion to Mary. Montreal Island saw a city rise with the name of Ville Marie. As the missionaries made their way westward, the worship of St. Mary marked their path till the great Missis- sippi, the River of the Immaculate Conception, bore them down toward those Spanish realms where every officer swore to defend the Immaculate Conception. CHAPTER VII THE DUTCH IN AMEEICA 94. Dutch Maritime Enterprise. While Spain, England, and France were exploring and colonizing America, Holland was occupied with trade and commerce. The Dutch were the merchants for all the neighboring countries. They sent out fleets to the East Indies whence they brought back the prod- ucts of the tropics. Various trading companies had been organized for this purpose, the most important of which was the Dutch East India Company (1602). This company sent its navigators not only around the Cape of Good Hope, but also along the routes of Magellan and Drake across the Pacific to HUDSON 'S SHIP, THE HALF MOON Australasia. They endeavored, moreover, to shorten these routes to Asia by sailing north of Europe. Henry Hudson, an Englishman in the service of Holland (1609) was sent by the Dutch East India Company to search for a northern route around Europe. He sailed from Amster- dam in a vessel called the Half Moon. Being stopped by the ice, he turned westward and, after a voyage of four months, reached America. Sailing along the coast, he entered the present New York harbor, where he believed that he had found the passage through America to the Pacific. He sailed up the 69 70 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES river which now bears his name, as far as the site of Albany, and made friends with the Iroquois. At almost the same time, Champlain, not a hundred miles away, fought an eventful battle with that powerful Indian nation. 95. Results of Hudson's Voyage. Hudson's report that the new country abounded in fur-bearing animals created interest in the commercial cities of Holland. Subsequently trading posts were established at the present sites of New York (New Amsterdam) and Albany (Fort Orange) as early as 1613-1614. / iit'uw ^ ImflrrJtim c'V .h fAiinhat.ar.s- •it il.% THE TRADING POST AT NEW AMSTERDAM Later the Dutch West India Company was formed for the pur- pose of trade and colonization in America. Hudson, who had hoped to reach China, considered his voyage a failure and determined to attempt to go north of America to Asia. This time, in the service of England (1610), he passed through the entire length of what is now Hudson Strait and entered the broad waters of Hudson Bay, where his crew, frightened by the Arctic cold and ice, rose in mutiny. They set their great captain and his seven-year-old son adrift in an open boat on the vast waters of Hudson Bay, leaving them there to perish. 96. Dutch Motives and Claims. The Dutch were attracted to the American shores principally by the promising trade in THE DUTCH IN AMERICA 71 furs with the Indians, and also by the prospects of successful colonization. The Dutch laid claim to the land extending between the Delaware and Connecticut rivers by right of Hud- son's explorations. They called this region New Netherland. 97. Dutch Claims. The Dutch claims in the New World began with the exploration of Henry Hudson (1609). They continued with the fur trading voyages and subsequent settle- ments in the present state of New York, and ended when, in 1674, New Netherland was permanently surrendered to the English. Holland still holds in the New World : Dutch Guiana in South America, and some of the West Indies — Curacao and St. Eustatius. CHEONOLOGICAL EEVIEW 874-1492 874, Northmen discover Iceland. 984. Northmen discover Greenland. .1002. Leif Ericson discovers America and establishes a Norse colony in Vinland. 1095. The Crusades begin. 1295. Marco Polo returns from China. 1435. Columbus is born. 1440. Printing is invented by Gutenberg at Strassburg. 1487. Bartholomew Diaz discovers the Cape of Good Hope. 1492-1519 Ferdinand and Isabella are king and queen of Spain. Henry VII, king of England. All civilized Euroi^e is Catholic. 1492. (Aug. 3) Columbus sails from Spain. 1492. (Oct. 12) Columbus discovers America — explores San Salvador, Cuba, Haiti. 1493. Columbus makes a second voyage — discovers Jamaica, Porto Rico, Windward Islands, and establishes a Spanish colony at Isabella, Haiti. 1493. Father Juan Perez offers the first Holy Sacrifice of the Mass in America at Isabella, Haiti. 1493. Pope Alexander VI establishes the line of Demarca- tion. 1494. The first Catholic church is founded at Isabella, Haiti. 1497. Cabot discovers North America. 1497. Vasco da Gama doubles the Cape of Good Hope and finds a new route to India. 1498. Columbus makes his third voyage — discovers Trini- dad Island and the continent of South America. 72 CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW 73 1498. Cabot makes his second voyage and explores part of the North American coast. 1500. Cabral discovers Brazil and claims it for Portugal. 1500. Americus Vespucius explores the northeastern coast of South America. 1502. Columbus makes his fourth voyage — discovers Cen- tral America and the Isthmus of Panama ; he seeks a passage to the Indian Ocean at the Isthmus of Panama. 1502. Las Casas comes to America. 1504. Isabella dies. (Nov. 26.) 1504. French fishermen fish for cod on the banks of New- foundland. 1506. Columbus dies. (Ascension day, May 20). 1509. Henry VIII of England commences his reign. 1511. Ponce de Leon founds San Juan, Porto Rico. 1513. Ponce de Leon discovers and claims the peninsula of Florida for Spain. 1513. Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean and claims it and the land bordering on it for Spain. 1519-1558 Emperor Charles V, ruler of Germany, Austria, Spain, and Spanish America. King Henry VIII, King Edward VI, and Queen Mary reign in England. King Francis I and Henry II rule in France. Luther apostatizes. Henry VIII rejects the authority of the pope and establishes a state church. Calvin founds Calvinism. Many people leave the Koman Catholic Church and become Protestants. 1519. Cortez conquers Mexico. 1519-1522. Magellan circumnavigates the globe. 1524. Verrazano coasts the American shore from Cape Fear to Nova Scotia and claims it for France. 1526. D'Ayllon attempts to found a colony in Virginia. 74 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 1528, Narvaez leads an unsuccessful expedition to conquer Florida. Bishop Juarez and his companions perish. 1528-1536. De Vaca and his companions cross the continent. 1531-1536. Pizarro conquers Peru. 1534-1535. Cartier explores the gulf and river of St. Law- rence as far as the site of the present Montreal, 1536. The bishop of Mexico sets up the first printing press in the New World. 1539. Friar Marcos penetrates New Mexico and discovers the Zuni pueblos. 1539-1542. De Soto sets out for Florida in search of a king- dom of gold, discovers the Mississippi River, 1541, dies, and is buried in the waters of the river he dis- covered. 1540-1542. Coronado, ]540, leads an expedition to conquer Cibola, which is found to be the pueblos of the Zuni Indians. He traverses the present New Mexico, dis- covering the Colorado River and caiion and entering the lands of Colorado and Kansas in search of gold. 1540-1541. Alarcon explores the Colorado River a great distance from the gulf. 1542. Cabrillo explores the western coast of America as far north as Oregon. 1549. Fathers Tolosa and Cancer receive the crown of martj^rdom in Florida — the first martyrs within the limits of the present United States. 1558-1607 Queen Elizabeth and James I reign in England. Francis II, Charles IX, Henry III, and Henry IV reign in France. Philip II and Philip III reign in Spain. The principal countries of Europe are involved in religious and political wars. 1562. French Huguenots under Ribault make an unsuccess- ful attempt to plant a settlement at Port Royal, South Carolina. CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW 75 1562. John Hawkins begins his slaving voyages. 1564. The Huguenots under Laudonniere plant a colony in Florida. 1565. Menendez founds St. Augustine, the oldest city in the United States proper. 1570-1573. Father Segura and companions win the crown of martyrdom in what is now Virginia. 1570-1573. Sir Francis Drake makes three plundering voy- ages to the West Indies. 1576. Martin Frobisher attempts to go north of America to Asia, 1577-1580. Sir Francis Drake circumnavigates the globev 1582. Espejo explores New Mexico. 1583. Sir Humphrey Gilbert makes an unsuccessful voyage to America. He attempts to plant a colony but fails and is shipwrecked on his homeward voyage. 1584-1587. Sir Walter Raleigh fits out and sends three expeditions to the New World; he gives glowing accounts of the country and its people ; the last two are unsuccessful at colonization. 1585. John Davis attempts to go north of America to Asia. 1597. Father Corpa and companions are martyred in Florida. 1602. Gosnold explores Massachusetts, names Cape Cod and Martha's Vineyard, and shortens the route across the Atlantic by more than 1500 miles. 1603. Champlain, with a company of fur traders, enters the St. Lawrence — explores the shores of Nova Scotia. 1605. Onate founds Santa Fe, New Mexico, the second oldest city in the United States proper. 1605-1610. Port Royal is founded by De Monts, abandoned two years later, and is reoccupied, 1610. 1606. The London and Plymouth Companies are chartered. 1607. The first permanent English settlement is planted under Captain Newport at Jamestown, Virginia. PERIOD OF COLONIZATION CHAPTER VIII THE SOUTHERN GROUP OF COLONIES ' THE SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA 98. Extent. The Period of Colonization extends from the settlement of Virginia (1607) to the beginning of the Revo- lutionary War (1775). During this time the early settlements scattered along the Atlantic coast grew into thirteen flourish- ing colonies, subject to Great Britain. 09. Motives and Causes Leading- to Colonization. The prin- cipal motives and causes prompting European colonization in America were : (a) the desire for an extensive empire; ( h ) love of adventure ; (c) desire for wealth and fame; (d) overpopulation in parts of Europe; ((') misgovernment in many European nations; (/) a missionary spirit and a desire for religious freedom. 100. Early English Colonizing Efforts. As the repeated attempts of the English at American colonization under Raleigh and Gosnold proved unsuccessful, England had not perma- nently occupied any part of the American continent when the sixteenth century closed. In 1606, however, the great double- headed Virginia Company was formed for the purpose of encouraging colonization. 101. The Three Groups of Colonies. The thirteen original colonies may be divided into three groups: the Southern, cen- tering in Virginia ; the Northern, centering in Massachusetts ; and the Middle, with New Ycrk as the center. The colonies 76 ■^ POMHATANb VIlLAGt 3 THE SOUTHERN GROUP OP COLONIES 77 may be thus divided not only because of their geographical location, but also because the groups differed from each other in motives, government, religion, enterprise, and spirit. Each group had its own peculiar characteristics and beliefs in regard to church, government, and education. 102. The Founding of Jamestown. The first permanent English colony in America was founded in 1607, at Jamestown, Virginia, by an expedition sent out by the London Company, under the leadership of Christopher Newport. This colony was the beginning and future center of that characteristic southern life so emphatically distinguished for its aristocratic influence on the nation. The first Virginia colonists, one hundred and five in number, setting out from London on the wintry sea, and sailing b}^ way of the Canary and West Indian Islands, reached the capes of the Chesapeake Bay, which they named for the two sons of James I, Cape Charles and Cape Henry. Proceeding some thirty miles up the James River, they founded Jamestown on the jamestown and vicinity northern bank of the stream (1607). Both river and village were named in honor of the English monarch, James I. England 's purposes in settling Virginia were financial profit, acquisition of territory, and relief for the crowded industrial conditions at home. In the Netherlands there had been a great increase in the weaving of woolen goods ; and England, being one of the best countries for raising sheep, turned many of her farms into sheep pastures in order to supply the Dutch with wool. Consequently large numbers of men were thrown out of work, and great distress became prevalent among the laboring classes. How to provide for the unemployed became a ROANOKMSL, « 78 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES difficult problem to which the New World seemed to furnish a solution. 103. Character of the Colonists — Communism a Failure. The original settlers of Virginia were, for the most part, idle, lawless, and improvident. One-half of them were so-called "gentlemen," unaccustomed to labor. They expected to make their fortune in the New World and then return home. The conditions surrounding the Jamestown colony were un- favorable. Malaria lurked in the swamps; the water was bad; the heat intense; the Indians hostile. The London Company looked for immediate profit, which led to fruitless search for gold. The colonists possessed no guiding spirits endowed with the proper qualities for undertaking the work of coloniza- tion, and the plan under which the colony was founded proved impracticable. Each man's labor was for the common benefit; each man was fed out of a common store. This took away every incentive to individual exertion, and made discipline impossible. Under this system of ''communism," as it was called, the idle could draw from the common storehouse without labor, while the industrious knew that by their toil they must feed the idle. Owing to these adverse circumstances, half of the little colony had found a grave in the wilderness before the end of September, while those remaining were dis- couraged and homesick. 104. John Smith Saves the Colony — His Explorations. Cap- tain Newport soon returned to England, and Wingfield, who was left in charge of the colony, proved unqualified for the difficult position. He was therefore deposed, and the direction of matters gradually .fell into the hands of John Smith, a man of bold and determined character. Smith compelled the men to work, saying, "He who will not labor shall not eat." He skillfully obtained food from the Indians for the starving set- tlers and introduced the systematic cultivation of corn. He drilled the men, repaired the fortifications, and for two years was the mainstay of the Jamestown colony, which he undoubt- edlv saved from ruin. THE SOUTHERN GROUP OP COLONIES 79 While governor of Virginia, Smith made a series of explora- tions up Chesapeake Bay and the rivers flowing into it. He hoped to find a passage to the Pacific, obtain corn for his CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH'S MAP OF VIRGINIA people, and make a correct map of Virginia, which wild region he thought to be a narrow strip of land between the two oceans. In the course of his explorations, Smith was cap- tured by the Indians, and. is said to have escaped death by means of his quick wit and through the mediation of the Indian princess Pocahontas. This princess, the daughter of the great Indian chief Powhatan, often visited Jamestown and became the loyal friend and kindly benefactress of the colony. Samuel Argall, remembered in history for his treacherous exploits, on one occasion kidnapped Pocahontas and carried 80 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES her off to Jamestown, demanding a ransom. Preparations were made for war, bat the marriage of the maiden to John Kolfe, a Virginia planter, prevented hostilities. During her life at Jamestown she was baptized. Pocahontas and her husband later went to England, where she was received with great favor and styled "Lady Rebecca." When she was about to return to the New "World, she died, leaving an only son, Thomas, from whom descended the famous orator and states- man, John Randolph, and other leading Virginians. 105. The Starving Time. Two years after the founding of Jamestown, another band of five hundred settlers came to Virginia. It was composed chiefly of the refuse of English jails and the ruffians of the street. Because of an injury. Smith went back to England. The Indians, taking advantage of his absence, attacked and plundered the colony. Lawless- ness, famine, and disease hastened the work of destruction, so that at the end of the dreadful winter (1609-1610), known as ''the starving time," scarcely sixty of the colony, of nearly five hundred were left alive. Lord Delaware, the newly ap- pointed governor, came to Jamestown (June, 1610) just in time to prevent the miserable remnant from setting sail for England. Ill health, however, obliged him to leave Jamestown the following March. 106. Communism Abolished — Cultivation of Tobacco. Sir Thomas Dale, who succeeded Lord Delaware (1611), was a strict disciplinarian, and during the course of the next five years he introduced order and new energy into the affairs of the colony by abolishing communism. He gave to each settler a tract of land. Now even the indolent began to think it worth while to get to work. Thieves and mutineers were hanged without mercy. Later, the settlers were permitted to buy one hundred acres of land, and each farmer was obliged to give two and one-half bushels of corn to the public granary. Raleigh had introduced tobacco into England, and its use soon spread so that a great demand for it arose in Europe. The people of Virginia, finding the soil well adapted to its THE SOUTHERN GROUP OP COIX)NIES 81 cultivation, began to raise it in large quantities, and the future of Virginia was assured. Tobacco was used in the place of coin, and its value was fixed at seventy-five cents a pound. The cultivation of this "fragrant weed" provided employment for an increased population and stimulated commerce. Tobacco cultivation, however, exhausted the soil, and the planters, re- quiring immense tracts of land, extended their plantations far from each other. It is said that no man could see his neighbor without a telescope, or be heard by him without firing a gun. 107. A Better Class of People. When the Cavaliers came to Virginia they added new life to the steadily increasing pros- perity of the colony. They acquired great tracts of land on which they cultivated tobacco on a large scale. The Cavaliers, or Royalists, consisted of the nobility, the gentry, and the clergy of England. They had been supporters of Charles I during the great civil and religious war in Eng- land, and had been defeated by the Puritans, or "Round- heads, ' ' as the supporters of Parliament were called. Charles I was beheaded, and the Commonwealth followed (1649-1660), during which time England was ruled by Cromwell as "Lord Protector," and later by his son Richard. Thousands of the Cavaliers fled to Virginia to escape persecution by the Puri- tans. They molded its history and gave the colony an aristocratic character. From them are descended "Washington, Monroe, Madison, Marshall, and many other noted men of our history. 108. Indentured Servants — Negro Slaves. To satisfy the great demand for cheap labor, convicts and criminals from the overcrowded prisons in England, kidnapped children, and un- wary English people were sold to Virginia. These "Inden- tured Servants" were bound out to labor for a term of years (five to seven and upwards), after which they were set free. Shiploads of Irish Catholics, persecuted for patriotism and religion, were sold into forced service to the American plant- ers during Cromwell's rule; moreover, many poor but respect- able persons sold themselves in order to secure a new start in 82 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES the world. Thus the honored and the persecuted, the good and the refuse of England, contributed toward the population of the tirst-born of American states. In 1619 the captain of a Dutch vessel sold twenty negroes to the colonists. As their labor proved profitable in the culti- vation of tobacco, many more M^ere imported. Thus were sown the seeds of slavery which resulted in the great Civil War. 109. First Representative Assembly in America. The London Company had appointed a governor to manage the affairs of the colony. Since the settlers, however, desired a more rep- resentative government, the company appointed Sir George Yeardley governor of the colony, and under his direction a general assembly, called the "House of Burgesses," convened to consider the affairs of the colony (June 30, 1619). The gov- ernment was composed of a governor, a council, and two rep- resentatives or burgesses from each of the eleven boroughs or districts, and was modeled after the English King, House of Lords, and House of Commons. This three-fold division fur- nished a basis for our present state and national government. 110. Family Ties. About one hundred young women of good reputation were induced by the London Company to embark for Virginia, where they were disposed of to the planters as wives at the cost of their passage (one hundred and fifty pounds of tobacco). Family life now found a place in Virginia, and the people became prosperous and contented. 111. Virg-inia Becomes a Royal Colony. A bloody war occurred (1622) between the colonists and the Indians, who were led by the brother of Powhatan. This war, together with famine and sickness, reduced the number of colonists from four thousand to eight hundred and ninety-four. As the king disliked the growing republican sentiment of the London Company, he made an excuse of this Indian massacre to charge the company with failure to protect its colonists. Consequently the charter was annulled (1624) and Virginia became a royal colony, which it remained until the War of the Eevolution. The House of Burgesses, however, continued THE SOUTHERN GROUP OF COLONIES 83 to exist throughout the colonial period. The king appointed the governor and the council; the colony chose the members of the House of Burgesses. 112. The Navigation Acts. The Navigation Acts, passed by England, required that : (a) colonial commerce be carried on in English vessels; (6) certain colonial exports be sent to England; (c) colonial imports come from England. These acts nearly ruined the trade of Virginia. They greatly enriched the colonial trade of England, but embittered the col- onists against the mother country and added to the grievances which gave rise to the struggle for American independence. 113. Berkeley's Hard Rule — Bacon's Rebellion. Sir William Berkeley's rule as governor was the longest in colonial history (1642-1652, 1659-1676). He was a man of ability, and a stal- wart upholder of the king, but he was narrow-minded, dis- dishonest, and oppressive. He did not believe in popular gov- ernment and was hostile to education. In one instance he was heard to say, "I thank God that there are no free schools or printing, and I hope we shall not have them these hundred years." He, like the king, thought that education made the people discontented and rebellious against authority. When an Indian war broke out on the borders of Maryland, Berkeley refused to defend the colony for fear that his fur trade with the natives might suffer. Thereupon, Nathaniel Bacon, a young lawyer, raised a force and defeated the enemy. Because of this action, the governor pronounced him a traitor. The people, however, so disliked Berkeley and the aristocratic party, that they armed themselves under Bacon, drove the governor out of Jamestown, and burned the village (1676). In the midst of his success Bacon died, and Berkeley returned to Virginia. He at once put to death twenty of Bacon's followers and continued to rule the colony in his despotic manner, until the king, disgusted with such tyranny, recalled him, saying: '"The old fool has taken more lives in that naked country than I have taken for the murder of my father." 84 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 114. Religion — Education — Manners and Customs. The colonists of Virginia belonged to the Church of England, and originally no one could settle in Virginia unless he acknowl- edged the king as head of the church. This shut out many Protestants as well as Catholics from the colony, but the laws against the latter were especially severe. No Catholic could vote, hold office, or be heard in a court of justice. No priest was allowed in the colony. WILLIAM AND MAKV COLLEGE Colonial Virginia was slow in providing educational advan- tages. As the government was narrow in its religious prin- ciples, it did not favor education. Moreover, the widespread population made it impossible to have schools located at con- venient distances. Free schools, therefore, were not established until 1688. The first college in the colony was the College of William and Mary, founded at Williamsburg (1693). The Virginians were social, hospitable, and fond of amuse- ments, such as fishing, horse racing, fox hunting, and other outdoor sports. They resided in large mansions, while their slaves lived apart in small cabins. They had no large towns, but lived on plantations, and engaged in raising tobacco, corn, and sweet potatoes. During the one hundred years intervening between Bacon's Rebellion and the Revolution, Virginia pros- pered greatly and became the most populous as well as the richest of the English colonies. THE SOUTHERN GROUP OF COLONIES 85 THE SETTLEMENT OF MARYLAND 115. The Maryland Grant — First Settlement. Unlike Vir- ginia, which was settled by a company, Maryland was founded and practically owned by a lord proprietor. George Calvert, the first Lord Baltimore, a prominent English Catholic, who de- sired to found a colony in America which might serve as a ref- uge for the persecuted Catholics of England, obtained from Charles I a grant of the unoccupied land north of the Potomac. He died, however, before his ..^e=- patent had received the _ "^^^^- "^^^ royal signature, and his rights descended to his son, Cecilius Calvert, the second Lord Baltimore, who inher- ited not only his noble fa- ther's titles, but also his benevolent views. Thinking that it would be to the in- terest of the colony for him to remain in England, Ce- cilius appointed his younger brother, Leonard, governor of the new colony. The Catholics of England had been cruelly persecuted since the time of the Refor- mation, and longed for a refuge where they might practice their religion in peace. They therefore gladly enlisted under the banner of the Calverts, who themselves, in the face of intolerant laws and still more intolerant sentiments of the time, had become conscientious Roman Catholics, at the peril of station, honors, and office. The little band of Maryland immigrants, imbued with a true colonizing spirit, brought with them their families, servants, a considerable body of artisans and laborers, and four Jesuits, GEORGE CALVERT 86 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES numbering in all about three hundred. They sailed from Cowes, England, in the ArJc and the Dove on St. Cecilia's day, and, after a stormy four months' voyage, landed on the northern bank of the Potomac on the festival of the Annunciation. Father White celebrated Holy Mass in honor of the day in an Indian wigwam on the very soil where Spanish Jesuits, half a century before, had offered the same holy sacrifice for the first time in that wild region. A large cross was erected, and St. Mary's was then solemnly founded near the sites of the future Mount Vernon, and the future political center of the nation, the capital city of "Washington. At the request of King Charles I, the new colony received the name of Maryland in honor of his Queen, Henrietta, Maria, the Catholic daughter of Henry IV of France. The newly founded town was called St. Mary's in honor of the Blessed Virgin Mary, on whose festival the colonists had landed. Mary- land was thus founded (1634) at St. Mary's on jthe Potomac River by English Catholics. 116. Extent and Significance of the Maryland Grant. The country originally granted to Lord Baltimore was located south of the fortieth parallel and embraced, besides the pres- ent states of Maryland and Delaware, large portions of Penn- sylvania, and New Jersey. Unlike Virginia and Pennsylvania, Maryland was given, by its charter, a western boundary — the meridian of the source of the Potomac. Maryland had as its southern boundary, the southern bank of the Potomac to a certain point whence the line extended across the bay and the peninsula to the ocean. Many disputes arose between Maryland and Virginia because of this southern boundary and because of the fact that Virginia controlled the entrance of the river, while Maryland controlled the river itself. The patent granted Lord Baltimore, which had been prepared by his own hand, was the most liberal ever given any British subject. It showed, as Bancroft observes, that "its author deserves to be ranked among the wise and benevolent law- givers of all ages." It made religious freedom the basis of THE SOUTHERN GROUP OF COLONIES 87 the state, and secured to the colonists a large share in their government. The proprietor was an almost independent sov- ereign. He could coin money, grant titles of nobility, create courts, appoint judges, pardon criminals, and summon an assembly of representatives. Enactments of the assembly needed only his signature, not that of the king, to become laws. Moreover, his office was hereditary in his family. One limita- tion of his proprietary power should, however, be noted : he could make laws and collect taxes only with the consent of the people. Hence, Maryland had its assemblies from the beginning. As an acknowledgment of his allegiance to the crown, the proprietor was required to pay annually two Indian arrows and one-fifth of all the gold and silver that might be found in the province. 117. St. Mary's and the Indians. Maryland, unlike most of the other colonies, never had any serious Indian troubles. The colonists originally paid the natives for their land, treated them with kindness and justice, and endeavored to convert and civ- ilize them. The savages in turn, won by the gentle and friendly manners of the strangers, readily gave them every assistance in their power. Fathers Andrew White and John Altham, and the lay brothers, John Knowles and Thomas Gervase, joined by others of their Order, established missions • among the Indians. The effect of their devoted zeal was soon manifest. Old and young responded to their efforts. 118. Prosperity of St. Mary's. The settlers of St. Mary's, unlike those of Jamestown, immediately began to build and plant. A crop of corn was gathered the first autumn ; the Indians taught the colonists how to prepare it for food and how to trap game. Before winter, all were comfortably shel- tered. Bancroft says: "Within six months the colony had advanced more than Virginia had done in as many years. The persecuted and the unhappy thronged to the domains of the benevolent prince. Affections expanded in the wilderness. The planter's whole heart was in his family; his pride, in the 88 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES children that bloomed around him, making the solitudes laugh with innocence and gayety. " 119. Claiborne's Rebellion. William Claiborne, a Virginian, with his adherents, refused to submit to the authority of Lord Baltimore, in whose domain he had established a trading post. When he was driven out by Calvert he fled to England, but soon returned, and with the aid of Puritans, who had been expelled from Virginia and kindly received in Maryland, at- tacked St. Mary's. He expelled Governor Calvert and took possession of the government. Lawlessness and intolerance now distressed the country for more than a year. Governor Calvert, with a force of his colonists, finally drove out the rebels and peace was restored. Claiborne, who has been called "The evil genius of the colony," troubled the settlement for ten years. During this period many of the Maryland Cath- olics were persecuted and the altars of their religion over- thrown. The Jesuit Fathers, among whom was the aged Father White, were seized, put in irons, and shipped to loath- some dungeons in England. 120. Religious Toleration — Toleration Act. The distinctive feature of the Maryland colony under the Calverts was re- ligious toleration. St. Mary's was the refuge of Catholics persecuted in England, and of Protestants who fled from re- ligious intolerance in the other colonies. Throughout Mary- land religion had its peaceful sway, in the wigwam of the Indian as well as in the town of St. Mary's. Bancroft "says: "From France, Germany, Holland, Sweden, Finland, and Pied- mont, the children of misfortune sought protection under the tolerant scepter of the Roman Catholic." After the execution of Charles I, and the triumph of the Puritan party in England, the Maryland colonists, fearing religious persecution, determined to place religious freedom on as secure a basis as possible. Accordingly the Maryland as- sembly passed (1649) the celebrated Toleration Act, which pro- vided that all Christian denominations should be protected in THE SOUTHERN GROUP OP COLONIES 89 Maryland. This was the first enactment of the kind in the United States and merited for the colony the name "Land of the Sanctuary." When the Protestants obtained a majority in the Maryland assembly, they repealed the Toleration Act (1654), excluded Catholics from the Assembly, refused them the protection of the law, and forbade the practice of their worship. The result was a civil war. For three years the victory alternated. At one time there existed two governments, one Protestant, the other Catholic. Finally, Lord Baltimore was entirely deprived (1691) of his proprietary rights, and Maryland became a royal province. The Catholics were disfranchised ; the Church of England was established by law, and the capital was removed to the center of Protestant influence, which was now called Annapolis. At length (1714) the fifth Lord Baltimore (Bene- dict), renounced his Catholic faith and was restored to his pro- prietary rights. Maryland remained a proprietary colony until the rule of the sixth Lord Baltimore was ended by the Decla- ration of Independence. The Catholics, however, did not re- cover their rights until after the Revolution. 121. The Mason and Dixon's Line. In order to dispose of much ill feeling between Maryland and Pennsylvania, arising from boundary disputes, the Mason and Dixon's Line was established (1763-67). This east- west boundary line, fixed by two eminent surveyors, Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, was adopted by Maryland and Pennsylvania as limiting their respective territories. It was later extended westward and became noted in history as marking the division between the free and the slave states. 122. Religion — Customs — Education. The Maryland people were very much like the Virginians except in religious mat- ters. Like them, they were social and hospitable ; sought amusements in outdoor sports (horse racing, fox hunting, etc.) ; had few towns, lived on broad plantations, and raised tobacco as a staple crop. They cultivated at an early date 90 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Indian corn and the sweet potato, and caught oysters and shot wild ducks in the waters of the bay. Negro slaves performed the work on the plantations. They lived apart in detached huts, although, in Catholic families, they were treated as members of the household. The Catholics of Maryland brought with them their learned Jesuit teachers, who instructed their children, as well as those of the red man, in the essentials of religious and secular learn- ing. From the repeal of the Toleration Act until the Revolu- EARLY ANNAPOLIS tion, the instruction of Catholic youth by Catholic teachers was prohibited. The Jesuits, notwithstanding, secretly maintained two schools for boys. However, there were very few schools of any kind before the Revolution. The earliest was King William's School, now St. John's College, which was estab- lished (1694) at Annapolis by Nicholson, the second royal governor appointed by William and Mary. 123. Three Notable Facts. Among the thirteen original col- onies Maryland was the first proprietary colony, the first self-gov- erning colony, and the first colony to grant religious freedom. THE SOUTHERN GROUP OP COLONIES 91 THE SETTLEMENT OF THE CAROLINAS 124. The Carolina Grant. Charles II of England, noted for his liberality in giving away American lands, granted (1663) the fertile territory stretching from Virginia to Florida and extending westward to the Pacific to Lord Clarendon and seven associates. These noblemen had either assisted the king in the recovery of his throne or befriended him in his exile during Cromwell's supremacy. The French, a century previous, had given the name Caro- lina to their attempted settlements in this region in honor of Charles IX of France. The Carolina proprietors retained the name out of compliment to Charles II of England. 125. The Grand Model — The Carolinas as Royal Colonies. A code of laws, called the ''Grand Model," was drawn up for the government of the province of Carolina by the English philosopher, Locke. It divided the territory into provinces of nearly half a million acres, each to be governed by a land- grave, with a whole order of nobles under him. No settler was to vote unless he owned fifty or more acres of land. The tillers of the soil were to be serfs, and inferior to these were to be the slaves. In short, the "Grand Model" was to be a revival of the feudal system which had long since ceased to exist in the country that was now trying to bring it into existence again. Its only good feature was that it guaranteed religious liberty to all. The Church of England was, however, established by law. The Grand Model proved to be a grand failure. It was aristocratic, giving all the power to the nobles and barons, leaving the people in a condition of serfdom; the people, however, were determined to govern themselves. They de- cidedly objected to the Model; consequently, its regulations were never fully and fairly put into effect, although it re- remained nominally in force for more than twenty years. Finally it was set aside by Parliament, which purchased the rights of the proprietors and divided the province into North 92 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Carolina and South Carolina. From this time (1729) until the Revolution (1775) the Carolinas remained two distinct royal colonies. 126. North Carolina Settled. North Carolina was first settled (1653) at Albemarle Sound by immigrants from Vir- ginia under the leadership of Roger Greene. It was later called Albemarle in honor of the Duke of Albemarle, one of the proprietors. Among the people who first came to North Carolina were many rough characters ; but there were also many industrious small farmers, and Quakers and Puritans, who had been expelled from other colonies. A number of settlers from the West Indies, under George Yeamans, estab- lished themselves (1664) near the mouth of the Cape Fear River, the present site of Wilmington, and with some New Englanders formed the Clarendon Colony. 127. Growth of the Colony. The growth of North Carolina was, at first, slow. The settlement at Albemarle made little progress; that at Clarendon was abandoned. After 1700, however, large numbers of French and Germans, and some years later many Irish, Scotch, and Swiss, emigrated to the colony. From this time on the population grew so fast that, during the Revolution, North Carolina ranked fourth among the thirteen original colonies. This population, however, lived widely scattered along the coast or in the roadless wilds and woods, either raising grain and live stock on small farms, or en- gaged in cutting timber, making tar and turpentine, hunting the bear, and trapping the beaver. These conditions were not con- ducive to the growth of industrial centers ; hence, early North Carolina had no towns, and in power and importance she could not compare with her northern sister colonies. The people, nevertheless, loved their beautiful summer land. Cut off from the rest of the world, happy and contented in their isolation, they formed a sturdy colony, tolerant in religious matters, and marked by a spirit of independence. They were not free, how- ever, from trouble with the Indians. A powerful tribe called THE SOUTHERN GROUP OP COLONIES 93 Tuscaroras attacked and massacred (1711) hundreds of colo- nists. After two years of warfare the savages were defeated. They then joined their kinsmen of New York, known before this time as the Five Nations, and after this as the Six Nations. CHARLESTON THE FOUNDING OF SOUTH CAROLINA 128. Industrial Growth. South Carolina was first settled (1670) on the Ashley River by immigrants from England under the leadership of William Sayle and Joseph West. This settlement originally known as the Carteret Colony, was re- moved after a few years (1680) to a better situation at the junction of the Ashley and Cooper rivers. Thus was laid the foundation of Charleston, the fifth largest city in colonial America. The only larger cities were Phil- adelphia, New York, Boston, and Baltimore. The South Carolina people early engaged in agricultural pursuits. They soon ascer- tained that the soil and the climate were suitable for the growing of all the plants of the Old World. Plantations of pears, olives, and mulberry trees soon extended along the Cooper and Santee rivers. Rice was introduced from Mada- gascar and was found well adapted to the lowlands; indigo fiourished, and later cotton became a most important staple. South Carolina traded extensively with the Indians in furs, and had a large export trade to the northern colonies and the West Indies in forest products — timber, pitch, and turpen- tine. The result of the profitable commerce in rice and indigo ^J'H • ST AUGUSTINE v 94 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES caused South Carolina to grow rapidly in both population and wealth, and Charleston soon became the metropolis of the South. Thither came a liberty-seeking stream of immigrants from Holland, Germany, Scotland, Northern Ireland, and France. The French Huguenots came to Carolina in such num- bers that in Charleston alone there were sixteen thousand at one time. They, as well as the other immigrants, brought with them mechanical skill and mercantile enterprise, and their influence greatly pro- moted the industrial pros- perity of South Carolina. 129. Slave Labor Profit- able — Piracy. Negro slaves from Barbadoes were brought to the Carteret Colony with- in a year after its founding (1671). The heat of the sum- mer made labor in the ma- larial atmosphere of the for- est and the rice swamps fatal to the white man. Hence, negroes were im- ported to South Carolina in greater numbers than to any other colony. At the time of the Revolution they con- stituted nearly two-thirds of the population. South Caro- lina differed from all the other colonies in that it depended largely upon slave labor from the beginning. At the time when the Carolinas were being founded the sea in the vicinity of the West Indies was rendered unsafe by hun- dreds of pirates who had set up their strongholds on some of the West Indies and the neighboring American coast. BLACKBEARD THE SOUTHERN GROUP OP COLONIES 95 Robert Thatch, commonly called Blackbeard, was perhaps the most noted of these pirates. On one occasion he obliged the governor of Charleston to pay a specified ransom for some captured passengers on pain of their instant death. Thatch was killed in a fight with Virginian ships (1718), The English employed a sea captain, named "William Kidd, to com- mand a vessel against the pirates, but after getting out to sea, Kidd and his men turned pirates themselves, and soon became the most famous sea-robbers ever known. Kidd roved the sea for a year or two, amassing great treasures, a portion of which he was said to have buried somewhere on Gardner's Island at the east end of Long Island. He was at length captured, taken to London, tried, and hanged (1701). At first the people of Carolina engaged in trade with the pirates, but when the latter began to capture ships trading with Charleston, the Carolina people joined in the war against them; and finally the pirates were defeated and their power broken (1730). 130. Religion — Government. The Church of England was the established church of South Carolina, but there was little or no religious persecution. The people of South Carolina, like those of North Carolina, strenuously resisted every attempt of the proprietors to introduce the Grand Model. They chose their own assembly from the beginning, and eventually elected their own governors, in the name of the king. 131. Manners — Customs. The Carolina people were charac- terized by genial manners, culture, and thrift. Among them, however, were men of turbulence, who carried on a double slave trade — one of importation from Africa, the other of ex- portation to the West Indies. Slave labor was employed exclusively. The work on the rice and indigo plantations was directed by overseers. The rich planters, as a rule, resided in comfortable and handsome houses at Charleston. Life in that town, with its theaters, balls, and dinner parties, was gay, although little attention was paid to education. 96 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES THE SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA 132. James E. Oglethorpe — Georgia Founded. James E. Oglethorpe was a man prominent in the public life of England for more than half a century. In his capacity as chairman of a Parliamentary committee, whose duty it was to investigate the prisons, he became acquainted with the abuses of the English prisons for debtors. Moved by the misery of the un- fortunate inmates, he con- ceived the idea of founding a colony in America where the most deserving of them could begin life anew. He formed a company of men known as "The Trustees," and with their aid secured the release from prison of a number of the most worthy inmates. He obtained (1732) from George II a grant of the country be- tween the Savannah and Al- tamaha rivers as far west- ward as the Pacific, and pre- pared to plant his colony. Georgia was settled in 1733 at Savannah by a company of discharged English prisoners (about thirty -five families, one hundred and twenty-five persons) under the authority of "The Trustees" and the leadership of James Oglethorpe. Transpor- tation, food, and land were given the settlers in return for labor and military service. The new colony was named Georgia for George II of England, and the settlement took its name from that of the river near which the little cabins of the settlers were first reared. Georgia, the last of the Southern Group, as also the last of the famous thirteen original colonies in order JAMES E. OGLETHORPE THE SOUTHERN GROUP OF COLONIES 97 of foundation, was settled the year after the birth of George Washington. 133. Object — Progress. Oglethorpe's object in planting Georgia was threefold: to found a military barrier between the Carolinas and the troublesome Spaniards in Florida; to offer a refuge to persecuted Protestants in Europe; and to transfer the inmates of English debtor prisons to the Ameri- can wilds, where they might make a new start in life. The discharged English prisoners proved poor material for the founding of a colony. Oglethorpe's philanthropic plans were on the point of being wrecked, when a number of indus- trious German Protestants, a colony of Swiss and Moravians, and a hardy band of thrifty Scotch mountaineers emigrated to Georgia and made possible the final success of the settle- ment. The progress of the settlement was hampered from the very beginning by certain restrictive regulations, which dis- tinguished Georgia from all her sister colonies. The govern- ment was exclusively in the hands of the trustees, and each settler was given but a limited tract of land, which must de- scend to a male heir. Moreover, the colonists complained because the importation of intoxicating liquors was forbidden, thus cutting off a promising commerce with the West Indies; and because slavery was prohibited. 134. War with Florida — Georgia and the Indians. When war broke out between Spain and England (1739), Oglethorpe (1740) attacked St. Augustine but failed to take it. The Spaniards attempted to retaliate two years later by sending an unsuccessful expedition into Georgia. The Georgians cultivated friendly relations with the Indi- ans. They procured their land by purchase. The various tribes of the Muskoki family sent their chiefs to Savannah to make an alliance with the colony. The savages were pleased with the noble and commanding appearance of Oglethorpe and his frank, kindly manner of dealing with them, and trusted in his promises. Subsequently a profitable trade was established 98 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES with the tribes as far west as the Mississippi. Rice was the main staple crop. The only town was the village of Savannah, from which Indian trails led to the widely-spread plantations and trading posts. 135. Georgia a Royal Colony. Oglethorpe desired to estab- lish a model colony. He considered slavery a horrible crime, and the use of ardent drinks the cause of the debt and misery from which the colonists had fled, but the people were loud in their complaints against the restrictive regulations and the trustees eventually repealed them. Georgia now entered upon a flourishing commerce and soon became a typical southern colony. Oglethorpe, however, returned to England (1743) and the trustees, unsuccessful in their attempts at government, gladly surrendered the charter to the crown (1752). Georgia thus became a royal province and remained such until the time of the Revolution. James Oglethorpe alone of all the colony builders lived until after the Revolution, and saw the thirteen original colonies become an independent nation. 136. Religion. The Church of England was the established form of worship, but toleration was granted to all except Catholics. John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, came to Georgia in 1735 and introduced the Methodist Church into America. He failed in his original intention of converting the Indians and, becoming unpopular in the colony, returned to England after a period of two years. George Whitefield founded an orphan home near Savannah. He was an asso- ciate of Wesley, an eloquent preacher, and an ardent advocate of slavery. The restriction of the employment and importation of slaves was removed largely through his influence. CHAPTER IX THE MIDDLE GEOUP OF COLONIES THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK 137. New York Settled. The Dutch had laid claim to the land between the Delaware and Connecticut rivers by right of the exploration of Henry Hudson. They now began to make good this claim by establishing trading posts (1613-1614), one near the present site of Albany, New York, and one on Man- hattan Island. These settlements were made, however, with- out any serious attempt at colonization. The first permanent settlements were established in 1623, on Manhattan Island and at Fort Orange (Albany), by some Dutch families sent out by the Dutch West India Company. The object of Dutch coloni- zation was trade. The West India Company sent (1626) Peter Minuit with a band of settlers to reinforce the small trading post which had been established on Manhattan Island. Minuit bought the island from the Indians for about twenty-four dollars' worth of trinkets, and founded New Amsterdam, now New York City. 138. The Patroon System. The colony at first made little progress. To attract settlers to the new colony, the West India Company established (1629) the "patroon system." This gave to any member of the company who within four years brought into the colony fifty adult settlers an extensive grant of land. The land was to be fairly bought from the Indians. Such great land owners were called patroons. The patroon was required to pay the emigrant's passage from Holland, to stock a farm with all necessary animals and implements, and to provide a minister of the gospel and a schoolmaster, and 99 100 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES was forbidden to engage in the fur trade with the Indians. In return the emigrant bound himself not to leave the land of the patroon without permission; to give the patroon the first opportunity to buy any grain or product that he might have to sell; to pay rent, and to bring all disputes about property, etc., to the patroon 's court. As a matter of fact, few patroonships were established. Later, however, both the Dutch and the English granted large estates, or manors, which were worked by tenants. In this way colonial New York be- came a sort of landed aristocracy. Some of these estates (for instance the Van Rensse- laer's) retained certain privileges until late in the nineteenth century. The anti-rent difficulties arising between landlord and tenant during the presidency of Tyler grew out of such titles. The patroon system did not tend toward individual prosperity or increase of popula- tion. Like other plans for colonization by which the settlers were made dependent on large landowners, as in Carolina and Geor- gia, it gave little opportunity to the mass of the colonists and hence proved a failure. The system was later modified. The profitable fur trade was thrown open to all comers, and land was granted in small quantities on payment of an annual rent. The result was an influx of population from many Euro- pean countries as well as from the neighboring colonies, so that at one time eighteen languages were spoken in New Amster- dam, and by 1664 the population of New Netherland had in- creased in number to ten thousand. 139. The Dutch and the Indians. From the time of Hudson's voyage friendly relations existed between the Dutch traders and the powerful Iroquois Indians of the upper Hudson and DUTCH MAIDEN THE MIDDLE GROUP OP COLONIES 101 Mohawk valleys. Consequently the Dutch fur traders could easily secure great quantities of valuable peltries from other Indian tribes through the hands of the friendly Iroquois in return for blankets, utensils, firearms, gin, and rum, so highly prized by the savages. The Algonquin tribes on the lower Hudson, however, were provoked to hostility through the cruelty of Governor Kieft. Terrible Indian wars ensued, dur- ing which the colony was nearly ruined before peace was restored. 140. The Colony Under Dutch Rule. New Netherland was ruled (1626-64) by four Dutch governors. Peter Minuit, the founder of New Amsterdam, was recalled after a period of six years; Wouter Van Twiller, incompetent alid indolent, was succeeded by William Kieft, who, on account of his temper was called "William the Testy." He was an embezzler, noted for his cruel treatment of the Indians, and the severity of his rule. He was, however, kind to Father Jogues. After a period of misgovernment he was recalled. On his way to Holland, his ship was wrecked on the coast of Wales and the deposed gov- ernor was among the lost. Peter Stuyvesant was the last and most able of the four Dutch governors. He was known as "Peter the Headstrong" on account of his stubbornness, and "Old Silverleg" because he had a wooden leg bound with bands of silver. A strange mixture of good and evil, he has been well described as a noble, honest, headstrong, generous, kindly, conscientious, eager, lion-hearted, old soldier. Withal he was a strong defender of the colony, and soon readjusted all difficulties. Being extremely despotic, he opposed all self- governing ideas, but finally so far yielded to the demands of the people that he allowed the town to elect delegates. When these delegates were elected, however, he refused them all power and the enraged people began to covet the political priv- ileges of their English neighbors. 141. England Lays Claim to New Netherland. After allow- ing the Dutch to occupy for half a century the territory they 102 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES had discovered, England, jealous of the prosperity and advan- tages of her Dutch commercial rival, and wishing to have a strong and unbroken line of colonies along the Atlantic coast, asserted her claims to New Netherland by virtue of the Cabot voyages. Accordingly Charles II granted the land between the Delaware and Connecticut rivers to his brother, the Duke of York (later James II of England). An English fleet of three vessels, carrying troops, anchored in the harbor of New York (1664). The English force exceeded that at Governor Stuyvesant's command. Moreover, the colonists welcomed the opportunity to exchange the illiberal Dutch rule for better government under the English. They therefore surrendered NEW YORK IN 1673 New Amsterdam and with it the whole of New Netherland without resistance. New Amsterdam and New Netherland were now called New York, and Fort Orange was named Albany, in honor of the proprietor, who was Duke of York and Albany. In the course of a war between England and Holland, a Dutch fleet recaptured New York in 1673. It was, however, returned to the English by treaty in the following year. 142. The Colony Under English Rule — Leisler's Rebellion. With its conquest by England, New York became a proprietary colony, which it remained until its proprietor, the Duke of York, became king of England as James II, when it became a royal colony. James II did not favor a popular government THE MIDDLE GROUP OF COLONIES 103 and consequently the people were not granted the privileges they had anticipated. Nicolls, the first English governor, ruled wisely; his successor, Lovelace, ruled mildly; and Thomas Dongan (1683-88), a Catholic of liberal views and tireless energy, called the first assembly of New York and granted the famous Dongan charter. When the Duke of York became king, he deprived the colony of the representative government granted by Dongan, and annexed New York to New England, which was under the tyrannical rule of Andros. The later royal governors, by their oppressive rule, exas- perated the people and when James II (1689) was driven from the throne, the New York colonists, headed by Jacob Leisler, established a government of their own. William III (1691) sent over a new governor, and Leisler was tried for treason and executed. The assembly was restored, and from this time until the Revolutionary War New York retained its popular assembly. 143. Negro Plot. Several mysterious fires occurred in New York City (1741). Catholics and negroes were accused of having plotted to burn the town. Bigotry was at its height ; four white people and eighteen negroes were hanged; fourteen negroes were burned at the stake, and seventy transported to the West Indies. It was later proved that no such plot as was suspected had existed. 144. Relig-ion — Education — Manners and Customs. Under Dutch rule the established religion was that of the Dutch Reformed Church and there was little persecution. Under English rule the Episcopalian religion prevailed, and, except during Dongan 's regime, Catholicism was proscribed. Cath- olics were denied the right of suffrage, and priests were ordered under the penalty of imprisonment and death to leave the colony. In spite of this, the first Holy Mass in New York was celebrated (1665) at the request of the Onondaga Indians by Father Dablon on the site of the present city of Syracuse. 104 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES But little progress was made for a long time in education, although during Dongan's rule a Catholic College was opened in New York City. The Dutch were thrifty, honest, and hospitable. Their chief occupations were fur trading and farming. The dress and fur- niture of the Dutch were extremely simijle. They used no carpets, but had white sanded floors. They breakfasted at dawn, dined at eleven, and retired at sunset. Their houses, built of wood, with gable ends of colored brick from Holland, had many windows and doors. Country houses were called A DUTCH TAYEliN "'Boweries." Instead of clocks and watches they had hour glasses and sun-dials. Sleighing, skating, and coasting were first introduced into the colonies by the Dutch. Though Holland had failed as a nation in colonizing Amer- ica, the colonial Dutch settlers were a sturdy, whole-souled race, and their influence was indelibly impressed for good on the part of the country settled by them. The Dutch main- tained their simple life and their language and customs for two hundred years. Not until after the Revolution did they lose their identity and their language. THE MIDDLE GROUP OP COLONIES 105 THE SETTLEMENT OP NEW JERSEY 145. Land Grant and First Settlement. New Jersey, orig- inally included in the territory claimed by the Dutch, was early occupied by both the Dutch and the Swedes. The Swedes crossed from their settlement in Delaware, and the Dutch from New Amsterdam. The Swedish posts were soon conquered by the Dutch and incorporated with their own colony. After the conquest of New Netherland (1664) the Duke of York gave the southern part, lying between the Delaware Kiver and the ocean, to two of his favorites — Lords Berkeley and Carteret — and called it New Jersey in honor of Sir George Carteret, who had distinguished himself as governor of the island of Jersey in the English Channel. The first permanent English settlement in New Jersey was made in 1665 at Elizabethtown by a company of immigrants led by Philip Carteret (cousin of Sir George Carteret). Eliza- bethtown was named for Lady Carteret. 146. East and West Jersey — Government. The New Jersey province was finally divided into East and West Jersey (1674) and was for many years known as ' ' The Jerseys. ' ' The Jerseys eventually passed into the hands of a party of Quakers, among whom was William Penn. There was much confusion over land titles, until the proprietors, wearied about the rents and other matters, sold (1702) their claims to the English crown. Queen Anne united the Jerseys under the jurisdiction of the governor of New York. In 1738, New Jersey was made a royal province, which it continued to be until the Revolution. Colonial New Jersey, however, had its own assembly and was tolerant in religious matters. New Jersey was a land of farmers. The growth of Philadelphia and New York furnished markets for their agricultural products, Princeton, the fourth college founded in America, was opened in 1746, at Newark. It was transferred (1752) to Princeton, where it is still located. 106 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES THE SETTLEMENT OF DELAWARE 147. Origin of New Sweden — First Settlement. The little state of Delaware was originally included in the Dutch claim. It was also a part of the Maryland territory granted to Lord Baltimore. It owed its origin to the ambition of Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden. This monarch desired to establish a Swedish colonial empire on the banks of the Delaware, which territory he pronounced "the jewel of his kingdom." The death of Gustavus Adolphus, however, delayed the execution of the project. At length the Swedes, strongly attracted to the American seaboard by the prospects of a flourishing trade, laid claim to a tract of land on the Delaware on the assumption that unoc- cupied land is common property. A Swedish-Dutch corpora- tion, called the South Company, was formed, and Peter Minuit, the early governor of New Netherland, was employed to lead a Swedish colony to America. In this way Delaware was per- manently settled in 1638, near the present site of Wilmington, by a band of some fifty Swedes. They built a fort and named it Christina after the young queen of Sweden. 148. Government — Class of Settlers. The Dutch looked upon the Swedes as intruders; Peter Stuyvesant conquered (1655) the Swedish settlements and New Sweden was added to New Netherland. The Dutch held New Sweden until the Duke of York acquired it as a part of New Netherland. He in turn sold it (1682) to William Penn, who desired an outlet to the sea for his colony, Pennsylvania. Penn called the province "The Three Lower Counties on the Delaware," or "The Territories. ' ' Delaware at first sent its representatives to the Pennsylvania assembly, but was later allowed a separate legislature by William Penn. When the Revolution broke out, the Three Lower Counties declared themselves a free and independent state, taking the name of Delaware. THE MIDDLE GROUP OF COLONIES 107 THE SETTLEMENT OP PENNSYLVANIA 149. The Pennsylvania Grant. The control of New Jersey by Quakers, among whom was William Penn, led directly to the settlement of Pennsylvania. William Penn was not satis- fied with his interest in New Jersey and began to look wistfully toward the fair lands beyond the Delaware where he might found a Quaker colony according to his own ideas. He ob- tained from Charles II (1681) a grant of forty thousand square miles of territory west of the Delaware. Contrary to the modest wishes of the proprietor, the king gave to this vast territory the name of Pennsylvania, Penn's Woodlands. When Penn objected to the name of the colony, the king remarked bluntly, "Don't flatter yourself. We shall keep the name to commemorate your memorable parent." Penn's father (Ad- miral Penn) was distinguished for the part he had taken in bringing about the restoration of Charles II to the English throne. William Penn, eminent for his high social position in Eng- land, as well as for his wealth, education, and culture, was the foremost man among the Quakers and one of the most remark- able men of his time. His idea, which he called his "Holy Experiment," was to establish a free colony or Christian com- munity, on the principle of the golden rule, which bids us do unto others as we would have them do unto us. 150. First Settlement — The Quakers. Having obtained the grant of land from the king, Penn forthwith proceeded to take possession of it. Pennsylvania was founded in 1681, on the site of the present city of Chester, by a company of some hundred English Quakers. The immigrants were cordially wel- comed by the Swedish-Dutch settlers who had established here their village of Upland. Pennsylvania was founded as an asylum for persecuted English Quakers. Its first and direct object was religious freedom. The Quakers were extreme dis- senters from the established Church of England. They abol- 108 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ished all outward ceremonies, also the ministry, holding that spiritual guidance came to each individual from God Himself. They were bitterly persecuted in the mother country as well as in some of the colonies. 151. Philadelphia Founded. In 1682 Penn came to America on the ship Welcome. He purchased from the Swedes a neck of land between the Schuylkill and Delaware rivers and laid out a city which he called Philadelphia, or ''Brotherly Love." The growth of Philadelphia was most remarkable. It soon surpassed New York, founded more than half a century pre- vious, and for more than one hundred years it was the largest city in America. It was carefully planned by its founder and was laid out in large squares. The forest at that time covered the land, and the walnut, chestnut, spruce, pine, etc., furnished the names for the first streets. It is said that not even one hundred dollars have been spent in widening and straightening the streets of the city, so carefully were they laid out by "William Penn. 152. Treaty with the In- dians — The Walking Pur- chase. William Penn treated the natives, who were chiefly of the Delaware stock, with great kindness and justice. He made a treaty with them which was rigidly kept on both sides for more than sev- enty years. The Quaker hat and coat proved a better defense than rampart and musket. In accordance with Quaker faith no oath was taken when this --M^- BALTIMORE THE MIDDLE GROUP OP COLONIES 109 treaty was made. The parties, according to Indian custom, exchanged wampum and the savages, won by the geiitle manner and kindly bearing of Penn, exclaimed, "As long as the river runs and the sun shines we will live in peace with the children of William Penn," The elm tree under which the memorable treaty was made, was blown down in 1810. A monument now marks its site. The Quakers in every instance honorably purchased their lands from the Indians. By the so-called "Walking Purchase," Penn acquired a tract of land west of the Delaware as far inland as a man could walk in three days. The first walk of a day and a half was made by Penn with a few Friends and a body of Indians at a leisurely pace, and covered about thirty miles. After Penn's death, however, the remaining part of the three days was used in quite a different spirit. Fast runners were sent out who covered eighty-six miles. This unfair act gave rise to the first Indian hostilities in Pennsylvania. 153. Penn's Patent— His "Great Law." The Pennsylvania Patent made William Penn lord proprietor of Pennsylvania. It was modeled after that of Lord Baltimore, but did not grant such extensive powers. The principal differences between the two liberal charters were : (a) enactments of the Maryland Assembly became law as soon as signed by Lord Baltimore, while those of Pennsyl- vania required the approval of the king ; (&) the Maryland Patent denied the right of the British gov- ernment to impose taxes upon the colonists, whereas the Pennsylvania Patent expressly affirmed this power. As an acknowledgment of his allegiance to the crown, Penn was required to pay annually two beaver skins and one-fifth of all the gold and silver that might be found in the province. Penn's colony was founded upon very liberal principles. In accordance with these, he caused a council and an assembly to be elected by the people. This popular legislature enacted 110 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES the "Great Law," or "Charter of Privileges," which wisely provided that : (a) all colonists should be protected in their worship of God, and no person should be compelled to support or attend any form of religion against his will ; (h) all resident tax-payers should have the right to vote, regardless of creed; (c) every child above the age of twelve should be taught some trade or useful occupation ; (d) the death penalty should be inflicted only for murder and treason. For the first time in the history of the world it was attempted to make every prison a place of reformation. Penn's Great Law remained the fundamental law of Pennsylvania until the Revolution. 154. Progress — Religion and Education. Pennsylvania, more than any other colony of the time, was blessed with peace, abundance, and religious and civil liberty. These happy con- ditions, together with the reputation of William Penn, drew a numerous population to the province from various nations, and the colony grew with unparalleled rapidity. More German immigrants came into Pennsylvania in this period than into all the rest of America during colonial times. As many as twelve thousand landed in the single year of 1749. At the outbreak of the Revolution, according to Franklin's estimate, the popu- lation consisted of one-third Quakers, one-third Germans, and one-third miscellaneous elements. This mixed population was noted for thrift, learning, and industry. The chief occupa- tions were farming, commerce, and shipbuilding. Western Pennsylvania remained long unsettled, and no one suspected the existence of its coal and mineral wealth. Religious toleration prevailed throughout the colony. A number of Irish Catholics were among the early arrivals, and the Holy Sacrifice of Mass was celebrated for the first time at Philadelphia in 1686. THE MIDDLE GROUP OF COLONIES 111 Education was not overlooked in the original plan of gov- ernment prepared by Penn, and schools were established (1683) soon after the founding of the colony. 155, Boundary Disputes. Since Pennsylvania had no sea coast, Penn secured a grant of Delaware (1682) from the Duke of York. As his patent did not clearly fix the southern limits of his province, a boundary dispute arose with Maryland. This was finally settled by the Mason and Dixon's line long after both Baltimore and Penn were in their graves. On the north, Penn- sylvania came in contact with Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New York. Connecticut rightly complained that her grant of land (1662) was infringed by Penn's patent. The boundary contention with Connecticut continued throughout the Colonial and Revolutionary periods, bringing great distress and misery to the inhabitants of the disputed territory, the Wyoming Valley. The trouble was not settled until the Connecticut cession of western lands to the United States. Though Penn's colony flourished, it caused him much anxiety and the loss of a large fortune, for it was not free from the feuds common to proprietary colonies. Even during the life- time of Penn, the settlers refused to pay the rents necessary to cover the heavy outlay in behalf of the province, and sought to weaken his authority. Penn returned to his native land (1701), where he passed the remaining seventeen years of his well-spent life in poverty and obscurity. After his death, the difficulties increased under his heirs, who ruled the province through deputy governors. The state of Pennsylvania bought out the rights of the Penns (1779) for about half a million dollars. CHAPTER X THE NEW ENGLAND GEOUP OF COLONIES THE SETTLEMENT OP MASSACHUSETTS 156. The Council of Plymouth. The Plymouth Company, one of the branches of the great double-headed Virginia Company, did little toward colonizing its grant of land, though an unsuc- cessful attempt to plant a colony was made by Gorges, under Pring and Popham, at the mouth of the Kennebec River in Maine. The Company later dissolved and a new corporation, the Council of Plymouth, was organized. The first settlement in the territory under the jurisdiction of the Council of Plymouth was made by a band of English- men. Through an error, they landed at Plymouth instead of on territory belonging to the London Company, from whom they had received a grant in northern Virginia. 157. The Puritans and Separatists. A sect of English Prot- estants, called Puritans, had arisen during the reign of Eliz- abeth. They thought that the Church of England still retained too many rites of the Roman Catholic Church and protested against many of the ceremonies of worship, such as the sign of the cross, the use of vestments, the ring at marriage, kneel- ing in church, etc. As they desired to "purify" the service, they were called Puritans. Of these a small number refused to attend the English state church and became known as ' ' Sep- aratists." From this latter body came the Pilgrims, the found- ers of Plymouth. The Puritans in England became the political party opposed to the absolute rule of the Stuart monarchs, and were known as the Parliamentary party. Both Puritans and Separatists were sometimes called Nonconformists or Dis- senters. The Declaration of James I concerning all dissenters, 112 THE NEW ENGLAND GROUP OF COLONIES 113 *'I shall make them conform or I will harry them out of the land, ' ' was soon literally put into force, and all nonconformists were persecuted. 158. The Pilgrims. A band of Puritan Separatists of the little town of Scrooby fled from religious persecution in Eng- land to Holland, where they lived, first at Amsterdam and later at Leyden. Being strangers among strangers and fearing that their children would forget their English speech and habits, they obtained permission from the London Company to settle within the limits of Virginia. They crossed from Delfshaven, Holland, to Southampton, England, from which port they set sail for America in the Mayflower and the Speedwell. The latter vessel proved unseaworthy and they were obliged to put back to Plymouth, from which port one hundred and two of them again set out in the Mayflower. After a stormy and perilous voyage they were finally forced to land in December on the bleak shores of Cape Cod. Here they found themselves on territory belonging to the Council of Plymouth, instead of on the land of the London Company which they were seeking. The Plymouth Rock, called "Forefathers' Rock," on which the first Pilgrims landed, is carefully preserved under a granite canopy at Plymouth, Massachusetts. 159. The Mayflower Compact. To insure law and order in the colony which they were about to settle, the Pilgrims drew up on board the Mayflower a written contract pledging them- selves to obey such laws as they should enact for the general good. This compact is one of the great documents in American history. 160. The First Settlement. Electing John Carver governor for the ensuing year, the intrepid little band of Pilgrims estab- brewster's residence at scrooby 114 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES lished the first permanent settlement in Massachusetts in 1620 at Plymouth. Unlike the Virginian adventurers, the Pilgrims were accompanied by their wives and children. They expected to live and die in America. Since they had no legal title to their land, they later obtained a grant from the Council of Plymouth. The name Massachusetts is an Indian name mean- ing "Great Hills Place"; Plymouth was early named by Cap- tain John Smith, after Plymouth in England. 161. Difficulties — First Thanksgiving Day. The colonists suffered severely from cold and lack of food during the first winter, and Governor Carver and half of his little band died. Still not one of the survivors thought of returning to England when the Mayflower again set sail in the following spring. Instead they set to work preparing the soil for the seed, and the first crop (corn, pumpkins, etc.) raised by the Pilgrims, was good though small. Deer, wild turkey, and fish were plentiful. The colonists were now sheltered in comfortable houses, and after the harvest was gathered and stored away. Governor Bradford ordered (1621) a three days' feast of thanksgiving, at which Massasoit and one hundred of his braves were guests. Thus originated the annual festival of Thanks- giving which has been regularly observed every year. 162. Plymouth Leaders — Progress — The Indians. Governor Carver was succeeded by William Bradford, the historian of the colony, who was governor of the settlement for some thirty years. Other leaders were William Brewster and the famous soldier. Miles Standish, the chosen military leader of the colony. Standish was a lion in battle, and spread terror among the hostile Indians, but was noted for his womanly tenderness in the care of the sick and wounded. Longfellow gives a good picture of him in his ''Courtship of Miles Standish." The Plymouth colonists, like the Virginians, at first estab- lished the system of holding property in common. Since this, however, proved impracticable even among the sober and in- dustrious Puritans, the common storehouse was abolished THE NEW ENGLAND GROUP OF COLONIES 115 within a few years after the founding of the colony. Owing to the poverty of the settlers, and also to the fact that the number of Separatists in England was small, the colony grew but slowly. It finally ceased its separate existence (1691) when it was united to the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The Indian tribes of the region belonged to the Algonquin family; fortunately for the settlers, they had been greatly reduced in number by a pestilence. In the spring the settle- ment was surprised by visits from two friendly savages, A GROUP OF PILGRIMS Samoset, who had learned a few words of English from fisher- men on the coast of Maine, and Squanto, who had been pre- viously kidnapped and taken to England. These two natives brought to the settlement Massasoit, the great chief of the Wampanoags, who made a treaty of friendship and alliance with the Pilgrims. On the other hand, Canonicus, chief of the Narragansetts, sent the colonists a declaration of war in the shape of a bundle of arrows tied with a rattlesnake skin. Governor Bradford promptly returned the skin filled with pow- der and shot, whereupon Canonicus treated for peace. 116 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 163. Government. The Pilgrims introduced the English town meeting. This government, a pure democracy in form, was the first of the kind in America. All the citizens gathered at the town meeting and voted on all questions directly instead of through representatives. Gradually, however, it became inconvenient for all voters to assemble at Plymouth, and a rep- resentative system, resembling the House of Burgesses, was established. The right of suffrage was at first extended to all men, but soon it was restricted by religious qualifications. 164. Salem the Second Settlement. Charles I proved even more intolerant toward the Puritans than his father James I. He imperiously dissolved his Parliament and determined to rule as he pleased. A number of Puritans, adherents of the Par- liamentary party, alarmed at the king's conduct and encour- aged by the example of the Pilgrims, obtained from the Council of Plymouth a grant of land. This included all the territory between the Merrimac and Charles rivers, and three miles beyond each, extending westward as far as the South Sea (Pacific). A band of some sixty Puritans settled at Salem in 1628 under John Endicott, who named his settlement after the Bible city, Salem (peace). Endicott was bold and energetic, a rigid Puritan in prin- ciples, and severe in the execution of all the laws against those who differed in their religious belief from that of the colony. At a later time, he put to death four Quakers, and cut the red cross out of the English flag because it represented to his mind the ancient Catholic religion of England. 165. The Massachusetts Bay Colony — Charter. Charles I, perhaps glad to get rid of a large number of his troublesome subjects, confirmed (1629) the grant made by the Council of Plymouth by a charter which created the Massachusetts Bay Company. This charter was a very liberal one and gave to the Company extensive powers which in fact amounted to self- government. Since the charter did not state that the seat of government should be in England, as was the case with other THE NEW ENGLAND GROUP OF COLONIES 117 colonizing corporations, the members of the Company emi- grated to New England and there became the self-governing community known as Massachusetts Bay Colony. 166. Boston, Third Settlement. John Winthrop, with a col- ony of one thousand Puritans, came to Salem (1630), whence he immediately moved to Charleston, and finally to the present site of Boston. Here he planted a settlement which he called "Tri-raountain" or "Tremont" (because of its triple hill), and later Boston, after the English town, the home of many of the settlers. Puritan immigration poured in and settled under the Massachusetts Bay Company at Dorchester, Cambridge, Water- town, and other places, all of which with Boston formed the Massachusetts Bay Colony. 167. Towns or Townships — Government. The Puritans usu- ally came in large communities, led by their ministers, with their plans of government well defined. They settled in par- ishes or townships, each about six or eight miles square. The people of each township built their homes near a church or meeting house. All public business was transacted in the church, or in the town hall. The New England town or township, modeled after the Anglo-Saxon town of England, was the origin of our present system of townships, and was the striking feature of New England life, as the plantation was of life in the Southern Colonies. In Virginia we have the beginning of county gov- ernment, while in Massachusetts we have the origin of town government. Massachusetts was originally a charter colony in which the governor and the members of the legislature, or General Court, were elected by the freemen of the towns. Each town consti- tuted a little commonwealth, chose its own officers, regulated its taxation and political affairs, and sent its delegates (depu- ties) to the General Court. 168. The New England Confederation. The various settle- ments of Massachusetts and Connecticut (Massachusetts Bay, 118 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven) formed a confedera- tion or military league (1643), under the name of ''The United Colonies of New England" for the purpose of common defense against the French, the Dutch, and the Indians, and also against any possible attack by the despotic English monarch, upon their rights of self-government. Under the constitution of the NEW ENGLAND KITCHEN league, each colony was independent in its local affairs, while important matters of common interest — Indian and inter-colo- nial affairs — were referred to a commission of two representa- tives from each colony. The confederation lasted forty years and is the first experiment in united action by American col- onies. It was of far-reaching importance, because it prepared THE NEW ENGLAND GROUP OF COLONIES 119 the way for the Continental Congress and for the final union of the states in 1789. It taught the colonists how to unite, and made stronger their feeling of independence. 169. Religious Intolerance. Although the Puritans had been driven by religious persecution to the New World, they showed no desire in their new home to establish religious liberty. Eoman Catholics, Baptists, and Quakers were held in special abhorrence. All Jesuits and Catholic priests were for- bidden to enter the colony, under penalty of banishment, and death in case of return. Parkman says : ' ' New England Prot- estantism appealed to liberty and then closed the door against her." Roger Williams, a young Salem minister, was a man of high ideals and natural ability. He advocated the separation of church from state, and full toleration in religious matters; he held that a man is responsible for his opinions only to God and to his own conscience. He also asserted that the king of of England had no right to grant American Indian lands to the colonists. Because of these principles, so contrary to Puritan theory and practice, Williams was sentenced by the General Court of Massachusetts to be sent back to England. He fled to the wilderness, however, where he was befriended by the Indians. In the following year he founded Providence, the first permanent town in the present state of Rhode Island. The peace of the colony was next disturbed by Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, a gifted woman who gathered together the women of Boston to discuss religious matters. Banished with her adherents, she sought refuge in Rhode Island. Later she moved to New York where she perished in an Indian massacre. The Quakers were the special objects of Puritan dislike and were forbidden to enter the colony. Four of them were hanged on Boston Common. Charles II finally intervened because of his friendship for William Penn, and the persecution ceased. 170. The Salem Witchcraft. A strange delusion (1692) re- garding witchcraft, intensified by the writings and sermons 120 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES of the prominent Puritan minister, Cotton Mather, gave rise to a reign of terror in the colony. Various persons, at first only children and old women, were accused of having leagued with the devil for the purpose of inflicting upon others differ- ent forms of torments. Suspicions, accusations, tortures, forced confessions of guilt, and executions followed one upon another, till the people became panic-stricken and no one felt secure. At length the colonists returned to their senses, the prison doors were thrown open, and the judges and ministers publicly confessed their error, but only after twenty persons had been executed (nineteen hanged, one pressed to death), and many others tortured and imprisoned. The memory of this event will ever be a source of shame and humiliation to the nation. (Read Longfellow's "Giles Corey.") In Europe the belief in witchcraft was common and in Great Britain several thousand unfortunate persons suffered death for this alleged crime; the law punishing it was not repealed until 1776. 