I V * ' • «*- -ft? ^^ 0^' .'t;s5^-- ^o 0-^" .c:,^. ^-^^ kp-*^^ ^^-n^^ ;t» -A v^ 4!^ A <> '•'^.'^** .0^ "^ ♦/'XT*' A BY HERBERT E. GREGORY AND ARTHUR J. ELLIS u ' Prepared in cooperation with the Connecticut State Geological and Natural History Survey WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1916 •7 .y^i D. of D. MAY 31 1916 -^t^ CONTENTS. Page. Introduction 9 The problem 9 History of the investigat^n 10 Acknowledgments 11 Areas selected for study 11 Reliability of data 13 Occurrence of ground water 14 Origin 14 Water in the glacial drift 15 Cii'culation 15 The water table 17 Quantity of water 18 Water in crystalline rocks and traps 20 Circulation .- 20 Quantity of water 21 Water in limestones and Triassic sediments 22 Circulation 22 Quantity of water 24 Ground water for municipal use 25 Problems involved 25 Quantity required 26 Quality of water 27 Methods of obtaining water 27 Principal sources 27 Streams 28 Springs 28 Wells drilled into rock 29 Dug wells 30 Infiltration galleries 30 Driven wells 31 General conditions 31 Plant at Brookline, Mass 31 Plant at Brooklyn, N. Y 34 Plant at Plainfield, N.J 34 Private springs and wells 36 Methods of developing ground-water supplies 38 Drilled wells 38 Construction 38 Cost 39 Quality of water 39 Improvements 39 Driven wells 40 Infiltration galleries 42 Dug wells o »..,..,..,, , 43 4- CONTENTS. Page. Descriptions of towns 46 Hai'tford 46 Population and industries 46 Topography 47 Water-bearing formations 47 Surface-water supplies 49 Ground-water supplies 49 Municipal water supply 51 Quality of ground water 51 West Hartford 52 Population and industries ^ 52 Topography 53 Water-bearing formations 53 Surface-water supplies 54 Ground-water supplies 54 Suggested developments 56 Records of wells and springs 57 Quality of ground water 58 Newington 59 Population and industries 59 Topography 59 Water-bearing formations 60 Ground-water supplies 60 Public water supply 61 Records of wells and springs 62 Quality of ground water 63 Wethersfield - 64 Population and industries 64 Topography 64 Water-bearing formations 65 Ground-water supplies 65 Public water supply 66 Records of wells and springs 66 Quality of ground water 67 East Hartford 68 Population and industries 68 Topography 68 Water-bearing formations 69 Surface-water supplies 70 Ground-water supplies 70 Public water supply 71 Records of wells 71 Quality of ground water 72 Manchester 72 Population and industries 72 Topography 73 Water-bearing formations 73 Surface-water supplies , 74 Ground-water supplies ^ 74 Public water supplies 75 Records of wells and springs 75 Quality of ground water 77 CONTENTS. 5 Descriptions of towns — Continued, Page. South Windsor 78 Population and industries 78 Topography 78 Water-bearing formations 79 Ground-water supplies 80 Records of wells and springs 81 Eaat Windsor 82 Population and industries 82 Topography 83 Water-bearing formations 83 Ground-water supplies 84 Public water supply 85 Records of wells 85 Quality of gi'ound water 86 Windsor 87 Population and industries 87 Topography 87 Water-bearing formations 88 Ground -water supplies 88 Records of wells and springs 89 Quality of ground water 90 Bloomfield 90 Population and industries 90 Topography 91 Water-bearing formations 91 Ground-water supplies ,... 92 Records of wells and springs. 93 Quality of ground water 94 Stamford 95 Population and industries 95 Topography 96 Water-bearing formations 96 Surface-water supplies 97 Ground-water supplies 98 Public water supplies 99 Records of wells and spring;^ 99 Quality of ground water 105 Greenwich 105 Population and industries 105 Topography 106 Water-bearing formations 106 Surface-water supplies 107 Ground-water supplies 107 Public water supplies 108 Records of wells and springs 108 Quality of ground water 110 Salisbury 110 Population and industries 110 Topography Ill Water-bearing formations 113 Surface-water supplies 115 Ground-water supplies 115 Public water supply 116 b CONTENTS. Descriptions of towns — Continuefl. Salisbury — Continued. Page. Records of wells and springs 116 Quality of ground water 118 North Canaan 118 Population and industries 118 Topography 119 Water-bearing formations 119 Ground-water supplies 120 Public water supply 120 Records of wells and springs 121 Canaan 122 Population and industries 122 Topography 122 Water-bearing formations 123 Surface-water supplies 124 Ground-water supplies 124 Records of wells and springs 124 Windham 125 Population and industries 125 Topography 126 Water-bearing formations 126 Ground-water supplies 127 Public water supply 128 Records of wells and springs 128 Qualit)' of ground water 129 Franklin 129 Population and industries 129 Topography 130 Water-bearing formations 130 Ground-water supplies 131 Records of wells and springs 131 Quality of ground water 132 Saybrook 133 Population and industries 133 Topography ]33 Water-bearing formations 133 Ground-water supplies 134 Public water supply 134 Records of wells and springs 134 Essex 136 Population and industries 136 Topogi-aphy 136 Water-bearing formations 137 Ground-water supplies 137 Public water supply 138 Records of wells 138 Westbrook 139 Population and industries 139 Topography 139 Water-bearing formations 139 Ground-water supplies 140 Records of wells 140 Quality of ground water 142 COI^TENTS. 7 Descriptions of towns — Continued. Page. Old Lyme 142 Population and industries 142 Topography 143 Water-bearing formations 143 Ground-water supplies 144 Records of wells 144 Quality of ground water 146 Index 147 ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. Plate I. A, Section of till, Windham, Conn. ; B, Section of sand dune, South Windsor, Conn 16 n. A, Stratified drift (gi'avel), Stamford, Conn.; B, Stratified drift (clay), Hartford, Conn 17 TTT. Sections through Connecticut River valley near Hartford, showing relation of rock surface to land surface 18 rV. A, Crystalline rock showing fissiu-es, Stamford, Conn. ; B, Trap rock showing fissures, Hartford, Conn 20 V. A, Sandstone showing fissui'es, Hartford, Conn. ; B, Limestone show- ing solution channels at the surface along joint cracks, Salisbury, Conn 21 VI. Plan of property and detail of wells of waterworks at Plainfield, N. J., 1891 34 VII. Contact of trap rock with underlying- sandstone, Hartford, Conn 48 VIII. Map showing collecting areas of the Hartford waterworks 52 IX. Map of Hartford area In pocket. X. Map of Stamford area In pocket. XI. Map of Salisbury area In pocket. XII. Map of Willimantic area In pocket. XIII. Map of Saybrook area In pocket. Figure 1. Map of Connecticut showing physiogi-aphic provinces, geologic formations, and areas covered by this report 12 2. Diagrammatic section illustrating position and fluctuation of the water table under various conditions 18 3. Diagrams showing fluctuation of the water table in wells 19 4. Section of the Connecticut Triassic area as a synclinal basin, showing conditions favorable for artesian wells 21 5. Section of the Connecticut Triassic area as a simple faulted mono- cline, showing conditions favorable for several small artesian basins 22 6. Section of till-covered rock slope and stratum of sand interbedded with clay, showing conditions favorable for artesian flows 23 7. Diagram illustrating increase of yield with depth in well at Hart- ford Sanatorium 24 8. Curves illustrating yields of drilled wells 25 9. Diagram of driven well 40 10. Diagram of siphon well and domestic waterworks 45 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD, STAMFORD, SALISBURY, WILLIMANTIC, AND SAYBROOK AREAS, CONNECTICUT. By Herbert E. Gregory and Arthur J. Ellis. INTRODUCTION. THE PROBLEM. The census of 1910 reported the population of Connecticut as 1,114,756. The area of the State is 5,004 square miles. The average density of population is therefore about 220 per square mile, but the distribution of population is markedly uneven. More than 53 per cent of the inhabitants are gathered into 19 cities, each containing over 10,000 souls. The cities are rapidly increasing in population, but parts of the State — about 24 per cent of the towns — are more sparsely settled to-day than in 1860. Broadly speaking, the people of Connecticut are engaged in two occupations— manufacturing and mixed agriculture. Manufacturing is increasing at a rapid rate; agri- culture at a slower rate, but with a distinct tendency toward special- ization. There is in addition a tendency to utilize the scenery of the State — a tendency resulting in the development of country estates and shore homes. With an annual rainfall of 45 inches, Connecticut has in the aggre- gate large supphes of both surface and ground water, but the rainfall is sometimes deficient through periods of several weeks or months. Consequently farmers must endure periods of drought, manufacturers must provide against fluctuating water power, and the inhabitants of congested districts must arrange for adequate municipal supplies. With increase in population and diversification of interests conflicts between water-power users and domestic consumers, as weU as be- tween towns, for the right to make use of a particular stream or area have aheady arisen. Demands are also being made by prospective users of the waters for irrigation and drainage. The question of quality of water also takes on new meaning with the effort to improve the healthfulness of the State and to reclaim the waters now polluted by factory waste and sewage. The necessity for obtaining small but unfailing supplies of potable water fo:^ the farm and for the village home furnishes an additional problem, for the condition of many private supplies in Connecticut is deplorable. 10 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS^ CONN. To meet the present situation and to provide for the future, State- wide regulations should be adopted. Obviously the first step in the solution of the Connecticut water problem is to make a comprehen- sive study of both surface and ground waters to obtain answers to the following questions : How much water is stored in the gravels and sands and bedrock of the State ? How much does the amount fluc- tuate with the seasons? Wliat is the quality of the water? How may it best be recovered in large amounts ? In small amounts ? What is the expense of procuring it? How much water may the streams of the State be relied upon to furnish ? How much is the stream water polluted ? How may the jDollution be remedied ? To what use should each stream be devoted ? What is the equitable distribution of ground and surface waters among the conflicting claunants — industries and communities ? HISTORY OF THE INVESTIGATION. The study of the water resources of Connecticut was begun in 1903 by the senior author of the present paper, under the auspices of the United States Geological Survey. A preliminary report was issued in 1904.^ A discussion of the fundamental problems relating to the State as a whole, pubhshed in 1909,^ meets in a broad way the require- ments of the scientist and the engineer, but it is not designed to furnish a solution for local problems and is not sufficiently detailed to furnish data for use in a quantitative study of ultimate supply and its utilization. It was recognized that conditions in the State are so varied that each section of the State has its individual problem, and that in order to obtain data of direct practical value the conditions surrounding each town, and, where feasible, each farm and each village, should be investigated. Realizing the importance of such studies to Connecticut, the State joined forces with the Federal Government in order to carry on this work. In 1911 a cooperative agreement was entered into by the United States Geological Survey and the Connecticut Geological and Natural History Survey for the purpose of obtaining information concerning the quantity and quality of waters available for municipal and private uses. The investigation was to be conducted through a period of two or more years, the cost to be shared equally by the parties to the agreement. Herbert E. Gregory, geologist, of the United States Geological Survey, was placed in charge of the inves- tigation and Arthur J. EUis, a junior geologist of the Federal Survey, was assigned to field work on ground waters. The present report 1 Gregory, H. E. [notes on the wells, springs, and general water resources of], Connecticut: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 102, pp. 127-168, 1904. 2 Gregory, H. E., and Ellis, E. E., Underground water resources of Connecticut: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 232, 1909. INTRODUCTION. 11 is the first of a series of papers which are so planned as to cover eventually all the towns of the State. As the funds available were meager it appeared wise to devote most of the time to a study of ground waters, leaving studies of stream flow to be taken up later. Certain stream measurements obtained by the United States Geological Survey and by corporations and individuals are available for use when the surface water problem is seriously attacked. The field work on which the present report is based was done by the junior author during the seasons of 1911 and 1912. The work consisted in gathering information concerning municipal water supphes; measuring the dug wells used in rural districts and obtain- ing other data in regard to them; obtaining data concerning drilled wells, driven wells, and springs; collecting and analyzing samples of water from wells, springs, and brooks; studying the character and rela- tions of bedrock and of surficial deposits with reference to their influ- ence upon the ground-water supply. An effort was made to obtain records of aU driUed wells in the areas under consideration, and as many dug weUs were examined as was deemed necessary to determme the position of the water table throughout the areas. The junior author is responsible also for the maps and for the larger part of the manuscript. The senior author's contribution includes formulation of plans, field and ofiice conferences, and outlining and in part preparing the manuscript for pubHcation. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The data relating to drilled wells were collected through the hearty cooperation of the well drillers in Connecticut. Other information that was of value m the preparation of this report was obtained from clerks of towns and from engineers of cities and of water com- panies, and services were rendered by Messrs. E. M. Hobby, Henry C. Cowles, Hadley G. Gray, G. L. Ladd, and Frank Palm in the collection of data in regard to changes of the water level in wells. The assistance thus received is acknowledged with thanks. Free use has been made of the technical literature deahng with water supplies and credit is given for specific facts taken from these sources, but the report contains also material gathered from the reports of previous investigations, some of which can not be rightly attributed to any one author. AREAS SELECTED FOR STUDY. The areas with which this report is concerned represent the typical geologic conditions of Connecticut. (See fig. 1.) The Hartford area mcludes the towns of Hartford, West Hartford, Newington, Wethersfield, East Hartford, Manchester, Windsor, East Windsor, 12 r.ROUND WATER IN THE HARTFOEO AXD OTHER AREAS, CONN, oissviy± NVDiAoayo QNV d^aiO QNV NvidQiNVD Diozoanvd o i..'.....