Qass_ L b IS 11 
 
 Book . M f 7 
 
 It5c 
 
 5-3lH12X 
 
LESSONS 
 
 ON 
 
 COMMON THINGS; 
 
 THEIR 
 
 ORIGIN, NATURE, AND USES. 
 
 FOR 
 
 THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND FAINHLIES. 
 ILLUSTRATED WITH FIFTY-TWO ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD. 
 
 EDITED BY J. FROST 
 
 L^i 
 
 "^ ff lints tlp\) IK: 
 THOMAS T. ASH, CHESNUT STREET. 
 
 1835 
 
 K 
 

 "•fT 
 
 Entered according to the act of Congress in the year 1835^ 
 by John Frost, in the clerk's office of the district court of the 
 eastern dist'ict of Pennsylvania. . .' 
 
 Z J /7 
 
ADVERTISEMENT OF THE AMERICAN EDITOR. 
 
 The following work is an improved edition of 
 an English- book entitled Lessons on Objects, 
 originally published by the teachers of a Pesta- 
 lozzian school, in which the lessons were given 
 for many years before their publication. 
 
 In presenting them to the American public, 
 the editor has found it necessary, besides fre- 
 queiitly changing hard and Latinized words for 
 common ones, to remove one fault existing 
 in almost every English school-book ; which 
 is an apparently studied neglect of this coun- 
 try. With the exception of works on Geog- 
 raphy, it would be difficult to find a book of this 
 class in which the existence of the United States 
 of America as one of the nations of the earth is 
 recognized. The removal of this objection in a 
 work treating of productions and manufactures, 
 was a matter of obvious necessity. 
 
 It is presumed that the mere announcement of 
 the subject and design of the present work, will 
 arrest the attention of all those who are desirous 
 of improving the methods of instruction. A 
 demonstrative, explanatory, thorough system in 
 all the different stages of instruction is now de- 
 manded by the public. The foundation of such 
 a system must be laid in lessons on things. 
 I* 
 
ADVERTISExMENT 
 TO THE THIRD EDITION. 
 
 Many, instructors have used this book without 
 giving it out to the classes. Others have made a 
 more successful experiment by using it as a class 
 book, allowing each pupil to have a copy, and 
 learn his lesson from the book as well as from 
 the objects. By possessing this double advantage, 
 the pupil acquires more definite ideas of the mean- 
 ing of words, and the exact properties and quali- 
 ties they indicate, than he does by the usual mode 
 of committing to memory the pages of a " De- 
 finer." 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 FIRST SERIES. 
 
 Introductory Remarks 19 
 
 Lesson I. Glass 22 
 
 II. Indian Rubber 25 
 
 III. Leather 25 
 
 IV. Loaf Sugar 26 
 
 V. A Piece of Gum Arabic 26 
 
 VL Sponge 27 
 
 VII. Wool 28 
 
 VIII. Water 28 
 
 IX. A Piece of Wax 29 
 
 X. Camphor 30 
 
 XI. Bread 30 
 
 XII. Sealing Wax 51 
 
 XIII. Whalebone 32 
 
 XIV. Gmger 32 
 
 XV. Blotting Paper. 33 
 
 XVL A Piece of Willow 33 
 
 XVIL Milk 34 
 
 XVIII. Rice 34 
 
 XIX. Salt 35 
 
 XX. Horn 35 
 
 XXI. Ivory . . . ■. 36 
 
 XXIL Chalk, 36 
 
 XXIII. A Piece of the Bark of the Oak Tree 37 
 
 SECOND SERIES. 
 
 Introductory Remarks 40 
 
 Lesson I. A Pin 41 
 
 II. A Cube of Wood 42 
 
 III. An uncut Lead Pencil 42 
 
 IV. A Pen 43 
 
 V. A Wax Candle 44 
 
via CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 Lesson VI. A Chair 45 
 
 VII. A Book 46 
 
 VIIL An Egg 47 
 
 IX. A Thimble 47 
 
 X. A Penknife 48 
 
 XI. A Key 49 
 
 XII. A Cup 49 
 
 XIII. A Grain of Coffee 50 
 
 XIV. A Pair of Scissors 50 
 
 THIRD SERIES. 
 
 Introductory Remarks 54 
 
 Lesson I. A Quill 54 
 
 ' IL A Cent 57 
 
 III. Mustard Seed 58 
 
 IV. An Apple 59 
 
 V. A Glass of a Watch 61 
 
 VI. Brown Sugar 61 
 
 VII. An Acorn 62 
 
 VIII. A Piece of Honey-Comb 63 
 
 IX. Refined Sugar 64 
 
 X. A Butter-Cup 65 
 
 XL A Lady-Bird 66 
 
 XII. An Oystor 67 
 
 XIII. A Fir or Pine Cone 68 
 
 XIV. A Fur 68 
 
 XV. A Laurel Leaf 69 
 
 XVL A Needle 69 
 
 XVII. A Stone 70 
 
 FOURTH SERIES. 
 
 ON THE SENSES. 
 
 Introductory Remarks 79 
 
 Lesson I. Feeling or Touch 81 
 
 IL Sight 84 
 
 III. Hearing 85 
 
 TV. Smell 86 
 
 V. Taste 87 
 
ON THE SPICES. 
 
 Page 
 
 Lesson VI. Pepper 88 
 
 VII. Nutmeg 89 
 
 VIII. Mace 91 
 
 IX. Cinnamon . .\ 93 
 
 X. Ginger 94 
 
 XI. Allspice 95 
 
 XII. Cloves 96 
 
 ON LIQUIDS. 
 
 XIII. Water 99 
 
 XIV. Oil .101 
 
 XV. Beer 102 
 
 XVI. Vinegar 104 
 
 XVII. Foreign White Wine 105 
 
 XVIII. Ink 106 
 
 XIX. Milk 107 
 
 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 Introductory Rem^vrks 113 
 
 Lesson I. Leather 114 
 
 IL Cork 115 
 
 III. Indian Rubber, or Gum Elastic. . . . 116 
 
 IV. Sponge 117 
 
 V. Camphor 118 
 
 VL Horn 118 
 
 VII. SheU Lac 119 
 
 VIIL Wax Candle 119 
 
 IX. Glue 120 
 
 X. Coffee 121 
 
 XL Tea 122 
 
 XII. Sago 122 
 
 XIII. Rice 123 
 
 XIV. Paper 124 
 
 XV. Parchment 127 
 
 XVL Glass 128 
 
 XVII. Whalebone 129 
 
 XVIIL Bread. 130 
 
 XIX. Sugar 1.31 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 Lesson XX. Hemp ] 32 
 
 XXI. Flax 133 
 
 XXII. Cotton 135 
 
 XXIII. Wool 135 
 
 XXIV. Silk. 137 
 
 XXV. Court Plaster 138 
 
 XXVI. Saffron 139 
 
 XXVII. Butter 140 
 
 XXVIII. Cheese 141 
 
 XXIX. Putty 141 
 
 ' XXX. Starch 142 
 
 XXXI. Felt 142 
 
 XXXII. Porcelain 144 
 
 ON THE METALS. 
 
 Introductory Remarks 146 
 
 Lesson XXXIII. Gold 146 
 
 XXXIV. Silver 151 
 
 XXXV. Quicksilver, or Mercury 154 
 
 XXXVL Lead 158 
 
 XXXVII. Copper 162 
 
 XXXVIIL Iron 166 
 
 XXXIX. Tin 170 
 
 XL. Comparisons of the Metals 173 
 
 XLI. On Metals in general 174 
 
 Questions on the Metals 176 
 
 ON EARTHS. 
 
 Lesson XLII. Lime 180 
 
 XLIIL Silica 184 
 
 XLIV. Alumine, or Argil 186 
 
 Questions on the Earths 189 
 
 Lesson XLV. Coal 191 
 
 XLVI. Granite 194 
 
 XLVII. Salt 195 
 
 XLVIII. Slate 199 
 
 XLIX. Coral 200 
 
 Dictionary '. 202 
 
ii 
 
 FIRST SERIES. 
 
 IVORY. 
 
 s=i?3*Vir<?o^ 
 
 The teeth of Elephants, Walruses, &c. are call- 
 ed ivory. Ivory is very serviceable in the useful 
 and ornamental arts ; and the quantity of it which 
 is annually consumed for various purposes is very 
 considerable. There is said to be a marked dif- 
 ference in the texture and quality of the ivory of 
 the Asiatic and African Elephants. That of the 
 Walrus is much superior to either, and was much 
 used by dentists before the invention of porcelain 
 teeth. 
 
12 
 
 FIRST SERIES. 
 
 LEATHER. 
 
 When enjoying the pleasures of a sleigh-ride, 
 we may be forcibly reminded of the many uses 
 of leather. Not only our riding-caps and boots, 
 but many other parts of our dress, as well as our 
 whip and harness, are made of this material ; and 
 their presence suggests many other applications 
 of this every-day article, which will readily occur 
 to the youthful reader. 
 
13 
 
 FIRST SERIES. 
 
 WATER. 
 
 It were an endless task to enumerate the uses 
 of water, since it is indispensable in almost every 
 operation of the useful and scientific arts. Not 
 only the mill and the steamboat are set in motion 
 by its agency, but all the mechanical business of 
 life, and all the changes which are going forward 
 in the kingdoms of nature, depend on the presence 
 of water, in the ocean, the river, the earth, and 
 the air. 
 
 2 
 
H 
 
 FIRST SERIES. 
 
 BREAD. 
 
 Bread, emphatically called the staff of life, is 
 produced by the labour of the husbandman, 
 i^lour, which makes the finest bread, is made of 
 wheat ground in a mill, and bolted through fine 
 sieves which separate it from the coarser part of 
 the gram, which is called bran. 
 
15 
 
 FIRST SERIES. 
 
 SALT. 
 
 Most of the salt which we use is produced from 
 the water of the sea. By exposing sea water to 
 heat, the water is driven otf in the shape of vapour, 
 and the salt which was held in solution (dissolved) 
 in it, becomes solid. Salt is also found in a solid 
 state in the earth ; and is dug out thence in great 
 quantities. 
 
16 
 
 FIRST SERIES. 
 
 HORN. 
 
 The horn used for making combs, powder- 
 flasks, &c. is that of animals of the ox kind. 
 That which is used for the handles of knives and 
 forks is taken from the deer 
 
FIRST SERIES. 
 
 GLASS. 
 
 Nothing illustrates the utility of glass more 
 finely than the green-house. By this happy con- 
 trivance we are enabled to enjoy, in the depths of 
 winter, the flowers of spring, and the fruits of 
 summer and autumn, and to bring to perfection 
 in our northern climates the productions of the 
 tropical regions. 
 
18 
 
 FIRST SERIES. 
 
 BARK OF THE OAK TREE. 
 
 The bark of the oak tree-is much used for the 
 purpose of tannhig leather. It is also consumed 
 for fuel in those parts of our country where it is 
 abundant. There are many varieties of the oak 
 in the United States. The live oak, which is con- 
 sidered the best for constructing ships of war, is 
 produced in Florida. 
 
LESSONS ON THINGS, 
 
 FIRST SERIES. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 
 
 To lead children to observe with attention the 
 objects by which they are surrounded, and then 
 to describe with accuracy the impressions w^hich 
 they have received, appears to be the first busi- 
 ness of education. 
 
 The ceaseless activity of the perceptive facul- 
 ties, which characterizes the period of childhood, 
 will convince those who would act in harmony 
 with nature, that this is the best course of instruc- 
 tion to be adopted. It gives animation to the 
 dull, and precision to the lively ; it promotes that 
 clearness of apprehension, which is the solid ba- 
 sis of after-attainment, without which our judg- 
 ments are unsound, and our reasonings inconclu- 
 sive. As the sphere of observation is enlarged, 
 and the pages of history, or the fields of science, 
 are explored, the mind accustomed to accurate 
 investigation Avill not rest content with less than 
 satisfactory evidence, either in morals or in sci- 
 ence. 
 
20 FIRST SERIES. 
 
 This work consists of five series of lessons, in- 
 creasing in difficulty as the pupil advances. The 
 order observed in them is the result of some ex- 
 perience, and of several trials, which have pro- 
 duced a strong conviction of the importance and 
 value of a methodical arrangement, and of a very 
 gradual progression. It is t^jerefore recommended 
 that no step in the course should be altogether 
 omitted, though the age and talents of the chil- 
 dren must regulate the time bestowed on each. 
 
 The first series presents a selection of miscel- 
 laneous objects, each of which possesses some 
 distinguishing quality, yet so arranged as to have 
 an obvious connexion with what has preceded. 
 The children should be practised in remarking 
 those qualities observable by the sijnple operation 
 of the external senses, deferring those requiring 
 a higher exercise of mind till a more advanced 
 period. 
 
 One lesson is drawn cut fully as a specimen of 
 the manner in which the others should be given. 
 It would have extended the volume to an unne- 
 cessary length, and filled it with needless repeti- 
 tions, had each been made out with equal mi- 
 nuteness. Much information might have been 
 thrown into the preliminary set, but as the end 
 proposed was rather to excite the mental powers 
 to activity, than to provide them with food, it has 
 been purposely avoided. 
 
 It may perhaps be necessary to guard against 
 the error of expecting, in a work like the present, 
 anything more than4iints as to the mode of ar- 
 ranging and imparting knowledge. The Teacher 
 must be previously well grounded, in order to 
 meet the inquiries which the active minds of 
 
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 21 
 
 children continually suggest. Their questions 
 will generally point out the best mode of treat- 
 ing a subject, or of leading them to the discovery 
 of any truth. Precise unvarying rules may be 
 laid down for mechanical operations, but mind 
 alone can act upon mind, and bring it into vig- 
 orous exercise. All instruction must be dry and 
 uninteresting which has not undergone some mod- 
 ification from the person by whom it is communi- 
 cated. One principal fault, into which Teachers 
 are liable to fall, is that of telling too much to 
 their pupils, who welcome the information with 
 pleasure, but allow their minds to remain almost 
 passive, and thus acquire the habit of receiving 
 impressions from others, at a time when they 
 ought to be gaining strength, by an exertion of 
 their own powers. Another is that of giving a 
 term, before the pupil has felt his want of it. 
 When the idea of any quality has been formed 
 in his mind, without his being able to express it, 
 the name given under such circumstances fixes it 
 on the memory : thus, when a child observes 
 that whalebone, after having been bent, returns to 
 its original position, he may be told that this prop- 
 erty which he has discovered is called elastic. 
 
 The following pages were written originally 
 with no view to publication, but merely for the 
 use of the school in which they were given ; and 
 the information they contain was draAvn froni va- 
 rious sources. No memorandum being made at 
 the time, it would be now impossible to assign 
 each passage to its respective author, though it 
 is probable that those acquainted with the popu- 
 lar works on the subjects here treated of, may 
 detect, in some places, almost literal quotations. 
 
22 FIRST SERIES. 
 
 LESSON I. 
 
 Glass has been selected as the first substance 
 to be presented to the children, because the 
 qualities which characterize it are quite obvious 
 to the senses. The pupils should be arranged 
 before a black boaiJ or slate, upon which the 
 result of their obr :'ation should be written. 
 The utility of havii the lesson presented to the 
 eyes of each child, w^ith the power of thus recall- 
 ing attention to what has occurred, will very soon 
 be appreciated by the instructor. 
 
 The glass should be passed round the party 
 to be examined by each individual.* 
 
 Teacher. What is that which I hold in my 
 hand ? 
 
 Children. A piece of glass. 
 
 Teacher. Can you spell the word "glass"? 
 (The teacher then writes the word " glass" upon 
 the slate, which is thus presented to the whole 
 class as the subject of the lesson.) You have all 
 examined this glass ; what do you observe? What 
 can you say that it is ?t 
 
 Children. It is bright. 
 
 * By this means each individual in the class is called upon 
 to exercise his own powers on the object presented ; the sub- 
 sequent questions of the teacher tend only to draw out the 
 ideas of the children, and to correct them if wrong. 
 
 t This question is put instead of asking, " What are its 
 
 qualities ?" because the children would not yet, iu all proba- - 
 
 bilitv, understand the meaning of the term, but by its frequent 
 
 ' ation to the answers to this question, they will shortly 
 
 lis familiarized with if. 
 
i 
 
 \'A 
 
 
 
 'A^L 
 
 
 m4 
 
 ,llj 
 
 
 0A 
 
 ^^m 
 
 H 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 ..-.^^j^ 
 
 l« 
 
 1 
 
 JlJ^^^ 
 
 
 m 
 
 H 
 
 i 
 
 =^ 
 
 
LESSON I. GLASS. 23 
 
 Teacher. (Teacher having written the word 
 " qualities," writes under it — It is bright.) Take 
 it in your hand and feel* it. 
 
 Children. It is cold. (Written on the board 
 under the former quality.) 
 
 Teacher. Feel it again, and compare it with 
 the piece of sponge that is tied to your slate, and 
 then tell me what you perceive in the glass.f 
 
 Children. It is smooth — it is hard. 
 
 Teacher. Is there any other glass in the room ? 
 
 Children. Yes. The windows. 
 
 Teacher. (Closes the shutters) Can you see 
 the garden now ? 
 
 Children. No. 
 
 Teacher. Why cannot you 1 
 
 Children. We cannot see through the shutters. 
 
 Teacher. What can you say then of the glass 1 
 
 Children. We can see through it. 
 
 Teacher. Can you tell me any word that will 
 express this quality? 
 
 Children. No. 
 
 Teacher. I will tell you then; pay attention, 
 I that you may recollect it. It is transparent.;]: 
 
 * The art of the teacher is to put such questions as may 
 lead successively to the exercise of the dilTerent senses. 
 
 t The object of the teacher here is to lead the pupil to the 
 observation of the quality smooth, and he does so by making 
 '; hira contrast it with the opposite quality in another substance ; 
 a mode of suggestion, of which frequent use may be made. 
 
 X The fact of the glass being transparent is so familiar to 
 
 the children, that they will probably not observe it, till its 
 
 great use in consequence of that quality brings it forcibly 
 
 Sefore their minds. They then feel the w-ant of a term to 
 
 ^press the idea thus formed, and the teacher gives them th'e 
 
 ord, as a sign for it, and in order to impress it upon their 
 
 •inds. To ascertain whether they have rightly comprehended 
 
2 1 FIRST SERIES. 
 
 What shall you now understand when I tell you 
 that a substance is transparent? 
 
 Children. That you can see through it. 
 
 Teacher. You are right.* Try and recollect 
 something that is transparent. 
 
 Children. Water. 
 
 Teacher. If I were to let this gla^s fall, or 
 you were to throw a ball at the wind )w, what 
 would be the consequence ? 
 
 Children. The glass would be broken. It is 
 brittle. 
 
 Teacher. Could I in the same manner break 
 the shutter? 
 
 Children. No. 
 
 Teacher. Could I break it if I used great 
 force ? 
 
 Children. Yes. 
 
 Teacher. Would you therefore call the wood 
 brittle? 
 
 Children. No. 
 
 Teacher. What substances then do you call 
 brittle ? 
 
 Children. Those which are easily broken. 
 
 These are probably as many qualities as would 
 occur to children at their first attempt, which 
 being arranged on the slate form an exercise in 
 spelling. They should then be effaced, and if 
 the pupils are able to write, they may endeavour 
 to remember the lesson, and put it down on their 
 slates. 
 
 the meaning of the word, they are called upon to give ex- 
 amples of its application. 
 
 * It is but too common a y)ractice to call a child good be- 
 cause he gives a right answer, thus confounding intellectual 
 truth and moral virtue. 
 
LESSON II. III. IXDIAN RUBBER, LEATHER. 2.J 
 
 LESSON n. 
 
 IXDIAN RUBBER. 
 
 This substance has been chosen that the class 
 may observe the qualities opaque, elastic, in- 
 flammable. The first would be made clear to 
 them by contrasting the Indian rubber with the 
 glass of the preceding lesson ; the second, by 
 stretching it, and allowing it to resume its former 
 shape ,• the third, by setting it on fire. 
 
 Qualities of Indian Rubber. 
 
 It is opaque, 
 elastic, 
 inflammable, 
 tough, 
 smooth. 
 Uses. — ^To rub out pencil marks — to form balls 
 and shoes. 
 
 LESSON III. 
 
 LEATHER. 
 
 Ideas to be developed by the examination of 
 this suhstSLUce— flexible, odorous, durable. 
 
 Qualities of Leather. 
 
 It is flexible, 
 odorous, 
 tough, 
 smooth, 
 durable, 
 opaque. 
 3 
 
26 FIRST SERIES. 
 
 r/ses.— For shoes, gloves, reins, saddles, port- 
 manteaus — for binding books— covering trunks. " 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 
 LOAF SUGAR. 
 
 Ideas to be developed by this lesson, soluble, 
 fusible, sparkling. 
 
 Qualities of Loaf Sugar. 
 
 It is soluble, or dissolvable in water, 
 fusible,* or may be melted by heat, 
 brittle, 
 hard. 
 , sweet, 
 white, 
 solid, 
 opaque. 
 Use. — To sweeten our food. 
 
 LESSON V. 
 
 A PIECE OF aUM ARABIC. 
 
 Ideas to be developed by this lesson, semi- 
 transparent, adhesive. 
 
 * The difference between fusibility and solubility may be 
 rendered obvious to the children by dissolving one piece of 
 sugar in water and holding another over the candle. If any 
 experiment be necessary to exhibit the quality of an object, 
 the operation should be performed before the children, that 
 they may themselves observe it. 
 
LESSON V. \I. GUM ARABIC, SPONGE. 27 
 
 Qualities of Gum Arabic. 
 
 It is hard, 
 bright, 
 yellow. 
 
 semi-transparent, 
 dissolvable, or soluble in water, 
 sticky when melted, 
 solid. 
 Use To unite light thin substances. 
 
 LESSON VI. 
 
 SPONGE. 
 
 Ideas to be developed by this lesson, yorous, 
 absorbent. 
 
 Qualities of Sponge. 
 
 It is porous. 
 
 absorbent.* 
 soft, 
 tough, 
 opaque. 
 
 elastic, or springy, 
 flexible, or easily bent, 
 light brown. 
 Use. — For washing. - 
 
 * The quality of absorbing will be made obvious to the 
 class, by showing' that the sponge sucks up any liquid. It 
 possesses this quality in consequence of its being full of pores. 
 The use to which an object is applied, often leads to the ob- 
 servation of the quality upon which the use is dependent. 
 
28 FIRST SERIES. 
 
 LESSON VII. 
 
 WOOL. 
 
 Qualities of Wool. 
 
 It is soft. 
 
 absorbent. 
 
 flexible. 
 
 elastic. 
 
 tough. 
 
 durable. 
 
 opaque. 
 
 dry. 
 
 light. 
 
 Uses.—Fov making cloth, flannels, blankets, 
 carpets, stockings, &c. 
 
 LESSON VIII. 
 
 WATER. 
 
 Ideas to be developed by this lesson, liquid, 
 reflective, glassy, tasteless, inodorous. 
 
 Qualities of Water. 
 
 It is liquid. 
 
 reflective.* 
 colorless, or clear, 
 inodorous,-]- or without smell. 
 
 * Reflecting images, lilie a looking-glass. 
 
 t In order to direct the attention of the class to the force 
 of the syllables less and zn, the teacher would ask, — What is 
 meant by tasteZess ? Having no taste. What is meant by in- 
 
LESSON VIII. IX.— WATER, WAX. 29 
 
 It is tasteless, insipid, without any taste, 
 transparent, 
 heavy, 
 bright, 
 wholesome, 
 purifying. 
 
 Uses. — To cleanse, to fertilize, to drink, for 
 culinary purposes, for moving water-wheels. 
 
 LESSON IX. 
 
 A PIECE OF WAX. 
 
 This substance is here introduced, because it 
 possesses many of the qualities already remarked. 
 
 •► * Qualities of Wax. 
 
 It is solid, 
 opaque, 
 tough, 
 fusible, 
 sticky, 
 yellowish, 
 hard, 
 odorous, 
 smooth. 
 
 Use. — To make candles and tapers. 
 
 odorous ? Having no odor. In what are these words alike ? 
 They both tell us wliat the substance is not. They mark then 
 the absence of a quality. What syllables of the words mark this 
 absence of the quality ? %ss and in. Give examples of words 
 in wlych less and in are so used. 
 3* 
 
80 FIRST SERIES. 
 
 LESSON X. 
 
 CAMPHOR. 
 
 Ideas to be developed by this lesson, aromatic, 
 friable, volatile. 
 
 Qualities of Camphor, 
 
 It is aromatic, i. e. spicy or fragrant. 
 
 easily crumbling or friable. 
 
 white. 
 
 semi-transparent. 
 
 bright. 
 
 soluble in spirits. 
 
 hard. 
 
 solid. 
 
 very inflammable. ^ 
 
 medicinal. 
 
 light. 
 
 volatile, flying or evaporating. 
 Uses*-— For medicine. To prevent infection, 
 to preserve Cabinets from small insects, and 
 clothes from moths. 
 
 LESSON XL 
 
 BREAD. 
 
 Ideas to be developed by this lesson, eatable, 
 wholesome, nutritious. 
 
 Qualities of Bread. 
 
 It is porous, 
 absorbent. 
 
LESSON Xr. XII BREAD, SEALING-WAX. 31 
 
 It is opaque, 
 solid. 
 
 wholesome, 
 nutritious, 
 eatable. 
 The crumb is yellowish white, 
 soft when new. 
 moist. 
 The crust is hard, 
 brittle, 
 brown. 
 Use. — To nourish. 
 
 LESSON XII. 
 
 SEALING WAX. 
 
 Idea to be developed by this lesson — impressible* 
 
 Qualities of Sealing Wax. 
 
 It is hard, 
 bright, 
 brittle, 
 fusible, 
 opaque. 
 
 soluble in spirits, 
 light, 
 solid, 
 smooth, 
 colored.* 
 inflammable, 
 odorous. 
 
 * The color may be determined by the specimen presented. 
 
32 FIRST SERIES* 
 
 When fused it is soft. 
 
 impressible, or easily marked. 
 
 adhesive, or sticky. 
 rr^e.— To seal letters and packages. 
 
 LESSON XIII. 
 
 WHALEBONE. 
 
 Idea to be developed — -fibrous. 
 
 Qualities of Whalebone. 
 It is elastic* 
 durable, 
 hard. 
 
 fibrous or stringy, 
 opaque, 
 bright, 
 stiff. 
 17565.— As a stiffener. For whips, bludgeons, 
 umbrellas, &c. 
 
 LESSON XIV. 
 
 GINGER. 
 
 Idea to be developed by this lesson,— ;pwn^en#. 
 
 Qualities of Ginger. 
 It is pungent, or acrid to the taste, 
 hard, 
 dry. 
 fibrous, 
 aromatic. 
 
 * The class should be led to compare the elasticity of 
 whalebone, with that of Indian Rubber, and to observe the 
 diflerence. 
 
LESSON XV. XVI. ^BLOTTING PAPER, WILLOW. 33 
 
 It is tough, 
 opaque, 
 wholesome, 
 medicinal, 
 light brown. 
 Uses*'— 'To flavor food. For medicine. 
 
 LESSON XV. 
 
 BLOTTING PAPER. 
 
 Ideas to be developed by this lesson, — pinkish, 
 Ish added to words expressive of quality, generally 
 denotes the presence of the quality, but in a 
 moderate degree. 
 