171. The Puritans and the Indians. The Indians in the earliest days of Massachusetts were friendly to the colonists. They taught the white men the methods of hunting, fishing, trapping, and traveling, and the use and cultivation of Indian corn, all of which services were very poorly requited by the settlers of Massachusetts. The colonists looked upon the Indians, in the words of Brad- ford, as ' ' only savage and brutish men who range up and down the country little otherwise than the wild beasts of the same, and whom the whites had a right to exterminate, in order to render the colony habitable to civilized man." Of course, the fierce retaliations of the savages by means of the tomahawk and scalping knife bred a pitiless spirit in the hearts of the Puritans. Some rather futile attempts were made, however, by the settlers to christianize the Indians. One of the missionaries most active in this respect was John Eliot, a minister of the Church of England, who came to Boston (1631). He studied THE NEW ENGLAND GROUP OF COLONIES 121 the native dialect, translated the Bible into the Indian tongue and gathered his converts into settlements called "towns of praying Indians." The attempts of the English to christianize the Indians begun by Eliot ended with the outbreak of the wars between the Indians and the colonists. 172. King Philip's War. On the death of the friendly Massasoit, his son, Alexander, became chief of the Wampan- oags. Alexander's death soon after a visit to Plymouth caused his brother Philip to suspect foul play. In order to avenge the wrong done his people, and to check English encroach- ments on the Indian hunting grounds, Philip leagued with the tribes from Maine to the Hudson for the purpose of. exter- minating all the whites in New England. The consequence was a horrible Indian war (1675) noted for its cruelties on both sides. It lasted for two years, until the death of King Philip, who was hunted from place to place. He was finally shot by a treacherous Indian at Mount Hope (Bristol) in Rhode Island. King Philip's skull, cut off by Captain Church, was exposed on a pole at Plymouth for many years. His wife and youthful son were sold into slavery and about a thousand Indians were slaughtered. The prosperous Wampanoags, Narragansetts, and other New England tribes, except the friendly Mohegans, were scattered. The power of the New England Indians was forever broken. The colonists, too, especially those of Massa- chusetts, keenly felt the brunt of the conflict: out of ninety towns, twelve were utterly destroyed, while forty others had been the scenes of horrible massacres. More than one thousand men and a great many women and children perished during this period. 173. Massachusetts Incurs Royal Disfavor. After a time Massachusetts incurred the disfavor of the crown, because of the following facts : (a) the colony, having long been left to follow its own course, had built up a strong and independent government, the republican tendencies of which displeased the king; 122 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES (&) it disregarded the Navigation Acts, which, as in Virginia and other English colonies, crippled trade; (c) it had welcomed two of the escaped judges (Goffe and Whalley) who had sentenced Charles I to death ; (cZ) it had extended its dominion over New Hampshire and purchased Maine, in spite of the king's opposition, from Gorges; and (e) worst of all, in the king's estimation, the colony was noto- riously opposed to the Church of England, allowing only Congregational Church members to vote or to hold office. Accordingly, the king proceeded to take measures for humbling his independent subjects, Charles II, therefore, withdrew the charter of Massachusetts (1684), making it a royal colony. He died, however, before all of his plans could be carried out, but they were furthered by King James II, who (1686) imposed upon the colony its first royal governor, the tyrannical Sir Edmund Andros, the governor-general of the whole of New England. On the occa- sion of the deposition of James II (1689) the people of New England imprisoned Andros at Boston, and later sent him back to England, whereupon the old forms of government were quietly resumed. After a lapse of two years. King William (1691) granted a new charter to Massachusetts, annexing to it Maine, Nova Scotia, and Plymouth. Under this charter the colony was allowed to hold town meetings and to elect a legis- lature, but the governor was to be appointed by the king; religious toleration, the right of suffrage, and the holding of office were permitted to all except Roman Catholics. The British government, wishing to unite all its northern colonies for the sake of security against the French, had sent, as we have seen, Sir Edmund Andros to rule absolutely over the whole of New England, as well as New York and New Jersey. He was notorious for his tyranny and his arbitrary conduct. The royal governors succeeding him were generally disliked and in constant trouble with the legislature or General THE NEW ENGLAND GROUP OF COLONIES 123 Court. These difficulties continued to increase until they finally ended with the opening battle of the Revolution (1775). 174. Education. The Massachusetts people early provided for the education of their children by establishing (1647) free schools. In fact, to Massachusetts must be attributed the origin of the United States public school system. Many of the Massa- chusetts settlers were university graduates and it was but natural that they deemed a college a necessity. The General Court gave a whole year's tax, and John Harvard, a young clergyman, bequeathed his books and half his estate toward the founding of Harvard College (Harvard University), the first in the United States, though not the first on the conti- nent. The college was named Harvard out of gratitude toward its benefactor, and the name of Newtown, in which town it was located, was changed to Cambridge in honor of Cambridge University in England. The printing press set up in Cambridge in 1639 was the first in the United States, but not the first in America. 175. Character — Manners and Customs. The Puritan found- ers of Massachusetts, though exceedingly bigoted and tyran- nical toward all believers in any creed except their own, were characterized by industry, sobriety, enterprise, and religion. They came to settle permanently in the New "World and to establish there a church and government according to their own ideas. The Puritan settlers, by reason of their peculiar religious views, were of a gloomy nature, and their manners were severe and repelling. Every town had its public whipping post ; many offenses were punished by the stocks ; gossips and scolds were bound and gagged at their own doors ; fines were exacted for the wearing of too costly clothing. The Puritan, unlike the Cavalier and the aristocratic settler of the southern colonies, did not attire himself in satins, vel- vets, lace ruffies, gold buckles, or plumes, but rather in a sora- ber-hued tunic, loose knee trousers, and long woolen stockings. 124 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES For out-of-door wear this costume was completed by a steeple- crowned hat and a short cloak. All persons were forbidden, on the Sabbath, to run or to walk anywhere "save reverently to and from church." These laws, though stern in themselves, produced a hardy race. 176. Industry. The rocky soil and cold climate of New England were not favorable to rural life, hence the people, un- THE STOCKS AND PILLORY like those of the southern colonies, who lived on broad planta- tions, dwelt in towns, surrounded by the small farms of the peasantry. The swift running streams encouraged manufac- turing; the good fishing off the coast led to a prosperous ex- port trade in dried fish; the wild animals of the forest fur- nished a profitable trade in furs; while the fine timber of the woodlands encouraged the shipbuilding industry, for which New England is still famous. THE NEW ENGLAND GROUP OF COLONIES 125 THE SETTLEMENT OP NEW HAMPSHIRE AND MAINE 177. Founding of New Hampshire. New Hampshire was permanently settled at Dover and Portsmouth in 1623 by people from England under the proprietaries of Sir Ferdinando Gorges and John Mason. The Council of Plymouth granted Gorges and Mason the territory extending between the Merri- mac and the Kennebec rivers, and sixty miles inland. The settlement, made for the personal gain of the proprietors, was prompted by the prospects of a flourishing fish and fur trade. Later the owners (1629) divided their grant, Gorges select- ing the country east of the Piscataqua River, which was called Maine (mainland), probably. to distinguish it from the many islands along the coast. Mason held as his portion the coun- try west of the river, naming it New Hampshire after Hamp- shire, the English county which had been his home in England. Adherents of Mrs. Anne Hutchinson eventually settled at Exeter and soon other settlers from Massachusetts estab- lished themselves at Hampton. Many years later (1719) immi- grants from northern Ireland settled at Londonderry. They introduced the manufacture of linen, which was soon indus- triously practiced on a little flax wheel by the thrifty housewife of every log cabin. 178. Government — Religion — Manners and Customs. New Hampshire and Maine, while proprietary colonies under Gorges and Mason, were, on the whole, left to follow their own course. Massachusetts claimed all of the territory, and to make good a portion of this claim bought Maine from the heirs of Gorges (1677), after which event the latter colony continued a part of Massachusetts until its admission into the Union. New Hampshire remained for a long time under the protection of Massachusetts. After severing its connection with that settle- ment it became a separate royal colony, and continued such until the Revolution. The settlers of New Hampshire belonged for the most part 126 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES to the Church of England. At the present city of Calais, Maine, the French, under De Monts and Champlain, erected a number of buildings including a small chapel. In this chapel the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass was offered for the first time on New England soil in 1604. Since New Hampshire was so intimately united with Massa- chusetts, it has, necessarily, almost a common history with it; hence the study of the customs, manners, and occupations of Massachusetts will fairly acquaint us with those of New Hamp- shire. The people of New Hampshire, however, were not so rigid in their laws and ways of living as those of Massachu- setts. They were religious after the Puritan fashion (Congre- gationalists), and thrifty, resolute, and brave. THE SETTLEMENT OF CONNECTICUT 179. First Permanent Settlement. The territory of Connecti- cut, claimed by the Dutch because of Henry Hudson's and Adrian Block's explorations, was first occupied at Hartford, by a company of Dutch traders from New Amsterdam. This settlement, however, was only temporary. Connecticut was first permanently colonized in 1633, at "Windsor, by English traders, under the authority of the Governor of Plymouth and the leadership of William Holmes. Later, under the pro- prietaries of Lord Say-and-Seal, Lord Brooke, and others, and under the leadership of John Winthrop, son of Governor Win- throp, Saybrook was founded (1635) by people from Massachu- setts. The two proprietors made no further effort to plant colonies in the domain granted them by the Council of Plym- outh, but immigration from Massachusetts, already begun without their permission, continued to people the Connecticut valley. Connecticut derived its name from the Connecticut River, an Indian name signifying "Long River." 180. Winthrop 's and Hooker's Ideas — Consequences. Gov- ernor Winthrop of Massachusetts, aristocratic in his political views, held that a large part of the people was unfit to have THE NEW ENGLAND GROUP OF COLONIES 127 a share in the government. He thought that the best and wisest persons only, especially the clergy, should hold the controlling part in the government. Thomas Hooker, the eloquent pastor of the Puritan church in Newtown (Cambridge) was, on the contrary, democratic in his views. He held that all the people ought, directly or indi- rectly, to take part in the government, either by hold- ing office or by voting. Repelled by the autocratic government of Massachu- setts and attracted by the promising fur trade and the fertility of the Connecticut valley, bodies of Massachu- setts colonists migrated from Newtown, Watertown, and Dorchester to Connecticut, and founded the towns of Wethersfield (1634), Wind- sor (163.5), and Hartford (1636). The settlement of Hartford was the most im- portant of the three towns thus founded. Led by their minister, Thomas Hooker, some one. hundred men, women, and children journeyed through the unbroken wilderness from Cambi'idge to Hartford, driving their flocks before them. Thus we find that the settlement of Connecticut was prompted by the prospects of greater civil liberty, a promising fur trade, and the desire for the establishment of new homes in the fertile Connecticut valley. 181. The Connecticut Constitution. The three river towns of Windsor, Wethersfield, and Hartford leagued together JOHN WINTHROP 128 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES under the name of Connecticut Colony. They adopted (1639) a written constitution which they called "The Fundamental Orders." This was the first written American constitution and was drawn up independently of King, Parliament, Char- ter, or mother colony. It formed the United Settlements of Connecticut into a little republic having a government, in gen- eral, like that of Massachusetts. Connecticut, however, re- quired no religious test for citizenship. 182. The New Haven Colony. New Haven, another inde- pendent colony, was founded (1638) on Long Island Sound, by a company of English traders — Puritans of the strictest type — under the leadership of their minister John Davenport and a London merchant, Theophilus Eaton. This colony based its government upon the Bible, adopting the Mosaic code of laws, and like the Massachusetts Bay Colony allowed none but church members to vote. Its strange rules have been the object of ridicule under the name of "Blue Laws." These were severe laws which regulated not only the ordinary political actions, but also the opinions, religious practices, cut of hair, style of dress, and many other minute affairs of the people, fixing even the occasion on which a mother might kiss her child. Twelve offenses were punishable by death, less serious violations of law by the rack, the stocks, the whipping- post, the branding-iron, etc. 183. The Connecticut Charter. After the restoration of Charles II to the English throne, the younger "Winthrop was sent to England to petition the king for a charter which would establish Connecticut as an independent colony under the famous Fundamental Orders, already adopted by the three towns. Winthrop secured a most liberal charter, which in reality made Connecticut a little republic in which the people elected their own governors and made their own laws. It so well satisfied the people that it afterwards became the state constitution, remaining in force till 1818. When Sir Edmund Andros became governor-general of the THE NEW ENGLAND GROUP OF COLONIES 129 whole of New England, the Connecticut charter was annulled and the colony became a royal province. Andros went to Hartford and demanded of the assembly the much treasured charter. It is said that during the course of a heated debate which was prolonged till after dark, the candles were suddenly bloM^i out, and when they were re-lighted the charter had disappeared. It had been hidden in the hollow of a tree famous ever after as the "Charter Oak." Andros no longer had a charter to suppress, but the colony no longer had one to appeal to. Thus Connecticut passed under the despotic sway of Governor Andros, as a royal province, even though the charter lay hidden within its boundaries. The Charter Oak was blown down in a storm (1856), but a marble tablet now marks the site where it stood. When James II was deposed, Andros lost his authority, and the colony resumed its charter government. 184. The Pequot War. The Connecticut settlers were re- peatedly attacked by the powerful Pequot Indians, who ap- peared to be plotting the extermination of the English. Con- sequently Major John Mason (1637), with a band of about one hundred men, attacked the savages. The Pequots tried to induce the Mohegans and the Narragansetts to join them, but Roger Williams, forgetting the wrong done him by Massa- chusetts, used his great influence with these tribes, and they refused to help the Pequots in their war against the colonists of Connecticut. Major Mason finally destroyed the entire tribe. 185. Religion — Manners and Customs — Education. The col- onizers of Connecticut were Puritans of the Congregational type. Other Christian denominations were merely tolerated and religious freedom received only a scant and reluctant rec- ognition. No Catholic priest was allowed to abide in its do- main. The settlers of Connecticut belonged to the same class of people as those of Massachusetts. Hence, they were similar 130 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES to them in manners and customs, though perhaps less intoler- ant in religious matters, and more liberal in political affairs. Education received early attention in Connecticut. Free schools were established in 1650, and Yale College, the third in the United States, was founded at New Haven (1701). THE SETTLEMENT OP RHODE ISLAND 186. Founding of Rhode Island — The Rhode Island Char- ter. When Roger Williams fled to the wilderness in mid- winter in order to escape being transported to England, he and his five companions sought refuge in the hospitable tent of jMassasoit, on Narragansett Bay. At the opening of spring, he procured from his red friends a tract of land upon which he founded a town (1636) for the purpose of greater religious and civil liberty. He called his settlement Providence, in gratitude for God's mercy which had thus provided for him. Rhode Island was probably named after the island of Rhodes in the Mediterranean, or possibly after "Roode Eyelandt" (Red Island), a name which was given by the Dutch to a large island at the entrance of Narragansett Bay. Further bands of exiles led respectively by William Cod- dington and Mrs. Anne Hutchinson bought from the Indians the island of Rhode Island and there planted the colonies of Portsmouth and Newport. A fourth colony was founded by Greene and Gorton at Warwick south of Providence. The various settlements established in Rhode Island were at first voluntary associations, purely democratic in form, in which everything was decided by the votes of the majority. When Roger Williams visited England as agent of the settlers, however, he procured (1644) from a Parliamentary commis- sion a charter which united the colonies under the name of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. This granted the people the right to elect their own governors and to rule them- selves by such form of government as they thought best. The charter was confirmed by Charles II, and remained for one THE NEW ENGLAND GROUP OF COLONIES 131 hundred and eighty years (1063-1843) the supreme law of Rhode Ishind. 187. Difficulties — Government. The colony suffered greatly at the time of King Philip's War, during which Providence was burned and other settlements were laid waste. The Great Swamp Fight, which broke the Indian Confederacy, took place on Rhode Island soil and King Philip was slain by treachery at Mount Hope. The peace of Rhode Island was also much dis- turbed by disputes with the neighboring colonies, Massachu- setts and Connecticut, each of which claimed part of its terri- tory. The colony finally succeeded in fixing its boundaries much as they are at present. Owing to differences in religious matters Rhode Island was furthermore refused admission to the New England Confederacy. When Sir Ednumd Andros extended his Viceroyalty over all of New England, Rhode Island became a royal colony (1686). After the overthrow of Andros it resumed its liberal charter, under which it continued to govern itself until long after the Revolution. 188. Religion — Class of People. The first Baptist church in America was founded by Roger Williams in Rhode Island and the Baptist denomination was the most influential in the col- ony. The charter granted religious freedom to all. For a time however (from 1719 till the Revolution), Catholics and Jews were denied the right to vote, but were allowed freedom of worship. The settlers of Rhode Island, though nnich more liberal in their moral and civil principles, resembled the people of the mother colony in their customs. The first institution of higher learning was Brown University (founded 1764). CHAPTER XI INTER COLONIAL WARS A BRIEF STTRVEY FRENCH AND INDIANS 189. French Claims — Posts. France, through the labors of her loyal subjects, had established a claim to New France (including Acadia, Canada, and the Mississippi Valley), a vast region stretching from the mouth of the St. Lawrence around the English colonies to the mouth of the Mississippi, and thence to the Rio Grande. The east and west boundaries were the Alleghany and the Rocky Mountains. France based her claim upon : (a) discoveries and explorations made under the patronage and at the expense of the kings, the nobility, and the Church of France; (&) actual occupation, though only by widely scattered settle- ments ; (c) the express consent of the Indians, whom the French did not dispossess of their lands; and upon the conversion of many Indian tribes. 132 INTER-COLONIAL WARS 133 Thus we find that the French were by no means idle while the English, Dutch, and Swedes were planting the famous thirteen original colonies along the Atlantic coast. In fact, they were actively engaged in building up a French empire on the American continent. We have also seen that they took actual possession of New France by numerous, though widely scattered settlements, comprising many fortresses and more than sixty military, trading, and missionary posts — all in a SgliW^ ^^^' h- QUEBEC./ ■ ^,t,igj?^s^^t,'^!£-- ■ region wholly uninhabited by the English. These posts were located at points of military importance : (a) Mackinac and Sault Ste. Marie were established on the older routes of the northern waters; (&) Detroit controlled the more direct routes of the Mississippi; (c) Forts Miami and St. Joseph were located at important routes of travel ; (d) Cahokia, Kaskaskia, and Chartres in Illinois were trading centers ; (e) Vincennes was a stronghold on the Wabash River; (/) Mobile, New Orleans, and Fort Rosalia upheld the French power on the Gulf. 190. The Two Nations as Rivals. The French and the Eng- lish in North America differed in race and religion and were 1;j4 a history Ol-' THE UNITED STATES by 110 means on friendly terms, owing to conflicting interests which may be summed up as follows : (a) the two nations were rivals in the flourishing fishing indus- try of the northern Atlantic waters ; (6) they were rivals in the rich fur trade of Acadia and north- ern Maine ; (f) both nations claimed possession of the Ohio Valley. Under such conditions peace between the French and the English in America was impossible. The ultimate outcome of the standing enmity between the two nations was a great strife for supremacy, in the four Inter-Colonial Wars. 191. Causes for These Wars — Comparative Strength of the Rivals. The principal causes for the first three of the Inter- colonial Wars may be generally attributed to the hostile rela- tions between the rival colonists, which were kindled into action by war between the mother countries. The English were disunited by jealousies and conflicting interests, and these conditions rendered it difficult to raise a military force. The French, on the contrary, were firmly united under one government centered at Quebec. The English were supported by the Iroquois nations onl,y, while the French had as allies the numerous Indian tribes of Canada and Maine. The English, however, owing to their growing population, industries, wealth, and superior resources, particularly the powerful navy of the mother country, were far better prepared for the struggle than the French. The main strength of the latter lay in the scattered military posts, each of which was made up of a handful of soldiers, a number of traders, and a f ( w hardy peasants. The population of New France, partly because of geograph- ical conditions, increased but slowly, and numbered only about eighty thousand in 1754. In marked contrast, the English colo- nies contained at that time more than one million people. Mis- sionary enthusiasm, the spirit of adventure, and the prospects of gain, principally through the fur trade (which industry was INTER-COLONIAL WARS 135 favored by geographical conditions) increased the wandering and adventiirons tendencies of the French settlers, and did not advance self-governing methods. The English colonists, on the contrary, were characterized by a colonizing spirit, which songlit material gain and eventual civil strength in the toilsome process of building homes in a new land. KINC WIIJJA!\rS WAR ( ]«S!I-1(!!)7 ) 192. Cause — Time — Scene. When King James II of England was driven from the throne, he fled to Louis XTV of France. William of Orange, son-in-law of James II, and his wife Mary, became rulers of England. The French King defended the deposed English King and the consequence was war be- tween France and England, which spread to the English and French colonies in America. The French, with their Algonquin and Abnaki allies, fought against the English, supported by the Iroquois. The war continued for a period of eight years and was fought on the soil of the Iroquois territory, New Eng- land, and the adjoining borders of the French possessions. 193. Principal Events — Outcome. There was bitter war- fare in the Iroquois region; a party of pagan Iroquois in a midnight massacre devastated Lachine, while the French and Indians surprised and destroyed Schenectady. A series of attacks conducted by bands of French and Indians laid waste Doyer, Pemaquid, Salmon Falls, and Casco (now Portland). The first Colonial Congress, representing Massachusetts, New York, Plymouth, and Connecticut, made a threefold plan for the conquest of Canada. A naval force under William Phipps, governor of Massachusetts, took Port Royal but was unsuc- cessful in its attack on Quebec. The attempt to capture Mon- treal by forces from New York was also a failure. These tAvo defeats and the retaking of Port Royal by the French put an end to active warfare except in the east. There the Indian allies of the French kept the English terrorized, even sacking Haverhill, less than thirtv miles from Boston. 136 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES Among the thrilling stories of those days of savage warfare, one of the most notable was that of the Dustin family at the Haverhill massacre. Mr. Dustin secured the safety of seven of his children by telling them to run ahead, while he, re- treating slowly, kept the Indians back with his gun. Mrs. Dustin, who was unable to escape, saw her house burned and her infant child dashed to death against a tree, while she was carried away captive. Later, she and two companions, after killing ten Indians, succeeded in escaping. The war was finally ended by a treaty of peace between the French and the English, signed at Ryswiek, Holland, May 20, 1697. Colonial boundaries remained unchanged. Neither had gained territory, and the old causes for enmity remained. QUEEN ANNE'S WAR (1702-17i:j) 194. Cause — Time — Scene. Queen Anne of England de- clared war against France and Spain. This war fanned into flames a war between their respective colonies in America, where the old enmity, occasioned by the conflicting claims of territory still existed. The war lasted eleven years and was fought in the North, on the border of Canada and New Eng- land, and in the South, on Carolina and Spanish soil. Many of the Iroquois had become sincere Catholics and a law passed in New York (1700) prohibiting any Catholic mis- sionary under penalty of death to enter the territory of the Iroquois, induced these Indians to sign a treaty with the au- thorities of Canada (1701). By this treaty the Iroquois refused to attack the French and the Indians of Canada. 195. Principal Events — Outcome. A New England raid into the Canadian and the Indian territory brought the northern natives down upon Maine, New Hampshire, and into the very heart of Massachusetts, laying waste Wells, Saco, Caseo, Deerfield, and Haverhill. The New Englanders retaliated by capturing Port Royal. Their effort to take Quebec, however, again proved a failure. The English of South Carolina INTER-COLONIAL WARS 137 attacked the Spanish in Florida, while the Spanish attempted to capture Charleston. Nothing was gained on either side. The peace of Utrecht, Holland (1713) put an end to Queen Anne's War. By it Acadia, Newfoundland, and the borders of Hudson Bay were ceded to the English. Henceforth Acadia became known as Nova Scotia, while Port Royal was named Annapolis in honor of Queen Anne. The treaty of Utrecht, like that of Ryswick, left the boundary limits between the French and the English undecided. KIN(; OKOUGE'S WAR (1744-1748) 196. Cause — Time — Events. War having broken out be- tween Great Britain and France, conflicting interests between their colonies in America brought about the third colonial war. It lasted four years and was named after the reigning sov- ereign of England, George 11. The one great event of this war was the capture of the pow- erful French fort, Louisburg, by English and colonial troops numbering four thousand. Louisburg, sometimes, like Quebec, called the ' ' Gibraltar of America, ' ' was by far the most power- ful fortress in America at the time. It had cost the French more than five million dollars. Its position at the town and harbor of Louisburg, on Cape Breton Island, made it the guar- dian of the St. Lawrence and a constant menace to English fishing fleets. 197. Outcome of the War. The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) ended the war. By it England gave back Louisburg to the French in return for Madras in India and the payment of the colonial debt incurred by the war. The boundaries between the French and the English were again left undecided, and the germ of a new war still remained. The giving back of Louisburg to the French in exchange for a foreign posses- sion was one of the first events which led the Englis'h colonies to see that American affairs should be settled on this side of the Atlantic and not by a power thousands of miles away. 138 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR ( 1754-1 TC.:: ) %^;^ 198. SigTiificance of the War. The French and Indian War was the most important of the four inter-colonial wars. The three earlier colonial wars were caused by contentions be- tween the mother countries. But this time the colonies went to war on their own account. The other three wars had settled nothing, while this war was to decide which of the two nations, the French or the English, should be supreme in North America. In this conflict the Indians, with the excep- tion of the Iroquois who remained neutral, united with the French against the English. For this reason the struggle which resulted is known as the French and Indian War. 199. Conflicting Claims — Causes. The English viewed the chain of French forts, which checked their colonization in the west, with alarm. They had by this time extended their set- tlements as far west as the Alleghanies. A dispute concern- ing the ownership of tlie Oliio valley soon arose betweeii the two i-ival colonies. The French claimed this great region as a part of the discovery of Fatlier Marquette and La Salle, while at the same time the English claimed it as a part of Virginia, granted by the early charters, which were based on the Cabot discoveries. They furthermore claimed it on the ground that the territory belonged to the Iroquois who were INTER-COLONIAL WARS 139 considered subjects of Great Britain. In order to make good their claims to the disputed territory, the English organized the Ohio Company'', composed of prominent Virginians, who received from George II a grant of land between the Kanawha 140 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES and the Monongahela rivers, for the purpose of trade and col- onization. The company at once sent out explorers and pre- pared to take possession of the upper Ohio valley. The French promptly resolved to stop the movement. They buried leaden plates, inscribed with the claim of France, along the Alleghany and Ohio rivers, to the mouth of the Great Miami and began a new line of forts, including Presque Isle, La Boeuf, and Venango, which extended from Erie on Lake Erie to the point Avhere the Alleghany and the Monongahela rivers meet to form the Ohio, the present site of Pittsburg. This point, located at the head of inland navigation, was, with good reason, styled the "Gateway of the ^Vest." Both parties understood the advantage of controlling it; both were determined to seize and fortify it. Governor Dinwiddie of Virginia alarmed at the activity dis- played by the French, sent to Fort La Boeuf George Wash- ington, a young Virginian, to inform the French commander that he was building on English territory and would do well to depart peaceably. "Washington returned from his perilous journey with a refusal from St. Pierre, the French commander. The Ohio Company now began to build a fort at the "Gateway of the West." The French drove them off and erected Fort Duquesne. Washington was sent with a small force to inter- cept the progress of the French, but was defeated. Being forced to surrender at Fort Necessity (July 4, 1754), he re- turned to Virginia. 200. The Albany Plan of Union. For the first time we find all the colonies working together. A convention of the north- ern colonies met at Albany, at which Benjamin Franklin pro- posed a u)non of the colonies under a president appointed by the crown and a council chosen by the people. His plan of action, however, was rejected by the king as well as by the colonists. Fraijklin, who was a delegate from Pennsylvania, prepared and printed in his "Pennsylvania Gazette," a device which INTEK-COLONIAL WARS 141 represented the thirteen colonies in the form of a snake cut in pieces, with the motto "Unite or Die." 201. War Declared. The defeat of Washington at Fort Necessity practically began the struggle between France and England in America, but war was not formally declared be- tween the two nations until the spring of 1756. France now sent over the distinguished Marquis Montcalm to take com- niand of her forces. On the part of England, the war on both sides of the ocean was skillfully managed by one of the great- est statesmen the world has ever seen, William Pitt, afterwards Earl of Chatham. He not only furnished the American army with money and competent commanders, but also man- 2;'^^> . ^ aged to keep the main ^ -^v- strength of France busily en- . " -fj'. i . gaged in the European strug- > > 5 ."'.,•' gle while English fleets were , - , ' / attacking her and English ^ ,.^>^ "L^-'"*"^ S' ^ armies were driving her from ^^' ,;^^#« .wtV^A both America and India. |%,Y 4-^ 202. Five Points of Attack. ^"^ The physical features of the louisburg country and the situation of the French clearly indicated five points of attack: Acadia and Louisburg, Duquesne, Crown Point and Ticonderoga, Niagara, and Quebec. All of these points finally yielded. 203. Acadia and Louisburg. Acadia was inhabited by peace- ful Catholic peasants. England had guaranteed them the free exercise of their religion and the privilege of not bearing arms against their French countrymen in Canada. They re- fused to take the oath of allegiance to England, because this would deprive them of these two privileges. The English forthwith resolved to expel them from the country, which cruel measure was successfully carried out. Longfellow relates the sad story of these unhappy exiles in his "Evangeline." 342 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Forces under Generals Wolfe and Amherst took Louisburg after a severe bombardment and this made possible a naval attack on Quebec. 204. Fort Duquesne. This fort was the key to the "West, and its capture by the English was therefore important. This "Gateway of the West" was at first unsuccessfully attacked (1755) by a combined English and colonial force under Gen- eral Braddock. Braddock was a brave officer, but he was utterly ignorant of Indian warfare, and too conceited to take any advice from those who were skilled in it. Despising Washington's suggestions, Braddock ordered his army to march on with drums beating and flags flying. The savages never met an enemy in open battle, but fired at him from be- hind rocks, trees, and bushes, being always on the alert to take him unguarded. Thus Braddock blundered into a French and Indian ambush near Fort Duquesne and his army was cut to pieces. He himself was numbered among the seven hundred slain. Total destruction of the army was averted only by the skill of Washington. A second expedition led by General Forbes, with Washington in command of the Virginia troops, captured the fort (1758). The name of the post was changed to Pittsburg in honor of William Pitt, the prime minister of England. 205. Crown Point and Ticonderoga. These two strongholds, controlling the route to and from Canada, left New York as well as New England exposed to French invasion. The first expedition against Ticonderoga, in command of General Abercrombie suffered a disastrous defeat OAving to the ineffi- ciency of its commander, who tarried in the rear while the battle raged in front. One year after the disgraceful defeat of Abercrombie a large army of English under General Am- herst compelled the French to evacuate both Ticonderoga and Crown Point. In 1757 Montcalm had swept down from Canada and cap- tured the British fort, William Henry, at the head of Lake INTER-COLONIAL WARS 143 George. He i^romised the British troops that he would safe- guard their retreat to Fort Edward, but ou leaving the fort, the English troops were attacked by the Indians. Some sixty or seventy were massacred despite Montcalm's attempts to re- strain his savage allies. 206. Fort Niagara. This fort, situated on the portage be- tween lakes Erie and Ontario, protected the great fur trade of the upper Lakes and the West. It finally surrendered to FORT NIAGARA the English under Sir William Johnson, who was aided by his friends, the Iroquois Indians. 207. The Fall of Quebec. Quebec, the strongest fortification in Canada, controlled the navigation of the St. Lawrence and largely decided the possession of that province. This last and most important point, commanded by the able General Mont- calm, was finall}^ captured by the gallant General Wolfe after a desperate battle. 144 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES Qiipbec was a strongly fortified place. The only way the English could gain access to it was to scale a high and almost perpendicular rock. Wolfe at last found a steep pathway leading to the summit of the fortress. Over this he succeeded in getting his army to the ' ' Plains of Abraham, ' ' where he sur- prised and captured the garrison. Both brave generals were slain, — Wolfe, rejoicing in his dying breath that the victory was his, and Montcalm thankful that he would not survive to see the surrender of Quebec, THE TAKING OF QUEBEC While in his boat on his way to attack Quebec Wolfe quoted from Gray 's Elegy : — The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, And all that beauty, all that wealth e 'er gave, Await alike the inevitable hour. The paths of glory lead but to the grave. When he had finished he said: "Gentlemen, I would rather be the author of that poem than to have the glory of beating the French tomorrow." INTER-COLONIAL WARS 145 Montcalm was buried in the chapel of the Ursuline convent. On the monument to Wolfe and Montcalm in Quebec are these words : ' ' Valor gave a united death, History a united fame, Posterity a united monument." 208. Outcome of the War. The treaty of peace at Paris (1768) marked the close of the French and Indian War and ^-/AL L EY>:F O R^ €"'. TRENTON JURl-INCTON 4W P.W( W6e"i;p*H ift?; ■ -r iY,-r 260. The Battle of Long Island. General Howe saw that, by securing Brooklyn Heights, he could, from this point, drive "Washington out of New York, just as Washington had driven FIRST PERIOD OP THE WAR 195 him out of Boston. So he attacked a detachment of Putnam's army under Sullivan and defeated it with heavy loss (August). He did not, however, follow up his victory, and the wary Wash- ington, under cover of a dense fog and burning camp fires, removed his entire army across East River to New York. Again, as at Bunker Hill and Dorchester Heights, the slow- witted Howe was out-generaled by Washington. 261. Washington's Masterly Retreat. Howe followed Wash- ington to New York, and the latter, unable to hold the city against the superior forces of the enemy,, retreated northward along the east side of the Hudson to Peekskill, encovintering Howe's skirmishing parties at Harlem and White Plains (Octo- ber). Captain Nathan Hale, only twenty-one years of age, a for- mer student of Yale College, a school teacher by profession, was sent by Washington to gain some information respecting the British in the city. Betrayed by an American Tory, he was captured by the enemy and executed, without trial, as a spy. His last words, "I only regret that I have but one life to give for my country," proved the undaunted patriotism of this brave hero. Howe captured Forts Lee and Washington. Aroused by the losses he had suffered (New York, and Forts Washington and Lee), Washington left General Charles Lee to hold Peekskill. while he himself hurried across the Hudson to New Jersey to stand between the British and Philadelphia. The British, under Lord Cornwallis, also crossed the Hudson. Washing- ton now ordered Lee, who was still on the east side of the river, to join him ; but this treacherous commander refused, and Washington's only policy was that of retreat. Greatly outnumbered by the British, he tied rapidly before them through Newark, New Brunswick, Princeton, and Trenton, whence he crossed the Delaware into Pennsylvania. Since Washington had seized all the boats in reach, Cornwallis could not follow across the stream, so he returned to New York to 196 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES share in the Christmas festivities, declaring that he would wait till the river should be frozen over to "bag the old fox," as he styled Washington. General Charles Lee now started to fol- low his chief leisurely into New Jersey. He was soon captured by the British ; his troops, however, succeeded in join- ing Washington. Lee was a traitor. Jealous of AVash- ington, and disappointed in his hope of securing the lat- ter 's position, he wished to see him fail. The American situation, after the succession of disas- ters attending Washington's remarkably skillful retreat, was gloomy, and discourage- ment settled on the country. Washington was constantly losing men by sickness and desertion, until he had not more than five thousand un- der his command, while the British army was being re- enforced by the deserters from Washington's army, as well as by numerous Tories. The British generals began to think that the war was near its close. Cornwallis was even packing up to re- turn home. He thought that the Delaware would soon be bridged by ice and that he could then cross and capture Philadelphia, the rebel capital. After this his services would no longer be needed in America. HESSIAN SOLDIER FIRST PERIOD OP THE WAR 197 262. The Battle of Trenton. To raise the spirits of his troops and to remove the despair that seemed to be settling upon the country, Washington determined to strike a bokl and ahnost reckh^ss blow. On Christmas night, in a blinding storm of snow and sleet, and amid drifting ice, he crossed the Delaware at Trenton and made a sudden attack upon the British. He captured one thousand Hessian soldiers, and es- caped to Pennsylvania with a loss of only four men. Colonel Rahl, the Hessian commander, was mortally wounded. This brilliant feat, the last of the events of 1776, kindled anew the fires of patriotism, and forced Cornwallis to decide to remain a little longer in America. THIRD YEAR OP THE WAR— 1777 263. The Battle of Princeton — Sore Straits. Immediately after the battle of Trenton, the second day of the new year, Washington recrossed the Delaware and faced Cornwallis at Trenton. The latter remarked that now he had the "old fox" penned and would "bag" him in the morning. But, while a few of his men were making a show of throwing up earth- Avorks, Washington, under cover of night, marched around Cornwallis, defeated his rear guard at Princeton, and captured several hundred prisoners, together with a much-needed sup- ply of ammunition. He then withdrew in safety to the Heights of Morristown, where he went into winter quarters. Corn- wallis followed to Princeton, but finding that he was too late, returned to New York for the winter. Washington's great military skill and the attendant victories of Trenton and Princeton sent a thrill of joy throughout the colonies from Maine to Georgia, and from the mountains to the sea. But Washington was in sore straits with his army. The term of service of many soldiers was about to expire, and these were eager to get back to their homes. Worst of all, they had received no pay to send to their families. Washington appealed to his friend, Robert Morris, a wealthy banker of 198 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Philadelphia, for help. Morris promptly raised a large sum of money and the army was saved for the great campaigns of the year. On several other occasions during the vs^ar Morris gave financial support to the army. Final victory would have been impossible without the funds which he supplied, and, next to Washington, we owe American independence to the generosity and financial skill of Robert Morris. He eventually became poor and was cast into a debtor's prison, where he languished four 3^ears. He died (1806) a few years after his release. 264. Noble Foreigners Lend Their Aid. Congress had made several efforts to induce the King of France to aid the patriot cause, but as an open treaty with America meant a war with England, France, for the time being, only secretly gave some assistance in money, arms, and supplies. Washington's war tactics and the bravery and patriotism of the American army at large were rapidly gaining recognition abroad. As a conse- quence, the distinguished foreigners, Marquis Lafayette and Baron De Kalb from France, Baron Steuben, a German soldier, and the bra\e Poles, Pulaski and Kosciusko, offered their serv- ices to Congress. These five officers merited the lasting grati- tude of the American people. CAMPAIGN IN PENNSYLVANIA 265. The Battles of Brandywine and Germantown. After spending the winter at New York, Howe tried to force a battle upon Washington. Failing in his repeated attempts, he sud- denly sailed southward (June) with eighteen thousand men. Washington, too, hurried south and the armies met in battle at Brandywine Creek. The Americans were defeated by the superior number of the British troops, but Washington with- drew his army in good order to Philadelphia. Congress went to Lancaster and later to York in Pennsylvania (September). Washington was unable to defend the city and Howe entered it in triumph. The British then went into winter quarters there and also at Germantown. The noble foreigners, Lafayette, FIRST PERIOD OF THE WAR 199 De Kalb, and Pulaski, displayed great valor during the cam- paign in Pennsylvania. Washington, in another bold surprise like the one at Tren- ton, fell upon the British at Germantown (October), but failed to capture them because of a dense fog which caused such confusion in his own ranks that one division attacked the other. The Americans now made their winter camp at Valley PrlUADELPHIA ' ^■S^' ■ ' '\ 'z-:^i^^^^Bi0'^::'^- PHILADELPHIA AND VICINITY Forge, twenty miles from Philadelphia. Howe M^as two months on the way from New York to Pennsylvania. These were two precious months for Washington, whose masterly strategy in detaining General Howe in the vicinity of Philadelphia, pre- vented him from giving sorely needed aid to Burgoyne. Washington had by this time gained the title of "'the American Fabius." King Frederick II of Prussia, called "the 200 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Great" was the most celebrated general of his age. He well knew what it was to fight under tremendous difficulties, for at one time all Europe was combined against him. Speaking of Washington's movements in New Jersey (1776), he said they were the most brilliant in the annals of war. Of the American soldiers he said: "I like those brave fellows and cannot help hoping for their success." CAMPAIGN IN NEW YORK— BURGOYNE'S INVASION 266. Plan of the Campaign. We have now seen the result of one of the campaigns planned by the British for this year; though not entirely favorable, it still proved instrumental in bringing about the success of the second campaign — the one in New York, which was to secure for the British the control of the entire Hudson. The British plan for this campaign was threefold : (a) Burgoyne, with a strong army, was to come down from Canada by way of Lake Champlain and the Hudson ; (6) a small body of Canadians and Indians, under Colonel St. Leger, was to ascend the St Lawrence and Lake Ontario to Oswego, and capture Fort Stanwix, near where Rome is now situated, and finally join Burgoyne on the Hudson ; (c) General Howe, with the main army, was to march up the Hudson, capture the American forts, and join Burgoyne and St. Leger at Albany. But Howe, as we have seen, was delayed by Washington in the south and hence failed to carry out his part of the plan. He did not get his orders from England until long after Bur- goyne 's surrender. They had been lying forgotten in the desk of the minister of war, awaiting his signature. 267. Capture of Crown Point, Ticonderoga, and Edward. General Burgoyne ascended the Sorel River and Lake Cham- plain with an army of about eight thousand men, including Englishmen, Canadians, Germans, American Tories, and In- FIRST PERIOD OP THE WAR 201 dians. On his way, lie captured, one after the other. Forts Crown Point, Ticonderoga, and Edward (July). Though Bur- goyne made a brilliant beginning, he soon met with great diffi- culties. The country was swampy and heavily wooded and Schuyler, who had been defeated at Ticonderoga and Crown Point because he could not hold the forts against the superior number of Burgoyne's troops, now greatly retarded the prog- ress of the latter by felling trees across the roads and destroy- ing bridges. Burgoyne, moreover, had no supplies with him. They had to be sent to him from Canada, and the farther he advanced, the more difficult it was to procure supplies for his army. 268. The Battle of Oriskany. In the meantime, the British and Indian forces under St. Leger, and the Mohawk chief, Brandt, had succeeded in getting as far as Oriskany, near Fort Stanwix, where they met a small American army under General Herkimer. Here was fought one of the bloodiest battles of the war. The result was indecisive. Later, by a stratagem of Arnold, who had come with re-enforcements, the British were driven precipitately from the fort. A half-witted Tory boy, who had been taken prisoner by the Americans, was promised his freedom if he would go to St. Leger 's camp and spread the report that a large American army was advancing. With a dozen bullet holes in his clothes, he rushed into the camp of the besiegers and described his narrow escape from the enemy and by mysteriously pointing to the leaves on the trees he intimated that the enemy was in immense force. This so terrified the Indians and British that they fled, leaving their equipment and guns behind them. So this part of the British plan met with complete failure. After the victory at Oriskany, a captured British flag was run up at Fort Stanwix, now re-named Fort Schuyler, and above it was hoisted the first American flag. This was the stars and stripes, which Congress had adopted as the national em- blem, on June 14, the day now celebrated as "Flag Day." This 202 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES first flag had been hastily patched together from a white shirt, a blue jacket, and a red flannel petticoat. 269. The Battle of Bennington. Burgoyne, on learning that the Americans had stored some provisions and military sup- continental ARTILLERY plies at the village of Bennington, Vermont, dispatched a force to capture them. General Stark, with the New Hampshire militia, met the British at Bennington and defeated them (August). To animate his soldiers, General Stark, before the opening of the battle, appealing to their sympathies, exclaimed : FIRST PERIOD OP THE WAR 203 "My fellow soldiers, we must conquer today or Molly Stark is a widow." 270. The Battle of Bemis Heights. Burgoyne now found hiinself hemmed in by the rapidly increasing American forces under General Gates, who had superseded Schuyler. He crossed the Hudson and struggled slowly onward down the west bank of the river toward the Mohawk, hoping against hope to hear from either Howe or St. Leger. He met the Americans under Arnold and Morgan in the desperate battle at Bemis Heights (September). The battle was undecided, but was followed by the utter defeat of the British at Stillwater, a little to the south of Bemis Heights. Gates took no direct part in these battles and was not actually present on the field of either. He was a vain, weak general of little ability, and the action of Congress in dis- placing General Schuyler, against the wishes of Washington, has been generally considered unwise. 271. Burgoyne 's Surrender at Saratoga — Results. The Amer- ican forces, step by step, drove Burgoyne back to Saratoga, where, cut oft' from all supplies and almost completely sur- rounded by the American army, he surrendered to General Gates on October 17, after a desperate battle. His army of six thousand men laid down their arms. Though the surrender was made to General Gates, the credit of the momentous victory belonged, first, to General Schuyler, because of his previous plans wisely laid for managing the campaign, and next, to the gallant leadership of Arnold and Morgan. Though deprived of his command by Gates, Arnold, while watching the progress of the battle, could not restrain himself. Hastily mounting his steed, he dashed to the head of his troops, and led them to victory. The terms of the surrender were embodied in an agreement known as the Saratoga Con- vention. According to this, the British troops were to march to Boston and there embark on transports furnished by the British government, on condition that they should not again 204 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES serve in North America until exchanged. Congress repudiated this agreement and held the troops as prisoners. The surrender of General Burgoyne proved to be the turning point of the war : (a) it completely broke up the English plans for the war; (h) it influenced France to recognize American independence and thus secured for the colonies the aid of England's old and powerful enemy; (c) it inspired the American patriots with hope and confidence. 272. The Articles of Confederation. At the same time that the Declaration of Independence was framed, a committee had been appointed to draw up a plan of government for the new nation. This plan, called the Articles of Confederation, was adopted by Congress (1777) and by the State Assemblies (1776-1781). By these Articles, or laws, the colonies were governed from 1781 to the adoption of the Constitution (1789). CHAPTER XIV SECOND PERIOD OF THE WAE— 1777-1781 FOURTH YEAR OF THE WAR — 1778 -' ' '' "'■""! I'llii ■'"■'■ fi' 273. The Hardships at Valley Forge. The second period of the war is distinguished chiefly for two facts; namely, France entered into an alliance with the Americans ; and the war was carried on chiefly in the south and in a more aggressive manner. While Howe and his soldiers were having an enjoyahle time in their winter quarters at Philadelphia, Washington and his army at Valley Forge were bravely struggling through the gloomiest season of the war. Owing to mismanagement by Congress and the Commissary Department, the soldiers were poorly fed, clad, and housed, although there were provisions lying unused at various places. But amidst all the untold suf- ferings of that terrible winter Washington's sublime covirage inspired those about him. He finally succeeded in enlisting many regiments to serve during the entire war. These were called Continentals, and Baron Steuben taught these crude warriors the fine maneuvers of the soldiers of the Prussian army and the skillful use of the bayonet. Thus, by spring, 205 206 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES these disorderly recruits were transformed into a well-disci- plined army. A touching story is told of "Washington at Valley Forge. One day while Mr. Potts, Washington's host, passed through the woods, his attention was attracted by the sound of an earnest voice. Upon approaching, Potts discovered the sorrow-bur- dened commander-in-chief on his knees, praying with tearful eyes. Potts related the incident to his wife, adding, "Under such a commander, the Americans will surely secure their independence. ' ' 274. The Conway Cabal. To add to Washington's trials at A^alley Forge, a conspiracy was formed against him. His "Fabian policy" did not fail to call forth the criticism of jeal- ous and ambitious characters, who, envious of his fame, endeav- ored to have' him removed from the army and to have Gates supersede him. The movement, known as the Conway Cabal, from one of its leaders, not only proved a failure in its purpose, but served rather to raise Washington higher than ever in the esteem of his countrymen and to place him stronger than ever in his position. Later Conway wrote Washington a letter expressing sorrow for what he had done. 275. Foreign Aid. Silas Deane, sent to Paris (1776) to urge an alliance with France, was joined by Benjamin Franklin and Arthur Lee after the Declaration of Independence. Not until hearing of the brilliant victory at Saratoga did King Louis XVI yield. France now recognized the United States as an inde- pendent power, and, entering into an alliance, sent troops and a fleet to aid the Americans, in return for their pledge not to make peace with England until she had acknowledged their independence (February). This caused war between France and England. France was persuaded to form an alliance with America largely through the able efforts of Benjamin Franklin. Though already seventy years of age, his wonderful intellect, as also his reputation as a scientist, and his simple, straight- forward manner charmed the French people. In admiration SECOND PERIOD OP THE WAR 207 they spoke of him as "the man who can snatch lightning from tlie clouds and scepters from kings' hands." The Americans saw in the French alliance a promise of final success. It sent a thrill of joy throughout the land and infused new hope and courage in Washington in his camp at Valley P^orge. George III now offered to grant the Americans almost everything they had demanded except independence (June), but nothing short of this would now be accepted. The British even had recourse to bribery, which, however, was scornfully rejected. General Joseph Reed of Philadelphia Was offered a large sum of money and high honors if he would try to influence Congress toward reconciliation. To this the noble patriot in- dignantly replied, "I am not worth purchasing ; bvit such as I am, the king of England is not rich enough to buy me." John Jay was sent to Spain to solicit help and that country loaned him money. 276. Philadelphia Evacuated. When General Henry Clin- ton, who had suc- ceeded Howe, learned that a French fleet was making for the American coast, he evacuated Philadelphia (June 18), and with his troops and some three thousand Tories, set out for New York. Clinton, fearing he might be closed up in Philadelphia as Howe had been in Boston, wished to re-enforce his army in New York against a possible American attack. General Howe, who never 208 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES believed in the British war policy, resigned and, like Burgoyne, returned to England. 277. The Battle of Monmouth. Washington, emerging from Valley Forge, followed Clinton across New Jersey and at- tacked him at Monmouth Court House (June 28). Lee had been directed to attack Clinton's flank while Washington him- self was to make an attack the moment the enemy were thrown into confusion. Instead, however, the treacherous Lee ordered a retreat. Washington, who had been informed of the fact by Lafayette, rode up at this perilous moment and, after severely rebuking Lee, promptly rallied the men, who at once fell into order, wheeled about, and rushed forward for a new attack. Washington, however, failed to win a decisive victory. During the night the British withdrew and Clinton took up his position in New York, while Washington occupied his old camp at White Plains. 278. Movements of the First French Fleet. Ten days after Clinton had evacuated Philadelphia, a French fleet, under D'Estaing, a kinsman of Lafayette, anchored (July) in Dela- ware Bay. Finding Philadelphia evacuated, he followed Clin- ton to New York. Here D'Estaing could not venture a battle because two of his ships were too large to cross the bar at Sandy Hook. So he proceeded to Newport, where, in conjunction with a land force under General Sullivan, he prepared to capture the only city, besides New York, still held by the British. But Admiral Howe appeared on the scene and the two opposing fleets prepared for battle. They were ready for action when a sudden storm scattered them and forced Admiral D'Estaing to put into Boston Harbor for repairs. Sullivan, thus left without help, was forced to retreat. D'Estaing soon moved off to the West Indies to defend the French possessions there. 279. Beginnings of Kentucky and Tennessee. Before the war, the British had dominion over all the territory north of the Ohio, between the Mississippi and the Alleghanies. This region was, however, claimed by various colonies, by authority SECOND PERIOD OF THE WAR 209 of their original charters. A North Carolina hunter, Daniel Boone, with his family, began a settlement in Kentucky (1775) and called it Boonesboro. Other settlers followed him from Virginia and North Carolina. About the same time that Boone went to Kentucky, pioneers from North Carolina settled Ten- nessee, first on the Watauga River and then at the present site of Nashville. James Robertson and John Sevier were two of the famous leaders under whose command the pioneers com- pletely defeated the Cherokee Indians who constantly men- aced the safety of the settlements. 280. Indian Massacres. In the summer of this year, the combined forces of Tories and Iroquois, accompanied by the Tory general, Butler, advanced from Niagara, fell upon the defenseless inhabitants of Wyoming Valley, Pennsylvania, and here perpetrated one of the most horrible massacres in history. Cherry Valley, a village in New York, met a similar fate from the Tories under John Johnson (son of Sir William Johnson) and the Iroquois, led by the celebrated chief Joseph Brandt. This chief had been well educated and had even visited Eng- land, where, highly honored, he sat at table with members of Parliament. The news of these awful outrages sent a thrill of horror throughout the civilized world, and a part of Washington's army, under General Sullivan, hastened (1779) to punish the Indians. Sullivan met and overthrew the combined forces of Johnson, Butler, and Brandt with great slaughter, at the pres- ent site of Elmira (July). He completely laid waste the Indian villages, and destroyed their harvests. In the winter follow- ing, which was unusually severe, intense cold together with starvation and disease, finished the work of destruction, and the power of the Six Nations was broken forever. 281. Clark's Conquest of the Northwest. Colonel Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit, planned to stir up the Indians of the West to attack the whole frontier and wipe out the young western settlements. Hearing of this, Patrick Henry, gov- 210 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ernor of Virginia, sent (June) a force under Major George Rogers Clark to seize the English posts between the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. The French settlers at Kaskaskia and Cahokia, influenced by Father Gibault, readily submitted. Clark next made friends with the Spanish at St. Louis, on the opposite bank, and then advanced on Vincennes, the most im- portant British post of the region. Through the friendly serv- ices of Father Gibault, Vincennes, too, yielded peaceably. The British under Hamilton retook the fort, but Clark soon recap- tured it (May, 1779). Thus, one of the most important expedi- tions of the war came to a favorable issue and the Americans secured control of the whole Northwest, from Pennsylvania to the Mississippi, and from the Great Lakes to the Ohio. This Northwest Territory, as it was called, had been reserved by Great Britain, as "Crown lands" exclusively for the Indians, and the American colonists had been forbidden to occupy it. Next to Clark, the United States is indebted to the kindly services of Father Gibault for the accession of the Northwest Territory. This good Father was for a long time the only priest in Illinois and Indiana. At the time of Clark's conquest of the Northwest, he not only induced the French as well as the Catholic Indians to submit without protest, but also encouraged them to espouse the American cause. He administered to them, in his own church, the oath of allegiance to Congress and blessed the arms of the volunteers. 282. The King's New Plan for the War. After three years of war, the English had failed to subdue either New England (1775-1776) or the Middle Colonies (1776-1777), and were no better off than when the war began. They now planned a new way of conquering America. The royal army, starting at the South, was to move northward and cut off one state after an- other. 283. British Successes in Georgia. Under General Clinton's direction, Savannah was captured (December). General Prevost, leading his forces northward from Florida, conquered SECOND PERIOD OP THE WAR 211 the rest of Georgia. The royal governor was reinstated and Great Britain could once more boast of a royal province among .A/aLrAMSBURc! •'CHARLESTON -,;^ SAVANNAH ;5w^Y0RKT0WN ^py 'WILMINGTON ■^/ - ' -^ 212 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES the colonies. Prevost next marched against Charleston, but was driven back by Benjamin Lincoln, who commanded the American forces in the South. Thus the close of the year (1778) left the British in possession of Georgia. FIFTH YEAR OF THE WAR— 1779 284. The Capture of Stony Point and Paulus Hook. Since the battle of Monmouth (June, 1778), Washington had done little but watch Clinton. The latter held the city of New York, whence he sent out expeditions which robbed and burned towns in New England, New Jersey, and Virginia. In the trail of blood and cruelty which everywhere they left their warfare resembled that of savages rather than that of civilized men. Washington had already strongly fortified West Point on the Hudson, but to make the upper river more secure he built forts on the opposite banks, at Stony and Verplanck Points. The British, however, captured Stony Point before its completion. Washington, in consequence, sent General Wayne to recapture it. General Wayne, surnamed "Mad Anthony, " because of his brilliant feats at arms, became the popular hero of the Revolu- tion. He had accidentally obtained the countersign, "The fort is ours," from a negro acquainted at the fort. With it he de- ceived the unsuspicious sentinel, who, while chatting with the negro, was seized and made powerless. Meanwhile, Wayne with a force of picked men trained by Steuben entered the fort (July). Shortly after, Henry Lee, called "Lighthorse Harry," gal- lantly led a small force of chosen men and captured the British garrison on Paulus Hook, a narrow neck of land extending into the Hudson from New Jersey. The Lees of Virginia played a remarkable part in American history. Richard Henry introduced the resolution for the Declaration of Independence ; Francis Lightfoot was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence ; Arthur was an SECOND PERIOD OP THE WAR 213 agent of the colonies, successively, in London, Madrid, Paris, and Berlin; "Lighthorse Harry" was a noted leader of the partisan bands and father of Robert E. Lee, the commander-in- chief of the Confederate Army in the Civil War. The General Charles Lee who was court-martialed and later expelled from the army, was no relative of these Virginia heroes. 285. Privateering'. The American cause was greatly ham- pered by the lack of a strong naval force. Though France was ready to assist with her powerful fleets, these were of little aid before the siege of Yorktown, except that they helped to keep England occupied on the sea. It is true, England had little to fear from our navy, but she suffered much from American privateers. They plowed the waters of the English Channel, the Irish Sea, and of many other parts of the world. After France, Spain, and Holland had declared war against England, the navies of these countries were also used in privateering against the British. During the Revolution seven hundred and ninety-two American privateers captured as prizes six hundred British vessels, valued at eighteen million dollars. As a result, so much harm was done to England's shipping that her ship-owners and merchants bitterly opposed the war, while the colonies were literally supporting their forces from captured British goods. 286. Exploits of John Barry. Captain John Barry, a native of Ireland and a Catholic, was one of the truest heroes of the Revolution. He was distinguished for his skill in equipping and handling vessels, as well as for his bravery. He is justly termed the "Father and Founder of the American Navy." Two of his ships, the Lexington and the Alfred^ were the first to hoist the American Stars and Stripes. As commander of the Lexington, Barry captured the British man-of-war Edward. He fought battles everywhere along the coast, inflicting severe losses on the enemy. He was placed by Congress (1794) at the head of the list of commanders in the navy. At the outbreak of the Revolution, Barry gave up, to use 214 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES his own manly words, "the finest merchandise ship and the first employ in America" to serve the cause of Independence. Lord Howe offered him the command of a fine British ship and a large sum of money, if he would deliver up the vessel then under his command and join the British. Barry indignantly gave the noble answer: "I have devoted myself to the cause of America, and the Avhole British fleet can not seduce me from it. ' ' Barry has often been referred to as " Commodore. ' ' There was no such rank in the United States navy until 1862. ' ' Cap- A SEA FIGHT OF THE PERIOD tain" was the highest rank before that dats. "Commodore" was, however, non-officially applied to a captain while in command of two or more vessels. 287. Paul Jones' Triumph. John Paul Jones, lieutenant of the Alfred, a small vessel of Barry's squadron, won for America the greatest triumph on the sea. In his little ship Ranger (1778) he incessantly menaced the safety of British vessels, not only on the open sea, but in the very ports of the nation; at one time he would dash in and set fire to a ship at anchor; SECOND PERIOD OP THE WAR 215 at another, pounce down upon a vessel at sea, and then again, like a gust of wind, whirl about and be off, out of harm's reach. With the help of Franklin and the French king, Louis XVI, Jones was at length placed in command of a small squadron of three vessels. To his flagship he gave the name of Bon Homme Richard. With the American flag flying from the mast- head of this vessel, he set sail with his little squadron and soon encountered (September) at Flamborough Head a fleet of English mer- chant vessels con- voyed by two men-of- war, the Sera pis and the Scarhoroiigh. He at once gave chase and coming up to the Serapis, lashed her and his own ship together. After a brilliant but deadly hand-to-hand fight wiiich raged far into the night, the Serapis surrendered. Mean- while the Scar- borough had been captured by one of the other ships. This battle was one of the most memorable and desperate ever fought upon the ocean, and it greatly humiliated the haughty ' ' Mistress of the Sea." 288. An Attack on Savannah Fails. Admiral D'Estaing, arriving from the West Indies, where he had cruised since the disastrous attempt upon Newport, now cooperated with Lincoln CAPTAIN JOHN BARRY 216 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES in an attempt to recapture Savannah (September). They were driven back, however, with a dreadful loss of life. Among the dead were the gallant Polish officer, Pulaski, and the hero of Fort Moultrie, Sergeant Jasper. D'Estaing returned to the Indies and Lincoln withdrew to South Carolina. SIXTH YEAR OF THE WAR — 1780 289. The British Take Charleston. Clinton and Cornwallis now came with an army from New York. Together with Prevost, they moved (May), this time not by way of Fort Moultrie, but overland from Savannah against Charleston. The city was first besieged, then bombarded. De Kalb, sent by Washington, was on his way to help Lincoln, but was too late to save the city. So Lincoln, cut off from escape and help, was forced to surrender. He and his force of some three thousand continentals, together with the state militia, became prisoners of war. This was the severest blow the Americans had yet received. The capture of Lincoln's army left South Carolina in the hands of Lord Cornwallis, Tarleton, and Fer- guson, who endeavored everywhere to force the stricken inhab- itants to acknowledge the royal cause, and treated as rebels and traitors those who refused to do so. 290. The Battle of Camden. Congress now recalled Gates from his plantation and placed him in command of the Southern army, although Washington would have preferred to entrust it to Greene. Without considering the fact that in North Carolina there was no Schuyler to plan the campaign in ad- vance, and no Arnold or Morgan to assist in carrying it out, Congress, nevertheless, hoped that Cornwallis would eventually surrender to Gates as Burgoyne had done at Saratoga. Gates hurriedly collected a new army in North Carolina, including De Kalb and his brave continentals who had been schooled by Steuben at Valley Forge. He at once advanced (August) to Camden, where he met Cornwallis and sustained the most dis- astrous defeat inflicted upon the American army during the SECOND PERIOD OF THE WAR 217 war. In vain did De Kalb and his brave Maryland and Dela- ware continentals try to hold their ground. De Kalb fell, mor- tally wounded, while his brave comrades fought desperately to the last over his body. Gates, after a succession of remark- able blunders, rode panic-stricken from the field, leaving the army to its fate. This was the second American army de- stroyed in the South in three months and the whole country was practically in the hands of the British. After this Gates retired from service in utter disgrace. It is related that Charles Lee said to Gates when about to leave his Virginia plantation to take command of the army in the South, "Take care that your Northern laurels do not change to Southern willows." 291. The Battle of King's Mountain. Cornwallis now tri- umphantly pushed on toward North Carolina, but hearing that one of his officers. Major Ferguson, had been defeated in a sharp battle at King's Mountain (October) by an intrepid body of backwoodsmen, including a brave band from west of the mountains under Sevier, he retraced his steps and took up his abode at "Winnsborough in order to maintain control of the South. The brilliant American victory at King's Mountain, sometimes called the "Bennington of the South," greatly crip- pled Cornwallis, for in it he lost some four hundred of his men, including Ferguson, one of the bravest of the British officers. 292. Exploits of the Partisan Corps. South Carolina, Geor- gia, and Florida were in the hands of the British and at the mercy of plundering raids of British Tories; but the brave state militia under the heroic leaders, Marion, Sumter, Pickens, and Henry Lee gave the British little peace in their regained province. These citizen soldiers, composed of small bands of patriots, often less than one hundred men, were called "parti- san corps." They knew all the paths through the woods and marshes and were constantly on the alert to thwart hostile plans and movements. Their way of fighting surprised the British even more than that of the minute-men at Lexington and Concord. They were armed with home-made swords, rode 218 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES the fleetest horses, hid in swamps and mountains, and seldom slept two nights in the same place. They would destroy a Tory camp, cut off stragglers from the main army, shoot pellmell into the enemy's quarters, and be off, and safe and sound in a distant hiding place almost before any one knew what had happened. Marion and his men were particularly famous. He was called by the British the "swamp fox," while Sumter, equally valiant, was considered by Cornwallis "the greatest plague in the country." He acquired the title of "Carolina Game Cock." Our band is few, but true and tried, our leader frank and bold, The British soldier trembles when Marion's name is told; Our fortress is the good green wood, our tent the cypress tree; We know the forest round us as seamen know the sea. — Bryant ^s "Song of Marion's Men." 293. Arnold's Treason. To complete the year of disaster, Benedict Arnold, who had gained so many laurels at Ticon- deroga, Quebec, and Saratoga, and was so highly esteemed for his generosity and gallantry as soldier, deserted the patriot cause and became a traitor. He secretly had treasonable com- munication with Clinton and agreed to surrender West Point to him for the infamous reward of some thirty thousand dollars and a general's commission in the British army (September). This fort was the most important post in the country, since it controlled the whole line of the Hudson. Clinton had declared : "If we succeed in capturing West Point we shall soon end the rebellion. ' ' Benedict Arnold had received from Washington the com- mand of Philadelphia after the withdrawal of Clinton. Here he lived very extravagantly and being eventually court-mar- tialed for appropriating government money, was sentenced to be publicly reprimanded by the commander-in-chief. Wash- ington, however, mindful of Arnold's brilliant exploits in the service of his country, performed the painful duty with great gentleness, sparing Arnold's feelings as much as possible. SECOND PERIOD OP THE WAR 219 Arnold, however, was stung to resentment and planned revenge. Pretending that the severe wounds received at Quebec and Saratoga unfitted him for field duty, he asked and obtained from Washington the command of West Point. He now saw his opportunity, and subsequently meeting the British agent, Major Andre, some distance south of West Point, on the west bank of the Hudson, made arrangements for the surrender of the fort. The traitor escaped and was given a command in the British army. After the war he lived in great obscurity in England and was universally despised. On one occasion, a member of Parliament in the act of addressing the House noticed Arnold in the gallery, upon which he exclaimed, pointing to the traitor, "Mr. Speaker, I will not speak while that man is in the House." Arnold carefully preserved his old uniform in which he had made his escape from West Point. Just before his death he asked to be clothed in it. "Let me die," said he, "in this old uniform in which I fought my battles. May God forgive me for ever putting on any other." Arnold's treachery was too much for even the stout-hearted Washington. On receiving the papers found on Andre's person, the greatly grieved chief burst into tears, and w^ith a choked voice disclosed the affair to Lafayette. The latter said that this was the only occasion during the long and seemingly hopeless struggle in which Washington gave way for a moment before a reverse of fortune. 294. The Capture of Andre. Major Andre, after having made arrangements with Arnold for the surrender of West Point, prepared to return to the British camp. He was disappointed to find that his ship, the Vulture, had dropped down the river. He was obliged to cross the stream and proceed by land. Near Tarrytown he was captured by three patriots who were on the lookout for British freebooters. Upon searching Andre they found in his stockings papers containing plans of the fort and the mode of its expected surrender. Andre was tried and hanged as a spy (October) according to the usage of war. 220 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES SEVENTH YEAR OF THE WAR— 17S1 295. Discontent in the Army. The opening of the year 1781 found great discontent in the American army. The gloom of Arnold's awful act of treason seemed to be reflected in the American winter camp at Morristown. The troops suffered scarcely less than did those at Valley Forge. They had for a long time received no pay, and, driven to desperation by hunger and want of clothing, they began to revolt. The soldiers of the Pennsjdvania regiment, on New Year's eve, unable longer to endure their sufferings, marched out with their arms to de- mand relief from Congress. At Princeton, messengers from .Clin- ton tried to induce them to join the British army. This brought them to their senses, and after a committee of Congress, waiting on them at this place, had satisfied. their demands, they marched back to camp. Other mutinies followed, but the soldiers were eventually pacified and subdued by promises of Congress and by Washington's personal appeal, as well as by severe meas- ures. Afterwards, through the exertions of Robert Morris, loans were made in France, Spain, and Holland. Congress met with great difficulty in its efforts to raise money to pay the troops. It could not tax the people, or get enough from the states by asking for it. The promissory notes of Congress, commonly called paper money, were not, as they are now, as good as gold or silver coin, because the government had no money to redeem its promises. Consequently, continental cur- rency became almost worthless, depreciating in value to two cents per dollar in 1779, and to nothing at all in the year fol- lowing; hence, the phrase, "not worth a continental." 296. The Beginning of Winning Back the South— The Battle of Cowpens. It has been seen that the numerous defeats of the Americans in the South during the past year were followed closely by an American victory at King's Mountain. This bat- tle, won by the brave Carolina mountaineers, was the beginning of the winning back of the South. By the advice of Washing- SECOND PERIOD OP THE WAR 221 ton, General Nathaniel Greene was now appointed to succeed General Gates in the South. With the aid of the brave Daniel Morgan, the remnant of De Kalb's continentals, the clever Steuben, and the undaunted leaders of the "partisan corps," Greene succeeded in raising a third army in the South. He began by following the tactics of Washington in New Jersey, constantly making sudden and unexpected dashes on the enemy and quickly getting away. Greene now sent General Morgan against Tarleton, Corn- CONTINENTAL CURRENCY wallis's ablest officer. The two armies met at Cowpens, South Carolina (January). Morgan not only defeated Tarleton 's army, but nearly destroyed it. Tarleton was severely wounded and narrowly escaped being captured by Colonel William Wash- ington, a distant cousin of George Washington. This brilliant victory, like that at King's Mountain, greatly crippled Corn- wallis and interfered with his plans. At King's Mountain Cornwallis lost his best corps of scouts, and at Cowpens his light infantry. He sorely needed both in his subsequent pursuit of Greene. 297. Greene's Masterly Retreat. Knowing that the main body of the British army was not far distant, Morgan, with his prisoners, hurried off and joined General Greene in North Carolina. Cornwallis, hearing of Tarleton 's defeat, hastily 222 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES destroyed his heavy baggage and set \Out in hot pursuit of the victors. As Greene's army was too weak to face Cornwallis, he retreated and, step by step, led the latter a roundabout chase farther and farther into a hostile country, far away from his base of supplies at Charleston. Greene finally made a narrow escape across the Dan into Virginia, and here Corn- wallis gave up the chase (January and February). Greene promptly gathered additional troops, recrossed the Dan into North Carolina, and gave battle to the British near Guilford Court House. The Americans were defeated by the superior discipline of the enemy, but the latter bought their victories dearly, losing about one-fourth of their whole army. The soldiers were so famished and tired out, that Cornwallis could not even return south to Charleston, and withdrew to Wilming- ton, where communication with the English fleet at Charleston would be easy. From here he was shortly afterward ordered by Clinton to the peninsula of Yorktown, Virginia, which he proceeded to fortify. Lafayette and Steuben immediately crept upon the neck of the peninsula, ready for action. 298. Greene's Recovery of the South. Greene had followed Cornwallis far enough to see him closed up in Wilmington. Then sure of having him out of the way, he struck into the South. With the help of Marion, Sumter, and Lee, he made a masterly campaign extending over six months, driving the British and Tories before him toward Charleston. At Hob- kirk's Hill, near Camden, Greene was attacked and defeated by the British under Rawdon. The enemy was, however, badly crippled and, to save his army, Rawdon beat a hasty retreat to Charleston, leaving Camden to Greene. Pushing onward and gaining many small victories with the help of Lee and Marion, Greene again met the British and was defeated by them at Eutaw Springs (September). This was practically the last battle of the South. Thus in thirteen months Greene had recov- ered the Carolinas and Georgia from British rule. SECOND PERIOD OF THE WAR 223 299. Cornwallis Entrapped at Yorktown — Siege of Yorktown. Meanwhile, Cornwallis had joined Arnold, who had a command in Virginia. After vainly trying to force Lafayette to engage in battle, and destroying millions of dollars' worth of property, he withdrew to Yorktown, whence, according to Clinton's orders, he could easily re-enforce the army in New York City in case its capture should be attempted by Washington in cooperation with a French fleet. Washington, hearing that a powerful French fleet, commanded by Count De Grasse, was making toward Chesapeake Bay, saw his opportunity. His army on the Hudson had been re- enforced by six thousand French troops under Count Rocham- beau. Leaving behind a small force to feign an attack upon New York, Washington secretly slipped away with his com- bined forces to the head of Chesapeake Bay, and thence on the French fleet to Yorktown, where he joined Lafayette before Clinton was fully aware of what had happened. The French fleet at once blocked the James and York rivers. Cornwallis was now shut up in a trap. For several weeks the Americans pressed the siege and bombarded the British works. Escape by sea or land was impossible for Cornwallis, so he and his whole army, about eight thousand strong, surrendered to Washington on October 19, 1781. The fall of Yorktown vir- tually terminated the War of Independence. 