-i ^ o i/> i" >- Q. •o I. U 1_ ra'p O -00 ^~ -Q -o => Vl- h 05 1) l- > 0) X -1- nj CD O ° m — CO ro RELIABILITY OF DATA. 13 South Windsor, and Bloomfield. It lies in the Connecticut River valley and is imderlain by Triassic sediments and lavas. The Stamford area mcludes the towns of Stamford and Greenwich. It hes in the southwest corner of the State and is underlain by crystal- luie rocks. The SaUsbury area is in the northwest corner of the State and includes the towns of Sahsbury, Canaan, and North Canaan. The lowlands in this area are underlam by hmestone. The to\\'ns of Windham and Frankhn are designated hi this report as the Willimantic area. They are situated in the eastern highlands and are underlain by metamorphic rocks of various types, on which a highly varied topography has been developed. Saybrook, Essex, Westbrook, and Old Lyme, which comprise the Saybrook area, are at the mouth of Connecticut River, where the land is low and comparatively flat and where the presence of salt water is a feature of ground-water problems. RELIABILITY OF DATA. The principal well data are given in tables appended to the detailed reports on the several to'VNTis. The depth and diameter of the dug wells and the amount of water in them were determined by measure- ment. The information presented as to depth to rock and the con- sumption of water is in general based on data supplied by local resi- dents. The elevations of the wells and springs were determined by means of a hand level, the base used for each determination being the assumed height of some point through which a mapped contour line would pass. The error may be cfe much as 10 or 15 feet in the most hilly sections but is doubtless usually less than 5 feet. The limita- tions of the accuracy of the mapping of underground surfaces must also be taken into account. The estimated yields of drilled wells are based on tests made by the drillers when the wells were completed; for some of the dug wells the yield was computed from observation of the length of time taken to pump the well dry, the known rate of pumping, and the dimensions of the weU; for others the yield was estimated from the low^ering of the water in a given length of time by pumping at a known rate. For wells from which nearly all the water available was being consumed the yield was computed from the amount used each day. Information concerning the yield of a few improved springs w^as obtained by actual measure- ments of the overflow; the yield of others was computed from measurements of the velocity and cross section of the streams issuing from them; for still others the figures given represent the yield as estimated by the owners. The quantity of ground water available at any particular time depends on the character of the weather previous to that time. For 14 GEOUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. the year 1911 the precipitation in Connecticut was somewhat less than the average; from January 1 until August 23 it was about 6 inches below normal. The fall of 1910 was dry, and many dug wells failed during the following winter. The drought was broken during the last part of the winter, and when the field work was begun in June the supply of water in dug wells was sufficient for domestic uses although not abundant. Practically no rain fell from the be- ginning of the summer until August 24, and by that time the water in dug wells was generally low and many weUs had again failed. From August 24 to September 1, inclusive, it rained practically with- out ceasing. No wells were measured after it began to rain until September 5, so that four days were allowed for the wells to recover from flooding. However, the measurements made after September 5 showed a large average increase in the depth of water. From that time until the end of the year there were occasional rains and all weUs yielded water. During 1912 the rainfall was about normal up to the early part of July, so that in May, when field work was begun, wells were generally in satisfactory condition, and although the precipitation during the last part of the year was somewhat below normal, the number of wells that failed was considerably less than in 1911. OCCURRENCE OF GROUND WATER. ORIGIN. The ground water of Connecticut is derived from the precipitation within the State and near its borcj^rs. Owing to the ruggedness of the surface of the bedrock and the thinness of the overlying drift, which together prevent extensive underground circulation, the ground water at any particular place comes from near-by sources. . The precipitation is evenly distributed over the State and is nearly uniform throughout the year, as shown in the following tables: Average precipitation at 10 stations in Connecticut, 1893-190S."' Month. January... February . March April May June July August September October... Inches. 4.28 3.94 4.23 3.53 4.03 2.95 4.42 4.30 3.34 4.40 Month. Inches. November December Average for season; Winter Spring Summer Fall 4.48 3.44 46.98 11.66 11.79 11.67 11.82 a Gregory, H. E., and Ellis, E. E., Underground water resources of Connecticut: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-supply Paper 232, p. 24, 1909. OCCURRENCE OF GROUND WATER. Geographic distribution of precipitation. (^ 15 Locality. New Haven. Middletown. Hartford ... Storrs North Grosvenordale. Cream Hill Average annual Years in- precipi- cluded. tation. Inches. 45.89 b 1804-1908 49.25 c 1859-1901 44.30 d 1847-1908 47.16 1897-1906 45.00 e 1891-1908 48.06 1897-1908 a Summaries of climatological data by sections: U. S. Weather Bureau Bull. W, vol. 2, sec. 105, p. 10, 1912. h Except 1805, 1822 to 1826, 1828 to 1864, 1868 to 1872. Continuous record for 36 years, 1873 to 1908, inclu- sive, gives mean annual rainfall of 46.97 inches, c Except 1860, 1863, 1883, 1884, 1892, 1898, 1899. d Except 1853 to 1866, inclusive. e Except 1898 and 1899. ITie following table shows the monthly precipitation in Connecticut during 1911 and 1912 compared with the average monthly precipi- tation in the State: Average monthly precipitation {in inches) in Connecticut, 1893-1903, 1911, and 1912. Month. January February March April May June July August September October November December January January and February January to March, inclusive January to April, inclusive January to May, inclusive January to June, inclusive January to July, inclusive January to August, inclusive. . . January to September, inclusive Jamoary to October, inclusive. . . January to November, inclusive January to December, inclusive . Average of Average of Average of 10 stations, 20 stations. 20 stations, 1893-1903. 1911. 1912. 4.28 3.09 2.41 3.94 2.70 2.67 4.23 3.76 7.48 3.53 4.73 4.30 4.03 1.36 4.95 2.95 2.36 0.75 4.42 3.01 2.94 4.30 5.87 3.86 3.34 2.94 2.69 4.40 6.34 2.33 4.48 5.09 3.85 3.44 3.28 5.19 47.34 44. 53 43. 42 4.28 3.09 2.41 8.22 5.79 5.08 12. 45 9.55 12.56 15.98 14.28 16.86 20.01 15.64 21.81 22.96 18.00 22. .56 27. 38 21.01 25. 50 31.68 26.88 29. 36 35. 02 29.82 32. 05 39.42 36.16 34.38 43.90 41.25 38.23 47.34 44.53 43.42 WATER IN THE GLACIAL DRIFT. CIRCULATION. The chief water-bearing formations of Connecticut are the uncon- sohdated materials that cover the bedrock. These materials were derived from the great ice sheets which in the Pleistocene epoch extended over the State. They are of two general t}'pes: The unstratified drift, also called ''till" (PI. I, A), consists of het-ero- geneoiis mixtureB of all the rock debris deposited directly by the ice; IG t.liOUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN, the stratified drift consists of glacial materials that were rehandled b>^ water and is therefore assorted into layers of different degrees of coarseness (PL II, A). The unconsolidated surface materials absorb rain water at a rate and to an extent depending chiefly on their porosity. The most porous beds are composed of gravel and sand, the least porous of compact clays. The unstratified drift, wliich covers most of the State, is a mixture of bowlders, gravel, sand, and clay and has a porosity depending upon the relative amounts of these materials. Much of the unstratified drift of Connecticut is of the ''stony" or ''bowldery" type, containing little or no clay and possessing a degree of porosity equal to that attained by coarse varieties of stratified drift. The less porous types of unstratified drift may be represented by the following average of the analyses of 16 samples collected from 12 drumlins in the Boston Basin. ^ These analyses were made after removing aU stones 2 inches or more in diameter, or about 10 per cent of the original material. Composition of unstratified drift in Boston Basin. Per cent. Gravel 24. 90 Sand 19. 51 Rock flour 43. 66 Clay (three-fourths rock flour) 11. 67 99.94 Other factors infiuencing the amount of water absorbed are the growth of vegetation, the topography, the occurrence and duration of frost in the ground, and the atmospheric conditions that determine evaporation and rates of precipitation. The water absorbed by the soil descends and saturates the lower part of the glacial drift, which serves as a reservoir for the storage of this water. The efficiency of the drift in this respect depends largely on the rate of underground drainage, the three principal fac- tors of which are porosity, the arrangement of layers having different porosities, and the topography of the bedrock on which the water- bearing bed rests. The most porous beds, as, for example, the dune sands of the Connecticut River vaUey (PI. I, B), absorb water most rapidly, but they also allow the water to circulate most freely and are therefore most rapidly drained. Impervious materials, such as clays (PI. II, B), occurring among porous deposits bear a relation to underground drainage similar to that between dams or other obstruc- tions and surface drainage — they divert or impound the percolating waters and in many places produce springs and swamps. Except whfere the drift is thick, the topography of the bedrock below the 1 Crosby, W. 0., Composition of till or bowlder clay: Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Proc, vol. 25, p. 124, 1890. U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 374 PLATE I A. SECTION OF TILL, WINDHAM, CONN. .,jsB»JBt --. — --4s: B. SECTION OF SAND DUNE, SOUTH WINDSOR, CONN. U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 374 PLATE II A. STRATIFIED DRIFT (GRAVELl, STAMFORD, CONN. B. STRATIFIED DRIFT (CLAY), HARTFORD, CONN. OCCUKKENCE OF GEOUND WATEE. 17 water-bearing beds is related to underground drainage as the topog- raphy of the land is related to surface drainage. Over most of Con- necticut the drift is thin and the topography of the bedrock surface closely conforms to the present topography of the land surface, except that it is more rugged and has greater rehef. The bedrock crops out on many of the hilltops and steep slopes but Hes far below the surface in the valleys (PL III). Because of the similarity between the forms of the rock surface and the surface of the ground, the direction of underground drainage corresponds very closely to the direction of surface drainage. The ground water, hke the surface water, flows most rapidly on steep slopes, but because of the resistance offered by the soil particles it moves much more slowly than the surface water and is generally replenished by rainfall before the supply con- tributed by previous rain has been drained away. Most of the groimd water finds its way to the surface through springs and seep- age areas, by capillary rise and evaporation, and by transpiration of trees and other plants ; the amount drawn from wells is comparatively small. THE WATER TABLE. The water table is the plane below which the ground is saturated with water. Its surface conforms somewhat to that of the land but is less rugged. It is generally nearest the land surface in the vaUeys; on the hilltops it may lie at depths of 30 to 40 feet. The surfaces of streams, ponds, and lakes are generally continuous with the water table and may be regarded as forming parts of it. In bogs, marshes, and other places where the ground is saturated to the surface, the water table and the surface of the ground coincide. Where the water table is not exposed, its position is indicated by the surface of the water in weUs. The position of the water table depends also on the character of the drift. Except in very low places it is, in general, nearer the surface in areas where the drift consists of clay or compact tiU and farther below the surface in areas where the drift is gravel and sand, because clay and till are less porous than gravel and sand and do not drain so rapidly. The accompanying maps. Plates IX to XIII (in pocket), represent the average position of the water table. Where dense rocks appear at or very near the surface there is no water table; the rock masses rise above the ground water like islands in a lake, and the position of the water table immediately surrounding them is indeterminate. Figure 2 illustrates the relative position of the water table in various kinds of drift and under different topographic conditions. The water table is constantly changing its position with respect to the surface of the ground, rising rapidly after a heavy rain, then 97889°— wsp 374—16 2 18 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. |(/3 0-: /'-I'C'" •ly^-.- ■-. 5 ro •I-': ^■•■svo/r -/.^: > -^ o "o "ij "o 11 II ^ I Q.li-CL gradually descending as the water is drained away. These changes may be observed by making suc- cessive measm-ements of the depth to water in wells. The zone tlirough which the water table fluctuates is called in this report the zone of fluctuation. In elevated positions, where the drift is thin, the water table may descend during a period of drought imtil it touches the rock surface and the water is all drained away; but in the vicinity of perennial streams or permanent bodies of water the change may not exceed a few inches during the year. The zone of fluctuation is therefore nar- rowest in the valleys and widest on the hills, where it may include the entire distance from the highest water level to the bedrock surface. Figure 3 shows the fluctuation of the water table as determined from measurements of wells in four towns in Connecticut. Other data con- cerning these wells appear in the tables on pages 71, 108, 132, 141. QUANTITY OF WATER. A rough conception of the annual supply of gromid water may be ob- taiaed by analyzing the relations between rainfaU and stream flow. Measurements of the rainfaU give the total amount of water which falls on a drainage basin, but only a part of tliis is contributed to the undergromid supply, the rest being in part returned to the atmosphere and in part cUscharged by surface streams. The total run-off from a drainage basin, as determined by stream measurements, includes both the surface drainage — that is, the WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 374 PLATE llf EJevation 1 in feet" r 600 - 500 ^ QJ c 1 c - 400 >> 3 ^ Nj O 2\ o - 300 ^ -^ <0 .•.;.77^:; f 200 < s. s. •>J ^ ^ - 100 - c --!00 c 3 or^rN N" o o •^. Elevation A, --^00 ^ c 2 ^ In feet 1 = r700 I D c ^ ^ fc ^ -600 -M 1 0) 1 '(U • . . c -500 n: :2 ' y ^"^■^--^^•>; {-5^- -^ /.^-'.;*:v' -4-00 ^_^^ ^'j'-'v.--' ^^<^^ ' ■ ' N^/s-/r/-'- ^^y^^^^'^-h . . * / / / ~" \ . ' -300 ^':y :'■■■■':'■'■■■■:: - 200 *• •- •'• ,' ^ -'' r-v^-'^r'i' 'v;-^:;7.^' - 100 - , J. ' s /^N ' - 7^ "^'Z: --100 HRO C-\J^J + + + + 56 (t ^ V SECTION A, THROUGH BLOOMFIELD, WINDSOR, AND EAST WINDSOR QUATERNARY SECTION B, THROUGH WEST HARTFORD, HARTFORD, AND EAST HARTFORD LEGEND Reccut deposits ori3 glacial dritt IDiabupe (tiaproclii SECTIONS THROUGH RIVER VALLEY NEAR HARTFORD, SHOWING RELATION OF ROCK SURFACE TO LAND SURFACE. OCCUKEENCE OF GEOUND WATEE. 19 Feet 15 r Henry C. Cowles, East Hartford, Conn. 10- I I I I I I I I T l I I I 1 1 i T i I 1 I I P i I 1 1 I I I I I I I i f I I 1 1 I ff I I I I ff I I 11 I I M ^ Surface of ground Water level Bottom of well 'I M I | l iTl I i | I I ri I i| M I I I I I iTl I i[ I n I I ]-r 1 1 I I I I I 1 1 I I I ni I I iT I 11 1 I I I June 1 to Dec. 31 Jan. 1 to July 1 1913 Hadley G. Gray, North Franklin, Conn. 1914 u -] Surface of ground " I n I I I II I " Water level Bottom of well I I V T I I i | I I n I i | I I I I 1 1 n I I I i| 1 I I I I I I I I I I i | I I I I I 20 June 1 to Dec. 31 Jan. 1 to July 1 1913 G. L. Ladd, North Franklin, Conn. 1914 15- 10- 5- I r i I I I I I Surface of ground Water level I I I I I I I I I 11 I I ' I T I Ivvaier levei Bottom of I I well I I I I I I I I I n I I I T I 11 I I I I 1 1 I I T I I I I I I II I I I T I i | I I I I I [ I I T I I i| I I ri 11 M i| I 20 June 1 to Dec. 31 1913 A. J. Post, Westbrook, Conn. Jan. 1 to July 1 1914 15- 10- 5- LI n Surface of ground Water level Bottom of well < 1913 1914 E. M. Hobby, Greenwich, Conn. Q Q Surface of ground T-T^ u Water level Bottom of well CJ t> 1912 FiGUEK 3.