 Qualities of Blotting Paper, 
 
 It is absorbent, 
 porous, 
 soft, 
 pinkish, 
 pliable, 
 dull. 
 
 inflammable, 
 easily torn. 
 Use. — To suck up the superfluous ink. 
 
 LESSON XVI. 
 
 A PIECE OP WILLOW. 
 
 Qualities of Willow, 
 
 It is hard. 
 
 inflammable, or easily set on fire, 
 fibrous. 
 
34 FIRST SERIES. 
 
 It is opaque, 
 solid, 
 elastic, 
 flexible, 
 white, 
 odorous. 
 Uses, — To make hats, and bonnets, and to burn 
 for fuel. 
 
 LESSON XVII. 
 
 MILK. 
 
 Qualities of Milk, 
 
 It is white, 
 fluid, 
 liquid, 
 opaque, 
 wholesome, 
 greasy, 
 nutritious, 
 sweet. 
 Uses.^-To make cheese, butter, puddings, and 
 to drink. 
 
 LESSON XVIII. 
 
 RICE. 
 
 Qualities of Rice. 
 
 It is white, 
 hard, 
 opaque, 
 smoothv 
 stiflr, 
 
LESSON XIX. XX. SALT, MILK. 35 
 
 It is bright, 
 solid, 
 porous, 
 absorbent, 
 wholesome, 
 nutritious. 
 Uses. — To nourish, to make drawing paper. 
 
 LESSON XIX. 
 
 SALT. 
 
 Ideas to be developed by this lesson, granulous, 
 saline, sapid. 
 
 Qualities of Salt. 
 It is white. 
 
 sparkling. 
 
 granulous, or full of grains, 
 salt, or saline, 
 hard, 
 opaque, 
 soluble, 
 fusible. 
 It has taste (or is sapid.) 
 Uses. — To flavor food, to preserve from putre- 
 faction, to manure land. 
 
 LESSON XX. 
 
 A HORN. 
 
 Qualities of a horn. 
 It is hard.- 
 uneven. 
 hollow. 
 
'S6 FIRST SERIES. 
 
 It is odorous when burnt, 
 tapering, 
 opaque, 
 stiff. 
 
 yellowish brown, 
 fibrous. 
 Uses — To make combs, glue, lanterns, handles 
 to knives and forks. 
 
 LESSON XXI. 
 
 IVORY. 
 
 Qualities of Ivory. 
 
 It is hard, 
 white, 
 smooth, 
 bright, 
 opaque, 
 solid, 
 durable. 
 
 LESSON XXII. 
 
 CHALK. 
 
 Idea to be developed by this lesson — efervescenU* 
 Qualities of Chalk, 
 
 It is white, 
 friable. 
 
 effervescent in acids, 
 opaque. 
 
 * This quality may be made apparent to the children by 
 putting the chalk in vinegar. 
 
LESSON XXIII. BARK. 37 
 
 It is dull, 
 hard, 
 solid, 
 dry. 
 soluble. 
 
 LESSON XXIII. 
 
 PIECE OF THE BARK OF THE OAK TREE. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 It is brown, 
 rugged, 
 opaque, 
 dry. 
 
 inflammable, 
 stiff. 
 
 inside smooth, 
 solid, 
 durable, 
 fibrous, 
 dull. 
 
38 
 
 SECOND SERIES. 
 
 FAMILIAR OBJECTS. 
 
 A Cube of Wood. A Grain of Coffee. 
 
 A Penknife. 
 
 A Chair. 
 
 A Key. 
 
 EH 
 
 A Thimble. 
 
 A Pin. 
 
 A Pen. 
 
39 
 
 SECOND SERIES. 
 
 FAMILIAR OBJECTS. 
 
 A Pair of Scissors. 
 
 A Book. 
 
 A Pencil in use. 
 
 An Egg 
 
 A Candl( 
 
 A Cup. 
 
SECOND SERIES. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 
 
 In this series the children should be much ex- 
 ercised upon the qualities already remarked, but 
 which should now be presented to them in other 
 objects. This repetition combines with the ad- 
 vantage of fixing the knowledge acquired, that of 
 enabling them to form the abstract idea of the 
 quality. 
 
 Having had all their senses brought into action, 
 they may be led to determine by the exercise of 
 which any particular property was observed : thus, 
 How did you find out that glass was transparent ? 
 By my eyes. What can you do with your eyes ? 
 See. Seeing is called a sense. Can you obtain 
 an idea of a quality except by the sense of sight? 
 Will your sight discover to you that a rose is 
 odorous? How would you ascertain this quality? 
 By what sense ? By smelling. The sense of smell- 
 ing. By similar questions the class will gain a 
 clear conception of the several senses, and their 
 operations. They may next proceed to the ob- 
 servation of the organs of sense. Thus, By what 
 natural instrument are you able to see, hear, &c. ? 
 By eyes, ears, &c. Any natural instrument by 
 which something is performed, is called an organ. 
 What are the eyes? Organs. Organs of what 
 sense ? Organs of sight, &c. 
 
LESSON I. A PIN. 41 
 
 It will be a useful exercise for the children to 
 classify the various qualities, with which their 
 minds are now stored, under the heads of the 
 different senses by which they are discerned. 
 They will soon perceive that some may be dis- 
 covered by either of two senses; for example, 
 fluid, solid, rough and the varieties of form, which 
 may be ascertained, either by sight or feeling : 
 these should constitute another division. It is 
 obvious, that children thus trained from their earli- 
 est years to arrange their ideas, would acquire a 
 great readiness in making use of their knowledge, 
 and a facility in producing new combinations. In 
 this series, they may also be practised in distin- 
 guishing and naming the parts of objects. 
 
 LESSON I. 
 
 A PIN. 
 
 A pin has been chosen for the first lesson, 
 because the parts are simple, clearly marked, and 
 few. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 The head. 
 
 
 It is hard. 
 
 shank, 
 point. 
 
 
 opaque. 
 
 white. 
 
 bright. 
 
 solid. 
 
 useful. 
 
 smooth. 
 
 cold. 
 
 
 the head is round. 
 
 
 the point is sharp, 
 the shank is straight, 
 
 taper. 
 
42 SECOND SERIES. 
 
 Uses. — To keep together the parts of our dress ; 
 or whatever we wish to be united only for a time. 
 
 LESSON II. 
 
 A CUBE or WOOD. 
 
 The cube will convey to the class a good idea 
 of a surface ; they will observe that the outeide is 
 divided into several parts, and may learn that the 
 boundaries of a solid are called surfaces. 
 Pa7'ts> Qualities. 
 
 The surfaces. It is hard, 
 
 edges. light, 
 
 corners. solid, 
 
 brown, 
 smooth, 
 inflammable, 
 opaque, 
 the surfaces are flat. 
 
 square, 
 the edges are straight, 
 the corners are sharp. 
 
 LESSON III. 
 
 AN UNCUT LEAD-PENCIX. 
 
 The new ideas presented to the children in 
 this lesson are the ends, which are flat surfaces 
 and the curved surface : from this object they 
 therefore become acquainted with the form cylin- 
 drical. 
 
 Parts, Qualities. 
 
 The surfaces. It is hard, 
 
 ends. odorous. 
 
LESSON IV. A PEN. 43 
 
 Parts. Qualities. 
 
 exterior or outside. long-, 
 
 interior or inside. solid, 
 
 middle. opaque, 
 
 lead. inflammable, 
 
 wood. dry, 
 
 reddish, 
 veined, 
 one surface is curved, 
 the ends are flat. 
 
 circular, 
 form cylindrical, 
 the lead is black, 
 brittle, 
 friable, 
 bright. 
 Uses. — For writing, drawing, &;c. Let the 
 children point out on what occasions a pencil is 
 preferable to a pen. 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 
 A pen leads to the observation of many parts, 
 and also presents opposite qualities in its diflferent 
 parts. 
 
 Parts. Qualities. 
 
 The quill. The quill is transparent. 
 
 shaft. 
 
 
 
 cylindrical. 
 
 feather. 
 
 
 
 hollow. 
 
 laminae, 
 
 or par 
 
 ts of the feather. 
 
 bright. 
 
 pith. 
 
 
 
 hard. 
 
 nib. 
 
 
 
 elastic. 
 
 split. 
 
 
 
 yellowis'j 
 
44 
 
 
 SECOND SERIES. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 shoulders. 
 
 horny. 
 
 surfaces. 
 
 the shaft is opaque. 
 
 skin. 
 
 angular. 
 
 groove. 
 
 solid. 
 
 inside. 
 
 white. 
 
 outside. 
 
 stiff. 
 
 
 hard. 
 
 
 grooved. 
 
 
 the pith is white. 
 
 
 spongy. 
 
 
 porous. 
 
 
 elastic. 
 
 
 compressible. 
 
 
 soft. 
 
 
 LESSON V. 
 
 
 A WAX CANDLE. 
 
 This object recalls the idea of the form cylin- 
 drical, gained in a previous lesson, and presents 
 the peculiar parts of the candle itself. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 The wick. 
 
 It is cylindrical. 
 
 wax. 
 
 hard. 
 
 surfaces. 
 
 opaque. 
 
 ends. 
 
 yellowish white. 
 
 curved surface. 
 
 Wax is sticky. 
 
 edges. 
 
 fusible. 
 
 top. 
 
 The wick is inflammable, 
 
 bottom. 
 
 tough. 
 
 middle. 
 
 white. 
 
 inside. 
 
 porous. 
 
 outside. 
 
 flexible. 
 
 Use.- 
 
 -To give light. 
 
LESSON VI. A CHAIR. 45 
 
 LESSON YI. 
 
 A CHAIR. 
 
 This, and several of the succeeding lessons, 
 are chosen on account of the great variety of the 
 parts of the objects. 
 
 Parts. 
 The back, 
 front, 
 seat, 
 top. 
 
 bottom, 
 frame, 
 legs, 
 straw, 
 edges. 
 
 upper part of seat, 
 under part of seat, 
 bars, 
 surfaces, 
 corners. 
 
 It is obvious that the qualities are not named, 
 as they would depend so entirely upon the kind 
 of chair chosen for the lesson. 
 
 It is a useful exercise to make the children 
 compare the relative proportions and situations 
 of the different parts of an object. Thus, in the 
 chair, the depth of the seat is about one-half the' 
 height of the chair ; the legs are rather shorter 
 than the back ; the seat is narrower at the back 
 than the front, &;c. The legs are perpendicular, 
 the seat horizontal, the back slanting, the bars hori- 
 zontal and parallel. 
 
46 SECOND SERIES. 
 
 LESSON VII. 
 
 A BOOK. 
 
 Parts, 
 The outside, 
 inside, 
 edges, 
 corners, 
 binding, 
 paper, 
 back, 
 sides, 
 top. 
 bottom, 
 title-page, 
 preface, 
 introduction, 
 contents, 
 end. 
 leaves, 
 pages, 
 margin, 
 beginning, 
 type, 
 letters, 
 numbers, 
 stops, 
 words, 
 sentences, 
 syllables, 
 title, 
 lettering, 
 stitching, 
 lines. 
 
LESSON VIII. AN EGG, A THIMBLE. 4 ( 
 
 
 LESSON VIII. 
 
 
 AN EGG. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Qualities, 
 
 The shell. 
 
 It is oval. 
 
 skin. 
 
 white. 
 
 white. 
 
 hard. 
 
 yolk. 
 
 edible. 
 
 interior. 
 
 nutritious. 
 
 exterior. 
 
 opaque. 
 
 surface. 
 
 shell is brittle. 
 
 
 smooth. 
 
 
 thin. 
 
 The white is liquid when raw. 
 
 
 solid when boiled. 
 
 
 semi-transparent when raw. 
 
 
 opaque when boiled. 
 
 
 adhesive. 
 
 
 sticky. 
 
 
 insipid. 
 
 Yolk is yellow. 
 
 
 liquid. 
 
 
 soft. 
 
 
 opaque. 
 
 
 odorous. 
 
 
 sapid. 
 
 
 LESSON IX. 
 
 
 A THIMBLE. 
 
 Parts, 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 The inside. 
 
 It is hollow. 
 
 outside. 
 
 silver. 
 
48 
 
 SECOND 
 
 SERIES. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Qualities, 
 
 top. 
 bottom. 
 
 cylindrical, 
 white. 
 
 rim. 
 
 border. 
 
 indentations. 
 
 bright. 
 
 opaq[ue. 
 
 hard. 
 
 
 curved. 
 
 
 Inside is smooth. 
 
 
 Outside is rouffh. 
 
 Use.'— To preserve the middle finger from being 
 pricked in working with a needle. 
 
 
 LESSON X. 
 
 
 
 A PEN-KNIFE. 
 
 
 Parts, 
 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 The handle. 
 
 
 The blade is 
 
 5 steel. 
 
 blade. 
 
 
 - ' 
 
 bright. 
 
 plates. 
 
 
 
 cold. 
 
 grooves. 
 
 
 
 hard. 
 
 - back of the handle. 
 
 reflective. 
 
 back of the blade. *- 
 
 opaque. 
 
 point. 
 
 
 
 brittle. 
 
 edge. 
 
 
 the front edge is thin. 
 
 spring. 
 
 
 
 sharp. 
 
 rivets. 
 
 
 the back edge is blunt. 
 
 pivot. 
 
 
 
 thick. 
 
 heel. 
 
 
 handle hollow. 
 
 i 
 
 
 flat. 
 
 
 
 Use.- 
 
 —To cut. 
 
 
 The other qualities 
 
 depend upon 
 
 the kind of 
 
 «wiife shown. 
 
 
 
 
LESSON XI. XII. A KEY, A CUP. 
 
 40 
 
 
 LESSON XI. 
 
 
 A KEY. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 The ring. 
 
 It is hard. 
 
 barrel. 
 
 steel, or iron. 
 
 wards. 
 
 bright. 
 
 grooves. 
 
 cold. 
 
 edges. 
 
 opaque. 
 
 surfaces. 
 
 smooth. 
 
 corners. 
 
 stiff. 
 
 
 liable to rust. 
 
 
 part of the barrel is hollow. 
 
 
 the barrel is cylindrical. 
 
 
 the ring is curved. 
 
 
 LESSON XII. 
 
 A CUP. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 The bowl, 
 handle, 
 upper rim. 
 lower rim. 
 bottom, 
 inside, 
 outside, 
 edges, 
 surfaces. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 It is hollow, 
 hard, 
 glossy, 
 curved, 
 smooth, 
 glazed, 
 cold, 
 brittle, 
 thin, 
 useful. 
 The rim is circular 
 
50 SECOND SERIES. 
 
 LESSON XIII. 
 
 A GRAIN OF COFFEE. 
 
 Parts, 
 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 The surfaces. 
 
 
 If roasted it is brown. 
 
 curved surfaces, 
 
 hard. 
 
 flat surface. 
 
 
 ciisp. 
 
 groove. 
 
 
 sapid. 
 
 edge. 
 
 
 aromatic, 
 stimulating, 
 agreeable to 
 the taste. 
 
 
 
 pulverable, 
 or may be 
 turned into 
 powder, 
 solid. 
 If unroasted, dingy yellow, 
 inodorous, 
 without 
 smell, 
 disagreeable 
 to the taste. 
 
 Use.*— 'To make a 
 
 beverage, or drink. 
 
 
 T.ESSON XIV. 
 
 A 
 
 PAIR OF SCISSARS. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 The limbs. 
 
 
 It is steel. 
 
 bows. 
 
 
 bright. 
 
 blades. 
 
 
 reflective. 
 
LESSON XIV. 
 
 SCISSARS. OL 
 
 Parts, 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 shanks. 
 
 It is hard. 
 
 rivets, 
 pivot, 
 points, 
 surfaces. 
 
 opaque, 
 cold, 
 useful, 
 solid. 
 
 
 the blades are pointed, 
 one surface flat. 
 
 
 the other curved. 
 
 
 front edge sharp, 
 back blunt. 
 
 
 bows are curved. 
 
 Uses, — The children 
 
 should name the kind 
 
 of materials which scissars will cut, and point 
 
 out the different manner in which knives and 
 
 scissars cut. 
 
 
52 
 
 THIRD SERIES. 
 
 FAMILIAR OBJECTS. 
 
 An Apple. An Acorn. 
 
 A Pine Cone. A Laurel Leaf. 
 
 An Oyster. A Butter-Cup. 
 
53 
 
 THIRD SERIES. 
 
 FAMILIAR OBJECTS. 
 
 A Needle in use. 
 
 A Quill. 
 
 iliniiiiii 
 
 A Piece of Honev-Comb. 
 
 A Cent. A Watch-Glass. 
 
 5* 
 
THIRD SERIES. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 
 
 In this series the children may be guided to 
 the discovery of qualities which call into exercise 
 the judgment in connexion with the senses. Thus 
 by showing them at the same time an object in its 
 natural and in its artificial state, as wool and 
 woollen cloth, and questioning them as to the 
 difference of the two, they will readily conceive 
 the ideas of natural and artificial. In this manner 
 they may be led to remark the distinction between 
 foreign and native, exotic and indigenous, animal, 
 vegetable, mineral, &;c. 
 
 Having also been long exercised in observing 
 and naming the qualities of objects, they may 
 now be called upon to give an explanation of the 
 terms they use, and by assisting them to trace 
 their derivations, the teacher will add to the 
 interest of the lesson. For the use of the in- 
 structor a few explanations adapted to the capacities 
 of children are given at the end of the Volume. 
 
 LESSON I. 
 
 A QUILL. 
 
 Ideas to be developed by this lesson — natural^ 
 artificial, animal, vegetable, animate, inanimate, 
 A pen should be shown at the same time with 
 the quill. Then the children being questioned 
 
LESSON I.-— A QUILL. 65 
 
 as to what constitutes the essential difference 
 between the two, will understand the terms natural 
 and artificial. If some fruits or flowers are placed by 
 the quill, their attention may be directed to the 
 distinction between animal and vegetable sub- 
 stances. The comparison of the quill with an 
 insect, will elicit the ideas of animate and inani- 
 mate. 
 
 Parts. Qualities, 
 
 As in a preceding lesson. It is long. 
 
 stiff. 
 
 useful. 
 
 natural. 
 
 inanimate. 
 
 animal produc- 
 tion. 
 The barrel is transpa- 
 rent. 
 
 hard. 
 
 elasticjor springy. 
 
 bright. 
 
 yellowish. 
 
 cylindrical. 
 
 hollow. 
 
 light. 
 The shaft is feathcredc 
 
 white. 
 
 stiff. 
 
 hard. 
 
 opaque. 
 
 solid. 
 
 angular 
 
 grooved. 
 
56 THIRD SERIES. 
 
 Children may be led to remark the difference 
 which heat produces on animal and vegetable 
 substances both in appearance and smell. 
 
 The teacher now requires the class to give an 
 explanation in their own words, of the terms they 
 used. 
 
 Teacher. " Useful." Give me examples of 
 words of the same termination. 
 
 Children. Careful, &;c. 
 
 Teacher. What is the force of that termina- 
 tion ? 
 
 Children. It expresses the quality in a great 
 degree. 
 
 Teacher. What is the opposite of useful ? 
 
 Children. Useless. 
 
 Teacher. Give examples of this termination. 
 
 Teacher. From what is natural derived ? 
 
 Children. Nature. 
 
 Teacher. From what is " inanimate" derived? 
 
 Children. From in, which has the sense of 
 not, and animate. 
 
 Teacher. Animate is derived from anima, a 
 Latin word, which signifies life. Transparent is 
 derived from trans, through ; and pai'ens, appear- 
 ing. Give other words derived from parens, ap- 
 pearing. 
 
 Children. Apparent, Apparition. 
 
 Teacher. "Cylindrical." From what is it 
 derived ? 
 
 Children. From cylinder. 
 
 Teacher. Cylinder is derived from the Greek 
 xuXiv^w. (kulindo) I roll. 
 
LESSON II A CENT. 
 
 57 
 
 LESSON II. 
 
 A CENT. 
 
 Ideas to be developed in this lesson, mineral, 
 metallic. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 surfaces. 
 
 It is round. 
 
 edges. 
 
 flat. 
 
 impression. 
 
 mineral. 
 
 image. 
 
 metallic. 
 
 superscription. 
 
 opaque. 
 
 reverse. 
 
 bright. 
 
 date. 
 
 copper. 
 
 
 cold. 
 
 
 reddish brown. 
 
 
 fusible. 
 
 
 hard. 
 
 
 odorous. 
 
 
 artificial.* 
 
 
 useful. 
 
 
 heavy. 
 
 
 durable. 
 
 
 uneven. 
 
 Made from copper ore, the sulphur forced off 
 by smelting. Stampt by a die which is caused to 
 fall upon the coin with great violence. 
 
 * The class should be led to remark, that though the work- 
 manship is artificial, the substance is natural. 
 
5H THIRD SERIES. 
 
 Remarks on words* 
 
 " Mineral," from what derived ? Mine. 
 « Metallic," Metal. 
 
 "Fusible," to fuse. 
 
 " Artificial," lat. Arte, by an 
 
 art ; and lat. facere, to make. 
 " Durable," lat. durare, to 
 
 last. 
 
 Teacher. Do you Jinovv any other words de- 
 rived from durare ? 
 
 Children. Duration, during, endure. 
 
 LESSON III. 
 
 MUSTARD SEED. 
 
 Ideas to be developed by this lesson,— indigen- 
 ous, pulverable. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 It is pungent, 
 dull, 
 yellow, 
 opaque, 
 hard, 
 dry. 
 
 pulverable. 
 natural, 
 indigenous, 
 vegetable, 
 spherical, 
 solid, 
 stimulating. 
 
LESSON IV. AN ATPLE. 
 
 59 
 
 Remarks on Words. _ 
 
 "Pungent," from what derived? Lat. pungere, to 
 
 prick. 
 " Pulverable," from Lat. piihis, dust. 
 " Indigenous," from the Latin indigena, native, or 
 
 produced in a country. 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 
 AN 
 
 APPLE. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 The eye. 
 
 It is spherical. 
 
 core. 
 
 bright. 
 
 pips, or seeds. 
 
 odorous. 
 
 peel. 
 
 colored. 
 
 pulp. 
 
 opaque. 
 
 juice. 
 
 natural. 
 
 stalk. 
 
 vegetable. 
 
 surface. 
 
 juicy. 
 
 inside. 
 
 hard. 
 
 outside. 
 
 nice. 
 
 
 solid. 
 
 
 pleasant. 
 
 
 The eye is dry. 
 
 
 brown. 
 
 
 shrivelled. 
 
 The pips or seeds 
 
 arc brown on the outside 
 
 
 when ripe. 
 
 
 - white in the inside. 
 
 
 pointed oval. - 
 
 
 hard. 
 
 
 bright. 
 
60 THIRD SERIES. 
 
 The core is thin, 
 stiff, 
 yellow. 
 ♦ hard. 
 
 semi-transparent. 
 
 cellular, or divided into cells. 
 
 Remarks on Words, 
 
 "Spherical," from what derived? Sphere. 
 
 Teacher. Give instances of similar termina- 
 tions ? 
 
 Children. Cylindrical, critical, conical. 
 
 "Odorous," from what derived? Lat. odor, 
 scent. 
 
 Teacher. Give instances of similar termina- 
 tions ? 
 
 Children. Porous, numerous. 
 
 " Vegetable," from what derived ? Lat. vege- 
 tare, to grow as a plant. 
 
 Teacher. Name other words derived from this? 
 
 Children. To vegetate, vegetation. 
 
 " Juicy," from what derived? Juice. 
 
 Teacher. Give some other instances in which 
 the names of qualities are derived from those of 
 substances in a similar manner ? 
 
 Children. Stone, stony ; milk, milky ; water, 
 watery. 
 
 " Semi-transparent," from what derived? Semi, 
 trans, through, and parens, appearing. 
 
 Teacher. What is the meaning of semi 7 
 
 Children. Half. 
 
LESSON V. VI. GLASS OF A WATCH, SUGAR. 61 
 
 LESSON V. 
 
 GLASS OF A WATCH. 
 
 Ideas to be developed by this lesson, — concave^ 
 and convex. 
 
 Parts,* Qualities, 
 
 It is artificial. 
 
 transparent. 
 
 brittle, 
 
 bright. 
 
 thin. 
 
 hard. 
 
 clear. 
 
 cold. 
 
 curved. 
 
 useful. 
 Upper surface convex. 
 Under surface concave. 
 Edge circular. 
 Uses. — To preserve the hands of the watch from 
 being injured, and to keep the works from dust. 
 
 LESSON VI. 
 
 BROWN SUGAR. 
 
 Ideas to be developed, foreign, imported. 
 Qualities. 
 It is brown, 
 granulous. 
 
 * The children should be asked whether there are any 
 parts to this object peculiar to it ; and as there are not, the 
 consideration of the parts had barter be omitted. 
 6 
 
C2 THIRD SERIES. 
 
 It is sweet, 
 soluble, 
 fusible, 
 opaque, 
 useful. 
 
 vegetable substance, 
 artificial, 
 foreign. 
 sticky. 
 imported, 
 moist. 
 
 Use. — To sweeten our food. 
 
 Obtained from the Sugar Cane, which is culti- 
 vated in the East and West Indies, and in the 
 Southern States. 
 
 Remarks upon Words. 
 
 " Granulous," derived from ' granule, a small 
 grain. 
 
 " Imported," Latin portare, to carry, and in, into. 
 
 " Exported," from ex, out, and portare., 
 
 " Soluble," from Lat. solvere, to loosen, because 
 the particjes may be loosened from each other by 
 liquids. 
 
 
 LESSON VII. 
 
 
 AN ACORN. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 The cup. 
 berry, 
 stalk. 
 
 It is vegetable, 
 inanimate, 
 natural. 
 
LESSON VIII. HONEYCOMB. 
 
 63 
 
 Parts* 
 The point of the nut 
 scar, 
 scales, 
 inside, 
 outside, 
 surfaces. 
 
 Qualities. 
 hard, 
 green, 
 opaque, 
 nut is oval, 
 bright, 
 solid, 
 cup is brown, 
 the inside is concave, 
 smooth. 
 the outside is rough. 
 
 brownish, 
 scaly. 
 the edge is circular. 
 
 LESSON VIII. 
 
 A PIECE OF H0NEYC03IB. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Cells, 
 divisions. 
 
 bottom, or base of cells, 
 corners. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 It is natural. 
 
 animal production. 
 
 light. 
 
 fusible. 
 
 sticky. 
 
 semi-transparent. 
 
 yellowish. 
 
 thin. 
 
 compressible, 
 cells hexagonal, or six- 
 cornered. 
 
 regular. 
 
 hollow. 
 
64 THIRD 6ERIES. 
 
 LESSON IX. 
 
 REFINED SUGAR. 
 
 Ideas to be developed by this lesson, are crys- 
 talline, amorphous. 
 
 Parts. Qualities* 
 
 The surfaces. It is white, 
 
 edges. sweet, 
 
 middle. sparkling, 
 
 crystals. crystalline, 
 
 grains. solid, 
 
 pores. fusible, 
 
 soluble. 
 
 shapeless or amorphous, 
 hard, 
 refined, 
 nutritious, 
 useful, 
 friable, 
 opaque, 
 artificial, 
 vegetable, 
 briltle. 
 Brought from the Indies in its raw state. Re- 
 fined by sugar-bakers, and sold by grocers in loaves 
 of a conical form. 
 