300. The Scene of Surrender. A large crowd of citizens as- sembled to witness the imposing scene of surrender. The troops were drawn up in two columns extending more than a mile. On the one side were the French forces, headed by Rochambeau, on the other, Washington and his continentals. The vanquished army, with colors cased, slowly marched out between the ranks while the British military band played the quaint melody, "The World Upside Down." Cornwallis, feigning illness, did not appear, but sent his sword by General O'Hara. Washington directed the sword to be delivered to General Lincoln, who, eighteen months before, had surrendered 224 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES his to Clinton at Charleston. The defeated army was next led by Lincoln to an open field where they laid down their arms. The tidings of this event, so vast in importance, reached Con- gress at midnight, four days afterwards. Every heart bounded with exultant delight as the watchman pacing the streets of Philadelphia cried aloud, ''Past two o'clock and Cornwallis is taken ! ' ' The streets were soon thronged with happy men and women. The State House bell rang out its notes of gladness. To the English government the news came like a death blow, for the victory of Yorktown meant not only the independence of America, but also the overthrow of the arbitrary power of the king and his "friends" in England. The king was soon compelled to dismiss his Tory prime minister, Lord North, and call back to power those very Whigs who were friends of America. Among them were Fox, the younger Pitt, Barre, and Burke. The elder William Pitt, Lord Chatham, had died (May 11, 1778) in consequence of a stroke of apoplexy after an excit- ing speech in defense of the colonists and against the proceed- ings of the British ministers. 301. The Treaty of Peace. Though the surrender of Corn- wallis practically ended the war, it was still nearly two years before peace was made. Many complicated questions delayed the treaty. The king was reluctant to grant independence; it was difficult to agree on the boundaries; Spain desired that the United States should be restricted to the Alleghany Moun- tains on the west ; and the right to the Newfoundland fisheries was disputed. Meanwhile, Washington, with great skill and inflexible determination, managed to keep his greatly discon- tented forces together at Newburgh on the Hudson until final peace was made. At length the painful period of waiting came to an end. A treaty of peace (negotiated by Benjamin Frank- lin, John Jay, and John Adams), was finally signed with Eng- land by the United States, France, and Spain, at Paris, on September 3, 1783. By this treaty: SECOND PERIOD OF THE WAR 225 (a) the United States was recognized as an independent nation ; (&) the boundaries fixed were the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence on the north, the Mississippi on the west, and Florida on the south; (c) the United States was given equal rights with Great Britain to the Newfoundland fishing banks and to the navigation of the Mississippi and the Great Lakes. (d) Florida, then including parts of Alabama and Mississippi, was given to Spain. Spain continued to hold New Or- leans and the Louisiana territory. A provision of the treaty required Congress to request the state governments to repeal laws which had been made, con- fiscating the property of Tories and hindering the collection of private debts due the British merchants from the Americans. Congress made the request, but the states did not heed it. The Tories were so badly treated that about one hundred thousand left the country, those in the South going to Florida and the Bahamas, and those in the North, to Canada. Great Britain, seeing that the provisions of the treaty concerning the Tories and the collection of debts were not fulfilled, left small garri- sons of troops at Ogdensburg, Oswego, Niagara, Erie, San- dusky, Detroit, and Mackinaw until the first of June, 1796. 302. The Armies Disband. Washington made a farewell ad- dress to his army at Newburgh and disbanded it on November 3, 1783. The British had evacuated Savannah (July 11) the previous year. On November 25 of the same year the British troops, then collected at New York under General Guy Carleton (who had succeeded General Clinton, 1782), embarked for home ; while Washington, at the head of a large procession of citizens and soldiers, entered the city. The British evac- uated Charleston (December 14) 1783. Washington met his assembled generals for the last time and bade them an afi'ec- tionate farewell. "With a heart full of love and gratitude," he said, ' ' I now take leave of you, most devoutly wishing that your latter days may be as prosperous and as happy as your 226 A HISTORY OP TITE UNITED STATES former ones have been glorious and lionorable." He then for- mally resigned his commission as commander-in-chief to Con- gress (December 23) which was sitting at Annapolis, and went back, a private citizen, to his home at Mount Vernon, in Vir- ginia, where he was followed by the gratitude of his fellow- countrymen. REVIEW OF THE PRINCIPAL BATTLES OF THE REVOLUTION Date 17' 1776. 1777. 1778. 1779. 1780. 1781. Location Lexington. . . . Tic-ondt roga . . Bunker Hill . . . Quebec Fort Moultrie . Long Island. . White Plains. . . . Ft. Washington. Trenton Princeton Ticonderoga .... Fort SchuyliT. . . Bcniiiiigtdn Brand.N Willi'. . . . Stillwater Fort Mercer. . . . Monmouth Wyoming Rhode Island. . . Savannah Suubury stony Point .... I'aulus Hook. . . . Savannah Monk's Corner. . Charleston King's Mountain Cowpens. ...... Guilford C. H. . . . Fort Griswold. . . Eutaw Springs. . Yorktown Commanders Am(>rican British Parker Allen. . . Prescott . Montgomery . . Moultrie Putnam. McDougall ]\Iagaw Washington . . . . Washington . . . . St. Clair Arnold Stark Washington . . . . Gates Col. Greene. . . . Washington. . . . Zeb. Butler Sullivan Robt. Howe. . . . Lane Wayne Lee Lincoln Huger Lincoln Campbell Morgan - Greene Ledyard Greene Washington DeGrasse Rochainbeau. Smith and I'itcairn DeLaplace Howe and Clinton Clinton Clinton and Sir Peter I'arker . . Howe and Clinton Ilowe Howe. . Rahl Mawhood Burgovne St. Leger Itaum Howe Burgoyne Donop Clinton .Tohn Butler Pigot Campbell I'revost .Tohnson Sutherland Prevost Tarleton Clinton Ferguson Tarleton Cornwallis Arnold Stewart Cornwallis . Army Successful .Vmerican American British British .Vmerican British British British .Vmerican American British -Vmerican American British American American -Vmerican British -Vmerican British- British -Vmerican -Vmerican British British British -Vmerican .Vmerican British British Indecisive Vmerican CHAPTER XV THE CEITICAL PERIOD OF OUE HISTORY— 1781-1789 THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 303. Extent and Significance. The critical period of our history is that extending from the siege of Yorktown in 1781 to the adoption of the Constitution in 1789. The conditions and events leading to the framing and adoption of the Con- stitution will now be considered. The thirteen states having declared themselves independent of England, and having made this declaration good by bringing to a favorable outcome the war for independence, could now take a place among tlie nations of the world. Yet the new-born nation had many dif- ficulties to overcome before it could rightfully claim this place, for, quoting the words later used by Calhoun, "The Declaration of Independence changed the colonies from prov- inces subject to Great Britain to states subject to nobody." The Articles of Confederation under which the colonies were governed from 1781 to 1789 did not constitute them a nation, but merely formed them into a league of states. The greatest problem remaining to be solved was, how to make permanent the blessings obtained by the recent long and bloody struggle. 304. Significance of the Articles of Confederation. The Arti- cles of Confederation were the outcome of honest and repeated efforts on the part of the American colonies and states toward some definite plan of vmion. Their adoption was one of the most important events in our history. Superior to any plan of union hitherto attempted, the articles were truly a long stride toward a more perfect confederation. For without tliem, the thirteen states that had struggled together for indepen- dence might have formed thirteen independent governments. 227 228 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES The fact that the states agreed to even this loose bond of union bespoke a spirit of nationalism which led later to better results. Notwithstanding the importance of the articles from an historical standpoint, they were nevertheless not only de- fective but a failure ; for, making no provisions for an executive to enforce the laws, or for a national court to settle disputes between the states, they left Congress powerless to enforce its laws except by war. Under the Articles of Confederation, fur- thermore. Congress could not raise revenue, and since it could not raise revenue it could not pay the interest on its debts, much less the debts themselves. Consequently the government had no credit. Nor could Congress regulate commerce; In fact. Congress could only recommend or advise, possessing only such powers as the states grudgingly gave it. Tlie grave conse- quences resulting from the defects of the Articles of Confed- eration gradually led the people to realize that they must establish a stronger central government. 305. Disunion Among the States. During the war, the bond of a common cause had united the states. The war over, the old jealousies and conflicting interests returned. The smaller states, distrustful of the larger ones, feared that they would be swallowed up by them, while the more populous states thought that they would not have proper representation. They quar- reled with each other about boundary lines, about commerce, about trade ; and the same spirit which made tliem desire to be free from the mother country, made them distrust Congress and shrink from vesting it with necessary, authority. As a consequence, universal distrust and discontent grcAV worse and worse. The thirteen states were fast drifting apart and becom- ing thirteen hostile nations, ready to draw the sword against one another. It must not be thought, however, that the people were with- out government during this time. All the states adopted new constitutions (1775-1781) except Rhode Island and Connecticut, and these retained their liberal colonial charters. But these THE CRITICAL PERIOD OF OUR HISTORY 229 constitutions adopted by the representatives of the people in- habiting the several states, created a complete government, separate and independent for each of the states. Most of the new state governments were only variations of the colonial forms which had been in existence for over a century. 306. Defects That Wrought a Cure. There were three main defects in the Confederation which soon proved so serious that they forced the people to realize the need of a stronger gov- ernment. Thus it may be said that the defects wrought their own cure. These defects were: (a) Congress could not pay its debts; ( 5 ) it could not regulate trade ; and (c) it lacked the authority to preserve order. 307. Drift Toward Monarchy Because Congress Cannot Pay Its Debts. Congress, as we have seen, having no power to levy taxes, could not pay its debts. The large sums borrowed from foreign nations were soon spent, while paper money was al- most worthless. As a result, the unpaid, poverty-stricken soldiers with their families felt most keenly this deplorable financial weakness of the government. "While the army was encamped at Newburgh on the Hudson, the so-called Newburgh Addresses were published anonymously, calling a meeting of officers to consider the best means to press their claims on the attention of Congress. They were written in inflammatory language, threatening, among other things, that the army would not disband on the conclusion of peace unless its grievances were in the meantime redressed. The army was on the verge of revolt, ready to take up arms against Congress. Washington, however, prevented this. They next set on foot a scheme to make him king, and thus establish a monarchy, the very form of government against which they had rebelled and from which they had fought so long to free themselves. Washington, of course, spurned their proposal and severely rebuked them for such folly. The soldiers not realizing the helplessness of Con- gress, considered themselves treated with injustice and ingrati- 230 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES tude. One of them, voicing the sentiment of tlie army, is said to have declared: "We begin to hate the country for its neg- lect of us and we have lost all confidence in Congress." 308. Commerce Suffers Because Cong-ress Cannot Regulate Trade. Great Britain refused to make a commercial treaty with America, because it knew that any state might break a treaty; and since Congress could not enforce those provisions of the peace treaty which concerned the Tories and the collec- tion of private debts, England, in retaliation,, closed her West India ports against American merchants and imposed a high duty on American imports. Congress, having no power to regulate trade, could not strike back by laying duties on Eng- lish goods. The retaliatory measures of the individual states were of little effect. As a consequence, American shipbuilding and foreign commerce were almost destroyed. Nor was our domestic trade in a less deplorable condition. The states by their navigation laws and high tariffs were actually making commercial war upon one another. No farmer could freely buy and sell outside of his own state. New York, for instance, taxed the products coming to its markets from Connecticut and New Jersey, while New Jersey levied a tax of some eighteen hundred dollars upon a lighthouse built by New York City at Sandy Hook. Similar troubles arose between other states. Under these conditions the United States was rapidly losing its standing al)road. 309. Difficulties Arising from the Fact That Congress Could Not Preserve Order. Congress not having the command of a single soldier, could not protect itself even from insult, and was driven from Philadelphia on one occasion by a band of mutinous soldiers ; much less was Congress in a condition to protect the rights of citizens. After the Revolution, our imports had to be paid for in specie. Our imports were so much more than our exports that the country was soon drained of its gold and silver. Owing to this scarcity of specie and the worthlessness of paper money, THE CRITICAL PERIOD OF OUR HISTORY 231 the people found it impossible to pay their taxes and debts. Consequently, their lands, cattle, and products were taken for taxes and mortgages, while the debtors themselves were throAvn into prison. The debtor class of almost every state sought means to free themselves from their debts. Some demanded the issue of paper money which, resting on no foundation save the credit of the state governments, was of little value. Others demanded the so-called Stay Laws, which were enactments to delay the collection of debts. Others again demanded Tender Laws, which permitted a debtor to ofiPer goods, at certain rates, in discharge of his debts. Shays' Rebellion was another outcome of the inability of Congress to preserve order. In western Massachusetts several hundred angry farmers rose in insurrection under Daniel Shays, a captain of the Revolutionary War. They sought to close the court houses and stop suits against debtors, and even tried to seize the arsenal at Springfield for the purpose of securing muskets and cannon. The rebellion was subdued after some months by a strong force of the state militia under General Lincoln. These Massachusetts farmers were ordinarily law-abiding citizens, but could not live without buying and selling, nor could they buy and sell without markets and money. The coun- try was suffering from want of uniform currency and of trade opportunities which the states should have given Congress poAver to provide. 310. The People Are Led to Accept a Stronger Central Gov- ernment. All these and many other similar alarming experi- ences eventually led the people to realize that they must risk a stronger central government. Some of the nation's greatest men (foremost among them, Washington, Hamilton, Madison, and Franklin), were untiring in their efforts to show the people that a change was necessary. Washington, even during the war, strongly urged the states to give Congress more power. For a number of years he spoke and wrote to this effect and 232 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES proved himself as able a statesman as he had been a military- leader. Next to Washington stood Alexander Hamilton with his famous letters and papers on the defects of the government and their remedy. James Madison of Virginia actively aided Washington and Hamilton in Congress, while Franklin, by let- ters from abroad and vigorous speeches, strove to educate the people toward the same end. 311. A National Land System Forms a Bond of Union Be- tween the States. Seven of the thirteen original colonies claimed the country as far west as the Mississippi, whereas the remaining six states, having fixed western boundaries, could not claim any part of these western lands. The Northwest Territory, the stretch of country between the Ohio and the Great Lakes and between the Alleghanies and the Mississippi, won by Clark's conquest and the late peace treaty, was claimed, all or in part, by each of four states. Massachusetts and Con- necticut claimed to extend west to the Mississippi by virtue of their charters. New York claimed all of the Northwest Terri- tory on the ground of an agreement with the Iroquois Indians ; while Virginia laid a double claim to the whole territory by reason of her charter and of Clark's conquest. These conflict- ing claims led to bitter disputes, in which Maryland took a leading part, refusing to ratify the Articles of Confederation until the claimants of the western territory should relinquish to the national government for the common good, all these claims. After long and hot discussions. New York, taking the lead, finally yielded her claims. The remaining six states "one by one followed her example. Connecticut, however, kept a tract of land along the southern shores of Lake Erie called the AVestern Reserve. The common possession of the Northwest Territory did much to hold the states together, and in securing national control Maryland had done the nation a great service. 312. The Ordinance of 1787. Now that the land cessions were made, many New England veterans desired to settle in the THE CRITICAL PERIOD OF OUR HISTORY 233 present state of Ohio. The Congress of the Confederation, in one of its last and best acts, passed the famous Ordinance of 1787. This measure provided : {(i) for the government of the Northwest Territory; (&) that the Territory be divided into not less than three nor more than five states (Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, - and Wisconsin) ; (c) that education be encouraged; {d) that there be religious freedom; (e) that slavery be forever prohibited — runaway slaves, how- ever, to be returned to their masters. This Ordinance became a model for later organization of territories and is classed in importance with the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. In comment upon it, Webster says : ' ' We are accustomed to praise the lawgivers of antiquity — but I doubt whether one single law from any law- giver, ancient or modern, has produced effects of more distinct, marked and lasting character than the Ordinance of 1787." 313. First Steps Toward a National Convention. Virginia and ]\Iaryland wished to come to some agreement concerning tlie use of Chesapeake Bay and the Potomac. Their delegates met for this purpose at Alexandria (1785) and wisely concluded that since the states trading with Virginia and Massachusetts would be affected by such a commercial treaty all the states ought to take part and help to frame some general laws for the regulation of trade. Therefore a circular letter was sent to all the states inviting them to join in a great trade conven- tion to be held in the following year at Annapolis. Delegates from only five states (Virginia, Delaware, Penn- sylvania, New York, New Jersey) responded to the call. Noth- ing final could be accomplished because of the small repre- sentation and the limited powers of the delegates. It was clear also that even if all the states should agree on laws for regu- lating trade, such laws would be of no avail without a central authority to enforce them. So, before adjourning, the dele- 234 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES gates agreed on a resolution, framed by Alexander Hamilton, which proposed that Congress call a great national convention, to be held in Philadelphia, for the purpose of amending the Articles of Confederation. The people and the states still hesitated, but Shays' Rebellion in Massachusetts and the dan- ger of similar uprisings in other states induced all the states, except Rhode Island, to appoint some of their ablest men as delegates to a great national convention. 314. The Convention Frames and Adopts the Constitution. The Convention met in Philadelphia (May 25). Fifty-five delegates attended, and Washington was unanimously chosen president. This, one of the most memorable of the world's assemblies, remained in secret session almost four months. As the Articles of Confederation were too defective to admit of successful revision, it was decided to frame an entirely new Constitution. This was a very bold resolve, since the states sent their delegates with the understanding that the Articles of Confederation were to be revised. Hence it was feared that the new Constitution would be rejected because the convention had no authority to set aside the Articles of Confederation except by the unanimous consent of the states. Nevertheless, a few of the Virginia delegates under the lead of Madison drew up a plan of government very much like our present Con- stitution. A South Carolina plan was later modeled after that of the Virginia delegates, with some original features, the most distinctive of which was the provision for a president who was to be called "His Excellency." The New Jersey plan was scarcely more than the revised Articles of Confederation. Ham- ilton offered a fourth plan, which provided that the chief executive hold office for life and have supreme executive authority. There were many stormy debates, but by judicious compromises, the Constitution of the United States was framed and adopted by the convention (September 17, 1787). Thirty- nine of the fifty-five delegates signed the Constitution. The other sixteen would not sign because they objected to certain JOHN MARSHALL DANIEL WEBSTER JAMES MADISON ALEXANDER HAMILTON Makers and Interpreters of the Constitution THE CRITICAL PERIOD OF OUR HISTORY 235 claiises which they believed interfered with the rights of the states. The Constitutional Convention was composed of the most able and eminent statesmen and soldiers of the nation. Here were present Washington, the father and support of the nation; the venerable Franklin, the most aged member (over eighty), noted for his wisdom and experience; the scholarly Madison, the main author and defender of the Constitution ; Oliver Ellsworth, later Chief Justice of the Supreme Court; the brilliant Hamilton, who, though one of the youngest mem- bers, was perhaps the greatest political thinker of the assem- bly. Jefferson and John Adams were both in Europe, the one serving as minister to France, the other to England. John Hancock, Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, and Richard Henry Lee did not favor the Constitution, and hence absented themselves. Otis, insane from the effects of a wound received in the head during the non-tax controversies, had been killed (1783) by a stroke of lightning. 315. The Constitution a Series of Compromises. The Consti- tution being, as John Adams aptly said, "extorted from the grinding necessities of a reluctant people," was naturally a series of compromises, between the larger and the smaller states, between the Federalists and Anti-Federalists, and between the North and the South. It was chiefly on the basis of the fol- lowing four compromises that the Constitution was adopted by the convention : («) the small states were afraid of being overpowered by the larger ones. Hence the Connecticut compromise, which provided for equal representation in the Senate, was framed to satisfy the small states; while to pacify the large states, representation in the House of Representa- tives was to be proportioned to the population, and all bills of revenue were to arise in this House. (6) to please the South, five negroes were to be counted as equal to three white persons in determining the repre- 236 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES sentation; while to favor the North the same proportion of negro population was to be considered for direct taxation ; (c) to please the South, the foreign slave trade was to con- tinue without interference for twenty years (1808). No duties were ever to be paid on exports. To please the North, Congress should have power to regulate com- merce by a majority vote, instead of a two-thirds vote ; (d) to satisfy the Federalists, the President was vested with great power. He was entrusted with the enforcement of all laws and was made commander-in-chief of the army and navy. The Anti-Federalists were pacified by a pro- vision in the Constitution for checking the authority of the chief executive in numerous ways,. in case he should try to abuse his trust. The dividing line between the authority of the central gov- ernment and the several states was somewhat vaguely defined, this being such a sensitive point that if either side had insisted on expressing in words something more definite, no agreement could have been reached ; and to the vague terms of this com- promise may be traced many of the difficult problems of later history. 316. The Plan of the Constitutioii. According to the Con- stitution the government was divided into three depart- ments : (a) the legislative, or law-making power, vested in Congress; (&) the judiciary, or law-interpreting power, vested in the Supreme Court and inferior courts ; (c) the executive, or law-enforcing power, vested in a Presi- dent, a Vice-president, and other officers. Congress was to consist of two Houses, the House of Repre- sentatives, elected by the people, and the Senate, elected by the state legislatures. 317. The States Ratify the Constitution. Congress submitted the Constitution to the states for ratification. The people of THE CRITICAL PERIOD OF OUR HISTORY 237 each state chose delegates to conventions which shoukl accept or reject the new plan of government. Great excitement and stirring discussions for and against the Constitution at once arose and divided the people into two parties. The friends of the Constitution, called Federalists, Avere led by Washington, ]\Iadison, and Hamilton. The oppo- nents of the Constitution, called Anti-Federalists, were led by the brilliant statesmen Jefferson, Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, and John Hancock, They were jealous of Congress, fearing that too much national power might lead to the estab- lishment of a monarchy. These were our first political parties. Within a year, however (before August, 1788), all the states, except Rhode Island and North Carolina, adopted the Consti- tution. These two states were treated as foreign nations, and therefore soon came to terms (1789-1790). Some of the states ratified the Constitution in the hope that amendments would be added, guaranteeing protection to the life, liberty, and prop- erty of the people, and securing them against the perils which beset them before the war. The new Constitution when ratified by eleven states was pre- sented to, and accepted by the Congress of the Confederation (September 20, 1788), then sitting in the City Hall in New York ; it was furthermore ordered that the government un- der the new Constitution should go into effect March 4, 1789, in the city of New York; with this final act the Congress of the Confederation closed its last session and its members dis- persed without the formality of an adjournment. When nine states had ratified the Constitution (1788), the people knew that its adoption was secure. The event was cele- brated by the suspension of business, the chiming of bells, ju- bilant processions, the booming of cannon, and the blazing of bonfires. The people of Philadelphia celebrated with especial enthusiasm this great event; for within their city the first Continental Congress had met (1774) ; independence was de- clared (177G) ; and the Constitutional Convention was held 238 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES (1787). New York City honored the occasion by a parade in Avhich a ship on wheels, representing the ' ' Ship of State, ' ' was drawn through the streets by ten white horses. The name of Alexander Hamilton, the State's great defender of the Con- stitution, was emblazoned in large letters on the platform up- holding the ship. 318. The Constitution— Bill of Rights. The Constitution of the United States may be defined as a written document, explain- ing how our government is organized, and what powers the various parts have. The government under the Constitution was far stronger than the one it replaced. The national gov- ernment was no longer to live by the grace of the states. It was supreme in all that concerned the nation at large. It had the sole power to coin money, regulate commerce, fix weights and measures, declare war and negotiate treaties with foreign nations; all its powers were specified in the Constitu- tion. Still much poAver was left to the states. These had con- trol over all their individual affairs and could exercise all powers of government not specifically forbidden in the Con- stitution. The purpose and provisions of the Constitution are set forth in its preamble. (See Appendix.) As framed and adopted by the thirteen original states, it was the same as we still have it, with tlie exception of some amendments, seventeen in number (1914). The new Con- gress, organized after the adoption of the Constitution, sub- mitted (1789) to the state legislatures twelve amendments, ten of which were ratified (1791) and added to the Constitu- tion as the Bill of Rights. These amendments may be re- garded as a part of the original Constitution. 319. The Proceedings of the Constitutional Convention. Washington, in his official journal, kept an account of tlie pro- ceedings of the convention. This he later placed in the pub- lic archives (1796). Little can be gathered from his journal with regard to what the members said in their stirring de- bates. In this regard James Madison, the Father of the Con- THE CRITICAL PERIOD OP OUR HISTORY 239 stitution, did invaluable service for posterity. He attended every day, and took careful notes on the various discussions. These notes he wrote out at night. Madison's "Journal" was published and is our most important single volume of Ameri- can history. "The Federalist," one of the best works ever written on the Constitution and the science of government, is a book in which are collected eighty-five essays, fifty of which were written by Hamilton, thirty by Madison, and five by Jay. These essays were originally circulated in the news- papers at the time when the states were considering the ratifi- cation of the Constitution. Our great statesmen of more recent times, such as Webster, Calhoun, and Clay, resorted to "The Federalist" for light on disputed points in the Constitution. 320. Patriotism Among Catholics. We have seen that the discovery and exploration of America and the subsequent christianizing and civilizing of the Indians were preeminently Catholic enterprises; also that the colonial times were dark and intolerant for Catholics. The opposition of the colonies to the Quebec Act proved plainly that the old anti-Catholic prejudices w^ere still very much alive. During the war, how- ever, the colonial Catholics, forgetting the many wrongs of the past, unanimously supported the patriot cause. Nor did they distinguish themselves only in the army and navy, but also in council halls and legislatures. In the day of trial the Catholic faith proved the grandeur of its principles. It pro- duced no traitors, no oppressors of their country. After the American alliance with Catholic France, the law excluding Catholics from civil rights was repealed. With this event dawned a new era for Catholicity in America. Among prominent Catholic leaders in the army may be men- tioned : Stephen Moylan, the French Counts, Lafayette and Rochambeau, the noble Poles, Kosciusko and Pulaski, the Ger- man Barons, Steuben and De Kalb, and the Indian chief, Orono. Stephen Moylan occupied one after another, offices of trust in the American army and rounded out the full measure of his 240 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES service with General Greene in the southern campaign at the close of the war. William Paca, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, held numerous political offices in his own state, and was a member of the State convention which ratified the federal Consti- tution. Thomas Fitzsimmon was a member of the First Continental Congress, took part in the Trenton cam- paign, and was a member of the convention that framed the Constitution of the United States. Daniel Car- roll of Maryland was the only other Catholic member. Eminent Catholics in the navy were Captain John Barry and Jeremiah 'Brien. Catholics who fig- ured prominently in Congress were the famous Charles and Daniel Carroll, William Paca, and Thomas Fitzsimmon. There was an entire Catholic regiment, sons of Ireland, in the Penn- sylvania line. Washington's personal guard, the flower and choice of the army, was largely composed of Catholics. At the close of the war a solemn ''Te Deum" was chanted (November 4, 1781) in one of the Catholic churches in Phila- delphia. Members of the United States Congress, Washington, Lafayette, and many of the distinguished generals and citi- zens attended. The Catholics of the United States, in common with their fellow-citizens, hailed with joy the election of George Wash- ington as first President under the new Constitution. Before the inauguration, Bishop Carroll, on behalf of the Catholic clergy, united with the representatives of the Catholic laity MARQUIS DE LAFAYETTE THE CRITICAL PERIOD OF OUR HISTORY 241 (Charles Carroll of Carrolltoii, Daniel Carroll of Maryland, Dominic Lynch of New York, and Thomas Fitzsimmon of Pennsylvania) in an address of congratulation to the new President. The memorable and cordial reply of "Washington "To the Roman Catholics of the United States" was as fol- lows: "I hope ever to see America among the foremost na- tions in examples of justice and liberality; and I presume that your fellow-citizens will not forget the patriotic part which you took in the accomplishment of their Revolution, and the establishment of their government, or the important assistance they received from a nation in which the Roman Catholic faith is professed. . . . May the members of your Society in America, animated alone by the pure spirit of Chris- tianity, and still conducting themselves as the faithful sub- jects of our free government, enjoy every temporal and spir- itual felicity." With the birth of the new nation, the ultimate outcome of a fourteen-year struggle for independence and nationality, we may fittingly close this eventful epoch with the following ex- tract from the Pastoral Letter of the Fathers of the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore (December 7, 1884) : "We consider the establishment of our Country's inde- pendence, the shaping of its Liberties and Laws, as a work of special Providence; its framers 'building better than they knew,' the Almighty's Hand guiding them." CHEONOLOGICAL REVIEW 1763-1776 George ITI is king of England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, and of the English colonies in America. Louis XV reigns in France. George III. 1760-1820. 1765. The Stamp Act is passed (March 22). The Stamp Act Congress meets in New York City (October). 1766. The Stamp Act is repealed (March 18). 1767. The Townshend Acts are passed (June).- 1768. The British troops arrive in Boston (September). 1770. The Boston Massacre occurs (March). The Townshend Acts, with the exception of a tax on tea, are repealed (April 12). 1771. The colonial forces are defeated in a pitched battle in North Carolina. 1772. The British vessel Gaspee is destroyed. 1773. The Boston Tea Party occurs (December 16). 1774. The "Five Intolerable Acts" are passed (March 31). The First Continental Congress meets in Philadelphia (September 5). 1775. The War begins with Battle of Lexington ; American victory over the British under Pitcairn (April 19). . Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold capture Ticonderoga (May 10). The Second Continental Congress assembles (May). Washington is chosen commander-in-chief (June 15). The Americans under Prescott suffer a ''victorious" defeat from the British under Gage at Bunker Hill. General Warren is killed (June 17). Washington takes command and organizes a conti- nental army (July). 242 CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW 243 Montreal surrenders to Montgomery (November 13). Montgomery and Arnold are defeated before Quebec. Montgomery is killed (December 31). 1776. The Americans under Washington force the British under Howe to evacuate Boston (March 17). Captain John Barry captures the British man-of-war Edward (April 7). The British under Clinton are repulsed at Charles- ton by the American garrison, in command of Colonel Moultrie (June 28). George III hires Hessians from Germany to fight against the colonies. Declaration of Independence adopted July 4, 1776. 1776-1784 The Continental Congress and the various State governments rule in America. George III is king of England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Louis XVI reigns in France. 1776. The Americans under Sullivan are defeated by the British under Howe in the Battle of Long Island (August 27). The Americans are defeated in the White Plains and Harlem skirmishes by the British under Howe (Oc- tober). The British commanded by Howe take Forts Wash- ington and Lee on the Hudson (November). Washington and his troops retreat through New Jer- sey (November and December). The Americans commanded by Washington capture the Hessians under Rahl at Trenton (December 25). 1777. Morris raises money to save the army (January). The Americans under Washington win battle at Prince- ton against the British under Howe (January 2). Lafayette and companions arrive in America. 244 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 1777. Congress adopts the Stars and Stripes as the Ameri- can flag (June 14). Burgoyne captures Forts Ticonderoga, Crown Point, and Edward (July). The Americans under Herkimer and Arnold defeat the British and Indians under St. Leger and the Mohawk chief Brandt in a bloody battle at Oriskany (August 2). General Schuyler is superseded by General Gates (August 10). The American under Gates win battle of Bennington against the British under Burgoyne (August 16). The Americans under Washington are defeated by the British under Howe in the battle of Brandy wine (Sep- tember 11). Congress leaves Philadelphia for York (September 19). The Americans under Gates fight an indecisive battle against the British under Burgoyne at Bemis Heights (September). The British take possession of Philadelphia and en- camp there and at Germantown (September 25, 26). The Americans under Washington are defeated by the British under Howe in a hard-fought battle at Ger- mantown (October 4). The Americans under Gates, led on by the bravery of Arnold and Morgan defeat the British under Bur- goyne at Stillwater (October 7), The Americans under Gates, again headed by Arnold and Morgan, defeat the British under Burgoyne at Saratoga and force them to surrender (October 17). The Continental Congress adopts the Articles of Con- federation (November 15). Washington goes into winter quarters at Valley Forge (December 11). CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW 245 Conway forms a conspiracy against Washington. 1778. France acknowledges the independence of the United States and agrees to help her cause with money, ships, and men (February 6). Baron Steuben helps Washington to discipline his army (May). England offers to make peace by repealing her op- pressive laws (June). The British, hearing of the French alliance, leave Philadelphia for New York (June 18). The Americans under Washington pursue the British under Clinton and attack them at Monmouth Court- house (June 28). Washington encamps at White Plains, Clinton at New York. The Tories and Iroquois, under Butler and Brandt, massacre the inhabitants of the Wyoming Valley (July 3). A French fleet under D'Estaing arrives in America (July 29). The Tories and Iroquois under Johnson and Brandt massacre inhabitants of Cherry Valley (November). The British under General Prevost capture Savannah from the Americans under Lincoln (December 29). Paul Jones, as captain of the Ranger, incessantly harasses British vessels. 1779. The Americans under General Wayne recapture Stony Point from the British (July 15). The Americans under Lighthorse Harry Lee capture Paulus Hook. The Americans under Sullivan completely overthrow the combined forces of Johnson, Butler, and Brandt at the present site of Elmira, New York (July). George Rogers Clark finally captures Vincennes and thus wins the Northwest for the United States. 246 A HTSTOKY OF THE UNITED STATES Paul Jones captures the British frigates Serapis and Scarborough off coast of Flamborough (September 23). The Americans under Lincoln, and the French un- der D'Estaing, attempting to recapture Savannah, are repulsed by the British. The brave Pulaski is killed (October 9). 1780. The Americans under Lincoln surrender at Charles- ton to the British under Clinton (May 12). The first French army arrives at Newport, Rhode Island (July 10). The Americans under Gates are defeated by the Brit- ish under Cornwallis at Camden (August 16). Arnold betrays his country and makes good his es- cape to the British army (September). Major Andre is executed as a spy (October 2). The western pioneers under Sevier and other militia captains defeat the British under Ferguson at King's Mountain (October 7). Greene is put in command of the Southern army (De- cember 2). Patriot bands harass the British army in the South. 1781. A part of Washington's army revolts, but is persuaded to return to duty. The Americans under Morgan defeat the British un- der Tarleton at Cowpens (January 17). Greene retreats before Cornwallis (January and Feb- ruary). The Articles of Confederation are ratified by Mary- land, the thirteenth and last State to take this action, and the Continental Congress becomes the Congress of the Confederation (March 1). The Americans under Greene are defeated by the British at Guilford Court House. The British, badly crippled, retreat to Wilmington (March 15). CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW 247 The French and American armies watch New York (June and July). A French fleet arrives in Chesapeake Bay (Aug. 30). The Americans under Greene are defeated by the British under Rawdon at Eutaw Springs. The Caro- linas and Georgia are practically recovered from British rule (September 8). The combined American and French land and water forces begin the siege of Yorktown (September 28). The British under Cornwallis surrender at Yorktown, Virginia (October 19). 1782. The British evacuate Savannah (July). 1783. Peace is signed with England by the United States, France, and Spain, at Paris (September 3). The American army is disbanded (November 3). The British evacuate New York (November 25). The British evacuate Charleston (December 14). Washington resigns his command to Congress (De- cember 23). 1784-1789 1786. Shays' Rebellion occurs in Massachusetts. 1787. The Constitution of the United States is adopted by the Convention (September 17). Congress passes the "Ordinance of 1787." The Federalists and Anti-Federalists, our first two political parties, are formed. 1788. Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, publish the "Federalist" in defense of the Constitu- tion. 1789. The Congress of the Confederation, having accepted the Constitution, decides that it should go into effect March 4, 1789. \ PERIOD OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES TO THE CIVIL WAR CHAPTER XVI CONDITIONS OF THE NEW NATION 321. Extent and Significance. The period of the develop- ment of the States to the Civil War extends from the adoption of the Constitution in 1789 to the breaking out of the Civil War in 1861. The principal events included in this period are the great accessions of territory to the original United States, the increase of the number of states from thirteen to thirty- four, and the rapid progress of the country in population, wealth, and industrial achievements. Having seen how the Con- stitution was framed and adopted, we are now to learn how the new government was put into operation under this Constitution. 322. Area — Extent — Population. Before studying the next epoch of our history, let us dwell briefly on the general social conditions of the young nation about to begin its career under the new Constitution. We cannot expect to recount any imme- diate progress after the hardships and confusion of the war. The people stood still, as it were, in the face of the overwhelm- ing recollections of the past and the political disturbances of the present. This condition, however, was soon to give way to an outburst of great national activity. The United States in 1783 included an area of about eight hundred thousand square miles and was bounded on the north by the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence ; on the east, by the Atlantic; and on the south and west, by Spanish territory. These boundaries were in dispute at points east and west of the Great Lakes. 248 I DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES 249 In accordance with the Constitution, which provides that the census be taken every ten years, the first enumeration was made in 1790 and showed a population of nearly four millions, about one-fifth of which were negroes, mostly slaves, and one- fiftieth Indians, Only five per cent of the people lived west of the Alleghanies. Virginia was the most populous state; Penn- sylvania ranked next; then followed in order North Carolina, Massachusetts, New York, Maryland, South Carolina, and Con- necticut. 323. The West. Vermont was admitted as the fourteenth state in 1791, and Kentucky as the fifteenth, in 1792. The glow- ing accounts of Boone and other western pioneers attracted AN EMIGRANT WAGON many people to the beautiful and fertile region west of the mountains. The means of travel and communication were so slow, however, that Jefferson declared it would take a thousand years to fill up the region to the Mississippi River. There were three main routes of travel to the western set- iements : '1) the Ohio River was reached at Pittsburg by a route through Pennsylvania or by way of the Potomac and Mononga- hela rivers ; 250 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES (2) the Virginia valley settlers followed the Greenbrier River to the Great Kanawha, a branch of the Ohio; (3) the greatest number of the frontier settlers moved by way of the Cumberland Gap or Wilderness Road. Great numbers of pack-horses and emigrant wagons were following the three common routes across the mountains. Pitts- burg especially, felt the impetus of the western movement, for, from this point, the pioneers with their families and belong- ings, could easily float down the Ohio on flatboats and build homes in what is now the state of Ohio. Notwithstanding the western trend of emigration, the great mass of people still clung to the seaboard, and the centers of population were along river courses and around good harbors. 324. Towns. There were no large cities in America at the close of the Revolution. Only five had a population exceed- ing ten thousand — Philadelphia, New York, Boston, Charleston, and Baltimore. The streets of most of the cities were nar- row, and poorly paved, if paved at all. There were no sewers and sanitation received but little attention. All kinds of diseases prevailed ; worst of all was the terrible yellow fever. Philadel- phia, however, had lighted and paved streets and a drainage system and was the finest city in the United States. New York, though not equal to Philadelphia in improvements, was a pleas- ant residence city. Boston, the second or third according to population, was a crowded but thriving commercial town. Bal- timore controlled the commerce of the Potomac and the Sus- quehanna Valley. Charleston, the typical southern city, con- trolled the rice trade, was the favorite residence center of the wealthy planters, and was celebrated for its gay social life. 325. Commerce. Owing to the fact that the old Confedera- tion could not protect the commerce of the country, trade at this time was not very flourishing. But in spite of unfavor- able conditions, American navigators were familiar with all seas and sailed to the West Indies, Europe, Asia, and even China and the northwest coast of America. New England DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES 251 ship-owners loaded their vessels with beef, pork, fish, peltries, timber, and pitch at the various colonial ports, with grain and flour from the Middle States, with hogsheads of tobacco from Maryland and Virginia, or with rice and indigo from Caro- lina and Georgia. They then sailed away to foreign lands and returned with cargoes of sundry articles as sugar, coffee, tea, salt, nails, and distilled spirits. The value of the imports was slightly less than that of the exports. 326. Manufacturing. Manufacturing, except shipbuilding, was yet in its infancy. In shipbuilding New England ranked first and the South last. The manufacturing interests of New PLOWING IN EARLY DAYS England and Pennsylvania were, however, aided in their very beginning by the excellent facilities for this industry. Woolen cloth was the most important article of manufacture at this period. Some spinning mills were active in the New England States. There were a great many paper mills in Philadelphia and also iron works and glass factories. Saw and grist mills lined the banks of the swift -flowing streams. Blacksmiths' forges were erected along the roadside ; leather was tanned and dressed, and barrels were coopered and packed with fish. 327. Agriculture. Agriculture was the chief industry, and probably nine-tenths of the people were engaged in farming. 252 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES It received less attention in New England than any other sec- tion on account of the nature of the soil and climate. The farmer made his own wooden plow, which was drawn by horses or oxen; he manufactured his own wagon; dropped his seed by hand; cut his grain with a scythe and threshed it with a flail, or had his cattle or horses tramp it out for him. 328. Travel and Communication. The means of travel and communication had changed but little since pre-Revolutionary times. Sailing vessels on the ocean, flatboats on the rivers, and the saddle-horse and stage coach for inland travel were still the chief means of transportation. More regular routes, how- ever, had been established between the larger cities. The time required to traverse the distance from Boston to New York and thence on to Philadelphia, was from eight to ten days. "Wes- tern farmers, finding trade slow and unprofitable in eastern markets, preferred to float their produce down the Ohio and the Mississippi to New Orleans. Here, however, the Spaniards charged a heavy duty. Not unfrequently Spanish officers seized both boat and cargo, and left the despoiled and angry owner to foot his long way home. When the irritated pioneers threatened to raise an army against the Spaniards, Spain, by treaty, granted the free use of the mouth of the Missis- sippi. 329. Social Life. A great change in American customs and ways of living had come about. We have seen that the war drove from the country thousands of Tories who were among the wealthiest and best educated people. Hundreds of other families were entirely broken up or reduced to poverty. For- eign fashions and habits of living were introduced in the large towns and replaced the plain ways of colonial times. The dwellings of the wealthy, though they had spacious rooms and rich furnishings, still lacked most of our modern comforts. Among the aristocratic classes there was much display in dress ; and the styles of the English gentry were still in use. The men wore boots, knee-breeches, overcoats, and cloaks of costly DEVELOPMENT OP THE STATES 253 material; lace ruffles were worn about the wrists; the silver snuff-box and the metal-headed cane were indispensable com- panions. Wigs were going out of style. The women were at- tired in dresses of gay colored silks and velvets, over which were worn dainty white aprons, while quaint white cambric caps adorned their heads. The people living in the villages or engaged in farming had not, however, changed their simple manners. They still lived in their humble and rudely fur- nished log houses. They industriously raised their food on their own farms and wore homespun clothing. The spinning wheel was found in every home. Mrs. "Washington is said to have kept sixteen spinning wheels running. Fireplaces were used in the majority of homes, but the stove invented by Franklin was fast coming into use. The houses were lighted by means of tallow candles, and a whale-oil lamp was a rare luxury. 330. Education. The cause of education had suffered greatly during the war. Schools were neglected. Many a student had become a soldier instead of a scholar. The country was impoverished and in consequence, school houses were sparingly furnished, and schoolbooks were few. Still in those times of rigorous discipline and persistent teaching of the "Three R's" there was much hard studying. On the whole, however, the literary talent of the United States had been improved by the Eevolution. The eloquent speeches and learned writings of the great political leaders during the long years of controv- ersy with England and the agitation over the Constitution, had stirred the people's thoughts and feelings and had called for hard thinking on many questions. One of the hopeful signs of the future of parochial and government schools was the article in the Constitution which granted freedom of con- science, as also the provision made by the old Congress in the Ordinance of 1787, that the schools of the Northwest should be encouraged. Noah Webster, a young schoolmaster, had just arranged a speller and was at work upon a dictionary (1783). 254 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 331. Religion. We have seen that the Revolution swept away many of the old religious prejudices. The majority of the people were in favor of religious freedom and the Consti- tution took away from Congress the power to establish any form of religion or to hinder freedom of worship. Still in some of the original states Catholicity for many years was obliged to struggle against bigotry. This, however, was gradu- ally dying out. After the "Peace of Paris," in 1783, Pope Pius VI erected the Episcopal See of Baltimore and consecrated as first Bishop of the United States, the learned and patriotic John Carroll, who had for some years administered the affairs of the American Church with the rank of Prefect Apostolic. His diocese em- braced the whole United States; his flock, in the charge of some forty zeal- ous pioneer priests, numbered about fifty thousand. It is interesting for Catholics to note the fact that, simul- taneously with the election of Presi- dent Washington as the civil executive of the young nation, Divine Provi- dence provided the infant American church with a spiritual executive in the person of the illus- trious Right Reverend John Carroll. Franklin, Washington, and other leading builders of the Republic, highly esteemed Bishop Carroll for his saintly life and noble patriotism. The Holy Father, through Franklin, inquired of Congress in what manner the arrangement of a bishop for the United States could be made without interfering with the laws of the nation. In answer. Congress assured him that the United States had no jurisdiction over matters purely spiritual. No sooner had the Abnaki Indians of Maine, the descendants of Father Rasle's loyal flock, heard that the Holy Father had BISHOP CARROLL From the Portrait by Gilbert Stuart in Georgetown University DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES 255 appointed a Bishop over the American Church, than they sent a delegation to ask the revered prelate for a priest. Bishop Carroll received them kindly, embraced Father Rasle's cruci-. fix, which they carried with them, and promised to give them the desired "black gown." These Abnaki Indians, true to the faith to this day, have never been without a missionary since that time. As the West had been first explored by the French, Catho- licity had early gained a foothold there ; and the French posts in the Mississippi valley were regularly attended by chaplains. After the Jesuits withdrew, however, the Rev. Father Gibault, vicar-general of that region under the Bishop of Quebec, was for many years the only priest in the territory of what is now Indiana and Illinois. The cross had also been planted on the Pacific coast. Shortly before the Declaration of Independence, the Spanish Franciscans, under Father Serra, founded the mis- sion which afterwards became the city of San Francisco. 332. Literature, Art, and Science. American literature was still in its infancy, even though America had produced some noted writers. She had eminent scientists in Franklin and Benjamin Thompson; distinguished painters in West, Copley, and Stuart, and great statesmen and political writers in Dick- inson, Jefferson, Hamilton, and Madison ; still, of these, Frank- lin was the only one worthy of more than national fame. News- papers had increased in numbers, but the people still had to depend largely upon letters for their news. The first Catholic work published in the United States was written by Father John Carroll. It was a worthy reply to an attack of an ex- Jesuit on the Catholic Church. The godless writings of Godwin, Rousseau, Voltaire, and similar European authors had spread in the United States dur- ing the Revolution. Among infidel writers of our country may be mentioned Ethan Allen and Thomas Paine. 333. Anti-Slavery Spirit. At the close of the Revolution, slaverj^ existed in nearly all the States. But many people now 256 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES began to think that if it was wrong for Englishmen to tax their colonies, it could hardly be right for Americans to buy and sell African strangers. They furthermore declared that the principles of Christianity and the Declaration of Independ- ence endowed all men with equal rights to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." Emancipation acts which were eventually passed in many of the states abolished slavery north of Mason and Dixon's line. In the South, however, where slave labor was more profitable on the great plantations than on the small farms of the North, slavery had taken a firmer foothold. Even in the South, many people thought slavery injurious, and voted for the Ordinance of 1787, which forbade it. WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL TO HIS MOTHER CHAPTER XVII GEOEGE WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTEATION UNANIMOUS CHOICE — 1789-1797 334. The First Presidential Election. In the early part of 1789, each state chose as many electors, or delegates, to vote for President and Vice-president as it had Senators and Rep- resentatives in Congress. Next the electors of each state voted for two men, one for the presidency, the other for the vice- presidency. According to the Constitution, the man receiving the majority of votes from the electors was to become the President, and the one receiving the next largest number, Vice-president. The votes cast were kept until counted by the new Congress. On the fourth of March the new government was duly ush- ered in amid the ringing of bells, and the booming of cannon from the New York batteries. But the President could not be inaugurated on that date ; for, owing to the slow means of travel and communication, the majority, or quorum of each house of Congress had not reached New York. Finally, by April 6, Congress was organized. The two houses assembled in joint session and chose Frederick A. Muhlenberg as Chairman. The count of the votes cast by the presidential electors showed that George Washington was unanimously chosen as President, and that John Adams had received the next highest number of votes, which made him Vice-president. Washington, upon receiving notice of his election, reluctant- ly left the retirement of his home at Mount Vernon, bade a hurried adieu to his aged mother at Alexandria, and hastened to New York to assume the duties of his new office. His way thither was one triumphal progress. Old and young thronged the highways to welcome and bless him. At Trenton, the scene of his victory in the darkest hour of the war, he passed un- 257 258 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES der a triumphal arch, bearing these words: "The Defender of the Mothers will be the Protector of the Daughters," Here children came to meet him and to strew flowers at his feet. He took the oath of office, April 30, 1789, on the balcony of Federal Hall, New York City, in the presence of an immense throng of people. When the ceremony was over. Chancellor Livingston, who had admin- istered the oath of office, called out: "Long live Washington — President of the United States!" The cry was caught up and pro- longed by the enthusiastic people, while the artillery boomed and the city bells rang forth their joyous peals. Washington then read his inaugural address in the Senate chamber in the pres- ence of the assembled Con- gress. In it he made refer- ence to a Supreme Being as the Ruler of the Universe, and controller of human ac- tions and human destiny, whether individual or national. At the conclusion of the address, the assembly went to one of the city churches, where prayers were offered. 335. Our First Congress — Important Measures. When our first Congress opened its session, Vice-president Adams, who had entered upon his office April 21, 1789, presided over the Senate, and Frederick A. Muhlenberg of Pennsylvania was Speaker of the House of Representatives. Never was the busi- ness of a legislative body more important and more pressing than that of our first Congress. FEDERAL HALL GEORGE Washington's administration 259 Prominent measures which demanded immediate attention were: (a) the enactment of revenue taxes, or a tariff, to pay the pub- lic debt ; (b) the creation of administrative, or executive departments; (c) the establishment of a Supreme Court, and Circuit and District Courts, or a judicial system; (d) the fixing of the salaries of the President and Congress- men; (e) the making of amendments to the Constitution (Bill of Rights) ; and (/) the location of the nation's capital. 336. Six Administrative Departments. Washington, with the consent of the Senate, appointed six able men to preside over the five administrative departments created by Congress, and over the Supreme Court : (1) Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, the famous author of the Declaration of Independence, was appointed Secretary of State; his chief duty was to attend to the foreign affairs of the government, but at first some home af- fairs also were under his control. (2) Alexander Hamilton of New York, probably the most bril- liant statesman of our history, was appointed Secretary of the Treasury; his duty was to attend to the financial aft'airs of the country. (3) Henry Knox of Massachusetts, distinguished as a soldier during the Revolution, was appointed Secretary of War ; his duty was to attend to the affairs of the army and navy. (4) Edmund Randolph of Virginia, famous in the Constitu- tional Convention, was appointed Attorney-General ; his duty was to advise the government in legal matters. (5) Samuel Osgood, a general during the Revolution, was ap- pointed Postmaster-General; his duty was to manage 260 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES the affairs of the post-office system established by the Continental Congress (1775). (6) John Jay of New York, noted for his sterling character and strong convictions, was appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court ; his duty, in common with five as- sociate justices, was to decide questions of law and jus- tice brought before the Court. • Though the officers presiding over the respective departments mentioned above were appointed by the President with the con- sent of the Senate, they were removable by him without the action of the Senate. 337. The President's Cabinet. Although not provided for by the Constitution, the first Congress passed an act authoriz- ing the President to select a body of advisers to be called the Cabinet. While the President is not obliged in the smallest degree to follow the advice of the Cabinet members, or even to ask it, their views have usually great weight with him. The illustrious officers of the first four administrative departments ■ — Jefferson, Hamilton, Knox, and Randolph — composed Wash- ington's Cabinet or advisory body. Taken as a whole, this Cabinet has probably never been excelled in ability. The mem- bers were well known on both sides of the Atlantic, and pos- sessed the confidence of the people. Though they did not all agree with Washington on all political matters, each one revered him, and, like him, was ready to do what was in his power to promote the welfare and prosperity of the country. The government was now organized. Congress, the law-mak- ing department, enacted the laws; the President at the head of the executive department, enforced the laws; and the Chief Justice, with his associates, constituting the judicial depart- ment, interpreted the laws when their meaning was disputed. 338. Hamilton's Financial Plan. The money question was evidently the most pressing. Hamilton's report showed that the national indebtedness — foreign and domestic — amounted to the enormous sum of about fifty-five million dollars. Ameri- CEORGE Washington's administration 261 can credit was dead ; but the young, ingenious Secretary of tlie Treasury worked out a plan for a general financial system, which tended to revive credit and strengthen the authority of the Union. He proposed : (a) that the government levy taxes for the two-fold purpose of paying its running expenses and debts, and of pro- tecting American industries ; (&) that an internal, or direct tax be imposed on alcoholic liquors ; (c) that the government pay in full both its foreign and do- mestic debts; {d) that it assume and pay the debts of the separate states; (e) that it establish a great national bank. Hamilton, although only thirty-two years old, had acquired a notable reputation as a writer on problems of government and as a lawyer. As a financier he probably has had no equal in America. Daniel "Webster afterwards said of him: "He touched the dead corpse of the public credit and it sprang to its feet." Hamilton, knowing the people's aversion to a direct tax sug- gested the tariff revenue. This provided for the taxation of imported goods, but as the impost was to be included in the selling price of the articles, the buyers would not realize that they were paying a direct tax. The money thus obtained was to be used to meet the expenses of the government. As the manufacturing states wanted protection for their indus- tries, a protective revenue tariff act was introduced by Madison into the House of Representatives and signed by Washington after his inauguration (July 4, 1789). The purpose of this tariff M'as to obtain revenue and to protect native industries. It was adjusted in such a way as to admit free the products the United States did not produce and to tax those of other nations that the country did produce. The funds thus obtained proved insufficient, and the tariff was twice slightly increased at Hamilton's suggestion. The Tonnage Act, intended for the 262 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES encouragement and protection of American shipping, provided that goods imported in foreign vessels be taxed more heavily than those imported in American ships. In a short time these revenue acts yielded an annual income of about three and a half million dollars. Thus the govern- ment obtained money enough to pay its running expenses and the interest on its debts. Departing from his policy of refraining from irritating the people by direct taxes, Hamilton suggested a small tax on al- coholic liquors. Congress imposed the tax. The people of the Alleghany region and western Pennsylvania, who carried their grain to the market in the shape of whiskey, could not see why they should be taxed more than the people east of the moun- tains, who carried their grain to the market simply as grain; hence they were inclined to regard the tax in the same light as the stamp duties before the Revolution. An insurrection, known as the Whiskey Rebellion, followed. As the governor of Pennsylvania was unable to suppress it, Washington called for fifteen thousand troops (1794). Their appearance sufficed to subdue the rebellion. This event proved that the United States had the power to impose a direct tax upon its own citizens as well as upon foreign goods — a long stride forward; the colonies had resisted taxation by England, and now the states acknowledged the right of taxation by a central power, and understood that the government was strong enough to enforce its laws in an unruly state. There was no opposition to Hamilton's plan of paying for- eign debts, but a heated debate took place in Congress as to the payment of the domestic debt. Finally, Hamilton's plan triumphed, and a bill providing for the payment of both for- eign and domestic debts was passed. As a result paper cur- rency, certificates, or promises of the government, instantly began to rise in value, and in December, 1791, were quoted at par (equal to face value). The credit of the United States was re-established. GEORGE WASHINGTON S ADMINISTRATION 263 The fourth part of Hamilton's scheme, that the national government assume the unpaid debts of the states incurred in support of the Revolution, met with strong opposition, es- pecially from states like Virginia, which had cancelled the greater part of their own debt or perhaps had raised money for war by levying taxes instead of borrowing it. The measure was therefore defeated for the time. The undaunted Hamil- ton saw, however, an opportunity to save his plan in the dis- pute over the permanent location of the national capital. THE TREASURY DEPARTMENT TODAY While both the North and the South wanted the capital, the choice had narrowed to two eastern locations — one on the Delaware (North), the other on the Potomac (South). Hamilton agreed that he would favor the location of the capital on the Potomac River in case Jefferson would favor his plan for the assuming of the state debts. A compromise was therefore made. Hamilton secured enough northern votes for the Potomac site, while Jefferson got a sufficient number of Virginians to carry the assumption of the state debts ($21,500,- 000). Philadelphia was to remain the capital for ten years, when the seat of government was to be removed to some spot on the Potomac selected by Washington; the state debts were also to be taken up in due time. It was largely owing to the 264 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES revolt of the Pennsylvania troops during the war that the framers of the Constitution inserted a provision which gave the federal government complete control over a district ten miles square, within which a national capitol and other public buildings might be erected. The capitol was built on that part of the land which had been transferred to the govern- ment by Daniel Carroll. Having re-organized the nation 's finance, Hamilton now pro- posed the establishment of a national bank which the govern- ment should partly direct and in which it should hold shares, on the principles: (a) that such bank would become the means of giving a safe and uniform currency- to the country through the issue of bank notes ; (&) that the government would be enabled to borrow money and transact its financial affairs with less difficulty; (c) that the men who might become stockholders would be- come interested in the government. After strenuous opposition, the bill passed both houses and was signed by the President. The bank's capital was soon subscribed and this institution immediately entered upon a prosperous and useful career. It was chartered for twenty years and handled nearly all the government money. As the Constitution forbade the states to coin money, Congress passed an act for the establishment of a United States mint at Phila- delphia. To this mint anyone might take gold or silver and have it made into coins free of charge. The ratio of fifteen to one was adopted; that is, the weight of pure silver in a silver dollar was fifteen times as much as that of pure gold in a gold dollar. With the opening of the mint began a;lso our simple and convenient decimal system of coinage — "ten cents make a dime, ten dimes a dollar." 339. The Bank Bill and the Cabinet — Political Parties. Wash- ington, before signing the bill providing for a United States bank, referred it to the members of his Cabinet and asked GEORGE Washington's administration 265 their written opinions on its constitutionality. The replies of Hamilton and Jefferson are worthy of note : (a) Jefferson held that the Constitution made no provision for the establishment of such a bank and that hence Con- gress did not have the power to establish it. He based his opinion on the literal interpretation of the Constitution ; (&) Hamilton argued that the creation of a bank was consti- tutional, since it was related to the power of collecting taxes and borrowing money. He based his argument on a clause of the Constitution which gives Congress the right "to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution . . . the powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States." (Article I, Sec. 8, Clause 18.) Subsequently, the national bank act gave rise to two political parties : (a) the Hamiltonians, favoring a loose construction of the Constitution for the sake of strengthening the federal government, were properly called Federalists; they re- sided chiefly in the commercial states ; (&) the Jeff'ersonians, favoring a strict construction of the Constitution for the sake of making the states, rather than the federal government, the stronger power, were called Republicans, a name which implied that they were the only true friends of the republican form of govern- ment. The Republicans were most numerous in the ag- ricultural states. The Federalists were strongest in the North and held that the government should be for the most part in the hands of the so-called upper classes; that is, in the hands of the edu- cated, and of the wealthy merchants and capitalists. The Re- publicans were strongest in the South, and they held that the masses of the people should control governmental affairs. They were called Democrats by the Hamiltonians, and hence 266 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES gradually became known as Democratic-Republicans. Hamil- ton had no faith in the ability of the masses of the people to govern, whereas Jefferson had confidence in the common peo- ple and in their ability for self-government. He held that if the affairs of the government should go wrong, ''the good sense of the people would be the best army." To him, there fore, we are greatly indebted for the bringing into existence of a party whose leading policy was faith in the people. 340, Re-election of Washington and Adams. The two secre- taries, Hamilton and Jeft'erson, naturally opposed each other in the Cabinet, as Jefferson said, ''like two cocks in a pit." The controversy passed through the newspapers. Washington, who had hard work in forcing them to work together, had be- come weary of the attacks on his administration and would gladly have retired to Mount Vernon at the end of his first term, but both Jeft'erson and Hamilton, voicing the sentiments of the two parties which they represented, urged him to stand for a second election. Yielding his own wishes to those of the people, he was for a second time elected by the unanimous vote of the electoral college. John Adams, the Federalist can- didate, was also re-elected Vice-president. 341. Westward Movement. Shortly after the passage of the Ordinance of 1787, Congress sold five million acres of north- western lands to individuals and companies. While the coun- try was discussing Hamilton's financial measures, thousands of people from the eastern states were emigrating to the North- west Territory, of which General St. Clair became the first governor. Before long the cities of Marietta (1788) and Cin- cinnati (1790) were founded on the Ohio, and the territory of Ohio was admitted (1802) into the Union as the seventeenth ■state — the first of the magnificent group of states formed from the Northwest Territory. But these settlements were not made without great loss of life. The Indians bitterly resented the invasion of their hunt- ing grounds, and encouraged by the British, who still held GEORGE WASHINGTON S ADMINISTRATION 267 Detroit, they resolved to drive out or kill the settlers. After four years of warfare, the savages under their chief, Little Turtle, were defeated in a final battle near Vincennes (1794) by "Mad Anthony" Wayne the hero of Stony Point. He so laid waste their country that they were glad to make a treaty of peace and give up most of the Ohio country to the whites. For fifteen years after this treaty, peace reigned and settlers continued crowding into the Northwest Territory. CINCINNATI IN 1819 342. War in France — The United States Remains Neutral. During most of Wasliington's administration a terrible revo- lution was going on in France. The people overthrew the mon- archy (1792), beheaded the king, Louis XVI, and the queen, Marie Antoinette, abolished all titles, and set up a republic. France declared war against England and sent "Citizen" Genet as minister to America to get help. A difficult problem now faced Washington and his cabinet, for they knew that to aid France meant war with England. Had not France been the first and warmest friend of American freedom ? Was not Eng- 268 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES land America's old enemy? These were questions of great importance, made all the more so by the fact that this was the first administration, and succeeding ones would very likely follow its example. The Cabinet wisely decided to maintain neutrality (April 22, 1793). This was the beginning of our wise policy of not interfering in the affairs of European nations. 343. Genet's Indiscretion. This attitude of the United States was anything but what France had expected. Genet landed at Charleston, South Carolina, and thinking the United States in sympathy with his country, began to enlist men, to fit out ships for the French service, and to do other unlawful acts. Even after being requested by Secretary Jefferson to stop such pro- ceedings, he continued to fit out vessels as privateers to prey on English commerce, and committed other violations of neu- trality. He went so far as to try to stir up the people against Washington and the government. The people, however, re- sented such an insult to the government, and Washington demanded the recall of Genet. Genet was recalled, but rather than run the risk of returning to France, preferred to remain in the state of New York, where he engaged in farming until his death (1834). The Democratic-Republicans, though not permitted to help France, showed their sympathy with that country; they even wore French colors and called each other "citizen" or "citi- zeness," instead of "mister" or "your honor," in imitation of the French Revolutionists who had abolished all titles. French dress, customs, and manners came into use, and French victories were even made the occasion of civic celebrations. Owing to the closing of the mouth of the Mississippi by Spain and the seeming indifference of the United States gov- ernment concerning this grievance, the people of the West had grown somewhat discontented. Genet, after the proclamation of neutrality, had received secret orders from the French gov- ernment to take advantage of this condition of affairs and to enlist men to conquer Louisiana, Florida, and Canada for GEORGE Washington's administration 269 France. Plans to this effect had already been set on foot at Charleston and Philadelphia when the minister was recalled. 344. Political Parties. So far the political parties had been composed of little more than personal followings. The mighty movements in Europe now drew the dividing lines more clearly : (a) the Federalists, or ''Loose Constructionists" strongly op- posed the giving of any aid to France. They leaned toward England because they wished English trade, and because they feared the spread of anarchical principles in America; (h) the Democratic-Republicans, or "Strict Constructionists," were inclined to aid France by war or by indirect help — ■ such as we had received at the beginning of the Revolu- tionary War. 345. Trouble with England. Our relations with England Vv^ere no better than those with France. (a) England claimed the right to seize all kinds of provisions carried to French ports in our ships on the doubtful claim that "provisions are contraband of war." (&) England impressed our seamen. Her sailors, abandoning their country's navy, often obtained employment on American vessels, and refused to return when called upon to fight in the cause of their own country. Hence, Great Britain arrogantly stopped American ships to search them for seamen of British birth, in order to im- press them in her navy. Often naturalized Americans, and even sailors born in the United States, were seized. (c) England still refused to give up the western posts and encouraged the Indians to make war upon our settlers in the West. 346. The Embargo — Jay's Treaty. Public feeling rose in this country until a temporary embargo (1794) forbade vessels to depart from American ports. The clamor for war became loud. Washington tried to avert it and appointed John Jay, then Chief Justice of the United States, as special envoy to England 270 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ELI WHITNEY'S COTTON GIN to make a last effort to adjust matters. After four months of negotiations, a treaty was drawn up which was finally ratified by Congress with the exact number of votes necessary to make the required two-thirds, though not without long and fierce debates. Washington signed the bill merely because it was a choice between the treaty and a war. The terms of the treaty were doubtless the best that could be secured at that time. Certain war, which would have crippled the nation, was averted. Once in force, the treaty Avas found moderately favorable to American in- terests. Our commerce in- creased and the capture of vessels at sea was fewer. 347. Treaties with Spain and Algiers. Thomas Pinckney negotiated our first treaty with Spain (1795) by which that power permitted for ten years the use of New Orleans as a "place of deposit" for the free storage of goods to be trans- shipped, and fixed the thirty-first degree of latitude as the boundary of Florida. A treaty was also made with the pirate government of Algiers (1795) by which the American seamen who were held as cap- tives were ransomed, and American shipping on the ocean and on the ]\Iediterranean was to be left unmolested. 348. The Spinning Mill— The Cotton Gin. Samuel Slater had, as a boy, spent seven years in the cotton mills of England. On coming to the United States he constructed from memory the necessary machinery and set up (1790) a cotton spinning mill at Pawtucket, Rhode Island. Cotton thus far had been grown in small quantities only, owing to the difficulty of separating the seed from the fiber, which had to be done by hand. In 1793, however, Eli "Whitney, GEORGE Washington's administration 271 a Connecticut schoolmaster then residing in Georgia, invented a contrivance by which the cotton fiber was drawn by saw teeth through openings, too small to admit the passage of the seed. By this invention, called the cotton gin, the working capacity of one slave in cleaning cotton was multiplied about three hundred-fold. The invention of the cotton gin (a) stimulated the production of cotton and greatly increased the wealth of the country; (&) increased our exports enormously and eventually revolu- tionized the commerce of the world ; (c) encouraged the building of a great number of cotton mills in New England ; (d) fixed slavery on the nation — a great evil which soon di- vided the country into two hostile sections and finally brought about the Civil War, the most terrible conflict in the history of the United States. The manufacture of cotton goods in the United States had made but slight progress until Francis Lowell of Boston, who had visited England and there studied the machinery and methods of the cotton manufacturers, built a small factory near Boston, in which he began both the spinning and weaving of cotton (1813). From this time on factories multiplied and the industry grew very rapidly, 349. Catholic Education — New Laborers in the Vineyard. Bishop Carroll, who was greatly interested in Catholic educa- tion, founded Georgetown College (1787), with the Jesuits in charge. He also organized a theological seminary in Baltimore and placed it in care of Sulpicians from Paris. Carmelite nuns (1790) established themselves at Port Tobacco, Maryland, and later at Baltimore, where they opened a school. To escape the horrors of the revolution raging in France, twenty-three French priests sought refuge in the United States (1791-1799). Bishop Carroll gladly welcomed them and they 272 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES were soon zealously engaged in mission work in Kentucky and elsewhere. Six of these priests later became bishops. The Catholic Church in the United States is deeply indebted to the zeal of these exiled French priests for their unwearied efforts in the interests of religion. The first priest ordained in the United States was Rev. Stephen Badin, another French exile. He received holy orders in Baltimore and (1793) became a missionary in the West. The second priest ordained in the United States (1795) was the illustrious Russian Prince, Deme- GEOUGETOWX UXIVEUtilTY trius Gallitzin, fittingly termed the "Apostle of the Allegha- nies." He sacrificed a distinguished position and a large fortune to become a missionary in western Pennsylvania. Father Gallitzin founded the Catholic colony at Loretto, dis- tributed lands to the settlers, and spent thousands of dollars in charitable enterprises. 