— Diagrams showing fluctuation of the water table in wells. 20 GEOUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS^ CONN. water wliich has never formed part of the underground supply — and the underground drainage — the water that has passed into the sui'face streams from the water bed. The water which is returned to the atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration is ui part surface water and in part ground water. A rough index of its quantity is obtained by subtracting the total annual run-off from the total annual precipitation. The annual rainfall in Housatonic River basin above Gaylordsville, Conn, (area, 1,020 square miles), is 47.86 inches and the annual run-off is 29.43 inches. The loss — 18.43 inches — is attributed to evaporation, plant growth, and other causes. vSimilarly, in the basin of Connecticut River above Orford (area, 3,300 square miles) the aimiual precipitation is 36.76 inches and the annual run-off is 21.66 mches, the loss being 15.10 inches. These and other data compiled by J. C. Hoyt ^ indicate that in the northeastern United States between 30 and 40 per cent of the rainfall is returned to the atmosphere. It is not possible to determine from the data at hand what part of this water is derived from the undergroimd supply. AH perennial streams he below the water table and are maintained dur- ing dry seasons by infiltration from the saturated part of the drift. During a rainy season and for some time thereafter the streams carry more or less water that has not been dra\vn from the ground water. Dming the succeeding dry season this surface water is discharged, and the streams finally reach a stage at which the run-off is derived almost entirely from the ground water. At low stages the discharge of ground water is not much less than the amount carried by the streams and it increases immediately after rains, owing to the con- tribution from intermittent springs and seepage areas and to a general acceleration of underground circulation by hydrostatic pres- sure. In addition to the groimd water discharged by streams large quantities of water are stored in drift-fiUed rock basins below the valley floors, as, for example, in the valley of Connecticut River near Hartford, where saturated deposits consisting largely of sand extend nearly 100 feet below the river bed. The quantity of water in such basins depends on the size of the basins and the porosity of the valley fill; but if the water is withdrawn the basins must be replenished by water usually carried in the streams; therefore, strictly speaking, these supphes are not available in addition to the amounts carried by the streams. WATER IN CRYSTALLINE ROCKS AND TRAPS. CIRCULATION. More than two-thirds of the area of Connecticut is underlain by crystaUine rocks whose ages have not been precisely determined, and in the remaining third of the State various Triassic lava sheets, 1 Hoyt, J. C, Comparison between rainfall and run-off in northeastern United States: Am. Soc. Civil Eng. Trans., vol. 59, p. 470, 1907. U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 374 PLATE IV A. CRYSTALLINE ROCK SHOWING FISSURES, STAMFORD, CONN. B. TRAP ROCK SHOWING FISSURES, HARTFORD, CONN. U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 374 PLATE V ^. SANDSTONE SHOWING FISSURES, HARTFORD, CONN. '4k<^ >'^-^-i^V- ■^A^ ' \-. 5. LIMESTONE SHOWING SOLUTION CHANNELS AT THE SURFACE ALONG JOINT CRACKS, SALISBURY, CONN. OCCURRENCE OF GROUND WATER. 21 popularly called 'Hrap rocks," are interbedded with sedimentary formations. As a result of the work of dynamic agencies the crys- talline and sedimentary rocks are intensely fractured, cracks being visible wherever the rocks are exposed (Pis. IV, A and B, and V, A). AU the crystalHne roclis and traps have a very low porosity — less than 1 per cent — and for this reason the circulation of water in them is confined practically to the cracks. Water enters the openings from the over- lying drift and passes in the direction of least resistance, down some sloping planes and up others, through vertical cracks, and horizontally tlirough level ones, until it becomes imprisoned in cracks with no outlets or until it reappears at the surface as springs or seepage. In general, the thickness of the zone of active circulation is nearly equal to the rehef of the land surface; that is, open- ings below the level of the valleys are generally filled with water that is not in motion until wells reach these depths and start circulation by drawing water to the surface. In places, however, these deeper- lying waters are forced by hydrostatic pressure along fault planes or major joints and reach the surface as artesian springs 05 as artesian wells (figs. 4, 5, and 6). QUANTITY OF WATER. g> o The quantity of water in crystalline | rocks and traps depends chiefly on the s- number and size of the cracks. Most of g. the opemngs are too narrow, even at the i- surface, to allow much water to pass, but | they are generally connected, either di- -^ rectly or indirectly, with larger fissures into which they drain, and it is the rami- fying systems of minor cracks which to large degree regulate the suppHes derived from rock borings. The openings in these rocks do not extend to great depths, and their size rapidly diminishes from the surface down- ward. Nearly all the cracks pinch out entirely within a few hundred 22 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. feet of the surface, and water-bearing fissures at greater depths are rare. As compared with tlie more porous drift, the crystalHne rocks and traps contain httle water, the average yield of wells in the crys- talline rocks of Connecticut being J about 15 gallons a minute. Figure ^ 8 (p. 25) shows the percentage of the ^ wells examined which yield various " specified quantities. a> > ^ WATER IN LIMESTONES AND •2 TRIASSIC SEDIMENTS. a o CIRCULATION. The most abundant sedimentary rocks of Connecticut are Triassic sandstones and shales, which occur in the vallej^s of Connecticut and Pomperaug rivere, and Cambrian and Ordovician limestone (Stock- bridge), which occurs in discontinu- ous patches along the west border of the State from the northwest corner of Greenwich to the Massa- chusetts boundary. All these sedi- mentary rocks have been meta- morphosed to greater or less degree, and their present textiu'e and struc- ture are such that the circulation of water in them is essentially like thaji in crystalline rocks. The average porosity of this sand- stone is 20 per cent or more, and its absorptive capacity is about 2 quarts of water per cubic foot, which equals 7 per cent,^ but most of the water in its pores is not directly available because of the high resistance of the sandstone to circulation. The sandstone is of economic impor- tance as a source of ground water only where fissures are present in which the water may be stored. 1 Gregory, H. E., and Ellis, E. E., Underground water resources of Connecticut: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 232, p. 105, 1909. u OCCURRENCE OF GROUND WATER. 23 Fissures are, however, very numerous in the sandstones, and consequently these rocks are an important source of ground water suppHes (PL V, A). The fissures are joints and fault cracks pro- duced by crustal movements and in some places widened by weathering and erosion. The widest fissures are sev- eral inches across; the nar- rowest are mere incipient cracks. They extend from the surface to depths of 300 or 400 feet, and they gen- erally grow narrower from the surface downward. The water in the sandstone, being derived chiefly from the drift at the surface, circulates through the fissures and re- appears at the surface at lower elevations as springs issuing from the rock. Shale does not occur in Connecticut as uninterrupted beds of wide extent, but in many localities it forms lenses in the sandstone. In general the shale is less porous than the sandstone, and in many places it is en- tirely impervious. It is im- portant in intercepting and directing the circulation of water in the sandstone, and weUs sunk through sand- stone usually find water im- mediately above shale beds. Some of the sandv varieties of shale are, however, more porous than the sandstone, and aU the shale is traversed by fissures through which water cir- culates as in the sandstone. 24 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. QUANTITY OF WATER. The quantity of water contained in the pores of the sand- stones and sandy shales is great, but owing to the minuteness of the pores the quantity recoverable by wells is small. This is illustrated by the well at the Hartford Sanatorium, which was drilled because owing to the altitude of the institution, city water was not available except by pumping. It was sunk to a depth of 974 feet in an effort to obtain a yield of 50 gallons a minute, the minimum amount required. The following table shows the increase in yield as the well was sunk. (See fig. 7.) Yield of Hartford Sanatorium veil at several speci- fied depths. 100 200 300 400 <0 <+- •- 500 .c Q. « Q 600 700 800 (900 1,1000 o Depth. Yield. Gallons Feet. per minute. 85 1 360 3 575 6 650 8 872 12 974 12 5 10 15 20 Yield, gallons per minute Figure 7.— Diagram illustrating increase of yield with depth in well at Hartford Sana- torium. Log of Hartford Sanatorium well. Feet. Till 10 Trap 565 Red sandstone 230 Trap 169 974 In places drills have penetrated to depths of 200 feet or more without encountering water-bearing fissures, and in many of these wells the seepage from the sandstone was so slight that it was neces- sary to add water from the surface to keep the drill holes wet. No successful wells have been reported in which the water did not come from fissures in the rocks; a considerable number of unsuccessful wells have been sunk in the sandstones which did not encounter water-bearing cracks, and the conclusion is that the porosity of the sandstone, though sufficient for the storage of large quantities of water, is not great enough to afford satisfactory yields by direct seepage into wells. Owing to the ramif3dng system of joints, how- ever, most of the wells drilled into the sandstone obtain sufficient water for domestic needs. Figure 8 shows the percentage of the wells examined yielding various specified amounts. The limestone differs from the sandstone in its relation to perco- lating water only in being much less porous and in being locally GROUND WATER FOE MUNICIPAL USE. 25 Percentage of wells — iNj ro Oi O tJl O traversed by joints and solution channels formed by water (PI. V, B). Water enters these passages, joints, or cracks from the saturated overlying material, circulates througli them, and eventually issues as springs or seeps back into drift at lower levels. The limestone is so com- pact that it contains only small quantities of water, and the solution channels by which it is traversed in some places serve as drains through the rock itseK and afford a rapid escape for water along their courses; conse- quently above the valley levels the lime- stone may become dry very early in a period of drought. GROUND WATER FOR MUNICIPAL USE. PROBLEMS IN- VOLVED. The problems to be considered in planning the use of ground water for a new or enlarged pub- lic water system re- late to the quantity of water available, the quality of the water, the methods of obtaining it, and the cost of establish- * ing and maintaining the works. These problems are largely interde- pendent, and their relative importance depends on the proposed uses of the water and the conditions under which it is to be supplied. 26 (iROUND WATER TN TTTF HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONX. QUANTITY REQUIRED. In a town having an established water system the per capita con- sumption is kno^vn and the quantity of water required for extending the system can be estimated with a fair degree of accuracy. In a small town or community in which a public supply is designed to replace private weUs an estimate of the amount of water required should be based on a comparative study of the consumption in towns of similar characteristics. Plans for cities or for smaller communi- ties involve consideration of future needs based on the probable rate of increase in population and the circumstances affecting it, and also on the estimated rate and amount of development of indus- trial enterprises. In a State such as Connecticut, where the sig- nificance of past conditions and present trends of population and in- dustries are fairly well understood, an average town of less than 10,000 inhabitants may plan for a 20-year service on the basis of the present population. Estimates of the future needs for larger cities are much less likely to be reliable, and so far as practicable future requirements should be provided by maintaining a system capable of extension at reasonable cost as the need arises. The data available for the larger cities of Connecticut are sufficient to serve as a guide in planning 10 years in advance of present needs on the basis of an estimated con- sumption of 100 gallons per capita per day. The factors that determine the quantity of water required are as f oUows : 1. Number of inhabitants. 2. Nature of the local industries. 3. Wealth and habits of the people. 4. Extent to which water is used in fountains and in lawn and street sprinkling. 5. Climate, as affecting the use and waste of water to prevent freezing. 6. Leakage. 7. Basis of revenue (meter or flat rate). 8. Quality, quantity, and pressure, as tending to encourage or discourage liberal use and great wastefulness. 9. The popularity of a new or improved supply. The consumption of water is usually stated in gallons per capita per day, but it is not sufficient to take into account only this average daily rate of consumption, for the demand varies during the year and during the day and the supply must be adequate for temporary heavy drafts. The following table shows the average daily con- sumption in Hartford, Conn., for each month during 1912 and during the period from 1903 to 1912, inclusive: GROUND WATER FOR MUNICIPAL USE. 27 Average daily consumption of water during each month in Hartford, Conn.O' Month. 1912 Average for 10 years, 1903-1912. January.. February . March April May June Gallons. 8,317,000 8, 730, 000 8,625,000 8,445,000 8.800,000 9,128,000 Gallons. 6,717,000 6,959,000 6,896,000 7,044,000 7, 380, 000 7,648,000 Month. July August September. October November. December. . 1912 Gallons. 9,245,000 8,694,000 8, 675, 000 8.674,000 8,283,000 8,142,000 Average for 10 years, 1903-1912. Gallons. 7,642,000 7,315,000 7,411,000 7,191,000 6,978,000 6,775,000 a Board of Water Commissioners, Hartford, Conn., Fifty-ninth Ann. Rept. (year ending Mar. 1, 1913), p. 190. The following table illustrates the variation in the rate of consump- tion during the day: Consumption of Mystic water supply in Boston in August, 1893, in gallons per capita per day} 4 to 7 p. m 79. 5 7 to 10 p. m 61. 9 10 p. m. to 1 a. m 52. 9 1 to 4 a. m 40. 8 4 to 7 a. m 58. 6 7 to 10 a. m 103. 8 10 a. m. to 1 p. m 93.0 1 to 4 p. m 98. 2 " The large consumption from 1 to 4 a. m. must have been mostly waste." Average 73. 6 To meet these daily peak loads and to insure against emergencies that might arise from fire or disability of pumps, a ground-water system should be equipped with a surface reservoir or a standpipe unless the capacity of the pumps and wells is much greater than the normal consumption. QUALITY OF WATER. Most surface waters may be polluted, and pollution of some is prac- tically inevitable. The mineral content of surface waters in Con- necticut, however, is seldom such as to render them unfit for general use. Ground waters, especially those drawn from bedrock, may re- quire the removal of iron before they are suitable for use. Therefore the installation of purifying equipment may be necessary, whether the supply comes from the surface or from under ground. METHODS OF OBTAINING WATER. PKINCIPAL SOURCES. The possible sources of water for municipal suppHes are streams, springs, deep w^ells, filtration galleries, and shallow wells. The extent to which each of these sources is employed in New England is shown in the following table: 1 Tumeaure, F. E., and Russell, H. L., Public water supplies, p. 29, 1908. 