 Remarks on Words. 
 " Crystalline," derived from crystal. 
 " Amorphous," Greek a (a) not, and fjioptp*} 
 (morphe) shape. 
 
 " Nutritious," Lat. mitrio, I nourish. 
 
LESSON X. A BUTTER CUP. 65 
 
 LESSON X 
 
 BUTTER CUP. 
 
 Parts. Qualities* 
 
 Petals. It is vegetable. 
 
 margins or edges. inanimate. 
 
 cup. * concave. 
 
 leafits" of cup. natural. 
 
 stamens. odorous. 
 
 pistils. petals are yellow. 
 
 stalk. glossy in the inside. 
 
 place of insertion. dull on the outside. 
 
 inside. circular. 
 
 outside. pointed at the place 
 
 surfaces. of insertion. 
 
 striped. 
 
 opaque. 
 
 pliable. 
 Leafits greenish. 
 
 thin. 
 
 membranaceous. 
 
 semi-transparent. 
 
 pointed. 
 Stalk green. 
 
 grooved. 
 
 angular. 
 
 stiff. 
 
 fibrous. 
 
 6* 
 
66 THIRD SERIES. 
 
 LESSON XI. 
 
 LADY BIRD. 
 
 Parts, Qualities* 
 
 The Head. It is animate. 
 
 eyes. natural, 
 
 feelers or palpi. hemispherical, 
 horns or antennae, elytra are red. 
 
 wings. ^ spotted, 
 
 wing cases or elytra. bright. 
 
 thorax. 
 
 hard. 
 
 legs. 
 
 brittle. ' 
 
 body. 
 
 opaque. 
 
 back. 
 
 stiff. 
 
 spots. 
 
 outside convex. 
 
 surfaces. 
 
 inside concave. 
 
 margin. 
 
 one margin straight. 
 
 claws. 
 
 the other curved. 
 
 
 the wings are membraneous. 
 
 
 pliable. 
 
 
 thin. 
 
 
 transparent. 
 
 
 fragile. 
 
 
 the body oval. 
 
 
 black. 
 
 
 the legs are jointed. 
 
 
 short. 
 
 
 black. 
 
LESSON XII. — AN OYSTER. 67 
 
 
 LESSON XII. 
 
 
 AN OYSTER. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Qualities* 
 
 The valves. 
 
 It is animal. 
 
 hinge. 
 
 opaque. 
 
 outside. 
 
 marine. 
 
 inside. 
 
 natural. 
 
 margin. 
 
 valves circular. 
 
 impressions. hard. 
 
 mollusca, 
 
 , the living part, stiff. 
 
 scales or 
 
 laminae. pulverable. 
 
 
 outsides rough. 
 
 
 scaly or laminated. 
 
 
 irregular. 
 
 
 dull. 
 
 
 dingy brown. 
 
 
 uneven. 
 
 
 inside pearly. 
 
 
 bright. 
 
 
 smooth. 
 
 
 slightly concave. 
 
 
 cold. 
 
 
 mollusca soft. 
 
 
 edible. 
 
 
 nutritious. 
 
 
 cold. 
 
 
 smooth. 
 
 
 lubricious. 
 
6B THIRD SERIES. 
 
 LESSON XIII. 
 
 A FIR OR PINE CONE. 
 
 Parts. Qualities. 
 
 Scales* 
 
 It is brown. 
 
 seeds* 
 
 opaque. 
 
 top. 
 
 hard. 
 
 place of insertion. vegetable. 
 
 fibres* 
 
 natural. 
 
 outside. 
 
 conical. 
 
 inside. 
 
 inflammable. 
 
 surfaces. 
 
 odorous. 
 
 stalk. 
 
 scales hard. 
 
 
 outside brown. 
 
 
 pointed at the top. 
 
 
 rouMi. 
 
 inside of scales chestnut-color. 
 
 
 shaded. 
 
 
 LESSON XIV. 
 
 
 FUR. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 Hair 
 
 It is animal. 
 
 surface. 
 
 hairy. 
 
 points of hair. 
 
 inanimate. 
 
 hairs flexible, 
 slender, 
 soft, 
 straight, 
 pointed. 
 The color and other peculiarities io be decided 
 by the specimen presented. 
 
LESSON XV. XVI. — A LEAF, A NEEDLE. 
 
 69 
 
 
 LESSON XV. 
 
 A LAUREL LEAF. 
 
 Parts, 
 
 Qualities, 
 
 upper surface. 
 
 Upper surface bright 
 
 under surface. 
 
 under surface dull. 
 
 edge or margin. 
 
 oval. 
 
 point or termination. smooth. 
 
 veins. 
 
 pointed. 
 
 middle rib. 
 
 vegetable. 
 
 base. 
 
 odorous. 
 
 stalk. 
 
 opaque. 
 
 
 bitter. 
 
 
 stiff. 
 
 
 slightly toothed. 
 
 
 long. 
 
 
 margin curved. 
 
 
 rib straight. 
 
 
 raised, or keeled on 
 
 
 the under side. 
 
 
 grooved on the upper 
 
 
 side. 
 
 
 veins curved. 
 
 
 T.F.SSON XVI. 
 
 
 A NEEDLE. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 The eye. 
 
 It is mineral. 
 
 shank 
 
 :. metallic. 
 
 point. 
 
 artificial. 
 
70 
 
 THIED 
 
 SERIES. 
 
 The middle, 
 top. 
 
 It is opaque, 
 bright. 
 cold. 
 
 
 taper. 
 
 pointed. 
 
 slender. 
 
 
 useful. 
 
 
 fusible. 
 
 
 gray or steel color, 
 hard. 
 
 
 brittle. 
 
 
 solid. 
 
 
 steel. 
 
 Made of steel, which is a preparation of iron, 
 having been subject to great extremes of heat and 
 cold. 
 
 LESSON XVII. 
 
 A STONE. 
 
 Idea to be developed^—inorganized. 
 
 To give the class an idea of " organized" and 
 " inorganized," a plant might be shown with the 
 stone ; and similar questions to the following 
 given. 
 
 Teacher. If I put these two into the earth, 
 and visit them in a month, what great difference 
 should I perceive in them ? 
 
 Children. The plant will have grown ; the 
 stone will have remained the same size. 
 
 Teacher. Hov/ did the plant increase ? 
 
 Children. It absorbed moisture. 
 
 Teacher, By what means ? 
 
LESSON XVII. A STONE. 71 
 
 Children. Through its roots and pores. 
 
 Teacher. Did this nourish only the roots and 
 pores 1 
 
 Children. No. 
 
 Teacher. You are right; the sap was pro- 
 duced, which circulated through the plant by 
 means of vessels. You remember why we called 
 the eyes, ears, &;c. organs ? 
 
 Children. They are natural instruments, by 
 which something is effected. 
 
 Teacher. What would you therefore call the 
 pores, vessels, &c. of vegetables ? 
 
 Children. They are organs. 
 
 Teacher. A body possessing organs is called 
 organized : name some organized bodies. 
 
 Children. A tree, an insect. 
 
 Teacher. What syllable, placed before a word, 
 expresses the absence of a quality ? 
 
 Children. In, 
 
 Teacher. What would you call a body which 
 is destitute of organs ? 
 
 Children. InGrganized. 
 
 Teacher. Mention some inorganized sub- 
 stances. 
 
 Children. Earth, water. 
 
 Qualities of Stone. 
 
 It is hard, 
 cold. 
 
 inorganized. 
 opaque, 
 mineral, 
 solid. 
 naturaL 
 
72 THIRD SERIES. 
 
 It is shapeless or amorphous, 
 inanimate. 
 
 Remarks on Words. 
 
 " Inorganized," derived from Greek o^yavov 
 (organon) an instrument. 
 
FOURTH SERIES. 
 
 SPICES, (GROWING.) 
 
 73 
 
 The Cinnamon, 
 
 7 
 
74 
 
 FOURTH SERIES. 
 
 SPICES, (GROWING.) 
 
 Nutmeg". 
 
 Pepper. 
 
FOURTH SERIES. 
 
 BEER. 
 
 Beer is extensively manufactured in most of 
 our great cities and towns. Ale and Porter, which 
 are manufactured from nearly the same materials, 
 are very much used in all parts of our country ; 
 and the use of malt liquors will probably increase 
 in proportion as ardent spirits are laid aside. 
 
FOURTH SERIES. 
 
 OIL. 
 
 The oil used for lamps is generally obtained 
 from the whale; although the oil of other animals 
 IS sometimes used for this purpose. The hardy 
 whalemen of Nantucket and New Bedford pene- 
 trate the remotest parts of the Pacific Ocean in 
 search of whales, and encounter a great variety 
 of dangersj and " hair-breadth escapes" in cap- 
 turing them. 
 
FOURTH SERIES. 
 
 INK. 
 
 How little are we accustomed to reflect- on the 
 utility of this liquid ! Ink is indeed a necessary 
 article in civilized life, inasmuch as it is made the 
 means of preserving nearly all that we hold valu- 
 able. Could all the ink at present on paper be 
 instantly annihilated, the world would be thrown 
 into a state of confusion more terrible than was 
 ever occasioned by war, famine, or pestilence. 
 7* 
 
IS 
 
 FOURTH SERIES. 
 
 MILK. 
 
 Milk is one of the most useful of all articles 
 of food. It is our chief nourishment in infancy 
 and debility ; and it is used in the composition 
 of some of the most grateful aliments with which 
 our tables are furnished. — -The possession of a 
 cow has often saved a poor family from utter fa- 
 mine. We should look upon the gentle and harm- 
 less animal to whom we are indebted for this ar- 
 ticle of food, as one of the real benefactors of 
 man. 
 
FOURTH SERIES. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 
 
 The chief aim proposed in this series is, to ex- 
 ercise the children in arranging- and classifying 
 objects; thus developing a higher faculty than 
 that of simply observing their qualities. The 
 complex operation of connecting things by their 
 points of resemblance, at the same time individu- 
 ally distinguishing them by their points of dis- 
 similarity, is one of the highest exercises of our 
 reason. Yet this habit may be cultivated in chil- . 
 dren much more early than is usually imagined, 
 by training them to arrange their ideas. With 
 this view the spices have been chosen as forming 
 a connected series of objects. The metals, 
 liquids, different kinds of wood, grains, &;c. are 
 good subjects for similar lessons. 
 
 The children may now be led to consider more 
 fully the senses themselves, having already de- 
 termined by which of them they discover the pres- 
 ence of any quality. The first lesson is drawn 
 out for the use of the teacher, the substance only 
 of the others is given. 
 
 Teacher. Do you understand how you gained 
 the knowledge of various qualities? 
 
 Childhen. Bv our senses. 
 
80 FOURTH SERIES. 
 
 Teacher. How do you know when a thing is 
 red or blue? 
 
 Children. By sight. 
 
 Teacher. If you were blind, could you form 
 a correct idea of color ? Is there any other means 
 of gaining this knowledge ? 
 
 Children. No. 
 
 Teacher. True ; and to ascertain this point, a 
 blind person was once questioned as to what no- 
 tion he had of scarlet : he said he thought that it 
 must be like the sound of a trumpet. It is obvi- 
 ous he had no correct idea of a quality discovera- 
 ble by the sight, and he could only compare it 
 with one that he had acquired through the medium 
 of another sense. Can you tell me the reason why 
 persons born deaf cannot speak ? 
 
 Children. They cannot imitate sounds, be- 
 cause they never heard any. 
 
 Teacher. Since then deaf persons have no 
 correct ideas of sound, nor blind persons of color, 
 how did we acquire them? 
 
 Children. By means of the senses of seeing 
 and hearing. 
 
 Teacher. How then do you suppose our 
 minds become stored with ideas ? 
 
 Children. ' By the exercise of our senses.'* 
 
 Teacher. I think we may compare the mind 
 of an infant in some respects to an empty box ca- 
 pable of containing many things, and into this the 
 different senses empty the treasures which they 
 collect from the objects upon which they act. 
 
 * It is probable that children would not at once arrive at 
 this conclusion ; the Teacher must in that case lead them to 
 it by easy questions. 
 
-FEELING OR TOUCH. 
 
 81 
 
 But you must not suppose that these materials 
 remain there unemployed ; the mind works upon 
 them* Thus if you have once had the idea of a 
 dog- formed in your mind, by seeing such an ani- 
 mal, when a dog is mentioned you can recall the 
 idea, and fancy one immediately^ as if it were 
 present ; your mind will also perform the same 
 operation when a quality is spoken of which you 
 had previously seen in some object. Again, if 
 you see a dog unlike any you have observed be- 
 fore, you compare it with the species with which 
 you are acquainted, and mark the difference be- 
 tween them. If I say that I have some green 
 paper, cannot you at once imagine the color of 
 which 1 speak ? 
 Children. Yes. 
 
 Did you then exercise your sight? 
 No. 
 How then could you have the idea 
 
 Teacher. 
 
 Children. 
 
 Teacher. 
 of green ? 
 
 Children. 
 
 Teacher. 
 the idea? 
 
 Children. By seeing something green. 
 
 Teacher. And what retained it in your minds ? 
 
 Children. Our memory. 
 
 Teacher. We will now consider each sense 
 separately. 
 
 It was in our minds. 
 By what means did you first obtain 
 
 LESSON I. 
 
 feeling or touch. 
 
 Teacher. What part of your body is the or- 
 gan of this sense ? 
 
82 FOURTH SERIES. 
 
 Children. Tt seems all over our body. 
 
 Teacher. Do you not find some parts that do 
 not possess the sense of feeling? 
 
 Children. Yes, our hairs, nails, teeth. 
 
 Teacher. And in other animals what parts 
 are found destitute of sensation 1 
 
 Children. The hoofs, horns, claws, feathers, 
 wool, hair, &c. 
 
 Teacher. What word would you use to ex- 
 press the absence of sensation? What syllable 
 prefixed to a word gives it a negative meaning ? 
 
 Children. In. 
 
 Teacher. Well, what word will express the 
 absence of sensation? 
 
 Children. Insensibility. 
 
 Teacher. The parts then you have named 
 are insensible, and with the exception of these, 
 the sense of feeling exists everywhere throughout 
 the body. Tell me what qualities we can discover 
 in objects by this sense. 
 
 Children. That they are hard, soft, rough, 
 smooth, long, short, sharp, blunt, round, square, 
 cylindrical, conical, heavy, light, fluid, liquid, dry, 
 wet, hot, cold, &:c. 
 
 Teacher. By what general term would you 
 express such qualities as round, square, coni- 
 cal, &;c. ? 
 
 Children. By shape. 
 
 Teacher. By what general term would you 
 express such qualities as large, small, &;c. ? 
 
 Children. By size. 
 
 Teacher. By what general term would you 
 express such qualities as rough, smooth, &c. 1 
 
 Children. By kind of surface. 
 
 Teacher. By what general term would you 
 
LESSON I. FEELING OR TOUCH. 83 
 
 express such qualities as hard, soft, fluid, tena- 
 cious, &c. ? 
 
 Children. By kind of substance. 
 
 Teacher. By what general term would you 
 express such qualities as heavyj light, &c. ? 
 
 Children. By weighlf 
 
 Teacher. Now arrange the qualities which 
 you discover by your Feeling, under these five 
 general heads of shape, size, kind of surface, kind 
 of substance, weight. 
 
 The children having performed this part, the 
 Teacher may mention the following facts. 
 
 Teacher. The quickness and accuracy of this 
 sense of Feeling, is, we find, much increased by 
 exercise. This is exemplified in blind persons ; 
 many of whom are enabled, in a great measure, to 
 compensate their defect of sight by an exquisite 
 sensitiveness of touch. Bats also appear to pos- 
 sess this in a remarkable degree. They have 
 been observed, even after the loss of sight, and 
 with their ears and nostrils stopt up, to fly through 
 intricate windings and passages without striking 
 against the walls, and also to avoid lines and cords 
 placed in their way. The expanded membrane 
 that serves them for wings is probably the seat 
 of this delicate sense of feeling ; it fits them for 
 nocturnal and dark abodes. The palpi or feelers 
 of insects possess the same quality very acutely, 
 and this enables them to explore the surfaces of 
 bodies in search of food, and warns them also of 
 the approach of danger. 
 
 The class should be required, at the conclusion 
 of the lesson, to draw up some account of this 
 Bense, mentioning where it resides, what qualities 
 
84 FOURTH SERIES. 
 
 fall within its cognizance, and to recapitulate any 
 incidental information received during the lesson. 
 
 LESSON II. 
 
 The eyes are the organs of sight, and are 
 beautifully adapted for the office which they have 
 to perform. They are so constructed as to allow 
 us to see things at a distance, or near ; to confine 
 ourselves to the inspection of one object, or to 
 take at once a large sphere of vision. The part 
 of the eye which admits the light may be ex- 
 panded or contracted, according as the rays are 
 more or less powerful. This is remarkably ex- 
 emplified in the eyes of the cat and of the owl. 
 Indeed nothing affords a more striking proof of the 
 kind providence of God than the peculiar forma- 
 tion of the eyes of different animals, each exactly 
 suited to their peculiar modes of life ; those of 
 moles, fishes, and birds, are remarkable illustra- 
 tions of this fact.* 
 
 Of all the senses, that of sight is in most fre- 
 quent and continual exercise. It fills the mind 
 with the greatest variety of ideas, which it gathers 
 both from the works of nature, and the writings 
 of the wise and good of all ages. 
 
 The qualities we discover by this sense are : 
 transparent, semi-transparent, translucent, opaque, 
 glimmering, bright, dark, sparkling, dull, and the 
 
 * The Teacher should here fully explain to the class the 
 circumstances referred lo, and give other similar instances. 
 
LESSON III. HEARING. 85 
 
 Vt dous modifications, of color, size, and shape. 
 Many may be ascertained either by touch or 
 sight ; as those of size, form, kind of surface, and 
 substance. 
 
 LESSON III. 
 
 HEARING. 
 
 The ears are the organs of this sense ; in many 
 animals the external form is that of a trumpet, 
 which is best adapted for gathering the sound, and 
 bringing it to a focus ; in man it contains many 
 convolutions and channels which receive the vibra- 
 tions of air in every direction, and convey them to 
 the drum of the ear which is the actual seat of this 
 sense. 
 
 The formation of the ears of animals is beau- 
 tifully accommodated to their peculiar habits of 
 life. In beasts of prey the trumpet part is in- 
 clined forwards, easily to catch the sounds of those 
 they are pursuing. But in those animals whose 
 chief means of protection is ffight, these organs 
 are turned backwards, that they may be readily 
 apprized of the approach of their enemies. 
 
 The ears are the medium through which all 
 sensations of sound reach the mind : without them 
 we should be deprived of the advantages of verbal 
 instruction, the pleasures of conversation, and the 
 charms of music. 
 
 The motion of the parts of a body, or the col- 
 lision of one body against another, occasions a vi- 
 bration in the air which is similar to the effect 
 produced on water when a stone is thrown into it 
 Circle succeeds circle till the power of motion is 
 
86 FOURTH SERIES. 
 
 exhausted : and just as any light substance within 
 the influence of these undulations is agitated by 
 them, so when our ear is within reach of these 
 vibrations of air, the sensation of sound is produ- 
 ced.* The chirping noise of the cricket is occa- 
 sioned simply by the constant friction of a little 
 membrane against its wings. When two bodies 
 are rubbed or struck together, we are in many 
 cases able to determine, by the sounds emitted, 
 the nature of the substances brought into contact. 
 Different sounds are occasioned by the collision 
 of metals and that of wood, the sound produced 
 from hollow bodies from that resulting from solid 
 ones. There are various kinds of sounds ; as 
 shrill, deep, grating, harsh, loud, soft, harmonious, 
 sweet. Animals produce different sounds. The 
 cat mews, the dog barks, the lion roars, the ass 
 brays, the cow lows, the horse neighs, the rook 
 caws, the goose cackles, the cock crows, the fly 
 buzzes, the bee hums. Man speaks, laughs, cries, 
 shouts, groans, whistles, sings. 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 
 SMELL. 
 
 The nose is the organ of this sense ; its cavi- 
 ties are lined with a thin membrane which is sup- 
 plied with nerves connected with a principal one 
 which is essential to the perception of smell. 
 
 * This account may appear, at the first sight, above the 
 comprehension of children: a class, however, which had 
 gone through the preceding exercises, was found fully capable 
 of understanding it. 
 
LESSON V. TASTE. 87 
 
 From this source we derive all our ideas of 
 odor. Though not so important to man as the 
 other senses, yet it adds much to his pleasure ; 
 and to many animals it is essential, directing them 
 in the search of their food. The scent of dogs is 
 peculiarly fine, and on this account they are em- 
 ployed in the chase. 
 
 Odor is produced by exceedingly small parti- 
 cles called effluvia, which escape from odorous 
 bodies ; these diffuse themselves in the atmo- 
 sphere, and whenever they reach the olfactory 
 nerves, they occasion the sensation of smell. 
 Heat promotes the escape of these particles, which 
 are of a volatile nature ; hence when the sun 
 shines brightly, vegetation scents the air with its 
 fragrance. 
 
 LESSON V. 
 
 TASTE. 
 
 The mouth is the organ of taste.- The skin 
 within the mouth is fine and more delicate than 
 that of the rest of the body : it is supplied with a 
 great number of blood vessels, and covered with 
 innumerable papillas, or small protuberances. 
 Sapid bodies, or bodies which have a flavor, 
 however, before they excite the sensation of taste, 
 require to be moistened by the saliva. In grass- 
 eating animals, the papillae are defended from the 
 action of the stiff bristles of grass and corn by a 
 strong skin, which being full of holes, allows the 
 dissolved juice to reach the seat of taste. The 
 principal qualities discoverable by the taste are 
 bitter, sweet, acid, pungent, acrid, luscious. 
 
88 FOURTH SERIES. 
 
 There are many others which derive their names 
 from the suhstances in which they exist. 
 
 Many of the animals have some one of the 
 senses in greater perfection than man has, hut 
 there is no animal in which they all occur in the 
 same degree. 
 
 SPICES. 
 
 LESSON VI. 
 
 PEPPER. 
 
 Qualities of Pepper. 
 
 It is hard. 
 
 vegetable. 
 
 foreign.* 
 
 tropical production. 
 
 wrinkled. 
 
 spherical. 
 
 rough. 
 
 black. 
 
 * Teacher. If it come from a foreign country, how do 
 we get it ? 
 
 Children. It comes in a ship. 
 
 Teacher. This is called importing ; and sending out of 
 our own country is called exporting. What do we call th* 
 exchange of productions ? 
 
 Children. Trade or corimerce. 
 
 Teacher. And what are the people called who carry il 
 on? 
 
 Children. Merchants. 
 
LESSON VII. NUTMEG. 89 
 
 It is conservative, or fit to preserve things, 
 dry. 
 dull, 
 sapid, 
 pungent, 
 odorous, 
 aromatic, 
 medicinal, 
 wholesome, 
 useful, 
 stimulating. 
 
 The pepper plant is a creeping shrub requiring 
 support, and is therefore generally planted near 
 some thorny bush, among the branches of which 
 it creeps like ivy. It produces berries, which 
 gBow in clusters: they are first green, become 
 red as they ripen, and black when dried. It 
 grows in the countries which lie between the 
 tropics. 
 
 LESSON VII. 
 
 NUTMEG. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 It is sapid. 
 
 hard. 
 
 oval. 
 
 dingy brown 
 
 dull. 
 
 opaque. 
 
 dry. 
 Surface uneven. 
 It is vegetable. 
 
00 FOURTH SERIES. 
 
 It is natural, 
 inanimate, 
 foreign. 
 
 tropical production, 
 pungent, 
 conservative, 
 pulverable. 
 ^ agreeable flavor, 
 
 aromatic, 
 odorous. 
 
 Nutmegs are the kernels of a fruit growing in 
 several islands in the East Indies ; they are sur- 
 rounded by the spice called mace, and externally 
 by a husk, about half an inch in thickness. When 
 the fruit is ripe, the husk opens at the end, and 
 displays a network of scarlet mace. After the 
 mace is carefuly stripped off, there still remains 
 a woody shell, which surrounds the nutmeg. 
 The husks are taken oft' in the woods ; and the 
 mace carefully removed with a knife. The nuts 
 are first dried in the sun, and then placed on a 
 frame of bamboos over a slow fire, until the ker- 
 nels, on being shaken, rattle in their shells. 
 
 Remarks on ivords. 
 
 " Odorous," " aromatic." 
 
 Teacher. Why is nutmeg said to be odorous? 
 
 Children. Because it has a smell. 
 
 Teacher. Why aromatic ? 
 
 Children. Because it has that pungent smell 
 distinguished by the name aromatic. 
 
 Teacher. Are all things that are aromatic also 
 odorous? 
 
LESSON VIII. MACE. 91 
 
 Children. Yes. 
 
 Teacher. Are all things that are odorous also 
 aromatic ? 
 
 Children. No. 
 
 Teacher. Is an onion odorous? 
 
 Children. Yes. 
 
 Teacher. Is a rose odorous? 
 
 Children. Yes. , 
 
 Teacher. Are these smells alike? 
 
 Children. No. 
 
 Teacher. Does the term odorous include every 
 kind of smell ? 
 
 Children. Yes. 
 
 Teacher. A term which includes all the va- 
 rieties of one kind of quality or substance, is 
 called a generic term, whilst that which marks 
 one of the species is called a specific term. 
 Thus in natural history, the term dog stands for 
 the genus, and Spaniel is a species of that genus. 
 
 Give examples of generic terms, and of a spe- 
 cific term applicable to each of them. 
 
 Children. Odorous, fragrant — colored, red — 
 foreign, Chinese productions. 
 
 The class should determine in succeeding les- 
 sons what terms are generic, and what specific. 
 
 LESSON VIII. 
 
 MACE. 
 
 Qualities. 
 It is pungent. 
 
 agreeable flavor, 
 aromatic. 
 
92 FOURTH SERIES. 
 
 It is orange color, 
 dull, 
 ogaque. 
 thin, 
 fibrous, 
 brittle, 
 foreign, 
 tropical, 
 natural, 
 inflammable, 
 medicinal, 
 dry. 
 
 pulverable. 
 membranaceous, or composed of 
 
 membranes, 
 conservative. 
 , imported, 
 
 sapid, 
 stimulating. 
 
 Mace is the covering between the shell of the 
 nutmeg and its external husk. 
 
 Remarks oh Words* 
 
 Teacher. " Foreign." Should you call mace 
 a foreign production, if you were in the place of 
 its growth ? 
 
 Children. No. 
 
 Teacher. Should you call it pungent and aro- 
 matic, if you were there ? 
 
 Children. Yes. 
 
 Teacher. Can it be mace without being for- 
 eign'? 
 
 i 
 
 Children. Yell 
 
XESSON IX. CINNAMON. 93 
 
 Teacher. Can it be mace without being pun- 
 gent and aromatic ? 
 
 Children. No. 
 
 Those qualities which determine any thing to 
 be what it is, are called essential, from the Latin 
 esse, to be. 
 
 Qualities which are not essential are called 
 accidental. 
 
 What qualities of mace are essential? 
 
 What qualities of mace are accidental ? 
 
 LESSON IX. 
 