350. Other Events. Early in the session of the first Congress, twelve amendments to the Constitution were adopted by Con- GEORGE Washington's administration 273 gress. Ten of these were ratified and added to the Constitution (1791). These amendments were appropriately termed the "Bill of Rights." Among other things they prohibited Con- gress from interfering with freedom of religious worship, of speech, and of the press. Washington again, as during the war, did not desire any pay for his services. Congress decided, however, that the sal- ary of the President should be twenty-five thousand dollars a year. Six dollars a day were allowed to a Congressman. Captain Gray of Boston sailed (1790) around Cape Horn, thence up the Pacific along the Oregon coast and discovered the mouth of a great river which he entered and named the Columbia in honor of his ship. He then crossed the Pacific to China and from there he proceeded around the Cape of Good Hope and across the Atlantic to Boston. The American flag for the first time had been carried around the world. Three states were admitted into the Union : Vermont, orig- inally claimed by both New York and New Hampshire, en- tered (1791) as the fourteenth state, without slavery; Ken- tucky came in (1792) as the fifteenth state, with slavery; Ten- nessee was admitted (1796), with the consent of North Carolina, as the sixteenth state, with slavery. The first fugitive slave law enacted by Congress (1793) gave the owner of a fugitive slave the right to seize him in whatever part of the United States he might be found. Upon proof that the person was a fugitive slave, he was to be returned to the owner. Any one hindering his return was to be fined five hundred dollars. Washington, who had been twice unanimously chosen Presi- dent, declined to be a candidate for re-election. He announced his determination in an afi:'ecting farewell address, published in a Philadelphia paper. His eight years of administration had been, if possible, even a greater service to his country than his eight years' command of its armies. He now retired to spend the evening of his life at his Mount Vernon home on the 274 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Potomac. Throughout the country he was hailed by the grate- ful and affectionate people, not as "President of the United States," but as "Father of his Country." His farewell address, so full of patriotic wisdom, has become one of the political classics of the world. In it Washington pleaded for national unity, obedience to law, religion, and morality, warned the country against the danger of party spirit, and bade it observe good faith and justice toward all nations. "Of all the dispositions and habits," said he, "which lead to political prosperity, religion and morality are indispens- able supports," WASHINGTON'S COAT OF ARMS CHAPTER XVIII JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION FEDERALIST— 1797-lSOl 351. Adams and Jefferson Are Elected. After Washington had made his farewell address, some months before the expira- tion of his second term of office, the selection of a successor became a party question. Each party chose a candidate— the Federalists, John Adams of Massachusetts — the Democratic- Republicans, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia. After an active campaign the contest resulted in the election of Adams to the presidency, while Jefferson became Vice-president. The incon- venience of party difference between the President and Vice- president led, a few years later, to a change in the mode of election — a distinct ballot being taken for the Vice-president, who has ever since been of the same party with his chief. Adams (1735-1826) became President by a vote of seventy- one and Jefferson Vice-president by a vote of sixty-eight— a dift'erence of three electoral votes. Adams made the mistake of retaining Washington's cabinet, which, under the control of Hamilton (Adams's enemy) was not loyal to him. Adding to this circumstance the fact that Adams and Jefferson were leaders of opposite parties, we can readily realize that the administration began with divided councils and with jealousy in the President's official household. As a result the country was disturbed by a violent conflict of opinions. 352. New Trouble with France. Our trouble with France was not at an end with the recall of Genet during Washington's administration. The Jay treaty was considered by France as an insult, partly because it was favorable to her rival, partly 275 276 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES because it removed the prospect of war between England and the United States. James Monroe had been appointed by Washington as min- ister to France (1794). Being violently opposed to Great Brit- ain and greatly in sympathy with France he acted very indis- creetly, and was censured by Randolph, the Secretary of State, and finally recalled by Washington. Charles C. Pinckney was then appointed as his successor. This recall gave great offense to France. French cruisers now began openly to attack our merchant vessels. The French minister to our country was recalled, while our minister to France, Charles C. Pinckney, was not only re- fused a hearing, but even ordered to leave the country. Pinck- ney immediately went to Holland to await further instructions. 353. The X, Y, Z Mission. France had now set up a Rev- olutionary government, vested in five persons, called a Directory. Adams, indignant at the treatment which our minister had received, boldly denounced the conduct of France. He called an extra session of Congress and, considering the country too weak for war, finally sent John Marshall and Elbridge Gerry to join Pinckney in a final attempt to settle matters peaceably. These envoys, on reaching Paris, were denied an official inter- view, but three persons acting as agents visited them privately and declared that the American envoys could be received only under three conditions: The United States (a) should first apologize for Adams's denunciation of the con- duct of France; (&) should pay each Director the sum of fifty thousand dollars; and (c) should pay tribute under the name of a loan to the French government. The envoys refused to give any money to the Directors and treated the proposition to purchase a treaty by bribery with utter contempt. Pinckney exclaimed : ' ' Millions for defense ; not a cent for tribute. ' ' The. results were made known in a JOHN ADAMS 'S ADMINISTRATION 277 dispatch to the President. When Adams made his report to Congress he called the three agents, Mr. X, Mr. Y, and Mr. Z; hence the incident became known as the "X, Y, Z affair." When the particulars of this incident became public through the newspapers, a wild cry of indignation against France went up from both the Federalists and the Republicans throughout the country. ' ' Millions for defense ; not a cent for tribute, " " War with France ! ' ' resounded on every side, while the stirring words of "Hail, Columbia," composed by Joseph Hopkinson, gave fitting expression to the patriotic spirit of the people. 354. On the Verge of War with France. President Adams considering negotiations with France at an end, declared: "I will never send another minister to France without the assur- ance that he will be received, respected, and honored as the representative of a great, free, and powerful nation." War measures were now quickly passed in both Houses of Congress. A provisional army was raised and Washington was appointed commander-in-chief of the American forces. New vessels were added to the navy and the Navy Department was organized. Naval hostilities between the two nations were actually begun. The American Constellation, under Captain Truxtun, captured the French frigate Insurgent after a hard fight. So vigorous a warfare did our little navy wage, that the French Directory at once declared its willingness to receive an envoy from the United States. Adams, anxious to avoid war, sent a commis- sion, which concluded a treaty (1800) with Napoleon, who had now^ attained power in France. Adams consulted neither his Cabinet nor the leaders of his party when sending the envoys to France. Both took great offense at the action of the Presi- dent, and a split in the Federalist party was the result. This action was one of the causes of Adam's failure of re-election, but it effected a peace with France which has not been broken for a century. Adams later said, regarding this treaty, that he desired no other epitaph than: "Here lies John Adams, who took upon himself the responsibility of peace with France." 278 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 355. Three Acts Aimed at Foreigners. While foreign affairs were demanding attention, party spirit continued to grow more bitter. The newspapers showed an extraordinary spirit of vio- lence in their denunciations of the President and the govern- ment. Many of the journalists at that time were foreigners. To the excited imagination of the Federalists, who were repre- sented by a majority in both Houses of Congress, these men leagued with France in an attempt to destroy the liberties of the country. To get rid of the most violent of these writers and at the same time to punish American-born editors who too freely criticized the administration. Congress passed three laws : (a) the Naturalization Act, which increased the time of resi- dence necessary to become a citizen from five to four- teen years ; (5) the Alien Act, which authorized the President to expel from the United States, without a trial of any sort, all aliens whom he should deem dangerous to the peace and safety of the country ; (c) the Sedition Act, which provided for the punishment by fine and imprisonment of any person who, by writing or speaking, should bring the government into disrepute. Adams never made use of the Alien Law, which was in force only two years. But the Sedition Law, in use less than three years, was enforced in several cases, and editors were fined and sometimes imprisoned: The Alien and Sedition Acts were merely party acts passed for party purposes. They did not accomplish the purposes in- tended and they did the Federalist party irreparable harm. These measures were evidently in violation of the first amend- ment of the Constitution, which forbids Congress to make any laws abridging freedom of speech or of the press, and the Republicans could rightfully say that the government was becoming tyrannical. 356. The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. Influenced by Jefferson, the legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky promptly JOHN AD.YMS S ADMINISTRATION 279 passed resolutions expressive of decided opposition to the Alien and Sedition Acts. The Virginia resolutions, written by Madi- son, pronounced the Acts unconstitutional ; but the Kentucky measures, framed by Jefferson, went so far as to declare the dangerous doctrine that a state might rightfully nullify any act of Congress that was a violation of the Constitution. The two sets of resolutions were sent to the legislatures of other states, but received little or no sympathy. The purpose of tlie resolutions was not so much to question constitutional rights, Washington's tomb at mount veknon but rather to defeat the Federalist party at the approaching presidential election (1800). Nullifying the law is to refuse to allow it to be enforced; hence nullification is a very dangerous doctrine, which, if exercised by the individual state, instead of by the Supreme Court of the United States, would soon break up the Union. The idea that states might resist the national government if 280 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES they saw fit was destined to make trouble many years later and finally brought about the Civil "War. 357. The Death of Washington. In the midst of the excite- ment attendant upon the enactment of unpopular laws and party strife, Washington, the one man who possessed the mod- erating influence then so indispensable, died at his home at Mount Vernon, in the last month of the last year of the eighteenth century (December 14, 1799). The people mourned him as a father, who highly deserved the love and gratitude of the whole nation for all coming ages. Washington's remains were entombed at Mount Vernon. The tomb is a shrine which men of every nation, irrespective of party, creed, or color, visit with feelings of veneration. A tradition of the New York Indians says, "Alone of all white men, Washington has been admitted to the Indian heaven, because of his justice to the red men. He lives in a great palace and is dressed in his uniform with a sword at his side." 358. John Marshall Appointed Chief Justice. Before going out of office (1801) Adams performed the crowning act of his administration by appointing John Marshall, a Virginia Feder- alist, as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. Marshall, who for thirty-five years used his powerful influence to make the gen- eral government superior to the states in all questions concern- ing the common interests of the nation, proved himself the greatest of American jurists, and it is fittingly said of him that "he found the Constitution paper, and made it power." He has also, without exaggeration, been styled "a second maker of the Constitution." The sending of an envoy to France Avithout consulting the leaders of his party, the Alien and Sedition Acts, the taxes made necessary in preparing for the war with France, and the prosecutions for sedition, destroyed Adams's popularity in the Republican party and deprived him of the united support of the Federalists. After it had become evident that there would be a Republican president with a large majority in both houses JOHN ADAMS 'S ADMINISTRATION 281 of Congress, the Federalists resolved to uphold their power in the third department and passed without any real need, a judiciary act, creating new courts, and new salaried officials. Adams was still busy appointing men for these offices when the hour of twelve struck on the night of March 3, 1801. The next morning he set out for his home in Quincy, Massachusetts, without waiting to greet his unwelcome successor. 359. Catholic Immigration. The Irish Rebellion of 1798 was the occasion of a vast stream of Catholic immigration to the United States. Owing to this fact, the Catholic Church grew rapidly in numbers, so that the Catholic population of New York, which eleven years previous had numbered about one hundred, had now increased to about fourteen thousand. It was, moreover, regarded as something marvelous that six priests should be ordained in New York City in one day. ' ' The event," writes the venerable Bishop Carroll, "was a happy day for the diocese." In view of this increase, the Sovereign Pontiff raised the See of Baltimore (1808) to the rank of an Archbishopric with, four auxiliary bishoprics — New York, Philadelphia, Boston, and Bardstown, Kentucky. 360. Notable Facts. The Federalist party, in power for the first years of our national life, had governed well. It had built up the credit of the country; prevented war with both England and France ; and laid the foundation of a strong central government. Its task, however, was now completed, and in a few years the party passed out of existence. Nation- ality having now been firmly established, the country was pre- pared for a successful government under the Democratic- Republican, or common people's party. CHAPTER XIX THOMAS JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTEATION DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN— 1801-1809 361. Jefferson and Burr Are Elected. The third presidential campaign began with the Federalists divided and the Demo- cratic-Republicans united and hopeful. John Adams and Charles C. Pinckney were the Federalist candidates, while Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr represented the Democratic- Republicans. Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr each received an equal number of votes (seventy-three) and the election of the President was thrown for the first time into the House of Representatives. On the thirty-sixth ballot Jefferson received the votes of ten states out of sixteen and was elected President, and Burr became Vice-president. The quarrel between Hamilton and Adams came to a climax in this election of 1800. Hamilton determined to prevent Adams from receiving the nomination for the presidency ; not succeed- ing in this, he worked against him during the campaign, even spreading broadcast a letter in which he described Adams as totally unfit for the office. "When the election of the President was thrown into the House of Representatives, Jefferson would, of course, have immediately been elected had the majority of the House been Republican. It was, however, Federalist, and the Federalists were free to choose from their enemies the one who was least likely to do them harm. Intrigues were entered into with both Jefferson and Burr. Neither candidate would make definite promises, although Burr held out hopes of alli- ance with the Federalists. Hamilton, reasserting his better self, now came forward with a letter and declared that of the two men Jefferson was the less dangerous. Thus, after a long and bitter struggle, Jefferson was chosen President of the 282 THOMAS Jefferson's administration 283 United States, and Burr Vice-president. Burr was a restless, scheming man, thoroughly distrusted by the better men of the country. 362. Jefferson's Inauguration. Jefferson (1743-1826) was the first President to be inaugurated in the new capitol, which was ridiculed as a "palace in the woods." He walked thither, clad in his ordinary attire, accompanied by a few political friends, and quietly took the oath of office without any impressive cere- mony. Jefferson showed his greatness when he declared in THE CAPITOL TODAY his inaugural address: "We are all Republicans! We are all Federalists ! ' ' and mentioned the principles of the govern- ment as being: (a) equal rights to all men; (b) peace, commerce, and honest friendship with all nations; (c) no entangling alliance with any foreign power; (d) the supremacy of the civil over the military power; (f) economy in public expense; and (/) the honest payment of public debts. 284 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES Jefferson had for many years figured prominently in political life as a member of the Continental Congress, governor of Vir- ginia, minister to France, Secretary of State, and Vice-presi- dent. Many people feared that he and his party would try to undo the work that had been done imder Federalist supremacy. But he made no serious changes, and managed affairs so skill- fully that the people's fears were soon quieted. Being a poor public speaker, he began the custom of sending his "annual message" to be read before Congress, instead of delivering it in a formal address, as Washington and Adams had done. Jefferson was a most remarkable man. In addition to being an able statesman, he was a good marksman, a daring horse- man, a skillful violinist, and a brilliant scholar. Though digni- fied and gentlemanly in manners, and scholarly in tastes, he had a strong dislike for ceremony and show. Of aristocratic Vir- ginian descent, he had in his latter days become very demo- cratic, having great faith in the common people. He wished the President to be simple in dress and manners, and to mingle freely with the people. His habit of attiring himself in a red waistcoat, yarn stockings, and worn-down slippers, of going to his duties at the Capitol on horseback, and tying his steed with his own hands before entering, and of hospitably keeping open house at all hours, made him a strong contrast to Wash- ington, with his courtly appearance, weekly formal receptions, and coach-and-six. No wonder that such simple tastes, and sympathy for, and confidence in the common people, made him the idol of the masses, and engendered a tendency toward sim- plicity in the dress and manners of the people. The Cabinet reorganized by Jefferson, unlike the Cabinets of Washington and Adams, was a harmonious and loyal body of men, of which, however, Madison, Secretary of State, and Albert Gallatin, Secretary of the Treasury, a noted Swiss, were the only members of more than average ability. 363. Some Economic Measures. Complying with the finan- cial plans of Secretary of the Treasury Gallatin, Congress : THOMAS Jefferson's administration 285 (a) greatly reduced the army, though it appropriated money to establish a military academy at West Point; (6) sold some naval vessels and discontinued the construction of new ones; (c) repealed laws which levied internal taxes; (d) abolished some offices by joining two in one where prac- ticable ; and (c) increased the income from customs duties. After the new Economic Measures went into effect fortifica- tions were not kept intact and the army and navy were allowed to dwindle. Subsequent wars with the Barbary States and with England eventually showed that some of Jefferson's economic reductions were not wise. 364. The Louisiana Purchase. We have seen that France gave the part of Louisiana which was west of the Mississippi, and the Island of New Orleans to Spain after the treaty of Paris in 1763 in return for Florida. Napoleon, however, regret- ting the loss of the territory, succeeded in regaining it from Spain (1800). The knowledge of this exchange caused great alarm in the United States because : (a) France, being a more powerful nation than Spain, was also a more dangerous neighbor; furthermore, since France was on the verge of war with England, the latter nation might easily take Louisiana from France and then the United States would scarcely be able to main- tain her dearly-bought independence, with her old enemy on both the north and the west ; (&) the West lost its "right of deposit" at New Orleans. James Monroe was appointed special envoy to France to assist our minister, Livingston, in securing by purchase the Island of New Orleans. France and England were again on the eve of war, and Napoleon realized that he could not hold Louisiana against England. He startled our envoys, therefore, by asking through his agent what the United States would pay for the whole of Louisiana instead of New Orleans alone. 286 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES Napoleon was too busy in Europe to think of colonizing Amer- ica, and consequently preferred to sell Louisiana to the United States, rather than to let it fall into the hands of Great Britain — hence the unexpected inquiry relative to disposing of it. The vast territory of Louisiana, comprising the entire region between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains and extending from the north of Texas to the southern boundary of British America, was purchased from France (1803) for fifteen million dollars. Upon signing the treaty, Napoleon remarked, "This acces- sion of territory strengthens forever the power of the United States, and I have given to England a maritime rival that will, sooner or later, humble her pride." Livingston said, "We have lived long, but this is the noblest work of our lives." The purchase of Louisiana was one of the most important events in the history of the United States. Among its far- reaching effects may be mentioned the following: (a) it doubled the area of the United States; (h) it ended the contest of rival European nations for the possession of the Mississippi Valley ; (c) it showed the benefit of an occasional loose construction of the Constitution ; (d) it placed the United States in a position to become one of the great powers of the world ; (e) it made the United States a maritime rival of England. In this purchase our ministers had gone beyond the power of their instructions, having neither the authority nor the money to purchase the entire territory; but fearing. that Napo- leon might change his mind, they completed the treaty. Jef- ferson, being a strict constructionist, was greatly perplexed, for, by the strict interpretation of the Constitution, there was no power given to the government to acquire territory. He advocated an amendment which should give Congress this power ; but there was no time to be lost, and his friends finally THOMAS Jefferson's administration 287 persuaded him that the treaty-making power of the Constitu- tion (note the loose construction) included this right. The Federalists, taking the strict construction view, accused Jeffer- son of violating the Constitution in buying Louisiana. 365. Jefferson Is Re-elected. When the fact and terms of the Louisiana Purchase became known, the people were astonished at the magnitude of the acquisition. The treaty was so clearly for the good of the nation that it was generally applauded, and at 'the election of 1804, Jefferson was re-elected by an enormous majority. George Clinton of New York was chosen Vice-president. 366. Duel Between Hamilton and Burr — Burr's Conspiracy. Aaron Burr was a candidate for the governorship of New York. Hamilton, considering him a man unworthy of the office, vig- orously opposed him. Stung by the attacks of his opponent, Burr challenged him to a duel. The two men met at a secluded spot on the Jersey shore, and Hamilton fell, mortally wounded. Amid the lamentations of the nation, the great Federalist leader, who had merited the title "Little Lion" during the Kevolution, was laid in the grave (July, 1804). He had helped to frame the Constitution and had, more than any other man, influenced the states to accept it; he had put into effect the great financial plan that was giving stability to the nation. Burr's reckless spirit drove him into the wilderness. He made a tour of the Mississippi Valley, and began to build boats and collect an army under the pretense of making an expedition against the Spaniards of Mexico. His real purpose, however, it is believed, was to sever the southwestern states from the Union and set up an independent nation in Texas and Mexico, with himself at the head. He was at length betrayed, arrested, and tried for treason by Chief Justice Marshall of the Supreme Court, at Richmond, Virginia. The Constitution defines treason only as levying war against the United States or in adhering to the enemy and giving them aid and comfort. Burr had never been in a position to levy war or to aid an enemy. He was 288 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES therefore released. The career which his brilliant talents might have made honorable and useful, was wrecked, and Burr lived lonely and despised for the rest of his days. 367. First Explorations of the Northwest. The Louisiana Purchase opened a great field for western emigration, and Jefferson, realizing the importance of some knowledge of the new territory, sent an expedition, under the leadership of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, brother of George Rogers #!''^:iidiPsyfe?5 ROUTE OF THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION Clark, to secure the trade of the Indians on the Missouri, then absorbed by English companies, and to explore the country to the western ocean. Leaving the log cabin town of St. Louis in the spring of 1804, the party pushed its boats up the Missouri, crossed over the Rocky Mountains and floated down the Colum- bia River to the blue waters of the Pacific, which it reached in November, 1805, after a perilous journey of four thou- sand miles. The party returned the next year and gave the people of the East a glowing account of the "vast illimitable THOMAS Jefferson's administration 289 West" with its wonderful resources. The Lewis-Clark expedi- tion gave the United States another claim to the splendid region called Oregon, early discovered (1790) by Gray. It strength- ened our rights to the Oregon country against the claims of England and Russia; and it, together with Pike's explorations, gave the nation an idea of the great value of the Louisiana Purchase. Jjieutenant Pike, in conimand of the United States troops, set out from St. Louis and explored the head-waters of the Mississippi, Arkansas, and Red rivers. He discovered the mountain peak to which was given his name, but was not suc- cessful in his attempt to reach its summit. Five years after the Lewis-Clark exploration, a New York fur trader named Astor, established a trading post at the mouth of the Columbia River, and called it Astoria. A line of posts was eventually established from the upper Missouri to Astoria by the Pacific Fur Company, headed by Astor. 368. Fulton's Steamboat. Many people feared that the Re- public, with its vast new territory, was too large to be held together; but a means of bringing its parts in closer commu- nication was even then at hand. Robert Fulton, a native of Pemisylvania, of Irish descent, invented the first successful steamboat, the Clermont. The boat made its trial trip up the Hudson from New York to Albany in thirty-two hours (August 11, 1807), and from this time on steam navigation made rapid progress; only twelve years later (1819) the Savannah, the first ocean steamship, started from Savannah, Georgia, and crossed the Atlantic to Liverpool in twenty-five days — a great feat, the credit of which belongs to a southern state. No one knows when or by whom the first steamboat was invented. At the beginning of the year (1807) there was not one in use in all the world. A number of experiments made by both European and American inventors had met with some success. John Fitch, a KentuckiaU, built a steamboat nearly twenty years earlier than Fulton, but it had only a temporary 290 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES success. No practical steamboat was constructed before Ful- ton's invention, and it was not until after the trip of the Clermont that the steamboat was regarded with favor and came into general use. Before that event people were preju- diced against such inventions and laughed at "Fulton's folly," which was finally described as a "monster, defying wind and tide, breathing flame and smoke." Fulton's steamboat 369. War with the Barbary States. During the previous presidencies the United States, having no ships-of-war worth mentioning, had to buy, as it were, the good will of the Barbary States, paying them high ransoms and tributes. Finally, the haughty Pasha, or governor of Tripoli, not contented with the tribute he had been receiving, became so insolent that Jefferson ordered the construction of a fleet of war vessels, which, under the command of Commodore Preble, he sent against Tripoli. During the attack the frigate Philadelphia had run aground THOMAS JEFFERSON 'S ADMINISTRATION 291 in the harbor of Tripoli, and was forced to surrender. Later on, however, a very higli tide floated her ott', giving the Tripoli- tans a fine addition to their navy. Stephen Decatnr, one of the American officers, entered the harbor with a small vessel in which were concealed a number of men. Under the pretense that his ship was in distress, he pushed up close to the Phila- delphia, leaped aboard it with his men, swept the enemy into the sea, set the ship on fire, and sailed away unharmed amidst the thundering fires of the batteries. The city was repeatedly bombarded, and the Pasha was so thoroughly humiliated that he was glad to sue for peace (1805). As a result of the treaty ((/) the other Barbary States, surprised at this stand of the United States, also ceased their attacks on our com- merce ; (&) our merchant marine increased and became a training school in which our officers and seamen were prepared for the impending war with England ; (c) Jefit'erson was forced to increase the navy, the good effects of which were soon to be felt. 370. France and Great Britain Plunder American Ships. The Barbary Powers were not the only enemies of American com- merce. France and Great Britain, at war with one another, were trying to injure each other's trade, altogether regardless of the injury inflicted upon American commerce. Some of the arrogant measures of the two belligerents, which nearly swept American trade from the seas, were : (a) the British government published an ''Order in Council" (1806) declaring all French ports from Brest to the Elbe in a state of blockade. Napoleon retaliated by the "Ber- lin Decree" (1806), declaring the British Islands in a state of blockade; (&) England, by another "Order in Council" (1807), forbade neutral vessels to enter a French port without previously stopping at a British port and paying a tax, and doing 292 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES the same thing on the return voyage. "Neutral ves- sels ' ' here meant American vessels, as nearly all Europe was at war. Napoleon promptly replied by his "Milan Decree," which declared that any neutral vessel which had paid a duty at an English port, might be seized at any French port. According to law, ships are not allowed to enter a "block- aded" port except at the risk of being captured and confiscated. A blockade, however, to be effective, must have the entrance of the port guarded by ships. France and Great Britain both asserted only a "paper blockade," that is, issued mere block- ading declarations without stationing any ships to enforce the same. American vessels bound to or from blockaded ports were captured anywhere on the high seas by the cruisers of both belligerents. 371. England Claims the Right of Search and Impressment. The arbitrary ruling of the English with respect to our neutral commerce finally became unbearable when England again began to search our vessels for seamen of English birth and to impress them into the British navy. British war vessels even anchored outside American ports and hundreds of American vessels were captured and thousands of our seamen impressed. The height of insult was reached when the British frigate Leopard over- hauled the American frigate Chesapeake off Hampton Roads, Virginia, and ordered her to submit to search. Upon refusal, the Leopard opened fire on the Chesapeake, which, unprepared for battle, surrendered. Four men, three of whom were Amer- ican citizens, were seized and impressed into British service. The whole nation was aroused at this outrage. Jefferson, in a letter to Lafayette, said that never since the battle of Lexing- ton had he seen the country in such a state of indignation. The English government offered a half-hearted apology, but re- affirmed the right of search. 372. The Embargo Act. What could America do in the face of such outrages ? One of two things : THOMAS Jefferson's administration 293 (a) make war on l)oth France and England. Jefferson strongly preferred peace to war; or (&) lay an embargo on American shipping, forbidding trade with either nation. This course, however, would ruin thousands of merchants and traders, and deprive great numbers of seamen of employment. Jefferson decided to try the embargo, and the Embargo Act, nicknamed ''0 grab me act," was passed (1807), forbidding American ships to leave for a foreign port under any condition. This was intended to prevent the loss of our ships and seamen and punish both France and England by depriving them of American goods. The act proved a complete failure. It seemed more like punishing America than Great Britain and France. All classes of industries, except manufacture, suffered severely under the law. The New England Federalists declared it un- constitutional, and threatened secession. France and Great Britain laughed at the embargo; consequently, the act was repealed after fourteen months and replaced by the Non-Inter- course Act, by which all commerce was prohibited with Great Britain and France, and their colonies. Though the Embargo Act was a failure, it did some good by causing many of the people to turn to manufacturing, and from this small beginning our country has gradually grown to be one of the greatest manufacturing nations of the world. 373. Other Events. The unpopular Naturalization Act was repealed (1802) and the number of years' residence required for citizenship was reduced from fourteen to five, the same as it is at present. Ohio, with a population of forty-five thousand, was admitted (1802) into the Union as the seventeenth state, without slavery. The second census of the United States was taken in 1800; it showed a population of over five million and was the basis for a new apportionment of representatives. The unit was fixed at one representative for every thirty-three thousand inhabitants, and thus the membership of the House was in- 294 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES creased from one hundred and five to one hundred and forty-one. In order to avoid the repetition of a contest such as the tie vote between Jefferson and Burr had occasioned, the Twelfth Amendment, wliich provided that the electors cast separate ballots for President and Vice-president, was proposed by Con- gress. The amendment was ratified by the states (1804). Congress put a stop to the importation of slaves after Janu- ary, 1808. The law was heartily endorsed by Jefferson, who, like Washington and most leading men of the South, held MONTICELLO slaves, but sincerely hoped that the country would find some peaceful means of freeing the negroes. 374. Jefferson Retires to Monticello. Jefferson's popularity suffered greatly on account of the embargo. He was, however, not long in regaining his former prestige, and the people urged him to accept the presidency a third term. However, he fol- lowed the example of Washington and refused. On leaving the capitol he retired to Monticello, his beautiful home in Virginia, where he spent the remainder of his useful life. His wisdom gained for him in his old age the title of ' ' Sage of Monticello. ' ' CHAPTER XX JAMES MADISON'S ADMINISTEATION DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN— 1809-1S17 375. Madison and Clinton Are Elected. James Madison, Sec- retary of State, and George Clinton, Vice-president, during the previous administration, were the Republican candidates for the election of 1808. They were elected by a large majority of electoral votes over Charles C. Pinckney and Rufus King, the Federalist nominees. The same principles (economy at home and peace abroad) continued to control the government and the same harmony, though not the same strength, was visible in the Cabinet. Albert Gallatin, one of our greatest financiers, continued at the head of the Treasury Department, and in 1811 James Monroe was chosen Secretary of State. Madison (1751-1836), like Washington and Jefferson, was a native of Virginia (the Mother of Presidents). He had, as we have seen, acquired an enduring reputation as the foremost framer of the Constitution, as leader of his party in Congress, and as Secretary of State. He was universally esteemed for his kindly disposition, great refinement, statesmanship, and learning. Inasmuch as he was a most intimate friend of Jeffer- son, and a strong supporter of the Jeffersonian policy, his administration may be looked upon as a continuation of that of his predecessor. He hated war, and,*like the three preceding presidents, thought it more conducive to the general welfare of the nation to avoid it. This, however, was fast becoming impossible. 376. Foreign Difficulties Continue. Foreign affairs were in a deplorable condition when Madison began his administration: 295 296 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES (a) Great Britain and France, being still actively at war, con- tinued to capture our ships on the ocean and in foreign ports ; (h) the State Department at Washington had a list of six thousand American seamen who had been forced into the English navy, while nine hundred of our vessels were recorded to have been boarded by the British in eight years ; (c) by virtue of the Non-Intercourse Act, our ships were still forbidden to trade with either France or England; (d) the English minister at Washington had made a promise that the Orders in Council should be withdrawn, pro- vided the United States would repeal the Non-Inter- course Act. Subsequently, trade was reopened With Eng- land. The ships that first made the attempt to trade abroad were, however, immediately captured. The Or- ders in Council were still in force and the English min- ister who had made the promise was recalled as having exceeded his instructions, and the Non-Intercourse Act was again put in force. Great Britain claimed, "Once an Englishman, always an Englishman," whereas the United States held that any for- eigner could become an American by naturalization. There were, of course, causes for annoyance on both sides. It not infrequently happened that English seamen procured fraudu- lent naturalization papers and entered the American navy, so that it was not unusual for an English captain, visiting an American port, to find himself without a crew when ready to put to sea again. The better treatment and higher pay received in American ships made American naval service preferable to English service. In the meantime Congress (May, 1810) passed the "Macon Bill," which, named after its author, re- pealed the Non-Intercourse Act. It provided, however, that in case either Great Britain or France should repeal its decrees, non-intercourse should be resumed with the other nation. JAMES Madison's administration 297 377. Napoleon's Intrigue. The wily Napoleon, feigning friendship, announced in a letter to the United States a repeal of the Milan and Berlin decrees. At once numerous American vessels sailed for European ports, but they were promptly seized and despoiled by the French, Matters were now fast hastening toward a crisis. Madison, provoked by all these outrages, ordered the frigate President to sea to protect our commerce. The President was soon fired upon by the British sloop of war Little Belt, and in the ensuing battle the English vessel was badly crippled. The people felt that this event avenged the Leopard-Chesapeake insult, which was still fresh in their minds. 378. More Indian Troubles. To add to the difficulties con- fronting the nation, the Indians of the western frontiers, led by the great chiefs, Tecumseh and "The Prophet," who, it is supposed, were incited by the English, threatened the safety of the western settlers. General William Harrison, governor of Indian Territory, collected troops and repulsed the savages at their town of Tippecanoe, on the Wabash River. The losses on both sides were very heavy, Harrison losing one-fourth of his men. Tecumseh, absent at the time of the battle of Tippe- canoe — urging the southei'n Indians to join the confederation — returned only after the defeat of these northern tribes by Harrison. 379. War Declared. The responsibility of maintaining peace or entering upon war was now thrown upon Congress, which met in extra session (November 4, 1811). It had a strong Re- publican majority in each house — an unusual number of able and high-spirited young men from the West and South. These were led by John C, Calhoun, of South Carolina, and Henry Clay, of Kentucky, This vigorous generation of young con- gressmen loudly advocated war and finally forced Madison to declare it, by threatening him with the loss of a second term in case he should refuse. Thus pressed and overruled, the peace-loving President reluctantly signed the act declaring war 298 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES JAMES Madison's administration 299 against Great Britain (June 18, 1812). Two days previous, England had revoked the Orders in Council, but this news reached America too late. Even if it had come in due time, war could scarcely have been averted, unless Great Britain's claim of search had also been renounced. It has been said, without proof, however, that Madison agreed to sanction war as a condition of his renomination. Calhoun (1782-1850) and Clay (1777-1852) were for the next forty years the great political leaders of the country. Calhoun, at this time a champion of nationalization and the protective tariff policy, afterwards became the leader of the opposing party, which advocated states' rights, slavery, and free trade. Clay, only thirty-four years of age, had gained prominence in his own state legislature, and later twice filled a vacancy in the United States Senate, where he at once gained distinction for his sound logic, force of will, and fiery eloquence. He was of a peace-loving spirit, and, rising above all personal and party considerations, was MdioUy devoted to the interests of the Union. Daniel Webster (1782-1852) of New Hampshire, the third of this notable group of statesmen, entered Congress some years later. 380. Who Is the Enemy? It may seem strange that the United States chose to declare war against Great Britain rather than France. Both nations seemed equally blamable as far as American commerce was concerned.. However, it would have been foolish to declare war against both, and England was our old enemy. Moreover, there was the chance of wresting Canada from her, which achievement would not only drive her entirely from the continent, but might also force her to make a favor- able peace. Hence the object of the war with England was not to secure directly the rights of vessel-owners, for it was thought that our weak navy would be no match for the English fleet in an ocean conflict, but rather to get possession of Canada, and thereby force England to acknowledge our commercial independence. 300 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 381. Madison Is Re-elected. The general popularity of the war was shown at the next election, in which Madison was the candidate of the war Republicans. The peace Republicans supported the Federalist nominee, DeWitt Clinton, of New York. Madison obtained one hundred and twenty-eight of the two hundred and eighteen electoral votes, and was re- elected President. Vice-president George Clinton died during office and Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts, was chosen to suc- ceed him. 382. Causes of the War of 1812. The United States now made preparations to enter upon the second war with England ; this time to secure commercial independence. The causes for this war, briefly summed up, were : (a) the impressment of our seamen into the English navy; (b) the violation of the rights of commerce by British cruisers in American waters ; (c) the "paper" blockades of the Orders in Council; (d) the attacks of the Indians incited by English traders. The United States was wholly unprepared for the conflict and was forced to enter upon this important war without the support of all its sections. The people of the vigorous agricul- tural sections of the South and "West, chafing under the humilia- tions which the nation had so long been suffering, clamored for war; but the peace Republicans of the middle states and the Federalists of New England preferred an irregular and haz- ardous trade to war. Most of the little money then in the United States was possessed by the people of New England. They refused to lend it to the government to carry on the war, and they refused to muster their militia. 383. American War Plan for 1812 — Failure. The project of invading and overrunning Canada before England could send a large army to America seemed to be uppermost in the minds of the Americans. Hence three armies were brought together on the Canadian frontier : (a) one, under General "William Hull, was to defend Detroit, JAMES MADISON S ADMINISTRATION 301 the key to the fur trade, and the controlling center of the land of the Northwest; (&) another, under General Van Rensselaer, was to cross the Niagara River. Re-enforced from Hull's army at De- troit, it was to capture York (Toronto), and thence ad- vance to Montreal, where it was to be joined by (c) a third army under General Dearborn, advancing from Lake Champlain. After the capture of Montreal, the combined forces were to take Quebec. General William Hull toiled over the miserable roads through the forest from the Maumee River to Detroit. Followed bv a FORT DEARBORN AND DETROIT large force of British and Indians, under General Brock, he fell back on Detroit, where, to the surprise of everybody, he surrendered (August 8, 1812) Detroit and the whole of Michi- gan without a blow. Fort Dearborn (on the present site of Chicago) had meanwhile also fallen into the hands of the British. Its inmates were cruelly massacred by the Indians. The inhabitants of the Canadian frontier were ill disposed toward the United States. They were largely Tories who had withdrawn thither during or after the Revolution. Hull, having been subsequently tried by court-martial, was sentenced to be shot, but in consideration of his age and gallant services during 302 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES the Revolution he was pardoned by the, President. Historians are divided in regard to his course. Hull himself declared that humane motives alone, and the fear of the certain massacre of his forces by the savages, intensified by exaggerated reports of the enemy's strength, led him thus to sacrifice his reputa- tion. It is hard to fix the stain of cowardice upon the gray- haired veteran who had fought bravely, side by side with Wash- ington, through the perils of Trenton and Princeton ; who had gallantly led his men to the charge at Saratoga ; and who had faced without flinching the fire of the enemy at Stony Point. The second army, under Van Rensselaer, crossed the Niagara River and attacked Queenstown Heights, but not being re- enforced by the New York militia, which was unwilling to leave the state, the entire army was surrounded and captured (October, 1812). Van Rensselaer had generously equipped his militia at his own expense, but when it proved itself too cow- ardly to fight, he threw up his command in disgust. The third army, under General Dearborn, failed to procure ready assistance from New York and New England and accom- plished nothing. Thus all the land campaigns of the first year of the war ended disastrously for the Americans, and it was clear that Canada could not be conquered at a dash. 384. Naval Victories of 1812. The first of our numerous and glorious naval victories was won by David Porter, captain of the Essex. His ship was mistaken for a merchantman and fired upon by the British sloop Alert. Porter replied with a terrible broadside and captured (August 13, 1812) the Alert without the loss of a man, after an engagement of only eight minutes. Six days later the American frigate Constitution, commanded by Captain Isaac Hull, met the British frigate Guerriere in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. After a contest of forty minutes the British ship was reduced to a total wreck, while the Constitution sustained but slight injury. This victory was hailed with ringing cheers and expressions of great rejoicings, JAMES MADISON 'S ADMINISTRATION 303 for the Guerriere had been particularly active in the searching of American vessels. The Constitution, described by an Eng- lish writer as ''a bunch of pine boards sailing under a bit of striped bunting," grew to be the pet ship of the American na\y and came to be known by old and young, from one end of tlie land to the other, as Old Ironsides. This famous ship was built in Boston and launched October, 1797. In 1830 it was pronounced unseaworthy and was to be destroyed. Poets and newspaper writers earnestly interposed and its destruc- tion was thus averted. After being thoroughly repaired it again put to sea. It made its last trip in 1877. Since then it has been used as a barrack, or receiving ship, in which the crews of our navy live while their own ships are undergoing repairs, and as such it may still be seen in the navy yard of Charlestown, Massachusetts. (Read Holmes 's ' ' Old Ironsides. ") Captain Jacob Jones, in command of the Wasp, captured (October) the British sloop Frolic off the coast of North Caro- lina, but scarcely was the battle over when a British man-of- war captured both the Wasp and her prize. Numerous privateers, too, had ventured to sea from every important harbor, greatly hampering British commerce and capturing no less than three hundred prizes during a single year. 385. Naval Successes and Reverses of 1813. The year opened with a renewal of naval successes for the Americans. The sloop Hornet, with Captain Lawrence in command, captured the British brig Peacock. The Essex, with Porter in command, cruised for a year and a half in the waters of the Atlantic and Pacific, captured many British merchant vessels, broke up the British whaling trade, and afforded protection to American mer- chantmen. It was at last (1814) captured in the harbor of Valparaiso by two British men-of-war. The naval victories of 1813 were practically offset by the re- verses. Captain Lawrence, having been made commander of the frigate Chesapeake, was defeated near Boston harbor by 304 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES the British frigate Shannon, commanded by Captain Broke. The last order of Captain Lawrence, when mortally wounded, "Don't give up the ship!" became the rallying cry of the American navy. This was our first important naval defeat, but it was not the only one. The Essex, as we have already noted, was captured in a neutral port; the Argus, after destroy- ing twenty-seven vessels in tlie English Channel, was taken by the Pelican; our frigate President was captured while endeav- oring to escape the blockade of New York harbor. 386. Perry's Victory — The Constitution. On the lake fron- tier, a young naval officer, Captain Perry, had been busy build- ing a fleet of nine war vessels on Lake Erie. The British also equipped a fleet under Captain Barclay. The two forces met (September, 1813) at Put-in-Bay. The outcome of this des- perate fight was expressed in Perry's laconic message to General Harrison: "We have met the enemy and they are ours, two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop." Perry's victory was the turning point of the war, for it gave us control of the Great Lakes and the West, thus enabling Harrison to enter Canada. Perry, a native of Rhode Island, had never been in action before. He named his flagship Law- rence, and a blue banner at its masthead bore the dying words of the brave Captain Lawrence, "Don't give up the ship!" There were many more American naval victories, but it remained for the Constitution, the celebrated Old Ironsides, with Captain Stewart in command, to win the final victory. Not knowing that the war had ended, he cruised off the island of Madeira and falling in with the British vessels Cyane and Levant, captured both after a sharp battle of forty minutes (February, 1815). 387. American Privateering. England had blockaded the American ports one after another, and most of our fleet was shut up in the harbors of Boston, New London, and New York. Before the end of the year the blockade of all the Atlantic ports was effected. Hence, the defense of the newly acquired JAMES Madison's administration 305 American reputation at sea was left to privateers, small vessels, quick to strike and quick to escape. In this way the Americans made their ships sources of profit. During the two and a half years of war our privateers took fourteen hundred prizes while the national cruisers took three hundred more. The True Blooded Yankee alone captured twenty-seven vessels in thirty-seven days, venturing even into Dublin Bay. Consequently, insurance rates on English vessels became ex- cessive, and tradesmen and ship-owners loudly denounced the continuation of the war. The British during this time made prizes of about seventeen hundred of our merchantmen. Un- armed vessels bearing the United States flag had (1814) almost ceased to sail the ocean. 388. American Land Campaign of 1813. The land campaign of 1813 opened with a second attempt to invade Canada. The plan was threefold : (a) General Harrison was to proceed by way of Michigan, which territory he was to recover; (&) General Dearborn was to lead his army by way of the Niagara frontier; while (c) General Hampton was to move up to Canada by way of Lake Champlain. General Harrison, who was in charge of the American forces on the Mauraee River, accordingly moved on toward Detroit. A part of his army under Winchester was defeated on the Raisin River (January) by a superior force of British and Indians, commanded by Proctor ; the savage allies of the Brit- ish cruelly massacred and scalped the wounded. For years after, the River Raisin was a name of horror and "Remember the Raisin ' ' became the war-cry of the Kentuckians, who were numerously represented at this battle. Harrison twice repulsed Proctor at Fort Meigs and a third time at Fort Stephenson, but being scarcely able to hold his line of defense he could not retake Detroit as long as the English held control of Lake Erie. Commodore Perry, as we have seen, gallantly came to 306 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES his rescue. Harrison, upon receiving the young hero's laconic dispatch, crossed to Canada, where he defeated the British- Indian forces commanded by Proctor and Tecumseh on the Thames River (October). Michigan territory was now regained and at least a part of Harrison's mission was accomplished. General Dearborn crossed Lake Ontario from Sackett's Harbor and burned the British supplies at York, now Toronto. Later, he attempted to invade Canada from Lewiston, but was forced to return without having accomplished anything. During the summer. General Dearborn was removed and General Wilkin- son appointed in his place. Generals Hampton and Wilkinson, the former commanding a part of the latter 's army, failed in their expedition against Montreal, owing to the fact that the two old generals could not agree. Thus we see that Dearborn's and Hampton's parts of the plan for 1813 were complete failures. 389. Gloomy Prospects for 1814. Though the navy, and also the land forces under General Harrison, had won some brilliant victories during the year 1813, the prospects at the opening of the year 1814 were gloomy, because : (a) there was great difficulty in raising troops; (h) the war department was badly managed; (c) the finances were in a miserable condition; (d) good leaders were lacking ; (e) England's conflict with Napoleon was nearing its close, so that she could now devote renewed energy to her American war. rurt Meigs^ *vFort Stephenson JAMES Madison's administration 307 The Canadian campaign for this year was entrusted to the able General Jacob Brown, with Winfield Scott as brigadier- general. Under Brown's generalship the well disciplined troops easily took Fort Erie. Pushing northward they drove the British from their entrench- ments at Chippewa, and forced them to retreat along Lake Erie. Having been re-enforced, the re- treating foe turning about, surprised and attacked the Americans at Lundy's Lane. After a most obsti- nately contested battle the British retreated. These were the last hostilities in this region. The Creek Indians, incited by Tecumseh, massacred the white settlers at Fort Mimms, Alabama, slaying some four hundred persons. Andrew Jackson, to whom had been entrusted the Southwest, promptly gathered a body of volunteers from Tennessee and Mississippi, invaded the Creek country, and completel}^ defeated the Indians at Tohopeka, or Horseshoe Bend, on the bank of the Alabama River. After Tecum- seh had been killed, the Indians of both the North and South were without a leader and were will- ing to conclude terms of peace. 308 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES (&) 390. The British Plan for 1814. Meanwhile Napoleon had been deposed and exiled to the island of Elba. England was consequently free to send a large number of veteran British troops to make a final attempt toward subduing the United States. Three great expeditions were accordingly planned : (a) the capture of Washington; the invasion of New York by the old Burgoyne route ; the invasion of Louisiana by way of New Orleans for the purpose of snatching this newly acquired territory from the United States. In accordance with the first part of the plan, five thousand British troops un- der Ross marched fifty miles across a populous country and coolly took the national capital against feeble resist- ance by a force under Gen- eral Winder. They burned the White House, the unfin- ished Capitol, and other pub- lic buildings, thus retaliating for the burning of York by Dearborn — ^and withdrew to their ships without encountering any serious resistance. Historians tell us that the English people did not approve of the destruction of our government property. One English editor is said to have declared, "The Cossacks spared Paris, but we spared not the Capitol of America." Encouraged by this success, General Ross now led his army against Baltimore, but here he met with stubborn resistance. The British forces were repulsed (September) and General Ross was killed. The British next attacked Fort McHenry, which guarded the approaches to Baltimore, but were again JAMES MADISON S ADMINISTRATION 309 forced to withdraw. They then sailed to join the expedition against the South. During the night attack upon Fort McHenry, Francis Scott Key, of Baltimore, was detained on board a British ship, whither he had gone to secure the release of some prisoners. All night long he watched the bombard- ment of the fort. Eagerly watching the flag still flying over Fort McHenry, he wrote in pencil on the back of an old letter our national hymn, "The Star Spangled Banner," which was soon being sung throughout the country. The American forces on Lake Champlain were in charge of Commodore McDonough, whose flagship was the Saratoga. BATTLE OF LAKE CHAMPLAIN When the British, commanded by Prevost, entered Plattsburg (September), McDonough, after having earnestly implored the Divine assistance, began a sharp two hours' naval contest, which resulted in a victory for the Americans. Prevost re- treated to Canada, and the war in that section was ended. To Edward Pakenham, one of Wellington's ablest lieuten- ants, with an army of some ten thousand veterans, supported by a fleet of fifty vessels, was entrusted the capture of New Orleans. The expedition effected a landing below the city. Andrew Jackson, the great conqueror of the Creek Indians, had already hastened thither and had hurriedly gathered some 310 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES six thousand men from Kentucky, Tennessee, and the neigh- boring region, five thousand of whom were Catholics. With these troops of intrepid backwoodsmen, the hardy Indian fighter took his stand behind breastworks and poured a deadly fire into the ranks of the British, who were forced to withdraw, after the loss of some two thousand men, among whom was Pakenham. Never before in English history had a British army been so badly defeated. The American loss was exceed- ingly light — probably some seventy men all told. 391. The Treaty of Peace. In a few days, rumors of Jack- son's brilliant victory reached Washington. But this good news was soon followed by a still greater cause for rejoicing. Even before the battle of New Orleans was fought peace had been signed at Ghent, Belgium, on Christmas Eve, 1814. Owing to the slow means of communication the document, signed by the peace commissioners, had not reached the United States in time to prevent the battle. The terms of the treaty provided : ((/) for the mutual restoration of all conquered territory; and (&) for the appointment of commissioners to settle the north- ern boundary line of the United States. Strange to say, though the causes of the war were chiefly the impressment of our seamen and the British ''Orders in Council," nothing concerning these two points was mentioned in the treaty. But there was, nevertheless, a tacit understand- ing on both sides, that American commerce was not to be interfered with, and Great Britain thenceforward never again impressed our seamen. Besides, peace, even at a sacrifice, was at the time desirable, for New England was assuming a dan- gerous attitude. 392. The Hartford Convention. Delegates from nearly all the New England states met in secret session at Hartford, the real proceedings of which were not made known. It is sup- posed that the purpose was to arrange for secession from the Union. As the delegates w^ere all Federalists and their meeting JAMES Madison's administration 311 a secret one, the whole affair bore the stamp of national dis- loyalty, which, with the party's opposition to the war, gave the death blow to the Federalist party. 393. Results of the War. At the close of the war, the coun- try was still where it stood in 1812. Its boundary was un- changed; its international rights were still undefined; the country was still divided by sectional interests. The war, not- withstanding, had its good results : (a) European nations were convinced that we were able to take care of ourselves, and our ships thereafter navi- gated the ocean in peace ; (6) the United States was thenceforward recognized by the world as a first-class power; (c) a new impulse was given to our heretofore backward man- ufacturing industry. The embargoes and the maritime dangers which had retarded American commerce had caused many capitalists to turn their attention to manu- facturing, and thereafter we were not obliged to depend upon England for cotton and woolen goods ; {(I) love for and confidence in the Union were increased — a long stride forward since Washington's time. The war also drew more distinctly the lines between the three sections of the country. The North, having taken to manufacturing, realized that a protective tariff was necessary for its growing industries, especially since foreign goods were shipped in large quantities into the country after the war. The West, because of certain products which it could sell to the manufacturers, also encouraged a protective tariff. The South, however, having less to gain from manufacturing indus- tries than the North, preferred free foreign importations, which afforded cheaper manufactures than those produced in this country. 394. The Tariff of 1816. The first tariff act, the main object of which was protection, was passed in 1816. It imposed a duty of about twenty-five per cent on imported cotton and woolen 312 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STxVTES goods and a specific duty on salt and iron. This tariff had its supporters, led by John C. Calhoun, who was still a strong advocate of nationalization; it also had its opponents, led by Daniel Webster, who represented the New England shipping interests, and by John Kandolph, the champion of the agri- cultural South. It will be remembered that the act for raising revenue, passed at Hamilton's suggestion in 1789, had for one of its objects the protection of manufactures. However, at that time rates were low and the tariff was not sufficient to build up young indus- tries. In fact, the country was not in a condition to engage extensively in manufacturing. We see here a beginning of the cause for a division in the Democratic-Republican party. This party was gradually changing its views. It saw that a strict construction of the Constitution could not always be followed, as shown in the Louisiana Purchase and the rechartering of the national bank, and so the Democratic-Republicans began more and more to favor nationalization and to adopt many of the principles of the old Federalist party. 395. The Barbary States Again. The Barbary States, hav- ing for seven years faithfully complied with the terms of the treaty effected during Jefferson's administration, began during the war of 1812 to repeat their outrages on our merchantmen cruising in the Mediterranean. They again captured many of our vessels and made slaves of the crews. Consequently, after peace (1815) had been declared with England, Commodore Stephen Decatur captured two of the pirates ' ships near Gib- raltar, and then scouring the Algerian coast, forced the Dey of Algiers to release our sailors and to pay for damage done to our commerce. Decatur next proceeded to Tripoli and Tunis and forced both of these powers to come to terms. The Barbary States have never since molested our shipping, 396. The United States Bank Rechartered. Jefferson's party had bitterly opposed Hamilton's bank, hence it failed to be JAMES Madison's administration 313 rechartered when its first twenty years' charter had expired (1811). Therefore, only state banks were in existence during the war and the paper money which they issued, owing to poor management, decreased greatly in value, and as no one knew the exact value of the money in use, business suffered. At Madison's suggestion, Congress re-established a United States bank, again chartering it for twenty years, and giving it all the powers of Hamilton's bank, and with three times as large a capital. 397. New States. Two new states were added to the Union during Madison's administration. Louisiana, the eighteenth state, was admitted with slavery (1812). Indiana, the nine- teenth state of the Union, and the second one formed out of the Northwest Territory, was admitted (1816) as a free state. CHAPTER XXI JAMES MONEOE'S ADMINISTEATION DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN— 1817-1825 398. Monroe and Tompkins Are Elected. At the presiden- tial election held in the autumn of 1816, James Monroe of Virginia was elected as the fifth President, with Daniel B. Tompkins of New York as Vice-president. Since the Fed- eralist party was now practically extinct, there was but little party strife in the country; in fact, Monroe might be looked upon as a representative of the people, rather than of the Republican party. A general good will prevailed, and even Jefferson and John Adams forgot past differences and renewed their friendship of earlier days. Accordingly, this presidency is knoAvn in history as the "era of good feeling." Monroe took the oath of office and gave his inaugural address at Washing- ton, near the ruins of the capitol. Monroe (1758-1831) M^as the last of the Revolutionary heroes to be president. In ability and accomplishments, he cannot be compared with any one of the first four presidents. He was a plain, honest citizen, possessing the confidence of the masses of the people, and was a man well fitted to lead the nation in the peaceful times upon which it was about to enter. In the public service, Monroe had been a soldier in the Revolution, a United States Senator, twice an envoy to France, minister to London, governor of Virginia, and finally Secretary of State during the previous administration. His Cabinet was the ablest since Washington's time. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams had been one of the negotiators of the treaty of Ghent, and Secretary of War John C. Calhoun had been the champion of the war party of 1812. Jefferson at Monticello 314 JAMES Monroe's administration 315 and Madison at Montpelier, though they lived in retirement, were also influential advisers of Monroe. 399. Monroe's Tour. Monroe was pre-eminently a peace- maker, and shortly after his election made a tour of the north- ern states, where he received everywhere a most enthusiastic welcome. In New England the sight of the President, clad in the uniform of the Revolution, vividly recalled the scenes of the war. People forgot their political differences and hatreds ; even the Federalists of the Hartford Convention and the aged John Adams were among the thousands who honored the President, and joyfully declared that the "era of good feeling" had begun. This visit of the President to the northern states did much toward breaking down sectional lines and unit- ing the country. 400. War with the Seminoles. Florida, still in the hands of Spain, caused both the United States and the mother country much trouble. There were in this territory a great many run- away slaves, pirates, and robbers. These, joining the Seminole Indians, kept up a constant warfare against the whites of Georgia and Alabama. At length, Andrew Jackson, in com- mand of the forces of the South, was sent (1817) by our gov- ernment to put a stop to these outrages. He promptly entered Florida; drove the Seminoles from place to place, and cap- tured the Spanish forts, St. Marks and Pensacola, which gave them shelter. Jackson's task was not an easy one. The In- dians and negroes sought refuge in the swamps and thickets of Florida, but the hardy Indian fighter used vigorous meas- ures, even hanging two British traders who had incited the savages to hostilities. Spain protested against Jackson's course of action, which was also violently criticized in Congress and by the Cabinet. Calhoun proposed that Jackson be court-martialed, but matters were finally adjusted by the purchase of Florida. 401. Treaties with England and Spain. A treaty with Great Britain, signed in London (1818), provided that the fishermen of the United States could fish on the shores of British America 316 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES and enter its harbors either to procure water and fuel, or to repair their vessels and find shelter. The treaty of 1818 provided that the disputed region lying between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean should be jointly occupied by both countries. At the same time the northern boundary was fixed as the 49° N. L. from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. A two-fold treaty was negotiated with Spain (1819), by which the United States purchased Florida from that country for the sum of five million dollars, and the boundary line of the Louisiana territory to the southwest and west was fixed. To Spain was apportioned the territory west of the Sabine River, and to the United States the Oregon country, thus strength- ening her existing claim. The part allotted to Spain had pre- viously been claimed by the United States. It comprised the present State of Texas. The boundary line to the southwest and west was fixed as follows : the Sabine River from its mouth to the thirty-second parallel north latitude, thence due north to the Red River ; up the Red River to the one-hundredth meridian ; north on this meridian to the Arkansas River ; up the Arkansas to its source ; thence due north to the forty-second parallel; and westward on this parallel to the Pacific. 402. The Cumberland Highway. The power of the Indians of both the Northwest and the Southwest was now broken and the vast fertile West was open to immigration. Thousands of people, especially from New England, began to move west- ward. The farther west they pressed, the greater became the difficulties of transportation and communication. Steamboats and ferryboats were, it is true, already plying the rivers, but all kinds of goods had to be transported over wide stretches of country through which flowed no navigable rivers. The westward-moving emigrants needed a roadway to connect the East aiid the West. The western frontiersmen were anxious to exchange products, such as potash, lumber, flour, skins, and grain for the hardware, clothing, household goods, and farm- JAMKS Monroe's administration 317 ing implements of the Atlantic states. People living in the towns and cities along the seaboard also wanted to get their mail more frequently and have their freight forwarded with greater dispatch. To satisfy the pressing demands of the times, a great national highway, called the Cumberland Road, was built by the United States government. It extended from Cumberland, on the Potomac (Maryland) to Wheeling on the Ohio (Ohio), at which point connection could be made with steamboats running to Cincinnati or even to New Orleans. Later the road was continued as far as Illinois, but the build- ing of railroads made its farther extension unnecessary. The '.;..'.Ti'c'oMpl.ErEb 'Aii;'i.^v-V;.:.- ;-- PROPOSED v,^%i^fi THE CUMBERLAND NATIONAL ROAD National Road, or the Cumberland Highway, was a turnpike road, paved with stone, covered with gravel, and averaging eighty-five feet in width. Along this broad, solid, smooth road, which wound up the rocky sides of mountains, and across deep chasms, long processions of emigrant wagons and pack-horses proceeded slowly on their way toward the Ohio, into the wild western country which is now covered with prosperous farms and thriving towns. The marvelous development of the West is without a parallel in history. It was given additional impulse by the great tide of foreign immigration which, during the years 1815-1848, in- 318 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES creased the population of the United States by more than two million. 403. New States. Largely as a result of this development of the West, five new states were admitted in five consecutive years during Monroe 's administration : Mississippi, the twen- tieth, as a slave state (1817) ; Illinois, the twenty-first, as a free state (1818) ; Alabama, the twenty-second, as a slave state (1819) ; Maine, the twenty-third, as a free state (1820) ; Mis- souri, the twenty-fourth, as a slave state (1821). The last r CHICAGO IN 1^-0 eight new states were admitted to the Union alternately as slaveholding and non-slaveholding states. This entering in pairs was not accidental, but intentionally arranged, so as not to disturb the balance of power in the Senate. 404. Slavery — The Missouri Compromise. The long contest over a strong or weak national government had been fairly settled and the "era of good feeling" seemingly still prevailed when, suddenly, was heard, as Jefferson said, "like a fire-bell at night," a question which had silently divided the Union and threatened to dissolve it — the question of slavery — which was JAMES Monroe's administration 319 to disturb the country for the next forty years and was to be settled only by the sword. By the Ordinance of 1787 slavery was prohibited north of the Ohio. Necessarily, the admission of Missouri was pre- ceded by violent debates in Congress. Should Missouri be ad- mitted as a free or as a slave state? Upon the decision of that question practically depended the fate of slavery and freedom throughout the Louisiana Purchase. At length, Con- gress passed a bill, introduced by Henry Clay, and known as the Missouri Compromise (1820). It decided that Missouri should be admitted as a slave state, but that in all the rest of the Louisiana Purchase, slavery should not exist north of 36° 30' north latitude. This famous compromise line, which eventually became to the West what the Mason and Dixon's line was to the East, postponed the final struggle over slavery for over thirty years. 405. Liberia Founded. According to the Constitution the importation of slaves was prohibited by Congress after January 1, 1808, but illegal importations were still made. Finally, in 1820, the slave trade was declared to be piracy, the penalty of which was death. The slavery question gave rise (1816) to the formation of the American Colonization Society, which had for its object the encouraging of the emancipation and the pro- viding of homes for the freed slaves. The government as- sisted it by handing over to the society slaves captured while in course of illegal importation. Subsequently, a negro re- public, called Liberia, was founded (1822) on the western coast of Africa in which the freed slaves could enjoy the rights of self-government. 406. The Monroe Doctrine. The Spanish-American colonies in South and Central America and Mexico, encouraged by the example of the United States, had rebelled and made good their independence of the mother country (1822). Russia, Prussia, France, and Austria had formed a league, termed the Holy Alliance, to maintain one another's rights and 320 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES privileges. The United States feared the interference of these powers. Eussia had issued a decree forbidding all foreigners to approach within one hundred miles of the American coasts north of the fifty-first parallel. It seemed that Eussia was intent on preventing the United States from possessing any territory on the Pacific coast. The English minister proposed that Great Britain and the United States join in opposing the Holy Alliance. But Monroe, wisely acting on Adams's advice, politely declined the English minister's ofi'er, and in a celebrated message to Congress (1823), later known as the Monroe Doctrine, de- clared : (a) that the United States would take no part in European wars ; (&) that the United States would not interfere with any Euro- pean colony already established ; (c) that the United States would regard as an unfriendly act any attempt by a European nation to gain dominion in America ; (d) that North and South America were no longer open to colonization by European powers. Before the war of 1812, Europe would have been amused at such a declaration, but now it was taken seriously, and as a result projects of European intervention were at once aban- doned ; Great Britain, like the United States, recognized the independence of the Spanish-American republics ; and Eus- sia made a treaty (1824), giving up her claim to the Pacific coast as far as Alaska or the latitude 54° 40'. 407. Lafayette Is the Guest of the Nation. In 1824, the Marquis Lafayette, then an old man, revisited the United States as the nation's guest, in response to an invitation of Congress. The people, remembering his disinterested services during the Eevolution, welcomed him with enthusiasm. The venerable Frenchman visited every one of the twenty-four states which then composed the Union and beheld with wonder the gi- JAMES Monroe's administration 321 gantie strides the eoiintry had taken toward wealth and pros- perity. He stood with reverent atifeetion at the tomb of Wash- ington, and laid the cornerstone of the Bnnker Hill monnment on the spot where Warren had fallen fifty years before. He was finally borne home in the national ship, Brandijwine, so named in honor of Lafayette's first battle in the cause of Amei'ican freedom. 408. The Tariff Law of 1824. The tariff law of 1816 had not produced satisfactory results. Consequently, another act was passed (1824), increasing the duties on iron, wool, and hemp, and also, though in a less degree, on woolen goods ; this tar- iff averaged thirty-seven per cent ; the tariff of 1816 had aver- aged twenty-five per cent. Clay once more came forward as the champion of the pro- tective system, which, as he said, "would create a home mar- ket and lay the foundation of a genuine American policy." Webster opposed the measure as he had done in 1816, declar- ing "freedom of trade to be the general principle, and re- striction the exception."' The South violently protested against the tariff, declaring that it was of no benefit to them and profitable to two classes only — the agriculturists of the West and the manufacturers of the North. The South, being an agricultural section and having no factories, held that high tariff diminished foreign trade and consequently injured the market for their cotton in Europe, and also compelled them to pay higher prices for the goods they were obliged to buy. The West greatly favored the law, arguing that the en- couraging of manufacturing in the East would give it markets near at hand for its surplus products, and that the revenues resulting from the tariff would enable the government to con- struct new means of transportation across the Alleghanies. The North, of course, supported the tariff, because it pre- vented the sale of foreign goods at a lower price than those produced at home. As a result, the votes of the western, 322 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES middle, and eastern states overruled those of the South, and the bill was passed. 409. Indian Missions. The Catholic Indian missions on the Mississippi had been revived by Bishop Dubourg of New Orleans. The Jesuits opened a school for Indian boys at Florissant, Missouri (1824), near the junction of the Missouri and Mississippi rivers, where the Ladies of the Sacred Heart had already established a school for Indian girls. Among the Jesuits at Florissant was Father John De Smet, one of sev- eral young Belgians who had come to the United States. He devoted the whole of his life to the Indian missions. His ex- traordinary career recalled the heroic days of Jogues and Breboeuf, and merited for him the title "Apostle of the Kocky Mountains," just as the princely Father Gallitzin received the title "Apostle of the Alleghanies." CHAPTER XXII JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTKATIOM NATIONAL-REPUBLICAN— 1825-1829 410. Adams and Calhoun Are Elected. The presidential election of 1824 found four candidates in the field — John Qnincy Adams, Henry Clay, William Crawford, and Andrew- Jackson — all Republicans or Democrats, at that time synony- mous terms. No one received a majority of the electoral votes. Jackson had ninety-nine electoral votes, Adams eighty-four, Crawford, forty-one, and Henry Clay, thirty-seven. Accord- ingly, for the second time in the history of the United States, the election went to the House of Representatives. The House chose for the presidency, John Quincy Adams of Massachu- setts. John C. Calhoun was elected Vice-president. Henry Clay used his powerful influence for the election of John Quincy Adams, because he believed him to be best qualified for the position. Adams, subsequently, made Clay Secretary of State, whereupon it was promptly charged that Clay had bargained to support Adams in return for a prom- ise of appointment to the office of Secretary of State. Within a few days, Jackson's adherents published abroad the asser- tion that there had been a "corrupt bargain" between the two men. Both Adams and Clay denied the charge, and it is fair to say that there was no truth in it. The slanderous charge of the "corrupt bargain," however, followed Clay all his life and greatly injured the policy of Adams. The Jacksonians boldly claimed that Jackson had been deprived of the presi- dency by a trick. They furthermore held that, as Jackson had received more votes than any other candidate, the House should have respected the popular will and chosen him. It 323 324 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES was evident that the "era of good feeling" was over and that Adams would little enjoy the high office he had attained. John Qnincy Adams (1767-1848) was the eldest son of the nation's second President, John Adams. He was a statesman of great ability, having been schooled from his youth in pub- lic affairs. He had been a United States Senator, Minister to Russia and to Great Britain, and Secretary of State under Monroe. He was noted for his broad-mindedness, untiring labor, and uprightness of purpose — all excellent qualities for an ideal president. He was, however, severe in his criticism of others and seemed never willing to take advice. Hence, he could not become a successful administrator. Besides, he was bitterly opposed by personal and political enemies, es- pecially the Jacksonians, who sought in every possible way to make him odious to the public. Naturally, his presidency, like that of his father, was, on the whole, a failure. 