28 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS^ CONN. Sources of public water supplies in New England. ipes, not including the bottom piece 572. 06 Bottom pieces 196. 23 Preparing the bottom pieces 118. 00 Gate tops for the wells 360. 37 Gates 660. 80 2J-inch tees 94. 40 Soldering nipples 250. 16 Solder : 23. 00 Three-quarter inch rope 5. 31 Oil 6.25 Red and white lead 23. 59 Lead pipe 333. 40 Making lead connections in the shop 52. 50 2i-inch plugs r 2. 29 2§-inch couplings 155. 40 Pulling up poor wells 80. 00 Akron pipe for gate boxes 306. 92 Cutting threads on pipe 206. 72 Teaming 14. 00 3kIiscellp.neous 51. 26 Total cost of wells 5, 652. 66 Number of feet of good wells driven 5, 977 Number of feet of poor wells driven 1, 741 Total 7.718 Average depth of the wells feet. . 50 Average number of feet driven: per day with gang of four men. 50 Cost of labor, driA-ing wells, per foot $0. 21 Average cost of each good well, including driving and con- necting and expense of driving and pulHng the poor wells. . 47. 90 Detail of the cost of la>dng the suction main: Labor $10, 428. 32 Lumber 1, 118. 55 Pipes 6,248.07 Gates 341. 16 Lead 515. 09 Pumping, the engineer 458. 56 Pumping, coal 174. 71 Unloading pipes 39. 00 Inspecting pipes at foundry and at the cars 183. 00 Rubber boots 210. 00 Shovels 52. 00 Carting men to and from work 947. 30 Hauling the pipe from the cars 300. 00 Miscellaneous expressing 79. 30 97889°— wsp 374—16 3 34 GROUND WATER. IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS^ CONN. Oil for tlie engine $4. 80 Jute packing ^ 12. 74 Miscellaneous 155. 43 Total cost of laying the pipe 21, 268. 03 The amounts laid are as follows: 20-inch pipe feet. . 2, 023 16-inch pipe do. . 551 10-inch pipe do. . 1, 420 8-inch pipe do. . 155 4,149 Total cost of laying the pipe $21, 268. 03 Total cost of d^i^^-ng and connecting the wells 5, 652. 66 Total cost 26, 920. 69 Total cost of laying the pipe, dri\T.ng and connecting wells, per foot of suction main 6. 45 PLANT AT BROOKLYN, N. Y. The city of Brooklyn, N. Y., obtains a large part of its water supply from gangs of driven wells situated at several places on Long Jsland. The wells fii^t driven were of the closed-end type, but those sunk later are of the open-end type. The wells are arranged in two rows, one on each side of the suction main, the wells in some gangs being in files and in others staggered. One of the new plants is described as follows: ^ The main suctions are about 2,340 feet long, with a fall of 12 inches from center to each end. The 62 wells are staggered along the main suction pipe, 12 feet from it and 75 feet apart on each side. Their average depth is 45 feet, a stratum of fine sharp sand being met with at that depth. The outside casing is 4J inches, with a 6-foot strainer, 2-foot sand pocket,^ and 6-inch point. Suctions are 3 inches in diameter and 28 feet long. Lateral branches are 3| inches, and each is pro\T.ded with a gate. It is expected to get 6,000,000 gallons from this station. The contract price for the last 25,000,000 was $167,250 for sinking and connecting wells, the }T.eld to be deter- mined by a test lasting one year and taken as the lowest average for five consecutive days. PLANT AT PLAINFIELD, N. J. The ^stem of driven wells supplying the city of Plainfield, N. J., is described by L. L. Tribus ^ as follows: The region itself is a comparatively level valley, some 7 miles long and from three- fourths to 2 miles wide, is fairly well wooded, and slopes gently to the westward. It is di\ided by a small stream nmning to the southwest, ha\ing several short tribu- taries; together they furnish excellent surface drainage for the city. 1 Turneaure, F. E., and Russell, H. L., Public water supplies, p. 308, 1909. 2 A sand pocket is a drum or box inserted in the suction pipe to catch sand that is drawn up with the water. It is provided with handholes to facilitate cleaning. — A. J. E. STribus, L. L., Am. Soc. Civil Eng. Tran^., vol. 31, No. 700, pp. 371 et seq., 1894. U. S. GE WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 374 PLATE VI /J/'r yent . Rubber, gaskets «> ^ C7 ^ / Test we// A --200'-* 891. PLAN OF PROPERTY AND DETAIL OF WELLS OF WATERWORKS AT PLAINFIELD, N. J., 1891. GEOUND WATEK FOR MUNICIPAL USE. 35 The soil consists mostly of sand, clay, and gravel strata, rock not being encountered except at considerable depths. It has always been an easy matter to procure water in abundance for domestic use by dri\-ing pipe wells from 20 to 80 feet deep at each residence and attacMng pumps directly tiiereto; and for fire supplies, sinking large brick ciu-bs some 15 or 20 feet into the gravel gave an abundant flow. But obviously, with the increasing population and no sewerage system, indiAddual wells became a source of danger to health, yet for nearly 20 years no definite result was accomplished, more than the mere organiza- tion of a private water company. In 1890 active measures were taken and tests and examinations made, wliich finally resulted in the sinking of pipe wells on a plot of ground 1^ miles east of the center of the city in a soil where the upper clay stratum was some 30 feet or more in thickness, underlaid by a very coarse water-bearing gravel. Tliis spot was selected for its freedom from probable contamination on groimd slightly higher than the city, which at the same time was convenient. Several test wells were sunk at various points previous to the observations of the writer, and pumping tests made with a low-lift pump of a number of the main wells then driven, under the care of Mr. Rudolph Hering, M. Am. Soc. C. E. The quantity of water obtained from 10 wells for periods of eight hours' daily consecutive pumping, diuing two weeks of observation, was at the rate of from 2,000,000 to 2,125,000 gallons in 24 horn's. An inspection of Plate Y [VI in the present report] will show the final arrange- ment of the wells, test wells, pumping plant in general, and details of the well tubes. The construction of the cast heads is such as to transform each water tube into prac- tically an open well, giving atmospheric pressure free play rather than forcing its action through the earth, as in systems where but a single tube is used. The most distant well is 500 feet from the pumps and shows in an interesting manner by the vacuum at the well head and increased vacuum at the pump the effect of long suction and friction in the main. The 2-inch pipe test wells, marked "A," ''B," "C," and "D" on Plate VI, were observed daily by the writer, while resident engineer, during several months. They each had a simple balanced float gage and scale, which indicated the rise and fall of water level. They were all very sensitive to draft on the main wells when pumping was going on, though the nearest was 200 feet from the Une of wells. Comparison of these observations under the different conditions and seasons showed, among other tilings, that in about 1,900 feet the underground water level fell to the westward about 3 feet, or at about the same rate as the average surface of the ground. This evidenced conclusively that the flow of water was toward the city with a head BuflScient to prevent any back flow of contaminated waters from the city. In summary, the plant consists of 20 wells, 6 inches in diameter, from 35 to 50 feet in depth each, ranged in a double row on a strip of land 25 feet wide and 1,000 feet long, ha\ing in each a 4^|-inch open-end suction tube, connected with a wrought-iron main varying from 8 to 12 inches in diameter. This main is in two sections, each 500 feet, connecting 10 wells. Two compound siu-face-condensing duplex-plunger pumps, Wortloington make, one of 3,000,000 and one of 2,000,000 gallons daily capacity, and a boiler plant of sufficient power, with various essential small machines, are housed in a rough stone building, slate roofed. The water, drawn, as before stated, direct from the wells, is pumped into a wrought- iron standpipe (situated near at hand) 25 feet in diameter and 140 feet liigh, tlirough a 20-inch interior tube rising 5 feet above the top. Two lower openings on this rising main, with valves operated from the outside spiral staircase, afford opportunity for filUng the standpipe at lesser head if required. 36 GEOUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS^ CONN". Tlie object of tliis interior tube, wbich was almost imiqiie when erected, is thjeefold: First, by its fountain action, enforcing complete aeration. Second, complete circnlation. Third, to afford instant fii'e pressure, no matter what the elevation of water in the main tower. Tliis is accompi^shed by opening a by-pass, not otherwise used, connect- ing the rising main and the distribution line, the city's supply being dra^ii regularly from the bottom of the standpipe with pressure due to level of water in main tower. From the standpipe the Plainfield pipe system extends to the west, comprising some 30 miles of mains from 6 to 16 inches in diameter, having fire hydrants spaced about 11 and vah-es 6 per mile. * -^ * After the tests made by Mr. Hering and the partial completion of the works, various other tests were made with the permanent pumping plant. It was found that the wells on the westerly line yielded more abundantly than the easterly ones, uader equally good conditions, and gave a lower vacuum for the same quantity pumped. * ^ * The tests were made with the large pumps, under both free discharge and full working head, singly and together, and drawing from the wells in gi-oups of 5, 10, 15, and 20, using each combination of 5; also, by cutting off one by one until the smallest number that could be used was reached, then adding one by one in reverse order until the full series were again in use. Five wells were found to be the smallest number possible to use and run the pumps smoothly. Wells Nos. 6 to 10 gave the best results, while Nos. 16 to 20 furnished but little water. The best results were obtained for a full flow by using Nos. 1 to 15, inclusive. * * * Diu'ing the long-continued dry weather of 1891 the water level became so low that difficulty arose with the extreme suction lift obtained, from 20 to 28 feet, according to rate of pumping, a fall of some 6 or 7 feet since the earlier observations, so that in the summer of 1892 it was deemed best to lower the pumps, which was done to the depth of 8 feet 1 inch below the former positions. For the sake of a constant observation and record, a 3-inch open tube was driven from the engine room into the water-bearing graA^el, and a permanent float gage suspended in it, indicating by a balance pointed on a scale of feet placed conveniently in the room. Although some 80 feet from the nearest main well, therefore not showing the lowest level of the water at the wells when pumping, it does show the relative water level under the same conditions and the daily and monthly range. "When pumping the average lowering of the gage is about 8 inches, with an almost immediate return aftar stopping the pump. Rainfalls need to be exceptionally heav}^ to make any marked showing in the water level, and not much then inside of 24 hours. This seems to indicate that the water supply comes from a distance, but there is an insufficiency of data for determining this interesting point. In these two years or more of operation the wells have furnished daily, without difficulty or signs of falling away, the full demand of from 200,000 gallons at the start to 1,700,000 gallons at the present time, apparently derived, as the early tests indi- cated, from the western 15 of the 20 wells driven. The water itself has been of uni- formly excellent quality, both for domestic and manufacturing purposes — so far, therefore, a decided success as an underground water supply. PRIVATE SPRINGS AND WELLS. Many of the wells in Connecticut were dug long before modern prin- ciples of sanitation had become established, and having been so long regarded as admirable relics of earlier days they are, naturally enough, imitated now, even at the expense of sanitary and economic con- siderations; indeed, nearly 80 per cent of the wells in Connecticut PRIVATE SPRIXGS AXD WELLS. 37 are of the old dug type, stone lined and, if covered at all, provided with loose, leaky curbs. Sanitary precautions are necessary not only in caring for dug wells but also in caring for springs and drilled wells. Springs are espe- cially susceptible to pollution because the water issues at the surface and almost always on a slope where surface drainage can readily enter the pool. Springs should be equipped with concrete reservoirs and should be kept covered, and the water should be drawn from dehvery pipes. Such equipment is not necessarily elaborate or expensive. It is important only to exclude surface drainage and prevent contamina- tion either by persons or animals, and it should be borne in mind that contamination is possible whenever access to the stored water is possible. Drilled wells properly constructed by reliable drillers exclude surface water. If the weU casings are properly set and the pump fittings are tight, such wells are in little danger of pollution. The per capita consumption of water from private wells is much less than that from public systems, largely because of the general lack of convenience in well equipment, and consequently the quan- tity of water that will be required in any particular case will depend on the equipment to be installed. A pneumatic system or a tower system installed for the purpose of furnishing running water m the house and barns will require about ten times as much water as a plant consisting merely of a hoisting bucket or a small hand pump. The type of well to be used should also be taken into account. An ordinary dug well yielding continuously only 2 gallons a minute might, because of its storage capacity, meet a temporary draft of 50 or 100 gallons a minute, whereas a driven well, having no stored supply, could not meet a draft in excess of its maximiun yield. There- fore the estimate of the quantity required should be based not alone on the total quantity of water used in a day but in part also on the greatest rate at which it is to be pumped from the well. The water delivered by springs is, in general, of the same quality as the water to be obtained from shallow weUs in their vicinity. Therefore the choice between utilizing a spring and sinking a well depends on the relative cost and the resulting convenience. Springs so situated that water may be delivered to buildings by gravity afford very desirable supplies, but springs which must be pumped to be of service give no better supplies than dug wells. So far as their mmeral quality is concerned, well waters are suitable for aU ordmary domestic purposes. Dug wells generally yield satisfactory domestic supplies, but they should be carefully curbed, and, if they are open to the air^ they should be cleaned out at regular intervals. Wlierc the unconsolidated material consists of sand or gravel, driven weUs are likely to be most convenient, because they are 38 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS^ CONN. especially adaptable to uses in gardens, pastures, barnyards, and other places where water is required for stock and plants and where dug wells would be objectionable. Two or three screen points driven at convenient places in a tobacco field may pay for themselves in a single season by obviating long trips for water. The water from driven wells is similar in composition to that from dug wells, as it comes from the same source, and it is to some extent susceptible to pollution. The ground around the top of driven wells should be kept clean and dry. Drilled wells commonly yield at least 2 or 3 gallons a minute, a quantity adequate for the needs of most households (fig. 8, p. 25), and ordinarily the water is suitable for domestic uses. METHODS OF DEVELOPING GROUND-WATER SUPPLIES. DRILLED WELLS. Constrtidion} — Two general methods of weU drilling are employed in obtaining water supplies — the percussion method and the abrasion method. In Connecticut the percussion method is- most commonly used. It consists of lifting and dropping, by means of suitable apparatus, a heavy string of drill tools which punches or cuts a hole through the unconsolidated materials and breaks the solid rock into fragments small enough to be readily removed from the hole. When drilling in unconsolidated material iron pipe or well casing as large in diameter as the hole will admit, usually either 6 or 8 inches, is generall}^ driven down as rapidly as the drill descends, each added length of casing being securely screwed to the preceding one to make a tight joint. If the well penetrates bedrock, the casing is driven a few feet into the rock to prevent infiltration of surface water. If the well ends in loose materials, the casing extends to the bottom of the hole and may be perforated or slit at the lower end to admit water more readily. The casing is allowed to extend several inches above the surface of the ground to prevent inflow of surface water, and a flange is fitted to the top, to which a pmnp is attached. In drilling by the abrasion method hoUow drill tools armed with some harder materials, such as diamonds or chilled shot, are rotated on the rock in such a way that a cylindrical core is cut out and brought to the surface in short pieces. The waUs sunk by this method are finished in the same way as those made by percussion drilling. Drillers differ in opinion as to the relative efficiency of these two methods, the points of contention being that the abrasion method is more expensive, and that the rotation of the drill tools tends to seal up the smaller veins, thereby affording a comparatively lower 1 Bowman, Isaiah, Well-drilling methods: U. S. Geol, Survey Water-Supply Paper 257, 1911. METHODS OF DEVELOPING GEOUND-WATEE SUPPLIES. 