 CINNAMON. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 It is light brown, and gives name to a color, 
 thin, 
 brittle, 
 conservative, 
 aromatic, 
 pungent, 
 agreeable flavor, 
 opaque, 
 hard, 
 sweet. 
 
 inflammable, 
 dry. 
 
 vegetable, 
 natural, 
 foreign, 
 inanimate, 
 light. 
 
94 FOURTH SERIES. 
 
 It is pulverable. 
 
 medicinal. 
 
 stimulating. 
 Cinnamon is the under bark of the branches of 
 a tree of the laurel tribe, growing in Ceylon and 
 Malabar. The branches of three years old 
 furnish the best cinnamon. The outside bark is 
 scraped off; the branches are then ripped up 
 lengthways with a knife, and the bark is gradually 
 loosened till it can be entirely taken off. It is 
 then exposed to the sun, which has the effect of 
 curling it up. The pieces of bark so curled are 
 called quills, and the smaller ones are inserted 
 into the larger. 
 
 Remarhs on Words* 
 
 " Inflammable" is derived from Latin Jlamma, 
 a flame. 
 
 Medicinal from medicine. 
 
 LESSON X. 
 
 GINGER. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 It is fibrous, 
 knotty 
 sapid, 
 rough, 
 jagged, 
 inanimate, 
 vegetable, 
 tropical. 
 
LESSON XI. ALLSPICE. 95 
 
 It is foreign. 
 
 aromatic. 
 
 pungent. 
 
 dry. 
 
 dull. 
 
 solid. 
 
 hard. 
 
 conservative. 
 
 light. 
 
 yellowish brown. 
 
 pulverable. 
 
 medicinal. 
 
 stimulating. 
 
 wholesome. 
 
 opaque. 
 
 inflammable. 
 Ginger is the root of a plant resembling a reed, 
 which grows both in the East and West Indies. 
 The root does not strike to a considerable depth, 
 but spreads wide. When first dug up it is soft, 
 and eaten by the Indians as a salad. That in- 
 tended for exportation is placed in bundles, to be 
 dried in the sun. 
 
 
 LESSON XI. 
 
 
 
 ALLSPICE. 
 
 
 Parts, 
 
 Qualiti 
 
 es. 
 
 The inside. It is aromatic, 
 outside. odorous, 
 skin. pungent, 
 seeds. spherical, 
 partition of seed-vessel. brown, 
 point of insertion. speckled, 
 
96 FOURTH SERIES. 
 
 organized. 
 
 natural. 
 
 vegetable. 
 
 inanimate. 
 
 dry. 
 
 opaque.- 
 
 tropical. 
 
 imported. 
 
 dull. 
 
 stimulating. 
 
 hard. 
 
 inflammable. 
 
 friable. 
 
 sapid. 
 
 wrinkled. 
 
 conservative. 
 Allspice or Pimento is the dried berry of a spe- 
 cies of myrtle indigenous in the West Indies ; it 
 is a most beautiful and fragrant tree, producing 
 numerous bunches of white flowers, to which suc- 
 ceed the berries ; these are gathered by the hand 
 and spread out in the sun to dry. In this opera- 
 tion they lose their former color and become 
 brown. When the seeds rattle in the shell they 
 are known to be sufficiently dry, and are packed 
 in bags for exportation. Pimento is considered 
 in its flavor to unite that of several other spicef>^ 
 and has thence been called allspice. 
 
 LESSON XII. 
 
 CLOVES. 
 
 Parts^ Qualities, 
 
 The calyx or cup. It is aromatic, 
 tube. odorous. 
 
LESSON XII. CLOVES. 
 
 fj7 
 
 leafits of cup. 
 points of leafits 
 bud. 
 surfaces. 
 
 
 pungent, 
 brown, 
 organized, 
 natural. 
 
 edges. 
 
 
 
 vegetable. 
 
 inanimate. 
 
 dry. 
 
 opaque. 
 
 tropical. 
 
 imported. 
 
 dull. 
 
 stimulating. 
 
 hard. 
 
 inflammable. 
 
 conservative. 
 
 
 
 bud 
 
 tube 
 
 leafits 
 
 I spherical. 
 ! long. 
 5 pointed. 
 
 Cloves are the unexpanded flower-buds and 
 calyx of a species of laurel which grows in the 
 West Indies. At a certain season of the year, the 
 clove-tree produces a profusion of flowers in 
 clusters : they are gathered before the flower 
 opens, when the four points of the calyx project, 
 and the petals are folded one over the other, 
 forming a bud about the size of a pea. After they 
 are gathered they are exposed for some time to 
 the smoke of a wood fire, and then to the rays of 
 the sun. 
 
 At the conclusion of the lessons on the spices, 
 
 the children should be called upon to mention 
 
 those qualities which they had found common to 
 
 all ; as aromatic, pungent, dry, tropical, stimulat- 
 
 9 
 
98 FOURTH SERIES. 
 
 ing, vegetable. Then let some other similar sub 
 stance be presented to them as mustard. 
 
 Teacher. Is this a spice ? 
 
 Children. No. 
 
 Teacher. Why not ? 
 
 Children. It has not the qualities of a spice ? 
 
 Teacher. If I showed you a substance with 
 which you were not previously acquainted, and 
 you found that it possessed the essential qualities 
 of the spices you have examined, what would you 
 consider it to be 1 
 
 Children. A spice. 
 
 Teacher. To what then do you apply the 
 term spice ? 
 
 Children. To a set of natural productions 
 possessing certain qualities. 
 
 Teacher. When a number of things are 
 arranged together, each having similar qualities, 
 what would you call the collection ? What would 
 you call a number of boys who are placed to- 
 gether because they are nearly equal in know- 
 ledge 7 
 
 Children. A class. 
 
 Teacher. What then may you call a collec- 
 tion of substances that possess the same qualities? 
 
 Children. A class. 
 
 Teacher. What may you call all substances 
 which are aromatic, pungent, tropical, dec. ? 
 
 Children. A class. 
 
 Teacher. And what is the name of that class? 
 
 Children. Spice. 
 
 Teacher. What then does the term spice 
 express ? 
 
 Children. A class of substances possessing 
 the qualities aromatic, pungent, &c. 
 
LESSON XIII. WATER. 99 
 
 Teacher. Tell me all the substances belong- 
 ing to that class. 
 
 Children. Pepper, nutmeg, mace, cinnamon, 
 ginger, allspice, cloves. ^ 
 
 Teacher. Are all the substances of this class 
 alike in all respects? 
 
 Children. No. 
 
 Teacher. How can you tell one spice from 
 another ? 
 
 Children. They all differ in some particular. 
 
 Teacher. Name the particular circumstance 
 which distinguishes each. 
 
 Children. Ginger is a root ; pepper is a 
 berry; nutmeg is a kernel; mace is the mem- 
 branaceous covering of that kernel ; cinnamon is 
 a bark ; pimento is a seed-vessel ; clove is a cup 
 and flower-bud. 
 
 ON LIQUIDS. 
 
 Idea to be developed, incompressible. 
 
 LESSON XIII. 
 
 WATER. 
 
 Qualities of Water, 
 
 It is fluid. 
 
 transparent, 
 clear, 
 colorless, 
 liquid. 
 
100 FOURTH SERIES^ 
 
 It is useful, 
 bright. 
 
 incompressible, 
 reflective, 
 drinkable, 
 wholesome, 
 tasteless, 
 cold. 
 
 inodorous, 
 natural, 
 solvent, 
 refreshing, 
 inanimate, 
 penetrating, 
 purifying, 
 cooling, 
 fertilizing, 
 heavy, 
 some waters medicinal. 
 
 Different kinds of Water. 
 
 rain. 
 
 spring. 
 
 sea or salt. 
 
 river. 
 
 medicinal. 
 
 hot springs. 
 
 stagnant. 
 
 Different States of Water. 
 
 ice. 
 
 snow. 
 
 hail. 
 
LESSON XIV. OIL. 101 
 
 rain. 
 
 mist. 
 
 fogs. 
 
 cloud. 
 
 vapor. 
 
 dew. 
 
 steam. 
 
 Natural Collecticms of Water, 
 
 Ocean. 
 
 sea. 
 
 lake. 
 
 rivers. 
 
 ponds. 
 
 springs. 
 
 Operations of Water.' — It purifies, evaporates, 
 freezes, quenches thirst, cools, finds its own level, 
 penetrates, fertilizes, is a solvent, ebbs, flows, 
 extinguishes fire, separates easily into parts which 
 assume a spherical form. 
 
 LESSON XIV. 
 
 OIL. 
 
 Qualities of Oil. 
 
 It is fluid. 
 
 yellowish. 
 
 semi-transparent. 
 
 soft. 
 
 liquid. 
 
 penetrating. 
 
 emollient, or softening. 
 9* 
 
102 FOURTH SERIES. 
 
 It is greasy, 
 useful, 
 light, 
 thick. 
 
 inflammable. 
 Some oils are vegetable. 
 Some are animal. 
 When bad, rancid. x 
 
 odorous. 
 
 The vegetable oil is expressed or pressed out 
 from olives, and comes chiefly from Italy and the 
 south of France. It is also expressed from nuts 
 and other fruits and seeds. 
 
 The animal oil comes from the whale and seal, 
 and is contained in the blubber or fat. Birds are 
 furnished with little bags of oil ; this they apply 
 to their feathers, and the wet trickles off". This 
 provision is very important to those birds which 
 are much in the water, preventing it from pene- 
 trating their feathers, and thus keeping them 
 lighter than the element in which they reside. 
 
 Remarks on Words* 
 "Emollient," derived from Lat. mollisy soft. 
 
 LESSON XV. 
 
 Qualities, 
 
 It is liquid, 
 fluid. 
 
LESSON XV. BEER. 103 
 
 It is orange color, 
 fermented, 
 artificial, 
 useful. 
 
 vegetable production, 
 odorous. 
 
 semi-transparent, 
 slightly intoxicating. 
 
 Beer is composed of malt, hops, and water 
 boiled together. Hops are the blossoms of a 
 creeping plant, very much cultivated in Kent : 
 the place where it grows is called a hop-yard. 
 The tub in which the malt is first steeped is 
 called a mashing-tub ; that which holds the beer 
 when jnade, a vat. 
 
 Malt is made of barley by the following pro- 
 cess. A quantity of barley is soaked in water 
 for two or three days ; the water being afterwards 
 drained off", the grain heats spontaneously, swells, 
 bursts, becomes sweet, and is in a state of fer- 
 mentation. Vegetables, in the process of decom= 
 position, undergo several degrees of fermenta- 
 tion ; the first — that above described — is called 
 the saccharine fermentation, from the sweetness 
 it produces. In consequence of this decompo- 
 sition, which is similar to that which takes place 
 in seed in the ground, the barley begins to 
 sprout, but this vegetation is stopped by putting 
 it into a kiln, where it is well dried by a gentle 
 heat. 
 
104 FOURTH SERIES. 
 
 LESSON XVI. 
 
 VINEGAR. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 It is acid. 
 
 orange brown color. 
 
 liquid. 
 
 fluid. 
 
 yielding to the touch. 
 
 penetrating. 
 
 stimulating. 
 
 vegetable. 
 
 solid, as occupying space. 
 
 artificial. 
 
 medicinal. 
 
 odorous. 
 
 useful. 
 
 conservative. 
 
 semi-transparent. 
 
 Uses. — ^To flavor food ; for pickling ; for medi- 
 cine. 
 
 .It is called "Vinegar, from the French, Vinai- 
 gre. Fiw, wine — aigre, sour ; because it is fre- 
 quently procured from wine. The fermentation 
 by which this acidity is produced, is called the 
 acetous fermentation, from Lat. acetum, vinegar. 
 
LESSON XVII. WINE. 1 05 
 
 LESSON XVII. 
 
 FOREIGN WHITE WINE. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 It is yellowish, 
 bright, 
 fluid, 
 liquid, 
 fermented, 
 spirituous, 
 intoxicating, 
 heating, 
 vegetable, 
 artificial, 
 semi-transparent, 
 sapid, 
 medicinal, 
 stimulating, 
 clear. 
 
 strengthening, 
 solid, occupying a space, 
 .yielding to the touch. 
 
 Wine is made from the grape, the fruit of the 
 vine, which is cultivated in Vineyards. The 
 season of its gathering is called the Vintage. The 
 grapes, when gathered, are placed in a wine- 
 press, by which the juice is expressed : this juice 
 undergoes a fermentation, and becomes wine. 
 This, which is the second fermentation vegetable 
 matter undergoes, is called the vinous fermenta- 
 tion, from its producing wine. 
 
106 FOURTH SERIES. 
 
 LESSON XVIII. 
 
 INK. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 It is black, 
 bright, 
 useful, 
 opaque, 
 artificial, 
 liquid. 
 
 astringent, or contracting, 
 fluid. 
 
 solid, as occupying a space, 
 yielding to the touch, 
 poisonous. 
 
 Ink is made of galls, gum, sulphate of iron, and 
 water. Galls are excrescences, or bunches taken 
 from the oak ; they are occasioned by an insect, 
 which wounds the bark of the tree, and lays its 
 eggs in the aperture. The torn vessels of the 
 tree discharge some of their contents, which hard- 
 ening, form a protuberance, which becomes a de- 
 fensive covering for the eggs. The insect having 
 burst from the egg, feeds, during its larvae state, 
 on this substance, through which it eats its way, 
 whilst assuming its perfect form. Sulphate of iron 
 is a dissolution of iron in sulphuric acid, and when 
 applied to the acid of the galls, it becomes quite 
 black, upon which quality the great utility of ink 
 depends. 
 
LESSON XIX. MILK. 107 
 
 LESSON XIX. 
 
 MILK. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 It is white, 
 fluid. . 
 liquid, 
 wholesome, 
 nice. 
 
 animal substance, 
 natural, 
 opaque, 
 soft, 
 smooth. 
 
 yielding to the touch, 
 emollient. 
 
 solid, as occupying a space, 
 when fresh, warm. 
 
 nutritious. 
 
 Uses. — For animals to feed their young (all 
 animals that do so belong to the class Mammalia); 
 for making cheese, butter, to drink. 
 
 Cows are the animals that in general supply 
 milk to man. Invalids drink the milk of asses. 
 In Tartary they use the milk of mares; in 
 Switzerland that of goats ; in the northern 
 countries that of rein-deers ; in Arabia that of 
 camels. 
 
 The Teacher would find it a very improving 
 and interesting exercise, occasionally to take two 
 substances, and compare them together — as water 
 
108 FOURTH SERIES. 
 
 and milk, and desire the class to find out in what 
 respect they are both alike. They are both fluid, 
 liquid, cold, incompressible, penetrating, natural, 
 i&c. And then to mention by what qualities they 
 are distinguished from each other. The water is 
 transparent, the milk is opaque; the water is 
 ■colorless, the milk is white ; the water is tasteless, 
 the milk is sweet, &c. 
 
 Liquids are distinguished by qualities that 
 separate them very definitely from other sub- 
 stances. They may all become solid, they are 
 all fluid, incompressible ; their parts easily sepa- 
 rate, forming into spheres or drops ; they pene- 
 trate into the pores of substances ; and they find 
 their own level. This circumstance can easily 
 be proved to the pupils by means of a syphon. 
 Having named the properties common to all 
 liquids, the class should also be required to men- 
 tion the qualities peculiar to each, as in the lesson 
 on spices. 
 
FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 METALS, &c. 
 
 A Specimen of Native Copper. 
 
 109 
 
 A Specimen of Mercury in the form of Sulphuret 
 
 A Specimen of 
 Native Gold. 
 
 A Specimen of 
 Silica or Flint. 
 
 10 
 
110 
 
 
 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 METALS, &c. 
 
 A Specimen of Rock Crystal, (Silica). 
 
 A Specimen of 
 Native Silver. 
 
 A Specimen of 
 Sparry Lead Ore. 
 
Ill 
 
 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 CORK. 
 
 Cork is the external bark of a species of oak 
 which grows in Spain, Portugal, and other south- 
 ern countries of Europe, and is distinguished by 
 the fungous texture of its bark, and the leaves 
 being evergreen, oblong, somewhat oval, downy 
 underneath, and waved. The principal supply 
 of cork is obtained from Catalonia in Spain. 
 The above cut represents a cork tree. 
 
112 
 
 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 WOOL. 
 
 Wool is one of the most extensively useful ar- 
 ticles in existence. The Sheep which furnish 
 '♦vool are raised chiefly in the northern and tem- 
 perate regions of the earth. Much attention has 
 be«n paid in the United States to improving our 
 Sheep, by the introduction of foreign varieties ; 
 and the Merinoes and Saxon Sheep have now be- 
 come quite common. Still immense quantities 
 of wool continue to be imported from foreign 
 countries, for the supply of our numerous factories 
 of woolltjn cloths. 
 
FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 
 
 These lessons are intended as a first exercise 
 in composition. Th^ object should be presented 
 to the children, and they should continue, as 
 before, to make their own observations upon it. 
 They are then interrogated as to what they know 
 concerning- the substance ; and all the information 
 which can be obtained from them is collected by 
 the Teacher, who may then communicate any 
 further particulars on the subject, calculated to 
 interest or instruct. The materials thus obtained 
 should then be arranged, and repeated to them. 
 After this, the class should be examined upon all 
 that has passed, and finally required to draw up a 
 written account themselves. Children, from eight 
 to ten years of age, have derived great improve- 
 ment from this exercise. It not only serves to 
 stimulate their attention during the progress of 
 the lesson, but also furnishes a test of their hav- 
 ing well understood it ; and leads them to arrange 
 and express their ideas with clearness and facility. 
 In this course the substance should be exhibited 
 10* 
 
114 
 
 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 both m its raw, and in its manufactured state. 
 Thus, in the lesson on flax, the plant itself, the 
 fibres when separated- from the stem, the thread 
 when spun, and the various substances into which 
 it is made, may be brought before the class, and 
 likewise pictures of the machinery employed in 
 these operations. 
 
 Many of the lessons in the following series 
 will contain too much matter to be presented 
 at one time to the pupils, and must therefore be 
 divided. 
 
 LESSON I. 
 
 LEATHER. 
 
 Leather is the prepared skin of animals ; that 
 of cows, oxen, and horses, is chiefly used for 
 shoes ; that of kids, goats, and dogs, for gloves, 
 and also shoes ; and that of calves for bookbind- 
 ing, saddles, harness, &c. 
 
 The unprepared skin is called a hide ; the first 
 operation it undergoes is soaking in lime-water to 
 cleanse it from grease and other impurities ; the 
 hairs are then removed by a kind of knife, the 
 oil and grease are afterwards more completely 
 extracted by alkali, or diluted sulphuric acid. 
 After this it is taken to the tan-yard, stretched 
 over a pit and covered with tan ; in this state it 
 remains, about two months. But if the leather 
 be intended for the upper part of shoes, seats of 
 saddles, and such purposes as do not require it 
 to be very strong or water-proof, it is first sent 
 to the currier : his work is to scrape it, reducing 
 
LESSON II. CORK. 115 
 
 it all to an equal degree of thickness, and also to 
 render it supple by oil or grease. The skins are 
 then tanned. Tan is the bark of the oak, pos- 
 sessing a remarkable degree of astringency ; it 
 consequently contracts the pores of the leather, 
 and renders it impervious to wet. The quality 
 which the leather thus obtains from the tanning, 
 combined with its durability and suppleness, par- 
 ticularly adapts it for shoes, boots, &;c. 
 
 LESSON II. 
 
 Cork is the bark of a kind of oak, growing 
 chiefly in Spain. When it is taken from the tree, 
 the bark is cut longitudinally, and at the extrem- 
 ities of the slit, incisions arc made round the 
 trunk ; it is then easily stripped off by means of 
 a curved knife, with a handle at both ends. 
 When the bark is taken from the tree, it is piled 
 up in a ditch or pond, and heavy stones are placed 
 upon it in order to flatten it. After being dried, it 
 is slightly burnt, then packed for exportation. 
 One principal use of cork is to stop bottles, for 
 which purpose it is fitted by its elasticity ; a piece 
 rather larger than the neck of the bottle, being 
 inserted into it, the tendency it has to resume its 
 former shape causes it completely to fill up the 
 aperture, and exclude the air. Being lighter 
 than water it is very useful to those who are 
 learning to swim, by buoying them up ; it is 
 also employed in the construction of life-boats, 
 and the floats of fishing nets. The Spaniards 
 
116 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 make lampblack of it. The men employed in 
 cutting and preparing it for sale are called cork- 
 cutters. 
 
 LESSON III. 
 
 INDIAN RUBBER, OR GUM ELASTIC 
 
 Indian Rubber is the thickened or hardened 
 juice of a tree which grows in South America. 
 In order to procure it, the Indians make incisions 
 through the bark of the tree in wet weather, and 
 a milky juice oozes out, which is spread over 
 moulds of clay ; when this is dry, a second layer 
 of the liquid is put on it ; this operation is re- 
 peated till the Indian Rubber is of the thickness 
 required. After this it is placed over the smoke 
 of burning vegetables, which hardens and darkens 
 it. The Indians convert it into bottles, boots, 
 and flambeaux. The principal uses to which 
 indian rubber is applied here, are, for the effacing 
 of black-lead marks, for cricket-balls, shoes, for 
 flexible tubes, syringes, and other instruments 
 used by surgeons and chemists. Cloth of all 
 kinds may be made impenetrable to water, if im- 
 pregnated with the fresli juice of the indian rubber 
 tree. Indian rubber cut very thin, is now also 
 used to sheath the bottom of vessels, and is an 
 effectual preservative from the injuries of shell- 
 fish. 
 
LESSON IV. SPONGE. 117 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 
 SPONGE. 
 
 Sponge is a marine production ; it was formerly 
 supposed to be a vegetable, but the opinion now 
 generally entertained is, that it is a habitation 
 constructed by a little worm, one of the species 
 considered' to occupy the lowest rank in the 
 animal kingdom. It is found adhering to various 
 marine substances at the bottom of the sea, 
 especially in the Mediterranean; it is procured 
 by divers, who are early trained to this hazard- 
 ous employment. Sponge absorbs fluids rapidly, 
 and yields them again v/hen compressed ; this 
 property occasioned it to be frequently saturated 
 with myrrh and wine, and given to persons suffer- 
 ing the punishment of crucifixion, in order to 
 alleviate their pain, and subdue the intolerable 
 thirst which is the consequence of their agony. 
 To this custom the sacred historian refers in the 
 history of our blessed Lord ; but his unrelenting 
 persecutors, instead of offering him the enlivening 
 portion of myrrhed wine, which was rarely denied 
 to the vilest malefactor, "filled a sponge with 
 vinegar, and put it upon hyssop, and put it to his 
 mouth." The offer of vinegar was considered, 
 among the Jews, as an intolerable outrage to 
 their feelings. It is alluded to in the following 
 passage, which at the same time, foretold the 
 future sufferings of the Redeemer of mankind. 
 '* Reproach hath broken mine heart, and I am full- 
 pf heaviness ; and I looked for some to take pity 
 
118 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 but there was none; and for XJomforters, but I 
 found none. They gave me also gall for my meat, 
 and in my thirst they gave me vinegar to drink." 
 Psalm Ixix. 20, 21. 
 
 LESSON V. 
 
 CAMPHOR. 
 
 Camphor is the peculiar juice of a species of 
 laurel called the camphor tree, which is abundant 
 in China, in Borneo, and in Ceylon. It becomes 
 thick or concrete by exposure to the air. It is 
 remarkably inflammable, and is used by the Indian 
 princes to give light in their rooms. It is pungent, 
 volatile, acrid, and strongly aromatic. These 
 qualities have rendered it useful as a medicine, 
 and in sick-rooms to prevent contagion. It is also 
 placed in collections to keep off the small insects 
 that prey upon the specimens. 
 
 LESSON VI. 
 
 HORN. 
 
 Horn is the hard substance that forms the front- 
 al projections of horned animals ; these are all 
 graminivorous,* i. e. eating grass. This sub- 
 stance, when boiled, becomes a soft jelly, and can 
 be moulded into any shape. By a peculiar pro- 
 cess it is rendered semi-transparent, and when 
 
 * From Lat. gramen, grass, voro, I eat. 
 
LESSON VII. VIII. SHELL LAC, WAX CANDLE. 119 
 
 formed into thin laminae or plates, is employed 
 instead of glass for lanterns. It was the first 
 transparent substance used for windows. It is 
 now chiefly employed for combs, handles to 
 knives and forks, occasionally for drinking uten- 
 sils and inkhorns. It was formerly in much 
 higher request than now, glass having been sub- 
 stituted for it. 
 
 LESSON VII. 
 
 SHELL LAC. 
 
 Shell lac is the production of a little insect 
 
 called COCCUS lacca, which feeds on the Indian 
 
 fig-tree; on this plant it also places its eggs, 
 
 forming a cell around them from a viscid liquid, 
 
 which is contained in its own body ; it hardens in 
 
 the sun, and in this state is the substance called 
 
 I stick lac; when broken into small grains, it is 
 
 ! called seed lac ; and, if melted and formed into 
 
 ! thin lamince or folia, is shell lac. It is the prin- 
 
 ; cipal ingredient in sealing-wax and varnish, and 
 
 i is employed in japanning. Its usefulness arises 
 
 1 from its being fusible, soluble, and adhesive. 
 
 LESSON VIII. 
 
 WAX CANDLE. 
 
 Wax is the produce of the industrious bee ; it 
 
 is a substance which is secreted in their bodies, 
 
 and of -which they construct their cells. When 
 
 j the honey is taken out of the comb, the latter is 
 
120 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 melted, and afterwards bleached by exposure to 
 the air. In making candles of it, wax in a liquid 
 state is poured into leaden moulds in the centre 
 of which the wick has been previously fixed. 
 The wick is made of cotton or flax, and when 
 lighted the melting wax rises up its fibres and 
 feeds the flame.* 
 
 LESSON IX. 
 
 GLU'E. 
 
 Glue is a sticky substance, used as a cement. 
 The best is obtained from the skins of animals, 
 generally the shavings, parings and strips, which 
 have been rejected by the currier. An inferior 
 kind is procured from the hoofs, sinews, &;c. of 
 animals. ~ It is prepared by steeping the skin for^ 
 two or three days in water, then boiling it till it 
 becomes a thick jelly ; whilst hot, it is strained 
 through osier baskets: the pure glue passes 
 through the interstices, leaving the impurities in 
 the baskets. It is then melted a second time, 
 poured into square frames or moulds, and placed 
 in the air gradually to cool and congeal. When 
 used it is melted again. Glue is used by car- 
 penters, joiners, hatters, bookbinders, &;c. 
 
 A glue prepared from fish, particularly the 
 whale, is called isinglass, and is used for culinary 
 purposes,- and for refining wine. 
 
 * The teacher will find this a favorable opportunity of e.t 
 plaining the nature of capillary attraction. 
 
LESSON X. COFFEE. 1^1 
 
 LESSON X. 
 
 COFFEE. 
 