411. Three Great Problems — Political Parties. The ruining of the Federalist party by the Alien and Sedition Laws and the Hartford Convention left the Democratic-Republican the only political party during Monroe's administration. New problems began to present themselves and ultimately led to a difference of political views on the following questions: (fl) should internal improvements be made by Congress, at national expense? {!)) is the true policy of the country a tariff' for revenue only, or a tariff for the protection of home industries? The advocates of a protective tariff, and of internal im- provements at national expense, gathered around Adams and Clay as leaders, and called themselves National Republicans, because they sought to increase the power of the national government. They were, in a general way, the descendants of the Federalist party. Another party, the stronger in number, the old Democratic- Republicans, gathered around Andrew Jackson, under the name of Democrats. They advocated a low tariff, and internal im- JOHN QUINCY ADAMS S ADMINISTRATION 325 provements at the expense of the respective states, and may be considered as representing Jefferson's party. The National Republicans held that Congress should make internal improvements at the expense of the whole people ; the Democrats argued that, since limited areas, only, were benefited by roads, and canals, the people of these limited areas (private companies and individual states) should bear the expense. The National Republicans urged that the tar- iff' duties should be placed so high that foreign goods could not compete with domestic manufacturers. This, they argued, would keep our mills and factories busy, afford high wages THE ERIE CANAL to the laborers, and make the country prosperous and inde- pendent of foreign markets. The Democrats claimed that the people should be allowed to buy their goods where they could get them the cheapest. 412. The Erie Canal. The eastern markets, beholding with alarm how the New Orleans steamboats distributed European goods to the Western settlers, demanded of Congress that it build canals between the East and the West. Congress, how- ever, felt that it did not have the right under the Constitu- tion to do this. Meanwhile, the various states were making internal improvements at their own expense. The most notable of these was the Erie Canal, a stupendous undertaking by 326 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES the state of New York. The canal was constructed under the leadership of DeWitt Clinton. This important waterway, be- gun in 1817, and completed during Adams's administration (1825), extended from Buffalo on Lake Erie, to Albany on the Hudson. It was three hundred and sixty-three miles long, forty feet wide, and four feet (later seven) deep. The building of the Erie Canal had far-reaching results: it became the great commercial highway between the East and the West ; it reduced the transportation charges nearly ten- fold ; and helped to make New York the leading commercial EARLY RAILROAD city of America and gave rise to other numerous flourishing cities along its course. 413. Roads — Canals — Railroads. Pennsylvania, unwilling that New York should have all the Western trade, built a chain of canals and roads between Pittsburg and Philadelphia. Balti- more also tried to improve her connections with the West. Sev- eral western states started to build canals, but before many of them were finished the first railroads came into use and formed new and better means of transportation. The first passenger railroad (1827) extended from Balti- more to Ellicott's Mills, a distance of about thirteen miles. This road afterwards became a part of the Baltimore and JOHN QUINCY ADAMS 'S ADMINISTRATION 327 Ohio Railroad. The cars on the track resembled huge wagons on wooden rails, and were drawn by horses. The horses were soon displaced (1831) by steam engines, which ran at the then rapid rate of fifteen miles an hour. .The venerable Charles Carroll of Carrollton, ninety-one years of age (1827), the only surviving signer of the Declaration of Independence, turned with a firm hand the first spadeful of earth which began the construction of the celebrated Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. When the ceremony was over, he exclaimed, "I consider this one of the most important acts of my life, second only to the signing of the Declai-ation of Independence." 414. Foreign Relations. Adams and Clay were fortunate in concluding a number of good commercial treaties, but failed to secure the important trade of the British West Indian ports because they did not comply in time with certain demands of Creat Britain. A Congress of all the American republics was held at Panama, in response to an invitation by General Simon Bolivar of Venezuela. Adams was anxious to have the interests of the United States represented at the convention ; Congress, however, refused to vote the funds necessary for sending dele- gates to Panama. The negro republic of Haiti had also been invited, but our slave owners disliked the idea of sitting at table with the free negroes of Haiti ; they feared the influence of the example of the black republic on their slaves. 415. The Tariff of Abominations — The Albany Junto. Many manufacturers, claiming that the tariff of 1824 did not give them sufficient protection, especially on woolen goods, de- manded higher tariff rates. A bill was therefore prepared which increased the duties on certain raw articles to a ridicu- lously high figure. This bill passed both Houses of Congress (1828), and is known as the "Tariff of Abominations." The duty on wool, for example, was raised from about thirty to about seventy per cent, and that on hemp from thirty-five to sixty dollars per ton. 328 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES The tariff of 1828 was intended by the Jaeksonians to make Adams unpopular. Randolph fittingly said that this tariff bill referred to manufacturers of no sort or kind except the manufacture of a President of the United States. A clique, known as the Albany Junto, and composed of Jaeksonians, with Martin Van Buren of New York as leader, devised a scheme by which, under pretext of favoring a high protec- tive tariff measure, it might defeat the bill and at the same time win the supporters of Adams for Jackson's cause. An enormous duty was laid on raw materials, most of which were produced in the West. The schemers argued that manufac- turers, thus finding their gains neutralized, would become en- raged and join the South, which was antagonistic to the tariff measures, in opposing the bill. Jackson would thus keep the votes of the South and, still seeming friendly to the West, also secure many northern votes. As one historian says, ''They wanted to kill Adams with the bill, and then kill the bill." But they could not "kill the bill," and, much to the dis- may of the plotters, it was passed, abominations and all, on the strength of the votes of Adams's men. The latter thought it was better than no bill at all, and that it might in time be changed. 416. Protests Against the Tariff— National Authority De- fied. In 1816, John C. Calhoun favored a protective tariff to encourage domestic industry, while Daniel Webster opposed it as hostile to the shipping interests of his state. Now, how- ever, Webster advocated protection and Calhoun opposed it. Five of the southern states protested against the Tariff Bill. Calhoun, as the champion of this movement, suggested that the state of South Carolina hold a convention which would declare the act "null and void within the limits of the state." In the words of one historian, the "ghosts of the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions seemed to be re-appearing." Web- ster feared that a new confederacy would be established in the South. Matters stood still for a while, however. All par- JOHN QUINCY ADAMS 'S ADMINISTRATION 329 ties were waiting to see what stand the new President would take concerning the tariff. The people of Georgia attempted to remove the Creek and Cherokee Indians from the state. Both of these partly civ- ilized tribes were settled on permanent farms, and enjoyed by treaty with the United States a tribal government. They therefore owed no allegiance to Georgia. President Adams objected to Georgia's course of action, and attempted to pro- tect the rights of the Indians, whereupon Governor Troup of Georgia promptly called out the state militia to resist the United States troops. Congress was rather pleased at the humiliation of the President and declined to support him. Hence, Adams was obliged to yield to this state's defiance of national authority. These two instances of South Carolina and Georgia are evidences of the fact that the spirit of nationalism, which had been powerful, was now declining. 417. Semi-Centennial of American Independence. The fif- tieth anniversary of American Independence was celebrated on July 4, 1826. On that day, also, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson died at their widely separated homes in Massachu- setts and Virginia. Jefferson had written the Declaration of Independence and Adams had done more than any other man to secure its adoption ; each had signed it ; each had served as foreign minister, Vice-president, and President. 418. Adams's Administration but a Long-drawn Campaign. The administration of John Quincy Adams was little more than a long-drawn and passionate presidential campaign pre- paratory to the election of Jackson and was characterized by slander, gross abuse, and political intrigue. Free traders, high protectionists, states' rights men, strong bank men, and anti- bank men — all supported Jackson, whose views on these points were unknown. "Hurrah for Jackson — turn the rascals out!" was the rude cry of the campaign of 1828. Adams's friends urged him to use his influence and authority toward his re- election. But the President nobly refused, declaring that he 330 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES would not use the public patronage to further his political fortunes. In so doing he gave one of those rare examples where the office seeks the man and not the man the office. The Jacksonians, many of whom were only office-seekers, felt that their hero would stand by them and eventually reward them for the work they were doing for him. Adams, after his term of office had expired, entered Congress (1831) as a Representa- tive from Massachusetts. In this position he showed great ability and eloquence and won his true laurels, esi)ecially as a fearless anti-slavery champion, which merited for him the title of "Old Man Eloquent." He was stricken with apoplexy at his post in tlu' capitol and died (1848) after having been in high public service for tifty-three years. CHAPTER XXIII ANDEEW JACKSON'S ADMINISTEATION DEMOCRAT— 1829-1837 419. Jackson and Calhoun Are Elected. At the election of 1828, as liad been foreseen, Jackson, the Democratic candidate, was trimnphantly elected President. He received nearly twice as many votes as John Quincy Adams, the National Republican nominee. Calhoun was re-elected Vice-president. Heretofore the Presidents, all statesmen of high rank, rep- resenting the culture and refinement of the seaboard, had been chosen from the aristocratic states of Virginia and Massachu- setts. Now, for tlie first time, a man of humble birth and of little culture, sat in the White House. Andrew Jackson (1767-184.5) was a rough and ready backM^oodsman and a hardy Indian fighter. Born in the Carolina backwoods, and left alone in the world at fifteen, he grew up amid the alarms and hostilities of the Revolution. Later, he made his way to tliat part of Carolina now known as Tennessee, and with a little knowledge of law began practice at the bar. He distinguished himself as a soldier, became a national hero in the war against the Creeks (1812), served as territorial governor of Florida, and became respectively a United States Representative and Senator from Tennessee. The great popularity gained in his battles with the Indians and his wonderful endurance of hard- ships, won for him the affectionate nickname of "Old Hick- ory." Though uncouth in looks, unconventional in dress and manners, uneducated, self-confident and headstrong, he was, nevertheless, noted for generosity of heart, uprightness of mind, absolute honesty, and utter fearlessness. While hating his enemies intensely, he Avas devotedly attached to his friends, 331 332 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES and even so blind to their faults that, at times, he uncon- sciously became the instrument through which unprincipled office and money seekers accomplished their schemes. Jackson's Cabinet was a weak oue, composed for the most part of very ordinary men. Martin Van Buren, Secretary of State, was the only man of ability and reputation appointed to a seat in the Cabinet at the opening of the administration. The personnel of the Cabinet, however, was a matter of little consequence, since Jackson dominated the entire government. He rarely consulted his Cabinet, as he preferred the advice of a few intimate friends, whom the newspapers of the time called his "Kitchen Cabinet." 420. A New Era of American History. The election of Andrew Jackson to the presidency opened a new era in Amer- ican history. The Democratic spirit of the West and South, which now triumphed over the aristocratic spirit of the East, placed the reins of government in the hands of the plain peo- ple. In fact, the national period was in reality just begin- ning. NeAv issues, such as the tariff, the United States Bank, the Indians, internal improvements, and particularly slavery, now took the place of the old colonial problems of representa- tion, taxation, commercial regulations, etc. Nearly all of the older statesmen, the framers of the Constitution and the organ- izers of the government, as also their associates, had passed away. The leading men of this political era with Jackson were Martin Van Buren, the shrewd politician, Henry Clay, the father of tlu^ American protective system, and John C. Calhoun and Daniel Webster, the great expounders of the Constitution. 421. Notable Facts. Jackson's presidency will be remem- bered in history for three things : the introduction of the Spoils System, the crushing of Nullification in South Carolina, and the discontinuance of the United States Bank. Jackson's political views at the time of his election were not known even by his supporters. It soon became evident, however, that the ANDRKW .7ACKSON JOHN C. CALHOUN STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS HENRV CCAY National and State Rights Leaders ANDREW JACKSON 'S ADMINISTRATION 883 new President favored strict eonstnietion of the (Constitution, and therefore opposed internal improvement at national expense, protective tariffs, and the United States Baidc. 422. The Spoils System. No sooner was Jackson inangn- rated than crowds of his supporters hastened to Washington to receive their reward. Jackson, believing that "to the victors belong the spoils," promptly introduced the so-called "spoils system." The old officials who belonged to the defeated party were turned out and their places filled with men belonging to the successful party. During the first year of his presi- dency Jackson removed more officials than his six predecessors had removed in forty years. Thus began the corrupt system, called "rotation in office." It is only just, however, to say that Jackson was desirous of appointing only men of ability, although he was frequently misled in his selection through the advice of friends. Consequently, a large number of political frauds and scandals marked his administration, though he himself was absolutely honest. 423. The Webster-Hayne Debate. While the topics of tariff and nullification were being widely and violently discussed, one of the greatest debates in our annals took place in the United States Senate (1830) ]>etween Robert Hayne, the spokesman of Calhoun (the champion of the South) and Daniel Webster of Massachusetts. Hayne, presenting Calhoun's theory of states' rights, declared in a brilliant speech that the Constitu- tion was a mere compact formed by sovereign states, and that, accordingly, a state might withdraw from the compact when- ever it saw fit to do so and might declare an act of Congress null and void in case it thought that the government had exceeded its powers. Webster, in a speech classed among the greatest of the world's orations, replied that the Constitution, was not a mere compact, but the "supreme law of the people and answerable to the people"; hence, that no state had the right to withdraw from the Union ; neither could any state nullify an act of Congress on the ground that such act was 334 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES unconstitutional, since it belonged to the Supreme Court, and not to the state courts, to decide the constitutionality of the acts of Congress. It was indeed a proud hour for the nation when Webster with his manly form and commanding voice, arose to address the Senate and its overflowing crowd. His closing words, "Liberty and Union now and forever, one and inseparable," which rang through the hall, have rung throughout the land to the present day. The debate won for Webster the title of "Defender of the Constitution." 424. The South Carolina Nullification Act. The "tariff of abominations" had brought South Carolina, led by Calhoun, to the verge of rebellion and secession. The state was but waiting to see what the new administration would do. Though Congress (1832), in revising the tariff of 1828, slightly low^- ered the rates, it also recognized the protective tariff system, w^hich now, more than ever, promised to fasten itself perma- nently upon the nation. South Carolina, therefore, promptly passed the Nullification Act, which declared that the tariff acts of 1828 and 1832, being "null, void, and no law," were not binding upon the states or their citizens, and threatened to leave the Union in case the Federal government attempted to enforce the acts. This Nullification Act was to go into effect February 1, 1833. Enraged by South Carolina's high-handed action, the iron- willed President promptly sent General Scott and two war vessels to the port of Charleston and ordered the revenue com- missioners at that port to collect the duties on imports under the protection of a military force. He furthermore issued a proclamation which declared that the Constitution did not form a compact, but a government ; that nullification was unconstitutional and revolutionary ; and that he would enforce the laws without fear or favor. The South Carolina leaders knew that Jackson was not in favor of liigli tariff* duties and hoped to win him for their ANDREW Jackson's administration 335 cause. In this, however, they were greatly disappointed. Jackson, in a bold declaration that the laws of the United States must be executed, said : ' ' My duty is emphatically pro- nounced in the Constitution; those who told you that you might peaceably prevent their execution deceived you — their object is disunion, and disunion by armed force is treason." 425. The Force Bill — Clay's Compromise Tariff. Upon Jack- son's request, Congress enacted a so-called Force Bill, which gave the President power, if necessary, to use the army and navy for the purpose of enforcing revenue laws. A heated debate at once ensued, in which Calhoun, speaking for the South, maintained that a state had the right to nullify acts of Congress and to secede from the Union; while Webster, speak- ing for the North, denied the right of nullification and seces- sion, and upheld the Union and the Constitution. Meanwhile Henry Clay, to avoid force of arms, introduced (1833) a compromise tariff measure, by which tariff rates were to be reduced gradually for ten years (until July, 1842), from which time there should be on all imported articles a duty equal to twenty per cent of their value. The Force Bill and Clay's Compromise Tariff passed Congress at the same time. South Carolina was satisfied and repealed her nullification ordinances. Clay, on being told that his action with regard to the compromise tariff would injure his prospects for the presidency, replied, "I would rather be right than be President." 426. Jackson and the Bank. Jackson, like most other Demo- crats, believed that the United States Bank was unconstitu- tional; that it enriched its managers at the expense of the people ; that it had grown corrupt and dangerous to the free- dom of the country ; and that it used its powerful influence in politics. In one respect the Bank was advantageous to the people inasmuch as the money paid the government was not with- drawn from circulation. But this advantage was overbalanced 336 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES by the fear that the Bank might at any time exercise its great power in politics, wliieh it actually did in 1832, when it used money to oppose the re-election of Jackson. Upon Clay's urgent advice, the friends of the Bank now (1832) brought matters to a crisis by introducing into Congress a bill to recharter it for twenty years longer, though the old charter would not expire till 1836. After a heated discussion, lasting five months, the bill passed both houses of Congress. Jackson, however, promptly vetoed it, giving as reasons that it was an "unnecessary, useless, expensive, un-American mon- opoly, always hostile to the interest of the people, and pos- sibly dangerous to the government as well." Naturally, the campaign cry for 1832 was "Jackson or the Bank." 427. Jackson Is Re-elected — He Withdraws the Government Deposits. Jackson was re-elected President (1832) by an over- whelming majority over Henry Clay, the great leader of the National Republicans. Martin Van Buren of New York was chosen Vice-president. The presidential campaign of 1832 gave rise to our first national conventions and party platforms (written statements of party views). Before this, presidential candidates were named by a congressional caucus or by state legislatures. The Anti-Masonic party, w'hose aim was to keep Freemasons out of office, really originated our national conven- tions. It met and named William Wirt for President (1831). This party carried only the state of Vermont and soon after disappeared. The National Republicans next met in conven- tion and unanimously nominated Henry Clay for the presi- dency. They made the first platform ever issued. It declared that the party favored protection of American industries, in- ternal improvements, and a United States Bank, and denounced the Spoils System, or practice of turning men out of office for political purposes. The nominees of the Democratic conven- tion were, as we have seen, Jackson for the presidency, and Van Buren for the vice-presidency. Jackson, regarding his re-election as an approval of his anti- ANDREW Jackson's administration 837 bank policy, determined to give the Bank a final blow. He promptly ordered (1833) the Secretary of the Treasnry to remove the government deposits from the Bank. When the Secretary of the Treasury refused to carry out this order, Jackson removed him from office. Roger B. Taney, appointed in his place, gave orders for the removal of deposits. The gov- ernment noM" withdrew its money from the Bank to pay its debts, and future deposits, instead of being made in the Na- tional Bank, were placed in certain state banks, situated chiefly in the South and West. These banks, selected not so much for their soundness as for their political influence, came to be known as ''pet banks." Meanwhile, state banks, termed "wild-cat banks,'" were springing up on every side. Within eight years the number increased from three hundred and twenty-nine to seven hundred and eighty-eight. Hundreds of these, having no capital at all, received deposits, and flooded the country with their notes, called "rag money," People could now borrow money more easily than ever before. This "wild-cat banking" gave rise to even wilder speculation, which extended to every branch of trade, especially in the western states and territories. Eager to grow rich, people bought gov- ernment lands at perhaps a dollar or two an acre. These they expected to sell at enormously increased rates, particularly if the land was located near imaginary towns laid out in the wilderness or along routes of proposed railroads or canals. There was a general rise in prices. Everybody was borrowing, in order to buy and sell and grow rich. 428. Jackson's Specie Circular. Jackson became greatly alarmed, and deternuned to protect at least the United States Treasury against unsound money. Contrary to the advice of the Cabinet, he issued (1836) his celebrated "Specie Circular," by which he ordered the land agents to receive only gold and silver in payment for government land. The effects were imme- diate. The great demand for gold and silver created a scarcity of this coin. A crash was inevitable, but before it came Jack- 338 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES son liad retired from office, confident that the "Specie Circular" would restore prosperity. Jackson's anti-bank actions have been most harshly crit- icized ; still we now believe that he did the country a valuable service in discontinuing the National Bank, for such a monop- oly, absolutely controlling the money of the people, might ultimately have proved detrimental to the interests of the nation. 429. Surplus Government Money Loaned to the States. By January, 1835, the government had paid all its debts. It was, however, collecting about thirty-five million dollars revenue a year more than it could reasonably expend, under the strict construction of the Constitution, nor could this revenue be diminished, according to the Compromise Tariff Act of 1833. The "pet banks" had already received about eleven million dollars. Acting on the advice of Calhoun, Congress loaned, without interest, the surj^lus funds to the states, in proportion to their representation. It was not long, however, before the financial crash came, and the government was obliged to borrow money to pay its current expenses. The money thus loaned to the states, and never recalled, was used chiefly in the con- struction of public works. During the exciting times of the bank discussions, in which the President was denounced as tyrannical, and as having dis- regarded the Constitution and the laws, the National Repub- lican party took the name Whig (1834), the name by which the patriots of the Revolution were kiiown. 430. A Negro Insurrection. During the years of nullifica- tion and bank controversies, there arose anti-slavery agitations, which were not to cease until slavery was abolished by the Civil "War. Nat Turner, a negro slave, headed an insurrection at South Hampton Virginia, which resulted in the killing of sixty white people and of more than one hundred negroes, before it was subdued. This affair greatly amazed the South and brought home to them the j^erils always surrounding them. ANDREW Jackson's administration 8'W 431. Anti-Slavery Movement. Benjamin Ijundy, one of the early anti-slavery agitators, founded an anti-slavery paper (1821) and made anti-slavery speeches throiighont the country. On one of his tours through New England he met William Lloyd (xarrison, a Boston printer, who had spent some time in the South and had come face to face with slavery on its own soil. After returning home and hearing Lundy, Garrison established an anti-slavery paper, called the "Liberator," in which he expressed hostility to slavery. He declared that it should be abolished at once, and asserted that it would be better to have no Union at all than to have a Union with slavery in one section of it. He denounced slavery as "a sin against God and a crime against man,'' and said that the Constitution, by giving it support, was a "covenant with death and an agree- nuMit with hell." But the prevalent sentiment of the North at the time was against abolition, not because the North favored slavery but because it was feared that the abolition movement would imperil the peace of the country. Many people held with Webster that it was better to save the Union wath slavery than to deliberately destroy it for the sake of giving freedom to the negro. The influence of Garrison's writings spread rapidly, and within a year, hundreds of societies had been formed in the North for the purpose of abolishing slavery. They numbered among their members the famous Wendell Philips, called the "silver-tongued orator," and Theodore Parker, a learned preacher who, in burning language, rebuked the advocates of slaver3^ Lectures, pamphlets, books, and newspapers propa- gated among the people the anti-slavery ideas of the aboli- tionists. 432. The "Gag Law." The abolitionists flooded Congress with petitions to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia and to discontinue the trade of slaves between the different southern states. The southerners, dreading the effects of the constant discussions of the slavery topic, passed in the House 340 A HISTORY OP THE IGNITED STATES of Eepresentatives a "gag law," by which all petitions or bills relating in any way to the subject of slavery should be laid aside without any further action thereon, John Quincy Adams denounced the "gag law" before the House as a direct viola- tion of the Constitution. Calhoun defending it, declared : "It (slavery) has grown with our growth, and strengthened with our strength. . . . We will not, cannot, permit it to be de- stroyed." On the other hand, Senator Buchanan, of Penn- sylvania, warned the Southerners in these words: "The sacred right of petition and the cause of the abolitionists must rise, or fall, together." The "gag law," nevertheless, continued in effect for several years (1836-1844). The southern people held that inasmuch as the whole indus- trial system of the South was built upon slavery, abolition would cause the financial ruin of their section of the Union. 433. Foreign Affairs. Jackson received great credit for his handling of our foreign affairs; in this point he was as suc- cessful as Adams had been unsuccessful. A treaty was nego- tiated with Great Britain, by which that nation opened her West Indian ports to the United States. The French "Spolia- tion Claims, ' ' or the claims of the United States against France for depredations ui^on American commerce, were vigorously pvished, and France paid five million dollars in 1835. Similar long-standing claims of the United States against other European powers were also settled. Before Mexican independence was established, some hun- dred American families, under Stephen F. Austin, settled, with the consent of Spain, in that part of Mexico which is included in the present state of Texas. After Mexico had declared her independence of Spain, the Texans, claiming that the Mexican government was oppressive, declared their independence. Mex- ico immediately declared war. At Fort Alamo, a former Fran- ciscan mission house, the Texan garrison was overpowered and massacred. Thereafter the rallying cry of Texas was, "Re- member the Alamo!" Finally under Samuel Houston, the ANDREW JACKSON S ADMINISTRATION 341 Texans defeated the Mexicans, under Santa Anna, in the battle of San Jacinto; thus Texan independence was secured (1836), and was subsequently acknowledged by the United States (1837). The boundary line of the new republic, however, was not clearly defined. Texas claimed much wid^r territory than Mexico would acknowledge. 434. Indian Wars. Indian wars disturbed the peace of the country during a large part of Jackson's administration. The Black Hawk War (1832), in which the Sac and Fox tri])es fought under the fa- mous chief. Black Hawk, broke out in what is now Wisconsin. The cause of the war was, as usual, disputed land claims, and tlie re- sult was a complete de- feat of the Indians, who were removed beyond the Mississippi. The Second Seminole War (1834-1842) was caused by an attempt to re- move the Seminoles and Creeks of Florida to the region west of the Mississippi. The Indians committed a num- ber of massacres. General Thompson and a few companions were assassinated while sitting at table. General Winfield Scott was then sent against the Indians and Chief Osceola was captured. Under Colonel Zachary Taylor the war was soon brought to an end, and the defeated Seminoles reluctantly took their course westward. 342 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 435. Other Events. A very destructive lire broke out in New York City (December, 1835), near the corner of Wall and Broad Streets. Eighteen million dollars' worth of property was destroyed and thousands of people were reduced to pov- erty and rendered homeless. During Jackson's administration a number of eminent men of our early history died — James Monroe (July 4, 1831) ; Charles Carroll of Garrollton (1832) ; -Philip Freneau (1832) ; John Marshall (1835); James Madison (1836). Two states were admitted during the administration: Ar- kansas (slave state) as the twenty-fifth (1836) ; and Michigan (free state) as the twenty-sixth (1837). Michigan was the fourth state to be formed from the Northwest Territory. 436. First Provincial Council — Anti-Catholic Attacks. Dur- ing Jackson's administration the first Provincial Council, the first held in the nineteenth centurj^ and the first in any Eng- lish speaking country since the Reformation, was held (1829) at Baltimore. At this Council Archbishop Carroll and five of the eight bishops of the United States represented the Catholic Church in America and many wise regulations for its govern- ment were adopted. From the beginning of the establishment of Catholicity in America, there existed a party called Nativists, which, under the pretext of defending American institutions, carried on a warfare, sometimes open and sometimes secret, against the Catholic Church. Although there had been no open sign of hostility against the Catholic Church for nearly a generation, unhappily, as time went on, its growth was regarded by the Nativists with disfavor. Vile books, sermons, and lectures against the Catholic religion gradually gave rise to such excite- ment that a mob (August 11, 1834) attacked the Ursuline Con- vent at Charlestown, near Boston, drove out the defenseless nuns and children, and burned their home to the ground. St. Mary's Church in New York was also plundered and given to the flames. The government made no attempt to prevent these ANDREW Jackson's administration 343 outrages and the leaders were subjected to only a farcical trial, which resulted in their acquittal. 437. National Progress. Jackson's administration was nota- ble not only as a turning point in political affairs, but also as the beginning of a marked commercial and social progress. A new literature arose, which will be spoken of later on, in a review of the century's progress. Suffice it to note here that the stirring events which had occurred since the making of the Constitution and the rapid growth of the country soon found a place in song and story. Patriotic literature, which includes the great speeches of Clay and Webster, helped to strengthen the Union. American artists depicted scenes from the history of the nation, such as the signing of the Declaration of Inde- pendence, Washington crossing the Delaware, and Perry's vic- tory on Lake Erie. CHAPTER XXIV MARTIN VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION DEMOCRAT— 1837-1841 438. Van Buren and Johnson Are Elected. In the election of 1836, Martin Van Buren, the Democratic nominee, was made President by a nmjority of forty-six electoral votes. The Whig vote was divided among several candidates, of whom the lead- ing one was General Harrison, of Tippecanoe fame. As the electoral college failed to choose a Vice-president, Richard M. Johnson was elected by the Senate. Van Buren (1782-1862) was born of Dutch ancestry at Kin- derhook. New York. He had been in succession United States Senator, Governor of New York, Secretary of State, and Vice- president. From the very first, poj^ular feeling began to go against him ; people thought him a small, selfish politician, responsible for many of the evil proceedings of Jackson's reign. Nor was this to be wondered at, since he had secured the votes of Jackson's adherents by pledging himself to follow closely in the footsteps of his former chief. Van Buren, nevertheless, show^ed himself to be an able political manager, strong enough to withstand the distrust of his fellow-men, and his tact and geniality in dealing with his opponents won for him the title of "Little Magician." 439. The Panic of 1837. Van Buren had scarcely taken the oath of office before the country was in the midst of the worst financial panic it had ever experienced. People who had gone in debt were ruined. Bank after bank — pet banks and wild-cat banks — failed. Business houses went bankrupt. Factories closed their doors, and thousands of laborers were thrown out of work. Poor crops in the middle and western states added 344 MARTIN VAN BUREN 'S ADMINISTRATION 345 to the general distress. High prices and high rents weighed heavily on the poor. Flour rose to eleven dollars a barrel and corn to one dollar and fifteen cents per bushel. Strikes and bread riots occurred in cities, and the people called loudly for help from the government. But the national government had not even the money to pay its officials. Adams truthfully de- clared, "Without a dollar of national debt, we are in the midst of national bankruptcy." Individual states had borrowed mil- lions of dollars from European nations and now found it im- possible to raise money to pay the principal or to meet the interest. For many years afterwards Europeans looked with disfavor on American securities. The causes for the panic may be traced to reckless banking and to wild speculation. The danger of the banking system arose from the fact that the banks issued notes (promises of money), though they had no money or capital to redeem their promise. The notes of a Michigan bank bore on them a picture of a wild-cat ; when this bank failed, its notes became known as wild-cat notes and afterwards all banks that could not redeem their bills (pay for them in gold or silver) were called ' ' wild-cat banks, ' ' and their notes ' ' wild-cat money. ' ' 440. The Independent Treasury. The experience which the government liad passed through twice (1814, 1837) proved that it was not safe to deposit the nation's money in state banks. Van Buren, showing real strength at this critical time, called a special session of Congress to devise some plan for protecting the funds of the United States. This session passed (1840) the Independent Treasury Act, which provided that the govern- ment should maintain a safe place in which to keep its money in order that the nation's funds might not be exposed to a risk of loss in state banks, as was the case in the disastrous failure of the "pet banks." Congress furthermore provided that the officials of the government should give security for the proper discharge of their duties, and that all payments to or by the United States should be exclusively in gold or silver. 346 A HISTORY OF THP] UNITED STATES The Independent Treasury plan was repealed soon after, but was later reenacted (1846) and is in existence today. By this excellent system, which we owe mainly to President Van Buren, the public money is deposited in vaults and safes in the Treasury building at Washington, and in the Sub-Treasuries of New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, Boston, St. Louis, Cincinnati, San Fran- cisco, New Orleans, and Baltimore. 441. The Canadian Rebellion. In 1837 Canada rebelled against England. Many Americans living on the border sympathized with the Canadians and, with the hope of annexing Canada to the United States, a party of seven hundred crossed the boundary and took possession of Navy Island, in the Niagara River. Van Buren promptly forbade interference in the affairs of Canada and sent thither General Scott with an armed force. Harmony was restored, and trouble with England averted. 442. The Mormons. A new religious sect, the Mormons, or "Latter-Day Saints," sprang up about 1830, at Manchester, New York. Its leader, Joseph Smith, the son of a Vermont farmer, claimed to have received from heaven, revelations writ- ten in mystic characters on plates of brass. The new sect from the beginning met with great opposition because of its strange teachings. Smith and his followers emigrated to Ohio (1831), but they were soon driven out of the state by the citizens (1838). They later met the same fate in Missouri. In Illinois, where they were kindly received, they built their "Holy City," Nauvoo, and gathered in that vicinity to the number of twenty thousand. Later, however. Smith aroused popular indig- nation by causing the destruction of a press which had de- nounced his doctrine of polygamy. In 1844 the Mormon leader and his brother were imprisoned and later shot in a Carthage jail by a mob. Shortly after, the Mormons, under their new leader, Brig- ham Young, moved westward (February, 1846), across the frozen Mississippi and the prairies of Iowa, to the Missouri River (June). From here, a company of one hundred and MARTIN VAN BUREN's ADMINISTRATION 347 forty-three men, led by Young, made a difficult journey of over one thousand miles across the mountains to the great Salt Lake (April, 1847). Other parties soon followed and the Mormons thus became the founders of Salt Lake City, Utah. The main reason for the persistent hostility throughout America to the Mormons was their practice of polygamy. 443. Foreign Immigration — Progress of Catholicity. A regu- lar line of steamships had been established between Liverpool and Boston (1830), and later between Liverpool and New York, and innnigration i)oured into the United States, In ten years (1830-1840) more than one hundred thousand Europeans landed in New York alone. This decade of immigration marks a period of great develop- ment in Catholicity throughout the United States. New bish- oprics were erected in the West ; cathedrals were built ; con- vents, seminaries, colleges, schools, and orphan asylums found- ed ; and a number of Catholic newspapers established. Un- fortunately many of the immigrants were loud in expressing their old world national prejudices. The formation of the Holy Alliance ; enthusiastic lectures given in Europe for the purpose of encouraging missionary work in the United States ; the founding of the Leopoldina Society in Vienna, Austria, for the same purpose — all these activities were persistently mis- interpreted as so many attempts of the Catholic powers to de- stroy the free institutions of America. Bigots of the worst type incited the imagination of Protestants against the Church, and assailed her from pulpit and platform. Conscience obliged the American Catholics to maintain their own parochial schools, but at the sanu^ time they were taxed for the support of the public schools. Accordingly, they de- manded a share in the public educational funds. Moreover, they demanded that in the public schools the Protestant Bible should not be forced on Catholic children. The latter demand was granted them in course of time, but they have never been relieved from double taxation. 348 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 444. Political Parties. The country was now divided into three parties : (a) the Whig (National-Republican), which had gained greatly in strength, as it had been re-enforced by adherents from the South who opposed Jackson's views on the question of nullification; (h) the Democratic party; .(c) the Anti-slavery, or Liberty party, an outgrowth of the abolition movement. The principles of its platform were that each state should have the right to regulate slavery within its boundary, and that Congress should abolish slavery in the territories and in the District of Colum- bia, and admit no more slave states into the Union. The Democrats and the Whigs in their party platforms en- doised the cause of the immigrants. Tlie Nativists and bigots (1841) formed a new party called the Native Americans. They demanded that (a) twenty-one years' residence be made a condition of citizen- ship ; (6) no one could become an official of the government except a native American ; (c) there be no union of Church and State; {(l) no Bible be taught in the schools; and (c) "Encroachments of Popery" be opposed. This party sorely afflicted the Church, but its collapse was as rapid as its rise. 445. Van Buren Becomes Unpopular. The people laid all the blame for the hard times on Van Buren and his party, and the president became more and more unpopular. The nu- merous cases of mismanagement and fraud which now came to light, the etfects of arbitrary removals and partisan appoint- ments, the financial panic, all of which were really the result of the Jackson administration, were ascribed to the policy of MARTIN VAN BUREN S ADMINISTRATION 349 the Democratic party ; while Van Buren came to be looked upon as indifferent to the sufferings of the people and as tak- i)ig care only of the government's money (by the Independent Treasury Act). The people were determined to turn the "Lit- tle Magician" out of office. AVESTKUN HOMK OF THE PKUIOD CHAPTER XXV THE HAREISON-TYLER ADMINISTRATION WHIG— 1S4 1-1845 446. Harrison and Tyler Are Elected. In this election of 1840 William Harrison, the Whig "Log Cabin Candidate," was elected President by a majority of one hundred and sev- enty-four votes over Van Buren, the Democratic nominee. John Tyler was chosen Vice-president. The campaign of 1840 stands out in marked contrast to all preceding ones because of its appeals to the passions of the multitude. For months the people gave themselves up to noisy and unreasoning partisanship. "Down with Van Burenism!" was the cry. The contemptuous statement of a Democratic editor that Harrison would be more in his element in his log cabin, drinking hard cider, and skinning "coons" than in the White House, was promptly taken up by the Whigs. In their outdoor meetings and long processions, a log cabin on wdieels, containing barrels of cider and live "coons," was al- w^ays a conspicuous object, while "Tippecanoe and Tyler too" became the striking watchword. At a Democratic meeting, held in New York (1835), in the midst of a scene of contest and confusion, the lights were suddenly extinguished. Pre- pared for the emergency the men of the opposition had pro- vided themselves with candles and locofoco matches; hence the name Locofocos, as applied to a faction of the Democratic party. Harrison (1773-1841), a native of Virginia, and the son of Benjamin Harrison, a signer of the Declaration of Independ- ence, was the hero of Tippecanoe and of the victory on the Thames (1812). He had been Governor of Indiana Territory and had served in turn as Representative and Senator in the 350 THE HARRISON-TYLER ADMINISTRATION 851 United States Congress. Yet he had not been considered a national statesman in any sense. He was, however, earnest and straightforward, and a man of the people. For a number of years he had taken no part in public life ; in fact, at the time of his election he was attending to the affairs of his farm in Ohio. 447. Work Confronting the New Administration — Harrison Dies. As may be inferred from the events of the last presi- dency, Harrison assumed the duties of office under trying con- ditions. Both government and people were in real distress. An extra session of Congress was necessary to devise meas- ures of relief as speedily as possible. Henry Clay had pre- pared a list of )neasures which included : (a) the repeal of the Independent Treasury Act; (6) the establishment of a new national bank; (c) the raising of a temporary loan; and, (d) the laying of permanent tariff duties. The excitement and fatigue of the campaign and the diffi- culties attendant upon dealing with a mad rush of office seekers proved too much for even Harrison's vigorous and toughened frame. He died suddenly, just one month after his inaugura- tion, in his sixty-ninth year. 448. Embarrassment of the Whig Party. The office of Presi- dent now fell to Tyler. Thus, for the first time in the history of our country, the Vice-president succeeded to the presidency upon the death of his chief. The Whigs found themselves in a novel and most embarrassing situation. Instead of a Presi- dent who was a real Whig, they had one who was in truth a Democrat, except in a few particulars. Tyler for a time, how- ever, retained Harrison's cabinet, which was made up of loyal Whigs, led by the great Whig champion, Daniel Webster, as Secretary of State. 449. Clay's Program in Congress. Though Clay had serious misgivings concerning the new President, he nevertheless came forward with his program, and a bill repealing the Inde- 352 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES pendent Treasuiy Act was passed without difficulty. Two bank bills in succession were introduced and passed both houses of Congress. It was now that Tyler proved himself no Whig. He promptly vetoed both bills on constitutional grounds, and the Whigs had not the necessary two-thirds vote to pass it over his veto. The Whig leaders were furious and every mem- ber of the cabinet resigned, with the exception of Webster, who remained to complete a negotiation begun with Great Britain. The immediate needs of the Treasury were provided for by a loan, and a new tariff measure, which increased the duties, was passed (1842), but not until after two other tariff bills had been vetoed by the President. Though the Whig program for the most part had been carried out, all efforts to carry the bank measure proved futile, and the breach between the Presi- dent and his party became open. Clay resigned from the Senate. 450. Webster-Ashburton Treaty. By an agreement between Webster and Lord Ashburton, a treaty was signed (1842) at Washington, by which : (a) the long disputed boundary line between Maine and Can- ada was fixed, and the line as far west as the Lake of the Woods likewise defined; (&) our fishing rights in British waters were renewed; (c) each nation (Great Britain and the United States) was to keep an armed squadron cruising off the African coast in order to suppress the slave trade ; (d) terms for the extradition of criminals were agreed upon. 451. Dorr's Rebellion. Rhode Island was still governed by its colonial charter. Under it no man was allowed to vote unless he held real estate worth one hundred and thirty-four dollars, or property renting for seven dollars a year, or was the eldest son of such a ''freeman." An attempt of the people to secure a more liberal state constitution (1842) ended in the so-called Dorr Rebellion. The "people's party," headed by THE HARRISON-TYLER ADMINISTRATION 353 Thomas W. Dorr, proceeded to seize the state property by force and to set up a goverinnent under a new constitution. Tyler sent United States troops into the state to uphold the old government. Dorr was convicted and sentenced to im- prisonment for life, but was eventually pardoned. Later a more liberal constitution was adopted. 452. Anti-Rent Trouble. The large estates, or manors which had been created during the early history of New York had by this time increased greatly in value. Some of the tenants (at first only those on the Van Rensselaer patroonship) refused to pay their rent. Furthermore, (1844) they tarred and feath- ered those of their fellow-tenants Mdio paid their rents, and re- sisted and even killed the officers sent to serve warrants on them. Order was ultimately restored by the state militia and by the judicious measures of the governor. In time, most of the landed estates were sold to the tenants. 453. The First Electric Telegraph. Samuel F. B. Morse, after four years of effort, finally received from Congress a grant of thirty thousand dollars for the purpose of erecting an ex- perimental telegraph line between Baltimore and Washing- ton (forty miles). The first message, "What hath God wrought," proved the success of an invention which today covers the United States like a network. The first public message was the announcement of the nomination of James K. Polk for the presidency by a Democratic convention. 454. Native American Riots. The native American party provoked a dreadful riot in Philadelphia (1844). An army of ruffians, hounded on by pulpit harangues of fanatical min- isters, destroyed two Catholic churches, a house of the Sisters of Charity, the valuable library of the Augustinian Fathers, and a number of private dwellings occupied by Catholics. A similar riot in New York was prevented by the firmness of Bishop Hughes, the champion of Catholicity and Catholic education in the state. Through the influence of his fiery elo- quence, the New York Catholics publicly declared that if the 354 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES laws of the state would not protect their lives and property, they would know how to defend themselves; and thus they cowed the bigots. During the agitation of the "School Question" (1841) Bishop Hughes again, with matchless ability, defended the Catholic side in the Legislature. When this bodj^ denied him justice, he influenced the votes of his flock at the polls to such an ex- tent as to convince the politicians that the Catholics were no longer to be trifled with or despised. It is well to note here that the system of education against which the Catholics protested (1841) was more than insidiously dangerous. Not merely were the textbooks used, replete with sneers and libels against the Church, but the teachers, by their explanations, imparted additional authority to the calumnies. 455. The Annexation of Texas and the Occupation of Oregon Become Party Issues. Texas had applied for admission into the Union during Van Buren's administration, but the Presi- dent did not favor its annexation. The matter was again urged during Tyler's administration; Calhoun, the slavery ad- vocate, accepted the office of Secretary of State for the ex- press puri:>ose of carrying out his project of adding this new slave territory to the South. The question now became the lead- ing issue in the presidential campaign of the year. There was much opposition in the North to the admission of Texas, partly because it threatened to involve the country in war with Mex- ico, and partly because it would increase the area of slavery. On these grounds Clay, though in favor of annexation, opposed immediate action. A treaty (1818) with Great Britain had left the Oregon coun- try for ten years to joint occupancy, and another treaty made by the United States, Great Britain, and Russia had fixed the parallel of 54° 40' as the boundary line between the Oregon territory and Alaska. Meanwhile about twelve thousand Amer- icans had settled in Oregon, and they naturally demanded a THE HARRISON-TYLER zVDMINISTRATION 355 settlement of the boundary and an end of joint occupancy. Soon this matter also became a party measure. The platform of the Democratic party now included the an- nexation of Texas and the re-occupation of Oregon. It claimed tliat the annexation of Texas, which was slave soil, could be offset by the acquisition of the whole of Oregon, which was free soil; hence, the Democratic campaign cries were: "The 54' 40' 4Z0 THE OREGON COUNTRY annexation of Texas," "The whole of Oregon or none," "Fifty- four forty or fight." The missionaries were among the first Americans to find their way to the Oregon country. Through the Canadian fur trading posts a number of them, among whom were Fathers Blanchet and Demers, came from Montreal to Oregon and es- tablished many missions. Two years later the youthful and 356 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES saintly Father De Smet, the famous Jesuit missionary of Flor- rissant, Missouri, set out from the Missouri River with a large party of Oregon-bound emigrants, and founded (1841) the first of his many missions among the Flathead Indians. Not long after, he brought from Europe to the Oregon missions four priests and six sisters of Notre Dame of Namur. The sisters at once opened a school for girls. So rapid was the progress of the Catholic Church in Oregon that Father Blanchet was soon appointed bishop (1843). 456. New States. Tyler, foreseeing the outcome of the presi- dential campaign, urged the annexation of Texas. Three days before the expiration of his term a resolution annexing it to the United States as a slave state (twenty-eighth state) passed Congress, and was immediately signed by the President (1845). Florida had been admitted into the Union the same year as the twenty-seventh state, with slavery. CHAPTER XXVI JAMES POLK'S ADMINISTRATION DEMOCRAT— 1845-1849 457. Polk and Dallas Are Elected. The nominating conven- tions of both Whigs and Democrats met in Baltimore, a few weeks apart. The Democrats, after several preliminary votes for three or four prominent candidates, eventually turned to a comparatively unknown man, James K. Polk, of Tennessee. He is termed the first "dark horse" in American politics, be- cause he had not been publicly mentioned before the conven- tion. The Whigs nominated their great leader, Henry Clay, who had twice been defeated. The Whigs had undoubtedly chosen the far more brilliant candidate, but the Democratic l)latform was more in accordance with the policy of the people at large. It promised not onlj' the immediate annexation of Texas, of which the South was in favor, but also the occupancy of Oregon, which pleased the North. The election of 1844, therefore, resulted in the election of Polk. George M. Dallas of Pennsylvania was elected Vice-president. James K. Polk (1795-1849) was a native of North Carolina. He was successively lawyer, congressman and governor of his state, but was in no wise an eminent or brilliant man. In pri- vate life, his standards of honor were high, but his public ca- reer was marred by questionable dealings with Mexico. He was, nevertheless, a man of staunch character, not unlike Jack- son, his intimate friend. No sooner had he been inaugurated than he proceeded with much vigor to carry out his party's policy. 458. Polk's Program. Polk was elected mainly to effect the annexation of Texas, but he found this task performed before 357 358 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES he came into office. He at once determined upon four meas- ures, all of which, with a Democratic majority in Congress, he carried out successfully : (a) the readjustment of the tariff, which was reduced by the enactment of the Walker Tariff, named after its author who was Secretary of the Treasury. By this tariff lux- uries were to be taxed from forty to one hundred per cent, and iron, wool, and other ordinary manufactures thirty per cent ; besides this, there was an extended free list ; {b) the Independent Treasury was re-established (1846) ; (t) the settlement of the Oregon boundary dispute by a treaty with Great Britain (1846), which provided that the line of 49° (the boundary from the Lake of the Woods to the crest of the Rocky Mountains) be extended through the Oregon country to the Pacific ; (c/) the ac(iuisition of California l)y war with Mexico. 459. Pretexts for War with Mexico — War Declared. A boun- dary dispute between Texas and Mexico was the pretext for our war with Mexico. When Texas was still claimed by the United States as a part of the Louisiana Purchase, the Rio Grande was considered her southern and western boundary, but when it was a part of one of the states of Mexico, the Nueces River formed its boundary limits. President Polk, sid- ing w4th the Texans, claimed the country as far west as the Rio Grande, and ordered General Zachary Taylor (April, 1846) to occupy the disputed territory. The Mexicans crossed the Rio Grande and attacked the Americans. Shortly before this, Mexico had refused to re- ceive our minister. Polk promptly informed Congress, "Mex- ico has refused to receive our minister, has passed the boundary of the United States, has invaded our territory, and has shed American blood upon American soil.'' Congress, adopting the assertions of the President without any inquiry into their truth, affirmed (May 13, 1846) that the action of the Republic JxVMES POLK S ADMINISTRATION 359 of Mexico was a declaration of war against the United States. It at once voted money supplies, and called for fifty thousand volunteers, Calhoun, in the South, and the Whigs m the North, espe- cially the people of New England and the anti-slavery men, strongly opposed war and loudly denounced Polk and his or- ders. Unfortunately, it appears that our government was will- ing to settle the Oregon boundary dispute by compromise with Great Britain, a strong nation, while it enforced by violence the whole of its claim against Mexico, a weak nation. General Grant, himself a captain in the American army of invasion, wrote later that he considered the Mexican war ' * one of the most unjust ever waged by a stronger against a weaker nation. , . . We got our punishment in the most san- 360 . A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES guinary and expensive war of modern times (Civil War)." The feeling of New England concerning the war found witty and suitable expression in Lowell's "Biglow Papers," a few lines of which read as follows : They just want this Californy So 's to lug new slave states in ; To abuse ye, and to scorn ye, An' to plunder ye like sin. 460. Taylor's Campaign. Taylor, who had started out from Corpus Christi (May), on the mouth of the Nueces, attacked and defeated the Mexicans at Palo Alto and again at Resaca de la Palma. He then took Matamoras, after a bloody siege, and by September had pushed on into Mexico. He next stormed the famous city of Monterey and, after a desperate fight of three days captured it from the Mexicans. After this victory, he went to Buena Vista, whence the best part of his army was withdrawn by General Scott, who, as chief com- mander, had been sent to Mexico to carry out another part of the plan of invasion, Santa Anna, the Mexican commander, knowing of Taylor's weakened condition, attacked him at Buena Vista (February, 1847). A desperate battle, won by the American force of five thousand against the Mexican force of twelve thousand, was the result. Santa Anna immediately hurried off to attack Scott, who was expected at Vera Cruz. Whittier immortalizes the heroic charity of the Mexican women on the occasion of the Buena Vista battle, in his "Angels of Buena A'^ista, " of which the following is an extract: Whispered low the dying soldier, pressed her hand, and faintly smiled; Was that pitying face his mother's? Did she watch beside her child? All his stranger words with meaning her woman's heart supplied; With her kiss upon his forehead, "Mother!" murmured he, and died. * ' A bitter curse upon them, poor boy, who led thee forth From some gentle, sad-eyed mother, weeping lonely in the North ! ' ' Spake the mournful Mexic woman, as she laid him with her dead, And turned to soothe the living, and bind the wounds which bled. JAMES folk's administration 361 Sink, O night, among the mountains! let the cool, gray s-hadows fall; Dying brothers, fighting demons, drop the curtain over all! Through the thick 'ning winter twilight, wide apart the battle rolled. In its sheath the saber rested, and the cannon's lips grew cold. But the noble Mexie women still their holy task pursued, Through that long, dark night of sorrow, worn and faint, and lacking food ; Over weak and suffering brothers with a tender care they hung. And the dying foemen blessed them in a strange and Northern tongue. 461. Plan of the War— The United States Claims New Mex- ico and California. The plan of the war as arranged by Gen- eral Scott embraced an attack upon the northern part of Mexico (New Mexico -and California), an assault upon the Mexican capital, and a naval attack upon the Pacific coast. While Taylor was wiiming his victories in northeastern Mex- ico, General Stephen W. Kearny, with an army of two thou- sand men, conquered New Mexico and proclaimed it United States territory. He started out (June, 1846) from Fort Leavenworth, on the Missouri, in Kansas, traveled a distance of nine hundred miles over the mountains of Colorado to the Eio Grande River, and thence down to Santa- Fe, which place he took without a struggle. Kearny next proceeded westward to take possession of California, but that country had already been conquered by the joint action of John C. Fremont on land, and a fleet under Commodore Stockton on the Pacific. Three or four hundred American settlers already occupied this region. Thus the whole of the country south of Oregon had fallen into the hands of the Americans. John C. Fremont, called the "Pathfinder of the Rocky Moun- tains, " had been sent before the outbreak of the war (1845), with a small force of men to explore the then almost unknown region between the Groat Salt Lake and the Pacific. For some years he was thus employed, particularly with a view to the discovery of the best overland route between the two oceans. He crossed the continent many times, often suffering intensely 362 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES from cold, hunger, and Indian attacks. On hearing that Mex- ico was at war with the United States, he hastened into Cali- fornia, drove the Mexicans from their settlement on the Sac- ramento, and then, acting with Stockton's naval force, occu- pied, first San Francisco, and then Los Angeles. 462. General Scott's Campaign. General Scott, supported by Commodoi-e Perry's fleet, landed at Vera Cruz with the in- tention of taking the city of Mexico. After a nine days' bom- bardment, the Mexicans, under Santa Anna, surrendered Vera Cruz (March, 1847). Scott then began his two-hundred-mile ^PAS^'OF CERRO GORDO ■ SAN JUAN OE ULLOA THE ADVANCE TOWAIU) jMEXK'O march up the mountains toward the City of Mexico, the ancient capital of the Aztecs. It was just three hundred and twenty- eight years since Cortez, with his little band, had taken the same route from the same point and for the same purpose. Scott again defeated Santa Anna at the mountain pass of Cerro Gordo (April, 18-47) ; captured the beautiful city of Pueblo (May), and then pushed forward to within view of the capi- tal, eight thousand feet above the sea. The Americans now took in rapid succession (August) the strongholds and bat- teries guarding Mexico City. Scott, with his triumphant army, marched into the city (September 18, 1847), and hoisted the stars and stripes in the ancient city of the Montezumas. JAMES folk's administration 363 463. Mexico Surrenders — The Treaty of Peace. In less than two years a series of desperate battles ended in an unbroken victory for our arms. The Mexicans, with their army help- less, and their government broken up, were compelled to sub- mit, and sign a treaty of peace (1848) at Guadaloupe Hidalgo. By this treaty, Mexico gave to the United States all territory north of tlie Rio Grande and Gila Rivers, which, besides Texas, comprises New Mexico, California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming — in all, nearly one million square miles. The United States paid Mexico fifteen million dollars and, further, gave three million dollars to American citizens who had claims against Mexico. This seemed a great outlay to many peo^Dle, who declared that, for the Unites States, "Texas" meant simply "taxes." In the Mexican War many prominent officers of both armies in our Civil War received their first military schooling — Grant, McClellan, Lee, Beaure- gard, Jackson, Hooker, Longstreet, Buell, Johnston, Davis, etc. 464. The Wilmot Proviso. While the armies were gaining their hard-fought victories in Mexico, Congress was harassed by the slavery question. During a debate on a bill to appro- priate a sum of money for the purpose of negotiating peace with Mexico, David Wilmot, a northern anti-slavery man, of- fered an amendment to the appropriation bill, the so-called Wilmot Proviso, which provided that slavery be forever ex- cluded from the lands to be acquired from Mexico. Naturally the whole South rose in opposition. The bill was lost in the Senate ; but it made the question of slavery in the Mexican cession, the principal issue in the campaign of 1848. The Democrats were divided on the question. The northern anti-slavery Democrats favored the Wilmot Proviso; the south- ern pro-slavery Democrats opposed it. The party platform avoided the question altogether, and though the Democratic majority was in the south this party nominated a northern non-slaveholder, Lewis Cass, of Michigan. Cass, in a letter, sought the favor of the southern faction of his party by ad- 364 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES vocating the so-called "popular" or "squatter sovereignty," according to which the people of the territories were to decide for themselves the question of slavery. The "squatter-sovereignty" policy of Cass offended many of the anti-slavery Democrats, who eventually withdrew from their party convention. The Whigs, most numerous in the North, nominated for President a southern man, a slaveholder, General Zachary Taylor, the hero of Buena Vista. This party was also divided, for the southern section opposed the Wilmot Proviso, while the northern greatly favored it. Hence, the Whig, like the Democratic platform, also avoided any men- tion of the Wilmot Proviso question, even tliough it was of vital interest in the campaign. Because of this, many of the Whigs separated from their party, joined the Democrats, who had withdrawn from their party, and formed the "Free-Soil" party, which adopted as watchword "Free soil, free speech, free labor, and free men." Joined by the Liberty party, the Free-soil ers nominated Martin Van Buren for the presidency. Thus, we see that at this election even the tAvo old parties were beginning to break up on the slavery question. 465. The Discovery of Gold in California. About this time a magical change was taking place in California. But a few days before the peace of Guadaloupe (January, 1848), gold was discovered at Coloma, on the fork of the American River in the valley of the Sacramento, about one hundred miles north- east of San Francisco. James W. Marshall, a millwright in the employ of Colonel Sutter, a Swiss settler, found a num- ber of kernels of metal which were about the size of grains of wheat; upon test they proved to be solid gold. The dis- covery of the ])recious metal was for a time kept secret ; but the workers in the mill soon learned of it, and the fact was an- nounced in a San Francisco paper. From all parts of the Union and, indeed, from all parts of the world, eager gold- seekers, afterwards styled "forty-niners," flocked over the plains, across the isthmus or around the Horn, to the gold JAMES folk's administration 365 fields. By the autumn of 1849, California contained nearly one hundi-ed thousand people, and San Francisco sprang up, as if by magic, from a little village to a city of twenty thousand. This large population was composed of all sorts and conditions of men, who were at first governed only by vigilance commit- tees and lynch laws. Before long, however, the people organ- ized themselves in an orderly way into a state and adopted a constitution, by which slavery was forbidden. Even before a code of laws could be framed for the territory, the Califor- A NIGHT ON THE CALIFORNIA TRAIL nians asked to be admitted to the Union (1850). The Senate, however, rejected the application because of the clause in the territorial constitution which prohibited slavery. The discovery of gold in California gave to the United States a firm possession of the Pacific coast by rapidly peopling the California Avilderness. It also caused the establishment of new lines of steamships, new railroad routes and new markets, for after the gold mines became less profitable, the people set about the cultivation of the land and the raising of sheep and 366 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES cattle. California later became the chief fruit-growing region of the United States. 466. Two New States. During Polk's administration, two non-slaveholding states were admitted to the Union : Iowa (1846), the twenty-ninth state, and the fourth formed from the territory gained by the Louisiana Purchase ; and Wiscon- sin (1848), the thirtieth state, and the fifth and last formed out of the Nortliwest Territory. 467. Indian Missions in Mexico and California. New Mexico had been explored and the natives christianized by Spanish missionaries more than three hundred years (1539) before the territory had become a part of the United States. So rapid was the progress of these early missions, that within the space of a few years twenty-seven stations were established, many of which possessed large churches. The Indian converts, who were numbered by thousands, had learned to read and write, and had adopted the customs of civilization. Though the hos- tility of pagan tribes and the oppression of civil authority sadly harassed the prosperity of these Catholic Indian missions, they have never been entirely suppressed. The mission of San Francisco was founded contemporane- ously with the declaration of American independence (1776). The Franciscans, under their superior. Father Serra, estab- lished San Diego as their first mission (1769). The founding of Monterey followed (1770) ; then in rapid succession, San Francisco (1776), Santa Clara (1777), San Jose (1779), Los Angeles (1781), Santa Barbara (1781), and many others, un- til an unbroken chain of missions, more than twenty in num- ber, linked San Diego with San Francisco. Under the super- vision of the zealous sons of St. Francis of Assissi, the roving savages were soon won for the Church and civilization, and were ultimately transformed into orderly, industrious, and ex- pert farmers, masons, or weavers. At one time the Catholic missions numbered about thirty thousand Indians, whose thrift and prosperity were attested by their possession of over four JAMES POLK S ADMINISTRATION :m thousand head of cattle, sixty-two tliousand horses, and more than three hundred thousand sheep. Many of the missionaries had been noted in Spain as men of culture, as soldiers, engi- neers, artists, lawyers, and physicians, before they wore the humble garb of their Order, but they did not scorn to labor with their charges in the fields, in brickyards, at the forge, or in the mills. By a decree of the Mexican (*ongress, the Indian missions THE CHAPEL OF THE SAN GABRIEL MISSION were eventually made state property. The converts were thus scattered, and within five years, the number of Catholic In- dians was reduced from thirty thousand to four thousand, and when California became a territory of the United States only a few remains of the once prosperous missions could be traced. The Jesuits early began (1697) the work of spreading the gospel among the native Indians of Lower California, and continued this work until the society was finally expelled from the Spanish domains (1767). 368 A- HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 468. The Nation's Patroness. America, from the very date of its discovery, was loyally devoted to the Mother of God, and in (1846) the Sixth Council of Baltimore, by its first act, solemnly chose Mary the Immaculate, as patroness of the Cath- J olic Church in the United States, J CHAPTER XXVII THE TAYLOE-FILLMORE ADMINISTRATION WHI<; — 1840-1853 469. Taylor and Fillmore Are Elected. At the election of 1848, Zachary Taylor of Louisiana, the Whig nominee, was elected as the twelfth President by a majority of thirty-six votes over Lewis Cass of Michigan, the Democratic candidate. Millard Fillmore of New York was chosen Vice-president. Zachary Taylor (1784-1850) was a native of Virginia. He fought in the War of 1812, in the Black Hawk War, and gained great fame in the Mexican War. He was, on the whole, more of a soldier than a politician. In fact, he took little in- terest in politics and had not even voted for forty years. He was a plain, straightforward man, and when nominated for the presidency, he declared that, if elected, he would be the President of no party or faction, but of the entire nation. Though a slaveholder, he did not desire to see the system ex- tended to the territories where the people opposed it. He was much loved by his soldiers, who called him "Old Rough and Ready." Millard Fillmore (1800-1874) was a native of New York. He practiced law and later became a Congressman from his state. He supported Clay's compromise measures and won for him- self strong opposition in the North by favoring the Fugitive Slave Law. 470. Able Statesmen in Congjess. The thirty-first Congress was noted for two things: in the Senate for the last time were heard the familiar voices of the great triumvirate — Webster, Clay, and Calhoun — all of whom had for forty years figured in every important political movement. Ready to supplant these 369 370 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES famous leaders were a number of young men of a new genera- tion. William H. Seward of New York, Salmon P. Chase of Ohio, Jefferson Davis of Mississippi, Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, and Charles Sumner of Massachusetts, now gained prominence in political life. In fact, never before had there been such a group of able statesmen in the Senate. At this time, there were fifteen free and fifteen slave states. There was no other slave territory to enter the Union, and if California were admitted as a free state, the northerners would have a majority in the Senate ; as it was, they already con- trolled the House of Representatives. 471. Debates on the Extension of Slavery in the Territories. When General Taylor was inaugurated President, the North and the South were already engaged in passionate disputes over the slavery problem; from the founding of the govern- ment to the Civil War, the year 1850 was the darkest and most threatening. The question of slavery, especially its ex- tension to the great Southwest, was like a wedge, forcing the North and the South farther and farther apart. The points in dispute between the two sections were chiefly the following : (a) the North wanted California admitted as a free-soil state; the South would not consent, unless the Missouri Com- promise line (the parallel of 36 degrees 30 minutes) was extended to the Pacific. (&) the northerners insisted that slavery be abolished in the District of Columbia ; the southerners complained that the Fugitive Slave Law of 1793 was not enforced in the free states ; (c) the North demanded that there be no more slave states and no more slave territory; (d) Texas claimed the part of New Mexico lying east of the Rio Grande. This met with strenuous opposition from tlie North. 472. The Compromise of 1850. Clay at this perilous time once more came forward as peacemaker, and proposed the THE TAYLOR-FILLMORE ADMINISTRATION 371 measure known as the "Compromise of 1850,'' or tlie "Omni- bus Bill," because of the many points it contained. Its chief provisions were : (a) that California be admitted as a free state to favor the North ; (&) that New Mexico and Utah be organized as territories without provision as to slavery — to appease the South ; (c) that Texas be paid ten million dollars to give to the Federal government her claim on New Mexico — to appease the South ; (d) that the slave trade (not slavery) be abolished in the Dis- trict of Columbia — to please the North. During a period of seven months the Omnibus Bill was the one great topic for debate in Congress and for discussion in the press and by the people of the entire country. As might be expected, the compromise measures occasioned scenes of intense excitement in Congress. The debates that followed in the Senate were brilliant. Clay, now a venerable man of seventy-three, physically weak, himself a slaveholder, made an earnest appeal for peace and compromise; his plea was for "keeping the Union together in one family, in harmony and concord," that the "gaping wounds of the country might be healed." For two days he swayed the audience, which filled the Senate chamber to overflowing. John C. Calhoun, the great champion of states' rights, was so feeble that his speech had to be read for him by a friend. Wrapped in a cloak, his long white hair hanging down the sides of his pale, emaciated face, the great leader of the South sat in his chair motionless, statue-like, and, with the hand of death upon him, listened to his own words of appeal and warn- ing to the North in behalf of his beloved South. He demanded an equal division of territory between the two sections; more effective laws for the return of fugitive slaves, and the com- plete and lasting cessation of slavery agitation; and closed 372 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES with the words, "if you of the North will not do this, say so, and let our Southern states agree to separate and part in peace." Though Calhoun wished to preserve the Union, he looked upon it as a union of a northern section and a south- ern section, rather than a union of states. "Webster, in his "Seventh of March Speech," which he him- self regarded as the most important of his life, expressed his sincere love for the Union, and denounced both the northern and the southern agitators. He placed the chief blame, how- ever, on the anti-slavery men, and they were greatly disap- pointed to find their famous champion seemingly deserting their cause. Webster felt that the great duty of the hour was to save the Union, not to oppose slavery. The Union could be best preserved, he thought, by Clay's compromise bill. Tliough Webster's influence helped not only to secure the com- promise, but also to postpone the awful war for a decade of years, he never again regained his former political prestige. (Read Whittier's "Ichabod.") William H. Seward of New York and Salmon P. Chase of Ohio now took the place of "Webster as leaders of the anti- slavery party. They both opposed the compromise, and Sew- ard startled the slavery advocates by declaring that "a higher law than the Constitution, the law of God and of reason, made the territories free." Seward's "higher law" doctrine was wrongly interpreted by his opponents as meaning that "the law of God and of reason" should always be superior to the Constitution. He, however, meant to say that the law of God and of reason, as well as the Constitution, condeunied slavery. Jefferson Davis and Stephen A. Douglas took the place of the dying Calhoun in behalf of the South, and were, like Seward and Chase, much more outspoken than the older states- man had been. 473. Taylor's Death. The debate went on day after day. Separate provisions of Clay's compromise were passed; but THE TAYLOR-FILLMORE ADMINISTRATION 373 while the question was still being considered, Taylor suddenly died, after being in office only sixteen months. Vice-president Fillmore, an advocate of the compromise, now became Presi- dent, and signed the last of the bills, the Fugitive Slave Law (September, 1850). 474. California Becomes a State — The Pony Express. The "pony express" carried to California the news that she was admitted to the Union as a free state. The pony express es- tablished a means of communication between the East and the Pacific coast. Stations some twenty miles apart were erected all the way from the Missouri River to the Sacramento, a dis- tance of about two thousand miles. A messenger mounted on a fast pony set out across the plains to the first station, whence he took another horse and again sped away toward the next station. At every third station another rider took the mail. Eight days were required to traverse the distance and fre- quently riders perished in the wintry blizzards or were killed by the Indians. The cost of sending a letter by the pony ex- press was five dollars, which charge, however, was soon re- duced one-half. Some years later, stage coaches were used along siniilur routes. 475. The Fug-itive Slave Law. The last of the measures in- cluded in the Omnibus Bill having been adopted, a wave of relief swept over the countiy. The people, with Clay, hoped that harmony and good will would once more prevail, as after the Missouri Compromise. But, alas, these hopes were not to be realized ; the Fugitive Slave Law stood in the way. This law : (a) gave United States officers power to turn over a colored man to anyone who claimed the negro as an escaped slave, even if the slave in question had been free for a number of years; (b) denied the negro the right of trial by jury; (c) demanded that all citizens, if called upon by officers, should aid in securing the return of a fugitive slave ; 374 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES (d) imposed a fine and imprisonment on anyone who harbored a fugitive or prevented his capture. The execution of this law brought with it the constant invasion of the northern states by "slave-catchers," or "man-hunters," and continually kept before the people of the North the most hateful and barliarous aspects of slavery. This law did more toward rousing the moral sentiment of that section than the arguments of the Abolitionists had done in a score of years. 476. Personal Liberty Laws — Underground Railroad. Tlie North, finding the Fugitive fSlave Law so extremely odious, de- termined not to return runaway slaves, but rather to protect and assist them to escape. Many of the northern states passed "Personal Liberty Laws," which, in essence, really amounted to nullification of the fugitive law, since they did not permit the use of jails for the fugitives, forbade judges and officers to aid in the return of runaways ; granted to slaves the right of trial by jury ; and punished attempts to seize and return free negroes. Many slaves, by means of the so-called "Underground Rail- road," or secret routes, were helped to escape to Canada, or some other place of safety in the North. One of the most fa- mous routes of the Underground Railroad was from Cincin- nati to Detroit; another from Baltimore to New York, and thence to Canada or New England. 477. The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. While the Omnibus Bill was absorbing the attention of the country, the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty was negotiated by John M. Clayton, our Secretary of State, and Bulwer, the British minister to our country. It provided for the joint control by the United States and Great Britain of any ship canal, which should be constructed across the isthmus of either Nicaragua or Panama, and declared that neither nation should establish colonies in Central America. The treaty continued in force until 1901 when it was super- seded by the Hay-Pauncefote treaty. The agitation for an THE TAYLOK-FILLMOKE ADMINISTRATION 375 isthmian canal was revived by the rush of population to Cali- fornia after the discovery of gold. 478. Uncle Tom's Cabin. Uncle Tom's Gahin, a novel writ- ten (1852) by Hai-riet Beecher Stowe, vividly pictured moral, social, and domestic life under slavery. The story at first came out week by week in an anti-slavery newspaper, but it was later published in book form. Within two years over three hundred thousand copies were sold. The book exerted a pow- erful anti-slavery influence, and many boys who read Uncle Tom's Cabin in 1852 became soldiers in the Civil War. The novel, however, was defective in style and construction. It did not picture Southern life truthfully and the injustice of some of its presentations has been exposed and condemned. It, nevertheless, did much to liberate the slave, and probably no other novel ever exerted such a strong influence upon the political and civil institutions of a nation. 479. Death of Three Great Men. The nation was soon called upon to lament the death of three distinguished leaders. Cal- houn, the great champion of the South, died at Washington, D. C. (March 31, 1850) ; Clay, one of America's foremost ora- tors and most disinterested patriots, died in the capital (June 28, 1852) ; and Daniel Webster, the famous leader of the North, and the notable expounder of the Constitution, passed away at Marshfield, Massachusetts (October 24, 1852). 