39 yield than is obtained by percussion drilling. There are no data at hand which bear conclusively on these questions, but the fact remains that both methods are used, the percussion method to a much larger extent, and good results are obtained by each. Cost, — Owing to the competition among well drillers there is no "uniform scale of prices for drilhng wells. The minimum prices charged range from about SI to $4 per foot, including the casing. Usually the minimum price is charged for the first 100 feet and an additional charge of about $1 per foot is made for each succeeding 100 feet or fraction thereof. Other factors which affect the prices are the character of the bedrocks and depth of the unconsohdated materials, the accessibihty of fuel and water for the engines, and the distance from the well to suitable boarding places for the drillers. No rehable driller will guarantee to obtain water within a given depth. Sometimes a driller offers to obtain a certain quantity of water for a stated sum, but as no driller can predict the depth or location of a successful rock well, such arrangements amount to little more than games of chance in which the advantage is largely with the driller. Quality of water. — Drilled wells are usually protected against con- tamination, but neither the quantity nor the mineral quality of the water can be definitely ascertained before drilhng, and consequently an expensive well may be drilled without striking a suitable supply. Drilled wells that end in the drift at depths of 75 or 100 feet are just as hkely to be free from pollution as wells that end in rock and they are less hkely to contain undesirable amounts of mineral matter. Moreover, drilled wells that end in rock may be polluted, especially where the rock outcrops or lies a short distance below the sm^ace, by the entrance of infected matter through open fissures. Many rock wells situated near the coast are contaminated by salt because some of the fissures intersected by the well connect with the ocean. The contamination is not so easily detected if the fissures con- tributing to the water supply come to the surface in barnyards or in the beds of polluted rivers. It is not necessarily fortunate if a well strikes a vein of '^ sulphur" water, because odors not easily distinguished from "sulphin:" may be due to pollution. The origin of any odors, colors, or tastes should be investigated before a water is used. Even deep drilled wells may be contaminated in a thickly populated community unless the protective cover of clay is thick and the casing is tight and fits tightly into the drill hole. Improvements. — Drilled wells which end in the drift do not differ essentially from driven wells and they should be finished in the same manner (p. 40). The casing should be perforated or slit at the principal water-bearing horizons and for some distance above the 40 GEOUXD WATER IX THE HARTFOED AND OTHER AREAS, COXN. ^ ^ ^ ^ V ^ \N s\^N ... FiGLT^E 9.— Diagram of driven well. lower end. By this method the yield may gen- erally be materially increased. Some wells which produce water of an unde- sirable mineral character may be improved by casino; off the mineral water and drawinsr from a different wat er-bearing bed. Tliis method is not likely to be generally successful in Connecticut, however, because at any one locahty the quahty of the ground water at one horizon does not dif- fer greatly from that at another. If the yield of a well is reduced by pumping from other wells in the vicinity, the pump cyhn- der should be lowered, and if this does not re- cover the yield, deepening the well may do so. But there is likely to be more or less permanent interference when a number of wells are drilled close together. A method of increasing yields of drilled wells which has not been sufhcientl}- used to warrant recommending its general adoption consists of exploding a charge of nitroglycerin or d^Tiamite at the bottom of the well, in order to open radiating fissures that may tap otherwise unavailable water veins. Tliis method is used extensively in improving oil wells, and under fa- vorable conditions it might be equally successful in water wehs. The advisabiht}' of trying this method before abandoning drj^ holes ending in rock is suggested. It is not recommended for wells ending in drift. DRIVEN WELLS. Two general types of wells are classed as driven wells — the closed-end vrell and the open- end well. A closed-end well is constructed by driving into the ground with a sledge or drop hammer a ''drive point" and strainer screwed to a piece of pipe. Other lengths of pipe are added and the driving is continued until the strainer penetrates the gromid-water stra- tum (fig. 9). The diameter of the pipe and strainer may be 1 to 4 inches, and the length of the strainer is generally between \\ and 4 feet. The open-end well is constructed by driving a casing into the ground and at the same time METHODS OF DEVELOPING GROUND- WATER SUPPLIES. 41 removing the material from the interior by means of a sand bucket or sand pump or a jet of water. If the material penetrated is rather hard it may be necessary to remove it in advance of the casing by means of a heavy sand pump or combination jet and drill, or ordinary drilling may have to be done. A strainer may be attached previous to driving, or it maybe adjusted after the casing is down by lowering it on the inside. Where the water-bearing deposits include coarse mate- rial and large quantities of water are sought, as for municipal or indus- trial supphes, the most satisfactory results will be obtained by per- forating the casings where water is to be admitted with numerous circular holes at least one-fourth inch in diameter or by shts at least one-fom"th inch wide. These perforations can be cut or drilled before the casing is inserted or they can be made by perforating tools after the casing is in place. ^ After the casing is in place and the perforations have been made the weU should be thoroughly cleaned out in order to remove the fine sediments and give the water free access to the well. This can best be done by first using a sand bucket or sand pump and then applying an air hft. If an air Hft is not available, rapid pumping with a centrifugal or other pump can be substituted. Strong wells can often be developed by removing large quantities of sand and silt, and thus leaving a thick layer of clean gravel around the intake of the weU. The open-end well is adapted for harder ground and larger diame- ters than the closed-end weU. The use of drive points is restricted to areas in which water can be obtained in rather fine gravel or sand at moderate depths, but open-end weUs may be used in almost any unconsohdated deposits and they may be sunk to depths of several hundred feet. It is probable that in Connecticut either drive points or the usual drilled weUs ending in the drift and having the casings perforated will be found satisfactory. Driven wells are used to obtain both domestic and municipal sup- phes. It is seldom that more than one well is required to furnish the desired amount of water for domestic needs, but for public sys- tems for large towns these weUs are commonly driven in gangs, arranged in one or two rows along a suction main to which each well is connected by a lateral branch (PL VI, p. 34) . The most economical system is one in which the suction main can be laid on the surface of the ground, but in some systems, either for the purpose of obtain- ing the maximum yield or because the water stands below the suction limit of the surface, it is necessary or desirable to lay the suction main in a trench. 1 Bowman, Isaiah, Well-drillirig methods: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 257, pp. G7-09, 1911. 42 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. It is not possible to give universall}^ applicable figures in regard to the requisite number of wells and their size and spacing, owing to the diversified conditions under which such plants are used. But in general the hne of wells should be at right angles to the direction of underflow, and the distance between the wells from 15 to 100 feet, according to the size of the wells. The number and size of wells to be used will be determined by the quantity of water required, by the thickness and character of the water-bearing formation, and by the results of pumping tests to determine the permeabihty of the formation. One of the principal difficulties encountered in the operation of driven wells is clogging. Infiltration of fine sand or incrusting of the strainer may reduce the 3^ield of a well materially, and it is neces- sary, therefore, to keep the tube clean. It is usually advisable to subject a newty driven well to heavy pumping for the purpose of drawing out the fine material adjacent to the strainer. Coarse ma- terial will be left in its place, forming a natural screen, which will minimize the tendency to clogging, and the yield of the well ^^-iU be increased by the consequent increase in the porosity of the material surrounding the screen.^ When clogging is due to sand only, it is usually possible to remove the obstruction by forcing water into the wells under high pressure or by means of a steam jet, but when the sand is cemented it is necessary to withdraw the strainers and clean them or replace them by new ones. The habihty to pollution of supphes from driven wells depends on the depth from which the wells draw, the effectiveness of overlying clay beds in shutting out polluting matter, the amount of water that is drawn, and other conditions. Though the danger of pollution is less than in open dug weUs, care should be exercised in selecting the sites and in protecting the surroundings. Supphes such as those required for large municipalities maybe in danger of drawing polluted water from near-by streams, although small supphes dra^vn from the same weUs might not be in danger of pollution. INFILTRATION GALLERIES. Infiltration galleries are trenches or tunnels with sides and roofs constructed usually of masonry or concrete and the floors made to admit water. Galleries may be built in the banks or beds of streams to intercept the underground water as it approaches the streams. The deposits in filled valleys are saturated below the level of per- manent streams, and galleries in such deposits offer practicable means of obtaining water. The bottom of a gallery may profitably be made lower than the bed of the stream to insure maximum infiltra- iMeinzer, O. E., Geology and underground waters of southern Minnesota: U. S. Geol. Survey Water- Supply Paper 256, p. 86, 1911. METHODS OF DEVELOPING GKOUND-WATEK SUPPLIES. 43 tion. Water from the stream itself does not enter the gallery unless the draft on the gallery exceeds the infiltration from the landward side. A gallery is a modified form of dug well, from v/hich it differs essentially only in capacity, and the same sanitary rules apply to both. DUG WELLS. The most common well is that made by digging a hole 2 J to 4 feet in diameter and deep enough to obtain a suitable quantity of water. The hole is then walled up from the bottom to the surface of the ground with loose irregular stones and bowlders picked up in the vicinity of the well. Brick laid in mortar and glazed tile have been used for some walls, but these materials, though much more desirable, are more expensive than the stone commonly used. The top of the well is commonly finished by fitting a square curbing of boards over the hole and adding a wheel or windlass for hoisting a bucket. On many wells, however, there are better equipments, ranging from screened well sheds to concrete seals with good pumps. Most dug wells end in the drift, but in areas where the drift is thin they may end at the rock surface or penetrate the rock a few feet, the rock being removed by blasting. The principal advantages of dug wells are the ease with which they may be cleaned and refitted with pumps and their large storage capacity; their chief disadvantages are their liability to pollution and their ready response to changes in the weather. The followmg suggestions as to the sanitary construction of dug weUs are extracted from the Virginia Health Bulletin, volume 1, No. 3, page 113, September, 1908: THE ESSENTIALS OP A GOOD WELL. The location of the well is of the greatest importance. It should be as far as possible from the house, barn, and privy. If possible, the surface of the gTOund about the well should be a little higher than the siuTOunding soil, so that any surface washings may be carried away from the top of the well.' The ground about the top should be well sodded in grass. This not only adds to the attractiveness of the well but it takes care of a great deal of water that would otherwise have to stand in pools about the well. If the stock have to be watered from the well, there should be a pipe leading to a stock trough not less than 20 feet away, so that the stock need not come up to the well itself. A well, to be safe, should be not less than 20 feet deep; that is to say, 20 feet from the surface of the ground to the top of the water. It should go well through the surface soil, preferably through a layer of clay. The lining should bo of brick or stone laid in cement. Any lining that allows water to seep through it above the sm-face of the water may lead to pollution. The space between the casing and the surrounding soil should be fdled with sand or earth. The top of the well should be raised from the ground about a foot and set in cement or masonry coping that goes at least 3 feet below the surface of the ground. Over 44 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS^ CONN. the top should be laid a solid, double tongue-and-groove flooring that is absolutely waterproof. This is essential. Most wells are polluted by material that falls in or is washed in from the top, and not by seepage thi'ough the soil. On the well top there should be a good puni]), carefully set so as to exclude leakage from around its base. If the pump can not be used, there should be an automatic tipping bucket. The well bucket should not be handled with the hands. Many