 Coffee is the seed of a plant growing princi- 
 pally in Arabia and the West Indies ; the flower 
 resembles white jessamine, and the leaves are 
 evergreen ; the fruit when ripe is like the cherry ; 
 it generally contains two cells, sometimes only 
 one, and each cell has a single seed, which is of 
 a hemispherical shape. When matured, it is 
 either gathered by the hand or shaken from the 
 trees, and placed on floors for the sun to dry the 
 pulpy substance which surrounds the seeds. The 
 skin is broken by heavy rollers, and afterwards 
 removed by winnowing. In order to prepare the 
 coffee for a beverage, it must be roasted till it be- 
 comes of a dark brown color and extremely 
 odorous, after which it is ground, and either in- 
 fused or boiled in water. It is remarkable for its 
 very stimulating property, which is said to have 
 led to its discovery. Some goats, who browsed 
 upon this plant, were observed by the goatherd to 
 be exceedingly wakeful, and often to caper about 
 in the night ; the prior of a neighboring monas- 
 tery, wishing to keep his monks awake at their 
 matins, tried if it would produce the same effect 
 upon them as it was observed to do upon the 
 goats : his success led to the appreciation of its 
 value. 
 
 11 
 
122 FIFTH SEKIES. 
 
 LESSON XL 
 
 TEA. 
 
 Tea is an infusion of the leaves of a plant grow- 
 ing in China and Japan. It bears a flower re- 
 sembling the wild rose ; the leaves are narrow, 
 pointed, and serrated. The plant grows only in 
 a stony soil, and at the foot of mountains and 
 rocks, exposed to a southern aspect. There is 
 great art exercised in gathering and drying the 
 leaves, which are afterwards subjected to the va- 
 pors of boiling water, to moisten them. Li this 
 state they are laid upon plates of metal, which 
 being exposed to great heat, cause the leaves to 
 curl up in the manner they appear when brought 
 into our market. Green tea is the produce of 
 the same plant as black ; the difference of its 
 qualities arises from the leaves being gathered in 
 a different stage of their growth, and dried upon 
 plates of copper. 
 
 LESSON XIL 
 
 SAGO. 
 
 Sago is the pitch of the sago palm, a tree indi- 
 genous to Japan and the rocky dry mountains of 
 Malabar. 
 
 It is hardly possible to imagine a plant more 
 graceful in its foliage, or more beautiful when in 
 fruit than this species of palm. The foliation, 
 which slightly resembles that of the fern, is placed 
 
LESSON XII. XIII. SAGO, RICE. 123 
 
 on the stem in the manner of the feathers of a 
 shuttlecock, forming a gigantic basket of the most 
 graceful form ; at tlie bottom of this is the salmon- 
 colored fruit, resembling, both in shape and 
 texture, the coxcomb, but of a pale buff color, 
 inclining to brown. The fruit is a drupa, that is, 
 a nut surrounded by a pulpy substance (as a plum.) 
 The nut is eatable. The growth of this plant at 
 first is slow : it appears for some time a shrub 
 thickly set with prickles ; as it increases in height, 
 it loses its thorns. When the tree has reached 
 its maturity, a whitish powder passes through the 
 pores of the leaves, and sticks to.lheir extremities. 
 On this intimation of the trees being filled with 
 pith, the Malays cut them down near their roots, 
 and divide them into several sections, which are 
 split into quarters. The bark is woody and about 
 an inch in thickness ; in the centre of the stem 
 is a fat or gummy pith, which forms the sago. 
 This pithy substance being scooped out, is diluted 
 in pure water, and strained through a bag of fine 
 cloth, which separates the gummy from the mealy 
 matter. This latter having evaporated part of its 
 moisture, is put in earthen vessels, where it dries 
 and hardens into little globules. Sago is extremely 
 nutritious and wholesome, and forms an excellent 
 light diet for invalids. 
 
 LESSON XIII. 
 
 RICE. 
 
 Rice is the grain of a kind of corn which 
 grows very abundantly in China, the West Indies, 
 the Southern States of North America, and in 
 
124 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 South America. It will not thrive without much 
 moisture, and therefore comes to the greatest per- 
 fection in marshy lands. The cultivators of rice 
 always inundate their grounds, and the higher the 
 water rises the higher the plant grows, the ear 
 always appearing above the water. It requires 
 as much heat to mature the seed, as it does 
 moisture to nourish the plant. Rice grows in a 
 spike resembling oats. In India the women 
 thresh and prepare the rice, which is a very 
 laborious employment. Brahmins live almost 
 entirely upon it, their religion forbidding them, the 
 use of animal food. Hice serves not only for food, 
 but is also manufactured into paper, and vessels 
 which resemble china or alabaster. 
 
 LESSON XIV. 
 
 PAPER. 
 
 There are several kinds of paper, viz. Egyptian 
 paper, made of a reed called Papyrus, growing on 
 the banks of the Nile, from which paper takes its 
 name. 
 
 Bark paper is made of the inner rind of trees. 
 
 Cotton paper cotton. 
 
 Incombustible paper asbestos. 
 
 European paper linen rags. 
 
 Indian paper silk rags. 
 
 Rice paper rice. 
 
 Coarse brown paper the ends of ropes. 
 
 American straw paper straw. 
 
LESSON XIV. PAPER. 125 
 
 Linen paper was first introduced into England 
 in the fourteenth century. It is made of linen 
 rags ; these are first carefully picked and sorted, 
 according to their quality ; they are then reduced 
 to a pulp by a machine, which consists of a 
 solid cylindrical piece of wood, into which are 
 fastened plates of steel, ground very sharp : this 
 is fixed in a trough into which the rags are put 
 with a sufficient quantity of water. At the 
 bottom of the trough is a plate with steel bars 
 also ground sharp : the engine being-turned round 
 with considerable velocity, and the rags passing 
 through the two sets of iron plates are torn to 
 pieces, and in the course of four hours are re- 
 duced to a pulp. The motion of the engine causes 
 the water in the trough to circulate, and by that 
 means constantly returns the stuff" to the engine. 
 The trough is fed with clear water at one end, 
 while the dirty water is carried off" at the other 
 through a hole defended with wire grating to pre- 
 vent the escape of the pulp also. From this, which 
 is called the washing-engine, the pulp passes. in a 
 state of purity and whiteness to another engine 
 similarly constructed, and called the heating- 
 engine. ¥he only difference of this operation 
 from the former is, that the velocity is increased, 
 and that it is no longer necessary to introduce 
 fresh water, the pulp having been already cleansed 
 from its impurities. From hence it passes into a 
 large vat connected with boilers, and the heat 
 produces a degree of consistency : it is afterwards 
 conveyed into smaller vessels, in each of which 
 is a wheel called an agitator, which prevents the 
 pulp from sinking to the bottom. Into these 
 11^ 
 
126 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 vessels a workman dips a mould, a kind of sieve 
 the size of the paper to be made, and about an 
 inch deep ; the bottom is formed of fine brass 
 wires through which the superfluous water passes. 
 The skill of the workman consists in taking up 
 just so much pulp as is necessary to form the 
 paper of a proper thickness. Another workman is 
 stationed to receive from the first the mould, out 
 of which he turns the sheet upon a felt or woollen 
 cloth ; another woollen cloth is placed upon it 
 ready to receive the next sheet. Thus they 
 proceed, placing alternately paper and felt till 
 they have made six quires of paper. This is 
 then wheeled to the press, where great force is 
 applied, and the water is squeezed from it. After 
 this the paper is separated from the felt, one 
 slieet is laid upon another, and it undergoes a 
 second pressure. This operation is repeated 
 five or six times before it is sized, and the 
 sheets are separated from one another between 
 each application of the screw press. They are 
 afterwards hung up to dry in rooms where there 
 is a fresh current of air. In this state the paper is 
 absorbent like blotting paper ; to fitlt for writing, 
 it is sized. Size is made of vellum* shavings 
 boiled in water, with white vitriol, and alum 
 finely pounded. After the paper is sized, it is 
 again pressed four or five times, and hung up to 
 dry as before. It is then told into quires, and sent 
 to the stationer, who prepares it for sale. 
 
 It is probable that skins were the first substance 
 upon which characters were written. 
 
 * \^ellum irf the i;reparLHl skiu of young calves 
 
LESSON XV. PARCHMENT. 1'27 
 
 LESSON XV. 
 
 PARCHMENT. 
 
 Parchment is the skin of sheep or goats, pre- 
 pared in the following manner. The wool is 
 stripped off the skin, which is then taken to the 
 lime-pit ; after this it is stretched as tight as a 
 drum upon a frame, and the remaining flesh pared 
 off with a keen-edged instrument; a kind of 
 white stone or chalk reduced to a fine powder is 
 then spread upon the surface, and a large pumice 
 stone flat at bottom is rubbed over it, which scours 
 off" the remainder of the flesh. The knife is once 
 more applied to the skin, which is moistened and 
 rubbed again with the pumice stone, until the 
 inner side is smooth. The outside then under- 
 goes a similar operation. It is now left to dry, 
 and afterwards is taken off* the frame, and given 
 to the parchment maker. He first scrapes it dry 
 on an instrument called a summer, (which is a 
 calf's skin well stretched on a frame,) with a 
 sharp iron tool, until one half of the thickness of 
 the skin is pared off"; the pumice stone is next 
 passed over it on both sides, till it is rendered 
 quite smooth. 
 
 Parchment was in use long before the invention 
 of paper. Wills, and other documents, intended 
 to be preserved for any length of time, are written 
 on it. It is also used for drums. 
 
128 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 LESSON XVI. 
 
 GLASS. 
 
 Glass is made from an alkali and sand or flint, 
 which are subjected to the action of fire. This 
 mixture is said to have been discovered accident- 
 ally in Syria by some merchants, who were driven 
 by stress of weather upon its shores. They had 
 lighted a fire iipon the sands to cook their food ; 
 the fire was made of the plant called kali, which 
 grows on the sea-shore ; the sand mixed with its 
 ashes, became vitrified by the heat, and glass Avas 
 produced. The merchants observed the effect of 
 the union of these two substances, and thus was 
 furnished the first hint for the making of glass, 
 which has since been carried to such great per- 
 fection. The first place where the manufacture 
 of glass was.carried on was Sidon in Syria. Eng- 
 land is now much celebrated for its glass. The 
 qualities which render glass so valuable are, that 
 it is hard, transparent, incorrosive, not being af- 
 fected by any substance but fluoric acid, and that 
 when fused it becomes so ductile and plastic that 
 it may be moulded into any form, which it will 
 retain when cool. It can be cut by the diamond 
 only. There are three sorts of furnaces used in 
 making glass. One to prepare the frit, a second 
 to work the glass, and a third to anneal it. After 
 having properly mixed the ashes and sand, they 
 are put into t-he first furnace where they are 
 burned or calcined for a sufficient time, and be- 
 come what is called friL This being l^oiled 
 
LESSON XVII. WHALEBONE. 129 
 
 afterwards in pots or crucibles of pipe clay in the 
 second furnace, is fit for the operation of blowing ; 
 the annealing furnace is intended to cool the glass 
 very gradually, for if it be exposed to the cold air 
 immediately after being formed into utensils, it 
 will fall into a thousand pieces, as if struck by a 
 hammer. 
 
 Before glass was invented, thin folia of mica 
 were used for windows. 
 
 LESSON XVII. 
 
 WHALEBONE. 
 
 Whalebone is taken from the jawbone of the 
 whale, the largest animal that now inhabits our 
 globe, and whose mouth occupies a third part of 
 its body. The whales are caught in the following 
 manner. When the vicinity of the fish is ascer- 
 tained by the water which it spouts up, six boats 
 are dispatched from the vessels employed in this 
 fishery, with six rowers in each, and a man called 
 an harpooner, armed with a forked instrument 
 called a harpoon ; to this is affixed a rope, at the 
 other end of which is a gourd ; this instrument 
 having been darted into the whale, the gourd 
 marks the spot where the wounded animal disap- 
 pears. The whale when struck dives with such 
 velocity into the sea, that it is necessary to wet 
 the rope which he draws over the sides of the 
 boat to prevent its taking fire, and the fishermen 
 find it necessary to let go the rope for a time, till 
 the whale be spent, otherwise he would sink the 
 boiit by his exUeme violence. The whale cannot 
 
130 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 remain long under water; he soon reappears 
 spouting up blood, and is again attacked by the 
 harpooners, who, after repeated efforts, dispatch 
 him. When dead, they cut him up; the fat 
 which is called blubber is stowed into casks, 
 and oil is afterwards procured from it. The 
 bone is used as a stiffener, for whips, bows, 
 bludgeons, &;c. The chief whale fisheries are 
 on the coast of Greenland, and in other parts of 
 the northern seas. 
 
 LESSON XVIII. 
 
 BREAD. 
 
 Bread is composed of flour, yeast, and a little 
 salt, kneaded together with water into a soft paste 
 called dough. Flour is most frequently made of 
 wheat, which when taken from the barn is first 
 thrashed ; the instrument employed for this pur- 
 pose is either a flail, or a thrashing-machine ; the 
 grain is next separated from the chaff by winnow- 
 ing, and the former is conveyed to the mill, 
 where by grinding it is converted into flour ; the 
 skin of the grain when separated is called bran, 
 when left with the flour, it makes the flour brown- 
 er and coarser. The yest is the fermentation 
 which rises to the top of new beer ; it penetrates 
 the dough, disunites the particles, causes them to 
 rise, and thus makes the bread light. It is simi- 
 lar in its effects to the leaven mentioned in Scrip- 
 ture, which is sour dough penetrating and chang- 
 ing the state of the whole mass. Our Savior calls 
 
LESSON XIX. SUGAR. 131 
 
 himself the bread of life, the nourishment bread 
 affords our bodies, representing in a faint degree 
 the nourishment He affords our souls when he 
 feeds them with the hidden manna of his word. 
 Bread from its nutritious and wholesome proper- 
 ties is often termed the staff' of life, and is fre- 
 quently used to signify food in general. A man 
 is thus said to earn his bread, and we pray for 
 our daily bread. 
 
 Rye, oats, and barley, Indian corn and buck- 
 wheat, are sometimes made into bread. 
 
 LESSON XIX. 
 
 SUGAR. 
 
 Sugar is the produce of the sugar-cane, a plant 
 growing principally in the East and West Indies, 
 and the southernmost states of the Union. A 
 field of canes in blossom presents a beautiful 
 sight ; the stem is a jointed culmus or reed ; 
 when ripe it is of a bright golden hue, growing 
 amidst long narrow pendent leaves. The flowers 
 appear like a plume of white feathers tinged with 
 lilac. The leaves afford food for the cattle ; when 
 ripe, the cane or stem is gathered and conveyed 
 to the mill, where it is pressed between two iron 
 cylinders; the juice is received into a trough, and 
 from thence it is conveyed to a boiler, into which 
 some quick-lime is thrown; this, uniting with the 
 oleaginous particles and the superabundant acid, 
 rises with them to the surface and is skimmed oflT. 
 Whea the sugar nearly boils, it is strained off' 
 
132 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 into another boiler, where it undergoes the same 
 process as before. This is repeated six or seven 
 times, when it is received into coolers which are 
 shallow v/ooden vessels. In these the sugar 
 forms into grains, separating itself from the mo- 
 lasses ; when dry, it is called raw sugar, and is 
 barrelled for exportation. The process of con- 
 verting it into white or refined sugar, is the 
 business of the sugar-refiner or baker ; he boils 
 it over again, putting bullocks' blood and white 
 of eggs into it to cleanse it from its impurities. 
 
 The planter is the cultivator of the sugar-canes. 
 The merchant imports it. The sugar-refiner con- 
 verts it into white sugar. The grocer sells the 
 sugar in retail quantities. 
 
 LESSON XX. 
 
 HEMP. 
 
 Hemp is obtained from an annual plant which 
 thrives in a rich moist soil in temperate climates. 
 It is muchxultivated in some parts of England 
 and the United States ; and in Russia it forms 
 one of the chief articles of commerce. The stalk 
 mainly consists of a tissue of fibres joined together 
 by a soft substance which easily rots. At the 
 proper season it is gathered and steeped in water ; 
 then beaten in order to loosen the bark from the 
 fibres. This is completed by an operation called 
 carding, performed with an instrument resem- 
 bling a comb. It is next spun, and then passes 
 into the hands of the ropemaker or weaver, ac- 
 cording to the use for which it is designed. 
 
LESSON XXI. FLAX, 133 
 
 The extreme toughness, pliability, and dura- 
 bility of hemp, lit it peculiarly for purposes where 
 great strength is required, as the cordage and 
 tackle of our vessels, and fishing nets. It is 
 computed that the sails and cordage of a first-rate 
 man of war, require as much hemp for their con- 
 struction, as would be the yearly produce of four 
 hundred and twenty -four acres of land. 
 
 LESSON XXI. 
 
 FLAX. 
 
 Flax is a slender annual plant with a hollow 
 fibrous stem, and bearing a delicate blue flower. 
 From its fibrous bark we 'procure the comfort of 
 linen, the beauty of lace ; our vessels by its means 
 are wafted across the ocean, and even its rags are 
 made into paper. In the book of Genesis we 
 read that Noah slept beneath a tent. Egypt also 
 very early attained a wonderful perfection in the 
 manufacture of Linen. The seeds of the flax 
 are much liked by birds, and produce an oil 
 called linseed oil ; from Linum the botanical 
 name of the plant. When the flax is gathered, it 
 is exposed for some time to the influence of the 
 sun to ripen the seeds; which are afterwards 
 thrashed out, and the oil is pressed out, or ex- 
 pressed from them. The stalks are then loosely 
 tied in bundles fastened to poles, and placed in 
 stagnant pools, where they are left to steep for 
 about fifteen days. By the fermentation which 
 ensues, the bark or flaxy substance becomes sepa- 
 rated, when the stalks are thinly spread on the 
 12 
 
134 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 grass, in which state they exhale a very disagi-ee- 
 able and pernicious odor. After this operation 
 they are beaten with a mallet, which removes the 
 pulpy substance and loosens the fibres ; these are 
 then drawn through a comb with coarse iron teeth, 
 and afterwards through one with finer teeth. The 
 refuse is called tow, and is the substance used to 
 make packing cloths, and for the calking of 
 ships. The operation of spinning which next 
 succeeds, is drawing out several of the fibres and 
 twisting them; this was formerly done by means 
 of a distaff, but now it is performed in a more 
 expeditious manner by machinery. Weaving is 
 the final operation ; it may be regarded as a finer 
 kind of matting. To perform it, the threads 
 which compose the length of a piece of cloth are 
 first disposed in order, and strained by weights to 
 a proper tightness ; this is called the warp. These 
 threads are separated by an instrument called a 
 reed, into two sets, each composed of every other 
 thread ; and while by the working of a treadle, 
 each set of threads is thrown alternately up and 
 down, the cross threads called the woof or weft 
 are inserted between them, by means of a little 
 instrument, sharp at both ends, called a shuttle, 
 which the weaver briskly throws from one hand 
 to the other, and which carries the thread with it. 
 This is the most simple kind of weaving. The 
 quality of the flax depends upon the soil in 
 which it is cultivated : but the fineness of the 
 thread in some degree also upon the dexterity of 
 the spinner. 
 
LESSON XXII. XXIII. COTTON, WOOL. 135 
 
 LESSON XXII. 
 
 COTTON. 
 
 The cotton plant is cultivated in the East and 
 West Indies; it produces a beautiful yellow 
 flower ; and the seed vessel is a pod containing a 
 white downy substance which surrounds the seed. 
 This is picked by the hand, and separated from 
 the seeds by a machine which at the same time 
 loosens its fibres ; afterwards it is packed in large 
 bags, and sent by the planter to the manufacturer. 
 It is then carded ; that is, wound upon cylindrical 
 cards worked by machinery ; afterwards it is 
 roved, by which process the loose fibres are re- 
 moved with an instrument resembling a comb ; 
 it is then twisted and drawn out into threads or 
 yarn, and sent to the weaver. It is made into 
 muslins, calicoes, stockings, quilts, corderoys, &;c. 
 The machinery employed in the United States in 
 carding, roving, and spinning, is quite admirable, 
 and occasions our cotton goods to be much sought 
 after. In India and China some of the plants 
 produce a buff cotton, of which nankeens are 
 manufactured. 
 
 LESSON XXIII. 
 
 WOOL. 
 
 The clothing manufactured from wool, is par- 
 ticularly adapted to cold countries ; it does not 
 
136 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 communicate warmth, but being a non-conductor 
 of heat, it prevents that of our bodies from es- 
 caping. Wool is the hairy covering of sheep, 
 and is taken from the living animal in the sum- 
 mer season ; the operation is called sheep-shear- 
 ing, and the wool in this state the fleece. The 
 wool of the Spanish sheep is particularly fine ; 
 in that country a flock often contains a thousand 
 sheep. 
 
 The first operation performed on the raw wool 
 is to pick and sort it ; this is particularly needful, 
 as the same sheep produces wool of various 
 qualities. It is next cleansed from its impurities 
 and committed to the wool-comber, who by means 
 of iron spiked combs of different degrees of fine- 
 ness draws out the fibres, smooths, and straightens 
 them. It is then prepared for the spinner who 
 forms it into threads, the more twisted of which 
 are called worsted, and the less twisted yarn. It 
 is then employed in the manufacture of every 
 description of hosiery, stuffs, carpets, flannels, 
 blanket, and cloths. England manufactures so 
 much woollen clothing, that it was formerly con- 
 sidered the staple commodity of that country, 
 and to mark the estimation in which it was held, 
 the Lord Chancellor sits upon a woolsack. The 
 woollen manufactures of the United States are 
 becoming very important. 
 
LESSON XXIV. SILK. 137 
 
 LESSON XXIV. 
 
 SILK. 
 
 Silk is the production of a caterpillar, and con- 
 stitutes the covering' in which it envelopes itself, 
 when it changes from the larva state to that of the 
 chrysalis. From this inanimate condition it 
 emerges as a motli, and having laid its eggs, it 
 soon ceases to exist. When we consider that 
 our most luxurious and splendid attire is the pro- 
 duction of a worm, how are wo led to admire the 
 power and wisdom of that Being, who works by 
 such insignificant means ! 
 
 Tlie cocoon or web of the silk-worm is an oval 
 ball of silk, which it has spun out of a substance 
 secreted in its own body. The shades of the silk 
 vary from the palest straw-color to deep yellow. 
 In a state of nature the silk-worms form their co- 
 coons upon the Mulberry-tree itself, Avhere they 
 shine like golden fruits amidst the leaves ; but 
 the colder climates of Europe will not allow of 
 their being reared in the open air. They are in 
 consequence kept in warm but airy rooms, and 
 fed with mulberry-leaves till they are fully grown. 
 They change their skin several times while they 
 are in the caterpillar state ; at length they become 
 so full of the silky matter that it gives them a 
 yellowish tinge ; they then cease to eat. Twigs 
 are now placed over them upon little stages of 
 wickcrwork, on which they immediately begin to 
 form their webs. When these are finished, the 
 12 * 
 
138 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 silk is wound off, which when unravelled, measures 
 from seven hundred to one thousand feet. After 
 separating the downy matter on the outside called 
 Jlos, the cocoons are thrown into warm water to 
 dissolve the glutinous particles which had caused 
 the silk to adhere, and the ends of the threads 
 being found, several are joined together and 
 wound upon a reel ; this is called raw silk. It 
 next undergoes some operation to cleanse it, and 
 render it more supple, after which it is twisted 
 into threads of different degrees of fineness as re- 
 quired by the weaver ; in this state it is called 
 thrown silk. The excellence of silk as a material 
 consists in its strength, lightness, lustre, and its 
 being capable of taking the finest dyes. Silk 
 may be made into substances varying in thick- 
 ness, from the finest transparent gauze, to the 
 richest velvets and brocades. The English manu- 
 facturers are chiefly supplied with silk from 
 China, Persia, and Italy. France is the most 
 northern climate in which silk is produced in any 
 quantity. The manufacture of silk is already 
 commenced in the United States. 
 
 IJESSON XXV. 
 
 COURT PLASTER. 
 
 Court-plaster is a black, adhesive, thin sub- 
 stance, applied to wounds on the skin, to protect 
 them from the injurious effects of the air. The fol- 
 lowing is the manner of preparing it : a thin black 
 Harsnet is strctcliod on a frame ; a warm solution 
 
WESSON XXVI. SAFFRON. 139 
 
 of isinglass (a glutinous substance prepared from 
 the bones of fish, particularly the whale) is ap- 
 plied with a brush equally over the surface — 
 when dry, this is repeated a second or third time. 
 It is next washed over with some Benzoin dis- 
 solved in spirits of wine/ Benzoin is a resinous 
 gum, which is found on a tree growing in Suma- 
 tra. It possesses an aromatic perfume, and acts 
 as a styptic, i. e. stanches blood. It is also the 
 chief ingredient in Friar's Balsam, and gives it 
 the healing virtue it possesses. 
 
 LESSON XXVI. 
 
 SAFFRON. 
 
 Saffron is the orange-colored pistil of a species 
 of crocus, the leaves of which appear in spring, 
 and the blossoms in autumn. It abounds in the 
 neighborhood of Saffron Walden, in Essex, Eng- 
 land, which takes its name from that circum- 
 stance. It is also common in our American gar- 
 dens. The flowers are gathered every morning 
 just before they expand, and as they continue to 
 open in succession for several weeks, the saffron 
 harvest lasts a considerable time. When the 
 flowers are gathered, they are spread on a table : 
 the upper part of the pistil only is of any value. 
 When a sufficient quantity of these arc collected, 
 they are dried upon a kind of portable kiln ; over 
 this a hair cloth is stretched, and upon it a few 
 sheets of white paper ; the saffron is placed upon 
 these to the thickness of two or three inches ; the 
 
140 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 whole is then covered with white paper, over 
 which is placed a coarse blanket or canvas bag 
 filled with straw. When the fire has heated the 
 kiln, a board, on which is a weight, is placed 
 upon the blanket and presses the saffron together. 
 It is used as a medicine, serving as a slight tonic, 
 and to exhilarate the spirits, also to flavor cakes, 
 and to form a yellow dye. 
 
 LESSON XXVII. 
 
 BUTTER. 
 
 Butter is an unctuous substance prepared from 
 the milk of the cows. AVhen milk h.-js been al- 
 lowed to stand a few hours, a thick rich substance 
 called cream rises to the surface. This is skim- 
 med off, and by being briskly agitated is converted 
 into butter. The instrument by which this ope- 
 ration is performed is caWed a churn ; a certain 
 degree of heat assists the process. The butter 
 that is required to be kept any length of time, is 
 salted and packed in small tubs or barrels. Be- 
 sides the butter there is another substance re- 
 maining in the churn, which is called hyttermilk. 
 The person who tends the cattle is called a cow- 
 herd : and the place where the milk is kept is a 
 dairy. 
 
LESSON XXVIII. XXIX. — CHEESE, PUTTY. 141 
 
 LESSON XXVIII. 
 
 Cheese is prepared from milk which is coagu- 
 lated by mixing it with a liquor called rennet, 
 which is made by steeping the inner membrane 
 of a calf's stomach in water ; the curds thus 
 formed are a white solid substance ; they are 
 separated from the whey or watery particles, and 
 then pressed and dried. A color is usually given 
 to cheese by saffron or by a substance called 
 annatto, which is the seed-vessel of a shrub grow- 
 ing in the West Indies. 
 
 LESSON XXIX. 
 
 PUTTY. 
 
 Putty is a soft unctuous substance which 
 hardens by exposure to the air, and is used by 
 glaziers to cement the glass to window-frames. 
 It is composed of linseed oil and whiting, some- 
 times with the addition of white lead. The 
 whiting is ground into a fine powder, and the oil 
 and white lead are worked into it, till all the sub- 
 stances are thoroughly incorporated together. 
 
142 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 LESSON XXX. 
 