480. Anti-Catholic Attacks — Knownothingism. The Nativists and other anti-Catholic elements (1852) joined forces with the fugitive German and Italian Revolutionists (1848-1849), and led by the ex-Carmelite Gavazzi, inaugurated a crusade of unparalleled anti-Catholic hatred and strife. When the Papal Nuncio, Monsignore Bedini, landed in New York (1852), Gavazzi traveled through the country, and everywhere set on foot a movement against him. He made charges which no ra- tional man could believe, and which were soon proved to be false. As a result of these calumnies, the Nuncio, in his prog- 376 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ress through the country, was insulted, abused, burned in effigy, mobbed, and even threatened with assassination. In many places in New England, the anti-Catholic faction, headed by a Boston street preacher, who styled himself the Angel Ga- briel, ruthlessly destroyed Catholic churches and expelled peaceful Catholic settlers from their homes. During this excitement (1852) a network of secret societies sprang up, called the "Order of the Star-Spangled Banner." It started in New York, and because of its extreme secrecy, its members were called Know-nothings. The order advocated chiefly: that the time of residence required for naturalization be twenty-one years; that the Catholic religion be proscribed as a danger to the country ; that the Protestant Bible be made the foundation of all common school education. The Know- nothings destroyed many churches, convents, and private houses of Catholics, and shed much Catholic blood. They in- creased so rapidly that they elected the governors and legis- latures of a number of the states. In a few years, however, they became almost extinct, save in Maryland, where they contiruied to exist for a time. Here they gathered all the ruf- fians in and around Baltimore and attacked the first northern regiment marching to the front at the beginning of the Civil War, and thus made that city the most lawless of the Union. The methods of the Know-nothing party were revived in 1894 by the American Protective Association. This was a secret society in the United States, not unlike the Know-noth- ings, which became a disturbing factor in most of the north- ern states during the period of 1891-97. Its purpose was in- dicated clearly enough by its open activity in arranging lec- tures by "ex-priests," distributing anti-Catholic literature, and opposing the election of Catholics to office. Unlike the Know- nothings, it never constituted a separate political party, but sought to influence existing parties toward selecting candi- dates friendly to its anti-Catholic views. THE TAYLOR-FILLMORE ADMINISTRATION 377 481. The First Plenary Council. The First Plenary Council of the Church in the United States, which was assembled in Baltimore by Archbishop Kendrick (1852), was composed of six Archbishops and twenty-six Bishops. It proposed the erec- tion of several new dioceses, urged the importance of Catholic schools, and condemned secret societies, especially the Free- masons. 482. The Campaign of 1852. In the campaign of 1852, the platforms of both of the old parties came out strongly in favor of the Compromise of 1850. The Whigs nominated General Winfield Scott, another hero of the Mexican War ; the Demo- crats, Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire, a second instance of a "dark horse"; and the Free-Soil party, John Parker Hale of New Hampshire. CHAPTER XXVIII FEANKLIN PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION DEMOCRAT— 1853-1857 483. Pierce and King Are Elected. Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire, the Democratic nominee, was elected by a major- ity of two hundred and twelve votes over the Whig candidate, Winfield Scott. William R. King was elected Vice-president. The Whig party was overwhelmingly defeated at this elec- tion and it practically ceased to exist before the next presiden- tial campaign. This was because of the following facts : there was just then no great question before the people, except the slavery problem, and this was sectional (between the North and South), rather than partisan; the Whigs were held an- swerable for the odious Compromise Act, including the Fugitive Slave Law, since this act was introduced by a Whig leader and signed by a Whig President, though many of the Demo- crats had also supported the measures; the southern Whigs felt that they could no longer trust their party on the slavery question. The Free-Soilers humorously declared that the Whigs died of an attempt to swallow the Fugitive Slave Law. Franklin Pierce (1804-1869) had previously served, first as Representative and then as Senator. He had also been a briga- dier-general in the Mexican War. In his inaugural address he said that he would do all he could to carry out the pro- visions of the Compromise of 1850, and to keep peace on the slavery question. Yet, scarcely twelve months of his presi- dency had elapsed, when the country was thrown into a most exciting slavery agitation. 484. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill. Senator Douglas, chairman of the committee on territories, introduced the so-called Kan- 378 FRANKLIN PIERCE 's ADMINISTRATION 379 sas Nebraska Bill, which jji-oposed the formation of the two territories of Kansas and Nebraska on the i^rinciple of "squat- ter sovereignty." In other words, he proposed that the set- tlers decide for theiuselves whether or not they would have slavery. Douglas's measures practically repealed the Missouri Compromise, and they were violently debated in Congress for nearly live months; they became law, however (1854), by a close vote in both houses and the signature of the President. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill, however, had many far-reaching results : (a) it deprived Congress of its authority over slavery in the territories ; (h) it occasioned a grave contest over Kansas; (c) it revived with renewed bitterness the slavery agitation, or, rather, quoting Sumner, it "set freedom and slavery face to face and bade them grapple." 485. The Race to Kansas for Supremacy. The Kansas-Ne- braska act gave rise to a storm of indignation all over the North. The anti-slavery men declared that if the old Missouri Compromise could be swept away, nothing would be sacred enough to stand between slavery and free territory. No sooner was the Kansas-Nebraska act passed, than a race for political supremacy in Kansas was begun by both the pro-slavery and anti-slavery men. Before the year closed each party had plant- ed several settlements in Kansas. The pro-slavery men, or "Border Ruffians," as they were called, settled at Atchison and other points along the Missouri River, while the free-state men, called also "Abolitionists," or "Black Republicans," settled at Lawrence and other places south of the Kansas River. The excitement became intense. Each party was determined to win in the first election for a territorial legislature (1855). The pro-slavery men carried the election by means of fraud and violence, promptly adopted the Constitution of Missouri, which provided for slavery, and added to it laws by which any interference with slavery w^as to be severely punished. 380 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES The free-state settlers, refusing to obey a government which had been established through fraud, met at Topeka and drew up a constitution of their own, which forbade slavery. Thus Kansas had two rival, hostil'e governments, each de- manding recognition by CoJigress and the President. It was clear that ''squatter sovereignty" could not solve peaceably the slavery question in the territories. The House of Repre- sentatives accepted the Topeka, or anti-slavery constitution, DISPERSING A KANSAS CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION and voted to admit Kansas as a free state. The Senate, however, did not concur in this action. The conflict in Kansas developed into Civil War, during which the two parties committed so many crimes of violence and bloodshed that no state in the Union, not even those that had been the scene of Indian wars, surpassed Kansas in the fierce strife of its early years ; hence, the territory became known as "Bleeding Kansas. ' At one time the pro-slavery party of Kansas framed what is known as the "Lecompton Constitution," making Kansas a FRANKLIN PIERCE 'S ADMINISTRATION 381 slave state witlioiit submitting the constitution to a fair vote of the people. It was sent to Washington with an application for the admission of Kansas as a state. Buchanan was about to recommend the admission of Kansas under this constitution, when Douglas came forward and demanded that the consti- tution should first be submitted to a fair vote of the Kansas people. Douglas, by his noble stand for justice in behalf of the people of Kansas, now gained greatly in the estimation of the North. 486. Filibustering- Expeditions — The Ostend Manifesto. The balance between the free and the slave states liaving been de- stroyed by the admission of California as a free state, south- erners began to covet Cuba, as they had coveted Mexico. A filibustering expedition, led by Narciso Lopez, set out (1851) from New Orleans to secure the island by capture, for the purpose of annexing it with its large slave population to the United States. The scheme ended in disaster and Lopez was executed. A similar filibustering expedition (1854), headed by William Walker, was made to Nicaragua. Walker seized the government and held it for two years, when he was finally overpowered and put to death. France and Great Britain, because of this filibustering ex- pedition against Cuba, suggested a convention, in which each of the three nations — England, France, and the United States - — should disclaim all intention to obtain possession of Cuba. The United States declined to enter the agreement, and later the American ministers to Great Britain, France, and Spain, acting under instructions from the President, met at Ostend, Belgium (1854), to consider the subject of annexing the island. The result was a proclamation, known as tlie "Ostend Mani- festo," in which was declared: that Cuba should belong to the Ignited States; that the government should offer Spain one hundred and twenty million dollars for the island; and that in case Spain should refuse to sell the island, it should be secured by force. 382 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Spain would not sell the island and C-ongress would not adopt the policy of taking Cuba by force. Hence, nothing was effected by the "Ostend Manifesto." 487. The Gadsden Purchase. Owing to the inaccuracy of the maps, trouble arose with Mexico in regard to the boundar}' line. General James Gadsden, our minister to Mexico, at length adjusted matters by negotiating a treaty (1853), by which the United States paid Mexico ten million dollars for the land lying directly south of the Gila River. This territory, which comprised about forty-seven thousand square miles, has since been known as the Gadsden Purchase. 488. Perry's Treaty with Japan. In 1853 Commodore Mat- thew C. Perry, brother of the hero of Lake Erie, visited Japan, which till then had not admitted foreigners even for the pur- pose of trade. After a year's waiting. Perry succeeded in making a treaty (1854) by which certain Japanese ports were opened for trade with the United States. As a result of Perry 's expedition, Japan, within seven years, made treaties with nearly all the countries of Europe, and began the wonderful develop- ment which has marked that nation for the last half-century. 489. First World's Fair in the United States. For the first time in our history, the nations of the world joined the United States (1853) in a great exposition of products in the Crystal Palace, New York. The Crystal Palace was built exclusively of iron and glass, and was visited by thousands from all parts of the world. The exposition tended to show that the United States might soon lead the rest of the world in practical in- ventions and the manufactures of labor-saving machinery. 490. The Campaign of 1856. At the convention held in Phil- adelphia (1856), a new party, the National Republican, was formed of anti-slavery Democrats, anti-slavery Whigs, and Free-Soilers. Its platform demanded that Congress should not interfere with slavery where it existed; that Congress should prohibit in the territories "these twin relics of barbarism, polygamy and slavery"; and that Kansas should immediately FRANKLIN PIERCE 'S ADMINISTRATION 383 be admitted as a free state. J. C. Fremont of California was the presidential nominee of the new party. The Democrats put forth James Buchanan of Pennsylvania, while the remnant of the Whigs (Silver Grays), and the Know-nothings selected Millard Fillmore of New York. CHAPTER XXIX JAMES BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION DEMOCRAT— 1857-1861 491, Buchanan and Breckenridge Are Elected. At the elec- tion of 1856, James Buchanan, the Democratic nominee, was elected as the fifteenth President by a majority of sixty elec- toral votes over John C. Fremont, the Republican candidate. John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky was chosen Vice-president. James Buchanan (1791-1868), a native of Pennsylvania, was sixty-six years old when called to the executive chair. In pub- lic life he had served as United States Senator and as minister to Russia and to England. Much was hoped from his election, since he declared in his inaugural address that the object of his administration woidd be to destroy sectional strife and settle the slavery question. However, the Dred Scott Decision, rendered by the Supreme Court only two days after his in- auguration, widened the alarming breach between the anti- slavery and pro-slavery sections of the Union, 492. The Dred Scott Decision. A slave by the name of Dred Scott had lived for some time with his master, an army sur- geon, in the free state of Illinois and in the free territory of Minnesota. On returning to Missouri, Dred Scott sued his owner for his freedom, on the ground that liis residence on free soil had made him a free man. The case was finally trans- ferred from the State Court to the Supreme Court of the United States, which, through Chief Justice Taney, gave the "Dred Scott Decision." This declared that a negro was not a citizen of the United States, and could not sue in the United States Court; that a slave was not included in the term "person" as used in the Constitution ("no 'person' shall be deprived of 384 JAMES Buchanan's administration 385 life, liberty, or property without due process of law"), but was only property, and Congress had no more right to exclude this kind of property from the territories than it had to exclude horses, cows, and other chattels. Therefore, slave-owners might take their slaves with them into any territory of the Union without forfeiting authority over them. Five of the eight other judges joined in Taney's opinion. Justices Curtis and McLean alone defended the rights of the negro as a citizen, as well as the power of Congress, to keep slavery out of the territories. Dred Scott was later freed by his master. Taney was bitterly denounced for expressions used in his decision. His statements, however, were not given as his own views about negro rights, but rather as the legal theories prevailing at the time of the Declaration of Independence. He had emancipated his own slaves and provided for their welfare. The Dred Scott Decision created intense excitement through- out the country. The slaveholders had on their side not only the law, as laid down by the highest court in the land, but also the President, who, weak and wavering, feared to oppose slavery lest the South should secede and destroy the Union, as it was threatening to do. The decision split the Democratic party in the North. Many of its members joined the Republicans in denouncing the Su- preme Court, rejected its decision, and determined to check the spread of slavery in the territories. 493. The Lincoln-Douglas Debates — The Freeport Doctrine. The election of a successor to Senator Douglas in Illinois brought to the front Abraham Lincoln, the Republican candi- date for the senatorship against Douglas, who was the Demo- cratic choice. Lincoln challenged (1857) Douglas to a series of seven joint debates, at as many different places, on the following subjects: squatter sovereignty, the Dred Scott De- cision, and the extension of slavery into the territories. Both candidates exercised a powerful influence upon the vast audi- ences which gathered from far and near to hear the great 386 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES problems of the day discussed by the ablest speakers of Illinois. Douglas, termed the '^Ijittle Giant of the "West," short and squarely built, spoke in rapid and powerful language and car- ried his listeners by storm; while Lincoln, styled "Honest Abe," tall, slender, and aAvkward, by his slow, calm, plain, unpretending, and humorous speech won the hearts of the people. The most notable of these debates was held at Freeport, where Lincoln asked Douglas four questions, the answers to which prevented Douglas from gaining the support of the southern Democracy for the presidential election two years later. Lincoln forced Douglas to choose between his favorite doctrine of popular sovereignty and the opinion expressed by the justice of the Supreme Court in the Dred Scott case. Doug- las tried to reconcile the two in what is known as the Free- port Doctrine, by saying that slavery could not exist in any territory if the people did not make local police regulations for its support, and therefore popular sovereignty would de- cide whether the territory should have slavery or not. Lin- coln showed that slavery could exist without these local regu- lations, and that popular sovereignty and the Dred Scott De- cision were incomj)atible. The South agreed with Lincoln and abandoned Douglas, although the people of Illinois by a nar- row margin re-elected Douglas senator. Lincoln's great speeches and bold stand for the right gave him a national rep- utation and made him a candidate for the presidency (1860). 494. John Brown's Raid. John Brown, a Free-Soil extremist, collected a raiding party of about twenty men (1859) and sud- denly seized the United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry in Virginia, with the avowed purpose of causing an insurrection of the slaves and supplying them with arms from the arsenal. His plan, however, met with complete failure. He was cap- tured, brought to a speedy trial, and hanged. Brown's fool- hard}^ undertaking increased the misunderstanding between the two sections. The South believed that among the northern JAMKS IUTCIIANAN'S ADMINISTRATION 387 Republicans thiTc was on foot a general plan to create a slave insurrection, and began to think of secession and independ- ence. The northern people, for the most part, condemned Brown's course, although they were in sympathy with his opposi- tion to slavery. 495. The Panic of 1857. Shortly after Buchanan's inaugura- tion a great business (lcj)ression occurred. The discovery of lIAUFKli S i'ERliy AND VICINITY gold in California had increased wealth and stimulated in- vestments in railroads and in manufacturing enterprises. These investments were undertaken on too large a scale and the re- sult was a panic similar to that which the country had passed through twenty years before. Great suffering continued for two years, but later discoveries of gold in California, silver in Nevada, and oil in Pennsylvania, again revived business and restored prosperity. 388 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Three free states were admitted during Buchanan's admin! istration. Minnesota came in as the thirty-second (1858), Ore^ gon as the thirty -third (1859), and Kansas as the thirty-fourthl] (1801). 496. The Campaign of 1860. The thirty-three (1860) states now composing the Union entered upon the most exciting.' presideutial campaign since 1840. The principal issue was again the extension of slavery into the territories. There were four parties in the field. The Republicans nominated Abraham Lincoln of Illinois, on a platform demanding the repudiation i of the Dred Scott Decision, and the immediate admission of Kansas as a state under the Topeka Constitution. The south- ern Democrats named John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky, on a platform demanding that Congress should protect slavery in the territories, and that the United States should acquire Cuba. The northern Democrats chose Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, and advocated "squatter sovereignty." The "Consti- tutional Union party," made up of the remnants of the Know- nothings in the South and of the Whigs in the North, selected John Bell of Tennessee. Their platform, ignoring the slavery question altogether, declaimed for "the Constitution of the coun- try, the union of all the states, and the enforcement of the laws." Both the Democrats and Republicans favored the building of a railway to the Pacific coast. 497. Lincoln and Hamlin Are Elected— South Carolina Se^' cedes. At the election of 1860, Abraham Lincoln, the Repub- lican candidate, was chosen as the sixteenth President by a plurality of the popular vote, and by a vote of one hundred and eighty electoral votes to the one hundred and twenty-three of the other three presidential nominees combined. He carried every northern state, except New Jersey. Hannibal Hamlin of Maine was elected Vice-president. No other election since that of Jefferson meant so much to the future of the country. It showed that the nation at large did not favor the extension "? o i JAMES Buchanan's administration 389 of slavery and was inclined to take a final stand against it. Even during the campaign, the South threatened freely to secede from the Union in case of Lincoln's election. The Republicans said that this threat had been made for twenty years, and was but the cry of "wolf," but this time the "wolf" really came, for the South was in deadly earnest. "When the election of Lincoln was made known, South Carolina (December, 1860) passed an ordinance of secession and publicly announced the fact to the world. The state based its right of secession on the old principle of states' rights, as expressed b^^ the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, the Hartford Convention, and the Nullification Ordinance of South Carolina. Secession and war were not, however, brought about so much by the states' rights question as by anti-slavery agitations, which led to the Kansas-Nebraska troubles, to the Dred Scott Decision, to John Brown's raid, and to the election of Lincoln as President. 498. The Formation of the Southern Confederacy. Other slave states followed the lead of South Carolina and within six weeks (February, 1861), Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas had seceded from the Union. These seven states, which included the great cotton belt of the South, at once sent delegates to a convention at Montgomery, Alabama (February, 1861), and established a provisional government, which they styled "The Confederate States of America. ' ' Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was chosen President and Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia, Vice-president. Later in the year four other states — Virginia, North Carolina, Ten- nessee, and Arkansas — joined the Confederacy. The border states, Maryland, Kentucky, Missouri, and Delaware, for a while doubtful, remained loyal to the Union. The western counties of Virginia declared for the Union, and upon their request for admission, .were added to the Union as a state (1863) under the name of West Virginia. The authorities of the seceding states seized nineteen forts, and seven arsenals. 390 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES situated within tlieir borders, together with a vast amount of arms and amnumition belonging to the United States goverinnent. Thus only four forts remained in the hands of federal troops — Pickens, Peiisacola ; Jefferson, Tortugas; Taylor, Key West; and Sumter, Charleston Harbor. At last the clash had come ; the Union was dissolved. South- ern Congressmen, judges, and other officers resigned their positions under the government and the Star Spangled Banner was hauled down throughout the eleven states thus far lost to the Union. Confederate papers published items from the Union under the head, "Foreign News." The Confederate President, Jefferson Davis (1808-1889), was a native of Kentucky. He had served in the Black Hawk War, and had been United States Congressman, and Secretary of War. He was, therefore, well qualified by political experience for his position. The Confederate Vice-president, Alexander Stephens, a great Whig leader (1812-1883), was a native of Georgia and he had served sixteen years in the House of Repre- sentatives. Although physically weak he was still very active and influential in Georgian politics. He tried to prevent Georgia from seceding, but, not succeeding in this effort, he followed the fortunes of his state. 499. The Government and Secession. The government offered no resistance to the secessionists or to their seizure of its property, except a weak attempt to re-enforce Major Anderson at Fort Sumter. For this purpose the merchantman, Star of the West, was dispatched (-January, 1861) to Charleston Harbor. The vessel was, however, fired upon by Charleston gun- ners at Fort Moultrie and was forced to return. Buchanan, still irresolute, adopted no decided plan of action. While he declared that he did not believe in the constitutional right of secession, he also declared that he did not believe the national government had the right to use coercion. Neither the North nor the South w^anted war. The former demanded that the seceded states should come back into the Union. JAMES Buchanan's administration 391 Congress made strenuous efforts to compromise the disputed slavery question; a peace conference was held in Washington and amendments to the Constitution were proposed — but to no avail. The policy of compromise, which had distinguished the political history of the country since the Revolutionary War, had now proved utterly futile. The nation looked anxiously forward to the fourth of March, and the great question was, "What will Lincoln do?" CHRONOLOGICAL EEVIEW 1789—1861 George Washington's Administration (1789-1797). 1789. George Washington is inaugurated as the first Presi- dent (April 30). Rev. John Carroll is consecrated first Bishoj) of United States (November). 1790. The seat of the government is removed to Philadelphia (November). 1791. Vermont is admitted as a free state. 1792. Kentucky is admitted as a slave state. Captain Gray discovers and names the Columbia River. 1793. Eli Whitney invents the cotton-gin. The first Fugitive Slave Law is enacted. Rev. Stephen Badin is ordained first priest. 1794. The Whiskey Insurrection occurs in western Penn- sylvania. General Anthony Wayne defeats the Ohio Indians. 1795. John Jay concludes a treaty with Great Britain for the surrender of the northwestern forts, payment of American claims, etc. A treaty is made with Spain for a "Place of deposit." 1796. Tennessee is admitted as a slave state. John Adams's Administration (1797-1801) — Federalist. 1797. John Adams is inaugurated as the second President. 1798. The Alien and Sedition Laws are enacted. 1799. Washington dies at Mount Vernon (December 14). 1800. The national capital is removed from Philadelphia to Washington, Spain cedes Louisiana territory to France. 392 CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW 393 Thomas Jefferson's Administration (1801-1809) — Democratic- Republican. 1801. Thomas Jefferson is inaugurated as the third Presi- dent. The Avar v\^ith Tripoli begins. 1802. Ohio is admitted as a free state. 1803. Louisiana territory is purchased from France for fifteen million dollars. 1804. Decatur destroys frigate Philadelphia (February 15). Hamilton is killed by Burr (July 11). 1805. Lew^is and Clark made an expedition to the Northwest. A treaty of peace is made with Tripoli. 1806. Napoleon publishes the Berlin Decree. 1807. Great Britain publishes the Orders in Council ; Napo- leon issues the Milan Decree. Henry Clay enters Congress. Congress passes the Embargo Act. Robert E\ilton invents the first successful steamboat. The British frigate Leopard attacks the American frigate Chesapeake. 1808. African slave trade is abolished. James Madison's Administration (1809-1817) — Democratic-Re- publican. 1809. James Madison is inaugurated as the fourth President. The Non-Intercourse Act is passed. 1811. General "William H. Harrison defeats the Indians under Tecumseh at Tippecanoe. The American ship President wins a naval victory over the British Little Belt. Astor establishes a trading post at Astoria, at the mouth of the Columbia. Calhoun enters Congress. 1812. Louisiana is admitted as a slave state. War is declared against England (June 18). Hull surrenders Detroit to the British (August 8). 394 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES The Essex captures British sloop Alert (August 13). The Constitution captures the Gucrriere (August 19). The Uuited States sloop Wasp captures the British brig Frolic (October). Uusuccessful attempts are made to invade Canada. 1813. "Wel)ster enters Congress. The United States ship Hornet captures the British sloop Peacock. The United States frigate Chesapeake is captured by the British frigate Shannon. Unsuccessful attempts are again made to invade Canada. Perry defeats the British on Lake Erie (September 10) . American privateers injure British commerce. The British are defeated in the Battle of the Thames (October 5). 1814. Jackson defeats the Indians at Horseshoe Bend (March 27). General Brown defeats the British at Chippewa (July 5). Brown defeats the British at Lundy's Lane (July 25). The British capture the capital and burn the govern- ment buildings (August 24). The Hartford Convention assembles (December 15). The treaty of peace is signed at Ghent, Belgium (December 24). 1815. Jackson defends New Orleans (January 8). Decatur brings the Barbary States to terms. Archbishop Carroll dies. 1816. Indiana is admitted as a free state. The first protective tariff is passed. The Second Bank is chartered. James Monroe's Administration (1817-1825) — Democratic-Re- publican. 1817. James Monroe is inaugurated as the fifth President. Mississippi is admitted as a slave state. CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW 395 William Cullen Biyaiit begins his work as poet aiul editor. The Erie Canal, extending from Albany to Buffalo, is begun. Jackson subdues the Seminoles in Florida. 1818. Illinois is admitted as a free state. A treaty is made with England, providing joint occu- pancy of the Oregon country. 1819. Florida is purchased from Spain for five million dollars. Alabama is admitted as a slave state. The first steamboat. The Savannah, crosses the Atlantic. Washington Irving begins his work as historian, novelist, and descriptive writer, 18120. The Missouri Compromise is passed. Maine is admitted as a free state. Monroe is almost unanimously re-elected. James Fenimore Cooper begins his work as novelist. 1821. Missouri is admitted as a slave state. Mexico declares her independence of Spain. 1822. The American Colonization Society founds Liberia in Africa. 1828. President Monroe declares the Monroe Doctrine. 1824. Lafayette visits America. Western Indian Missions are renewed. A new Protective Tariff Bill is passed. John Q. Adams's Administration (1825-1829) — National Re- publican. 1825. John Q. Adams is inaugurated as the sixth President. The Erie Canal is opened. 1826. Jefferson and John Adams die (July 4). Nathaniel Hawthorne begins his work as writer of romance. 1827. The first passenger railroad, extending from Baltimore to Ellicott's Mills, is in construction. 396 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Edgar A, Poe begins his work as poet and story-teller. 1828. The Tariff of Abominations is passed by Congress. Andrew Jackson's Administration (1829-1837) — Democratic. 1829. Andrew Jackson is inaugurated as the seventh President. First Provincial Council is held in Baltimore. The Spoils System is introduced. 1830. Joseph Smith founds the sect of Mormons. Oliver W. Holmes and Henry W. Longfellow begin their work as poets and prose writers. Webster and Hayne hold their famous debate in Congress. 1831. James Monroe dies (July 4). William Lloyd Garrison begins the Abolitionist agita- tion by the publication of the "Liberator." 1832. Charles Carroll of Carrollton dies. General Scott defeats the Indians in the Black Hawk War. Congress passes a new tariff act. South Carolina passes the Nullification Ordinance. Jackson is re-elected. 1833. Clay's Tariff Compromise is passed. Jackson removes the public funds from the National Bank. 1835. A great fire occurs in New York City (December). George Bancroft begins his work as American his- torian. Ralph Waldo Emerson begins his work as a writer. 1836. General Houston defeats Santa Anna at San Jacinto. Texas declares her independence. Arkansas is admitted as a slave state. James Madison dies (June 28). 1837. Michigan is admitted as a free state. The United States acknowledges Texan independence. CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW 397 Martin Van Buren's Presidency (1837-1841) — Democratic. Martin Van Buren is inaugurated as the eighth President. A great business panic takes place. A rebellion occurs in Canada. 1838. Catholic missions are established in Oregon. 1840. Congress passes the sub-treasury bill. Harrison-Tyler Administrations (1841-1845) — Whigs. 1841. William H. Harrison is inaugurated as the ninth President. Father De Smet establishes a mission among the Flathead Indians. Harrison dies (April 4). Tyler assumes office as the tenth President. Congress repeals the Sub-treasury Bill. 1842. Dorr's Rebellion occurs in Rhode Island. The northeastern boundary of the United States is fixed by the Webster-Ashburton Treaty with England. James Russell Lowell begins his work as poet and essayist. 1844. The Anti-rent difficulties occur in New York. Samuel F. B. Morse erects from Baltimore to Washing- ton the first successful electric telegraph line in the world. Native American riots occur in Philadelphia. The Mormons set out for Utah ; Smith is killed. 1845. Florida is admitted as a slave state. Texas is admitted as a slave state. James K. Polk's Administration (1845-1849) — Democratic. James K. Polk is inaugurated as the eleventh Presi- dent. 1846. The Mexicans are defeated by Taylor in the battles of Palo Alto and Resaea de la Palma. War with Mexico is declared. Elias Howe invents the sewing machine. 398 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES Iowa is admitted as a free state. Fremont conquers California. Kearny conquers New Mexico. Taylor captures Monterey. Agassiz begins his scientific work as geologist in America. By treaty with England the Oregon boundary is fixed at 49°. Mary Immaculate is chosen the patroness of the United States. 1847. Taylor defeats Santa Anna at Buena Yista. Scott takes Vera Cruz and the City of Mexico. 1848. A treaty of peace is made with Mexico at Guadaloupe Hidalgo. Gold is d^covered in California. "Wisconsin is admitted as a free state. John Q. Adams dies (February 23). Taylor-Fillmore Administrations (1849-1853) — Whigs. 1849. Zachary Taylor is inaugurated as the twelfth Presi- dent. Congress organizes the Department of tlie Interior to provide for the management of the new territories. A struggle for the admission of California takes place. Francis Parkman begins his vv^ork as American his- torian. William H. Seward, Jeflt'erson Davis, and Charles Sumner enter the Senate. 1850. President Taylor dies (July 9). Millard Fillmore assumes office as the thirteenth President. California is admitted as a free state. The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty is made. John C. Calhoun dies (March 31). Personal Liberty Laws are passed. CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW 39!) The Underground Railway is organized. 1851. Lopez and his filibustering companions are executed at Havana. 1852. The First Plenary Council meets at Baltimore. Henry Clay dies (June 28). Daniel Webster dies (October 24). Uncle Tom's Cahin is published. Franklin Pierce's Administration (1853-1857) — Democratic. 1853. Franklin Pierce is inaugurated as the fourteenth President. The Gadsden Purchase is made. A World 's Fair is held at New York. The Know-nothing party is organized. 1854. The Kansas-Nebraska bill is passed. The Civil War in Kansas begins. Commodore Matthew C. Perry negotiates a treaty of trade with Japan. James Buchanan's Administration (1857-1861) — Democratic. 1857. James Buchanan is inaugurated as the fifteenth President. The Dred Scott Decision is made by the Supreme Court. A great business panic occurs. 1858. The Lincoln-Douglas debates take place. Minnesota is admitted as a free state. A civil war in Kansas ends in the framing of the constitution forbidding slavery. 1859. John Browm's Raid excites the country. Oregon is admitted as a free state. 1860. South Carolina passes an ordinance of secession. The Democratic party is split into a northern and a southern division. 1861. The Southern Confederacy is formed, and Jefferson Davis is chosen President. Kansas is admitted as a free state. PERIOD OF THE CIVIL WAR CHAPTER XXX ABRAHAM LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION REPUBLICAN— 1861-1865 THE WAR TO THE BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG (1861-1863) 500. Extent and Sig-nificance of the Civil War. The period of the Civil War extends from the breaking out of the war in 1861 to the surrender of the Confederate armies in 1865. It in- cludes the events of the gigantic conflict between the northern and the southern sections of the Union, w^hich ended in the per- petuation of the Union and the abolition of slavery. 501. Lincoln's Inauguration. Rumors of a plot to assassinate Lincoln induced him, on the advice of his friends, to make a quick and secret night journey through Baltimore to the- Federal capital, where he was inaugurated the next morning (March 4, 1861) without any disturbance. Perhaps never before and never since was a President's inaugural address so eagerly looked forw^ard to, as was that of Abraham Lincoln, our first Republican President. In simple words he declared that his aim was to preserve the Union, which should be perpetual and from which no state could lawfully withdraw; that he had no intention of inter- fering with slavery in the states where it existed ; and that he would faithfully execute the laws of the Union in all the states, and hold, occupy, and possess all property and places belonging to the government. He closed wdth an appeal to the South in the words: "You have no oath registered in Heaven to 400 LINCOLN AND HIS SON "TAD- ABRAHAM LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 401 destroy the government, while I shall have a most solemn one to preserve, protect, and defend it." The President's address found great favor in the North, since it made the saving of the Union, instead of the opposition to slavery, the great issue. Even Douglas, with his numerous followers, heartily applauded and enthusiastically supported Lincoln in his noble purpose of preserving the Union. Though the people had not yet learned to trust the judgment of this untutored President from the West, his election proved to be most fortunate, and Lincoln is now ranked among the greatest of our Presidents. For his Cabinet, Lincoln chose only men of distinguished ability. In this choice, as also in his inaugural address, he planned to unite the political factions of the Union. He selected : William H. Seward of New York, a former Whig and his greatest rival for the presidency, as Secretary of State ; Salmon P. Chase of Ohio, a Free-Soil Democrat, and also a strong candidate for the presidency, as Secretary of the Treasury, and Edwin M. Stanton of Ohio, a Democrat Unionist, as Secretary of War. All the other members, except one, were chosen from the states bordering the Confederate section, which were wavering in their allegiance to the Union. Naturally, these advisers, like those of Washington, did not all agree with the President on the great questions before the country. With the completion of Lincoln's Cabinet the two governments stood face to face, each waiting for the other to strike the first blow. 502. Comparative Strength and Resources of the Opposing Sections. Before taking up the study of the Civil War it will be well to compare the advantages and resources of the two sections. The twenty-three Union states had a population of about twenty-two million, of which half a million were slaves, while the eleven Confederate states had a population of about nine million, and of these three and one-half million were slaves. The slaves carried no arms, but they could furnish the armies with supplies and work in the camp. 402 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES The North, owing to her industrial system, had more wealth and a greater number of able business men than the South, where the money and business enterprises were chiefly in the hands of a comparatively small number of planters. The North controlled the navy, had dockyards, and pos- sessed the financial ineans for building and repairing warships, with which it could shut up southern ports against aid from abroad ; while the fSouth, having put nearly all her energies into the cultivation of rice, cotton, sugar, and tobacco, had few sailors and no navy, and possessed but small means of building ships. In factories which supplied the soldiers with everything from blankets to cannon, as also in resources for food supplies, the North greatly surpassed the South, which was almost entirely dependent upon the North and European countries for its necessities of life. Hence, when severed from the North and shut off from Europe by blockaded ports, the South was no longer able to exchange its staple crop, cotton, for the things it needed, and in consequence was seriously crippled. The South had the majority of the best-known officers of the regular army who, with Jefferson Davis at the head, formed a group of talented West Point graduates. The southern people, as a rule, showed special aptitude for military pursuits, owing to their outdoor agricidtural life, constant use of fire- arms, and skill in horsemanship. The North, on the other liand, was a land of business men, and, with the exception of General Scott and a few other military leaders who remained loyal to the Union, was at first far inferior to the South in respect to experienced soldiers. The "boys in blue" found it a stupendous task to transform themselves into trained soldiers. The South, having obtained possession of large quantities of arms and ammunition, was prepared for war, while the northern people at large did not believe that war would really be brought about, and were entirely unprepared. John B. ABRAHAM LINCOLiN 's ADMINISTRATION 40!) Floj'd, Buehanairs Secretary of War, was a zealous secessionist and by his orders an immense quantity of muskets, cannon, amnumition, and other war stores had been transferred (1860) from northern to southern arsenals. The South could fight on her own soil near the sources of supplies. Her soldiers were familiar with every stream, hill, road, and wood. On the whole, the North and South were more evenly matched than is usually supposed. As to courage, ability, self-sacrifice, and loyalty to cause, the two sections were equal. The reason for the failure of the one and the success of the other may be found in the superior number of soldiers, in the greater resources, and in the industrial capacity of the North. The backwardness of the South in wealth and population must be attributed to slavery. The prosperity of the North was grounded on free and intelligent labor. The farmer and the working man labored with energy because the fruits of their efforts were their own. The rich man of the South did not need to work, and could devote his time to politics, literature, and social enjoy- ment. The slaves, laboring under compulsion and having nothing to gain by industry, worked slowly, carelessly, and stupidly. The poor among the whites, who to a great extent had grown up in belief that work was a disgrace and a sign of slavery, thus became a shiftless and thriftless portion of the community in the South. 503. Causes of the Civil War. Diverging interpretations of the (Constitution, different systems of labor in the North and the South, lack of intercourse between the two sections, and the increase of territory, led to the three great remote causes of the Civil War : (a) slavery; ( b ) the doctrine of states ' rights ; (c) the tariff question. 404 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES The immediate causes of the Civil War were : ((/) the election of Lincoln; (6) the secession of the southern states; (c) the attack on Fort Sumter. 504. Scene of the War. The war was fought principally south of Mason and Dixon's line and the Ohio River. The physical geography of the field of war had much to do with the outcome of the conflict. In the East, the South had the advantage for the following reasons : (a) the approach to Richmond from the north was rendered difficult by a number of bridgeless rivers, dangerous swamps, and dense forests ; (h) an attack on the city from the south would require a navy; (c) an attempt to capture it from the west would expose the Union army to the risk of being cut off from communi- cations and supplies; (d) the Shenandoah Valley was a sheltered highway, along which the Confederates could proceed and thence cross the Potomac to invade Maryland, and thus endanger the capital. The Shenandoah Valley afforded little advantage to the Union forces because its westward trend would carry them farther away from Richmond, the farther south they proceeded. In the West, the North had the following advantages: (a) broad waterways, such as the Tennessee and the Cumber- land rivers, led from the Union soil into the very heart of the Confederacy, while the Mississippi River afforded an opportunity for cutting the Confederacy in two. The South, lacking river steamers as well as the means to build them, was obliged to yield these advantages to the North ; (6) The North had control of Chesapeake Bay, and by its waters Union troops and supplies could be moved on toward Richmond. ABRAHAM LINCOLN S ADMINISTRATION 405 FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR— 1861 505. The Capture of Fort Sumter by the South. On the morning following his inauguration, Lincoln received word from Robert Anderson, who was in command of Fort Sumter, that without re-enforcements he could not hold the fort much longer. The Confederate forces, commanded by Beauregard, a distinguished soldier of the Mexican War, anticipating the re-enforcement of Fort Sumter, bombarded the garrison. Anderson, after a brave stand of thirty-four hours, made an honorable surrender (April 14, 1861) and embarked for New York, carrying with him the tattered flag under which he and his men had fought. *-^^fj^i^^ CASTLE PINCKNEY - 4^^gv^^ &FT,MOULtRiE fC^a :*'a»"*^ FT JOHNSON "■^«***>>'' • ,^S^''''' ^^&'''>*^§^ FT SUMTER f:7. Maior-Gcneral F. Gardner Chickamauga. Chickamauga, Ga Sept. 19-20. . . Maj.-Gen. W. Rosecrans s. Gen. B. Bragg Chattanooga. Chattanooga, Tonn. Nov. 2.3-25 . . . Maj.-Gen. U. Grant s. Gen. B. Bragg Knoxville .... Knoxville, Tcnn. Dec. 4 Mai. -Gen. A. Burnside E. Lieut. -General J. Longstreet POLITICAL AFFAIRS 548. The Draft Act. As the war dragged on, there was rapid decrease in the number of Union volunteers. Congress, under its constitutional power "to raise and support armies," re- sorted to a draft act, or Conscription Bill (March 3), to fill up the Union ranks. Accordingly, all able-bodied men between the ages of twenty and forty-five (later eighteen and forty-five) were enrolled by the Federal officers. If the quota assigned by Congress for each state was not supplied by volunteers after a certain period, the deficiency was made up by drawing names from a box as in a lottery. Exemptions from the draft might be secured by furnishing a substitute, or by paying five hundred dollars (later three hundred dollars). Any person not responding to the draft was treated as a deserter. Lincoln called for three hundred thousand troops in May, and in Octo- ber for three hundred thousand more. The drafting of these new levies aroused much ill-feeling in the North, especially among the laboring classes and those opposed to the war. In many places the officials were resisted. In New York (July) a "draft riot," by a great mob. controlled the city for several days, burning houses and killing negroes. The Federal troops 438 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES succeeded in dispersing the mob, but only after more than a thousand rioters had been killed. In the South, too, a draft act was issued, and here also it met with opposition. It included all able-bodied men between the ages of eighteen and forty-five (later seventeen and fifty). Con- sequently, all the industries of the Confederacy were left in the hands of men over fifty and of women and children. The draft act resulted in indescribable suffering. In this section there were at times five hundred negroes to a single white man, and yet through these dusky throngs the women and children walked in safety, and the unprotected homes remained unmo- lested. Though conscious that victory by the South would make their chains enduring, the negroes moved patiently to the fields in the morning to feed the armies, and at night gathered anxiously at the big house to "hear the news from the master." Supported by the Supreme Court and by Congress, President Lincoln issued an order (1862 and again in 1863) suspending the writ of habeas corpus in cases which concerned treasonal)le acts, disloyal speeches, prisoners of war, deserters, those resisting drafts, and offenders against military or naval service. Tlic many arbitrary arrests that were made after the suspension of the writ of habeas corpus caused much indignation throughout the count )"y. 549. Opposition to the War. By this time opposition to the war in tlie North was becoming very strong. Though many (Republicans and war Democrats) supported Lincoln's admin- istration, a great number of the people (peace Democrats) did not like emancipation, confiscation, the suspension of the writ of habeas corpus, and the suppression of newspapers. They saw in the President's procedures a dangerous one-man power. Besides, an immense debt was accumulating, taxation was be- coming heavy, thousands of lives were being sacrificed, and there was, as yet, no sign of the end of the conflict. A secret society, known as the "Knights of the Golden Circle," was organized for the purpose of opposing the war. lee's surrender at APPOMATTOX 439 Its members, known as "Copperheads" or "Butternuts," gen- erally sympathized with the South, They soon became very numerous in the states of Ohio and Indiana. 550. The Vallandigham Case. Clement L. Vallandigham, a former congressman from Ohio, and a most conspicuous oppo- nent of the draft act, was an extreme sympathizer with the Confederacy, and unsparingly denounced the President and the government. He was convicted and imprisoned by a mili- tary commission ai)pointed by General Burnside. Claiming to have been unlawfully convicted, he appealed to the Supreme Court, which, however, decided that it had no constitutional right to review proceedings ordered by a general officer of the United States army in time of war. Lincoln changed Vallan- digham 's sentence of imprisoniiu-nt to banishment to the Con- federacy. The exile, escaping in a blockade-runner, made his way to Canada. While there, he was nominated for the gov- ernorship of his state, but was defeated by a large majority. The next year he i-cturncd to Ohio, l)ut was not again molested. 551. Legal Tender and Banking Acts. Cougress passed (1862) the Legal Tender Act, which authorized the issue of small promissory notes, similar to bank notes; these, from their color, were called greenbacks. They were made legal tender, that is, any debtor could offer them instead of gold in discharge of a debt and the creditor was forced to accept them. It was felt that confidence in the government would be best sustained, and its bonds, or promises, more readily taken if the interest on the national debt could be paid in coin. To secure the necessary coin for this purpose, all customhouse duties or tariffs had to be paid in gold. This caused nearly all coin, even dimes and quarters, to disappear from circulation. For a short time postage stamps served as small change, but soon Congress issued little notes for the purpose. The value of the greenbacks fluctuated according to the extent of the people's faith that the government could ever redeem them, or again, according to the fortunes of the war — 440 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES a Federal victory raising their value, a Confederate success decreasing it. Thus the greenback dollar, which was equivalent to ninety-eight cents in 1862, fell to about seventy-five cents in 1863, and by July, 1864, it was worth scarcely more than thirty-five cents. Three hundred million dollars in greenbacks were issued and put into circulation during the Civil War. These greenbacks, or notes, are still in circulation, although they have, of course, been many times renewed. Congress during this year passed a National Bank Act by which a company of five or more persons with a certain amount of capital could establish a bank. The banking company was obliged to deposit government bonds as security in the United States treasury, and was permitted to issue notes to the extent of ninety per cent of its bonds. The government thus held the bonds as security for the notes in case of the bank's failure. This National Bank Act attained three great objects : (a) it secured a market for national bonds; (h) it provided the country with a uniform and safe currency; (c) it established the confidence of the people in the government. Salmon P. Chase, secretary of the treasury, was the author of the banking and legal tender acts, and subsequently became known as the "Father of Greenbacks." FOURTH AND LAST YEAR OF TUB WAR— 1804 552. Position of the Armies — Union Plan. At the beginning of 1864, the last year of the Avar, Grant was made commander- in-chief of all the Union armies on both sides of the Alleghanies. He assumed direct control of the operations in Virginia and confided the armies of the "West, centered at Chattanooga, to General Sherman. The Confederates had now but two chief centers of power — one at Dalton, Georgia, under the direction of General Johnston, and another at Richmond, Virginia, under General Lee. Early in the spring, Grant and Sherman met to arrange a plan for final movements. Sherman with an army of one hundred thousand men, was lee's surrender at APPOMATTOX 441 to defeat Johnston and march to the sea, while Grant, with one hundred and twenty thousand men, was to move to Virginia and attack Lee. Thus cooperating, they were to march forth on the same day (May 4) in order to prevent the Confederate forces from giving aid to one another. CAMPAIGN,^ IN TENNESSEE AND GEORGIA 553. Federal Capture of Atlanta. In accordance with the plans of the two Union generals, Sherman moved from Chat- tanooga against Johnston, who was strongly intrenched at Dalton, Georgia. After outflanking Johnston at numerous places and defeating him in the pitched battles of Dalton, Resaca, Dallas, and Kenesaw Mountain, he at length, after a perilous four-month march, reached Atlanta, having sustained a loss of over thirty-one thousand men. Georgia was the workshop, the storehouse, granary, and arsenal of the Confederacy, and Atlanta was the center from which all the necessaries were furnished to the southern armies. Hence, by capturing it, the Union forces would strike the Con- federacy an almost fatal blow. Its capture, however, was not an easy task. The Union center of supplies was Nashville, over a himdred miles from Chattanooga, and every mile of advance by the Federal troops into Georgia took them farther away from their base of supplies. To add to the difficulty, the coun- try was rough and mountainous ; there was, furthermore, only a single line of railway over which supplies for the army could be transported, and Sherman was, consequently, compelled to leave parts of his army to protect this line against the enemy. At this juncture, the Confederate government, disapproving of Johnston's policy of constant retreat, appointed Hood to supersede him. Hood proved as rash as Johnston had been cautious. He made three tremendous attacks upon Sherman at Atlanta, only to be defeated and finally compelled to evacu- ate the city. Hood now started northwestward toward Nash- ville, hoping thus to draw Sherman back to Tennessee. 442 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Sherman, suspecting Hood's strategy, sent Thomas to hold Nashville, and followed Hood just long enough to be sure that he was really moving. He then returned to Atlanta, tear- ing up railroads and cutting telegraph wires as he went. 554. Sherman's Majrch. After burning Atlanta Sherman - farted out on his three hundred-mile march to the sea. His array of sixty thousand men, marching in four columns, covered a path sixty miles in width. Eailroads were torn up ; buildings were burned ; crops were de- stroyed; in fact, the whole region was left a barren waste to both man and beast. By the middle of December, Sherman, having reached the sea, stormed Port McAllister, which guarded Savannah, and a week later captured the city itself. The effect of this march to the sea was of great importance to the North. The eastern part of the already sundered Con- federacy was again cut in two, and immense supplies of provisions were captured. Sherman sent the news of the capture of Savannah to the President in the following message: "I beg to present you as a Christmas gift the city of Savannah, with one hundred and fifty heavy guns and plenty of ammunition; also about twenty-five thousand bales of cotton." 555. The Federal Victory at Nashville. Hood, having tried in vain to draw Sherman from Georgia, crossed the Tennessee, CHATTANOOGA TO ATLANTA LEE S SURRENDER AT APPOMATTOX 443 NORTK CAR 0^ IN A "'b Vverysborh* ,\^ Be'ntoiil-ille , and after severe fighting at Franklin, pnshed on to Nashville, where he shut up General Thomas within the fortifications. Thomas, after waiting two weeks, suddenly attacked Hood (De- cember). The desperate two days' battle which followed re- sulted in the defeat of the entire Confederate army and ended the war in the West. 556. Sherman Marches Northward. General Sherman, after his army had rested for about a month, started (February) northward toward the Carolinas to join Grant in Virginia. On his way thither he passed through South Carolina and cap- tured Columbia, its capital. In order to strengthen Johnston's army in checking Sherman's advance, the Confederates were now obliged to evacuate Charleston. Thence Sher- man proceeded northward, encoun- tering the Confederates at Averys- boro and Bentonville and compelling them to withdraw to Raleigh. He now moved on unmolested to Golds- boro, where he was joined by General Schofield. General Johnston surren- dered Raleigh a few days later, and the Union forces advanced toward Washington to join General Grant in Virginia. 557. Situation of Grant's Forces — His Plan. It will be re- membered that all the Union forces were to advance on the same day (May 4), and that each was to keep its opponent so occupied that one Confederate army could not re-enforce the other. Thus it was hoped the war could be ended in the course of the summer. We have already followed Sherman on his march to the sea. Let us now return to Grant on the Rapi- dan. His plan of advance against Lee in Virginia was three- fold : he himself would move direetlv toward Riclnnond, attack- yUerjiian's Blarcli Xortli 444 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ing Lee at every favorable opportunity on the way thither; at the same time General Butler was to move against Richmond by the James River ; while Franz Sigel was to confront the enemy in the Shenandoah Valley. 558. The Indecisive Battles of the Wilderness and Spottsyl- vania. Grant's army of about one hundred and twenty thou- sand, when at length ready for the final movement on Rich- mond, crossed the river (May) and entered the Wilderness, a densely wooded region south of Chancellorsville. Here the two armies met in a hotly contested, but undecisive, two days' battle. After the second day's fighting. Grant telegraphed President Lincoln, "I pro- pose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer." He meant that he would hammer and batter Lee's lines until he broke through by sheer fighting force and weight of numbers. Thisi process of fighting was costing Grant two or three men to Lee's one. After a day's rest in thej Wilderness, Grant marched toward Richmond and again en- countered Lee in another battle of two days' terrible fighting at Spottsylvania Courthouse. The battles of the Wilderness and Spottsylvania were among the bloodiest of the war. In the Wilderness, the timber and undergrowth rendered all orderly movement of the troops impossible. The opposing|( forces mowed each other down with the most deadly fire. Had the battle of Spottsylvania continued another day, it would have surpassed that of Gettysburg in loss of life. Tlie IVllderness District. m^sm£!M&tiv-iij' r^Si&^^M ^^^cl fairly consulted The matter was still pending when Cleve- land succeeded to the presidency. C 1 e v e- land investigated the state of affairs, and, finding that the Americans had again violated Washing- ton 's polic}^ by tak- ing sides in the re- bellion, and that they had unfairly treated a weak power, opposed the annexation of the islands. His at- tempt, however, to restore the queen to power failed. The independent republic which the Hawaiians organized (1894) continued until the United States (1898) finally took control of Hawaii. The islands were organized into the Territory of Hawaii in 1900. Cleveland's Hawaiian policy called forth some stinging criticisms. It is now, however, generally ad- mitted that his attitude in the affair Avas admirable. Catholicity has made considerable progress in Hawaii. There are many churches and schools in charge of Religious. Besides GROUNDS OF OAHU COLLEGE, HONOLULU, HAWAII WILLIAM Mckinley's administration 523 the work of education, Catholic charity has also taken upon itself the care of the lepers, for whom the Hawaiian govern- ment set apart the island of Molokai. Here lal)ored the heroic and self-sacrificing Father Damien, the apostle of the lepers, and here still labor his devoted successors. 673. The Monroe Doctrine and Venezuela. Cleveland soon had an opportunity to show the critics of his Hawaiian policy that he was capable of determined action. A boundary dis- pute of long standing between Venezuela and British Guiana induced the President to apply the Monroe Doctrine. Great Britain was apparently trying to secure territory from Venez- uela not rightfully belonging to her and refused both the appeal of Venezuela and the advice of the United States to settle affairs by arbitration. For a while war seemed immi- nent. Cleveland in a special message to Congress declared that the Monroe Doctrine must be respected and that the United States was bound to resist in every possible manner the encroachments of Great Britain on Venezuela. Congress forgot its party differences and unanimously supported the President. England finally agreed to arbitration and matters were peaceably adjusted. Cleveland's quick move and unfal- tering position at once won for him great popular favor. 674. Other Measures of Cleveland's Administration. Con- gress repealed (1894) the Force Bill, which, passed in 1870, had been the cause of much bitter feeling and strife in the South. Cleveland extended the Civil Service Law by placing a great many more Federal officials under the examination system provided for by the Civil Service Keform Act of 1892. Utah, though possessing, a population of two hundred and seven thousand (1890), had been refused admission to the Union as a state because of the existence of polygamy among the Mormons in that territory. It was, however, finally ad- mitted (1896) as the forty-fifth state, after the adoption of a state constitution prohibiting polygamy. 524 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Eelatioiis between the United States and Spain were some- what strained during Cleveland's administration because of affairs in Cuba. Successive governors of this island were un- able to suppress an insurrection, which was secretly assisted by American money and by Cuban filibustering expeditions equipped in American harbors. 675. World's Columbian Exposition. Under Cleveland's sec- ond administration, the World's Columbian Exposition was held (1893) in Chicago. It commemorated the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America by Columbus. This international exposition far surpassed all previous ones of the kind in completeness and magnificence. The chief object of this fair, which was to give evidence of the great progress in civilization during the past four centuries, was most suc- cessfully accomplished. It not only gave proofs of the growth of our people in the industrial lines, but also showed that the Americans might justly be proud of their wonderful intellec- tual advancement. All the states and the leading foreign nations were represented by special palaces in the "White City," as the group of exposition buildings was called. 676. Strikes — Riots — Boycotts. Great panics lead to strikes and vagrancy. Such was the case after the panic of 1893. A certain horse-dealer named Coxey gathered a so-called "indus- trial army," composed of workingmen, tramps, criminals, and the unemployed of all classes. This "army" began its march from Ohio to Washington to demand relief from the govern- ment. Similar "armies" set out from Texas and th« Pacific states. They managed to reach the national capital, where they achieved nothing, and soon disbanded. Several thousand workmen employed by the Pullman Car Company, at Pullman, near Chicago, struck for higher wages, and boycotts occurred on more than twenty railroads running out of Chicago. The employees of these railroads struck in order to prevent the use of Pullman cars until the company should raise the wages of their laborers. Business was sus- GROVER Cleveland's second administration 525 pended in Chicago, and travel became dangerous. Meat and other provisions could not be transported. Trade and indus- try were thrown into confusion and much railroad property destroyed. The money losses amounted to not less than seven million dollars. A force combined of United States troops and state militia finally restored order after a number of weeks. 677. The Bryan-McKinley Campaign. The campaign of 1896, known as the "silver campaign," or the "battle of the two standards," gold and silver, was one of the most exciting and memorable campaigns in our recent history. It was generally believed that the hard times during Cleveland's administra- tion were caused chiefly by the repeal of the Sherman Act, and the subsequent fall in the price of silver, as well as by the low average of the protective tariff provided for by the "Wilson Act. Consequently, when the time of election drew near, it became evident that the main issues of the campaign would be the tariff and silver coinage. The Republican national convention met at St. Louis and nominated William McKinley of Ohio on a platform which declared for protection and reciprocity, and rejected the free coinage of silver, except by international agreement. The Democrats met at Chicago and named William Jennings Bryan of Nebraska on a platform strongly demanding an unlimited coinage of silver and gold at a ratio of sixteen to one. The Populists, or People's party, in their convention at St. Louis accepted the presidential nominee of the Democrats. The "gold" Democrats, under the name of National Democrats, met at Indianapolis and nominated J. M. Palmer of Illinois, on a platform declaring for a single gold standard. CHAPTER XXXIX WILLIAM MCKINLEY'S ADMINISTEATION REPUBLICAN— 1S97-1901 678. McKinley and Hobart Are Elected. At the election of 1896, William McKinley was elected by a majority of ninety- five electoral votes over William J. Bryan. Gar- ret A. Hobart was chosen Vice-president. William McKinley (1843-1901) was a na- tive of Ohio. In the Civil War he rose to the rank of major; later he served as congressman from his state. Well educated, gentle, and dignified of character, he endeared himself to the people by his blame- less private life, rare tact, and higlj. executive ability. As a politician he was keen and far- sighted and knew how to win the esteem and respect of his opponents. His presidential administration, though successful on the whole, was overshadowed by issues resulting from the Spanisli War and the acquisition of out- lying possessions. .52G WILLIAM McKINLEY WILLIAM Mckinley's administration 527 679. The Dingley Tariff. The Wilson Tariff Act did not secure sufficient revenue to meet the needs of the government ; hence, a few days after his inauguration, President McKinh^y called an extra session of Congress to consider the revision of the tariff. As a result, the Dingley Tariff Bill, presented by Representative Dingley, was finally passed after much oppo- sition from the Senate (1897). This act, in accordance with the policy of the party in power, was thoroughly protective, and raised the duties to the highest average known in our history (to over fifty per cent). Free trade on articles not manufactured in our country was again provided for. 680. The Monetary Commission. In order to meet the de- mand of the monetary plank in the Republican platform of the campaign, the President appointed a monetary commission composed of three members, with Senator Wolcott of Colorado as chairman, to confer and if possible to reach an agreement with other countries concerning an international basis for the coinage of gold and silver. As England refused to enter into any negotiations, and as India had already suspended silver coinage, the commission did not attain the desired purpose. If it had succeeded, current coin would have had uniform value in the countries included in the international union. 681. The Gold Standard Act. The Republicans, in their platform of 1896, favored the maintenance of a "gold stand- ard," but owing to the fact that the majority in the Senate was composed of Democrats and silver Republicans, it was difficult for the party to effect any monetary reform. An act was, however, finally passed (1900) which definitely adopted the "gold standard;" made provisions for the increase of the gold reserve fund to one hundred and fifty million dollars; provided for the establishment of national banks in smaller towns and villages, and authorized the Secretary of the Treas- ury to issue long-time two per cent bonds, and with the income of these to pay the shorter time three, four, and five per cent bonds. 528 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES The "gold standard bill" provides that the dollar contain- ing twenty-five and eight-tenths grains of gold, nine-tenths pure, shall be the standard unit of value, and that all forms of money issued or coined by the United States shall be main- tained at a parity of value with this standard. It imposes on the Secretary of the Treasury the duty of maintaining this parity. The two per cent refunding measure proved to be very suc- cessful. The significance of this measure may be seen from the fact that during its operation, the bonds of the United States bore lower interest than those of any other country; hence, for the first time in the history of the United States its credit was the best in the world. THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR 682. The United States' Interest In Cuba. The problems of tariff revision and monetary reform were serious questions, but a grave international complication soon absorbed much of the thought and energy of the nation. Under the Queen- Mother Christina, regent for Alphonso XIII, Spain's difficul- ties with the United States about Cuba finally resulted in the Spanish-American "War in 1898. Cuba and Porto Rico were the only possessions left to Spain in the New World after the loss of her colonies on the main- land of the American continent. From the time that Florida became a part of the United States, our government had taken a deep interest in Cuba, as it feared that it might pass from Spain to more aggressive hands, especially England or France. Cuba had, furthermore, previous to the Civil War, been much coveted by the southern slave power. President Polk (1848) offered Spain one hundred million dollars for Cuba, but that nation promptly rejected the offer. 683. Conditions in Cuba. Cuba, taken from Spain by the Englisli (1762), was, by the Treatj^ of Paris, returned to its original owner in exchange for Florida. From this time the WILLIAM Mckinley's administration 529 progress of the island was rapid under the reforms instituted by Luis Las Casas, the Spanish captain-generaL During the nineteenth century, the Cubans were governed by a succession of captains-general, some of whom were honorable in their ad- ministrations, others of whom seemed to regard the office solely as a means of acquiring a fortune. A deadly hatred grew up between the Cubans and the Spaniards, which was caused by oppressive measures. These deprived the native Cubans of political and civil liberty, excluded them from public office, and burdened them with taxation. This resulted in repeated uprisings and a rebellion which, secretly supported in America, devastated Cuba for a period of ten years (1868-1878), Spain then promised the Cubans representation in the legislature, together with other needed reforms. Many of her promises were, however, not kept and a new revolt broke out (1895). Three successive governors-general, Campos, Weyler, and Blanco, were unable to suppress the insurrection, which was again secretly supported by American money and Cuban fili- bustering expeditions equipped in American harbors. The methods of the Spanish authorities in putting down the rebellion were barbarous and resulted in widespread desola- tion. The non-combatants of the rural population that sym- pathized with the insurgents were compelled to leave their homes and move to the nearest towns, where thousands died of starvation and disease. Congress voted that supplies be for- warded to the suffering Cubans, and members of the Red Cross Society, led by Clara Barton, went to Cuba to relieve distress. 684. Self-Government in Cuba. The sympathy of the United States was naturally Avith the Cubans : many Americans re- sided in Cuba; American capital was invested there, and our commerce with the island amounted to several million dollars a year. Hence, President McKinley undertook by diplomacy to bring Spain and the Cubans to agree upon terms of peace. 685. The Explosion of the Maine. The United States gov- ernment, in fact, the entire American people, were watching 580 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES Cuban affairs with intense interest, when, on the night of Feb- ruary 15, 1898, a terrific explosion destroyed the United States battleship Maine in Havana harbor. Two officers and two hun- dred and sixty-six sailors went down with the vessel. Captain Sigsbee of the Maine, in his official dispatch to Secretary of the Navy Long, advised that public opinion be suspended. A naval court of inquiry, appointed by the President, finally reported that the disaster was in no way due to fault or neg- ligence on the part of the officers or members of the crew of the Maine, and that there was no evidence to suggest that the Spanish government or any of her officials were concerned in the matter. The Spanish authorities rendered every kindly service within their power to Captain Sigsbee and the surviv- ors. Sensationalists at once made use of the event to inflame the minds of the people against Spain, and the probability of peace or war between this country and the United States was at once openly discussed. In 1911 the Maine was raised at great expense for the pur- pose of ascertaining whether it was destroyed by a torpedo mine from without or by an explosion from within. Upon investigation, an official statement was made which substan- tially agreed with that of Captain Sigsbee, made some weeks after the disaster (1898), namely, that the Maine was first blown up from without, although the explosion of her own magazines a moment later caused her complete destruction. Notwithstanding the official but interested report of the gov- ernment, an opinion, supported by weighty marine authority, is still common that the explosion was caused by an over- heated magazine beneath the decks of the Maine, 686. Summary of Causes — Declaration of War. The Span- ish-American War was of short duration (April 25, 1898-De- cember 10, 1898). Its causes may be briefly summed up as follows : Remote — The long existing desire in the United States that Spanish rule in Cuba be ended. The opportunity to bring this WUjIJAM McKINI.EY's ADMINISTRATK^N 531 about was seen in tlie uprisings, rebellions, and bardships oecasioned by tbe ai'bitrary rule of the Spanisli eaptains- general. Immediate — A series of resolutions passed by both Houses of Congress (April 19, anniversary of Lexington and Concord) which declared : that the Cubans ought to be free and inde- pendent: that Spain must withdraw her troops from the island, and that tbe President be authorized to use the army and navy of the United States to compel Spain to relinquish her author- ity over Cuba. By another clause of the resolution, the United States promised to leave the government of the island to its people after its independence was achieved. Spain was given five days to consider the resolutions. She replied by recalling her minister at Washington and dismiss- ing the American minister from Madrid. As this action was equivalent to a declaration of war, Congress declared that war existed (April 25, 1898). The President called for two hun- dred thousand volunteers. Many times that number offered their services. Congress promptly appropriated fifty million dollars toward carrying on the war. The forts along the Atlantic were strengthened and protected by mines. A part of the American fleet under acting Rear Admiral Sampson was sent to blockade Havana ; another part, under Commodore Winfield Scott Schley, was organized into a "flying squadron" to search for a Spanish fleet in command of Admiral Cervera, which was reported to have left the Cape Verde Islands. 687. Cervera 's Fleet in Santiago Harbor. No one knew whether Cervera was bound for Cuba or whether he intended to surprise the cities on our eastern coast. Commodore Schley finally discovered the fleet in Santiago harbor, whither it had taken refuge to procure coal and other supplies. This harbor, known as "Cloverleaf Bay," opens through a narrow channel into the ocean. It was strongly fortified and well laid with mines, and consequently it would have been unwise for an attacking fleet to enter it. Sampson and Schley disposed all 532 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES their available vessels about tlie entrance of Santiago harbor and exercised a vigilant watch over Cervera's fleet. 688. Hobson's Exploit. As it was feared that Cervera's fleet might by some means escape in spite of the vigilance of Sampson and Schley, Ensign Richmond Hobson volunteered to close the harbor by sinking the coaling vessel Merrimac in the entrance to the harbor. With six brave companions, in the face of a terrific fire from the Spanish batteries, he succeeded in steaming the collier to a narrow part of the channel, where he sunk it. The vessel, however, did not block the entrance. Hobson and his men, who had thrown themselves into the water, were captured by Cervera, but were kindly treated by him in consideration of their bravery. 689. The Battle of Manila. Before a decisive engagement occurred at Cuba, the most far-reaching event of the war took place in the Philippine Islands. Commodore George Dewey, commanding an American fleet which was then at anchor in Hong-Kong harbor, was ordered to attack the Spanish fie 't in the Philippines. He set sail immediately, and Sunday morning, May 1, entered Manila Bay, the chief harbor of the islands. After a masterly attack, he destroyed the enemy's fleet of eleven vessels. The Spanish sustained a heavy loss of life, while the American fleet lost neither in life nor ships. Dewey proceeded to blockade the city of Manila and then awaited the arrival of General Merritt with twenty thousand troops from San Francisco. A few weeks later (August 13) Manila and the islands surrendered. President McKinley ap- pointed Dewey rear admiral and later he was given the high- est rank in the navy — that of admiral — while Commodores Sampson and Schley were made rear admirals. 690. The Capture of Santiago — Destruction of Cervera's Fleet. Meantime, General W. R. Shafter with an array of eighteeii thousand men had landed at a point a few miles dis- tant from Santiago, to cooperate with Captain Sampson in the capture of the city. The outer line of defense at El Caney and WILLIAM Mckinley's administration 533 San Juan was taken by assault (July 1), and the Spanish troops driven into Santiago, which city was then practically at the mercy of the American army. Cervera sought safety by making a wild dash out of the harbor on the morn- ing of July 2. The Americans gave chase with deadly fire. In a wild running fight every vessel of the Spanish fleet was either captured or sunk. The American vessels suffered little damage. Some six hundred Spaniards were killed or wounded and one thousand taken prisoners, while the Ameri- cans had but one man killed and three wounded. The presence of General Shaffer's army before the city of Santiago and the loss of Cervera 's fleet convinced the Spanish authorities of the uselessness of further resistance, and a few days later the Spanish commander, Toral, surrendered (July 14). General Shaffer's force was composed chiefly of regular soldiers, but included as volunteers a regiment of "Eough Riders" known as "The First Regiment of United States Vol- unteer Cavalry," who fought on foot. Leonard Wood was appointed colonel, and Theodore Roosevelt, who resigned his position as Assistant Secretary of the Navy for the purpose, lieutenant colonel. 691. Miles in Porto Rico — Treaty of Peace. Immediately after the destruction of Cervera 's fleet. General Nelson A. Miles, then at the head of the army of the United States, proceeded to Porto Rico and took possession of several towns with little difficulty. Hostilities were stopped suddenly, how- ever (August 11, 1898), by news from Washington that a treaty of peace had been drawn up and signed by the two nations. By the treaty Spain gave up all claim to Cuba, which she had held for four hundred years, and ceded to the United States Porto Rico, the island of Guam, and the Philip- pine Archipelago, for the sum of twenty million dollars. 692. Results of the War — Reconstruction of Cuba and Porto Rico. The Spanish-American war cost the United States one hundred and thirty million dollars and the loss of two hundred 534 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES and ninety -five men killed in battle, and it ended Spanish rule in the Western Hemisphere. The United States occupied the island of Cuba, January 1, 1899, and appointed a military governor, pending the organ- ization of a native government. This was established when Don Tomas Estrada Palma was inaugurated as president (May 20, 1902). With this event Cuba became a republic under the protection of the United States, which retained the right of a general supervision of the foreign affairs of the THATCHED HUTS IN POKTO RICO island. Porto Rico, as one of the spoils of the war, was organized as a United States dependency under a territorial form of government (May, 1900). With the American occupation of Cuba, annual payments by the government to the Church for religious purposes ceased. The long discussion and investigation which ensued because of this ended in an adjustment, by a judicial commission (1902), in favor of the claims of the Church. 693. War Contiimes in the Philippines — Outcome. At. the time of American occupancy of the Philippines, the natives of the islands, under the leadership of Emilio Aguinaldo, were WILLIAM Mckinley's administration 535 in revolt against Spain, and had set up a revolutionary govern- ment. They welcomed and aided the American troops, but upon finding that independence was denied them at the close of the war they took up arms against the Americans. Several years of bush or guerrilla fighting followed. A great many natives were killed, and United States troops finally occupied nearly all of the island of Luzon ; Aguinaldo was captured and soon after swore allegiance to the United States. With this event hostilities ceased, and President McKinley (Jul}^ 4, 1899) declared by proclamation the restoration of peace in the Philippines and extended a general amnesty to the former insurgents. William Howard Taft was then appointed governor of the islands, and during his term of office an honest and stable government was established. In the Philippines there had been the strictest union of Church and State for more than three centuries, which fact naturally brought difficulties under the new American govern- ment. The most important problem was that of the religious orders and their relations to the native races. The cry for their banishment and spoliation could not be listened to, since there were some five million Catholics dependent on their ministrations. The record of the friars was a glorious one, and to their rule the natives of the island owed their excep- tional prosperity; for these friars had transformed them from a barbarous Malay race into Christian people, and from the lowest grade of savagery had advanced them to a high form of civili;^tion. At the beginning of the American occupation of the islands, officers of the United States, with a lew praiseworthy excep- tions, looked on with indifference, or even approval, while numerous churches were desecrated and robbed ; while the natives were encouraged not to submit to ecclesiastical author- ity; while the press attacked the Church and the Religious. Hence, to come to some satisfactory understanding, President Roosevelt finally entrusted Governor Taft of the Philippines 536 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES with a mission to the Vatican. In the Eternal City negotia- tions were entered into between Governor Taft and a com- mission of five Cardinals, and a mutual understanding was reached between the Vatican and the American government regarding the management of Philippine affairs. 694. International Peace Conference. In response to an invitation by the Russian Czar to an international conference, all the principal nations of the world sent (1899) prominent delegates to The Hague, in Holland. The paramount object of this congress was the consideration and adoption of some method whereby international differences might be settled by arbitration rather than by war. The crowning act of the convention was the establishment of an International Court of Arbitration at The Hague, in which fifteen of the world's foremost nations are represented. 