wells have been infected by handling the bucket with soiled hands and then letting it back into the well, the filth being then washed off into the water. Below the spout there should be a trough with a pipe leading some distance away, 80 that the waste water may be carried away from the well. A well constructed in the manner described above will almost always furnish water that is perfectly safe, and the saving of sickness and trouble will many times o^•erpay for the expense and care involved. For convenience in discussion, dug wells may be divided, accord- ing to their relation to bedrock, into groups including, first, wells that penetrate bedrock; second, wells that just reach rock; and third, those that end in drift. Wells that penetrate bedrock are sunk in locaHties in which the drift is thin. The thickness of the water bed in the vicinity of such wells may be less than the normal fluctuation of the water table and, consequently, in times of drought there may be no available water in the drift. But the rock basins generally act as reservoirs for the storage of water which has seeped in from the drift and these wells therefore usually carry small supplies through dry seasons. In clean- ing rock wells, and sometimes in digging them, actual veins of water are encountered, and this has led some people to beUeve that the water is derived from sources deep in the bedrocks. Though such an origin is possible, most of these '^veins'' are shallow water-filled cracks formed naturally in the rock or produced by blasting. These cracks, radiating from the well, tap all along their courses the satu- rated zone of the overlying drift, and thus make it possible for the well to drain a much larger area than it otherwise could. Wells that extend to the surface of the bedrock are usually foimd in areas of thicker drift than are those which penetrate the rock. Like the rock wells, they pass entirely through the saturated part of the drift, but they do not contain a stored supply and therefore fail if the water table sinks to the rock surface. Consequently in local- ities where the wells are of both types the supplies of the rock wells last longest in times of drought, although the others, drawing from a saturated deposit whose average thickness is greater, give a greater average yield. Most of the wells that do not reach rock are found in areas of deep drift. These wells are sunk below the water level to a depth which at the time of digging is considered sufiicient to insure the required quantity of water. Most of the wells that fail are of this kind. The f ailui^e may usually be attributed to one of the following causes : METHODS OF DEVELOPING GEOUND-WATEE SUPPLIES. 45 (a) The well may be too shallow. To be reliable it should be sunk at least sev- eral feet below the lowest water level. This work can be most easily accom- plished during dry seasons. (b) The well, orig- inally deep enough, may become "filled in" with sand and mud carried by in- flowing water. In this manner the bot- tom of the well may be raised in wet sea- sons, when the water table stands high, to a level below which the water table sinks in dry seasons. (c) There may be a permanent lower- ing of the water table, so that the bottom of the well lies within the zone of fluctuation. This may result from til- ing, from a heavy draft on wells, or from lowering sur- face drainage either by removing dams or by deepening the channels of neio:h- boring streams. Wells that end in the sand or loose till should be cleaned about once a year; wells that end in the rock may need less u t3 O P 46 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. frequent attention. In any event cleaning should be the first remedy employed to restore the yield of a well. If this is not effective, then the well should be deepened, and if this is done when the water is lowest it will be easy to judge the necessary depth. WeUs may be deepened without disturbing the old wall by sinking 18-inch or 24-mch tiling from the original bottom to the required depth. A method sometimes employed where the well ends in sand consists in drivmg a ^^pouit" (p. 40) into the bottom of the well to the neces- sary depth. If the strainer is more than 25 feet below the surface of the ground that is, below the suction limit — the pump cylinder may be attached at some point between the surface of the ground and the bottom of the dug well. In some weUs, especially those that end in rock, the most feasible way to increase the supply is by drilling from the bottom of the old well. This method amounts practically to sinking a new well except that the cost of drilling to the depth of the old well is saved, A use of the dug well which is popular in some parts of Connecticut is illustrated in figure 10, the well bemg sunk on a hillside above the house and barns so that water may be delivered to the buildings by gravity and under pressure. This is an excellent device wherever it can be used. DESCRIPTIONS OF TOWNS.^ HARTFORD. POPULATION AND INDUSTRIES. Hartford is in the central part of the State, in Hartford County (fig. 1, p. 12). It is reached by the Higliland division and the Spring- field and Valley branches of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Eailroad, and by the Central New England Railway: by steamboat from New York and Connecticut River towns during open season; by electric railways from Wethersfield, Rocky Hill, ^liddletown, Glastonbury, East Hartford, Burnside, Manchester, South Man- chester, Talcottville, Rockville, East Windsor HiU, Springfield, Windsor, Poquonock, vSuffield, West Hartford, Bloomfield, Farming- ton, Unionville, Newington, and New Britain. Post ofiices are maintained at Hartford and Parkville. Hartford was settled m 1635. The Indian name was Suckiage. It was named Newto^vn, and changed to Hartford in 1637 by an act of the assembly. The city of Hartford was incorporated in May, 1784. The towm and city were consolidated in April, 1896. The area is 17.29 square miles, or 11,065.6 acres. 1 The name "town'-' applied to 168 minor subdivisions of the counties in Connecticut is equivalent to "to^^^lship" of the Western States, except that the boundaries of the_to^\•ns are irregular and their areas unequal. Cities, villages, and boroughs are incorporated communities within the several towns and may- have the same name as the town. HAETFOED. 47 The population of Hartford in 1910 was 98,915. In 1912 it was estimated to be 106,000. The population from 1756 to 1912 is shown in the following table : Population of Hartford, 1756-1912. Year. Popula- tion. Per cent increase. Per cent decrease. 1756 3,027 5,031 5,495 4,090 5,347 6,003 6,901 9,789 12, 793 1774 66 9 1782 1790 a 25 i 1 1800 30 12 14 41 30 1810 1820 1830 1840 Year. 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1912 Popula- Per cent tion. increase. 13, 555 59 29, 152 115 37, 743 26 42,551 12 53,230 25 79, 850 50 98,915 23 & 106,000 7 Per cent decrease. o East Hartford was set off from Hartford in 1783. 6 Population for 1912 estimated. Connecticut State Register and Manual, 1912, p. 404. The principal industries are the manufacture of bicycles, blower systems, coil pipes, drop forgings, envelopes, fine tools, firearms, harnesses, knit goods, leather belting, machinery, metal castings, motor carriages, nails, organs, pins, plumbers' suppUes, railroad equipment, rubber automobile tires, screws, silverware, typewriters, woven-wire m.attresses, and printing and binding. TOPOGEAPHY. Hartford Ues in the middle of Connecticut River valley, about midway between the Talcott Range on the west and the highlands on the east. The flood plain of Connecticut River occupies the northeast and southeast corners of the town, but elsewhere the topog- raphy is moderately hilly, in the south owing to outcrops of trap and, in the north, to drift and sandstone ridges. The average relief is about 50 feet. About one-sixth of the town is more than 100 feet above sea level and about one-third is less than 20 feet. The highest elevation — 285 feet — is on Cedar Hill, which extends a short distance into the town from the south. (See PI. IX, in pocket.) A small part of the drainage reaches Connecticut River directly, but most of it is carried by Park River, which is formed by the union of Hog River and South Fork just west of the center of the town, the former occupying the north haK and the latter the south half of a valley lying along the west boundary (PI. IX). These streams are small, discharging at times not more than 0.5 second-foot. WATEE-BEARING FOEMATIONS. Bedrock. — The bedrocks underlying Hartford are Triassic sandstones and shales interbedded with trap rocks (PL VII). They come to the surface in only a few places in the city but generally lie only a short 48 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS^ CONN. distance below. The trap rocks occur in tlii'ee sheets, designated the lower, middle, and upper sheets. The middle sheet outcrops in Cedar Hill and the upper sheet outcrops along a line extending southward from Trinity College, but the lower sheet does not appear at the sur- face in Hartford. Sandstone is exposed in the bed of Park River and at other places in the town. From Connecticut River to the center of the city, a distance of about a mile, the rock surface rises nearly 100 feet, and the maximum rehef of this buried surface ^\athin the hmits of the town is about 360 feet, the lowest elevation being about 75 feet below sea level and the liighest 285 feet above sea level. Both the sandstones and the trap rocks are extensively fractured, and many of the cracks or ''seams'' contain water. Till. — The higher Mils in Hartford, such as Cedar Hill and the ridge marking the outcrop of the upper trap sheet, are covered with till, consisting of mixtures of sand, gravel, and bowlders, and a small^ amount of clay or rock powder. In general the till exceeds 10 feet in thickness only in a few rock depressions and on the east slope 'of Cedar HiU, where in some places its tliickness is 20 feet or more. It is therefore unimportant as a water-bearing formation, although small quantities for domestic use might be obtained in the deeper deposits in outlying parts of the town. Stratified drift. — Most of the material covering the rock in Hartford consists of stratified deposits of sand, clay, and gravel. (See PI. IX.) The clays, which constitute the principal part of these deposits, occur in beds 20 to 100 feet thick along the valleys of South Fork, Hog River, and Park River, and in a belt about a mile wide along Con- necticut River. The clays are regarded as having a high commercial value and are used for the manufacture of brick in the southwestern and in the northern parts of the city. West of the clay deposits the rock is covered principally with sand containing lenses of clay, ranging in thickness, according to the contour of the rock floor, from a mere film to 30 or 40 feet. The occurrence of ground water in areas of stratified deposits is discussed on page 15. Alluvium. — Near the middle of the eastern boundary of Hartford Connecticut River closely approaches the rock wall, but north and south of this place the channel swings to the east and the rock valley is filled with drift and alluvium. In a number of test borings made through the valley fill near the northeast corner of the city by the Hartford water department, samples of the rock penetrated were taken at intervals of 5 feet, from wliich the following log was compiled. The first 35 feet of this section is alluvium, the under- lying 40 feet of clay is believed to be a lacustrine deposit, and the last 5 feet is probably till. HAKTFOED. 49 Log of test ivells near northeast corner of Hartford. Depth in feet. Fine silt, chiefly sand; some clay -with very fine flakes of mica 5 Same as above but larger percentage of clay 10 Same, except larger percentage of sand 15 Do 20 Do 25 Do 30 One-half sand and one-half reddish clay; sand is about 30 per cent mica - 35 Clay, reddish color 40 Do 45 Do 50 Do 65 Do 70 Do 75 Do 80 One-half reddish clay and one-half sand with a little mica 85 Very fine grained red sand (sandstone powder) 86 SURFACE-WATER SUPPLIES. The surface waters in Hartford are not used for public supplies, principally because tbey are bigbly polluted. The only water avail- able in considerable quantity is that of Connecticut River. Since 1867 this water has been used by the public system on only a few occasions when, as a result of drought, the quantity in the reservoir became inadequate. The last of these occasions was in the summer .of 1900, when the water was distributed without filtration or germi- cidal treatment through certain sections of the city and a noticeable increase in sickness was attributed to its use. The reports of Dr. John L. Leal and James A. Newlands,^ however, indicate that with proper germicidal treatment water of Connecticut River could be rendered suitable for municipal use in emergency. The experiments made in this connection showed that when bleaching powder sufficient to furnish 1 part per million of available chlorine was used the removal of bacteria was always greater than 99.5 per cent and the colon bacillus was not found in the treated water. The cost of thus treating water is less than a dollar per million gallons. GROUND- WATER SUPPLIES. Owing to the fact that the municipal system reaches all parts of the city, ground water is little used in Hartford. In the central part of the city several wells have been drilled, most of which are being used, and they yield 8 to 102 gallons a minute and average 1 Board of Water Commissioners, Hartford, Conn., Fifty-sixtti Ann. Rept. (year ending Mar. 1, 1910), pp. 33-42. 97889°— wsp 374— IG i 50 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS^ CONN. 47 gallons a minute. Considerable interference has been observed in these wells on account of their close proximity to each other. Five wells (Nos. 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 of PL IX, in pocket, and table on p. 51) were drilled about 75 feet apart at the offices of the Hartford Electric Light Co., but four of them have been abandoned because the combined yield was little more than the yield of the deepest one alone. The abandoned wells are respectively 200, 200, 201, and 228 feet deep. Their yields as reported by the driller were 120, 150, 150, and 200 gallons a minute, respectively. However, on their failure to deliver a combined yield of 100 gallons when in use the fifth well was drilled. This well is 620 feet deep and its yield is 100 gallons a minute. The water is now brought to the surface by means of an air lift. When this well was completed the other wells were so reduced in yield that they were abandoned. A similar condition was observed in the wells of Long Bros, and Dillon & Douglass. The Long Bros, well was yielding 22 gallons a minute with the pump rods ending 153 feet below the surface until the Dillon & Douglass well, about 250 feet distant, was pumped, the pump cylinder being 235 feet below the surface. The yield of the Long Bros, well was thereupon reduced to only a few gallons a minute, but the original yield of 22 gallons was recovered by lowering the pump cylinder 38 feet. The water obtained by means of wells drilled into bedrock is drawn from fissures or seams, many of which are small. The supply in one of these fissures is therefore not large and not readily replenished when drawn upon. (See description of well at Hartford Sanatorium, p. 24.) When more than one well taps such a fissure a heavy pumping from one well reduces the yield of the others. The Hartford water department conducted a series of experiments with 2-inch driven weUs to ascertain the possibility of obtaining water to supplement the present system in emergencies. Eighteen wells were driven, some of them in a sand bar in the bed of Connecticut River just above the Highland division railroad bridge and some of them in Riverside Park in a swale about 150 feet west of the river. The depths ranged from 4.5 to 48.5 feet. Steam pumps were operated day and night for testing the flows. The best yields, amounting to about 45 gallons a minute, were obtained at depths of about 15 feet. The available information in regard to the drilled wells in Hartford is presented in the following table : HAKTFORD. 