 STARCH. 
 
 Starch is a substance obtained from several 
 mealy vegetables ; it is generally prepared from 
 wheat by the following process. The wheat is 
 put into tubs of water, and exposed for some days 
 to the heat of the sun, which brings on a degree 
 of fermentation : the water is changed twice a 
 day. Having by this process become sufficiently 
 softened, it is poured into large canvas bags, 
 which are worked or beaten, in order to separate 
 the husks from the mealy particles, which are 
 received into an empty vessel. Fresh water is 
 again poured upon them, and after this has been 
 well shaken, it is left to settle; the water is 
 poured off, and the sediment which remains at 
 the bottom of the vessel is starch : this is formed 
 into small pieces and dried. Starch, with the 
 addition of smalt or stone blue, is used to stiffen 
 linen ; it is also formed into a powder for the hair. 
 Starch or Fecula is the nutritive part of most 
 grains and roots ; it may be extracted in con- 
 siderable quantities from potatoes. 
 
 LESSON XXXL 
 
 FELT. 
 
 Felt is the substance of which hats are made. 
 It is composed of hairs ; those of the beaver are 
 
LESSON XXXI. FELT. 143 
 
 chiefly used by hatters. The operation of felting 
 depends upon a peculiar construction in all hairs, 
 which however smooth and even they may appear, 
 have in reality a tiled or scaly texture on the 
 surface. The scales are so placed, that they 
 yield to the finger drawn along the hair from the 
 root to the point, but present a resistance when 
 moved in a contrary direction. In consequence 
 of this peculiarity, if a hair be seized in the 
 middle between the two fingers and rubbed, the 
 root will gradually recede and the point will ap- 
 proach the fingers, exhibiting a progressive motion 
 towards the root ; the imbricated surface, prevent- 
 ing all motion in the opposite way. From this 
 property, hairs, when beaten or pressed together, 
 begin to move in the direction of the root, and 
 are disposed to catch hold and twist round each 
 other, and thus to stick into a close mass, which 
 is called Felt. Curled hairs entwine themselves 
 more closely into one another than those which 
 are straight though flexible, as these latter recede 
 from the root in a direct line. The hatter how- 
 ever finds them very useful : he spreads them 
 over the surface of his coarser cloth, and when 
 pressed, these fine straight hairs moving in the 
 direction of their roots form a coating ; their base 
 being inserted in the felt, while their extrem- 
 ities remain free. It is in consequence of this 
 tendency to felt, that woollen cloths increase in 
 thickness, and contract in length and breadth, by 
 being washed ; and that they do not ravel out 
 when cut. The Zetlanders, availing themselves 
 of this peculiar construction of hairs, felt their 
 wool by putting it into narrow inlets of the sea, 
 
144 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 where it is exposed to the continual motions of 
 the tides. 
 
 LESSON XXXII. 
 
 PORCELAIN. 
 
 Clay and flint are the chief ingredients in the 
 manufacture of porcelain, from the coarsest pot- 
 tery to the finest semi-transparent china. The 
 clay makes it work easily into shape, the flint 
 makes it hard and a little glassy. The following 
 is the usual process carried on in the English 
 manufactories of Chinaware. The flints are 
 first reduced to powder by the action of fire, then 
 mixed in certain proportions with Cornish gran- 
 ite,* and ground to a very fine powder; water 
 is poured upon this mixture, and it is twice 
 strained through silken seives. It is then boiled 
 till it is of the consistency of cream, and the 
 watery particles being evaporated, it becomes a 
 tough paste. A portion of this substance is then 
 placed upon a turning wheel ; and moulded by 
 the hand with a precision and rapidity, that 
 practice only can give. This is the manner in 
 which vessels of a circular shape are formed, as 
 bowls, plates, cups, and saucers. Utensils of 
 other forms are made in moulds of gypsum, the 
 pores of which absorbing the moisture of the 
 clay, the vessels are contracted in size, and thus 
 
 * The two principal ingredients of granite are silex and 
 alumine. 
 
LESSON XXXII. PORCELAIN. 145 
 
 easily loosened from the mould. Each vessel 
 thus formed is plaeed in a separate clay case. 
 The furnace is filled with these, and then bricked 
 closely up, and they are subjected to a red heat 
 for sixty hours. The temperature is then 
 gradually lowered, and when the porcelain is 
 withdrawn, which in this state is called biscuit, 
 it is a whitlfe, dull, porous substance. This process 
 greatly diminishes the size of the vessels ; which 
 in this state readily receive the blue color, called 
 cobalt ; it has the appearance of a dirty grey till 
 glazed. The glazing consists of lead and glass, 
 ground to a very fine powder, mixed in water 
 with some other ingredients which are kept secret. 
 The biscuit is merely dipped into the glazing, 
 and is then baked again for forty hours. It is 
 now ready to receive all the other colors, and the 
 gilding, which the pattern may require. It is 
 then baked a third time for ten hours or more. 
 Lastly, the gilding is burnished with bloodstone^ 
 or agate, and the china is ready for the ware-room. 
 The colors are changed by baking, appearing very 
 different when first laid on. 
 
 13 
 
146 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 
 
 ON 
 
 METALS. 
 
 In these lessons on the common metals, it is 
 necessary to present the specimens to the class in 
 their several natural and artificial states, that is to 
 say, the native, the ores, and the manufactured 
 metals. The teacher would find the interest of 
 the pupils awakened by the examination of the 
 several substances, and consequently that they 
 would be more inclined to receive with profit the 
 information conveyed. The plan of writing down 
 the list of qualities has been again adopted with 
 the metals, as they lead to a new range of ideas, 
 and form so decidedly the characteristic distinc- 
 tions of the substances. 
 
 LESSON XXXIII. 
 
 GOLD. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 It is perfect as a metul. 
 malleable.* 1. 
 
 * A solid piece of gold and some leaf-gold should be pre- 
 sented to the class, and the exlreme lightness and thinness of 
 the leaf may be feit. 
 
 Teacher. How was the gold made so thin ? 
 
 Children. It was beaten out. 
 
LESSON XXXIII. GOLD. 147 
 
 It is ductile. 2. 
 
 tenacious, — holding together strongly. 8, 
 heavy. 4. 
 
 indestructible, i. e. it cannot be destroyed, 
 fusible. 
 
 incombustible, i. e. it cannot be burnt ex- 
 cept by electricity, 
 soft, compared with other metals, 
 pliable, 
 compact, 
 yellow, 
 solid, 
 opaque, 
 brilliant, 
 reflective, 
 sonorous, 
 metallic. 
 Not affected by any acid, but aqua regia.* 
 
 Teacher. With what? 
 
 Children. With a hammer. 
 
 All things that can thus be extended by beating, are called 
 malleable, from Lat. Malleus, a liamraer. 
 
 Teacher. Could glass be thus beaten out ? Could chalk? 
 Camphor? What quality prevents them from being malleable ? 
 
 Children. Glass is brittle. Chalk friable. 
 
 Teacher. Wliat quality in gold then renders it malleable? 
 
 Children. Its being tenacious. 
 
 Teacher. What other quality in gold arises from its be- 
 ing tenacious ? 
 
 Children. It is ductile ? 
 
 Teacher. Ductile is derived from Lat. Diico, I lead. 
 
 * Aqua regia (royal water) is a mixture of muriatic acid 
 and nitric acid. 
 
148 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 It is a perfect metal, because it does not lose 
 any of its weight when fused. 
 
 When the children understand fully the differ- 
 ent qualities, the teacher may mention to them 
 the facts that illustrate the extraordinary degree 
 in which the peculiar qualities exist. 
 
 1. " Malleable." A grain of gold the size of 
 a pin's head, may be beaten out to cover a space 
 of 50 square inches. 
 
 2* " Ductile." A grain of gold can be drawn 
 out to cover a wire of 352 feet in length; a 
 guinea can be drawn out to reach nine miles and 
 a half. 
 
 3. " Tenacious." A wire of an inch in di- 
 ameter will support 500 pounds without breaking. 
 
 4. "Weight." It is nineteen times heavier 
 than water of the same bulk. 
 
 Uses of Gold, 
 
 When alloyed* with copper, gold is used as 
 coin and for ornamental purposes ; its beauty, 
 and its not being liable to rust, fit it for the latter 
 purpose. 
 
 The gold used in coinage, called standard gold, 
 consists of a mixture of gold and copper. 
 
 Gold thread is made by covering silk or silver 
 with gold beaten very thin. 
 
 * The combinations of metals with each other are called 
 in chemistry, qlloya, but this term is commonly employed to 
 designate those substances which lessen the value of any with 
 which they are united. 
 
LESSON XXXIII. GOLD. 149 
 
 Gilding is the art of covering the surface of a 
 substance with gold : this is eflected by applying 
 it either in the state of a leaf, or liquid gold. 
 
 Quicksilver dissolves gold, and unites with it, 
 and has from this circumstance been used in gild- 
 ing buttons, an effect which is produced very 
 rapidly by the following process. The metals are 
 mixed together, and the buttons immersed in the 
 compound. They are then exposed to great heat, 
 by which the mercury is evaporated, and the gold 
 is left upon the buttons. 
 
 The purple color used in porcelain is obtained 
 from gold. 
 
 Gold is beaten into leaves upon a smooth block 
 of marble fitted into a wooden frame about two 
 feet square ; on three sides there is a high ledge, 
 and the front has a flap of leather attached to it 
 which the workman uses as an apron to preserve 
 the fragments that fall oft'. There are three kinds 
 of animal membrane used in the operation. For 
 interlaying with the gold the smoothest and 
 closest vellum is procured ; and when the gold 
 becomes thin, this is exchanged for much finer 
 skin made of the entrails of oxen prepared for 
 this purpose, and hence called gold beaters' skin, 
 and the whole is covered with parchment to pre- 
 vent the hammer from injuring it. After the 
 gold has been reduced to a sufficient degree of 
 thinness, it is put between paper which has been 
 well smoothed and rubbed with red bole* in order 
 to prevent it adhering to the gold. 
 
 Bole, a kind of earth. 
 1.3* 
 
150 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 Geographical and Geological situation of Gold, 
 
 Gold is found principally in hot climates, either 
 native or as an ore. A metal is called native 
 when it occurs in nature pure, and an ore when 
 mixed with other substances. Gold is found in 
 mines in Brazil, Peru, and Mexico. Part of the 
 western coast of Africa is called the Gold Coast, 
 from the gold dust brought down by the natives 
 to trade with. A great quantity of gold is ob* 
 tained in the form of fine sand from American 
 and African rivers ; and in small quantities from 
 the Danube, the Rhine, and the Rhone : it 
 is supposed to be washed down by the mountain 
 torrents. The wandering tribes of gypsies em 
 ploy themselves in washing it from the beds of 
 the European rivers. The Himlaya mountains nn 
 Asia are rich in gold. It sometimes occurs in 
 the veins which run through the mountains, and 
 sometimes in rounded masses in soils that are 
 evidently the ruins of rocks. The mines which 
 formerly yielded the largest quantities of gold 
 were those of Peru and Lima ; the principal of 
 Europe are those of Hungary and Saltzburg. The 
 mode of extracting gold from the ore, is by re- 
 ducing the whole to fine powder and mixing it 
 with quicksilver. The latter unites with every 
 particle of the gold, but being incapable of form- 
 ing a combination with any but metallic sub- 
 stances, it separates the gold from the earth with 
 which it is intermixed. The quicksilver which 
 has absorbed the gold, is then evaporated by 
 means of heat, leaving the pure metal in the 
 
LESSON XXXIV. SILVER. 151 
 
 vessel. Certain parts of the States of North and 
 South Carolina, and Georgia, have recently been 
 found to abound in gold. 
 
 LESSON XXXIV. 
 
 SILVER. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 It is malleable. 1» 
 ductile. 2. 
 tenacious. 3. 
 heavy. 4. 
 indestructible, 
 fusible, 
 soft, 
 flexible, 
 perfect metal, 
 opaque, 
 white, 
 solid, 
 compact, 
 natural. 
 
 subterraneous production* 
 brilliant, 
 reflective, 
 sweetly sonorous, 
 not affected by common acids. 
 
 1. " Malleable." Silver can be reduced to a 
 thinness nearly equal to that of which gold is 
 capable. 
 
152 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 2. " Ductile." It can also be drawn out to the 
 finest wire. 
 
 3. " Tenacious." A wire one-tenth of an inch 
 in thickness will support 277 pounds without 
 breaking. 
 
 4. " Weight." It is about eleven times heavier 
 than water. 
 
 Uses of Silver. 
 
 Silver is combined with copper for coin, to 
 render it harder and better adapted to receive a 
 fine and sharp impression on being cast. The 
 same alloy is employed for ornamental purposes. 
 
 Silver is used much as a casing to copper uten- 
 sils, to prevent the injurious eflects of acids, or to 
 render them more pleasing to the sight. The most 
 permanent plating is effected by taking two thin 
 plates of silver and copper, the former in the pro- 
 portion of one to twelve of the latter ; a little pow- 
 dered borax is placed between them to promote 
 the fusion of the two metals, which after being 
 exposed to a white heat, will be found firmly 
 united; this is passed between rollers till the 
 whole is of the proper thickness for the intended 
 manufacture. 
 
 Silver dissolved in aqua fortis (nitric acid) 
 yields crystals, which being afterwards melted in 
 crucibles, form what is called lunar caustic. This 
 preparation, is of considerable value in surgical 
 operations being employed to burn away proud 
 flesh ; and also for consuming warts, wens, and 
 other excrescences on the skin. Indelible or per- 
 manent marking ink, used for marking linen, is 
 
LESSON XXXIV. SILVER. 153 
 
 made by dissolving nitrate of silver (lunar caustic) 
 in water, and adding gum. The yellow color 
 employed in porcelain painting is obtained from 
 silver. 
 
 Geological and Geographical situation of Silver. 
 
 Silver is found native and as an ore, in mines 
 and veins. America is the country richest in 
 silver n^ines. It is also found in Saxony, Bohe- 
 mia, Norway, Hungary, and England ; but the 
 mines of Mexico and Peru furnish annually ten 
 times more than all those of Europe together. So 
 poisonous are the exhalations from the mines of 
 Peru, that many thousands of Indians have perish- 
 ed in them, and the cattle that graze on the out- 
 side are affected by their malignant vapors. The 
 quantity found in England is not great ; it is 
 taken from the lead mines of Cumberland, Corn- 
 wall, and Yorkshire. A large block was found 
 at Freyburg in Saxony, upon which Duke Albert 
 took his dinner. When melted, it yielded 44,000 
 pounds of pure silver. 
 
 The ores of silver are very numerous, and va- 
 rious methods are employed in different countries 
 to separate it from the ore. In Mexico and Peru 
 the mineral is pounded, roasted, washed, and 
 then mixed with mercury, in vessels filled with 
 water, a mill being employed for the purpose 
 of more perfectly agitating it, which thus causes 
 them to combine. The silver unites with the 
 mercury, and being submitted to heat, the latter 
 is evaporated. The pure metal is then melted 
 and cast into bars or ingots. 
 
154 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 LESSON XXXV. 
 
 QUICKSILVER OR MERCURY. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 It is heavy. 1. 
 fluid. 2. 
 cold. 3. 
 divisible. 4. 
 ^volatile when heated, 
 white. 
 
 brilliant. 5. 
 opaque. 
 
 least tenacious of all bodies, 
 dilatable by heat, 
 medicinal, 
 natural, 
 inanimate, 
 mineral. 
 
 1. "Weight." Nearly fourteen times heavier 
 than water — the heaviest known fluid. 
 
 2. "Fluid." It always retains its fluidity in 
 our temperature, but in countries near the poles 
 it congeals, and then is malleable, ductile and 
 tenacious. 
 
 3. " Cold." It is the coldest of all fluids, and 
 the hottest when boiling. 
 
 «i 
 
 * Volatile, from Laf. Volare, to fly. 
 
LESSON XXXV. QUICKSILVER. 155 
 
 4. It is capable of division, by the slightest 
 eflbit, into an indefinite number of particles, each 
 of a spherical shape. 
 
 5. The brilliancy of metals is so peculiar and 
 great, that it is called the metallic lustre. 
 
 Uses of Quicksilver. 
 
 Quicksilver penetrates and softens other metals, 
 losing its own fluidity and forming a kind of paste 
 called an Amalgam. This affinity or attraction 
 that it has for the other metals makes it exceed- 
 ingly useful in separating them from substances 
 with which they are found combined ; they leave 
 these to unite with the mercury, and this being 
 volatilized, the pure metal remains. It is easily 
 affected by the atmosphere, and is on this account 
 used in Thermometers and Barometers.* The 
 Thermometer is an instrument constructed in the 
 following manner: — a tube of glass terminating 
 in a hollow ball which contains mercury, is 
 plunged into boiling water, which causes the 
 mercury to expand and rise to a certain height. 
 At this point, w^hich is called boiling heat, the 
 tube is broken off and hermetically sealed ;f the 
 
 * Barometer from (iapog (haros) weight and iitrpov (metron) 
 a measure. Thermometer from &£p[xos {hot). 
 
 t In order to seal any thing hermetically, the neck of a 
 glass tube is heated till on the point of melting, an-i then with 
 a pair of hot pincers it is closely twisted together, by which 
 means the air is excluded. Hermetically is derived from 
 Hermes, a name of Mercury, the deity of ancient mythology' 
 who was thought to preside over the arts, particularly chem- 
 istry. 
 
156 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 freezing point is then ascertained, and marked, 
 and the intervening space graduated. The Ther- 
 mometer, by thus marking the expansion and 
 contraction of the quicksilver, indicates the in- 
 crease and decrease of heat and cold in the at- 
 mosphere. 
 
 To form the Barometer a glass tube open at 
 one end, and filled with quicksilver, is immersed 
 in a bowl containing some of the same fluid. 
 Part of the mercury in the tube flows into the 
 cup, leaving a space to which the air cannot gain 
 access, consequently there is a vacuum. The at- 
 mosphere, when heavy, acts upon the mercury in 
 the bowl, causing it to rise in tlie tube, and when 
 light, the pressure being removed, allowing it to 
 descend. The Barometer, by thus showing the 
 weight of the air, indicates the probability of wet 
 or dry weather. For when the atmosphere is 
 light, it no longer supports the vapor and clouds 
 which float in it, and they consequently descend 
 towards the earth ; but when the air is more 
 dense, they are borne up, and we have fine 
 weather. The elevation of mountains is also as- 
 certained by means of the Barometer, for as it is 
 known that the rarity of the atmosphere increases 
 in proportion to the ascent, the height is easily 
 calculated. 
 
 Quicksilver is also used for coating mirrors. 
 This process is eflected in the following manner : 
 a sheet of tin foil the size of the plate of glass 
 is placed evenly on a smooth block of stone; 
 over this is poured some quicksilver, which is 
 carefully spread upon it with a feather or rubber 
 of linen. Tin in amalgamating with mercury 
 quickly forms an oxide of a black appearance ; 
 
LESSON XXXV. dUICKSILVER. 157 
 
 this being removed, more of the fluid is poured 
 upon it. The glass is then held horizontally, and 
 carefully slid over the amalgam, sweeping before 
 it the superfluous mercury, and any more oxide 
 that may have formed. Weights are then placed 
 upon the glass, and after having remained several 
 days, the mixture adheres firmly and forms the 
 mirror. 
 
 Vermilion, used in coloring sealing-wax, and 
 the medicine called calomel, are preparations of 
 this metal. 
 
 Geographical and Geological situation of 
 Mercury. 
 
 Mercury is found in the native state in 
 globules or drops in the cavities of mines ; but 
 it is most frequently combined with sulphur, 
 forming the mineral called cinnabar, which is of 
 a red color. 
 
 The quicksilver mines of Idrea are said to yield 
 annually 100 tons ; those of Spain still more ; but 
 the mines of Peru are the richest. 
 
 The mines of Idrea were accidentally dis- 
 covered about three hundred years since. That 
 part of the country was then much inhabited by 
 coopers ; and one of the men, when retiring from 
 work in the evening, placed a new tub under 
 a dropping spring, to try if it would hold water, 
 and when he came in the morning he found it so 
 heavy that he could scarcely move it. On 
 examination, he found a shining ponderous fluid 
 at the bottom, which proved to be quicksilver. 
 When this circumstance was made known, a 
 14 
 
158 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 society was formed to discover and work the mine 
 from whence the mercury had issued. In some 
 parts of the mine, it flows in small streams, so 
 that in six hours jis much as thirty-six pounds 
 have been collected. In other parts of the mine 
 it is diffused in small globules. 
 
 LESSON XXXVI. 
 
 LEAD. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 It is heavy. 1 
 
 fusible. 2. 
 
 bright, when first melted or cut. 
 
 malleable. 
 
 ductile. 
 
 very soft. 3. 
 
 pliable. 
 
 livid, bluish gray. 
 
 easily calcined, that is, reduced by 
 heat to a friable substance. 
 
 solid. 
 
 sometimes amorphous. 
 
 crystallized. 
 
 opaque. 
 
 mineral. 
 
 tarnishes easily. 
 
 inelastic. 
 
 natural. 
 It makes a gray streak on paper. 
 It boils and evaporates at a great heat. 
 
LESSON XXX VI. ^LEAD. 159 
 
 1. Weight — It is eleven times heavier than 
 water ; rather heavier than silver. 
 
 2. It melts at a much lower temperature than 
 the other metals. 
 
 S. It is the softest of all metals. 
 
 Uses of Lead. 
 
 The calx* of lead is the basis of many colors, 
 which are obtained from it by different degrees 
 of heat. Red lead and white lead, so much used 
 in paints, are the calces of lead. They are 
 soluble in oil, and are all very poisonous, and 
 occasion the ill-health to which painters are sub- 
 ject. Any acid will extract a poison from lead, 
 and therefore the use of it should be avoided in 
 culinary operations. It is employed in glazing 
 and pottery. 
 
 When rolled between iron cylinders to a re- 
 quisite degree of thinness and uniformity, lead 
 is employed to cover the roofs of houses and 
 churches ; though, in case of fire, its melting is 
 attended with much danger. It is also used for 
 gutters and pipes of houses, and for cisterns and 
 reservoirs for water, because it does not rust. 
 Rust is occasioned by the oxygen uniting with a 
 metal ; but the oxygen of the water having a 
 greater affinity for hydrogen, its other constituent. 
 
 * Calx is the dross formed on the surface of lead, when 
 raelted. This name is now generally applied by chemists to 
 those substances which have been reduced by burning to a 
 friable state. The operation by which this effect is produced 
 is called calcination. 
 
160 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 than for lead, it does not separate from the water 
 to unite with this metal. 
 
 The great softness of lead, and its being so 
 easily fused, are the properties which have brought 
 it so much into use. The persons who work it 
 are called Plumbers, from the Latin, 'plumbum, 
 lead. The solder they use as a cement is an 
 alloy of lead and tin, in the proportion of two 
 parts of the former to one of the latter. 
 
 Great quantities of lead are consumed in 
 making shot. The metal for this purpose is 
 alloyed with arsenic, to render it more hard and 
 brittle, and capable of assuming a perfectly 
 spherical shape. Shot are formed by dropping 
 the melted alloy into water, through an iron or 
 copper frame, perforated with round holes, which 
 are larger or smaller, according to the size the 
 shot are required to be. Mixed w^th antimony, 
 lead is used for printing-types; and, with tin and 
 copper, it forms pewter. 
 
 Geological and Geographical situation of Lead, 
 
 Lead abounds in England, particularly in the 
 counties of Derby, Northumberland, Somerset, 
 Cornwall, and Devon, and in Wales. It is plenti- 
 ful also in Scotland, Germany, France, and 
 America. It is very much doubted whether it is 
 ever found native; it occurs frequently combined 
 with sulphur, when it is called galena. 
 
 The lead mines of Missouri are perhaps the 
 most important in the world. When the ore is 
 brought out of the mine, it is sorted and washed, 
 
LESSON XXXVI. LEAD. 161 
 
 to free it from dirt and rubbish ; it is then spread, 
 and the best pieces are separated. After the ore, 
 by picking and washing, has been sufficiently- 
 cleansed from extraneous matter, it is roasted* in 
 a kind of kiln, to free it from the sulphur usually 
 combined with it. The next process is to mix it 
 with a quantity of coke,f and submit it to the 
 smelting furnace. In this there are tap-holes, and 
 when the lead is melted these are opened, to allow 
 it to run in a fluid state into an iron vessel. The 
 dross which floats on its surface is skimmed off, 
 and the metal is taken out by ladles, and poured 
 into cast-iron moulds with round ends. It is then 
 called pig-lead, and is fit for use. 
 
 * Roasting is the process by which the volatile parts of an 
 ore are evaporated. Smelling is that by which the pure metal 
 is separated from the earthy particles combined with it in 
 the ore. This is done by throwing the whole into a furnace, 
 and mixing with it substances that will combine with the 
 earthy parts ; the metal being the heaviest, falls to the 
 bottom, and runs out by the proper openings, in its pure 
 metallic state. 
 
 t Coke is fuel, made- by burning pit-coal under earth, and 
 quenching the cindere ; as charcoal is made with wood. 
 
 14* 
 
162 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 LESSON XXXVII. 
 
 COPPER. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 It is heavy. 1. 
 tenacious. 2. 
 veiy sonorous. 3. 
 fusible. 4. 
 elastic. 5. 
 
 capable of extreme divisibility, 
 malleable, 
 ductile, 
 compact, 
 opaque. 
 
 orange brown color, 
 mineral. 
 
 sometimes crystallized, 
 amorphous, 
 brilliant, 
 reflective, 
 sapid, 
 hard, 
 odorous, 
 solid, 
 medicinal, 
 easily corroded, 
 useful. 
 
L2SS0N XXXVII. COPPER. 163 
 
 1. " Weight." Copper is eight times heavier 
 than water. 
 
 2. " Tenacious." A wire one-tenth of an inch 
 in thickness will support two hundred and ninety- 
 nine pounds and a half without breaking. 
 
 3. It is the most deeply sonorous of all metals. 
 
 4. It is more easily fused than iron, but less so 
 than gold or silver. 
 
 5. It is the most elastic metal next to iron. 
 
 6. A grain dissolved in an alkali will give a 
 perceptible color to more than ^00,000 times its 
 weight of water. 
 
 Uses of Copper* 
 
 The uses of copper are numerous and im- 
 portant. When rolled into sheets between iron 
 cylinders, it is used to cover the roofs of houses, 
 especially arsenals and manufiictories, where there 
 is liability to fire. The bottoms of ships are 
 coppered, in order to make them sail faster and 
 to prevent shell-fish from perforating the wood. 
 Plates of copper are used for engravings ; which 
 is done with a sharp instrument or by corroding 
 them with aqua fortis.* The copper is covered 
 with wax, and the design sketched upon it with 
 a pointed instrument ; the aqua fortis reaches the 
 copper just in those places where the wax has 
 been removed by the sketching, and eats into it. 
 Copper is much used for cooking utensils, but 
 great care is necessary, for should any acid or 
 
 * Aqua forlis (strong water) is nitric acid diluted with 
 ■water. 
 