695. The Settlement of the Samoan Trouble— Tutuila. The United States, Great Britain, and Germany assumed (1889) the rule of the Samoan Islands by joint agreement. This joint occupation occasioned, however, continual insurrections against the native rulers and many vexatious differences be- tween the jointly ruling countries; but matters were adjusted by a final treaty (1899), according to which Great Britain relinquished her interests in the Samoan group and the islands were divided between Germany and the United States. Four of them, including Tutuila, the largest of the group, and Pango Pango, which had the best harbor in the Pacific, were allotted to the United States. The islands of Christmas, Baker, Midway, Wake, and Howland, lying in the Pacific, and never claimed by any power, were also annexed to the United States. These islands, especially Tutuila, serve the United States as convenient coaling, naval, and cable stations. With- out a coaling station in the Pacific the United States would be weak in a war with Asiatic powers. Her battleships would use up all the coal they could carry in order to cross the ocean, and since the warships of a nation at war are not allowed to WILLIAM Mckinley's administration 537 take on coal at neutral ports, they would be compelled to lie at anchor, inactive, till the close of the war. 696. "Open Door" with China— The Boxer Uprising. In 1900 the United States, through Secretary Hay, secured the so-called "open door" for our trade with China, by which the leading European powers and Japan agreed to grant free trade to all the world in the Chinese ports under their control. The Chinese Empire (a republic since 1912) had for centuries excluded from its domain all foreign influence and commercial relations. The leading nations of Europe, notwithstanding, secured from China, under one or another pretext, portions of her territory, and it was not improbable that the Chinese Empire would finally be partitioned among contending powers, which could at will place heavy duties on all goods entering the ports of China under their control. This would have meant the shut- ting out of American goods from Chinese ports. The aggression of the western nations, under the lead of Germany, whose purpose was to seize and partition the coast line of China, aroused a feeling of deep resentment among the Chinese. The growing feeling of the Chinese that they had no rights that foreign nations felt bound to respect resulted in the Boxer uprising (1900), which horrified the whole civilized world. The foreign legations in Pekin were besieged, and the Chancellor of the Japanese embassy and Baron von Kettler, the German minister, were slain. Thousands of Christians were massacred. Cathedrals, churches, Chinese palaces, libra- ries, and temples in different parts of the city were reduced to ashes. The entire foreign quarter had to trust for its defense to eighteen officers and three hundred and eighty-nine men of eight nationalities, re-enforced by a number of volun- teers and native Christians. In brief, the legations, stormed by the fury of the Boxers, faced inevitable destruction unless speedily relieved. Troops sent to the scene by Great Britain, France, Russia, the United States, and Japan, numbering, all told, twelve thousand men, formed themselves into an army 538 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES of relief, with Count von Waldersee, of the German detach- ment, as commander. After ten days of heavy fighting, the international army stormed Tientsin, and, fighting its way to Pekin, relieved the legations and the Catholic Cathedral, in which between two and three thousand persons — priests, nuns, and fugitive Christians — had taken refuge. The Empress Dowager and the court fled from the capital, which was left in ruins. After long and complicated negotiations, difficulties with China were finally adjusted at Pekin (1901) by a protocol signed by the representatives of ten foreign powers. The continuation of the "open door" with China was again assured through the efforts of Secretary Hay (1904). 697. Events at Home. Among the domestic events of McKinley's administration may be noted: (a) the consolidation (1897) of the cities of New York and Brooklyn and several other towns and districts of Long Island and Staten Island into a so-called Greater New York; (&) the dedication (1897) of Grant's tomb at Riverside Park on the Hudson in New York, on the seventy-fifth anni- versary of Grant's birthday; (c) the discovery (1897) of the wonderfully rich deposits of gold on the Yukon-Klondike rivers by George McCor- mick, who had gone to Alaska for the purpose of salmon fishing ; (d) the opening (1897) of the magnificent Congressional Library at Washington, facing the United States Capitol. It is a large, massive, granite edifice, rank- ing among the finest buildings of its kind in the world, and has a capacity of nearly six million volumes; (e) the Trans-Mississippi Exposition held at Omaha, Nebraska (June to November, 1898), for the purpose of exhibiting the wonderful resources and the marvelous progress of the states beyond the Mississippi. WILLIAM MCKINLEY S ADMINISTRATION r>39 698. The Campaign of 1900. As the time for the presi- dential campaign drew near, it became evident that there would be little opposition to the nomination of the two standard-bearers of the last campaign. The Republicans, in their convention at Philadelphia, unanimously renominated McKinley on a platform declaring for the gold standard, favoring the construction of an isthmian canal by tlie govern- ment, and advocating McKinley "s policy of governing our » i n 11 1 : : : THE CONGRESSIONAL LIBRARY island possessions and Cuba. The Democrats at their Kansas City convention nominated William J. Bryan witli equal unanimity, on a platform firmly supporting the fi'ee silver plank of 1896, vigorously opposing McKinley 's ''imperiar" policy, or government of the Philippines by the United States, and demanding that we leave the islands to the rule of theii- own native legislature, promising legislation against trusts, and favoring the construction of an isthmian canal by govern- ment appropriations. CHAPTER XL A CENTUKY'S PROGEESS / 699. Area and Extent. The United States within a century (1800-1900) has grown from a group of sixteen states east of the Mississippi to a recognized "world power." The summer sun never sets upon its whole extent, for a new day dawns upon the forests of Maine before the night sets in on our westernmost islands. When our government began its exist- ence under the Constitution during Washington's administra- tion it had jurisdiction over the present territory east of the Mississippi as far south as latitude 31° — an area of about eight hundred thousand square miles. Texas and California were parts of Spanish Mexico; Florida and the vast Louisiana territory belonged to Spain; and the ownership of Oregon was still in dispute between the United States and England. Since then the present mainland of the United States has been increased by the following accessions : The Louisiana Pur- chase ; Oregon ; Florida ; Texas ; Mexican Territory ; and the Gadsden Purchase. Thus the continental area of the United States, excluding Alaska, is now more than three million square miles (3,026,789). When to this continental extent is added the outlying possessions — Alaska, Hawaii, Porto Rico, the Phil- ippine Islands, Tutuila, and the Panama Canal Zone — an area of far more than three million square miles (3,733,364), the total expanse of territory under the jurisdiction of the United States is over six and one-half millions square miles (6,770,153). Since 1800 the number of the states has increased from sixteen to forty-eight. Alaska and Hawaii are our only territories. Our colonial possessions are governed as dependencies. 540 A CENTURY S PROGRESS 541 700. Population. After the Revolution the people of the United States numbered scarcely four million. Most of these were scattered along the eastern seaboard, for but few at this time had made their way across the Appalachian Mountains. At present (census of 1910) the United States proper has a population of nearly ninety-two million (91,972,266). When the population of its outlying possessions is added, the total numbers over one hundred million (101,179,400), of which some twenty-three million (23,301,509) are Catholics. The center of pop- ulation of the United : States has since 1790 moved westward from about twenty miles east of Baltimore to about fifteen miles southeast of Bloom- ington, in southern Indiana (39° 4' north latitude and 86° 19' west longitude). Thus we see that the Amer- ican frontier, that is, the border of the set- tled and cultivated part of the country, which at the beginning of the century extended along the eastern slope of the Alleghanies, had with the flow of immigration gradually moved westward across the Mississippi, the Great Plains, the Rocky Mountains, and even to the Pacific coast. At present the American frontier has prac- tically vanished. 701. Immigration. Our marked increase in population in more recent years would have been impossible but for the great immigration from Europe. For many years after the Revolution immigrants came in small numbers, and not before A MANILA SCENE 54:^ A HIST(J^Y OP THE UNITED STATES 1840 did they average one liinidred thousand a year. During the folloAving decade, however, owing to the poverty and oppression of the laboring people in Europe, the influx of population assumed very large proportions. After 1870 so great was immigration to the United States that by 1900 the country had added nearly twenty million foreigners to its population. The immigrants settled mainly in New England, in the great cities (especially New York and Chicago), and in the Northwest. Very few settled in the South except in Texas ; the negroes as competitive laborers kept them out of what was otherwise a most promising section. At first these aliens came largely from the British Isles, Germany, and the Scandinavian peninsula. They were intelli- gent, enterprising, and active in the development of the great agricultural states of the West — in brief, they were a desirable addition to the population. In recent years, however, a less desirable element from southern Europe and eastern Asia (China) has found its way to our shores. Congress finally amended our immigation laws (1891) by enacting measures which, besides denying Chinese laborers admission to the United States, also refused entrance to con- victs, insane persons, paupers, polygamists, anarchists, persons afflicted with contagious diseases, and laborers under contract to perform labor or service in the United States, except such as were engaged in their professions or in the establishment of new industries. It increased tlie tax imposed upon immigrants from fifty cents to four dollars per head. A superintendent of immigration was appointed, whose duty it was to examine into the character of all immigrants. Foreigners to whom admission was denied under these laws were sent back at the expense of the owners of the vessels which had brought them. The "Geary Act," passed by Congress (1892), provided that any Chinaman not lawfully entitled to remain in the United States should be returned to his native land and that all Chinese laborers should be obliged to secure certificates of A CENT[TRY S PROGRESS 543 residence. If they neglected to do this witliin a year tliey were to be sent back to China. Means of executing the Act failed, and it was partially repealed in the following year. As the United States laws confine the privilege of natural- ization to persons of the Caucasian and African races, the Chinese, even though they should have all other necessary qualifications, can not become citizens of the United States. NEW YORK WATERFRONT 702. Cities and Towns. Thu growth and increase of our cities and towns, keeping pace with the increase of population and the westward expansion of the American frontier, is truly marvelous. In 1800 four per cent of the population of the United States lived in cities, and of these only five contained more than ten thousand inhabitants. The city dwellers at pres- ent (census of 1910) number not less than forty-one per cent, or more than two-fifths of the total population. New York, our metropolis, has a population of over four and one-half millions (4,776,883), and among the cities of the world is second only 544 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES to London. Chicago, our second largest city, numbers over two million inhabitants (2,185,288) and ranks fifth among the world 's cities in population ; while our third largest city, Phila- delphia, numbers over one and one-half million (1,549,008). F^ve other cities bave a population of between five hundred thousand and one million — Boston (670,585), St. Louis (657,- 029), Cleveland (560,663), Baltimore (558,485), and Pittsburg (533,905). Detroit, owing chiefly to the automobile industry, has during the last decade advanced from the thirteenth largest city to ninth in rank. 703. Industries. Agriculture*, still the chief industry of the United States, has developed in astounding proportions. Farm- ers are advancing in the knowledge of scientific agriculture, and are increasing the quantity and improving the quality of their products. Gravel roads, railroads, telephones, and rural mail deliveries — all convince the farmer that he has many ad- vantages over the city dweller. Manufacturing, in its infancy in 1789, has increased in enor- mous proportions, so that at present we are sending manufac- tured articles not only to the leading European nations, but also to South America, Africa, and Asia. Our factories give employment to over five million persons and produce billions of dollars' worth of goods each year. Commerce, so restricted in 1789, has kept pace with the industries of agriculture and manufacturing. Our country has now an extensive import and export trade, and in these re- spects is today one of the leading nations of the world. 704. Inventions and Discoveries. The progress of industries in the United States gave rise to an unrivaled activity in inven- tions, especially of labor-saving machinery. In 1791 the patent office at Washington issued its first patent, one for making potash for the manufacture of soap; it has since issued more than seven hundred thousand patents. The inventive genius of the United States, which leads all other nations, has become proverbial. A century's progress 545 The more important inventions since 1789 are : (a) the cotton gin (Eli Whitney, 1793) (h) light from gas (David Melville, 1806) (c) the steamboat (Robert Fulton, 1807) (d) the reaping macliine (Cyrus H. McCormick, 1834) (c) method of vulcanizing rubber (Charles Goodyear, 1839) (/) the first successful telegraph (Samuel F. B. Morse, 1844) (g) the sewing machine (Elias Howe, 1845) (h) the first practical typewriter (Charles L. Sholes, 1868)- (^) the electric street ear (Stephen D. Field, 1873) (i) trie telephone (Alexander G. Bell, 1877) (/.:) the jetty system on the lower Mississippi (Captain J. B. Eads, 1879) (Z) the inventions of Thomas A, Edison, such as the electric motor, electric light, phonograph, etc. 705. Light from Gas. David Melville of Newport, Rhode Island, attracted by developments made along the lines of gas lighting in England, installed in his house and in the streets in front of it (1806), the first gas lights used in the United States. Soon gas lighting took the place of the old- time caudle and oil lighting in the houses and streets of cities and larger towns. Gas even supplanted wood and coal as fuel in kitchen stoves. 706. The Sewing Machine. After years of toil and poverty, Elias Howe (1845) succeeded in completing the first sewing machine which has since been perfected by Wheeler, Wilson, Singer, and other inventors. This invention has greatly light- ened the burden of woman 's toil and lessened the cost of every- thing that can be sewed. 707. Vulcanization of Rubber. Various attempts had been made to manufacture goods from rubber without any practical results, however, for the heat melted these goods in summer and the cold cracked them in winter. In 1839 Charles Good- year of New^ Haven, Connecticut, accidentally discovered a 546 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES process by which rubber, mixed with sulphur, subjected to great heat, couhl be niauufactured iuto waterproof goods, both durable and elastic. Considering the great demand for rubber manufactures, Goodyear 's invention may be ranked as one of the most important of the century. 708. The Reaper. The old-time methods of reaping grain by means of the sickle, scythe, or cradle, have been revolution- ized by the invention of the McCormick reaper. Crude grain cutters have been superseded by the twine binder harvester and, in some of the large farming districts, by the combined MODERN FARM MACHINERY This machine breaks sod, rolls the land, harrows, and sows seed in one operation harvester and thresher. The last mentioned is a huge machine driven by steam or electricity which makes its way through miles of standing grain and leaves behind it grain threshed, measured, and bagged. 709. The Electric Street Car. The first street cars were drawn by horses, but electricity, which was fast supplanting steam as a locomotive power, converted our horse cars into "trolley cars." These not only convey persons from one part of the city to another, but also connect many of our towns and cities. A century's progress 547 710. Illumination and Heating. Various forms of electric lighting liave taken the place of the old-time tallow candle, oil lamp, and more recent gas jet. The use of electricity for lighting streets and houses was first put into practice by Thomas A. Edison of Menlo Park, New Jersey (1878), and has since increased with great rapidity. Open grates and fireplaces, or open Franklin stoves for burn- ing wooden logs or soft coal were long used for warming pri- vate houses. After 1835 anthracite stoves came rapidly into use, both for heating and cooking purposes. These were devel- oped into various forms of hot air and steam furnaces. Since 1893 electric radiators have come into use. It appears at pres- ent that the age of steam is being fast replaced by the wonder- achieving age of electricity. It seems impossible to set any limit to inventions in connection with this mysterious force. 711. Telegraphy. The telegraph has connected the numer- ous business interests of this vast country today more closely than those of as small a state as Delaware were connected a century ago. The first cable was laid in the Atlantic by Cyrus W. Field (1866). A final link in the chain of communication uniting the nations of the world was the Pacific cable, com- pleted in 1903. It extends from San Francisco to Hong-Kong by way of Hawaii and Manila. The first message, sent by President Roosevelt, flashed around the world in less than five minutes. The Marconi wireless telegraph by which messages are transmitted through the air was first used in the United States in 1903 when President Roosevelt sent a wireless mes- sage from Cape Cod, Massachusetts, across the Atlantic to King Edward VII of England. The invention of wireless telegraphy cannot be credited to au}^ one mind, although Marconi, an Italian, was the first to perfect the appliance used in space telegraphy and the first to obtain a patent for it. He came to the United States in 1899. More than one hundred shore stations for sending wireless telegrams have been established in the United States and 548 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES nearly two hundred for receiving such are found on our naval vessels. All the great ocean steamships and a large number of the vessels on interior waters are now fitted out with wireless instruments. 712. The Telephone — Phonograph — Kinetoscope. The possi- bility of the telephone had been discovered by Elisha Gray of Chicago and several others, but no satisfactory results were obtained until 1877, when Alexander Bell put into practical use a telephone line between Salem and Boston, a distance of sixteen miles. The same year, Gray succeeded in setting up a line between Chicago and Milwaukee, a distance of eighty-five miles. One of the first of the numerous inventions of Thomas A. Edison was the phonograph (1879). This remarkable instru- ment records and rejiroduces exactly the human voice or the tones of any musical instrument. After Mr. Edison gave the world the phonograph, he invented (1894) the kinetoscope — an instrument which reproduces movable pictures from photographs. 713. The Typewriter, The typewriter is fast supplanting the pen in the business world. The first practical American typewriting machine was invented by Charles L. Sholes (1868). Since then the instrument has been manufactured on a very large scale. 714. The Automobile. To the French is due the credit for the invention of the automobile, the use of which has, within recent years, increased with astounding rapidity. While the automobile is used chiefly as a pleasurable means of travel, the usefulness of the automobile fire engine, the motor trucks and wagons, and the motor farm implements cannot be over- estimated. 715. Aviation. Still more remarkable than the results of wireless telegraphy is the success with which men are navigat- ing the air. The first practical attempt to make an aeroplane was made by the German scientist. Otto Lilienthal (1891). The A century's progress 549 invention has since been improved upon by both Europeans and Americans. Foremost among the latter may be mentioned the Wright brothers of Dayton, Ohio. 716. Postal Service. It Avas considered a great achievement when Benjamin Franklin, Postmaster-General of the Colonies (1754), caused the mail to be delivered three times a week. What would the people of those days have said could they have seen the ten billion pieces of mail matter which at present are carried annually at two cents and less per ounce, over the thou- sands of miles of railroad and steamboat lines, and delivered from seventy thousand post-offices. Still more would they have wondered at the great postal union which arranges for a letter to be sent at the rate of two cents per ounce to Great Britain and Germany and five cents per ounce to nearly every other country of the world. 717. Our Great Railway System — Standard Time. The de- velopment of our great railway system may be classed among tlie wonders of the world. The twenty-three miles of experi- mental road of 1827, in the building of which the venerable Cliarles Carroll turned the first spadeful of earth, have since increased to some eighteen hundred railroad lines, with a total mileage of two hundred thousand, against one hundred and seventy-six thousand miles of the combined countries of Europe. These lines, controlled by groups of capitalists, have been consolidated into several great systems, each of which serves for a particular district. The most important of these groups are the Vanderbilt, Pennsjdvania, Harriman, Hill, Mor- gan, Gould, Moore, and Rockefeller. In order to secure uniform time over long areas, railroad comjDanies of the United States agreed to make a change of one hour in their time for every fifteen degrees of longitude, giving the same time to all places Avithin each time belt. This is called Standard Time or Railroad Time. By this system the United States is divided into four sections, or time belts. Each belt is fifteen degrees wide, that is, extends seven and 550 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES one-half degrees east and seven and one-half west of an adopted meridian. The time of the seventy-fifth meridian is called Eastern Time, that of the ninetieth meridian, Central Time, that of the one hundred and fifth meridian, Mountain Time, and that of the one hundred and twentieth meridian, Pacific Time. The local time of the Central meridian of each belt is made the standard time for the entire belt. The boun- daries which represent the places where the railways actually change their time are somewhat irregular, since oftentimes the meridians extend through very unimportant points. There- fore, instead of following the exact boundaries, railways select well known places, as, for instance, Buffalo, Pittsburg, and Atlanta, at which cities the change is made from Eastern to Central time. 718. Corporations and Trusts. Since the Civil War, many smaller business enterprises have merged into combinations called "corporations," or "trusts," which do business on a large scale. These corporations and trusts are often highly effi- cient, but frequently they are controlled by unscrupulous men, in which instance the following evils result : they monopolize the trade of the country, and control not only the output of the necessities of life but also their prices; they crush out smaller rivals by fixing destructive prices or by other unfair means; they prevent the man of small means from engaging in business for himself to the detriment of general prosperity and contentment of society ; they are, to a great extent, the cause of the extremes of wealth and poverty found in large cities. Because of these evils. Federal and State legislation have been directed against them. The Sherman Anti-trust Act (1890) prohibits all combinations that control the output of commodities. By this Act many of the trusts and pools were declared illegal and were dissolved. But in spite of the Sher- man Anti-trust Law and the Interstate Commerce Law, the Standard Oil Company, the Live Stock and Dressed Beef Com- binations, the Steel Trust, and others have secured immense A century's progress 551 advantages over their rivals through discrimination in their favor by railroads. For instance, a favored shipper may pay full rates at the time of shipment, but afterwards receive a rebate of a part of the payment. In many instances the fa- vored shippers are themselves heavy stockholders in the rail- roads. Many public men believe that the protective tariif also has fostered the growth of trusts. The three chief objects of trusts and corporations are to reduce the expense in the matter of management, to avoid competition between different con- cerns, and to place themselves in a position to fix the price on their commodities. 719. Reform Movements. Every movement directed to the reformation of the injustice that prevails in the present social and industrial world has three purposes : the bettering of the conditions of the workingman, the curbing of excessive power of capitalism, and the protection of the consumer. These, too, are the objects of Socialism, which at present is striving to gain a widespread influence over the civil and political world. For the achievement of these worthy purposes. Socialism sug- gests certain radical changes, chief among which are the fol- lowing : that all sources and material of production should be owned by the community or collectively by the people as a whole, and that no individual or body of individuals should be allowed to possess, either in whole or in part, any class of productive goods; that all labor should be socially organized and directed by officials of the government, and that everyone should re- ceive from the warehouses or stores of the nation in pro- portion to the productive value of his labor. This radical pro- gram of socialism would strike at the foundations of the re- pidjlic of Washington, Jefferson, Hamilton, Madison, and others. The iiulividuality of the citizen would be so merged in the life of the whole that personal ambition would be destroyed, and men would be led to sacrifice the most sacred convictions of honor and conscience. In the last generation there has been a perceptible advance in 552 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES the manner of governing certain of our charitable institutions. American schools for the blind and the deaf are among the best in the world ; homes for delinquent children have become effect- ive schools of mental and moral training instead of, as formerly, reformatory prisons ; homes for orphan children may be found all over the country. Especially in those under Catholic super- vision children receive a careful bringing up and are well fitted for some work by wliich tliey may later earn their livings ; nearly every large city has a hospital conducted under the most health- ful and sanitary conditions, in which the poor may receive, free of charge, medical treatment of the most advanced character. 720. Social Rank. In the progress of our historical re- searches we may have noted that the lines of social rank so distinctly drawn during colonial times have disappeared. In- stead we find distinct lines drawn between the capitalist and the laborer. Still, it seems clear that the masses of the people live wholesome lives, and that the principles and conscience of Americans will not tolerate abuses when once these abuses are exposed to view. 721. The Negro. The negroes who at the middle of the cen- tury were still in bondage have since progressed in their sphere of freedom. Many of them are taking advantage of the edu- cational facilities afforded them, and some remarkable indi- viduals, as Booker T. Washington and Frederick Douglass, prove that the race is capable of great development. Booker T. Washington, born a slave in Virginia, acquired, by dint of his own ambition and much hardship, an education at Hampton Institute. While an instructor in that school, he was employed by the state of Alabama to organize a normal school for colored people at Tuskegee. He opened the school in an old church and a shanty with an enrollment of thirty pupils. The school has since prospered greatly. Its object is to give the negroes a practical education along lines of trade and industry. Booker T. Washington has become A century's progress 553 noted for his ability as a public speaker and as the author of a number of valuable publications. Frederick Douglass, reared as a slave on a Maryland planta- tion, escaped to the North at the age of twenty-one and there gained reputation as a powerful public speaker in behalf of the anti-slavery cause. He also gained fame as an orator in England. For many years he edited an anti-slavery paper in New York and after the Civil War took active part in national politics. The negro, naturally of a religious nature, is wholesomely influenced by the Catholic faith, so that observing men and judges of courts have praised the law-abiding spirit existing in Catholic colored communities. The negroes of the United States naturally adopted, as slaves, the religion of their former owners, who were mainly Baptists and Methodists. Hence, Catholic negroes are few and live chiefly in those states origi- nally settled b}^ Catholics, as Maryland and Louisiana. The total number of colored Catholics is only about two hundred thousand. 722. Elementary Education. The United States, realizing that all its material advantages would be worth little without a moral and intelligent people to make a proper use of them, has been among the foremost countries of the world in edu- cating its citizens. The American public schools, organized by the first generation of settlers in New Netherland and New England, as also the private Catholic schools founded by the Maryland settlers have many times multiplied in number and improved in quality and extent of instruction. Thus the means of an elementary education have been placed within conven- ient reach of every child. 723. Catholic Elementary Education. The public school system as now constructed, though admirable in many re- spects, cannot satisfy the Catholic idea of education. The Catholic Church recognizes that religion must be the supreme principle in education, as it is in life. If, therefore, the so- 554 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES called secular branches of knowledge are taught without ref- erences to religion, as is the case in our public schools., she feels that the "one thing necessary" (Luke 10:42), the most important of the educational branches, is being omitted in the training of the child. Hence, she tries to supply this defect by establishing schools under her own control, the so-called Catholic, or parochial schools, in wliich all the branches of the public schools are taught, and, in addition, religion and relig- ious morality. According to the "Catholic Directory" of 1914, the total number of parish schools in the United States is over five thou- sand (5,403), with an attendance of over one million (1,429,- 859). This number of pupils is divided among some thirty- one thousand teachers, fully nine-tenths of whom are Religious. These religious teachers belong to about two hundred and seventy-five distinct teaching bodies, including teaching broth- erhoods. Catholic schools, as a rule, are entirely supported by the vol- untary contributions of the Catholics. For a length of time after the Revolution, they, as well as the schools of other denominations, were assisted by public funds. State after state, however, eventually passed laws forbidding the payment of public funds toward denominational schools. Whereupon many Catholics, with the cooperation of their fair-minded non- Catholic fellow citizens, put into practice several plans. Among these may be mentioned the Poughkeepsie plan of Poughkeep- sie. New York (1873). Under this scheme the school board rented the Catholic school buildings and accepted the two Catholic schools of the place as public schools under the com- mon regulation framed for the public schools. The Catholic teachers, who were nuns continued as before and received their salaries from the public fund. The arrangement was, however, discontinued (1899). The "Faribault plan" was a similar arrangement effected by Archbishop Ireland with the school boards of Faribault and Stillwater, in Minnesota (1891). Many A CENTURY S PROGRESS 555 Catholics opposed the plan on the ground that religions in- struction under the agreement had to be given outside the regular school hours. An appeal was made to Rome which per- mitted the continuance of the arrangement, but the contro- versy existing between the Cvatholics attracted attention and aroused sluml)ering anti-Catholic prejudices. 724. Catholic Negro and Indian Schools. One hundred and nineteen Catholic schools accommodate eleven thousand Cath- olic negro children of the United States. The number of Catholic Indians in the United States is about one hundred thousand. Among these are established sixty-three Catholic schools, with an attendance of nearly five thousand Indian pupils. About six thousand Catholic Indian pupils are edu- cated in the government schools. Under the so-called ''Peace Policy" inaugurated by Presi- dent Grant (1870), about eighty thousand Catholic Indians passed from Catholic to Protestant control. Some years later the Bureau of Catholic Indian Missions inaugurated by the government, provided for the support of Catholic Indian Schools. The appropriations of the Bureau were discontinued (1900), but many of the schools were kept up by the contri- butions of charitable societies and by donations. Since Presi- dent Roosevelt's administration a considerable allowance has again been made to certain Catholic schools by the government through the Catholic Indian Bureau. This allowance is taken from the funds of the tribes who send their children to these schools. Prominent among the agencies that have success- fully labored in behalf of Catholic Indian education has been the community of Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament for Indians and Colored People, which was founded by Mother Catharine Drexel (1889). 725. Catholic Higher Educational Institutions. The found- ing of Catholic institutions for higher learning kept pace with the progress of religious toleration. Many Catholic secondary or high schools, colleges, and universities, have been opened 556 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES to the Catholic student without cost to the state. In 1789 there was but one Catholic educational institution in the land. Today according to the "Catholic Directory" of 1914 there are in the country eighty-two ecclesiastical seminaries with an at- tendance of over seven thousand students, two hundred and thirty colleges for boys, and six hundred and eighty academies for girls. The total number of pupils in Catholic educational insti- tutions of all kinds is over one and one-half million (1,669,391). NOTRE DAME UNIVERSITY Among the noted Catholic institutions of higher learning may be mentioned : Georgetown University, District of Colum- bia (1787), in charge of the Jesuits; Notre Dame University, South Bend, Indiana (1842), in charge of the Fathers of the Holy Cross; Creighton University, Omaha, Nebraska (1879), in charge of the Jesuits; and the Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C. (1889). In 1912, hundreds of Georgetown's sons from all parts of the Union gathered around their "Alma Mater" on the occa- sion of the unveiling of the statue of John Carroll, S. J., the A century's progress 557 first Archbishop of Baltimore. The statue is a gift of the University Alumni Association, and represents Father Carroll in his Jesuit habit, sitting in an attitude of deep thought, as if marveling at the present growth of the little college he founded over one hundred years ago. Chief Justice "White, Georgetown's most distinguished son, in words as earnest as they were well chosen, presented the University with the statue of its founder. The Catholic University of America was established by the American bishops through the liberality of Miss Mary Cald- well. It is managed by officers under rules laid down by a board of trustees composed of bishops, priests, and laymen. The president of the board is the Chancellor of the University, and this office is held by the Archbishop of Baltimore. 726. State Institutions of Higher Learning. Particularly notable is the rapid increase in the institutions of higher learn- ing. Agricultural colleges supported by appropriations of Congress have been opened in numy of the states. Horace Mann established in Massachusetts (1840) the first Normal School in the United States. The success of his work stinudated other states to establish similar schools for the training and education of teachers. Normal schools were founded in almost all the free states before 1860, and at pres- ent scarcely a state can be found which does not contain more than one school for this purpose. Meantime, many of the states gradually built up institutions of higher learning; both professional and scientific. Among the colleges and universities of colonial fame may be mentioned : Harvard University of Cambridge, Massachusetts (1636) ; William and Mary College of Williamsburg, Virginia (1693) ; Yale University of New Haven, Connecticut (1701) ; Princeton University of Princeton, New Jersey (1746) ; Colum- bia University of New York (1754) ; the University of Penn- sylvania, founded by Franklin in Philadelphia (1755) ; Brown University of Providence, Rhode Island (1764), and Dart- 558 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES moutli College of Hanover, New Hampshire (1769). Among the foremost colleges founded since the Revolution may be mentioned : the University of Virginia, founded by Jefferson in 1819; the University of Michigan, organized in 1842; the University of Wisconsin, in 1850; Washington University at St. Louis, in 1857; Cornell University in New York, in 1868; Johns Hopkins at Baltimore, in 1876. The Troy Female Semi- nary, New York (1821), now called the Emma Willard School in honor of its founder, was the first public institution for the higher edncation of .women. Not until within the last fifty years were the higher schools open to women. Since then many colleges have been founded exclusively for their education. 727. Education After School Days. For the encouragement of study after school days, literary and scientific organizations have been formed, prominent among which are those held on the shores of Lake Chautauqua in western New York. Univer- sity extension courses, lecture lyceums, and literary clubs are also doing very valuable educational work. The Catholic Edu- cational Association, composed of Catholic educators and other persons interested in Catholic education in the United States, holds each year a convention in some one of the larger cities. These conventions are attended by hundreds of members of the clergy, the brotherhoods, and the sisterhoods. The object of the association and its conventions is to promote by study, conference, and discussion, the thoroughness of Catholic edu- cational work, and to help the cause of Catholic education by the publication and circulation of such literary matter as shall further these ends. 728. Medicine — Pure Food Law. Great progress has also been made in medical science, particularly surgery. The use of ana?sthetics in painful operations was begun in 1844 by Horace Wells of Hartford, who used nitrous oxide. A few years later Charles Jackson and William Morton of Boston introduced the use of sulphuric ether. A centttry's progress 559 Stringent food laws, foi-bidding the use of adulterants in foods and medicines, and i-equiring the labels on all such com- modities to state exactly what the same contain, were passed in 1906. 729. American Fine Arts. The material development and progress of the country so engrossed the attention and ener- gies of the American people that for a long time but little progress was made in the fine arts. Since the middle of the nineteenth century, however, there has been a marked change, and though the nation must still find its models in artistic achievements in the masters of other lands, it has, neverthe- less, produced painters and sculptors who have attracted atten- tion in the world of art, while many of our large cities are fast becoming interesting art centers. 730. The Art of Music. In music the United States has made only a beginning. It nuist still look for its models to the old masters of Europe, for, strictly speaking, its musical pro- ductions show no national characteristic, but rather bear the impress of foreign music, particularly the German, French, and Italian. The nation has, notwithstanding, brought forth a school of orchestral writers of high attainment, and a num- ber of our great American composers have written very cred- itable works. Foremost among American composers may be mentioned: John Knowles Paine (1839-1908), a native of Maine, who is our earliest comj^oser in large instrumental forms; Edward A. McDoM^ell (1861-1908) of New York, a wide- famed pianist and composer; and George W. Chadwick (1854- ) of Massachusetts, who has also won distinction as a composer. Other American composers of note are James Dunn Parker, George-E. Whiting (a Catholic), Dudley Buck, William H. Gilchrist, Horatio Parker, William Mason, and Mrs. H. H. A. Beach. 731. Our National Hymn — Songs — Poems. The Star Span- gled Banner is the national ensign of the United States, and a song bearing the same title and composed by Francis Scott 560 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Key is the national anthem. Other patriotic songs are "Hail Columbia" by Joseph Hopkinson, and "America" by Samuel Francis Smith. Among our earlier songs and poems of note may be men- tioned: "Columbia," by Timothy D wight; "Marching Through Georgia, ' ' by Henry Clay Work ; ' ' Battle Hymn of the Repub- lic," by Julia Ward Howe; "The Red, White, and Blue," by David T. Shaw; "When Johnnie Comes Marching Home," by Patrick Sarsfield Gillmoie; "Dixie," by Albert Pike; "Mary- land, My Maryland," by James Ryder Randall; "Tramp, Tramp, Tramp," and "The Battlecry of Freedom," by George F. Root; "Old Ironsides," by Oliver Wendell Holmes; "The Old Oaken Bucket, ' ' by Samuel Woodworth ; ' ' Woodman, Spare That Tree," by George Pope Morris; "Concord Hymn," by Ralph Waldo Emerson; "The Blue and the Gray," by Francis Miles Finch ; ' ' Sheridan 's Ride, ' ' by James Buchanan Read. The song, "Home, Sweet Home," though containing only twelve lines, is known all over the English speaking world. It was written by John Howard Payne of New York. 732. Musical Societies. A very early musical organization, the Stoughton Musical Society, which is still in existence, grew out of a singing school founded by William Billings of Boston. The Handel and Haydn Society, the most famous body for musical development, was organized in Boston (1815). The object of both societies, as well as of many less important organizations of their kind, was to foster and spread love and taste for choral music. In the achievement of this object the Handel and Haydn Society deserves to be mentioned as the most successful. Out of a friendly visit paid by the Cin- cinnati Liedertafel -to the Louisville Liederkranz (1848) grew the North American Saengerbund, which is characterized by its great festivals, the first of which was held in Cincinnati, June, 1849. 733. Musical Instruments. Musical instruments of the spinet and virginal type, as well as the flute and the violin, could be A century's progress 561 found in the homes of the large eastern cities in the seven- teenth and eighteenth centuries. Church organs, the harp- sichord and the piano followed in due course of time. Jonas Chickering was tlie first piano manufacturer in the United States (1819). 734. The Orchestra. Within the last twenty years great advance has been made in orchestral composition. The Phil- harmonic Orchestra of New York, organized in 1842, was the first, and is still one of the most famous. The Boston Symphony Orchestra (1861) is probably equal to any in the world. The Chicago Symphony Orchestra, founded by Theodore Thomas (1890), also deserves special mention. Almost every large city of the United States is now becoming active in the orches- tral field. 735. Motu Proprio of Pope Pius X. The first and most urgent condition which the Catholic Church imposes in regard to her music is that it be in conformity with the place, time, and purpose of Divine worship ; that it be sacred, not theatri- cal. Accordingly, Pope Pius X issued on November 2, 1903, instruction on sacred music in churches and at the same time ordered the authentic Gregorian chant to be used everywhere. He also caused choir books to be printed under the supervision of a special commission. Thus was occasioned the beginning of a reform in church music, which, however, is not yet uni- versal. Since parochial schools must do the preparatory work and lay the foundation for good church singing, the Holy Father's decree has occasioned new efforts and activity toward the systematic study of vocal music in these schools. 736. Architecture. The architecture of the United States prior to the Revolution was generally English in its origin, except in the regions which were essentially Spanish in their settlement and development. Examples of Spanish architec- ture are the Cathedral of St. Augustine, the fort now called Marion, in Florida, and the buildings of the Spanish missions, to each of which, as a rule, a church is attached. Traces of 562 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES French influences are apparent in New Orleans, especially in the Ursuline convent, now the Archbishop's palace. Dutch and Swedish influence is apparent in such structures as the Van Cortlandt Manor on the Hudson, built in 1681. The early Constitutional period is noted for the erection of many monu- mental buildings, such as the old Capitol at Washington and the State House at Boston. Toward the middle of the nine- teenth century (1815-1876), architecture, save in the building THE WHITE HOUSE AT WASHINGTON of churches, declined. During the last quarter of a century, however, interest in it was revived by architects of foreign training like Richard M. Hunt and Henry H. Richardson. The present tendency in the United States is toward the French renaissance for residences and hotels, and the Gothic and Romanesque for churches. Strictly speaking, America has no distinctly national architecture except in the colossal office A century's progress 563 bmldings of the great cities. These towering "skyscrapers," steel skeletons encased in a shell of masonry, are of late assum- ing more architectural elegance and dignity. 737. Painting". The first Americans to win distinction as painters were Copley, Stuart, and West. American art re- mained under British influence until long after the Revolu- tion and American artists spent the greater part of their lives in Europe. In the nineteenth century, however (1825), Ameri- can painting assumed a more national tone under the influence of such artists as Thomas Cole, one of the foremost landscape painters of the Rocky Mountain scenery, and Bierstadt, Hill, Hubbard, and Moran. The centennial exposition (1876) at Philadelphia occasioned a great revival in American art, and an appreciation of foreign artists, particularly the Frencli. Though the American artists have drawn vigor and inspiration from European art, they, nevertheless, have developed origi- nality in subjects and motives. Two of the greatest American artists are James McNeill Whistler and John S. Sargent. Other notable painters of the same generation are Winslow Homer, Eastman Johnson, John La Farge, and Edwin A. Abbey. Amer- ican landscape has become the most distinctly national feature of American art. Foremost in this school is George Inness ; others well known are A. H. Wyant and Homer Martin. Among the artists who have become famous in recent years are Chase, Blum, Dewing, Thayer, Brush, Beekwith, Blash- field, Bruce, Benson, Tarbell, Vedder, Pearce, Cox, and Walker 738. Sculpture. The art of sculpture in the United States is yet young, being a development of only the last three quar- ters of the nineteenth century. Still it early assumed a dis- tinctly national character. The Colonial and Revolutionary periods afforded no facilities for training in art, no monu- ments for study or inspiration. The real development of Amer- ican sculpture began with the productions of Horatio Green- ough of Boston, one of whose most famous works was the half draped statue of Washington which long stood before the 564 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES national Capitol. Hiram Powers (1805-1873) did work similar to Greenough. Thomas Crawford (1813-1857), a pupil of Thor- waldsen, is known as the designer of the bronze "Liberty" surmounting the dome of the Capitol at "Washington. Other sculptors of the same period are F. Ball and L. G. Meade. Henry Kirk Brown (1814-1886) was the first whose produc- tions, unaffected by his Italian study, bore a distinct national character. This is typified in his remarkable equestrian statue of George Washington in Union Square, New York. Another sculptor, noted for his native tendencies, was Erastus Dow Palmer (1817-1904), who was practically self -trained and never left America. His ''Angels of the Sepulcher" shows the art- ist's strength in religious subjects. The most prominent figure thus far among American sculptors is Augustus Saint-Gaudens (1848-1907). The brilliant creations of this artist are equal to those of renowned European sculptors. His Shaw memorial relief at Boston and the statue of Lincoln at Chicago are re- markable works of art, and his "General Sherman" in Cen- tral Park, New York, places him in the first rank of American sculptors. The most important sculptors of animal life are the late Edward Kemys, E. C. Potter, and A. C. Proctor. The latter has also portrayed the American Indian, but the most powerful sculptor of the Indian is Cyrus E. Dallin. The two most characteristically American of the younger artists, both from the West, are Solon H. Borglum, whose subjects are the Indian, the cowboy, and the broncho, and George Barnard. New York City is the center of American sculpture. 739. American Literature. After the Revolution, American literature was still in its infancy. The period beginning with Jackson 's administration not only ushered in a new era in gov- ernment, industry, and national spirit, but also the "Golden Age" in American literature. The stirring events which fol- lowed the framing of the Constitution, as well as the rapid progress of the country, naturally found expressions in the songs and stories of our writers. HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER A century's progress 565 740. American Authors. Washington Irving (1783-1859), New York, the "Father of American Literature," was the first author to attract attention abroad. He is noted for his famous Knickerbocker History of New York, the interesting stories of the Sketch Book, and his Life of Christopher Colum- bus. Irving and James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851), New York, were the first distinguished authors to choose American subjects for their writings. The latter, our first novelist, wrote The Spy and many other novels, some of which are based upon the history of our country. William Cullen Bryant (1794-1878), Massachusetts, the "Poet of Nature," sometimes called the American Wordsworth (England's poet of Nature), came into fame by his well-known I)oem " Thanatopsis, " written when he was only nineteen. He also wrote many other poems, among which "To a Waterfowl" is especially worthy of note. He is associated with the ' ' Knick- erbocker School," a group of writers who, during the first quarter of the nineteenth century, made New York the literary center of our country. Some of his poems betray anti-Catho- lic prejudices, which arose, no doubt, from his erroneous beliefs concerning Catholic faith and practices. Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), Massachusetts, the ' ' Sage of Concord, ' ' became known by his essays as one of the great masters of English prose. From the standpoint of Catho- licity, however, some of his ideas are obscure and unsound. He was color-blind, as it were, to the spiritual and super- natural. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807-1882), Maine, our most loved poet, wrote even before his graduation from college a number of poems, among which may be mentioned the "Hymn of the Moravian Nuns." Some of his most famous longer poems are "Evangeline," the Indian tale "Hiawatha," and the Puritan narrative "The Courtship of Miles Standish." Among the best known of his short poems are "Psalm of Life," "Excelsior," and "The Village Blacksmith." 566 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES John Greenleaf Whittier (1807-1892), Massachusetts, the "Quaker Poet," and the most thoroughly American of all our poets, is, next to Longfellow, our most popular verse writer. By his anti-slavery writing he became the sturdy poet cham- pion of human liberty. Among his best known works are "The Barefoot Boy," "Snow-Bound," "Maud Muller," and Barbara Frietchie." In some of his poems, Whittier, like Bry- ant, exhibits evidences of anti-Catholic prejudices. James Russell Lowell (1819-1891), Massachusetts, is noted as a poet, essayist, and critic. Among his writings may be mentioned "Indian Summer Reverie," "To the Dandelion," "The Vision of Sir Launfal," and the "Biglow Papers." Be- cause some of his writings are profound, and require much thought on the part of the reader, LoAvell, with all his genius, is a less popular poet than Longfellow. Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849), Massachusetts, the most imag- inative of American writers, is best known as a poet by "The Raven," "The Bells," "The Haunted Palace," and "Annabel Lee." He is the originator of our modern short story, and his works have acquired great popularity in France and England. Prominent among his short stories may be mentioned ' ' The Fall of the House of Usher" and "The Gold-Bug." Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809-1894), Massachusetts, one of our most brilliant humorists,, is distinguished both in prose and poetry. Like Longfellow, he wrote verses successfully even before he finished his college course. His stirring poem "Old Ironsides" saved from wreckage the Constitution. The work, however, which won him most fame was The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table, which consists of a series of essays at once philosophical, imaginative, and amusing. Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864), Massachusetts, the great- est of American romancers, or story-writers, is the author of Twice Told Tales, The Scarlet Letter, The House of the Seven Gables, Grandfather's Chair, etc. Lew Wallace (1827-1905), Indiana, is noted as the author of A century's progress 567 Ben Hur, a Tale of the Christ, one of the most popular novels written during tlie last quarter of the century. He also wrote The Prince of India and The Fair God. He, like some other American authoi\s, has nuirred his works by anti-Catholic bigotry. Orestes A. Brownson (1803-1876), Vermont, an able American reviewer and philosopher, devoted his pen with heroic energy to the cause of the Catholic Church, to which he became a convert in 1^44. His principal productions are The American Republic and The Convert. In the latter work he relates his religious wanderings in succession as a Congregationalist, a Presbyterian, a Universalist, a Rationalist, and a Socialist, until he found sat- isfaction in the solution of his doubts and solace for his troubles in the bosom of the Catholic Church. Archbishop Hughes (1797-1864), New York, is known not only as a most valiant defender of the Catholic Church when it was struggling for a footing in a rather hostile community, but also as the champion of the '^school question." His lectures, ser- mons, and pamphlets on historic and doctrinal subjects, usually hastily done, as occasion required, commanded general attention from friend and opponent. Reverend Abram J. Ryan (1839-1886), Virginia, the "Poet- Priest of the South" — Catholic chaplain in the Confederate army during the Civil War — is famed for many beautiful poems, which are excellent in merit, characterized by subtle harmony and strange sweetness and full of fervent feelings of tlie south- erner and pious priestly aspirations. Among the most popular of his verses are "The Conquered Banner," "Erin's Flag," and "The Sword of Robert Lee." Brother Azarias (1847-1893), New York, was a member of the Cliristian Brothers. He is remarkable for the depth and soundness of his thinking and for the beauty, ease, and clearness of his style. Among his writings may be mentioned "Develop- ment of English Thought," "Aristotle and the Christian Church," "Books and Reading," "Philosophy of Literature." 568 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Alice Gary (1820-1871) and her sister, Phoebe Gary (1824- 1871), Ohio, are the best women poets America has produced. Their poems are thoughtful, graceful, and replete with religious feeling. Among their best verses are "Poems of Faith, Hope, and Charity, " " Pictures from Memory, " " Order for a Picture. ' ' Harriet Beecher Stowe (1812-1896), Gonnecticut, gained re- nown by her anti-slavery novel entitled Uncle Tom's Catin. Her overdrawn pictures did much to influence the North against the South. Anna Hanson Dorsey (1815-1896), District of Golumbia, was one of the pioneers of Gatholic fiction in the United States. Among her principal works are Palms, Oriental Pearls, May Brooke, Warp and Woof. Mary A. Sadlier (1820-1903), Ireland, a Gatholic, and an inde- fatigable writer, is best known by her novels. The Blakes and Flannigans (dealing with the school question). Confederate Chieftains, Bessie Conway, and Aunt Honor's Keepsake. Her stories and translations number more than sixty volumes. Helen Hunt Jackson (1831-1885), Massachusetts, known by her pen name "H. H.," has l)y her story, Raniona, left a promi- nent name in American literature. In this artistic composition, perhaps the best novel produced by an American woman, the pictures of the mission district of Galifornia are so vividly drawn that the story attracts many visitors to the country. Louisa M. Alcott (1832-1888), Pennsylvania, a most popular writer of her day, won fame as the author of Little Men, Little Women, An Old-F ashioned Girl, and many other stories for young people. 741. Our Familiar Historians. William H. Prescott (1797- 1859), Massachusetts, is well known as the author oi Ferdinand and Isabella, Conquest of Mexico, Conquest of Peru. Religious prejudices, however, greatly mar the reliability of his otherwise excellent works. George Bancroft (1800-1891), Massachusetts, has left a great work in a History of the United States in Twelve Volumes, the A century's progress .569 first volume of which appeared in 1834. It covers the Colonial and Revolutionary periods. As a literary production, it ranks high, but from a religious point of view it is objectionable, owing to the expression of bigotry against the Catholic religion, and the covert inculcation of the pernicious theory of Pantheism. Most Reverend Martin John Spalding (1810-1872), Kentucky, the seventh Archbishop of Baltimore, is famous for Sketches of the Early Catholic Missions of Kentucky, History of the Protes- tant Reformation in all Countries, and Miscellanea. Miscellanea won great popularity and ran into many editions. John L. Motley (1814-1877), Massachusetts, is best known for his classic History of the Rise of the Dutch Republic, which he completed after ten years of labor. Francis Parkman (1823-1893), Massachusetts, is the author of The Conspiracy of Pontiac, The Pioneers of France in the Neiv World, The Jesuits in North America, and La Salle, or the Discovery of the Great West. For the facts of the Jesuit mis- sions, Parkman is entirely reliable; but as a Catholic critic has well remarked, "Of tlie motives wliieh governed the mission- aries, of their faith and charity, as well as of their whole interior spiritual life, he understands less than did the untutored Indian." John Gilmary Shea (1824-1892), New York, was a Catholic whose world-wide fame as a scholar and historian is based on his Discovery and Exploration of the Mississippi Valley-, The History of the Catholic Missions among the Indian Tribes of the United States, and The History of the Catholic Church in the United States. 742. Our Present Literary Era. Although the number of American writers is far greater at the present era than at any time in the past, the standard of excellence is not as high as in the days of Longfellow, Emerson, and Lowell. Among the prom- nent literary men and women of the present day may be men- tioned the following: Cardinal Gibbons (1834- ), Baltimore, Maryland, is the dis- 570 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES tinguished writer of Faith of Our Fathers, Our Christian Heritage^ and The Ambassadors of Christ — works which are rich contributions to American hitters and wliieli have won a wide circulation. The Right Reverend James L. Spalding (1840- ), Peoria, Illinois, has given us productions of a master mind and of a ripe and broad scholarship in essays published under the titles of Education and the Higher Life, Things of the Mind, Means and Ends of Education, Thoughts and Theories of Life and Education. Father John B. Tabb (1845-1909), Virginia, another poet- priest, is noted for his singularly artistic and refined poetical works. Some of his volumes are "Poems," "An Octave to Mary," and "Poems Grave and Gay." Father Francis Finn, S.J. (1859- ), St. Louis, Missouri, is the author of numerous wholesome works of literature for young people. Among the most popular tales are Percy Wynn, Tom Playfair, Mostly Boys, and The Football Game. Edmund Clarence Stedman (1833-1908), Connecticut, one of the best known and most highly esteemed of our present authors, wrote Fort Sumter, Wanted — A Man, The Doorstep, At Twi- light, and Alice of Monmouth. Eleanor Cecilia Donnelly (1840- ), Pennsylvania, a Catholic, is the author of many volumes of verse, including the poems "Crowned Stars," "Hymn of the Sacred Heart," "Children of the Golden Sheaf. ' ' One of her chief prose works is the Life of Father Felix. In the spirit and method of her work she is com- pared with Adelaide Procter. Maurice Francis Egan (1852- ), Pennsylvania, a Catholic author of exquisite taste, has written much and on a variety of subjects. As a novelist he will be remembered for The Disap- pearance of John Longworthy, Success of Patrick Desmond, The Vocation of Edward Conway, and A Marriage of Reason. He wrote also juvenile stories, among which Jack Chumleigh is noted for fun and frolic. As a poet, Doctor Egan ranks high in A century's progress 571 American literature. Two volumes of verse published by him are Preludes and Songs and Sejunets. Francis Marion Crawford (1854-1909), holds the first place in the American school of romantic novelists. Among his stories may be mentioned A Roman Singer, Dr. Cletudius, and Marzio's Crucifix. He spent the greater part of his life in Rome, and his strongest subjects were Italian life and scenery. Other American writers of the present era are : Thomas Bailey Aldrich (1886- ), New Hampshire; Charlt*s W. Stod- dard (1843- ), New York; James Jeffrey Roche (1847- ), Ireland; Father John Talbot Smith (1855- ), New York, and many others whom limited space does not permit us to mention. Though the standard of excellence in American literary productions is not so high at present as in the "Golden Age" of Jackson's administration, the writers of history have been fairly successful in maintaining the standard set by Parkman, Bancroft, Motley, and Shea. Among historians of note may be mentioned Rev. A. Guggenberger, S.J. (1841-1906) ; Charles F. Lummis (1850- ), Massachusetts; James Schouler (1839- ), Massachusetts ; John B. McMaster (1852- ), New York ; Henry Adams (1858- ), Massachusetts; and James Ford Rhodes (1848- ), Ohio. 743. Catholicity. Religious liberty is, perhaps, less restricted in the United States than in any other country on the globe. Under the Constitution, every man may believe and preach what he will, so long as his doctrines and practice are not contrary to public morals and do not infringe upon the rights of others. If it is true that the Constitution is in harmony with the Catho- lic religion, it is also true that no religion in the United States is more in accord with it than is the Catholic. While the State is independent of the Church, this external separation in their different spheres does not hinder them from meeting on the fundamental religious principle, that God is the source of all government and all authority. In the United States, the Catholic Church, whose children 572 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES were the first in discovery, first in the establishment of Chris- tianity, first in the organization of civil government, first in proclaiming religious toleration, and first and unanimous in the support of Washington, has left monuments and memorials of her passage from the Canadian borders to the southern- most coast of Florida, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. These monuments and memorials may be traced in the numer- ous churches, religious houses, and institutions of piety, char- ity, and learning, as also in the names of cities, moun- tains, rivers, and bays. The marvelous growth of the Church in numbers, achieve- ments, and popularity, today engages the attention of the world. After the Revolu- tion, Bishop Carroll, the sole bishop, with thirty or forty priests ministered to a flock of about fifty thousand souls, all scattered over a vast area, in which there were no schools, colleges, hospitals, or asylums; now (1914) the Catholic Church numbers fourteen archbishops — three of whom are cardinals, — ninety-nine bishops, 18,568 priests, 6,602 educational institutions in which are distributed about 1,669,391 students, and over four hundred hospitals which annually care for about half a million patients. Bishop Carroll 's flock of fifty thousand has increased to a Catholic laity of 16,067,985 souls, whose" spiritual wants are administered to in 14,651 churches. Verily, the "mustard seed" has developed into a "mighty tree." The Catholics of the United States have given the country a long line of illustrious men — theologians, philosophers, schol- CARDINAL GIBBONS A century's progress 573 ars, orators, statesmen, soldiers, and sailors, a vast number of artisans and craftsmen who, by labor and thrift, have contrib- uted to the growth of the wealth of the country. Their mission- aries have sought out the most savage Indian tribes, and have won them to Christianity and civilization. Their sisterhoods have brought relief and comfort to multitudes in hospitals, on the battlefield, and in tenements. The teaching brotherhoods and sisterhoods of the Church have gathered in thousands of children to the nation, and fitted them to become worthy citi- of America, and an honor to the Church and State. CHAPTER XLI THEODOKE EOOSEVELT'S ADMINISTKATION REPUBLICAN, 1901-1909 744. McKinley Is Re-elected. The interesting campaign of 1900, which we have already traced, resulted in the re-election of William McKinley by the large majority of two hundred and ninety-two electoral votes over Bryan, the Democratic choice. Theodore Roosevelt was chosen Vice-president. President McKinley had endeared himself to the people by his personal graciousness and tact, and had won popular esteem during his first administration. His second term seemed even more promising. But scarcely had six months elapsed when (September 6), during a public reception given in honor of the President, at the time of the Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo, Czolgosz, an anarchist, concealing a revolver under cover of a bandaged hand, approached the President, appar- ently to shake hands, and shot him. The wounded executive died eight days later, our third martyred President. The tragedy shocked the whole .world. The remains of President McKinley were conveyed to Washington and thence to Can- ton, Ohio, amidst the most touching manifestations of popular grief. While the interment was taking place (September 19) all business was suspended throughout the country. His last words, "God's will be done, not ours," were spoken to his grief-stricken wife. 745. Roosevelt Enters Upon the Presidential Office. Tlieo- dore Roosevelt, the Vice-president, took the oath of office as President at Buffalo, New York, on the day of McKinley 's death, and at once assumed the duties of his office. He fol- 574 THEODORE ROOSEVELT S ADMINISTRATION 575 lowed his predecessor's policy and, for the time, retained his Cabinet. Theodore Roosevelt was born in New York, 1858, His fam- ily, one of the oldest in the United States, was prominent in the early history of New York under the Dutch rulers of the province. He first came to national notice at the time of the Spanish-American War. After the war he was elected gov- ernor of New York, from which position he advanced to the vice- presidency of the United States and next to the presidency. As President he was direct and vigorous in his methods of conducting the nation 's business. Tliough his aggressive- ness aroused criticism, his honest, fearless per- sonality soon won for liim a great popular- ity, which fact enabled him to secure a con- siderable amount of good legislation, as well as to exercise great in- fluence upon the gen- eral course of politics throughout the country. His greatest service to the country probably consists in his resolute enforce- ment of such laws as affected the methods of business employed by monopolies and great corporations. He is often criticized for neglecting to use his great influence against the excessive protective tariff which tended to encourage unfair monopolies and a corrupt use of money in politics. THEODORE ROOSEVELT 576 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES During Roosevelt's two terms of presidency, the Cabinet underwent many changes. On the whole, the members of the Cabinet, to Avhich was added (1903) a Secretary of Commerce and Labor, formed a very able body of counsellors and admin- istrators. Three of these became especially notable — John Hay, who served as Secretary of State under McKinley and retained this office until his death (1905) ; Elihu Root, who was Secretary of War until he succeeded Mr. Hay as Secre- tary of State, and William H. Taft, who resigned the post of first civil governor of the Philippine Islands under Ameri- can rule to succeed Mr. Root as Secretary of War. All three in their respective departments were able advisers to the President. 746. The Anthracite Coal Strike. The most serious strike on record in American industrial history occurred (1902) in Pennsylvania. Under the leadership of John Mitchell, the president of the United Mine-workers of America, the anthra- cite coal miners of Pennsylvania demanded an increase of wages and a reduction in the hours of labor. The mine owners refused to arbitrate the questions in dispute, and consequently, one hundred and forty-seven thousand workmen were thrown out of employment for nearly five months, while a great fuel famine paralyzed industry and occasioned much sufifering throughout the country. Finally, owing to the influence of President Roosevelt, who voiced the demands of public senti- ment, the trouble was adjusted by a commission which decided in favor of the miners. 747. The Isthmian Canal. The expanding industrial interests of the United States as a world jjower necessarily revived the Panama Canal problem and the most important legislation of Roosevelt's first term was the Spooner Act (1902) which authorized Congress to construct the Panama canal. As a result, our government purchased the rights and property of the French Panama Canal Company for forty million dollars, promptly appropriated ten million dollars and authorized the THEODORE ROOSEVELT S ADMINISTRATION 577 issuance of one hundred and thirty million dollars in bonds. The great task of digging the canal began May 1, 1904, and was completed in the summer of 1914. The canal enables our eastern ports to compete on even terms with the great ports of Europe in the commercial operations with China and Japan. The canal is about fifty miles long, measuring from deep water in the Atlantic to deep water in the Pacific. The average mii;ai'|.(ii;es lu( ks, taxama canal width of the canal is six hundred and forty-nine feet. The least depth of water at any point is forty-one feet. The cost of building the Panama canal is estimated at about four hun- dred million dollars. The history of an isthmian canal dates back almost to the discovery of America. By the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty the United States and England agreed to renounce the right to 578 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES acquire independent control of an isthmian canal route. In 1881 a French company, under the leadership of Ferdinand de Lesseps, constructor of the Suez canal, began the construc- tion of a canal at Panama. After several years of work at enormous expense the company became bankrupt and had to abandon the project. The United States had in past years authorized several surveys with a view of establishing a route through Nicaragua. The fact that the warship Oregon was obliged to make its long journey from San Francisco around Cape Horn in order to join the Atlantic squadron during the Spanish-American War, attracted attention to the difficulty of defending the two coasts of our country, and the demand for a canal became loud. An American company had in the mean- time acquired the property of the French Panama Canal Com- pany for a total of forty million dollars and offered it for sale to the United States. Through the diplomacy of Secretary Hay, the new Hay-Pauncefote Treaty superseded (1901) the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. This conceded to the United States the right to own and control a future isthmian canal. A treaty with Colombia was next proposed, but this the republic rejected. Consequently, the disappointed inhabitants of Panama, consid- ering their interest disregarded, revolted, and set up a republic, independent of Colombia. This republic was promptly recog- nized by Congress and a treaty was entered into which secured to our government the control of a ten-mile strip across the isthmus. When Colombia interfered the United States sent troops to Panama, and American battleships prevented Colom- bia from landing a force to recover the seceded state. Fortu- nately, the revolution of Panama led to no serious disturb- ances, as the smaller nation yielded to a superior power. The proceedings of the United States, however, have been severely criticized by the Colombians, and by many Americans, as well as by foreign nations. 748. Irrigation of the Western Arid Lands. The western public domain included immense tracts of arid land. To irri- THEODORE ROOSEVELT 'S ADMINISTRATION 579 gate and reclaim these for cultivation, Congress enacted (1902) a lav\^ which provides that the proceeds from the sale of public lands in certain western states — Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming — be expended in the construction of irrigation works, such as dams, reservoirs, and canals. Thus vast regions of hitherto useless lands are being made productive and available for settlers. 749. The Alaskan Award. Long-standing disputes concern- ing the boundary between the United States and Canada were called forth by the discovery of the Klondike gold fields. The trouble was successfully adjusted by arbitration (1903). Practically the whole of the disputed region was awarded to the United States, and our right to the control of the mainland shore thus confirmed. 750. Trans-Pacific Cable. The acquisition of the Philippines and the Hawaiian Islands soon suggested that some quick and convenient means of communication with these countries be established. Accordingly, a Trans-Pacific cable was laid (1903), which connects San Francisco with Hong-Kong, Honolulu, Guam, and Manila. 751. Three National Anniversary Celebrations. The one- hundredth anniversary of the Louisiana Purchase was com- memorated by a World's Exposition held at St. Louis (1904), the metropolis of the land first visited by the illustrious La Salle. The fair was held in 1904, the year succeeding the centennial (1903), owing to the fact that arrangements were not completed in due time. In the number and magnificence of its structures, as well as in the exhibition of the useful and the beautiful, this exposition ranked as one of the most attract- ive and beneficial ever held. It was attended by nearly nineteen million persons and its cost amounted to nearly fifty million dollars. The one-hundredth anniversary of the Lewis-Clark Expedi- tion was celebrated (1905) by an oriental fair at Portland, 580 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Oregon, in full view of the Cascades and their snow-capped peaks. From all parts of tlie world came representatives to view the wonderful growth which the Oregon country had made since the Lewis and Clark explorations, by which the right of the United States to our first Pacific possessions was confirmed. A notable feature of the fair was the extensive display made by Asiatic nations. The three-hundredth anniversary of the settlement of James- town (1607) was commemorated by the Jamestown Exposition held at Norfolk, Virginia (1907). Its most notable and enter- taining exhibit was the grand naval parade in which all the great nations of the world participated. 752. Two Appalling Disasters. Two appalling disasters oc- curred about this time. The excursion steamer. General Slocuni, crowded with women and children on a Sunday-school picnic, went down with more than one thousand passengers, in the waters of the East River just outside of New York harbor. The other disaster occurred in Chicago, where a fire broke out in the Iroquois theater during a matinee performance. Over seven hundred people were burned or trodden to death. 753. The Campaign of 1904. Roosevelt's first term proved a ])eriod of great prosperity and there was general satisfaction with the President's straightforward policy and executive ability. Hence, on the approach of the presidential campaign of 1904, it seemed a foregone conclusion that he Avould be liis own successor. He was unanimoush^ renominated by the Republican convention held at Chicago. The Democrats in their convention at St. Louis named Judge Alton B. Parker, of New York, as their candidate. The Socialist party nomi- nated Eugene V. Debs ; the Populists, Thomas E. Watson ; and the Prohibitionists, Silas C. Swallow\ The campaign issue was largely one of personal popularity of the candidates. The silver issue was not an important question, as the rich gold deposits discovered in the Klondike regions of Canada and Alaska had caused an increased supply of gold coin, and THEODORE ROOSEVELT 'S ADMINISTRATION 581 a steady general prosperity existed. On the question of imperialism, or the permanent retention of the Philippines, the parties differed but little at that time. Both adopted a colonial policy as temporarily inevitable, but stood, nevertheless, for eventual indepencfence of the islands. On the question of the tariff, the Republicans favored a protective tariff, though they did not state whether it should be increased or decreased; the Democrats advocated its reduction, as a means of restricting the power of capitalistic combinations. The Republicans wished , to subject the combinations of capital and labor to restraint only when they became dangerous to private rights ; the Dem- ocrats stood emphatically against monopolies altogether, and accused the Republicans of an alliance with corporations and trusts. 754. Roosevelt is Re-elected. The election of 1904 resulted in a sweeping victory for the Republicans. Theodore Roosevelt was elected by a majority of one hundred and ninety-six elec- toral votes over Parker, the Democratic candidate. Charles W. Fairbanks of Indiana was chosen Vice-president. 755. War between Russia and Japan. At the close of the Boxer trouble in China, the Russian government refused to withdraw the troops which it had stationed in Manchuria, China, for the protection of the Chinese Eastern Railroad. The event was looked upon by Japan as a menace to her national safety and commercial interests ; and consequently she declared war against Russia. This war proved to be one of the most bloody engagements of modern times and threatened to involve other nations. The western nations watched the strug- gle with great concern, and were shocked by the frightful loss of life. Finally, through the diplomacy of Secretary Hay and President Roosevelt, commissioners from each of the warring countries met at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and after long weeks of discussion signH W APPENDIX 635 STATES AND TERRITORIES, CAPITALS, GOVERNORS, LEGISLATURE Statks and Terri- tories Capitals Alabama Montgomery- Alaska Torritory '.Tuneau Arizona I'hoonix Arkansas Little Rock. California 'Sacramento. Colorado bcnvor. Connecticut Delaware Dist. of Columbia. Florida Georgia (iuam Colony Hawaii Colony. . . . Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana IMain(> Maryland Massachusetts. ... Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire . . . New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina. . . . North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Philippines Pro. . . Porto Rico Colony. Rhode Island. . . . . South Carolina. . . . South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Hartford Dover Washington. . . .Tallahassee. . . . Atlanta Agana Honolulu Boise Cily . . . . Sprinytield .... Indianapolis. . . Des Moines. . . Topeka Frankfort Baton Rouge. . Angusta Annapolis Boston Lansing St. Paul Jackson Jefferson City. Helena Lincoln Carson City. . . Concord Trenton Santa Fe All)anv Raleigh Bismarck Columbus Oklahoma City Salem Ilarrisburg. . . . Manila San Juan Newport Columbia Pierre Nashville Austin Salt Lake City, Montpelier . . . . Richmond Olympia Charleston .... Madison Cheyenne Governors 2 years 4 years 4 years 2 years 4 years 2 years 2 years 4 years 4 years 2 years 4 years 2 years 4 years 4 years 2 years 2 years 4 years 4 years 2 years 4 years 1 year 2 years 2 years 4 years 4 years 4 years 2 years 4 years 2 years 3 years 4 years 2 years 4 years 2 years 2 years 4 years 4 years 4 years 4 years 2 years 2 years 2 years 2 years 2 years 4 years 2 years 4 years 4 years 4 years 2 years 4 years Salary $5,000 7.0((0 4,000 4,000 10,000 5,000 5,000 4,000 5,000 5,000 7,000 5.000 12. (too s.ooo 5,000 5,000 0,500 5,000 ;!,ooo 4,500 8,000 5,000 7,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 2.500 4,000 3,000 10,000 5,()00 10.000 0,000 5,000 10,000 4,500 5.000 10,000 15,000 8,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 4,000 4,000 (;.ooo 2.500 5,000 0,000 5.000 5.000 4,000 Legislature Limit of Session 50 days ()0 days None <>0 days 00 days 00 days None None 00 days 50 days 00 days None 00 days None 40 days 00 days 00 days None 00 days None None 00 days 00 days 70 days 60 days 00 days 00 days None None 00 days None tio davs 00 days None None 40 days None None None 00 days 75 days no days 00 days None 00 days 00 days 45 days None 40 days INDEX AND GLOSSARY Abbey, Edwin A., 563. Ab' er croni bie, 142. Ab nil' kis, 62, 03, 66, 189, 254. abolition, the act of doing away wltb, 339. abolitionist, 374, 379, 396. aborigines, the earliest known inhabi- tants of a country, 43. A €a' di a, 55, 132, 134, 137, 141, 164. accession, territorial — Mexican cession, 363. Gadsden purchase, 382, 399. Alaska, 473, 602. Hawaii, 522, 606. Porto Kico, Guam, Philipiiines, 533. 606. Tutuila, Pango Pango, Christmas, Baker, Midway, Wake, Howland, 536, 606. Louisiana, 285, 289, 393. acts. See bills. Adams, Henry, 571. Adams, John, 170, 191, 224, 235, 314, 392. vice-president, 257-274. re-election, 266. president, 275-281. death, 329, 395. Adams, John Quincy, 314, 329, 395. president, 323-330. sketch of life, 324. death, 398. Adams, Samuel, 172, 173, 176, 179, 184, 235, 237. Administration Currency Bill, 596. Admiralty Courts, courts having juris- diction over naval questions and offenses, 170. Ag'assiz, 398. A gui nal' do, Em i 11 o, 534. Aix l:i Chapelle' (Aks lii shii pelle'), 137. Alabama, 318, 389, 395, 003. Alabama Claims, 480. Alabama, ship, 425, 447, 459, 480. A' Iti mo. Fort, 340. Alaska- purchase of, 473, 602. fisheries, 516. boundary disputes, 579. 607. railroad in, 598, 608. Alaskan Award, 579. Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition, 591, 607. Albany, 70, 99, 140. Albany Junto, 328. Albemarle Sound, 92. Alcott, Louisa M., 568. Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, 571. Alert, ship, 302, 394. Alexander, Chief, 121. Alexander VI, Pope, 32, 72. Alfred, ship, 213, 214. Algiers, 312. Al gon' quins (kins), 17, 101, 115, 135. alien, a foreigner ; one who is not a citizen of a country, land, or gov- ernment either by right of birth or naturalization, 278. Alien and Sedition Laws, 278, 324, 392. Alleghany Mountains, 140. Alleghany River, 140. allegiance, the duty of loyalty to one's king, government, or state, 87. alliance, a union or connection of inter- ests between families, states, par- ties, etc. ; the act of uniting, 206. Al' lou ez', 63, 65. Alphonso XIII, 528. Al'ta m,a hii', 96. Altham', Father John, 87, Amazon, 33. amendments. Constitutional, 474. Bill of Rights, first ten, 238, 259, 273. twelfth, 294. thirteenth, 453, 464, 468, 602. fourteenth, 467, 468, 470, 479, 602. fifteenth, 470, 479, 602. sixteenth, 596, 008. seventeenth, 597, 608. American Colonization Society, 319, 395. American Protective Association, 376. Ames, Representative, 483. xlm' herst, 142. Am' i das, 49. Amnesty Proclamation, 463, 464, 535, 602. Amsterdam, 69, 113, 165. Amundsen, Captain Roald, 589, 608. 636 INDEX AND GLOSSARY 637 auarcbist, oue wbo aims at overtlirow- ing the government, 509, G04. anarchy, 509, 604. Anderson, Robert, 405. Andre, Major, 219, 240. Andres, Sir Edmund, 103, 122, 128, i:'.!, 105. Angel Gabriel, 376. Annapolis, 55, 89. .■Anthracite Coal Strike, 570. An tie' tam, 424, 420, 457. .