51 Drilled wells in Hartford. Map No. Owner, Elevation above sea level. Depth. Yield per minute. Depth to rock. 1 Keeny Park Feet. 70 50 22.9 24.9 23 21.4 22 20.7 22.8 21.6 30 18 40 50 50 35 40 40 40 40 40 130 130 55 160? Feet. 200 125 88 86 Between 80 and 90. 400 400 205 Gallons. 42 8 Feet. 40 2 Mrs. Louisa H. Sage 30 3 Hartford water department test hole 88 4 do 86 5 do 6 do 7 . ..do Between . ..do ' 80 and 8 102 72 68 9 ..do 90. 10 . ..do 11 ^tna Brewing Co 8 12 P. Barry & Sons, Hartford Cold Storage Co 40 13 J. Pilgard 5 14 Dillon & Douglass 15 Long Bros 16 Allyn House 318 50 28 17 Hartford Electric Light Co 18 do 19 do 20 do 21 do 22 Eetreat farm 180 74 251 974 20 22 (a) 49 23 Jos. Dart 58 24 Goodwin Park 29 25 Hartford Sanatorium . a Well flowing. MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLY. The Hartford water department was organized in 1853 and the first reservoir of the present system was built in 1867. Others have been added from time to time, the total now being six, which have a combined capacity of 2,043,000,000 gallons and drain an area of lOJ square miles along the crest of the Talcott Range (PL VIII). The water is dehvered by gravity. The mains also pass through West Hartford, supplying most of the homes in that town, and extend into Bloomfield and Wethersfield; altogether a population of about 121,644 receives the water. The total consumption for the year ending March 1, 1912, was 2,938,615,000 gallons; the daily con- sumption per consumer was 68.1 gallons. The average daily con- sumption during the month of July, 1911, was 8,450,000 gallons and the average depletion of the reservoir, determined by gage readings, was 8,850,000 gallons. The difference, 400,000 gallons, was attributed to evaporation. The supply has become inadequate for the rapidly increasing population, and another reservoir, now being constructed on Nepaug River, is expected to increase the storage capacity of the system about 400 per cent, thus making it capable of serving a population of 400,000. The accompanying map (PI. VIII) shows the newly acquired catchment area and details of the works. QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. Analyses of the water from six drilled wells in Hartford indicate that much of the water from the bedrock is high in mineral content and very hard. The wide range of composition is well shown by 52 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS^ CONN. comparison of analyses 5 and 6, which represent, respectively, a soft water of low mineral content and a very hard water of high mineral content, especially high in sulphate. Analyses 2, 3, 4, and 6 rep- resent waters too strongly mineralized to be suitable for boiler use in their raw state and almost too strong for economical softening. Analyses of water from drilled wells in Hartford. [Parts per million; R. B. Dole, analyst.) Constituents. Dissolved solids at ISO" C 474 Total hardness as CaCOs 332 Silica (SiOe) 18 Iron ( Fe) 30 Calcium (Ca) 96 Magnesiimi (Mg) 52 Carbonate radicle (CO.O i .0 Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 335 Sulphate radicle (SO4) 24 Chlorine (CI) 40 916 450 ,10 157 28 136* 486 38 1, 098 570 15 1.3 190 29 .0 340 351 139 1, 249 545 15 ,12 196 48 252' 422 213 .0 57 32 .20 .0 31 12 2.3 1,534 850 16 286* 57 144* 897 20 .5 .0 1. AVell of Mrs. Louisa H. Sage (PI. IX, No. 2), 125 feet deep; sam-ole collected June 17, 1915. 2. Well of .Etna Brewing Co. (PI. IX, No. 11), 400 feet deep; sample collected Jime 17, 1915. 3. Well of Hartford Cold Storage Co. (PL IX, No. 12), 400 feet deep; sample collected June 7, 1915. 4. Well of Long Bros. (PL IX, No. 15), depth unknown; sample collected June 16, 1915. 5. Well at Alh-n House (PL IX, No. 16), 318 feet deep; sample collected June 16, 1915. 6. Well at Retreat farm (PL IX, No. 22), 180 feet deep; sample collected June 24, 1915. WEST HARTFORD POPULATION AND INDUSTRIES. West Hartford (PL IX) , in the central part of Hartford County, is reached by the Highland division of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad, which has a station at Elmwood, and by electric railways from Hartford, Farmington, and Unionville. Post ofhces are mamtained at West Hartford and Elmwood, and outlying sec- tions of the town are covered to a large extent by rural free- delivery routes. The town comprises an area of 21 square miles. It was separated from Hartford and incorporated in 1854. The census of 1910 gave the population as 4,808, or an increase of 51 per cent over the population in 1900. The changes in popula- tion since 1860 are shown in the following table: Population of West Hartford, 1860-1910. Year. 1860 1870 ISSO Popula- tion. Per cent increase. 1,296 1,533 1,828 18.7 19 1 Year. 1890 1900 1910 Popular tion. Per cent increase. 1,930 3,186 4,808 6 65 51 West Hartford is largely a residential town for Hartford business men. The principal industries are agriculture, in which dairying, tobacco growing, and market gardening are specialties; cultivation of flowers under glass; and manufacture of brick, motor coolers, and water heaters. From 10,000 to 12,000 tons of ice is stored annually for outside markets. U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Base drawn from U.S. Geological Survey topographic atlas sheets MAP SHOWING "^ A G /A W A M astGranby GtiANBY,' WmdsorLocte JfQTwkreho MAP SHOWING COLLECTING AREAS OF THE HARTFORD WATERWORKS. WEST HAETFOED. 53 TOPOGRAPHY. The west boundary line lies along the crest of the Talcott Range and the highest altitude in the town is on this hne near its north end, where it reaches an elevation of a httle over 800 feet. The east slope of the range is moderately steep and the general level of the eastern part of the town is reached within a distance of 2 miles from the west boundary. A second range of hills, much lower than those on the west border, extends through the middle of the town from north to south. These are sHghtly more than 100 feet in elevation and they are interrupted by several stream valleys. The lowest altitude is on the east bound- ary, where a branch of the South Fork crosses the line at an elevation of 35 feet above sea level. The drainage finds its way into Connecticut River through Park River. Neither of these streams passes through West Hartford, but Park River is formed by the junction of Noyes River, which hes wholly within the town, and Hog River and South Fork, which pass across the northeast and southeast corners, respectively. Trout Brook receives all the drainage from the west half of the town and enters Noyes River about 1 mile north of West Hartford Center. The drainage of the east haK is divided among Noyes River, South Fork, and Hog River. Noyes River joins South Fork in the south- east corner of the town. WATER-BEAEING FORMATIONS. Bedrocks. — The indm'ated rocks consist of Triassic sandstones and trap sheets. The three trap sheets are separated by beds of sand- stone, and dip eastward 10° to 15° at a fairly uniform rate. The trap rocks are more resistant than the sandstones and their outcrops are expressed in the topography by ranges of hills. Talcott Moun- tains consist of one outcrop of the lowest trap sheet and a repeated outcrop of the middle or main sheet. The upper sheet appears in the range of low hills extending through the middle of the town. The trap rocks are exposed very generally in the hills in the west part of the town, but the sandstone is almost everywhere covered by drift. It appears in a small exposure in a creek bed just north of Elmwood, and is said to have been quarried at one time in the south- west comer of the town. Both the sandstones and the trap rocks contain numerous cracks which hold small quantities of water, as explained on pages 20 and 22. TiU. — Except for smaU areas of bare rocks in the ranges of hills, the rock throughout the town is covered with glacial drift, its maxi- mum thickness being about 110 feet. Although the topography here is in general an expression of the bedrock contour and hills usually indicate a thinning of the drift in their vicinity, yet some of the prominent hiUs consist entirely of drift. A well sunk at the liighest 54 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS^ CONN. point on a hill in the northwest corner of the town at an elevation of 400 feet had not passed thi'ough the drift on reacliing a depth of 85 feet. Till, which is a mixture of clay, sand, gravel, and bowlders, covers the rock throughout the highest portions of the town, being prevalent at all elevations above 200 feet. The lower part of the till is gen- erall}" saturated with water and constitutes the source of supply of many private wells. Stratified drift. — East of the mountains, at elevations of less than about 200 feet above sea level, the surface deposits consist chiefly of lake beds and beach gravels. Between the mountains and the lon- gitude of West Hartford Center the deposits consist chiefly of gravels, and from West Hartford Center eastward to the town line they are chiefly sands. The clay beds, which were formed in the center of the original lake basin, extend up the valley of South Fork into the southeast corner of the town. The gravel beds are generally too thin to be important as sources of ground water, and the clays are too fine grained to give satisfactory yields. The most favorable condi- tions for ground-water supplies in this town are afforded by the sandy deposits in the central and northeastern parts, where moderate quan- tities of water can generally be obtained by means of dug or driven weUs. SURFACE-WATER SUPPLIES. The mountain streams in West Hartford are utilized in the public water supply of the city of Hartford. The streams on the lowlands are too smaU and sluggish to be useful for power development or public supplies. All the streams on the lowlands, with the possible exception of Trout Creek, are badly polluted. Hog River, before it reaches Hart- ford, receives sewage from Bloomfield; South Fork receives sewage from Newington; and Noyes River receives most of the sewage from West Hartford. GROUND- WATER SUPPLIES. Bug wells. — Forty-five dug wells, 27 feet in average depth, were examined in West Hartford. Four of them are known to penetrate the rock to depths of 2 to 12 feet; two were said to just reach rock, and the rest end in drift, most of them in stratified drift. ISTone of the weUs that enter rock has failed, but one of the two that touch rock fails every summer. Most of the roads in West Hartford follow the tops of ridges and the houses are grouped along the roads. Con- sequently most weUs are sunk in ridges where the water is farther below the surface than at the foot of slopes. Furthermore, there is evi- dence that in some localities the water table has become lower during the last 25 years, so that wells which formerly passed below the lowest position of the water table are now within the zone of fluctuation. WEST HAKTFOJ?D. 55 Some of these wells could be restored to their original efficiency by cleaning, an operation which seems to liave decreased in popularity about as rapidly as the prospects for the extension of the municipal system have increased. WeUs, especially those which are dug in sand, need cleaning about once a year; otherwise the infiltration of sand reduces the capacity to such an extent that the wells fail, first in dry seasons, and finally in all except very wet seasons. Springs. — East of the outcrop of the upper trap sheet the rock troughs are not well defined at the surface and knowledge of the rock topography is unsatisfactory. Springs are common along the streams and many of them are perennial, indicating the presence of contin- uous supplies near by. A spring about three-eighths of a mile west and a little north of Elmwood, on the Beach farm, yields nearly 20 gallons a minute, or 30,000 gallons a day, of which about 9,000 gal- lons a day is used. The equipment includes a concrete reservoir and pumping plant. The spring is about one-fourth mile east of the outcrop of the upper trap sheet and near the base of the ridge pro- duced by it. The surrounding slopes appear to be inadequate to afford so large a supply continuously, and it is probable, therefore, that the water delivered by this spring finds its way from the basin west of the ridge through a fissure in the trap. The spring is about 50 feet lower than the bottom of the basin west of the ridge. Other springs in this vicinity yield much less water, fluctuate in harmony with the rainfall, and doubtless get their supplies from the slopes on which they are situated. Drilled wells. — Drilled wells, affording 2 to 20 gallons a minute, have proved satisfactory for domestic use in West Hartford. Of the 15 weUs examined, 13 obtain their water from sandstone; one does not reach rock, but gets its water from a bed of tiU; and one ends in and draws its supply from trap. These wells are distributed over the entire town; some of them are on the trap hills, some of them in the sandstone troughs, and others in deep di^ift. Among them every geologic condition in West Hartford is encountered and their general success indicates that water may be obtained anjAvhere in the to^^m. No very large quantities have been obtained in the traps. The weUs which penetrate these rocks generally furnish less than 5 gallons a minute, unless they enter the sandstone, but for ordinary domestic needs 2 gallons a minute is ample, and for other pm'poses there is no reason to expect drilled wcUs to be successful. The largest yield yet obtained from trap rocks is 20 gallons a minute, which is by no means a large yield for an industrial or municipal supply. Moreover, this yield is obtained at a depth of 343 feet, which is about as deep as it is ordinarily feasible to drill, since at lower depths water-bearing fissures are less numerous and generally smaller. 56 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS^ CONN. Increase in use of ground water in West Hartford has been at least temporarily arrested by the extension of the Hartford water system, many of the citizens expecting city water to become more generally available and therefore hesitating to invest in well drilling. SUGGESTED DEVELOPMENTS. A rock trough lies between the outcrops of the two upper trap sheets and is especially well defined in the south half of the town, where it contains a small stream fed by a number of springs, some of which yield more than 10 gallons a minute (PI. IX, in pocket). There are no wells in this basin, and its exact depth and water content are not determined. Several smaller troughs lie along the foot of the Talcott Range, all of which contam springs but no wells, as the weUs are dug near the roads, which as a rule foUow the tops' of the ridges in this part of the to^\ii. In the largest basins the permanence of brooks and sprmgs and the frequent marshy character of the ground indicate a thorough saturation of the mantle durmg most of the year, and the conditions indicate that the water table descends only a few feet below the surface even in the driest periods. WeUs sunk in these places might be expected to afford sufficient water for domestic needs. At present the habitations are so distributed that the use of weUs in this basin for domestic supplies would, as a rule, necessitate convey- ing the water considerable distances, and involve expenditures closely approaching the cost of drilled wells (p. 39). In many localities, especially along the foot of the Talcott Range, the water for private use can best be obtained from springs. Springs so situated that the water may be delivered to buildings by gravity usually afford very economical supplies and are to be preferred to weUs. Driven weUs are recommended in areas of sand and gravel deposits (PL IX) because of their high efficiency and low cost, and where more water is required than may be obtained from a single well of this type, a gang of points connected at the surface to a com- mon main may produce the required quantity. Driven weUs are not likely to be satisfactory in localities where the water table is maintained at a low level by underground drainage; therefore care should be taken to determine as nearly as practicable the relation of the water table to the surface of the ground at the point where it is proposed to drive the well. The entire zone of fluctuation should lie within the suction limit — about 30 feet — otherwise points can be used only in combination with dug weUs so that the pump cylinder may be lowered below the surface. In areas covered by tiU (PI. IX) a sanitary dug well (p. 43) is best for moderate domestic use. Sup- phes from these sources are generally of good quality and adequate for domestic needs. Where the drift is so thin that water is not available throughout the year and where more water is required than may be obtained from dug wells, drilled wells may produce adequate WEST HARTFORD. 