164 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 even water be allowed to stand any time in the 
 vessels, a poison is extracted ; but while boiling, 
 this evil does not arise. It is customary, in order 
 to prevent any danger, to line copper vessels with 
 tin. Verdigris is a rust or oxide of copper, usually 
 prepared from that metal by corroding it with 
 vinegar. There is a large manufactory at Mont- 
 pelier in France, where verdigris is prepared in 
 the following manner : — copper plates and husks 
 of grapes are placed alternately one upon another ; 
 the latter speediJy corrodes the surface of the 
 metal. The verdigris thus formed is scraped off 
 as it collects on the copper ; it is afterwards dried 
 and packed in casks or bags. It is chiefly em- 
 ployed in dying, and is a most virulent poison. 
 Copper is used in the manufactories of gunpowder, 
 because it does not like iron give out sparks by 
 collision. There are several alloys of copper. 
 Brass is the most important : it is compounded of 
 zinc and copper, in the proportion of three parts 
 of the former to one of the latter. This is a very 
 beautiful and useful substance ; it does not rust 
 so easily as copper ; is more ductile than either 
 that metal or iron, and is therefore used in the 
 construction of musical and mathematical instru- 
 ments, and in clock work. Sieves and blinds are 
 woven of brass wire of extreme fineness. Brass 
 is used boti* for purposes of ornament and use. 
 Bronze and the metal of which cannon are made 
 are alloys of copper with tin. Bell metal is three 
 parts copper and one tin. 
 
LESSON XXXVII. COPPER. 165 
 
 Geographical and Geological situation of Copper, 
 
 Copper is found in Sweden, Saxony, America, 
 and Great Britain. It was well known to the an- 
 cients ; the Bible speaks of the workers of brass 
 before the flood. 
 
 It is found in a great variety of forms ; some- 
 times in masses of pure metal, but more frequently 
 combined with other substances, particularly sul- 
 phur. The copper mines of Anglesea are very 
 productive ; they are situated on the top of a 
 mountain, and form an enormous cavity more than 
 500 yards long, 100 broad, and 100 deep. The 
 ore is obtained from the mine either by pick- 
 axes or by blasting the rock with gunpowder. It 
 is then broken with a hammer into small pieces, 
 an operation which chiefly employs women and 
 children. After this it is piled on a kiln, to the 
 upper parts of which flues are attached, that com- 
 municate with sulphur chambers. The kiln is 
 covered, and the fibres lighted in different parts 
 that the ore may undergo the process of roasting. 
 The whole mass gradually kindles, and the sul- 
 phur which is combined with the ore is expelled 
 in fumes by the heat, and is conveyed through 
 the flues to the sulphur chamber. This process 
 occupies from three to ten months, according to 
 the size of the kilns. When the operation is 
 complete or tlie ore is freed from the sulphur, it 
 is submitted to the smelting-houses, where, by the 
 intense heat it undergoes, the pure metal is forced 
 off in a fluid state. 
 
166 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 LESSON XXXVIIT. 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 It is elastic. 1. 
 ductile. 2. 
 heavy. 3. 
 tenacious. 4. 
 malleable, 
 liable to rust. 5. 
 sonorous, 
 mineral, 
 fusible, 
 hard. 
 
 very fusible, 
 livid gray-color, 
 bright, 
 reflective, 
 solid. 
 
 susceptible of a high polish. 
 cold. 
 
 sometimes amorphous, 
 crystallized. 
 
 1. In the state of steel it is the most elastic 
 of all metals. 
 
 2. Iron is more ductile than gold ; it may be 
 drawn into a wire as fine as the human hair. 
 
LESSON XXXVIII. IRON. 167 
 
 3. It is the lightest of the common metals ex- 
 cept tin ; between seven and eight times heavier 
 than water. 
 
 4. Most tenacious of the metals. A wire about 
 one-tenth of an inch in diameter will support 550 
 pounds without breaking. 
 
 5. The air is composed of two ingredients, 
 oxygen and nitrogen ; the former having a greater 
 affinity for iron than for nitrogen, attaches itself 
 to it, and then forms the oxide of iron, commonly 
 called rust. 
 
 Uses of Iron. 
 
 Iron is the most useful of all the metals, and 
 man very early became acquainted with its value. 
 Moses speaks of furnaces of iron and of the ores 
 from which it was extracted. By means of this 
 metal the earth has been cultivated, houses and 
 cities built, and without it few arts could be prac- 
 tised. Iron is used in three states, cast iron, 
 wrought iron, and steel. When reduced to a 
 liquid by the action of the smelting-furnace, 
 it is received in furrows made in a bed of 
 sand : the larger m.asses which have flowed into 
 the main furrows are called sows, the smaller yigs, 
 of iron. In this state it takes the name of cast 
 iron, and from the process it has undergone it is 
 become extremely hard, and having lost its tena- 
 city, it resists the hammer and the file, and is 
 very brittle ; it is of a dark gray or blackish color. 
 It is used for the backs of chimneys, grates, boil- 
 ers, pipes, rail-roads and common cannon-balls. 
 
 Cast iron is converted into wrought iron by a 
 process called hlooming ; it is thrown into a fur- 
 
168 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 nace and kept melted by the fire produced by 
 combustibles ; it remains in this situation for 
 about two hours, a workman being continually 
 employed in stirring it, until, notwithstanding the 
 heat to which it is exposed, it acquires by degrees 
 consistency and tenacity, and congeals into a 
 mass which is now malleable. It is taken out of 
 the furnace while hot, and violently beaten by a 
 large hammer, worked by machinery ; in this 
 manner it is formed into bars of iron. The value 
 of wrought iron in machinery, and tools of all de- 
 scriptions, is incalculable. 
 
 Steel is prepared from wrought iron in the fol- 
 lowing manner : the bars of iron are kept in con- 
 tact with burning charcoal for several hours in 
 earthen crucibles, from which the air is excluded. 
 Steel, if heated to redness and then suffered to 
 cool slowly, becomes soft and pliable ; if plunged 
 while hot into cold water, it is rendered suscepti- 
 ble of a high polish, and acquires such extreme 
 hardness as even to scratch glass, while at the 
 same time it becomes elastic and brittle. Its soft- 
 ness and ductility may however be restored by 
 heating it again and cooling it slowly. Steel va- 
 ries in color under the influence of heat ; first it 
 assumes a straw color, then a light yellow, purple, 
 violet, red ; deep blue succeeds, and last of all a 
 bright blue. These hues indicate the different 
 tempers which steel acquires, from that proper for 
 common files, to that requisite for the finely 
 elastic spring of watches. Steel is used for all 
 kinds of edged tools, in which keenness is neces- 
 sary ; it is also much employed for ornamental pur- 
 poses, on account of the elegant polish which it 
 is capable of taking. In medicine steel is valua- 
 
LESSON XXXVIII. IRON. 1G9 
 
 ble as a tonic. Waters which pass over iron and 
 become impregnated with it, are called chalybeate 
 waters : those of Tunbridge and Ilampstead are of 
 this nature. Steel is a combination of iron, and 
 a small portion of carbon. Cast iron contains a 
 greater proportion of carbon, and is probably sat- 
 urated with it. Cast iron is converted into 
 wrought iron, by burning away the carbon, and 
 wholly depriving it of its oxygen. 
 
 Plumbago or black lead, which is employed in 
 the manufacture of pencils, is an ore of iron, con- 
 taining nine parts of carbon to one of the metal : 
 sufficient is found in Cumberland to supply the 
 trade of England. The bronze color used in 
 Porcelain painting is an oxide of iron. Meteoric 
 stones, which have been the subject of so much 
 conjecture, and which are now generally believed 
 to be ejected from volcanoes in the moon, are a 
 species of iron ore. 
 
 Iron is very valuable from the magnetical prop- 
 erties it may acquire. By these it enables the 
 mariner to steer across the ocean, the traveller to 
 direct his course with safety in the pathless desert, 
 and the miner to guide his researches after sub- 
 terraneous treasures. The loadstone or natural 
 magnet, is an oxide of iron ; it communicates its 
 powers to bars of iron or steel, when placed in 
 contact with them. The artificial magnet is now 
 always used ; as it possesses and retains all the 
 properties of the loadstone. The qualities which 
 render it useful, are 1st, its attracting iron, and 
 2d, its polarity, or the power by which it points 
 to the poles when freely suspended. One end in- 
 variably turns to the North, and the other to the 
 South, except when it approaches the pole, when 
 15 
 
170 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 the directive power ceases altogether, which cir- 
 cumstance constitutes one of the great difficulties 
 in navigating the Arctic Regions. 
 
 The opposite poles when presented to each 
 other, are attracted at one end and mutually re- 
 pelled at the other. 
 
 The mariner's compass is a circular box, in 
 which a magnetic needle is placed in such a man- 
 ner that it can move in every direction. 
 
 Geological and Geographical situation of Iron, 
 
 Iron is the most universally diffused of the 
 metals. It is everywhere produced in greater or 
 less quantities ; but England, France, Sweden, 
 and Russia, are richer in this metal than the other 
 countries of Europe. It is very rarely if ever 
 found in a native state, but generally as an oxide, 
 or in combination with Sulphuric or Carbonic 
 Acid. 
 
 LESSON XXXIX. 
 
 TIN. 
 
 Qualities* 
 
 It is heavy. 1. 
 soft. 2. 
 malleable. 3. 
 ductile, 
 fusible, 
 white. 
 
LESSON XXXIX. TIN. 171 
 
 It is opaque, 
 solid, 
 brilliant. 
 
 very little elastic, 
 useful, 
 pliable. 
 
 easily calcined, 
 natural, 
 mineral, 
 reflective. 
 
 sonorous, making a crackling noise, 
 dilatable by heat. 
 
 1. It is seven times heavier than water, though 
 lightest of the ductile metals. 
 
 2. It is softer than silver, but harder than 
 lead. 
 
 3. Tin may be beaten into sheets the 1000th 
 part of an inch in thickness. 
 
 Uses of Tin. 
 
 Tin is chiefly employed in the manufacture of 
 culinary utensils ; they are not however made 
 of solid tin, but of what is called tin, plate, which 
 is thus prepared. Thin iron plates are first 
 cleansed completely, by washing them in water 
 and sand ; they are then dipped into melted tin, 
 afterwards steeped in water mixed with sulphuric 
 acid. This process causes the tin not only to 
 cover the surface of the iron plate, but to pene- 
 trate it so that the whole mass becomes of a 
 whitish color. Pins are made of brass wire 
 tinned. When the pin is formed, a vessel is filled 
 with strata or layers of tin plates between the 
 
172 FIFTH SERIES. h 
 
 brass pins ; the vessel is then filled with water and | 
 some tartaric acid, by means of which the tin is 
 dissolved, and after five or six hours' boihng, the 
 pins are found uniformly tinned. It is the zinc 
 of the brass which has an affinity for the tin, and 
 forms the union which takes place. The pins are 
 afterwards polished, by throwing them into a tub 
 containing a quantity of bran, which is set in 
 motion by turning a shaft that runs through its 
 centre, and by means of friction they become 
 perfectly bright. The uses of tin in economical 
 purposes are very various, particularly when laid 
 over other metals, as in stirrups, buckles, &;c. 
 The oxide of tin is used in dying. 
 
 Tin forms alloys with several other metals. 
 These compounds have been mentioned before ; 
 as bell-metal, pewter, bronze. Tin leaves amal- 
 gamated with mercury, are used for silvering and 
 plating other metals. 
 
 GeograpJiical and Geological situation of Tin* 
 
 Native Tin is never found, and its ore is of less 
 common occurrence than that of iron. England, 
 Germany, Chili, and Mexico, produce the largest 
 quantity of this metal. The tin mines of Corn- 
 wall were well known to the ancients ; and the 
 Phenicians traded with the Britons for it long 
 before the birth of our Savior. It is always found 
 as an oxide, or mixed with sulphur and copper. 
 It occurs chiefly in veins running through granite 
 and other rocks. When it is taken from the mine, 
 it is broken into small pieces, and streams of 
 water passed over it, to free it from the earthy 
 particles with which it is intermixed ; it is then 
 
LESSON XL. COMPARISON OF METALS. 173 
 
 roasted and smelted, when the metal is poured 
 out into quadrangular moulds of stone, and re- 
 ceives the name of block tin. 
 
 LESSON XL. 
 
 C03IPARIS0N OF METALS. 
 
 Gold, a perfect metal, is the most precious. 
 
 most compact. 
 
 heaviest. 
 Its weight is between nineteen and twenty times 
 that of water. 
 
 Silver, a perfect metal, is next in value to gold 
 and more useful ; its weight is between ten and 
 eleven times that of water. 
 
 Quicksilver is fluid. 
 
 easily volatilized. 
 
 immallcable. 
 Its weight is between thirteen and fourteen times 
 that of water. 
 
 Copper is the most sonorous. 
 
 elastic except iron. 
 Its weight is between eight and nine times that 
 of water. 
 
 Iron is the most elastic. 
 
 tenacious, 
 useful. 
 du(?tile. 
 Its weight is between seven and eight times that 
 of water. 
 
 Mo 
 
174 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 Lead is the softest. 
 
 most easily fused. 
 Its weight is between eleven and twelve times 
 that of water. 
 
 Tin, next to lead, is the softest of the metals ; 
 it dilates most by heat; it is the lightest, its 
 weight being only seven times that of water. 
 
 LESSON XLL 
 
 ON METALS IN GENERAL. 
 
 Metals are simple elementary ^ bodies, distin- 
 guished by being heavier than all other sub- 
 stances, — by possessing a peculiar lustre which 
 is called the metallic lustre — by reflecting light 
 and heat, — by their being opaque, fusible, malle- 
 able, tenacious, ductile, and generally elastic. 
 Upon this last quality seems to depend their fit- 
 ness for exciting sound, or sonorousness. Metals 
 are capable of uniting with one another in a state 
 of fusion; this union is called an alloy. It is 
 remarkable that by these combinations, metals 
 undergo a considerable change in their properties, 
 and acquire new ones not belonging to either of 
 them when not united. Thus the weight of the 
 alloy, or the two metals in combination, is some- 
 times very different from the weight of both the 
 metals taken separately : an alloy of silver with 
 copper or tin, or one of silver or gold with lead, 
 is heavier than the same quantities of those 
 metals uncombincd. Their ductility and malle- 
 ability are changed and generally impaired, the 
 
 I 
 
LESSON XLI. ON METALS IN GENERAL. 175 
 
 alloy becoming brittle. This is very remarkably 
 the case with gold and lead, when united, the 
 latter of which even in the trivial proportion of 
 half a grain to an ounce of gold, renders the mass 
 quite destitute of tenacity. 
 
 The hardness of metals is varied by combina- 
 tion. Gold, by combination with a small quantity 
 of copper, and silver, by a minute proportion of 
 the same metal, acquire such an increase of hard- 
 ness, that these additions are always made to gold 
 or silver which is to be exposed to wear. By a 
 small addition of gold, iron is said to gain so 
 much hardness, as to be even superior to steel 
 for the fabrication of cutting instruments. 
 
 Change of color is a common effect of the union 
 of metals with each other. Arsenic, for example, 
 which resembles steel, and copper, which has a 
 red color, afford by their union a compound, which 
 has nearly the whiteness of silver. 
 
 In order to ascertain how far the children had 
 retained the knowledge communicated to them 
 in these lessons, the following questions were 
 given them to answer in writing. 
 
170 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 QUESTIONS ON THE METALS. 
 
 GOLD. 
 
 1. What are the chief qualities of gold? 
 
 2. What is its weight? 
 
 3. Give a proof of its ductility. 
 4* tenacity. 
 
 5. malleability. 
 
 6. Upon what other quality docs its malleability 
 depend ? 
 
 7. What qualities are directly opposed to 
 malleability ? 
 
 8. What is an alloy ? 
 
 9. Why is gold alloyed for the purpose of 
 coinage? 
 
 10. What metal is used as its alloy? 
 
 11. How are buttons gilt? 
 
 12. Describe the manner of forming leaf gold. 
 
 13. In what states is gold found? 
 
 14. What is an ore? 
 
 15. What is meant by a native metal ? 
 
 16. In what countries is gold found? 
 
 17. What people employ themselves in sepa- 
 rating it from the sands of the European rivers? 
 
 SILVER. 
 
 1. What are the chief properties of silver? 
 
 2. What is its weight? 
 
QUESTIONS ON THE METALS. 177 
 
 3. What degree of tenacity does it possess ? 
 
 4. What are the chief uses of silver ? 
 
 5. Upon what qualities do the uses of silver 
 depend 1 
 
 6. Describe the operation of plating. 
 
 7. What is lunar caustic ? and what are its 
 uses? 
 
 8. Give a geographical and geological account 
 of silver? 
 
 9. Why are gold and silver called perfect 
 metals ? 
 
 aUICKSILVEH. 
 
 1. What are the uses and properties of quick- 
 silver ? 
 
 2. What is its weight? 
 
 3. In what respect is it remarkable as a liquid ? 
 
 4. What effect does heat produce upon it? 
 
 5. Under what circumstances does a change in 
 its qualities take place? and what is the change? 
 
 6. What is an amalgam ? 
 
 7. Mention the uses of quicksilver. 
 
 8. What are the properties that fit it for a 
 barometer ? 
 
 9. What for a thermometer? 
 
 10. How is a barometer made? and what is 
 its use ? 
 
 11. How is a thermometer made? and what is 
 its use ? 
 
 12. What color is obtained from quicksilver? 
 
 13. Where is quicksilver found? 
 
 13. What circumstance led to the discovery of 
 the mines of Idria ? 
 
178 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 1. What are the remarkable qualities of lead? 
 
 2. What is its weight 1 
 
 3. What are the different effects of heat upon 
 lead? 
 
 4. What are the chief uses of lead ? 
 
 5. Why is it used for reservoirs of water ? 
 
 6. How are shot made ? 
 
 7. What is the use of the oxides of lead? 
 
 8. What are its alloys ? 
 
 9. In what state is lead found ? 
 
 10. What is lead called when found united 
 with sulphur. 
 
 11. Where is lead most abtmdant? 
 
 12. Describe the process of roasting and 
 smelting. 
 
 COPPER. 
 
 1. What are the chief qualities of copper? 
 
 2. What is its weight and degree of tenacity ? 
 
 3. How is it proved to be capable of extreme 
 divisibility? 
 
 4. What are the uses of copper ? 
 
 5. What is verdigris? and how is it made? 
 
 6. What is the danger incurred by employing 
 copper in kitchen utensils? 
 
 7. What are the alloys of copper ? 
 
 8. In what respect is brass preferable to 
 copper ? 
 
 9. Where is copper found, and in what states ? 
 
 10. Describe the copper mines in Anglesea, 
 and the manner of extracting the metal from the 
 
QUESTIONS ON THE METALS. 179 
 
 1. What are the chief qualities of iron? 
 
 2. What quality does it possess in a higher 
 degree than any other metall 
 
 3. What is its weight and tenacity ? 
 
 4. What are the different states in which iron 
 is used ? 
 
 5. How is cast iron prepared ? 
 
 6. What are its qualities and uses ? 
 
 7. How is wrought iron prepared ? 
 
 8. What are its qualities and uses 1 
 
 9. How is steel prepared 1 
 
 10. What are its qualities and uses? 
 
 11. What is meant by the temper of steel? 
 
 12. What is plumbago ? and what quality makes 
 it useful? 
 
 13. What is the geographical situation of iron? 
 and in what state is it found ? 
 
 TIN. 
 
 1. What are the chief qualities of tin? 
 
 2. What are the uses of tin ? 
 
 3. How is it prepared for use ? 
 
 4. How are pins tinned ? 
 
 5. What is block tin ? 
 
180 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 ON EARTHS. 
 
 LESSON XLII. 
 
 LIME. 
 
 The substance called Lime is never found pure 
 in nature, owing to its great affinity for carbonic 
 acid* and water. All the earths of which lime 
 forms the basis are called calcareous^ from calx, 
 the Latin for lime. It is the most universally 
 diffused of all substances, and one of the most 
 abundant ; it is computed that it constitutes one 
 eighth of the crust of the earth. In this dis- 
 tribution we have great cause to admire the 
 gracious providence of our Heavenly Father, 
 as the utility of lime in various arts, in agriculture, 
 in manufactures, and in medicine, is very great. 
 Lime united with carbonic acid in different pro- 
 portions, forms common lime-stone, chalk, marble, 
 &c. ; with sulphuric acid, it constitutes gypsum 
 or alabaster ; and with fluoric acid, fluor or 
 Derbyshire spar. These are its most interesting 
 combinations with mineral substances. It enters 
 also into the composition of animal matter, as 
 shells, bones, and the hard coverings of insects ; 
 
 * Carbon is charcoal in its purest state; it is most 
 abundant in the vegetable kingdom, and is chiefly obtained 
 from wood. United with oxygen, it forms carbonic acid. 
 
LESSON XLII. LniE. 181 
 
 our bones contain 80 parts in 100 lime ; and the 
 egg-shells of birds, 9 parts in 10. 
 
 Pure lime is procured from chalk, or limestone, 
 by means of burning. For this purpose alternate 
 layers of calcareous earth and fuel are arranged 
 in a kiln ; a fire being kindled, the carbonic acid 
 and water become volatilized, and are driven off, 
 leaving the lime pure. In this state it is called 
 quick-lime, and is white, caustic, acrid, pungent, 
 infusible ; corroding and destroying animal mat- 
 ter. When w^ater is poured upon it, it swells, 
 falls into a powder, and gives out great heat. 
 This last operation is called slacHng the lime. 
 The water combining with the lime becomes 
 solid, and the heat is occasioned by its changing 
 from a fluid to a solid state, for in doing this it 
 parts with its caloric. The uses of lime are 
 numerous and important. It is formed into 
 mortar, the cement used in building. The lime, 
 being slacked, is made into a paste by tempering 
 it with Vv'ater ; to this is added sand, and 
 sometimes chopped hairs ; as it dries it becomes 
 solid, hard, and durable. Examples have been 
 known, of ouildings a thousand years old, in 
 which the mortar is as hard as the stones which it 
 unites. 
 
 As a manure, lime is useful in loosening the 
 tenacious nature of some soils, and rendering 
 them more friable and receptive of vegetable 
 fibres; it also facilitates the dissolution and 
 putrefaction of animal and vegetable substances 
 of which mould is chiefly composed, and gives it 
 a power of acquiring and retaining moisture, so 
 necessary to the growth of vegetables. Lime is 
 16 
 
182 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 also employed in the manufacture of sugar, to 
 deprive it of a portion of its acid. Tanners use 
 it in removing hairs from the hides, and cleansing 
 them from fat and grease. 
 
 Carbonate of Lime. 
 
 Lime occurs most frequently combined with 
 carbonic acid in different proportions. The gen- 
 eric term for these substances is Carbonate of 
 Lime. They vary much in appearance, but all 
 agree in the following properties ; they readily 
 yield to the knife ; neutralize acids (the charac- 
 teristic properties of each being destroyed ;) and 
 have a weight two or three times greater than 
 that of water. 
 
 Limestone occurs in almost every country, and 
 produces hills of some eminence ; it is very 
 abundant in England ; it is used for making mor- 
 tar, forming roads, &c. Difierent kinds of Lime- 
 stone are used in building, as Portland stone, 
 Bath stone Oolite. The former has been much 
 employed in several of the principal buildings in 
 London, as St. Paul's, the Monument, and some 
 of the bridges. Some limestones are soft, when 
 first taken from the quarry, but become hard 
 when long exposed to the air. 
 
 Calcareous spar is the purest carbonate of lime. 
 It occurs both amorphous and crystallized, is 
 transparent, shows a double refraction, or makes 
 a small object seen through it, appear double, and 
 takes the form of the rhombohedron, occurring m 
 eight hundred varieties of this figure. Carbonate 
 of lime is often found in stalactites, which are 
 long pendulous masses. They are deposited 
 
LESSON XLII. LOIE. 183 
 
 from water loaded with particles of carbonate of 
 lime; this trickles through fissures in rocks, or 
 crevices in the roofs of caverns, &c. The water 
 evaporates, and the particles of lime gradually 
 harden ; drop succeeds drop, till a long irregular 
 tube is suspended of a most grotesque appearance. 
 When carbonate of lime occurs of a very close- 
 grained texture, it is caWed 7narble ,- being sus- 
 ceptible of a high polish, it is much used for or- 
 namental purposes, as chimney-pieces, pillars, 
 and statuary. 
 
 Chalk is another carbonate of lime, not so 
 generally occurring as limetone, but very abun- 
 dant in the south-eastern counties of England, 
 along which it stretches in a continued line, 
 forming its noted white cliffs, and passing over 
 to France appears on the opposite coast. It forms 
 hills of a moderate elevation, characterized by 
 their gentle slopes and rounded summits, arising 
 from this substance being of too soft a nature to 
 resist the effects of the weather upon it. There 
 are two beds of chalk, the upper one distinguish- 
 ed by containing parallel horizontal layers of flint 
 with many petrifactions ; and the lower being 
 destitute of both. Chalk is white, dull, friable, 
 meager to the touch, adheres to the tongue, is of 
 an earthy fracture ; always amorphous, and opaque. 
 It is usually dug from pits ; but in some parts of 
 Kent they undermine the sides of the hill, then 
 dig a trench which is filled with water, this soak- 
 ing in, loosens the masses, which consequently 
 fall. Most of the uses of chalk are nearly the 
 same as those of limestone ; when freed from its 
 coarser particles, it forms whiting. 
 
 Water impregnated with calcareous substances, 
 
184 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 is occasionally deposited on vegetables, clothing 
 them with a stony coat ; this incrustation is call- 
 ed Tufa. 
 
 Gypsum is a sulphate of lime : i. e. a combina- 
 tion of sulphuric acid with lime. It is much 
 softer than marble and more easily worked : it is 
 sometimes of a beautiful transparent whiteness, 
 when it is called alabaster, and is made into vases 
 and other ornaments. The gypsum, which is 
 veiy abundant in the neighborhood of Paris, is 
 of a yellowish color. When heated it pulverizes, 
 and water poured over it, is quickly absorbed, 
 forming a paste which dries and hardens very 
 rapidly. This is the Plaster of Paris so much 
 used for casts, statues, &;c. When mixed w^ith 
 glutinous substances, it forms stucco and plaster. 
 
 LESSON XLIII. 
 
 A large number of the rocks with which the 
 earth abounds, and a great proportion of com- 
 pound earthy substances and minerals, have silex 
 for their chief ingredient. It seems to form the 
 solid basis of the crust of the globe, giving firm- 
 ness and durability to the mountains by which 
 they have resisted the various revolutions that the 
 earth has undergone. It is found in its greatest 
 purity in roch-ci'ystal and qiiartz. It is the basis 
 of almost all the mineral substances, which are 
 sufficiently hard to strike fire with steel. These 
 substances are called silicious, from the latin silex 
 a flint, because flint is almost entirely composed 
 
LESSON XLIII. SILICA. 185 
 
 of silicious earth. Silex forms a large portion of 
 granite, enters in considerable proportion into the 
 composition of slate ; it is also the substance 
 which constitutes sand and generally the shingle 
 of the sea-shore. It is very hard, striking fire 
 with steel, and scratching glass ; it has neither 
 taste nor smell ; when perfectly pure (in which 
 state it is, however, never found in nature) it is 
 infusible, but when heated with an alkali, it unites 
 with it, melts and forms glass. In consequence 
 of this property, silica has also been called vitrifi- 
 able earth, from viti'um, the Latin for glass. It is 
 not affected by any of the acids except the fluoric. 
 