\nti-Federalist, 235, 237, 247. Anti-Masonic party, 336. anti-rent difficulties, 100, 353, .397. Apostolic Delegate, 475. Ap' po mat' tox, 449, 454, 455, 400. arbitration, the hearing and determin- ing by an arbitrator of a matter of dispute between two or more parties, 480, 510, 523, 536, 583, 590, 605. Ar'gall, Samuel, 79, 104. Ar' gus, ship, 304. arid lands, irrigation of, 57S. aristocratic, being in favor of a govern- ment in which the sovereign power is entirely in the hands of certain persons ; tending toward display- ing preeminence by reason of birth, wealth, and culture, 91. Ar' is totle, 23. Arizona, 39, 363, 592, 609. Ark, ship, 86. Arkansas, 342, 396, 456, 463. Arkansas River, 58, 59. Ar ma' da. In vin' gi ble, a strong fleet composed of one hundred and fifty ships. It was sent (1588) by King Philip II of Spain against England to avenge the raiding and plunder- ing attacks of Sir Francis Drake and other English seamen, army, American Revolutionary — in charge of Washington, 188, 242. at New York, 193, 247. hardships at Valley Forge, 205. discontent in, 220, 229. on the Hudson, 223. at Newburgh, 229. disbands, 225, 247. army. Confederate, 404, 407. disbands, 449. army. Union, 404, 406, 407, 466. of the Cumberland, 416, 435, 455. of the Tennessee, 416, 417, 435. of Virginia, 423. of the Potomac, 410, 421, 423, 425, 429, 435, 446, 454. Arnold, Benedict, 186, 189, 201, 203, 218, 219, 246. Arsenal, U. S., 386, 405. art, American, 559. arts are classified as : a. The fine arts, or arts of beauty; such as painting, sculpture, music, poetry, etc. b. The industrial or useful arts, which include the trades requiring chiefly manual labor and skill. c. The liberal arts embrace the higher branches of learning such as the languages, history, sciences, etc. Arthur, Chester A., 490. elected as vice-president, 499. assumed presidency, 500. president, 500-504," 604. sketch of life, 500. death, 510. Articles of Confederation, 204. framing and adoption of, 204, 244, 240. signification, 227. defects, 229, 250. attempt at revision, 234. artists, 160, 255, 563. Ashley River, 93. assembly, a delegation of people meet- ing for the purpose of legislation, 82. Astor, 289. Astoria, 289, 393. astrolabe, 22, 26. Atchison, Kansas, 379. Atlanta, 433, 441, 447, 459, 502. .Atlantic cable, 473, 602. Austin, Stephen F., 340. .Australian Ballot, a system of voting by which secrecy is secured, the l)allot used being furnished by the govecnment, 508, 604. -Vustria, 472. authors, American, 505. automobile, 548. A' ver ys bor' o, 443, 459. aviation, 548. Az' a ri' as. Brother, 567. Azores, 32. Aztecs, 37, 362. Bacon, Nathaniel, 83, 84. Bacon, Roger, 23. Bacon's Rebellion, 83. 165. Bii' din. Rev. Stephen, 272. 392, Baffin, William, 49 Bahama Islands, 30, 225. Baker, General, 411, 450. 638 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Baker Island, 536. Bal bo' a, 36, 73. Ball, 563. ballot, reform of, 493, 508, 604. Balls Bluflf, 411, 456. Baltimore, 93, 152, 2.j0. 281, 309, 377, 456, 475, 602, 604. Baltimore — First Lord, 85, 86, 109. .Second Lord, 85, 106. Third Lord, 88, S9. Fifth Lord, 89. Sixth Lord. 89. Bancroft, 58, 64, 86, 87, 88, .396, 568, 571. banks, 338, 344. Hamilton's, 264. re-chartered, 313. Jackson's veto of, 336. withdrawal of deposits, 336, 396. state, 337. second, 394. National Bank Act, 440, 459. "wild cat," 344. "pet," 338, 345. treasuries and sub-treasuries, 340, 397. establishment of New National, 351, 352 Banks, General, 421, 422, 423, 424, 433, 458. Baptist Church, 131. Barbary States, 285. 290, 312. Barcelona, 31. Biir' clay, 304. Bar' lowe, 49. Barry, John, 152, 214, 240, 243. Biir thol di', 508. Barnard, George, 564. Barton, Clara, 529. battles, table of — Revolution, 226. 1861, 413. 1862, 428. 1863, 437. 1864, 448. 1865, 450. Beach, Mrs. H. H. A., 559. Beckwith, 563. Beau'regiird (bo'). General, 363, 405, 408, 410, 416, 417, 456. Be di' ni, a representative of the Floly Father sent to the United States (1853) to examine into the state of ecclesiastical afifairs and inci- dentally to call on the president and present to him the compli- ments and good wishes of the Holy Father, 375. Bee, General, 410. Be' haim, Martin, 26. Bell, Alexander Graham, 489, 548. Bell, John, 388. belligerent nations, nations engaged in war, 409. Belmont, battle, 411. Belnap, 483. Be' mis Heights, battle, 203, 244. Benedict XV, Pope, 601, 608. Benedictines, 44. Bennington, battle, 202, 244. Benson, 563. Bentonville, 443, 459. Be' ring Vi' tus, 473. Berkeley, William, 83, 105. Berlin Decree, 291, 393. Berlin treaty, 514. Bermuda Hundred, 446. Bermuda Islands, 189. Bierstadt, 563. Big Bethel, 411, 456. Billings, William, 560. Bill of Rights, 238, 259. liills — laws — acts — measures, 281. Fugitive Slave Law, 273, 373, 378, 392. Naturalization Acts, 278, 293. Alien and Sedition Laws, 278, 324, 392. economic measures, 284. Non-intercourse Act, 296, 393. Macon Bill, 296. Independent Treasury Act, 345, 349, 351. .Appropriation Bill, 363. Omnibus Bill, 371, 373, 377, 378. Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 378, 399. nullification acts, 334. Force Bill, 335, 479, 523. Homestead Bill, 406. Confiscation Act, 426. Conscription Bill, 437. Draft .\ct, 437. Legal Tender Act, 439. National Bank Act, 439, 459. Freedmen's Bureau Bill, 467, 478, 602. Civil Rights Bill, 467, 602. Civil Service Act, 482, 604. Inflation Bill, 485. Anti-Chinese Law, 495. Bland-Allison Bill, 496, 514, 603. specie payment, 485, 497. Pendleton Bill, 500, 604. INDEX AND GLOSSARY 639 reconstruction acts, 469, 470, 471, 602. Tenure of Office Act, 469, 471, 5oS, 602, 604. on reduction of postage, 501. Chinese immigration laws, 502, 542, 603, 604, 605. Presidential Succession Law, 505, 604. improvement of navy, 507. Interstate Commerce Act, 507, 550, 582, 604. Mills' Tariff Bill, 510. Dependent Pension Bill, 512, 605. McKinlcy Tariff Bill, 513, 588, 605. Sherman Act, 514, 520, 525, 605. copyright law, 515. Wilson Tariff Act, 521, 525, 605. Dingley Tariff Bill, 527, 588, 605. Gold Standard Act. 527. Geary Act, 542, 605. Sherman Anti-trust Act, 550. food laws, 559, 582. Spopner Act, 576. irrigation, law providing for, 578, 606. fish and game laws, 584. Payne-Aldrich Tariff, 588, 596, 607. Underwood Tariff Bill, 596, 608. income ta.x, 596, 608. Administration Currency, or Owen- Glass Bill, 596, 608. parcel post, 597. tolls repeal, 597, 608. railroad provisions in Alaska, 598. BI lox' 1, 61. Black Codes, 465, 466. black death, a pestilence which ravaged Europe and Asia in the Fourteenth Century, 21. Black Hawk, Chief, 341. Black Hawk War, 341, 369, 390, 396. black lists, 494. "Black Republicans," 379. Blaine, James G., 503, 514, 515. Blan' chet. Father, 355. Blanco, 529. Bland-Allison Bill, 496, 514, 603. Blashfleld, 563. Blessed Sacrament, Sisters of the, 555. Blessed Virgin Mary, 68, 86, 368, 398. Block, Adrian, 126. blockade, the investment of a port by a hostile naval force of competent strength to prevent commercial communication, 291, 300, 304, 408, 411, 413, 456, 459, 464, 532, 606. runners, 408, 435. squadron, 412. Blum, 563. Boil, Father Bernard, 31. bombard, to attack with artillery, espe- cially to throw shells, hot shot, etc., at or into, 405. Bon Homme Richard (bon om re shiir'), 215. Boone, Daniel, 209, 249. Boones' bo ru, 209. Booneville, 455, 456. Booth, John Wilkes, 451, 452, 460. Border Ruffians, 379. Borglum, Solon H,, 564. l)nrough, a district or province sending members to the assembly, 82. Boston, 93, 117, 135, 152, 164, 171, 190, 242, 250, 562, 603. Boston Massacre, 176, 242. Boston Port Bill, 178. Boston Tea Party, 178, 242. Boston Weekly News Letter, 160. boundai'y — of Maryland, 86. disputes in Maryland, 86, 89. disputes in Pennsylvania, 89, 111. disputes in Rhode Island, 131. disputes between French and English Colonies, 137. in 1783, 248. treaties with England, 315. treaties with Spain, 316. disputes between Texas and Mexico, 341. Canadian, 352, 397. Oregon, 354, 358, 398. Mexican, 358, 382. Northwest, 480. Alaskan, 579, 607. ' Bowling Green, 414, 415. Boxer Uprising, 537, 581, 606. Boxers, a secret society in China akin to the Freemasons ; their avowed object was the expulsion from China of all Christians and for- eigners, 537. boycotts, 494, 524. Braddock, General, 142. Bradford, Governor, 114, 115, 120, 160. Brady, Assistant Postmaster-General, 500. Bragg, General, 416, 417, 424, 433, 435, 458. Brandt, Mohawk Chief, 201, 209. Brandywine, battle, 198, 244. Brazil, 33, 73. Bre boeuf, Father, 64, 65. 640 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Breckenridge, John C, 384, 388. Brewster, William, 114. bridges, 495, 503. Brock, General, 301. Broke, Captain, 304. Brooke, Lord, 126. Brooklyn Bridge, 503. Brooklyn Heights, 193. Brooks, Kepresentative, 483. Brown, General Jacob, 307, 394. Brown, Henry Kirk, 564. Brown, John, 386, 399. Brown University, 557. Bruce, 563. Brush, 563. Bryant, William Cullen, 218, 395, 565, 566, 603. Bryan, William Jennings, 525, 526, 574, 586, 587. Buchanan, Commodore Franklin, 418. Buchanan, James, 383, 399. president, 384-391, sketch of life, 384. Buck, Dudley, 559. Buckner, General, 414. Buell, 363, 416, 417. Bue' na Vis' ta, "beautiful views," :!6u, 364, 398. Bull, John, 192. Bull Run, battle, 409, 412, 421, 423, 424, 456. Bulwer, 374. Bunker Hill, battle, 187, 242. bureau — Freedmen's Bill, 467, 478. weather, 487. of American Republics, 514. Catholic Indian, 555. forest service, 584. Bflr' gess es (bflr' jes), 82. Burgoyne', General, 187, 200, 202, 2. contest election, 491. elect presidents, 331, 344, 357, 378, 384, 505, 519, 595. platform of 1844, 355. of 1852, 377. of 1860, 388. of 1868, 474. of 1872, 480. of 1876, 486. of 1880, 498. of 1888, 510. of 1890, 525. of 1900, 539. of 1908, 586. Democrats, Southern. See Southern Whites. INDEX AND GLOSSARY 647 De Monts (Mong), Sieur, 55, 61, 126. De O nil' tc, Juan (bu tin'), 42, 75. departments, administrative, 259, 506. of tlie Interior, organized, 398. of War, 462, 467, 4S7. of Agriculture, 424, 487, 584. of Commerce and Labor, 506. now department of Labor, 506. De Smet, Fatber, .322, 356, 397. Des Moines River, 58. De Soto, 41, 74. D'Estaing (des tan'), 208, 216, 245. Detroit, 61, 146, 209, 301. De Vii' ca, Ca be' za, 39, 74. Dewey, Admiral, 5:{2, 606. Dewing, 563. Dey, the name given to the command- ing officer' of the corps of Algiers, 312. Diaz, Bartholomew, 25, 72. Diaz, President, 590, 508. Dickinson, .John, 176. Di eppe', 68. Dingley Tariff Bill, 527, 605. Dinwiddie, Governor, 140. diplomacy, the art and practice of con- ducting negotiations between na- tions, particularly in securing treaties, 473. discoveries and explorations — Northmen, 20. Columbus, 27-32. Portuguese, 33, 34. Spanish, 35-45. English, 46-52. French, 53-62. Dutch, 69-71. Missionaries, 67. Jolin Smith, 78. of Poles, 589, 608. discovery of America — ■ causes that led to, 20. influence of Crusades on, 21. aids to, 22. commercial conditions leading to, 21. by Columbus, 30. of South America, 31. of North America, 46. disfranchise, to deprive one of the rights of a citizen, such as voting, holding office, etc., 477. Dissenters, 112. District of Columbia, 371, 427, 457. Dixie Land, 425. Dixon, Jeremiah, 89. documents — Mayflower Compact, 113. Declaration of Rights, 174, ISO. Declaration of Independence, 191, 243. Articles of Confederation. 204, 227. Ordinance of 1787, 232, 247. Dolphin, ship, 53. Dominicans, 35, 38, 45. Donelson, Fort, 414, 416, 454. Dongan charter. 103. Dongan, Thomas, 103, 157. Donnelly, Eleanor C, 570. Dorchester, 117, 127. Dorchester Heights, 190. Dorr, Thomas, 353. Dorsey, Anna Hanson, 568. Dorsey, Senator, 500. Douglas, Stephen A., 370, 372, 379, 381, 386, 399, 401. Douglass, Frederick, 552, 553. Dove, ship, 86. Dover, 125, 135. Dow, Neal, 498. Draft Act, 437, 446. Draft Riot. 437, 458. Drake, Sir Francis, 48, 49, 69, 75. Dred Scott Decision, 384, 386, 388, 427. Drexel, Mother Catharine, 555. Druillettes (drwee yet'). Father, 62. Du Bourg', Bishop, 322. duel between Hamilton and Burr, 287. Duke of York, 102, 103, 106. Du Lhut, 61. Duluth, 61. Du pont'. Commodore, 436, 459. Duquesne (kan'). Fort, 140, 141, 142. Dustin, Mr. and Mr.s., 136. Dutch, 133. maritime enterprise, 69. motives, 70. first voyage, 69. discoveries and explorations, 69-71. and the Indians, 70, 100. first settlement, 70. claims and occupancy, 71, 106, 126. governors, 101. influence, 104. in Delaware, 106. Dwight, Timothy, 560. Eads, Captain, 13. 495. Early. General Julial, 445, 459. <-arth, theory of shape, movements, and gravity, 23. East Indies, 60. East India Company, 69. Eaton, Theophilus, 128. Edison, Thomas A., 545, 547, 548, (io:;. education, 158, 553-559. in colonies. See under each colony. 648 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Ordinance of 1787, 233. during Revolution, 253. Catholic, 271, 347, 356, 377, 553-558. "School Question," 354. Morrill Tariff, 424. of negroes, 467, 555. American College at Rome, 489. in South, 502. of Indians, 555. Agricultural College, 557. Normal schools, 557. medicine and law, 558. in navy, 598, 608. Educational Association, Catholic, 558. Edward, Fort, 143, 200, 244. Edward, ship, 213, 243. Edwards, Jonathan, 159, 166. Egan, Maurice Francis, 570. El Cii' ney, 532, 606. Electoral College, 491. electric street cars, 545. Elizabeth, Queen, 49, 74. Ellicott's Mill, 326, 395. Elliot, John, 43, 120. Blmira, 209, 245. emancipation, the act of setting free from the power of another, 426, 438, 463, 464, 466. embargo, an order of the government prohibiting the entry or departure of ships of commerce, in ports within its dorhinions, 269. Embargo Act, 292, 393. Emergency currency, currency in use since 1907, intended to prevent panics. These issues are preserved in a special vault, and to prevent an indiscriminate use of them, a graduated tax is placed upon the same while in circulation. The tax is five per cent per annum and is increased from one per cent per month until it reaches ten per cent per annum, 586. Emerson, 185, 396, 560, 565, 569. emigrated, to have come from one coun- try, state or region, to another for the purpose of settling there, 15. Emma Willard School, 558. encroachment, the act of entering grad- ually or silently upon the rights or possessions of another, 121. Endicott, 116. England, 69, 133, 472. lirst voyages, 46. discoveries and explorations of, 46- 52. motives for colonization, 49. attempts at colonization, 49. first permanent settlement, 50, 52, 75, 164. cause of failure at colonization, 51. maritime supremacy, 50. claims and occupancy, 52, 102, 145, 167. and the Indians, 87, 97, 108, 119, 136. and her colonies, 167. during the War of the Revolution, 167-226, 502. refuses commercial treaty, 230. plunders American ships, 291, 310. second war with, 297-310. during Civil War, 409, 424, 427, 447, 456. treaties with, 315, 354, 358, 395, 397. and Alabama claims, 480. ensign, a commissioned officer of the lowest grade in the navy corre- . spending to the grade of second lieutenant in the army. 532. envoy, a person appointed by a govern- ment to negotiate a treaty or transact other business, 276. Envoys, A, B, C, 599. epoch, period of time, 161. Era, New, of American History, 332, 492. Era of Good Feeling, 314. Era, our present, 569. Er' ics son, John, 420. Ericson, Leif, 20, 21, 72. Erie, 140, 225. Erie Canal, 325, 395. Erie, Lake, 17, 56, 61, 140, 143, 304, 305, 307, 394. Espejo (espfi'ho), 42, 75. Essex, ship, 302, 394. Es tril' da, Jose (hosa'), 590. Eutaw Springs, 222, 247. evacuate, to withdraw from, 207. Evans, Rear Admiral, 584. Ewing, 455. exhibition, centennial, 488, 524. cotton, 501. expansion. See "Territorial Expan- sions." <>x position — • First World's Fair in U. S., 382, 399. Columbian, 524, 605. Trans-Mississippi, 538, 606. Pan-American, 574. World's, 579, 606. Jamestown, 580. .\laska-Yukon-I*acific, 591, 607. Express, Pony, 373. INDEX AND GLOSSARY 649 oxpropriate, to deprive of possession or proprietary rights, 4S9. extradition, the surrender or delivery of an alleged criminal by one state or sovereignty to anotlier having- jurisdiction to try the charge, :J52. Fabian Policy, following the tactics of the famous Koman (ieneral Fabius, who, v.hen contending with Hanni- bal, avoided engagements, and worried him with continual delays, 206. Fairbanks, Charles W., 581. Fair Oaks, 422, 432, 457. Fill CO' ni o, Cardinal, 593, 608. Falls of St. Anthony, 61. Fane' uil Hall, 176, 179. Far'ibault' (bo') plan, 554. Farley, Cardinal, 593, 608. Farmers' Grange, 486. Farmer's Letters, 176. Farragut, David, 420, 447, 454, 457, 459, 603. Fear, Cape, 53, 73. Federal Hall, 258, 517. Federal lines, 466. Federal offices, 468. Federal troops withdrawn, 493, 497. Federalist, 239, 247. Federalists, 235, 237, 247, 269, 277, 281, 282, 293, 300, 310, 314, 315, 324. Hamiltonians, 265. elect president, 275. Ferdinand, Archduke, 600. Ferdinand, King, 28, 72. Fer' gii son, 216, 217. Field, Cyrus W., 473. Field. Stephen D., 545. flfty-four forty or fight, 355. filibustering expedition, a lawless mili- tary adventure, especially when in quest of plunder, 381. Fillmore, Millard, 369, 383. president, 373-377. sketch of life, 369. Finch, Francis Miles, 560. Finn, Father Francis, S. J., 570. fires, 342, 396, 485, 488, 580, 582, 603, 607. Fisher, Fort, 447, 448, 459. fisheries, 53, 73, 125, 134, 137, 225, 315, 352, 607. Fisher's Hill, 446, 459. fishery — disputes, 480, .590. seal, 516, 605. Commission, 584. Fitch, John, 289. Fitzsimmon, Thomas, 240, 241. Five Forks, 449, 460. Five Intolerable Acts, 178, 242. flag— first American, 201. day, 201. on Barry's ship, 215. adopted, 244. Confederate, 406. .\raerican, 599. Flathead Indians, 356, 397. floods, 517, 593, 604, 608. Florida, 137, 225, 356, 389, 397. discovered, 35, 73. exploration of coast, 38. attempted conquest of, 38, 74. Spanish settlement, 42. first Church in, 43. mart.yrs in, 45. French settlement, 55, 75. Spain ceded to England, 145. Purchase, 316, 395. Florida, ship, 425, 435. Florrissant, 356. flotilla, a little fleet, or a fleet of small vessels, 414. food laws. See bills. Foote, Commodore, 414, 416, 457. • Forbes, General, 142. Force Bill, 335. Force Bills, or Ku Klux Klan Act, 478, 479, 523. foreign affairs, 269, 270, 275, 276, 277, 291, 295, 319, 327, 340, 409, 425, 426, 427, 447, 530-534, 600. foreign aid during Revolution, 206, 243, 245. foreigners during Revolution, 198, 243. Fort Orange, 70. forty-niners, 364. France, 28, 69, 73, 133, 146, 224, 472. fishing industry, 53, 73. first voyage, 53. discoveries and explorations, 53-62. claims and occupancy, 61, 62, 132, 133, 167. missionaries, 62-68. first permanent settlement, 55. and the Indians, 56, 57, 70, 132, 136. motives prompting explorations and colonization, 56. aids colonies during Revolution, 206, 245. at war, 267. plunders American ships, 291. Spoliation Claims. 340. during the Civil War, 409. 650 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES Francis I of France, 53, 73. Franciscan, 39, 40, 44, 45, 56, 61, 62, 67, 255, 366. Franlilin, Benjamin, 110, 140, 154, 159, 166, 174, 175, 180, 189, 191, 192, 206, 215, 224, 232, 235, 253, 254, 255, 549, 557. Frazier's Farm, 423. Fredericksburg, 425, 458. Freedmen, 465, 466, 467. Freedman's Bureau Bill, 466, 478, 602. freeman, a member of a town, or state, who has the right of suffrage, 352. Freemason, 377. Freeport Doctrine, 385. freewillers, 149. Fremont, John C, 361, 383, 384, 398, 411, 421, 422, 423, 426. French and Indian War, 62, 138, 147, 166, 169. French Empire in Mexico, 472. French fleet, 208. French Panama Canal Company, 578. Frob ish er, 48, 75. Frolic, ship, 303, 394. Fron' te na€, Count, 58, 59. Frontenac, Fort, 61. frontier, that part of a country which fronts or faces another country or an unsettled region, 297. Fugitive Slave Law, 273, 369, 370, 373, 378, 392. Fuller, Melville W., 592. Fulton, Robert, 289, 393. Fundamental Orders, the, 127. fur trade, 55, 56, 60, 70, 100, 101, 125, 127, Gadsden, General James, 382. Gadsden Purchase, 382, 399. Gag Law, 339. Gage, General, 181, 184, 187. Gaines, Fort, 448. Gaines Mill, 423. Gal i le' o, 23, 24. Gal' la tin, Albert, 284, 295. Gallitzin (gale'tsen). Prince Priest, 272, 322. Galveston, Texas, 436, Gar a con' tie, 65. Giir'dai', the name of a bishopric in southern Greenland, tenth century, 21, Gardner's Island, 95. Garfield, James A. — '■ president, 499-500, 603. sketch of life, 499. assassination, 499, 604. Garrison, William Lloyd, 339. 396. Gas pee', 117, 242. Gates, General, 188, 203, 216, 221, 244. Gavazzi (gaviit'se), ex-Carmelite, 375. Geary Act, 542, 605. General Court, 117, 123, 171. General Slocum disaster, 580. Genet (zhena'), 267, 268, 275. Geneva Arbitration Commission, 480. Geneva Award, 480. Genoa, 21, 46. gentry, people of education and good breeding in England ; those be- tween yeomen, or common people, and the nobility, 81. George I of England, 166. George II of England, 96. 137, 140. George III of England, 166, 169, 171, 207, 242. statue of, 192. George, Lake, 143. Georgetown LTniversity, 271, 556. Georgia, 147, 222, 389, 470. grant, 96. name, 96. first settlement, 96. object, 97, 166. early history, 96-98. government, 98. religion, 98. "slavery, 98. during Civil War, 433, 441. Georgia, ship, 425. Germantown, battle, 198, 244. Gerry, Elbridge, 276, 300. Ger vase', Brother Thomas, 87. (iettysburg. Address, 431, 458. Gettysburg, battle, 429, 436, 445, 458. Gheht, Treaty of, 310. Gibault (gebo'), 210, 2.55. Gibbons. Cardinal, 509, 569, 604. Gila (he' la) River, 363, 382. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey. 49, 75. Gilchrist, William H.. 559. Gilmore, General, 436. Gilmore, Patrick Sarsfield, 560. Glendale, 423. God' win, 255. Goffe, 122. gold— in California, 364, 375, 387, 398. Yukon Klondike, 387, 398, 538, .579. Goldsboro, 443. (Jold Standard Act, 527. Go' men (meth), Es te' viln, 38. Good Hope, Cape of, 24, 33, 38, 48, 69, 72. Goodyear, Charles, 545. INDEX AND GLOSSARY 651 Gor'ges, 112, 122, 125. Gor'ton, 130. Gos' nold, Bartholomew, 51, 52, 75, 70. Goth' i€, of or pertaining to the style of architecture so-called ; charac- terized by pointed arches, steep roofs, large windows, and gener- ally great height. 502. government — policy of compromise, 391. of southern states overthrown, 409. military, 468, 469. departments, 230, 200. Grand Army of the Republic, 452. Grand caiion, 39, 74. "grandfather clause," 470. Grand Model, 91, 95. Grant, General, 471, 474, 603. in Mexican War, .359, 303, 443, 452, 455. at Belmont, 411. at Forts Henry and Donclson, 414- 416, 454, 457. at Shiloh, 410. 457. at Vicksburg, 418, 431, 4.32, 435, 454, 458, 460. at Chattanooga, 435. commander-in-chief, 435, 440-459, 409. campaign around Richmond or "Overland Campaign," 443-445, 447, 449, 450, 4.59, 460. at Appomattox. 449, 454, 400. president. 470-490, 602. sketch of life, 470. re-election, 479, 603. and Indians, 487, 555. death, 509. 004. dedication of tomb, 538, 605. gravity, law of, that force by which all bodies or particles of matter tend toward each other, 24. ' Gray. 548. Gray, Captain, 273, 392. Great Britain. See England. Great Eastern, ship, 47;!. Great Kanawha River, 250. Great Law, Penn's, 109. great men — critical period. 232, 235. 332. Revolutionary period, 255. before Civil War, 297, 332. Greeley. Horace, 479. 490. Green Bay, 58. .59, 05. Greenbrier, River, 250. Greene, 130. Greene, General, 181, 188, 216, 221, 240, 246. masterly retreat, 221. recovery of the South, 222. (Jreene, Roger, 92. (ireen Mountain Boys, 186. Cireenough, Horatio, 563. Gregorian Chant, a kind of unisonous or plain music according to the eight celebrated Church modes as arranged and prescribed by Pope Gregory in the sixth century, 561. (iren' ville. Sir Richard, 49. (iriffin, ship, 61. Grijalva (grehiil'va), 36, 37. Groco, 590. Gua da loupe' HI dal' go, a suburb of the city of Mexico famous as con- taining the shrine of "Our Lady of Guadaloupe," 303, ,304, 398. 1, 235, 255, 259, 260, 312. papers on the government, 2.'!2. leader of Federalists, 237, 205, 200. d(>fender of Constitution. 238. contributor to "Federalist." 2:!9. financial plan of, 260. views on constitutional construction, 265. killed in duel, 287, 393. Hamilton, Colonel, 209. 652 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Hamlin, Hannibal, SSS. Hampton, General, 305. Hampton Koads, the rear portion of Chesapeake Bay near Fortress Monroe, Virginia, 418, 420, 457, 584. Hancock, John, 184, 192, 235, 237. Hancock, Winfleld, 498, 510. Handel and Haydn Society, 500. Harper's Ferry, 386, 405, 411, 424, 457. Harrison, Benjamin, 511, 519. president, 512-518, 522, 604. sketch of life, 512. Harrison, William, 297, 305, 393, 397. president, 350, 351. sketch of life, 350. death, 351, 397. Harrison's Landing, 423. Hartford, 126, 127. Hartford Convention, 310, 324, 389, 394. Harvard, John, 123. Harvard University, 557. Hatteras, Cape, 420. Hatteras, Fort, 411. Hatteras, Inlet, 411, 412. Havana, 399, 531, 606. Ha'verhill, 136. Hawaiian Islands, 579. revolution, 522, 605. Hawkins, Sir John, 46, 75. Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 395, 566. Hay-Pauncefote treaty, 374, 57S, 597. Hay, Secretary, 374, 537, 576, 578, 581, 585. Hayes, Rutherford B., 486. election of, 491. president, 491-498, 603. sketch of life, 492. Haymarket Square, 509. Ilayne, Robert, 333, 477. Heart's Content, 473. Hendricks, Thomas A., 505, 506, 510, 604. Hen' ne pin, Father, 61, 62. Henrietta, Maria, Queen, 86. Henry II of France, 73. Henry IV of France, 55, 86. Henry VII of England, 46, 72. Henry VIII of England, 73. Henry, Cape, 77. Henry, Fort, 414. Henry, Patrick, 171, 172, 174, ISO, 209, 2.35, 237. Henry, Prince, 23, 26. Her' ki mer, Oeneral, 201. Hessians, troops hired liy Enslaud from several German principalities. The Hessians, many of whom (all of the three thousand Westpbalians) were Catholic, did their duty in America bravely and faithfully, with loyalty to a service from which they could expect no profit of their own. The charge some- times made that they were cruel barbarians is false. They fought because they could not help it. The shame belonged to their princes, and not to themselves, 191, 197, 243. Il'i a wii' tha, the hero of an American Indian legend immortalized in tlie poem Hiawatha, 59. hierarchy, a body of persons, bishops, and priests, to whom is entrusted the government of the Church, 517. hieroglyphic, character in picture writ- ing, as of the ancient Egyptians or American Indians, 37. Hill, 563. historians, familiar, 568. history — definition, 5. ancient, 5. medieval, 5. modern, 5. sacred, 5. profane, 5. ITnited States, 5. missionary contribution to, 44. Hobart, Garret A., 526, 606. llobkirk's Hill, 222. Hobson, Richmond, 532, 606. Holland, 69, 71, 99, 136. Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 303, 396, 560, 56(>. Holmes. William, 126. Holy Alliance, 319, 347. Holy City. 346. 110' mer, Winslow, 563. Homestead, 518. Homestead Bill, 406. Hong-Kong, 579. Hon' o lu' lu, 579. Hood, General, 441, 443, 459. Hooker, Joseph, 363, 425, 429, 435, 447, 458. Hooker, Thomas, 126. Hopkins, Stephen, 192. Ilopkinson, Joseph, 277, 500. Horn, Cape, 364, 578. Hornet, ship, 303, .394. Horseshoe Bend. 307, 394. Hospital nuns, 68. INDEX AND GLOSSARY 653 IIouso of F.iirgcsscs, 82, 8:'., IK!, 104, 171. ' ilouso of Commons, one of tlie divi- sions of the Englisli Parliament consisting of tlie representatives of tlie common people, 82. House of Lords, one of the divisions of the English Parliament consisting of Lords spiritual (bishops and archbishops). Lords temporal (hereditary or created nobles), 82. Houston, Samuel, 340, :>96. Howe, Admiral, 19.3. Howe, Ellas, .■'.97, 545. Howe, General, 187, 190, 103, 194, 198, 199, 203, 205. 207. Howe, .Julia Ward, 560. Howe, Lord. 214. llowlaiid Island, 536. Hubbard, 563. Hudson Bay, 70, 104. Fludson, Henry, 70, 71, 99, 126, 104. Hudson River, 53, 70, 100, IC.l. 19:!. Hudson Strait, 70. Hu er ta (ware'ta), 598. Hughes, Archbishop, 353, 412, 45.", 459, 489, 567. Hu' gue nuts, 41, 42, 54, 74, 75, 94. Hull, Isaac, 302, 393. Hull, William, 300. Hunt, 455. Hunt, Richard M., 562. Hunter, General, 411, 426, 445. Huron Indians, 62, 64, 65, 66. Huron, Lake, 56, 58, 61, 66. Hutchinson, Anne, 119, 125, 130. Idaho, 517, 605. Illinois Indians, 59, 63. Illinois River, 59, 61. Illinois State, 60, 62, 210, 318. illumination and heating, 547. I mil' go Mun' di, 26. immigration, 100, 541, 605. Catholic from Ireland, 281. (1830-1840), 347. (1815-1848), 317. Chinese, 486, 495, 502, 604. .Japanese, 589. impeachment, the calling to account of a public offlcer for bad manage- ment of any business, 471, 484, 508, 602. impressment of seamen, 292, 296, 300. In'€as. 38. income tax, 596. indentured servants, 81, 149. Independence Hall, 185. Independence, steps toward, 190. Independent National party. See Greenback. Indei)eiident treasury, a private place to keep the money of the govern- ment when not in use, originally provided for during Van Buren's administration. It relieves the government of depending upon the banks for pul)lic money, 345, 349, 351, 3.58. India, 53, 56. trade with, 21. new route to, .■'..'; Indian Ocean, 25, 48, 73. Indiana, 210, .si:!, 394, 439. Indians — name and origin, 15. characteristics, 15. manners and customs, 15. religion, 16. three great families, 17. Maskoki, 17, 97. Iroquois, or Six Nations, 17, 54, 65, 00. 70, 100, 101, 134, 135, 136, 138, 143, 209. Algonquins, 17, 101, 115, 135. degrees of civilization, 17. mounds and mound builders, 19. first Christians, 31. treatment by Spanish, 31, 35, 42. Protector General of, 35. in Mexico and California, 36, 37, 366. South American, 38. in colonies. See under each colony. Pueblos, 39. conversion and civilization, 44, 45. treatment by French, 50, 57, 70. Illinois, 59, 63. Sioux, 61, 436, 488, 518, 603, 605. Huron, 62, 64, 65, 66. Abnakis, 62, 63, 66, 189, 254. Mohawks 63, 64, 60. < >ttawas, 03. Chippewa, 64, 60. Mohegans, 66, 121, 120. treatment by Dutch, 70, 100. and Smith. 79. treatment by ]\Iaryland colonists, 87. Tuscaroras, 9:!. treatment by English, 97, 108, 110, 121. Wampanoags, 115. Narragan setts, 115, 121, 129. Wars, 142, 266, 307, 315, 341, 396, 487, 488. Penobscots, 189. 654 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Cherokee, 209, 329. Creek. 307, 329, 341, 516. Pequot, 129, 165, in the West, 483, 487. Seminoles, 315, 341, 395, 516. massacres, 209, 488, 605. Black Hawk, 341, 396. education, 555. Flathead, 356, 397. peace policy, 487, 555. reservations, 487, 488. Bureau of Catholic Missions, 555. industrial conditions, new, 493. industries, 544. Inflation Bill, 485. Inness, George, 563. Inquisition, an ecclesiastical tribunal established to examine and pro- nounce judgment in case of here- tics, 24. Insurgent, ship, 277. insurrection, a rising against an estab- lished government ; rebellion, 231. Intercolonial Wars, 132-146. causes, 134. comparative strength of rivals, 1.54. internal improvement, national, 324, 325, 345, 406, 424. international, between or among na- tions, 311. Interstate, existing between or includ- ing different states ; Commerce Act, 507, 004. intrastate, existing within a state, 507. inventions and discoveries, 270, 289, 393, 544-548. Iowa, 59, 62, 366, 398, 436. Ireland, sons of, 240. Ironclad Oath, 470. Ironclads, battle between, 418-420, 457, 495. Iroquois, or Six Nations, 17, 54, .")5, 58, 65, 66, 70, 100, 101, 134, 135, i:!6, 138, 139, 143. 209. irrigation, .~>78, 606. Irving, Washington, 32, .395, 565. Isabella, Haiti, 31, 72. Isabella, Queen, 28, 31, 72, 73. Island No. 10, 416, 457. Italy, 24, 515. i iV ka, battle, 417, 457. Jack, Captain, 488. Jackson, Andrew, 309, 315. 323, 357, 394, 395, 468, 475. president, 331-343, 344, 396, 564. sketch of life, 331. notable facts, 332. re-elected, 336, 396. Jackson, Charles, 558. Jackson, Fort, 420, 432. Jackson, Helen Hunt, 568. Jackson, Aliss., 418, 432, 433. Jackson, Stonewall, 363, 405, 410, 422, 424, 429, 454, 457, 458. Jacksonians, 323, 324. Jamaica, 31, 35, 72. James I of England, 77, 112, 116, 164. James II of England, 102, 103, 135, 165. James River, 38, 423. Jamestown, 50, 52, 75, 77, 78, 79, 80, 87. Jamestown Exposition, 580. Japan, treaty with, 382, .399, 589, 608. Japanese Immigration, 589. Jasper, Sergeant, 190, 216. Jay, John, 207, 224. 239, 260, 269. Jay's Treaty, 269, 275, 392. Jefferson, Fort, 390. Jefferson, Thomas, 314. views on constitutional constructi6n, 265. Republican leader, 265, 266. vice-president, 275-281. president, 282-294, 393. sketch of life, 284. re-election, 287. death, 329, 395. Jesuits, 44, 45, 55, 56, 57, 62, 64, 65, 67, 86, 88, 90. Jetties, Mississippi, 495. Jogues, Father, 64, 65, 66, 101. Johns Hopkins University, 558. Johnson, Andrew, 447, 460, 469, 471, 475, 602. sketch of life, 461. president, 461-475, 602. impeachment, 471, 508, 602. death, 490. 603. Johnson, Eastman, 563. Johnson, John, 209. Johnson, Richard M., 344. Johnson, Sir William, 143, 209. Johnston, Albert Sidney, 414, 416, 454, 457. Johnston, Joseph E., 421, 422, 432, 435, 440, 441, 443, 449. 450, 455. Johnstown flood, 517, 604. Joint High Commission, 491. Joliet, 58, 59, 60, 62. Jones, Jacob, 303. Jones, Paul, 152, 214, 246. Juarez, Juan (huiin' huiir'eth), 39, 74. INDEX AND GLOSSARY 655 Jun' to, a number of men combined ior party intrigue, 328. Kanawha River, 139. Kansas, 40, 45, 74, 388, 309. Kansas, civil war in, 380, 399. Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 378, 399. Kns kas' ki a, 63, 210. Kcjir' ny, Philip, 454, 455. Kearny, Stephen W., 361, 398. Kear' siirge, 447, 459. Kemys, Edward, 564. Ken' drick, Archbishop, 377. Ken' e saw Mt., 441, 459. Kennebec River, 52, 62, 68, 112, 125. Kentucky, 209. 249, 273, 310, 392, 405, 411, 412, 415, 417, 458. Keweenaw Bay, 65. Key, David M., 495. Key, Francis Scott, 309, 560. Key West, 390. Kidd, William, 95. Kieft, Governor, 64, 101. Kinetoscope, 548. King George's War, 137. King Philip's War, 121, 131, 165. King, William R., 378. King William's War, 135, 166. king's friends, 170, 171, 180, 224. King's Mountain, battle of, 217, 221, 246. Kingston, 61. Klondike, 338, 579, 580, Knights of Labor, 494. Knights of the Golden Circle, 438. Knowles, Brother John, 87. Knownothingism, 375, 399. Knox, Henry, 259, 260. Knox, Secretary, 589. Knoxville, 435, 459. Kos gi us' ko, 198, 239. Kryn, Chief, 60. KuKliixKlan, 478, 602. La Boeuf, 140. Labrador, 46. Lachine, 135. Ladies of the Sacred Heart, 322. Lady Rebecca, 80. Lsx Fiirge', John, 563. La' fa yette'. Marquis (markwis), 198, 208, 223, 2.39, 292, 320, 395. Lake Brie battle, 382. Lakes, Great, 61, 62, 145, 225. Lalle miind', Father, 64. land bounty, in the United States pub- lic lands set apart as a compensa- tion for military services, 232. land grants, 486, 498. lands, national, 579. system, 232. Northwest Territory, 232, 266. states relinquish claims, 232. western reserve, 232. sale of, 337, 406, 579. Morrill Tariff, 424. grants to corporations, 480. Lane, Ralph, 49. La Point, 63. La Prairie, 66. Lii Rii bi' dii, Franciscan monastery not far from Palos, 30. La Salle', Robert, 60, 01, 62, 138. Las Cii' sjis, Bartholomew, 35, 73. Las Casas, Luis, 529. Latin America, 514. Latter-Day Saints, 346. Lau don niere (lo' don yar'), 55, 75. La vjil'. Bishop, 66. Lawrence, Captain, 304. Lawrence, Kansas, 379. laws. See bills, league, about three miles, 32. Leavenworth, Fort, 361. Lecompton Constitution, 380. Lee, .Arthur, 212. Lee, Charles, 190, 195, 196, 208. Lee, Fort, 193, 195, 243. Lee, Henry, 212, 213, 217, 222, 454. Lee, Richard Henry, 191, 235. Lee, Robert B., 213, 303, 405, 433, 454, 490, 003. in command, 422. in Seven Days' battles, 423. first invasion of North, 424, 425, 457, 458. second invasion of North, 429-431, 432, 458. campaign around Richmond, or Over- land campaign, 440, 443-445, 447, 449, 450, 459, 460. surrender, 449, 4.56, 460. Lees of Virginia, 212. Leeds, 171. Legal Tender Act, 439. legation, the official residence or place of business of the chief of a diplo- matic mission, .537. Leis' ler, Jacob, 102, 160. Leisler's Rebellion, 103, 166. Le Moyne, Father, 67. Leo XIII, Pope, 585, 603, 607. Leopard-Chesapeake Insult, 292, 297, 393. Leopard, ship, 292, 393. Leopoldina Society, 347. 656 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES Le vant', 304. Lewis, Meriwether, 288, 393, 579. Lexington, 181, 182, 184, 185, 217, 242, 406. Lexington, Mo., 411. Lexington, ship, 213. Leyden, 113. libel, a malicious publication intended to expose another to public hatred or contempt, 354. Liberal Republican party, 479. Liberator, 339, 396. Liberia, 319, 395. Liberty bell, 192. Liberty Laws, Personal, 374, 398. Library, Congressional, 538, 605. life — in New England, 117, 123, 124, 120, 162, 163. in the South, 77, 84, 89, 95, 117, 123, 162, 163. in the Middle Colonies, 162, 163. after Revolution, 252. light from gas, 545. light infantry, a body of soldiers on foot selected and trained for rapid movement, 221. Lii' li en thiil, Otto, 548. Li' lit uo kfl lii' ni". Queen, 522, 605. Li' ma, 38. Lincoln, Abraham, 386, 388, 461, 462, 463, 472, 564. president, 400-460. inauguration, 400, 456. inaugural address, 400. re-election, 446, 459. assassination, 451, 460. Lincoln, Benjamin, 212, 215, 216, 223. Lincoln-Douglas debate, 385, 399. Line of Demarcation, 32, 72. Lisbon, 25, 33. literature — ■ Colonial, 158. during Revolution, 253, 255. after Revolution, 564. Little Belt, ship, 297, 393. Little Crow, chief, 436. Live Stock Combinations, 550. Livingston, Robert, 191, 258, 285. Locke, 91. 10 €o fO' CO, a friction match invented 1834; nickname of the Democratic party, 350. London Company, 51, 52. Lon' don der' ry, 125. Long Island, battle of, 194, 243. Longfellow, 21, 59, 114, 120, 141, 185, 396, 565, 569, Longstreet, General, 363, 435, 459. Lookout Mountain, 435, 458. Lo' pez, NUr gis' 0, 381, 399. Loretto, 272. Los Angeles, "the angels," abridged from the long Spanish name meaning "Our Lady, the Queen of Angels," 362, 366. Louis XIV of France, 61, 135. Louis XVI of Prance, 206, 215, 267, Louisburg, 137, 141, 142. Louisiana, 61, 225, 392, 463. purchase of, 285, 289, 358, 366, 393, 579, 607. state, 313, 389, 393. Louisville, 417, 424. Lovelace, 103. Lowell, Francis, 271. Lowell, James R., 360, 397, 566, .569. Lower Counties, on Delaware, 106. Loyal League, 478. Lummis, Charles P., 571. Lundy, Benjamin, 339. Lundy's Lane, 307, 394. Luther, Martin, 73. Lu zon', 535. > Lynch, Dominic, 241. Lyon, Captain, 410, 456. Ma€k' i nac, 58, 63. Ma eon Bill, 296. Madero, 590, 598. Madeira Islands, 53. Madison, James, 81, 232, 255, 261, 279, 315. author of Constitution, 235. leader of Federalists, 237. author of "Federalist," 239. -president, 295-313, 393. sketch of life, 295, re-election, 300. death, 342, 396. Ma dras', 137. Mil' fi a, a secret organization of Ital- ians, committing acts of violence as murder and blackmail. Its members are bound by oath to obey the commands of the order and must shield the crimes committed by it, 515. Ma gel' Ian, 36, 37, 48, 69, 73, Ma gru' der, 436. Maine, 52, 01, 62, 112, 122, 125, 134, 136, 318, 395. Maine, ship, 530, 606. maize, 50, 79, 90. Mai' vern Hill, 423. Manassas Junction, 410. INDEX AND GLOSSARY 657 Manchester, 171. maneuver, a military or naval move- ment, 205. Manhattan, !>!). manifesto, a i)ul)lic declaration of a person in authority, showing his in- tentions in reference to some act, 381. Manila, 5.32, 579, 606. Mann, Horace, 557. nan-of-war, an armed vessel belonging to a navy, 213. manufacturing, 271, 293. colonial. 169. after the Revolution, 251. and War of 1812, 311. Miir' CO Po' lo, 23, 26, 36, 72. Miir €6' ni, 547. Miir €os, Fri' ar, 39, 40, 45, 74. Marie Antoinette, 267. Marietta. 266. Marion, 217, 222. Marion, Fort, 561. marque and reprisal, letters of a license granted by a government to a pri- vate person to fit out an armed ship, to cruise at sea and make prizes of the enemy's ships and merchandise, 408. Marquette' (kef), Father, 58, 60, 62, 63, 65, 138. Marshall, James W., 364. Marshall, John, 81, 276, 280, 287, 342. Marshall, Thomas Riley, 595. Martha's Vineyard, 51, 75. Martin, Homer, 563. Miirti'nez (th), Father, 45. Martinique, 62. martyrs, 40. 45, 64, 74, 75. Maryland, 57, 86, 232, 249. name, 86. grant, 85, 86, 106. first settlement, 86, 165. early history, 85-90. purpose, 85. treatment of Indians, 87. character of settlers, 85, 87. religion, education, manners, cus- toms, 88, 89. government, 89. three notable facts, 90. Carmelite Nuns. 271. during Civil War, 405, 412, 424. 426. Mas ko' ki, or Mobilian Indians, 17, 97. Mason, 125, 129. Mason and Dixon's line, 89, 111, 147, 149, 166, 256, 319, 404. Ma' son and Sli dell', 411, Mason, Charles, 89. Mason, William, 559. Mass, Holy Sacrifice of, 63, 157. first in America, 31, 72. first in United States, 38. first in New France, 57. Father .Toques, 64. first and second in Maryland, 86. first in New York, 103. first in Philadelphia, 110. first in New England, 126. Massachusetts, 52, 75, 76, 125, 129, 136, 160, 232, 249. grant, 112. purpose of settlement, 113. first settlements, 113, 116, 117, 164. early history, 112-131. name, 114. Indians, 114, 115, 120, 121. religion, 112, 116, 119, 122. government, 113, 116, 125, 165. character of settlers, 114, 123. education, 123. manners and customs, 125. circular letter of, 176. Massachusetts Bay Colony, 115, 116, 117, 128, 160. Massachusetts Bill, 178. Massacre on the Little Big Horn, 488, 605. Massacres, Indian, 209. Mas' sa soit, 114, 115, 120, 130. Mat a mo' ras, 360. Matb' er. Cotton, 120, 159. Ma-feh' er, Increase, 159. Matb' er, Richard, 159. Max 1 mil' ian, 472, 602. Mayfiower, 113. McAllister, Fort, 442. McClellan, George B., 363, 406, 410, 415, 420, 421, 422, 423, 424, 425, 454, 457, 458, 509, 604. McCloskey, Cardinal, 489, 509, 603, 604. McCormick, George, 538. McDonough, Commodore, 309. McDowell, Edward A., 559. McDowell, Irvin, 409, 421, 422, 423, 456. McHenry, Fort, 308. McKenna, Rev, John, 157. McKinley Tariff Bill, 513, 588, 605. McKlnley, William, 526. president, 526-539, 574, 605. sketch of life, 526. re-elected, 574, 606. assassination, 574, 606. McLean, 385. 658 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES McMahon, 455. McMaster, John B., 571. Meade, George E., 429, 458, 490. Meade, L. G., 564. Meagher, Thomas F., 455. Measures of Congress. See Bills. Mechanicsville, 423. Medford, 184. medicine and law, 558. Meigs, Fort, 305. Me' la, 34. Melville, David, 545. Memphis, 41, 417, 418, 432, 457, 495. Me nard'. Father, 65. Men di e' ta, 44. Me nen' dez (deth), 55, 75. Menlo Park, 547. Merrimac, coaling vessel, 532. Merrimac River, 116, 125, 422. Merrimac, ship, 418, 457, 606. Merritt, General, 532. Methodism, a form of religion founded in 1739 by John and Charles Wes- ley, so called for their methodical strictness in religion, 98. Mexican border warfare, 590, 598. Mexico, 36, 37, 40, 73, 74, 340, 395, 602. Mexican Congress, 367. French set up Republic in, 472. war with, 354, 358, 363, 369, 376, 377, 378, 397. treaty with, 363, 382, 398. trouble with, 598, 608. Mexico, city of, 363, 398. Mexico, gulf of, 60, 61. Mi a' mi, Great River, 140. Michigan, 62, 63. 65, 342, .396, 603. Michigan, Lake, 58, 61, 64. Michigan River, 63. Michigan University, 558. Middlesex, a county in Massachusetts ; also one in Connecticut, 185. Midway Island, 536. Milan Decree, 292, 393. Miles, General, 518, 606. military — protection, 467. government, 468, 469, 479. militia, the untrained state troops in contrast to the regular trained forces under the control of Con- gress, 216. Mill Springs, 414. Milwaukee, 483. Mimms, Fort, 307. mine workers, 576. mining industries, 497. Minnesota, 62, 388, 399, 436, 603. Mint, United States, 264. Min' u it, Peter, 99, 101, 106. Minute-men, 181, 185, 217. Mlquelon (me ke Ion'), 62. missionaries — Spanish, 44, 366. French, 56, 57, 62-68. in the West, 272. among Indians, 322. to Oregon, 355, 397. in Mexico and California, 366. Missionary Ridge, 435, 455, 458. Mississippi, 318, 389, 394, 470, 474. Mississippi River, 41, 58, 60, 61, 62, 68, 74, 225, 252, 285, 413, 435. 436, 457, 458. Mississippi Valley, 61, 132. Missouri, 318, 395, 405, 411, 412, 418, 426. Compromise, 318, 395. Mistress of the Seas, 190. Mobile, 61, 435, 436, 447, 459, Mo' d6€, 487, 603. Mohawk Indians, 63, 64, 66. Mohawk Valley, 101. Mo he' gan Indians, 66, 121, 129, Mo 10 kai', 523. money — in colonies, 87, 153, 337. during the Revolution, 198, 220. after the Revolution, 230, 231, Hamilton's scheme, 260. mint, 264. rag, 337. surplus loaned to States, 338. independent treasury, 345, 849, 351, - 358. greenbacks, 407, 439, 457. gold, 407, 485, 580. silver, 485, 580. during Civil War, 407, 439, 457. issue in campaign of 1868, 475. borrowed, 477. Inflation Bill, 485. Specie Payment, 485, 497, 603. currency regulation, 492, 518, 586. Bland-Allison Bill, 496, 514, 603. Mills' Tariff Bill, 510. Sherman's Silver Coinage Bill, 514, 520, 525, 605. Monetary Commission, 527. Gold Standard Act, 527. panic of 1907, 585. emergency currency, 586. postal savings system, 588, 607. income tax, 596. INDEX AND GLOSSARY 659 Administration Currency, or Owon- (ilass Bill, .^no, 608. Monitor, 41!), 457. INIonnioutli, hattio of, 2(»S, 24.">. MonongalK'la IJivcr, 140, 240. nionot)ol.v, exclusive poss(>Hsion or con- trol, n.-.. Monroe Doctrine, 319, :'>{)5, 473, 523. violation of, 472. Monroe, Fortress, 411, 412, 450. Monroe, .James, 81, 276, 2S5, 295. president. 314-322, 394, 395. sketch of life, 314. death, 342, 396. Monsignore (mon se nyo' ra), an eccle- siastical dignity bestowed by the Pope, entitling the bearer to social and domestic rank at the Papal court, 375. Montana, 517, 605. Mont€;ilni', Marquis (mar' kwis), 141, 142, 143, 145, 166. Mon te rey, 360, 366, 398. Mon' te zu' ma, 37, 362. Montgomery, General, 189. Montreal, 54, 68, 74, 189, 25.3. Moors, the Moors, followers of Moham- med, originally came from Arabia, whence they swept along the north- ern coast of Africa as far west as the Strait of Gibraltar. Crossing the strait, they conquered the greater part of the Spanish penin- sula. They, however, lost power before the Christian kingdoms of Aragon and Castile, and finally their possessions were limited to the kingdom of Granada, which surrendered to Ferdinand, the Catholic (1492). The expelled Moors settled in northern Africa and eventually developed into the piratical states of Barbary, 27. Moran, 563. Morgan, Daniel, 189, 203, 216, 221. Morgan, Fort, 448. Mormons, 346, .396, 397, 523. Morrill Tariff, 424. Morris, George Pope, 560. Morris, Robert, 198. Morse, Samuel F. B., 397. 490. Morton, Levi P., 512. Morton, William, 558. Mot' ley. .Tohn, 569, 571. Mo' to ii' ni a, 44. Mo' tu Pro' pri o, the name given to cer- tain papal rescripts on account of the clause motu proprio (of his own accord) used in the document, 561. Moul' trie. Colonel, 190. Moultri(\ Fort, 190, 216, 390. iiioiuids and mound builders, 19. INIount Desert Isl.ind, 164. Mount Iloiie, 121. Mount Vernon, 86, 226, 257. Moy' Ian, Stephen, 239; Mugwumps, 504. Muh' len berg. Frederick A., 257, 2.58. IMul'ligfin, Colonel, 411, 455. Murfreesboro, 417, 433, 458. nnisie and composers, 559, 585. musical societies, 560. musical instruments, 560. mutineers, those wlio rise against law- ful authority, 80. mutiny, rebellion against lawful au- thority, especially a revolt of sol- diers or seamen against their com- mander, 176. Mutiny Act, 176. Napoleon, 277, 285, 297. Napoleon III, 472. Narragansett Bay, 53, 130. Narragansett Indians, 115, 121, 129. N-ir v:i' ez (eth), 38, 74. Nashville, 209, 415, 417, 442, 459. national hymns, songs, poems, 309, 5.59. National L^nion party, 402. nationalization, the act of investing the supreme power in the central gov- ernment, 228. naturalization, 376, 543, 582. Acts, 278, 293. Nauvoo, 346. naval cruise, 584, 607. Navigation Acts, S3, 122, 152, 168. navy, improvement of, 507. education in, 598, 608. Navy Island, 346. navy yard. 405. Nebraska, 473, 602. Necessity, Fort, 140. negroes, 373, 4.38, 462, 465, 466, 552, 602. Dred Scott Decision, 384, 386, 388. plot, 103, 166. as soldiers, 427, 446. education, 467, 555. emancipated, 462, 467. suffrage. 470. 477. in power, 476. Negro Insurrection, 338. Netherlands, 77. Netherland, New, 71, 101, 102, 106. 660 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES noiitrality, the state of refraining from nifling or interfering witli l)elliger- ent nations, 2('>S. neutrality, declaration of, GOO, (iOS. New Alliion, 4.S. New Brunswick, 01, 195. New England, 117, 360. New England Confederation, 117, 101, 165. New Hampshire, 125, 136. grant, 125. first settlement, 125, 164. purpose, 125. early history, 125, 126. government, 125. customs, manners, industry, 125. character of colonists, 126. New Haven, 128, 130, 557. New Jersey, 107. grant, 105, 165. name, 105. first settlement, 105. government, 105. New Mexico, 39, 42, 43, 74, 75, 363, 370, 371, 398, 592, 608. New Orleans, 44, 61, 67, 225, 285, 309, 394, 418, 420, 457, 483, 495, 502, 515, 562, 604. New Orleans riot, 515. New Yorl?, 17, 56, 62, 64, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 76, 93. 99, 152, 171, 232, 237, 238, 249, 250, 458, 474, 482, 517. claim, 99. object, 99. trading posts, 99. first settlement. 99, 164. early history, 99-104. patroon system, 99. government, 101, 102. Indians, 100. name, 102. captured by English, 102. religion, education, manners, cus- toms, 103. armies at, 193. New York, Greater, 5.38, 543. Newark, 195. Newburgh, 225. Addresses, 229. Newfoundland, 49, 53, 62, 73, 137. 473, 592. Newport, 130, 208. Newport, Christopher, 77, 78. newspaper, 239. first, 160. first daily, 160. first weekly, 166. number, 255. anti-slavery, 339. Newton, 455. Newton, Isaac, '24. Newtown, 123, 127. Nevada, 363, 447, 459, 485. Niagara Falls, 61, 599. Niagara, Fort, 141, 143, 225. Niagara River, 61. Nicaragua, 374, 381, 578. trouble with, 590. Nicholson, 90. Nicolls, 103. Nii CO let', Jean, 58. Ni' na (nen'yii), 29, 31. Nonconformists, 112. Non-intercourse Act, 296, 393. Norfolk, 418, 422, 580. North and South — on tariff, 321. on slavery, 339, 340. on location of capitol, 263. comparative strength and resources, 401. advantages and disadvantages, 404. counteracting proclamation, 408. North Carolina, during Civil War, 405, 456. North Dakota, 517, 605. North. Lord, 224. Northmen, 20, 21, 72. Northwest, 288. Northwest Passage, 48. Northwest Territory, 210, 232, 233, 245, 366. Notre Dame of Namur, 356. Notre Dame University, 556. Nova Scotia, 53, 55, 61, 7.3, 75, 137. Nueces River, 358. Nullification Act, 334, 389, 396. Xuncio, a ])ermanent official representa- tive of the Pope at a foreign court or seat of government, 375. Nu' rem berg, 26. oath of allegiance, a declaration under oath by which a person promises fidelity and loyalty to a particular government or sovereign, 210. oath of office, a solemn declaration made by a public official with his liaiid on the Bible, to preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States and faithfully to per- form the duties of his office, 258. O'Brien, Jeremiah, 240. O'Connell. Cardinal William, 593, 608. Ogdeu, 482. INDEX AND GLOSSARY 661 Ogdensburg, 225. Ugie' thOrpe, James, 96, 97, 08, 16t>. O Ilara, General, 223. Ohio, 62, 2G6, 293. 393, 439. Ohio River, 60, 249. Ohio Valley, 134, 138, 140. Oklahoma, 40, 516, 582, 604. Old North Church, 184. Old South Meeting House, 176, 179 Old State House, 185, 224. Omaha, 481, 538, 556, 606. Omnibus Bill, 371, 373. 377, 378. Ontario, Lake, 56, 61, 143. "Open Door" with China, 537, 606. orchestra, 561. Order of Star Spangled Banner, 376. Orders in Council, 291, 296, 299, 300, 393. Ordinance of 1787, 232, 247, 253, 256, 319, 464. Oregon, 40, 48, 74, 289, 316, 388, 395, 397; 398, 399. ■ joint occupancy. 354. territory, 354, 358. Oregon, ship, 578. Oregon trail, 481. Orinoco River, 31, 35, 49. O risk' a ny, battle, 201, 244. O ro' no. Chief, 189, 239. Os' ge o' la, Chief, 341. Osgood, Samuel, 259. Ostend, Belgium, 381. Ostend Manifesto, 381. Oswego, 225. O' tis, James, 161, 170, 173, 235. Ottawas, 63. out-flanking, to get the better of by ex- tending an army's lines beyond or around the enemy, 441. Owen-Glass Bill, the currency measure enacted during President Wilson's administration. It is so called be- cause Senator Owen of Oklahoma had charge of it in the Senate, and Representative Glass of Virginia in the House, 596. I'ii' €a, William, 240. Pacific coast. 40. Pacific Fur Company. 289. I'acific Ocean, 36, 48, 69, 73. Pa d'lT la, Father Juan (huan'), 45. Paine, John Knowles, 559. Paine, Thomas, 191, 255. painting 563. Pakenham, Edward, 309^ Piil' ma, Don To' mas Es trii' dil, 534, 582. Piilm' er, E ras' txis Dow, 564. Palmer, J. M., 525. Pa' 15 Al' to, 360, 397. Pii' los, 31. Pan-American Congress, 514, 605. E.xposition, 574. Panama, 31, 35, 36, 48, 73. I'anama Canal — Zone, 540. construction of, 576, 607. French Company, 578. Tolls Repeal Bill, 597. Ilay-Pauncefote Treaty, 374, 578. Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 374, 398, 577. Spooner Act, 576. Pango Pango, 536. panic — of 1837, 344, 397. of 1857, 387, 399. of 1873, 484, 603. of 1893, 519. of 1907, 585, 607. prevention of, 597. Papal Nuncio, 375. papists, an offensive term applied to Roman Catholics by their Protest- ant opponents, 179. parcel post. 597, 608. Paris, treaty of, 145, 166, 167, 224, 247, 254. parity, equality, 528. Parker, .\lton B., 580, 581. Parker, Horatio, 559. Parker, James Dunn, 559. Parker, Theodore, 339. Parkman, 57, 119, 398, 569, 571. parliament, the national assembly of the British nation embracing two branches, the House of Lords and the House of Commons, 169. Parliamentary Party, 112. parole, promise upon one's faith or honor to fulfill stated conditions, such as not to bear arms against one's captors, to return to custody, or the like ; a watchword given only to ofiicers of guards, as dis- tinguished from a countersign given to all guards, 449. Parsons' cause, 170. parties, political. 237, 247, 269. 324. Federalists. See Federalists. Anti-Federalists. See Anti-Federal- ists. Republican. See Republican. Democrat. See Democrat. .\nti-Masonic. See Anti-Masonic. 662 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES Whig. See Whig. Anti-Slavery, or Liberty, 348, 364. Native American, 348, 353, 375, 397.- Free-Soil, 304, 378, 386. National Republican, 382. Constitutional Union, 388. Know-nothing, 375, 399. Liberal Republican, 479. National I'uion, 402. Greenback Labor, Union Labor, or Populist, 4Sfa, 487, 498, 518, 525. Prohibition, 487, 498. National Democrat, 525. Farmers' Grange, or Patrons of Hus- bandry, 4.S6. Progressive, 594. Partisan corps, 217, 221, 246. passage to Pacific, 58, 69, 79. patent, an official document issued by a sovereign power, conferring a right or privilege on some person or party, 55. patent, 544. De Monts', 55. Baltimore's, 86, 109. Penn's, 109. Patrons of Husbandry, 486. Patroon system, 99, 149. Paulus Hook, capture of, 212, 245. Payne-Aldrich Tariff Bill, 588, 596, 007. Payne, John Howard, 560. Peace, International, 536, 583, 591, 006, 607. Peace policy (Indians), 487, 555. Peacock, ship, 303, 394. Pearce, 563, Pea Ridge, 417, 457. Peary, Robert E., 589, 607. PekIn, 537. Pelican, ship, 48, 304. Pemaquid, 135. Pemberton, General, 431, 432, 433, 455, 458. Pendleton Bill, 501, 604. Pendleton, Senator, 500. Ponn, William, 105, 106, 107. Pennsylvania, 67, 106, 146, 147, 161, 249. grant, 107, 109, 165. name, 107. first settlement, 107. religion, 107, 110. early history, 107-111. Indians, 108. government, 109, 111. education, 110, 111. during Civil Wi\r, 405, 429, 445. Pennsylvania Gazette, 140 Pennsylvania Packet, 160. Pennsylvania University, 557. Penob.scot Indians, 189. Pensacola, 390. pensions, 474, 512, 605. Peoria, 61, 483. Pe' quot Indians, 129, 165. Perez, Juan (pe'reth, huan'), 28, 29, 30, 31, 39, 72. periods of history — of earliest inhabitants, 15-19. of discoveries and explorations, 20-71. of Civil W'ar, 400-460. of reconstruction and expansion, 461- 601. of colonization, 76-163, 563. of Revolution, 167-226, 563. critical, of our history, 227-241. of development of the States to the Civil War, 248-391. periods of the Revolutionary War, 182. Perry, Captain Oliver. 304, 394. Perry, Commodore Matthew C, 382, 399. Perry's treaty with Japan, 382. Perryville, battle, 417, 455, 458. Peru, 38. Pe ru' scliitz, O. S. B., Rev. J., 59:'.. Petersl)urg, 445, 449, 460. Philadelphia. 55, 93, 108, 153, 165, 171, 198, 207, 237, 250, 251, 353, 392, 397, 544, 603. Philadelphia, ship, 290, .393. Philip. King, 121. Philippines. 37, 48, 536, 576, 579. war in, 534. United States in possession of, 533, 606. Church in, 535. retention of, 581. Phillips, Wendell, 3.39. Phipps, William. 135. phoenix, a bird fabled to exist single, to be consumed by Are by its own act, and to rise again from its ashes ; hence an emblem of immor- tality, 193. phonograph, 548. Pickens, 217. Pickens, Fort, 390, 411, 412. Pierce, Franklin, 377. president, 378-383, .399. sketch of life, 378. Pike, Albert, 500. Pike, Lieutenant, 289. Pilgrims, 112, 113, 115, 116. Pillow, Fort, 416, 457. Pinckney, Charles C, 276, 295. INDEX AND GLOSSARY 663 pine tree shilling, 153. Pinta, 29, 31. Pjfu zon' (thon') Brothers, 29. Pinzon, VIn gen' te, .S3. piracy, 94, 319. Piscataqua, 12-5. Pitcairn, Major, 185, 187. Pitt, William, 141, 142, 172, 180, 224. Pittshurg, 140, 142, 249, 495, 518. Pittsburg Lauding, 416, 455. Pius VI, Popo, 254. Pius IX, Pope, 489, 603. Pius X, Popo, 561, 585, 601, 607, 608. Pi zar' ro, Francisco, 38, 74. Plains of Abraham, 144. platform, presidential, origin of, 336. plurality, the excess of the number of votes cast for the leading candi- date over those cast for each of his competitors in case there are more than two candidates, and no one receives a majority, or more than one-half of the votes, 388. Plymouth, 112, 113, 114, 116, 121, ICO. Plymouth Company, 51, 52. Plymouth Kock, 113. PO' cii hou' tas, 79. Poe, Edgar Allan, 396, 566. poles, discovery of, 589, 607, 60S. political parties during Revolution, 172. political scandals, 482-484, 603. Polk, General, 414. Polk, James K., 353, 397. president, 357-368. sketch of life, 357. polygamy, 523. P6n<;e de Le on', 35, 73. Pon' tl a€, Chief, 145. Pontiac's war, 145. pooling, the act of combining competing corporations for the control of trade by removing competition, 508. Pope, General, 423, 424, 457. Popham, 112. population, 375, 543, 583. center of, 541. Porter, Admiral, 418, 432, 448, 459. Porter, David, 302. Port Hudson, 421, 433, 435, 458. Porto Rico, 31, 35, 73, 533, 534, 606. Port Royal, Nova Scotia, 55, 75, 135, 136. South Carolina, 55, 74, 411, 412. Port Tobacco, 271. Portsmouth, 130, 581. Portugal, 25, 27, 33, 73. postage reduction, 500, 604. postal service, 549. savings system, 5SS, 607. posts, trading and military — French, 61, 133, 138, 140. Dutch, 99. Swedish, 105, 133. English, 210, 269, 392. potato, 31, 50, 90. Potomac River, 85, 86, 249, 424. Potter, E. C, 564. Poughkeepsie, 554. Powers, Hiram, 504. Pow' ha tan'. Chief, 79. preamble of Constitution, 238. Preble, Commodore, 290. prehistoric, the period before written history begins, 19. Prescott, Colonel, 187. Prescott, William Henry, 568. president, manner of electing, 257, 275. President, sliip, 297, 304, 393. Presidential Succession Law, 505, 604. Presque Isle (preskel'), 140. Prevost', 210, .309. Price, 411, 417, 456. prime minister, the chief or responsible head of the cabinet in Great Brit- ain, usually the first Lord of the Treasury, 224. Princeton, 195. Princeton, battle of, 197, 243. Princeton University, 105, 557. Pring, 112. printing press, 22, 43, 67, 72, 74, 160, 165. prisons — Libby, 427. Andersonville, 427, 450. privateers, vessels owned by individ- uals to whom are issued by their government "letters of marque and reprisal" which give them the right to fit out vessels for the purpose of making war on the shipping of an enemy, 268. privateering, 213, 303, 304, 394, 480. privy council, the principal council of the English Sovereign, composed of the cabinet members and other persons chosen by the king, 156. prize, that which is seized by fighting, especially a ship. The prizes taken at sea are regulated by law. The money, realized by the sale of the booty, is taken by the captors in certain proportions according to rank, 305. 664 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Proclamation, Emancipation, 426, 458, 463, 464, 466. Amnesty, 463, 464, 602. Procter, A. A., 570. Proctor, A. C, 564. Proctor, General, 305. progress, a century's, 540-573. Prohibition party, 487. proprietary colonies, 155. protocol, a memorandum of resolutions arrived at in negotiation, 599. Providence, 119, 130, 131. provisional, temporary, 389. Ptol' e my, Claudius, 23, 24, 26. Pueblo, 362. Pu las' ki, 198, 216, 239, 246. Pullman Car Company, 524. Puritans, 63, 81. 88, 92, 112, 113, 116, 119, 122, 129. Putnam, Israel, 181, 187, 188, 193. Quakers, 92, 105, 107, 108, 109, 116, 119. quarantine, 495. Quartering Act, 178. Quebec, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 66, 67, 68, 134, 136, 137, 141, 142, 143, 164, 166, 189, 218, 243, Quebec Act, 178, 239, Queen Anne's War, 136, 166. Ra bi' dit, 30. Rahl, Colonel, 197. raid, Jackson and Stuart's, 422. raid, John Brown's, 386, 399. raids in Shenandoah Valley, 445. railroads, 432, 549 first passenger, 326, 395. Union Pacific, 406, 424, 602. first trans-continental, 481. mileage increased, 484. regulation, 493, 507. transportation, 508. standard time, 549. systems, 549. Alaskan, 598, 608. to Pacific, 388, 4=81. Raisin River, 305. Ra' leigh, 443, 449, 459. Raleigh, Sir Walter, 49, 50, 52, 75, 76, 80. Randall, James Ryder, 560. Randolph, John, 80, 259, 260, 312, 328. Ranger, ship, 214. Rapidan River, 430, 443. Rappahannock River, 425, 429. Riisle, Father, 62, 166, 254. ration, a fixed allowance, 450. Raw' don, General, 222, 247. Read, Thomas Buchanan, 446, 560. Reaper, McCormick, 545. rebellion — Bacon's, 83. Claiborne's, 88. Leisler's, 103, 166. Shays', 231, 247. Whiskey, 262, 392. Canadian, 346, 397. Dorr's, 3.52, 397. r(>ciprocity, an agreement between two countries by which special advan- tages are granted by one side in consideration of special advantages granted by the other, 513, 527, 589. reconstruction, 602. period of, 461-493. problems of, 462. Lincoln's policy of, 463. Johnson's views on, 463. Congress's policy of, 465, 476. Johnson's plan rejected, 465. acts, 469, 470, 471, 602. issue of campaign of 1868, 474. Sumner's and 'Stevens' policy, 465. independent measures, 469. evils resulting from, 478. close of epoch, 493. recruit, a newly enrolled soldier or sailor, 193. Red Cross Society, a national organiza- tion so named from its badge, a red cross on a white ground. Its purpose is the relief of suffering caused by war, pestilence, famine, flood, and fires, 539. Reed, Joseph, 207. reformation, 41, 44, 53, 85. Regiment, Sixth Massachusetts, 406, 456. relations, Jesuit, 68. remonetize, to restore to use as legal tender, 496. Re nais sange', French, a new birth, or revival, 562. Republican, 268, 269, 277, 385. Jeffersonians, 265. War-, 300. Peace-, 300. National-, 338, 382. split in party, 594. platform of 1852, 377. of 1860, 388. of 1868, 474. of 1876, 486. of 1880, 498. of 1888, 511. INDEX AND GLOSSARY 665 of 1896, 525. of 1900, 539. of 1904, 581, of 1908, 586. views on reconstruction, 465. elect presidents, 400, 446, 461, 47(i. 479, 491, 499, 512, 526, 574, 5S1, 587, 602, 603, 604, 607. Republican, Democratic-, 312, 324. elect president, 282, 295, 314. Resaca, 441, 459. Re sii' cii de la. Pill' mil, "ravine of tlic palms," 360, 397. Reservations, Indian, 487, 488. Resolutions, Virginia and Kentucky, 279, 389. retreats, military — Washington's, 195, 243. Greene's, 221, 246. revenue tax, internal, the annual yield of taxes, dutifs, etc., which a na- tion or state collects and receives into the treasury for public use, 483. Revere, Paul, 184. revolution, renunciation of allegiance and subjection resulting in an en- tire change of government, 181. Revolution, the American — conditions, acts, and events leading to, 167-183. battles of, and events in first period, 184-204. in second period, 205-226. treaty of peace, 224. finances, 198, 220. government during, 174, 179, 185, 204, 228. Revolution, Architecture prior to, 561. Sculpture prior to, 563. Revolutionists, German and Italian, 375. Rhode Island, 119, 130, 177, 397. first settlement, 130, 165. name, 130. early history, 130, 131. government, 130, 131. religion, 131. character of settlers, 131. charter, 130, 165. and the Constitution, 237. Rhodes, James Ford, 571. Ri bault, Jean (Re bo', shan), 55, 74. Richard, Father, 67. Richardson, Henry H., 562. Richmond, 404, 408. 409, 413, 421, 422, 423, 427, 440, 444, 445, 449, 460, right of deposit on mouth of Mississippi, 285, 392. ring, a clique ; an exclusive combina- tion of persons for a selfish pur- pose, as to control the market, dis- tribute offices, obtain contracts, etc., 483. Uio Grande, 358, 361, 363. riots, .353, 397, 437, 458, 495, 509, 515. 524, 604. roads and trails, 249, 252. Indian trails, 98. Colonial, 154. Wilderness Road, 250. Cumberland Highway, 316. Pennsylvania, 326. Pony Express, 373, to California, 364, Oregon trail, 481. Santa Fe, 481. Roanoke Island, 49. Robertson, James, 209. Ro ber val', Sleur, 54. Ro gham beau' (bo). Count, 223, 239. Roche, James Jeffrey, 571. Rolfe, John, 80. Romanesque' (esk), the prevailing architectural style developed from Roman principles, characterized mainly by the round arch, barrel vault, and general massiveness, 562. Roosevelt, Theodore, 533, 535. president, 574-586, 606, 607. sketch of life, 575. re-elected, 581. Root, Elibu, 576. Root, George F., 560. Rosecrans. General, 406, 417, 418, 432, 433, 435, 455, 457, 458. Ross, General, 308. Rough Riders, 533. Roundheads, 81. Rousseau (so'), a French philosopher (1712-1778), a contemporary of Voltaire, and like him a denier of all authority arising from custom, history, right religion, and the state, 255. routes — from Genoa and Venice to the East. 21. new route to India, 33, 72. Gosnold's, 51. Dutch East India Company, 69. north of Europe, 69. north of America, 49, 70, 75. to western settlements, 249. Roxbury, 184. 666 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Royal colonies, 155. Royalists, 81. royalty, a percentage paid to the owner of a copyright or patent by one who is given the right to use it, 515. rubber vulcanization, 545. Russian America, 473. Russian Government, 473. Ryan, Rev. Abram J., 567. Rys' wick, treaty of, 136, 137. Sa'€o, 130. sachems, Indian chiefs, 60. Sacramento, 362, 364. Saengerbund, North American, 560. Sadlier, Mary A., 568. Sagas, Norse, northern European pop- ular, historical, or religious tales of olden times, 21. Sii hii gun', 44. Saint-Gaudens, Augustus, 564. salaries, government, 259, 273. Salary Grab, 483. Salem, 116, 164. Salmon Falls, 135. Salt Lake City, 347. Samoan — difficulty, 513. settlement, 536, 605. Sam' o set, 115. Sampson, Rear Admiral, 531. San Di e' go, 366. San Do min' go, 484. Sands, 455. Sandusky, 225. Sandy Hook, 208. San Francisco, .39, 255, 362, 364, 306, 481, 495, 532, 578, 579. disaster. 582. 607. sanguinary, attended with bloodshed, 359. San Jacinto (ha sin' to), 341, 390. ship. 412. San Jose (hose'), 366. San Juan (huiin'), 35, 73, 533. San Miguel (me gel'), 38, 44. San Sal' va dor. 30, 72. Santa Anna. General, 341, 360, 362, 390, 398. Santa Barbara, 366. Santa Clara, 366. Santa Fe, 42, 43, 75, 361. San' ta Fe Trail, 481. Santa Ma ri' a, ship, 29, 31, 68. Siin ti iV go, 532, 600. Santiago Harbor, 531. Saratoga, 182. Burgoyne's surrender at, 203, 216, 218, 244. Convention, 203. ship, 309. Sargasso Sea, a vast oval-shaped region of comparatively quiet water in the Atlantic between the Gulf Stream and the Equatorial Cur- rent, 30. Sargent, John, 503 Sar' to, Gui sep pe, 585. Sault Ste. Marie {sob' sant ma' ri), 63. Savage Station, 423. Savannah, city, 96, 97, 98, 210, 215, 210, 245, 240, 247, 442, 459. Savannah River, 90. Savannah, ship, 289, 395. Say-and-Seal, Lord, 126. Saybrook, 120. Sayle, William, 93. Scalawags, 476. Seiir' bor ough, 215, 246.. Schley, Rear Admiral, 531, 606. S€he nee' ta dy, 135. S€hd' field. General, 443, 471. schools — first Spanish, 43. French, 67, 68. in Virginia, 84. In Maryland, 90. in New York, 99. in Massachusetts, 123. in Connecticut, 130. during Revolution, 253. Schouler, James, 571. Schuyler, Fort, 201. Schuyler. General, 203, 210, 244. Schuylkill River, 108. scientists, Franklin, 206, 255. Scott, Winfield, 307, 334, 341, 346, 361, 362, 377, 398, 407, 409, 410, 456, 457. scout, a person sent out to gain and bring in tidings, especially one em- ployed in war to gain information of the movements and conditions of the enemy, 221. Scrooby, 113. sculpture and sculptors, 563. secession, the withdrawal of a state from the national union, 389, 390, 399, 404, 453, 462. readmission of states, 470. sedition, commotion; conduct directed against public order and the tran- quillity of the state, 278. See, Episcopal, of Baltimore. 254. INDEX AND GLOSSARY 667 Se gu' rii. Father, 45, 75. Sem' i nOle wars, 315, 341, 395. Semmes, Captain, 447. Senate, president tried by, 471. Separatists, 52, 112, 113, 115. Sepulcher, Holy, 27. Se ra' pis, 215, 246. Ser' ra, Fatlier, 255, 366. Servia, 600. settlement — first Spanisl), 35. first on mainland, 42, 75. second on mainland, 42. first English. 50. French Huguenot, 55. first permanent French, 55. first permanent Dutch, 70. Seven Days' F.attles, 422, 457. Seven I'incs, 422. Seventh of INIarch Speech, 372. Se vier', John. 209, 217. Seward (su'erd). Secretary, 370, 372, 398, 401, 420. 452, 472, 473, 490. sewing machine. 545. Seymour, Horatio, 474, 476. Shaft' er, General, 533, 606. Shan' Don, ship, 304, 394. Shaw, David T.. 560. Shay, Daniel, 231. 247. Shays' Rel)ellion. 231. 247. Shea, John Oilmary, 569, 571. Shenandoah Valley, 404, 421, 422, 444, 445, 447, 457, 459. Sheridan, Fhilip, 446, 447, 449, 454, 455, 459, 472, 510. Sherman Anti-trust Act, 550. Sherman, Roger, 191. Sliermau, Senator, 514, 587. Sherman Silver Coinage Act, 514, 520, 525, 605. Sherman, William T., 433, 449, 450, 452, 454, 455. on the Mississippi, 417, 418. at Missionary Ridge, 435, 458. and armies of the West, 440. march, 441-443, 447. 459. statue of, 564. Shields, 455. Shiloh. 416, 457. Ship Island, 411, 412, 420. Ship of State. 238. Sholes, Charles L., 545, 548. Sib' ley. Colonel, 436. Si' gel, 411, 417, 444, 445, 456, 457. Sigsbee, Captain, 530. silver in Nevada, 387, 485, 496. Singer, 545. Sioux Indians, 61, 4.36, 488, 518, 60::, 605. Sitting Bull, 488, 518, 605. skirmish, a combat between small bodies of troops, 185. sky scrapers, 563. Sl."i' ter, Samuel, 270. slave trade, English, 46, 75. slavery, 149, 318, 354, 365, 375, 403, 492. introduced, 81, 164. in Maryland, 90. in the Caroliuas, 94, 95. in Georgia, 98. in the South, 149. in the northern and middle colonies, 149. treatment of slaves, 150. Ordinance of 1787, 233, 319. anti-slavery spirit. 255, 338, 339, 390. Emancipation Acts, 256. affected by cotton gin, 271. Fugitive Slave Law, 273, 369, 370, 373, 378, 392. importation stopped, 294, 319, 339, 393. anti-slavery champion, 330. anti-slavery papers, 339, .396. anti-slavery speeches, 339, 370. in District of Columbia, 339, 427, 457. Underground Railroad, 374, 399. Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 378, 399. Wilmot Proviso, 363. al)olishment, 370, 400, 426, 446, 453, 464. Compromise of 1850, 371, 373, 377, 378. Missouri Compromise, 318, 370, 373, 395. Dred Scott Decision, 384, 386, 388, 399. Campaign of 1800. .388. Lincoln-Douglas debates, 385, 399. John Brown's raid, 386, 399. Smith, €. F., 415. Smith, Father John Talbot, 571. Smith, General Green Clay, 487. Smith, John, 78, 114, 159 Smith, Joseph, 346, 396, 397. Smith, Samuel Francis, 560. smuggling, 170, 176. socialism, 551. social rank, 552. Sons of Liberty, 174. South Carolina, .389. South Dakota, 517, 605. South Hampton, 338. 668 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES South Sea, 36, 37. Southern States, 602. during reconstruction, 466. legislatures, 466. reject fourteenth amendment, 469. government overthrown, 469. constitutional conventions of, 4G9. laws limiting suffrage, 468, 470. carpet-bag and negro rule, 476, 491, 493, 602. Federal troops in, 493. New South, 502. provisional governors, 464. Freedmen's Bureau Bill, 467, 602. an issue in campaign (1868), 474. readmitted, 470. Southern Whites (Democrats), 479, 493. Spain, 27, 69, 224, 225, 472. first voyage, 29. discoveries, 35-45. first settlements, 35, 42. and the Indians, 31, 39, 42. claims and occupancj', 42. and the New World, 43. missionaries of, 44. martyrs of, 45. weakened in power, 51. and the Mississippi, 252, 268, 285, 392. Spalding, Most Rev. Martin John, 65, 475, 569. Spalding, Rt. Rev. James L., 570. Spanish-American colonies. 319. Spanish-American War, 578. causes, 530, 606. declaration, 531, 606. naval operations, 531-532. land campaigns, 532-533. treaty of peace, 533, 606. results, 534. Spanish Missions, 561. specie, coins of gold, silver, copper or other metal, issued under the gov- ernment stamp and used as a cir- culating medium of commerce, 230. specie circular, 337. specie payment, resumption of, 485, 497. 603. Speedwell. 113. Sperry, Rear-Admiral, 584. spinning mill, 270. Spoils System, 333, 396, 482, 499, 500. Spoliation Claims, French, 340. Spoouer Act, 576. Spottsylvania, 444, 459. Springfield, 231. Squanto, 115. Squatter sovereignty, 364, 379, 380, 386. Stamp Act, 173, 242. Stamp Act Congress, 174, 242. Standard Oil Company, 493, 550. standard time, 549. Standish, Miles, 114. Stanton, Edwin M., 401, 471, 490, 602. Stanwix, Fort, 201 Star of the West, ship, 390. Star Route frauds, 500. Star Spangled Banner, 425. Stark, General, 202. Stark, Molly, 203. starving time, 80, 164. Staten Island, 193. states' rights, 403. statue of liberty, 508, 604. St. Augustine, 42, 43, 55, 75, 561. St. Augustine Cathedral, 561. Stay Laws, 231. St. Bartholomew, 62. St. Brandon, 26. St. Clair, General, 266. St. Clair, Lake, 61. steamboats, invention, 289, 393. steamboats, 316. Stedman, Edmund Clarence, 570. Steel Trusts, 550. Stephenson, Fort, 305. Steii' ben, Baron, 198, 212, 222, 239, 245. St. Eu sta' tins, 71. Stevens, Thaddeus, 465. Stevenson, Adlai B., 519. Stewart, Captain, 304. Stillwater, battle of, 203, 244. St. John, John P., 504. St. John's Church, 180. St. John's College, 90. St. Lawrence, 53, 54, 60, 61, 62, 66, 68, 74, 75, 137, 143. St. Leger, 200, 201, 203. St. Louis, 210, 410, 483, 607. St. Mary's, Md., 68, 86, 87, 88. St. Mary's, Mich., 65. stock company, an incorporated com- pany whose capital is represented by various shares held by dififei'eut persons, 550. Stockton, Commodore, 361. Stoddard, Charles W., 571. Stone, 455. Stone River battle, 417, 455. Stony Point, capture of, 212, S45. Stoughton Musical Society, 560. Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 375, 568. INDEX AND GLOSSARY 669 strategem, a trick in war for doceiviug the enemy ; secret plot, 201. strategic, pertaining to wnrlike opci-M tions, 413. St. Paul city, 01. St. Pliilip, I<\)rt, 420. St. Pierre, Commander, 140. St. Pierre Isle, 62. Strassburg, 72. strikes, 344, 509, 518, 524, 576, 605 607. Stuart, General, 422. Stuart, Gilbert, 160, 186, 255, 563. Stuart, Monarchs, 112. Stuy' ves iint, Peter, 101, 106. suffrage, 474. educational qualifications, 471. negro, 470, 477. woman, 591. Sullivan, General, 188, 208, 209. Sullivan's Island, 190, Sulpicians, 271. Sumter, 218, 222. Sumter, Fort, 390, 404, 405. 406, 435, 456, 459. Superior, Lake, 63, 65, 66. Supreme Court — Dred Scott Decision, 384, 388, 899. on secession, 462. Susquehanna Valley, 250. Sutter, Colonel, 364. Swallow, Silas E., 580. Sweden, New, 106. Swedes, 105, 133. Tabb, Father John B., 570. Taft, William H., 535, 576, 582, 586, 597. president, 587-594, 607. sketch of life, 587. Ta' ney. Chief Justice, 384. Tarbell. 563. tariff, 259, 324, 40.3, 493. Hamilton's plan, 261. protective, 261, 394, 486, 498, 575, 581, 589. duties, 351. revenue, 498. of 1810, 311. of 1824, 321, 395. of 1828, 327, 328. Clay's Compromise, 335, 338, 390. during Civil War, 406. Morrill, 424. change in, 479. party issue, 503. Mills, 510. McKinley, 513, 588, 605. Wilson, 521, 605. Difigley, 527, 588, 605. Payne-Aldrich, 588, 596, 007. board, 588. Underwood, 590, OOS. Tiirlc' ton, 21(», 221. taxation, a charge laid upon persons or property for the support of the government, 171. taxation — in Maryland, 87. in Pennsylvania, 110. caused by French and Indian War, 146. resistance to, 168, 177, 262. and representation, 171, 172, 173. after the Revolution, 231. by tariff, 261. direct and indirect, 262. internal, 406, 483. during Civil War, 438. income, 590, 008. Taylor, Fort, 390. Taylor, Zacharj% 341, 360, 364, 397, 398. president, 369-373. sketch of life, 369. death, 372, 398. tea tax, 177. Te cum' seh. Chief, 297, 306, 307, 393. Te De um, 30, 240. Tekawitha (tek a wi' tha), Catharine, 60. telegraphy, 353, 397, 473, 547, 002, 607. Tender Laws, 231. Tennessee, 209, 273, 310, 392, 405, 41.5, 417, 418, 433, 435, 441, 456, 463, 465, 468, 470, 478. Tennessee River, 414. Tennessee, ship, 448. ten per cent government, 463. Tenure of Office Act, 469. 471, 508, 602, 604. te' pee, 10. Territories, the, 100. Terry, General, 448. Texas, 61, 340, 356, 370, 371, 389, 396, 397. annexation of, 354, 350. Thames, battle of the, 300, 394. Thanksgiving Day, 114, 164. Thatch, Robert, 95. Thay' er, 503. Thomas, Dr., 487. Thomas, General, 434, 435, 442, 443, 458, 459, 490, 003. Thomas, Theodore. 501. Thomiison, P.on.inmin, 255, 341. 670 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Tbor' wald sen, 564. Thwaites, 68. Ti €6n del- o' ga, Fort, 141, 142, 1S6, IS!), 200, 218, 242, 244. Tild(>ii, Samuel J., 482, 486, 4i>l, 510, 004. Tippecanoe, battle, 297, 39;>. Ti tan' ic disaster, 592, 608. tobacco, 31, 50, 80, 82, 170, 2.51. To ho pe' kii, 307, 380. Toleration Act, 88, 90. toleration, religious, 84, 88, 98, 110, 119, 122, 128, 129, 131, 239. Tolls Repeal Bill, 597, G08. Tolosa, Fatbei", 45, 74. Tompkins, vice-president, 314. Toral, 53.3, 606. Tories, 172, 180, 192, 209, 218, 225, 230, 252, 301. Tor tu' gas. a group of ten small coral islets at the western end of Florida Keys in the Gulf of Mexico. Dur- ing the Civil War the Federal gov- ernment confined prisoners at Fort Jefferson on one of the islands, and this practice has been continued, 390. TOr que mil da (tor kii mii tha) , 44. Tos ca nel' 11, 23, 26. town meetings, 116. towns and cities, 92, 152, 250, 317. Townshend Acts, 175, 242. towns or townships, 117, 156. trade dollars, 486. traffic, liquor, 262. trails. See under "roads." Transportation Bill, 178. treason, Arnold's, 218. treaty, 230. between Spain and Portugal, 83. of Paris, 62, 145, 166, 167. between Dutch and English, 102. Penn's with the Indians, 108 Ryswick, 136. between Canada and Iroquois, 136. Utrecht, 137. after the Revolution, 224, 247, 254. Aix-la-Chapelle, 137. Jay's with England, 269, 392. Jay's with France, 275. with Spain and Algiers, 270. with France, 277. after War of 1812, 310. 394. with England, 316, 354, 358, 395. with Spain, 316, 392, 533, 606. by Adams and Clay, 327. with Tripoli, 393. with Japan, 382, 399, -608. Clayton-Bulwer, 374, 398, 577. Hay-Pauncefote, 374, 578, 597. Burlingame, 474, 495, 602. Washington, 480. witli China, 5(12. Berlin, 514. with CoJoiiibia, rejected, 578. between Russia and Japan, 581, 607. Webster-Ashburton, 352, 397. with Mexico, 303, 382. treaty elm, 109. Trent affair. 411, 425, 456. Trent, ship, 412. Trenton, 195, 258. Trenton, battle of, 197, 240, 243. Trin i dad', 31, 35, 72. Triple Entente, 601. Tripoli, 290, 312, 393. Troy, Female Seminary. 558. True-blooded Yankee, ship, 305. trustees, the, 96, 97. trusts, 493, 550, 581. Tunis, 312. Turner, Nat, 338. turnpike road, a road having gates or bars set across it to stop its use until toll is paid for keeping tlie road in repairs, 317. turret, a revolving cylindrical tower constructed of thick iron plates, behind which cannon are mounted, 420. Tiis' €a ro' ras, 93. Tus ke' gee, 552. Tu tu r la, 536, 540, 606. Tweed,, Ring, 482, 603. Tweed, William M., 482. Tyler. John, 350, 397. president, 351-356. typewriting, 545, 54S. Uncle Tom's Cabin, 375, .399. "Unconditional Surrender" Grant, 476. Underground Railroad, 374, 399. Underwood Tariff Bill, 596, 608. University — Spanish, 43. Harvard, 43, 123. Upland, colony. 107. Urban VIII, Pope, 24, 64. Ursulines, 44, 68, 145, 562. Utah, 363, 371, 397, 523, 605. U trecht (u'trekt), treaty, 137. Valencia Bay, 473. Val Ian di gham case, 439, 446: Valley Forge, 182, 199, 205, 207, 220, 244. INDEX AND GLOSSARY 671 Van Buren, Martin, 332, 336, 364, 396. president, 344-349, 354. slietcli of life, 344. Van Cortlandt Manor, .562. Vancouver, 4S1. Van Doru, General, 417, 418, 407. Van Rens' sel aer, 100, ."53. Van Rensselaer, General, 301. Van Twiller, Wouter, 101. Ved' der, 503. Ve nan' go, 140. Venezuela, 523, 605. Venice, 21, 46. Vera Cruz, 37, 360, 362, 398, 599. Verde, Cape, 32. Vermont, 249, 273, 392. Verrazano (ver' rat sii' no), 53, 61, 62, 73. Ves pu' cius (shus), Americus, 34, 73. veto, the power to prevent or prohibit the carrying out of laws or plans attempted by another department of the government, 352, 467, 469, 473, 485, 495, 497, 602, 603. Vexilla Regis, a famous hymn of the Catholic Church sung in the church on Good Friday when the Blessed Sacrament is carried In procession from the Repository to the High Altar. 30. vice-president, manner of electing, 257. viceroy, an officer acting for the king, 39. Vlcksburg. 417. 420. 421, 431, 432, 435, 454, 457. 458. 466. Vil le Mar ia, 68. Vin cennes, 61, 210. Vinland, 21, 72. Virginia, 81, 87, 113, 146, 209, 232, 249. martyrs in, 45. attempt at colonization, 49, 73. named, 49. first settlement, 50, 52, 75, 164. Company, 51, 76, 112. early history, 76-84. character of colonists, 78. 81, 114. purpose in settling, 77. government, 82. religion, education, manners and cus- toms, 84. during Civil War, 405, 410, 424, 435, 443, 456. after Civil War, 470. 474. Virginia and Kentucky, Resolutions, 279. Virginia University, 558. Visitation nuns, academy, 455. Vol taire', a French freethinker, an in- fidel writer, an apostle of the French Revolution, who turned his gifts of poetry and wit into mali- cious weapons of slander and ridi- cule against the Catholic Church. "Crush tlie infamous thing," was the motto of his life, 255. volunteers, call for, 359, 406, 407, 423. 437, 456, 606. Von Ket tier. Baron, 537. voyage of — Diaz, 25. Columbus, 29. Magellan, 36. Cabot, 46. Verrazano, 53. Hudson, 69, 70. the Dutch, 69-71. Gosnold, 51, 75. Vulture, ship, 219. Wake Island, 536. Wal der see, Count von, 538. Wald see miil ler, Martin, 34. Walker, 503. Walker Tariff, 358. Walker, William, 381. Walking Purchase, 108. Wall Street, New York, the money capi- tal of our country. There exists the stock exchange where all kinds of stock — shares in different busi- ness concerns — are bought and sold, 517, 585. Wallace, Lew, 445, 566, 585. Wallace, W. R., 193. Wam pa no' ags, 115, 121. wampum, 108. war — French and Indian, 62, 138, 147 166 169, 170. in Europe, 41, 53, 74, 141, 182, 267 600. in England, 81. with Florida, 97. King Philip's, 121, 131, 165. Pequot, 129, 165. Inter-colonial, 132. King William's. 135, 166. Queen Anne's, 136, 166. King George's, 137, 166. Pontiac's, 145. American Revolution, 167-226. between France and England, 206. Indian, 142, 266, 307, 315, 341, 396, 487, 603. Civil, 271, 280. 672 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES with Barbary States, 290, 393, 394. of 1812, 297-310, 369, 393. with Mexico, 358-363, 397. Civil, 400-455. Spanish-American, 530-536, 606. between Russia and Japan, 581. War Department, 402, 467. Secretary of, 471, 472, 483, 490, 576. War of 1812, 369, 393. causes, 300. plan, 300, 305, 308. events, 297-310. treaty of peace, 310. results, 311. Warren, Joseph, 184, 187, 242. warships become schools, 598, 608. Warwick, 130. Washington, 517, 605. Washington, Booker T., 552. Washington, Capital, 86, 259, 392, 394, 406, 410, 413, 421, 424, 429, 445, 455, 483, 605, 606. Washington, Col. William, 221. Washington, Fort, 193, 195, 243. Washington, George, 63, 81, 181, 190, 231, 235, 254, 451, 513. birth, 97, 166. first appearance in history, 140, 141, 142. chosen Commander-in-chief, 186, 242. in charge of the army, 188, 242. asks aid of .\bnakis, 189. secures ammunition at Boston, 190. forestalls attack on New York, 190. gathers army at New York, 193. retreat, 195. commissions Hale, 195. hurries to New Jersey, 195. losses, 196. victory at Trenton, 197. victory at Princeton, 197. in sore straits with army, 107. at Brandywine, 198. defeated at Philadelphia, 198. fails at Germantown, 199. in camp at Valley Forge, 199, 205, 244. American "Fabius," 199. Comments of Frederick the Great on, 200. delays Howe, 200. Conway Cabal, 206. at Monmouth. 20S. 245. at White Plains, 208, 245. watching Clinton, 212. and Arnold, 219. advises appointment of Greene. 220. hastens to Yorktown. 223, 247. surrender to, 223, 247. with the army at Newburgh, 225, 229. resigns his commission, 226, 247. Farewell -Vddress, 22.">, 1!74. as statesman and vvi'itcr, 231. l)resident of Constitutional Conven- tion, 234, 238. leader of Federalists. 237. guard of, 240. first president, 240, 604. reply to Catholics, 241. president, 257-275, 392. re-election, 266. dedth of, 280, 392. statue of, 563. Washington, Martha, 253. Washington, Treaty, 479. Washington University, 558. Wasp, ship, 303, .394. Watauga River, 209. Watertown, 117, 127. waterways, 325, 326, 395, 404, 584, 600. Watson, Thomas E., 580. Wayne, .\nthony, 181, 212, 267, 392. weather bureau. 487. Weaver, James B., 498, 518. Webster-Ashburton Treaty, 352, 397. Webster, Daniel, 233, 239, 261, 299, 312, 328, 333, 351, 369, 372, 375, 394, 399. Webster-Hayne debates, 333, 396. Webster, Noah, 253. Weed, Thurlow, 412. Welcome, 108. Wells, 136. Wells, Horace, 558. Wesley, John, 98. West, 289, 316, 355, 393. Clark's conquest, 209, 2.32, 245. settling of Tennessee and Kentucky, 209. 249. emigration to Northwest territory, 266, 267. development of, 317. West, Benjamin, 145. 160. 255, 563. West India Company. 70, 99. West Indies. 31, 46, 48, 49, 51, 62, 71, 75, 77, 92, 93, 95, 97, 152, 170, 208. West, Joseph. 93. West Point, 218, 476. W>st Virginia, 406. 412, 447, 458. western reserve, 232. Wethersfleld, 127. Weyler, 529. Whalley, 122. Wheeler and Wilson, 545, Wheeler, vice-president, 491. INDEX AND GLOSSARY 673 Whigs, 172, ISO. 878. elect president, 350. 369. Wliiskey lusuiTeetiou, 2(j2, 392. Wliiskey King, 4S3, G03. Whistler, James McXeill, 5G3. White, Chief .Justice. 557, 592, 008. White, Father Andrew, 87, 88, 159. White House, 308. White, John, 49. White Plains, 208, 245. Whitefield, (Jeorge, 98. Whiting, (ieorge E., 559. Whitne.v, Eli, 270, 392. Whittier, John G., 360, 372, 566. wilderness, 444, 459. Wilderness I{oad, 250. WilUes, Captain, 412. Wilkinson, General, .306. William III of England, 103. William and Mar.v, 90, 135. William and Mar.v College, 84, 557. William Ilenr.v, Fort, 142. Williams. Itoger. 119, 130. Williamsburg. 84, 422, 457, 557. Wilmington, 106. 222, 436, 448. Wilmot, David, 363. Wilmot Proviso, 363. Wilson, Henr.y, 479. Wilson Tariff Act, 521, 525, 605. Wilson. Thomas Woodrow, 594. president, .595-601, 608 sketch of life, .595. Wilson's Creek. 411, 412. 456. Winchester, 446. 455, 459. Windsor, 126, 127. Windward Islands, 31, 35, 72. Winfleld, Governor, 78. Winns bor ough, 217. Wins low, Captain, 447. Wiuthrop, John, 126. Winthrop, John, Jr., 126, 128. Wirz, 427, 4.50. Wisconsin, 63, 65, 341, 366, 603, Wisconsin lUver, 58. Wisconsin University, 558. witchcraft, 119, 166. Wolcott, Senator, 527. Wolfe, General, 142, 143, 166. Wood, Leonard, 533. Woodworth, Samuel, 560. Worden, John, 419. Work, Henry Clay, 560. Wounded Knee, 518. Wright brothers, 549. writers, infidel, 255. Writs of Assistance, 170. Writs of Injunction, 586. Wy ant, A. H., 563. Wyoming, 363, 517, 605. Wyoming Valley, 111. 209, 24.5. Xavier, of Hurons, 64. Xavier, St. Francis, 59. X Y Z Commission, 276. Yale, 130, 156. 557. Yea mans, (Jeorge, 92. yellow fever epidemic. 495, 603. York peninsula, 411, 421. Yorktown. 213. 222. 223, 247, 422, 604. Young, Brigham, 346. Y'ucatan, 36. Ze la ya, president, 590. Zol li coffer, 414. Zuni. 39, 40, 74. The Franklin Company Engfravers and Printers Chicago LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 01 1 448 595 •