 Common sand is a granulated silex, generally 
 of a white or yellow color. In the torrid regions 
 of Africa and Asia there are immense tracts of 
 desert covered only with sand so fine and dry as 
 to be movable with the wind, and forming into 
 waves like those of the sea. The wind sweeping 
 the sand from the surface continually, the succes- 
 sive waves form, mountains of sand. These are 
 incessantly shifting, and often overwhelm the 
 travelling caravans. Sand is of great utility. It 
 enters into the composition of mortar. It pro- 
 duces the vitrification of glass and porcelain, and 
 its hardness has caused it to be much used in 
 scouring kitchen utensils. In agriculture, it is 
 valued as a manure ; it gives lightness to clayish 
 and heavy soils, and assists in the work of filtra- 
 tion. 
 
 Sandstone is formed of grains of silex cemented 
 together, producing a solid rock, though of a very 
 friable nature. 
 
 Common flint contains of silica ninety-seven 
 parts in one hundred. It is generally of a grayish 
 16* 
 
186 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 color, approaching often to black, it is opaque, 
 but translucent at its edges. It strikes fire by 
 collision, and is on this account used in gun-locks. 
 From its being one of the hardest substances in 
 nature, it is often taken as an emblem of moral 
 hardness. It is found principally in beds or strata 
 in chalk formations. It is used in the manu- 
 facture of glass and porcelain, in the construction 
 of buildings and walls, and it also forms excellent 
 roads. 
 
 LESSON XLIV. 
 
 ALUMINE OR ARGIL. 
 
 This substance obtained the name of Alumine, 
 from its forming the base of common alum, and 
 argil, from the Latin argilla, clay, on account of 
 its being the constituent of all clays, which are 
 therefore termed argillaceovs earths. Their dis- 
 tinguishing qualities are, that they have an earthy 
 texture, give out a peculiar odor when breathed 
 upon, which has been thence called the argilla- 
 ceous odor; they adhere to the tongue ; are never 
 found crystallized, but sometimes slaty; are gen- 
 erally opaque, and their weight is about twice as 
 great as that of water. When tempered with 
 water, most argillaceous substances become soft, 
 tenacious, and plastic,* but shrink and harden by 
 the application of heat. Alumine is never found 
 pure in nature : it is considered to be the most 
 plentiful earth next to silex. 
 
 * Plastic, from -KXaaata (plasso) to form, means here, easily 
 moulded into various forms. 
 
LESSON LXIV. ARGIL. 187 
 
 Common clay is a nearly equal admixture of 
 alumine and silex : it is found in most countries, 
 and is very valuable in various arts ; for these it 
 is peculiarly fitted, as it may be moulded into 
 any form, which it retains unchanged after ex- 
 posure to heat. The beds of lakes, ponds, and 
 springs, are almost entirely of clay : instead of 
 allowing the filtration of water, as sand does, it 
 forms an impenetrable bottom, and by this means 
 water is accumulated in the caverns of the earth, 
 producing those natural reservoirs, whence springs 
 issue and spout out at the surface. Clayey soils 
 in consequence of their absorbing and retaining 
 moisture are heavy and sticky. Clay is often 
 used by the poorest classes of society in forming 
 their mud cottages. Loam is an argillaceous 
 substance, containing a great proportion of sand, 
 and is generally found upon a bed of sand. It is 
 the substance of which bricks and tiles are con- 
 structed ; when well baked in a kiln, or in the 
 sun, it becomes very hard and durable. A proof 
 of this is furnished in the existence at the present 
 day of those mighty Egyptian Pyramids, which 
 are generally supposed to have been the w^ork of 
 the Israelites in their bondage. 
 
 Porcelain clay is that employed in our china 
 manufactories ; it absorbs moisture rapidly, and 
 becomes very tenacious when kneaded. It is 
 distinguished from other clays by the fineness of 
 its texture, its friability and meager touch. A 
 coarser kind called Potters' clay, is used in the 
 making of common eathern ware. 
 
 Another description of clay is called Pipe clay 
 from its being used in the manufacture of pipes 
 it is very plastic, and is cast in a cylindrical 
 
188 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 mould, a wire being afterwards run through it to 
 form the hollow through which the fumes of the 
 tobacco are inhaled ; when baked it becomes 
 hard and white. This clay is also used in ex- 
 tracting grease out of different substances. Ful- 
 lers^ earth is another argillaceous substance simi- 
 larly employed. 
 
 The soil or mould which covers our fields and 
 gardens, contains more or less of these three 
 substances, alumine, silica, or lime. They occur 
 in very different proportions; the best soils are 
 those which are a mixture of all, for they correct 
 and keep within their due proportion the qualities 
 of each other ; thus in a clayey soil, filtration is 
 carried on by means of sand, while clay on the 
 other hand gives consistency to a sandy soil, and 
 lime loosens the texture of heavy lands, and 
 corrects the coldness which the retaining of water 
 occasions. How beautifully may we thus trace 
 through nature, contending and opposite qualities 
 working together to form an harmonious whole. 
 The fertilizing property of our soils, however, 
 greatly depends upon the admixture of decayed 
 animal and vegetable matter. 
 
aUESTIONS ON THE EAKTHS. 1S9 
 
 QUESTIONS ON THE EARTHS. 
 
 LBIE. 
 
 1. Why is lime never found pure in nature? 
 
 2. What name is given to the substances con- 
 taining lime, and from what is the name derived? 
 
 3. Name the various minerals of which lime 
 forms a principal part. 
 
 4. From what substance is pure lime generally 
 procured ? 
 
 5. Describe the process. 
 
 6. What is the operation of slacking lime, and 
 the effect produced ? 
 
 7. Name the different uses of lime, with the 
 properties that fit it for those uses. 
 
 8. What is a carbonate of lime ? 
 
 9. Mention the diflerent carbonates of lime. 
 
 10. What qualities do they all possess? 
 
 11. Describe the calcareous spar. 
 
 12. What are stalactites? describe their forma- 
 tion. 
 
 13. What is marble, and how used ? 
 
 14. Describe chalk, its situation, qualities, and 
 appearances. 
 
 15. What is calcareous tufa? 
 
 16. Name the limestones used in building. 
 
 17. What is gypsum, its qualities, and uses ? 
 
190 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 SILICA. 
 
 1. In what minerals is silica found in the 
 greatest purity ? 
 
 2. Why was it called silica ? 
 
 2. What are the earths called that contain 
 silica ? 
 
 4. What other name is sometimes given to 
 them, and why ? 
 
 5. What are the distinguishing qualities of 
 silicious earths ? 
 
 6. What are their chief uses ? 
 
 7. What is sand ? 
 
 ■ 8. Where does it abound, and to what misfor- 
 tune are those liable who travel in the countries 
 where it abounds ? 
 
 9. Describe common flint, and name its uses. 
 
 10. In what geological situation is it found? 
 
 ALUMINE OR ARGIL. 
 
 1. Why is clay called argil ? why alumine? 
 
 2. What are the distinguishing qualities ol 
 alumine ? 
 
 3. What qualities render it so useful in the 
 arts? 
 
 4. Name the different argillaceous earths. 
 
 5. Name their various uses. 
 
 6. What is loam, its situation and uses ? 
 
 7. How is porcelain clay distinguished? 
 
 8. What clay is used in the manufacture of 
 common earthenware, and how does it differ from 
 porcelain clay ? 
 
LESSON XLV. COAL. 191 
 
 9. What clay is used in the manufacture of 
 pipes, and how are they made ? 
 
 10. What clays are used for extracting grease ? 
 
 11. Why are clays used for the bottoms of 
 lakes, canals, &:c. ? 
 
 12. What kind of soil does clay form ? 
 
 LESSON XLV. 
 
 COAL. 
 
 Coal may be considered as a mineral, both from 
 its subterraneous situation, and the qualities which 
 it possesses ; many circumstances however justify 
 the now prevalent opinion that it is of vegeta*ble 
 origin ; the following are perhaps the most con- 
 vincing. Carbon, which is the chief constituent 
 of all vegetable matter, particularly wood, com- 
 poses three-fourths of this substance. Coal is 
 also found in the various stages of mineralization. 
 Sometimes it possesses a completely fibrous tex- 
 ture and ligneous appearance, even the knots of 
 wood being discernible, whilst the same bed pro- 
 duces specimens of perfect mineral coal. That 
 which preserves most distinctly the character of 
 wood, is found at Bovey near Exeter. 
 
 In confirmation of this opinion is the fact, that 
 in Ireland a standing forest has been discovered 
 at the depth of one hundred feet below the soil. 
 To this we may add the inflammability of this 
 substance, the numerous vegetable remains and 
 impressions that accompany it, and that it has 
 never been discovered above the line to which 
 
192 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 vegetation reaches. It is of a black color, bright, 
 and frequently iridescent,* the structure is slaty ; 
 it occurs always amorphous ; it is very combusti- 
 ble, a quality which few minerals possess. The 
 places from whence it is taken, are called coal 
 mines; they abound in many parts of England, 
 and have mainly contributed to the wealth of our 
 country. Both the persons employed in the 
 mines, and the vessels w^hich transport the coals, 
 are called colliers ; the place where the trade is 
 carried on, a colliery. The access to coal mines 
 is generally through a narrow, perpendicular tun- 
 nel, called a shc^t, up which the w^orkmen and 
 coals are drawn by machinery. The mines at 
 Whitehaven are some of the most extraordinary 
 in the world. The principal entrance is by an 
 opening at the bottom of a hill through a long 
 sloping passage, which is hewn in the rock, and 
 leads to the lowest vein or bed of coal : the de- 
 scent is chiefly through spacious galleries inter- 
 secting each other, formed by the excavation of 
 the coal, large pillars of which only are left to 
 support the ponderous roof. These mines are 
 very deep, and are extended under the bed of the 
 sea, even to where the depth of the Avater is suf- 
 ficiently great to admit ships of burden. In these 
 mines there are three strata of coal which lie 
 considerably apart from one another, and are 
 made to communicate by pits. Miners are fre- 
 quently impeded in their progress by veins of 
 hard rocks called dykes, and the eoal is seldom 
 found in a direct line en the other side of them; 
 
 * Iridescent, exhibiting a variety of colors like the rainbow 
 from Greek iptSo^ (iridos) of a rainbow. 
 
LESSON XLV. COAL. 193 
 
 to ascertain its precise situation is often a work 
 of considerable labor and expense. Coal is gen- 
 erally situated at the foot of mountains, and in 
 hollows which vary much in extent : it rarely 
 lies much above the level of the sea. 
 
 Several dangers attend the labors of miners; 
 the greatest is that arising from fire damp; 
 which is occasioned by the hydrogen gas or in- 
 flammable air, produced in the mine, and which 
 when mixed with atmospheric air, explodes with 
 great violence if brought into contact with any 
 lighted substance. To avoid this danger, safety- 
 lamps are used, v\^hich were invented by Sir 
 Humphry Davy. They are of a very simple 
 <;onstruction, consisting of wire gauze, so closely 
 interwoven as to prevent a sufficient quantity of 
 the gas from entering, and thus causing ignition. 
 Another danger arises from the formation of car- 
 bonic acid gas or fixed air, which, being heavier 
 than the common air, occupies the lower part of 
 mines, and occasions death by suffocation. 
 
 Coal is used to raise the temperature of rooms, 
 to cook food, to supply the fuel for manufactories, 
 (particularly where steam is required) and in the 
 working of metals. It is one of the substances 
 from which gas is procured : when this has been 
 extracted from the coal, the residue is called 
 coke, which is employed where intense heat is 
 requisite. Coal abounds in various parts of the 
 United States, particularly on the banks of the 
 Lehigh and Schuylkill rivers, in Pennsylvania. 
 
 17 
 
194 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 LESSON XLVI. 
 
 GRANITE. 
 
 Granite is a compound rock, formed by an ag- 
 gregation of the grains of quartz, felspar, and mi- 
 ca. The proportions in which these component 
 parts occur, vary much. Felspar is the predomi- 
 nating, as mica is the least considerable of these 
 ingredients. The grains are also of different 
 magnitudes ; when they are large, the granite is 
 of a very coarse texture ; but sometimes they are 
 so small, as almost to give the appearance of a 
 uniform mass. These circumstances occasion a 
 great variety in the character of granite. When 
 hornblende occurs in the place of mica, the rock 
 is called Sienite. Some felspar is liable to de. 
 composition, and when this is the prevailing sub- 
 stance in the rocks, they yield to the effects of 
 the weather, and become more or less of a rounded 
 form : but when the granite is hard and close- 
 grained, which is more usually the case, they rise 
 in bold prominent peaks, giving grandeur and 
 boldness to the scenery. Granite is found in most 
 countries where there are mountains of any con- 
 siderable elevation. It forms the lofty Grampian 
 Hills in Scotland ; and the logan or rocking stones 
 of Cornwall are immense blocks of this material. 
 Granite is valuable on account of its great hard- 
 ness and durability, is used for mill-stones, troughs, 
 and steps, the streets of London are paved with it, 
 and it is employed in architecture. Waterloo 
 Bridge, one of the finest specimens of art, is con» 
 etructed of granite. 
 
LESSON XLVII. SALT. 195 
 
 LESSON XLVII. 
 
 Salt is a mineral substance, beautifully white, 
 sparkling, and crystalline ; it is soluble, fusible, 
 granulous, and of a saline flavor. There are 
 several varieties of this useful mineral which are 
 distinguished by the different situations in which 
 they are found. The principal are sea-salt, called 
 also bay-salt, which is produced from the ocean ; 
 the best comes from Portugal : salt drawn from 
 brine springs : and rock salt, which is dug out of . 
 the earth. Amongst the most extensive salt mines 
 hitherto discovered, are those at Wielizka, a pic- 
 turesque little town situated on the sides of a 
 gentle valley, about eight miles from Cracow, the 
 chief city of Poland. The traveller who visits 
 these subterraneous deposits of salt, being fur- 
 nished with a guide and two lamp-bearers, is let 
 down a shaft of about 150 feet by a rope. At the 
 depth of 90 feet he arrives at the rock of pure 
 salt of a dingy soot color, here and there glistening 
 by the light of the lamps. The swing is now aban- 
 doned, and the ear is assailed by the busy sound 
 of spades, mattocks, and wheelbarrows, in every 
 direction. This is the -first foor of a large cavern 
 containing in different parts the stable, and 
 twenty horses, quantities of salt, some in bare 
 masses, some in casks ready to be hoisted to the 
 surface, stores of implements for the miners, &;c. 
 This excavation is about 100 feet long and 80 
 
196 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 broad, (beside the stable,) and about 20 feet high. 
 From hence a long gallery 12 feet high by eight 
 broad leads towards the interior of the mine, 
 while lateral avenues branch off in various direc- 
 tions, each named after some Austrian prince or 
 princess, and resembling more in appearance the 
 avenues of some subterraneous palace, than the 
 passages of a mine. A flight of steps conducts 
 down another 100 feet to the second foor ; in this 
 descent the bed of salt is interrupted by a narrow 
 stratum of pure clay, sometimes by a mixture of 
 salt, and the same earth ; these strata are in 
 places very curiously curved, as though a rolling 
 wave had been arrested in its course and preserved 
 in its original form. The miners are here found 
 at work, some hewing pillars of salt from the rock, 
 some cutting them into masses for home con- 
 sumption, and some stowing the masses in barrels 
 for exportation. The cavern on this floor is 
 rather smaller than the first : it consists of one 
 spacious hall, and has no pillar to support the 
 roof. 
 
 Proceeding on this subterraneous journey, the 
 traveller arives at a wooden platform, from whence 
 he looks down upon an abyss,nvhich the simple 
 lights of the conductors fail to illuminate, though 
 the spars of the mineral reflecting the rays of 
 light, produce a novel and beautiful effect. 
 When princes or other great personages visit the 
 mines, a chandelier of crystal salt, which hangs 
 in the centre, is furnished with 150 lights, and 
 displays a stupendous cavern, having the appear- 
 ance of a castle in ruins ; at the bottom are some 
 rows of seats rising like the benches of a theatre, 
 opposite to which is an orchestra ; here on grand 
 
LESSON XLVII. SALT. 197 
 
 occasions a small band play a few airs of slow and 
 simple music, which has a most singular effect 
 in harmony with the surrounding scene. Long 
 galleries and flights of steps, all spacious enough 
 to allow free course to the fresh air, lead deeper 
 and deeper in the saline rock ; the scene now 
 and then varied by a cavern full of workmen, and 
 some along the galleries wheeling their little 
 carts full of salt, each with its lamp in front. On 
 the fourth foor there is a little subterraneous 
 lake, about 80 feet long and 40 broad, over which 
 illustrious personages are ferried on rafts of fir 
 logs, .lighted by numerous flambeaux. Here ter- 
 minates the bed of green salt, the most common 
 sort and easiest to be cut. That next to it is 
 called spisa salt, which is harder and more close 
 grained, and next succeeds a white and finer 
 grained variety. This part of the mine is 700 
 feet below the surface of the earth ; 300 feet be- 
 neath this lies the finest crystal salt, which is 
 reached by long flights of steps and inclined 
 planes. The cavern in which it is found is suf- 
 ficiently spacious for a regiment of soldiers to 
 perform their manoeuvres in it. This is the deep- 
 est part of the mine : the air is quite pure, rather 
 cooler than that of the open day, but much 
 warmer than it is about half-way down. The re- 
 turn is through a different series of corridors and 
 caverns. On tlie third floor is a simple tomb of 
 salt with the name of the late Emperor of Austria 
 inscribed with letters of wood neatly gilt. On 
 the second floor is a large saloon with all the im- 
 plements of mining and the mode of letting them 
 down with men and horses exhibited in transpa- 
 rency. On the first is a chapel, presenting an 
 17* 
 
198 FIFTH SERIES. 
 
 altar, statue of the Virgin, crucifix, and figures 
 of Casimir I. and his wife, all cut out of the solid 
 salt ; before the chapel is a small pulpit in the 
 Gothic style. To visit the whole of this extraor- 
 dinary and extensive mine, with all its galleries 
 and caverns, no less a distance than 300 miles 
 must be traversed. 
 
 The salt used in England is chiefly obtained 
 from the sea, or salt brine springs. The saline 
 water is admitted into open shallow trenches, and 
 being exposed to the sun or artificial heat, the 
 water is evaporated, and the salt is left in a crys- 
 talline state. 
 
 There are salt springs and extensive manufac- 
 tories of salt at Salina in New-York and in vari- 
 ous other places in the United States. 
 
 The conservative properties of salt render it in- 
 valuable for economical purposes, and its stimu- 
 lating flavor in correcting the insipidity of food. 
 When fused it is used in glazing pottery. It is 
 valuable as a manure, on account of its promoting 
 the growth of vegetation. 
 
 It was employed in all the, Jewish ceremonies, 
 being emblematical of purity and incorruptibility. 
 Our blessed Lord calls his disciples the salt of 
 the earth, thereby signifying to them, that being 
 seasoned with grace themselves, they should sea- 
 son and purify others, communicating to them a 
 principle which will preserve them from the cor- 
 ruption that is in the world. 
 
LESSON XLVIII. SLATE. 199 
 
 LESSON XLVIII. 
 
 SLATE. 
 
 Slate is a mineral substance ; it is never found 
 crystallized, though it is of a foliated structure ; it 
 is either of a gray, bluish, or blackish color ; and 
 is opaque, dull and brittle. It consists chiefly of 
 alumine, with a small quantity of silex. It is dug 
 out of quarries j when first taken from them, it is 
 comparatively soft, but becomes hard by expo- 
 sure to the air. It is used for writing, for whet- 
 stones, and for roofing houses. In order to as- 
 certain its fitness for the latter purpose, it is 
 weighed as soon as it is excavated ; it is then put 
 into water for some days : if after being well dried 
 it is found to have increased in weight, it is laid 
 aside as unsuitable for tlie purpose, the trial having 
 proved that it was porous. Sucli slate would not 
 only allow water to pass through it and so destroy 
 the wood-work of buildings, but it would also be 
 liable to be covered wdth lichens and moss, in 
 consequence of the moisture which it retains. If 
 its quality is ascertained to be good, it is split 
 into thin plates for roofing. The tiles are fastened 
 to the rafters by pegs driven through holes which 
 have been previously made in them ; the edge of 
 one is laid ov er the other in the same manner as the 
 scales of fishes. Slate which is dark-colored, com- 
 pact, and solid, is the best adapted for writing upon. 
 In order to prepare the slate for this purpose, it is 
 rendered smooth with an iron instrument, and it 
 is then ground with sandstone, and slightly pol- 
 ished. That which is softer and more friable is 
 used for pencils. 
 
200 _ riFTH SERIES. 
 
 LESSON XLIX. 
 
 CORAL. 
 
 Corals are the secretions made by polype in- 
 sects, inhabiting the deep ; they sometimes as- 
 sume the forms of branches, of the most beautiful 
 appearance ; sometimes they resemble beads strung 
 in a necklace, whilst others present a more con- 
 solidated mass, but are all perforated with pores 
 more or less minute, the haliitations of the little 
 architects. 
 
 Among the various phenomena that the works 
 of creation open to our view, there are perhaps 
 none more calculated to excite astonishment and 
 admiration, than the vast coral reefs that rise up 
 from the deep, and at times even constitute islands. 
 They are produced from a calcareous matter 
 which exudes from the coral worm, and harden- 
 ing forms at once their habitation and their mau- 
 soleum. This creature is of the class of zoo- 
 phytes, the lowest grade of animal life, the link 
 between it and the vegetable kingdom. They only 
 work under water, so that the coral reefs never 
 rise above the level of the sea; when the tide 
 retires, they appear to be dry compact rock, rug- 
 ged, and perforated ; but when the returning 
 waters wash its sides, a most interesting spectacle 
 of active life is presented, and countless myriads 
 of various shapes and colors protrude themselves 
 from the orifices, and the whole edifice seenos 
 teeminsf with life and animation. 
 
LESSON XLIX. CORAL. 201 
 
 The growth of the coral ceases when the worm 
 is no longer exposed to the washing of the sea ; 
 the work is then commenced at the sides, and 
 other parts rise in succession till they reach the 
 same height, and form a level surface at the top, 
 with steep precipitous sides. In this manner, 
 and by such insignificant agents, atom deposited 
 upon atom, the solid rock is at length produced ; 
 upon this the sea deposits sand, mud, and decayed 
 sea-weed ; these prepare for mosses and lichens, 
 which in their turn form a soil for more perfect 
 vegetation ; till at last the island thus formed, be- 
 comes a fit residence for man. 
 
 As these rocks are constructed beneath the 
 surface of the sea, they present no beacon to warn 
 the mariner of their existence, and thus render 
 navigation in those seas in which they abound, 
 exceedingly dangerous. 
 
202 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 Ahsorlent, that which sucks up liquids, as sponge. A sub-"" 
 stance is never absorbent without being at the same time 
 porous, for if there were no pores the fluid could not enter 
 the substance. All substances are in a degree porous, 
 but we only attribute the quality to those in which it 
 is obvious. 
 
 Adhesive, that which is composed of particles, not only uniting 
 firmly together, but wliich join themselves to other sub- 
 stances. Thus gum, when placed between two pieces of 
 paper, attaches itself to each, and causes a union between 
 the two. 
 
 Aromatic, that which has a pungent spicy smell. 
 
 Astringent, contracting, causing soft substances to contract. 
 
 Bright, shining. 
 
 Brittle, that which is easily broken : hard substances only are 
 brittle. 
 
 Concave, any portion of the internal surface of a hollow sphere. 
 
 Conservative, that which preserves. 
 
 Convex, any portion of the external surface of a sphere. 
 
 Cylindrical, a form having two flat and one curved surface 
 as a ruler. 
 
 Ductile, that which is capable of being drawn out into length. 
 
 Dull, that which absorbs the light instead of reflecting it. 
 
 Edible or Eatable, that which is fit for food. 
 
 Elastic, that which, when bent or stretched, returns to its 
 original position. 
 
 Effervescent, that which bubbles up from internal commotion. 
 
 Exotic, that which is not produced in our own country. 
 
 Exported, that which is sent out from our ports. 
 
 Flat, a surface is flat that lies evenly between its boundaries: 
 as the ceiling, floor, &c. 
 
 Flexible, that which can be bent easily. 
 
 Fluid, that which has parts easily separable, which flows 
 about. 
 
 Fragrant, that which has an agreeable smell 
 
 Friable, that which crumbles easily. 
 
 Fusible^ that which melts in fire. 
 
DICTIONARY. 203 
 
 Granulous, that which separates into grains or small particles 
 as sand. 
 
 Hard, that which presents a strong resistance to the touch. 
 
 Imbricated, that which is arranged in the manner of the tiles 
 of a house. 
 
 Impressible, that which easily receives and retains an im- 
 pression. 
 
 Imported, that which is brought into our ports. 
 
 Incompressible^ that which cannot be forced into a smaller 
 compass. 
 
 Indigenous, that which is the natural production of a country : 
 this term is applied to vegetables, as native is applied to 
 men. 
 
 Inodc^ous, that which has no smell. 
 
 Laminated, that which is arranged in thin coats or laminae. 
 
 Liquid, properly signifies that which is melted ; any thing 
 which we can drink, or which forms into drops. Air is a 
 fluid. Water is both fluid and liquid : when we speak of it 
 as a stream or current, it is properly called a fluid ; but 
 when we speak of it as passing from a congealed to a dis- 
 solved state, it should properly be called a liquid. 
 
 Magnifying, that which makes things appear larger than they 
 actually are. 
 
 Malleable, that which is capable of great extension when 
 beaten, without the particles being separated by the opera- 
 tion. Thus a grain of gold can be beaten out to a sheet of 
 extreme thinness. 
 
 Metallic, that which has the nature of metals. 
 
 Nutritious, that which contains much nourishment. 
 
 Odorous, that which has any smell. 
 
 Opaque, that through which nothing can be seen. 
 
 Cfval, the form of an egg. 
 
 Pliable, that which can be folded easily into plaits. Thus a 
 young twig is flexible, hnen is pliable. 
 
 Porous, that which is full of small pores or holes. 
 
 Pulverable, that which can be reduced to a powder. 
 
 Pungent, that which is warm to the taste. 
 
 Reflective, reflecting or giving back an image; this qiiality 
 depends upon the former. A river that is bright reflects 
 its banks. 
 
 Sapid, that which has a flavor. 
 
 Semi-transparent, that which is seen through imperfectly 
 
204 DICTIONARY. .^-^f^/ ^- 
 
 )So/f, that which yields to the touch. ^ % i. 
 
 Solid, that which is composed of particles adhering closely 
 together ; in this sense it is opposed to fluid. 
 
 Solid, that which fills up a space ; in this sense it is opposed 
 to hollovi. 
 
 Soluble, that which melts in a fluid. 
 
 Spherical, the form of a sphere or globe. 
 
 Sparkling, that which does not present a continued brightness, 
 but one interrupted, as in sugar. 
 
 Tenacious, that which is composed of particles uniting firmly 
 together. Thus gum being tenacious, the particles cannot 
 easily be separated, and on this account it acts as a cement. 
 Glue being more tenacious acts as a still stronger cement. 
 
 Tough, that which is capable of being bent or stretched with- 
 out breaking. 
 
 Translucent, that through which light only can be seen. 
 
 Transparent, that which can be seen through. 
 
 Tuhvlar, a hollow cylinder. 
 
 THE END.