57 quantities (p. 20). But drilled wells also furnish moderate sup- plies of good water in areas of stratified drift, and they are generally esteemed for their sanitary character. Under an agreement with the city of Hartford the sections of West Hartford which petition for the privilege may obtain city water. At present families living along the main aqueduct are so supplied and many other parts of the town are reached by branch lines, the eastern haK of the town being especially well" supplied in this way. (See p. 51.) In sections not reached by the Hartford mains, water is obtained from private wells. RECORDS OF WELLS AND SPRINGS. The available information concerning the wells and springs of West Hartford is presented in the following tables : Dug wells in West Hartford. Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Elevation above sea level. Depth. Depth to water. Elevation of water table above sea. Yield per minute. Amount used per day. Depth, to rock. 4 Oulaudt Slope.... Slope.... Slope.... Plain.... Plain.... Hill Hill Plain.... Hill Slope — Flat Slope.--. Slope... - Hill Slope.... Slope. -.- Hill Slope Flat Hill Slope.... Hill Hill Slope — Valley-. Slope Slope-... Slope Slope Plain.... Plain.... Slope.... Slope..-. Slope.... Hill Flat Slope.... Hill Hill Hill Hill Slope Hill Hill Hill Hill Slope... - Feet. 180 185 165 150 150 160 164 130 140 160 140 140 150 125 155 155 160 130 100 128 125 130 130 200 180 200 250 160 185 178 170 180 280 185 200 180 110 160 170 175 180 185 145 140 145 130 120 Feet. 30 20 14 30 15 22 19 16 30 40 Feet. 28 16 11 10 10 IS 15 15.8 25 37 Feet. 152 169 154 140 140 142 149 114.2 115 123 95 Gallons. Gallons. Feet. g 5 9 10 4 4 11 15 40 200 16 20 John C. Delaney... F. Larenson 16 22 24 25 3 35 28 30 30 30 28 30 16 20 12 26 25 17 20 30 30 25 45 12 35 40 27 25 30 30 33.5 15 30 18 40 21 30 25 25 25 23 25 20 29 Henry farm 8 142 31 32 Mansfield 25 10 13 16 5.5 23 18.5 14 14 26 27 13 42.5 130 145 147 114 94.5 105 106. 5 116 116 174 153 167 207.5 a5 33 35 Hall . - .. 10 36 do . .. 38 Griswold . - . 39 do. 15 40 Woodford 41 42 43 M. A. Goodwin 2,400 10 95 46 {a) 4 (a) 10.5 a. 2 47 Finneran 25 48 C.E.Carlson 45 50 320 20 20 51 32 30 153 148 52 Flint 53 Mrs. Foot 20 54 22 158 8 5 (a) (a) («) (a) 55 56 57 Newton 31.5 12 168.5 168 60 do 62 63 Beach farm do 14 146 16 6,'i 66 17.5 25 157.5 155 70 Millard .3 .05 20 71 73 17 20 128 120 10 74 76 F.Steele 12 77 Walbrid^e 20 14 110 106 .08 10 560 78 a Well goes dry. 58 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. Drilled wells in West Hartford. Map No. Owner. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth. Yield per minute. Amount used per day. Depth to rock. Drilled in year— Cost. Section. 1 ?. T. Slocum Morgan Braynard W.B.Miller Creamery Feet. 400 450 195 190 150 165 155 165 170 160 130 120 130 165 175 145 90 85 Feet. 83 .265 168 60 52 110 136 108 113 240 100 118.5 50 67 175 343 197 90 Galls. 5 15 6 3 12 3 "'"'4."2" 10 6 15 15 3 15 45 20 Galls. 60 800 Feet. («) 107 44.5 34 31.8 47 1910 $181.00 Hardpan. Hardpan; s a n d - stone. Gravel; hardpan; red trap. 3 1910 420.00 5 1? Schoolhouse Arthur Allen Judd 1910 1911 120.00 275. 00 Red sandstone. 13 14 600 600 800 1,160 50 Sandstone. 17 IS Joseph Apter James Miller M. F. Greene St. Mary's Home. M. F. Schwerts- feder. C.W.Hall W. J. McCartney. A. G. Woolev Frank Steele Coil Pipe Co 50 70 65.8 25 50 16 (?) 10 30 05 1911 270.00 Do. 19 24a 1909 313.50 26 37 120 1907 1911 1904 1900 1906 1899 300.00 125.00 142.80 '769.'66' 485.00 61 Sana, clav, red 69 75 79 50 80 sandstone, shale. 80 a No rock. Springs in West Hartford. Map No. Owner. Elevation above sea level. Yield per minute. Amount used per day. Improvements. 6 Feet. 210 210 90 105 110 115 120 220 280 250 135 175 130 180 110 118 Gallons. 10 10 6 4 6 2 Gallons. 7 1-inch pipe. 21 23 F. Larenson 27 Henry farm 30 Mansfield , , . Pumped to bam 34 by wind. Windmill. 44 M. A. Goodwin 2 2 9 10 1,200 4.^1 Bannon Piped. 49 M. F. Schwatlow Three-fourths inch 58 pipe. Tile, 24 inches by 3 feet. 5<) 2,400 64 .5 67 Beach farm 9,000 12, 000 68 do 20 1 Pipe, 2 inches by 8 72 feet. QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. The analyses in the following table indicate the composition of the water of three wells drilled into the rock at West Hartford. All are hard waters and those represented by analyses 2 and 3 are high in sulphate. According to tests ^ made by the Connecticut State Board of Health in 1898 the water from the well at Elmwood School (depth not given) contains 359 parts of total solids and has a total hardness of 125 parts per million, and that from the well at the South Kinder- 1 Connecticut State Board of Health Kept, for 1898, pp. 292, 295. ITEWINGTON. 59 garten (depth not given) contains 166 parts of total solids and has a total hardness of 80 parts per million. Analyses of water frovfi drilled wells in West Hartford. [Parts per million; R. B. Dole, analyst.] Constituents. Dissolved solids at 180° C. . . Total hardness as CaCOi . . . Silica(Si02) Iron (Fe) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Carbonate radicle (CO3) Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) . Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CI) 253 142 10 136 12 14 500 208 1.1 54 25 6.4 156 220 3.8 ,20 630 210 18 81' 34 .0 172 305 3.7 1. Well of H. C. Long; sample collected June 16, 1915. 2. Well of M. F. Schwertsfeder (PL IX, No. 26), 118.5 feet deep; sample collected June 24, 1915. 3. Well east of Whitlock Pipe Factory (PL IX, No. 80), 90 feet deep; sample collected June 17, 1915. NEWINGTON. POPULATION AND INDUSTRIES. Newington is in the central part of Connecticut m. Hartford County. It is reached by the Shore Line division of the New York, New Haven & Hartford K-ailroad (station Newington), by the Highland division of the same road (stations Newington and Clayton), and by electric railway from Hartford and New Britain. Post offices are maintained at Newington and Newington Junction, and mail is delivered by rural free delivery from New Britain. Newington was taken from Wethersfield and incorporated July 10, 1871. The area of the town is 14 square miles. The population of Newington in 1910 was 1,689. The population from 1880 to 1910 is shown in the following table: Population of Newington, ISSO to 1910. Year. Popula- tion. Per cent increase. 1880 934 953 1,041 1,689 1890 . ... 2 1900 9 1910 62 The principal industry is agriculture. TOPOGRAPHY. The surface of Newington is in general flat and stands at an average elevation of about 100 feet. Cedar Mountain extends alons; the entire east border, reaching elevations of 350 feet in many places. The highest elevation is about 375 feet, near the northeast corner of the town. (See PL IX, in pocket.) 60 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. The principal stream in Newington is the South Fork of Park River, which, with its branches, drains practically the entire town. Two small tributaries of Mattabesset River rise in the extreme southeastern corner of the town and drain a small area, most of which is swampy. The general direction of the drainage is northward. All the streams are small, and their average fall is about 10 feet to the mile. WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. Bedrocks. — The indurated rocks in Newington consist of Triassic sandstones and shales, and trap. The trap is exposed in Cedar Mountain. West of Cedar Mountain the bedrocks are sandstones and shales. All the rocks exposed in the central part of the town are sandstone. Shale appears at the surface at several places along the western border. The forces which produced the displacements along the eastern border of the town caused also a general shattering of the rocks throughout the area, and cracks of various widths appear in all the rock exposures and extend from the surface to depths of several hundred feet. Because of these cracks the rocks constitute a reservoir for the storage of tmderground water and form the source of supply of drilled wells that end in bedrock (p. 20). Till. — Glacial till, a mixture of clay, sand, gravel, and bowlders covers the rock over the hills along the east border of the town and at many places in the central and western parts of the town. The till was deposited by the retreating ice sheet at the close of the glacial epoch. The most prominent characteristic of the till is the presence of large bowlders, and the distribution of the till is marked by the bowlders scattered over the ground or built into fences along the roads and through the fields. In some places the till is 30 or 40 feet thick, in other places it barely covers the rocks; its average thickness is about 15 feet. Till as a water-bearing formation is discussed on page 15. Stratified drift. — Deposits of stratified sand and gravel extend along South Fork River and its branches and constitute the most important water-bearing formations in Newington. Many wells have been drilled in the vicinity of Newington Junction and Newington Center to depths ranging from 75 feet to 125 feet before reaching bedrock. These deposits are continuous with similar deposits, partly of lacus- trine origin, found in Hartford and East Hartford and the towns northward. GROUND- WATER SUPPLIES. In Newington the depth of the water table below the surface of the ground, as determined by the measurement of 50 wells, ranges from 6 feet to 40 feet and averages 18 feet. The least fluctuation occurs in the areas of deep drift in the central portion of the town. NEWINGTON". 61 Fifty-two dug wells, ranging in depth from 8 to 42 feet and averag- ing 20 feet, were examined in Newington. The yield of wells as determined by measurements of four wells ranges from less than one-fourth gallon to 7 gallons a minute, the average being about 2 gallons. Thirteen of the wells examined are reported to go dry in periods of drought. Four of the wells penetrate rock but obtain their water from the overlying drift. The amount of water used, reported for 25 wells, ranges from 5 to 280 gallons a day and averages 46 gallons. Thirteen of the drilled wells range m depth from 48 to 232 feet and average 116 feet; eight of these get their water in the bedrock. Their yields ranged from 4 gallons to 40 gallons a minute and averaged 17 gallons. The quantity of water used, as reported for four wells, ranged from 7 gallons to 1,000 gallons a day and averaged 376 gallons. Data were obtained concerning five springs used by private families. Two of them are said to yield a gallon a minute, and one furnishes 8 gallons a minute. The quantities used from the five springs range from 10 to 2,400 gallons and average 517 gallons daily. The distribution of the different kinds of drift is indicated on Plate IX, and the types of wells adapted for use in drift are discussed on page 38. The most satisfactory supplies in Newington are obtained from drilled wells. In the sandy area west of Cedar Mountain ade- quate supplies for domestic use are obtained from drilled wells ending in gravel or coarse sand about 100 feet below the surface. The water in most of these wells will rise within 30 feet of the surface. PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY. A cooperative company consisting of 20 members, of which Fred Hubbard is president and Newton Osborne secretary, controls a small system which furnishes water to the members only. Water from a spring on Cedar Mountain is discharged into a smaU reservoir, from which it is led to Newington Center thi'ough a 2-inch main. Each member is entitled to as much water as he desires and no check is kept on the quantity. This company was organized more than 30 years ago and the supply has been ample except during the droughts of the last three summers. The company has acquired a spring situated west of the foot of Cedar Moimtain from which, in emergencies, water is pumped by a gasoline engine to the reservoir on the mountain. 62 GEOUND WATER IN THE HAETFOED AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. RECORDS OF WELLS AND SPRINGS. The available information concerning the wells and springs of Newington is presented in the following tables : Drilled wells in Newington. Map No. Q-vsTier. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth. Yield per minute. Amount used per day. Depth to rock. Drilled in year— Cost. Section. 1 Feel. Feet. Gallons. Gallons. Feet. 4 10 Mrs. Geo. P. Brimley Pimm 135 80 100 48 124.5 130.5 106 93 6 4 18 18 18 18 18 IS 1,000 G 29 1907 1899 1910 1910 1910 1910 1910 1902 .?388. 00 248. 00 2S9. 00 240. 00 198. 00 169. 00 318. 00 Trap. Hardpan; brown 13 Geo Cooley sandstone. Clay; quicksand; gravel. Quicksand; sand; 14 John F. Bergman . 15 James Liquori Edward Goodale. Carl Oscar Daniel- son. Newton Osborne. 100 80 gravel. Do. 16 Clay; quicksand; coarse sand. Quicksand; sand; 17 18 95 159 42 gravel. Hardpan; brown sandstone. 19 21 22 W.H.Todd 105 . 100 20 70 100 1S99 200. 00 Water, top of rock. 30 39 Mrs. H. M. Rob- bins. Frank Rowley . . . Chas. Luce Winter 15S 135 150 160 91 73.5 165 232 8 15 25 40 160 44 31.5 IS 10 1901 1906 1911 1910 180. 00 145. 00 368. 00 437. 00 Hardpan; brown sandstone. Red sandstone. 66 71 160 Brown sandstone 73 1 183.5 feet: trap 32 feet. 74 j i 1 1 Springs in Newington. Map No. Owner. Elevation above sea level. Yield per minute. Amount used per day. Improvements. 3a Cutler, 27 37 40 41 55 62 64 S. Symolon. Churchill... Carlson E. a. Barnard. Fed. 140 Gallons. \ Gallons. 100 100 100 70 10 10 2,400 50 Tile 2 by 7 feet. Reser\^oir 2 by 6 feet. Barrel reservoir. Pumped by wind. NEWIITGTOlsr. Dug wells in Newington. 63 Map No. O-wTier. Topo- graphic position. Elevation above sea level. Depth. Depth to •water. Elevation of water table above sea. Yield per minute. Amount used per day. Depth to rock. 9 Slope Slope.... Slope.... Plain.... Plain.... Plain.... Slope.... Plain HiU Slope.... Plain.... Hill Hill Hill Slope.... Plain.... Plain.... Plain.... Plain.... Plain Hill Flat Flat Plain.... Slope.... Hill Plain.... Hill Hill Slope.... Slope.... Slope.... Flat Plain.... Flat Hill Flat Hill Slope Hill Hill Slope.... Slope Hill Flat Slope.... Plata.... Hill Hill Plain.... Plain.... Slope.... Feel. lis lis 115 90 90 90 110 SO 140 100 105 280 280 215 195 135 150 140 130 115 125 115 100 110 128 125 135 230 240 245 175 160 130 160 146 170 150 120 115 130 150 160 150 140 130 155 155 160 150 150 130 95 Feet. 24 12 30 12.5 16 34 16 35 18 17 18 22 17.5 20 8 28.7 33 16 15.5 10 26 10 11 17 14 18 27 22 24 24 32 30 12 31 11 27 10 12 15 24 42 13 19 39.5 24 27 32 21 40 30 19 28 Feet. 20 8 26 10 12.5 32.5 13 32 15 10 15.5 19 14.5 Feet. 98 110 89 80 77.5 57. 5 97 48 125 90 89.5 261 265.5 Gallons. (a) 0.05 Gallons. 30 Feet. 3 Cutler 5 6 7 8 (a) 10 15 50 9 11 12 Jeans 20 21a 23 Calahan .14 (a) (a) .28 (a) 10 24 20 25 25 25 Blinma 14 26 .do 6 27.7 1S9 107.3 28 Macnemay Miller 29 31 Mrs. H. N. Rob- bins. Frank Stetzer Blair 13 12 8 12 8 7 16 12 13 25.5 IS. 5 22 17 27.5 27 9 27 8 24 6 7 12 22 40 11.5 14.5 37.5 22 24 23 17 30 28 12 21 127 lis 107 113 107 93 94 116 112 109.5 211.5 218 228 147.5 133 123 133 138 146 144 113 103 lOS 110 148.5 135.5 102.5 108 131 132 143 120 122 lis 74 280 32 33 34 (a) 35 S. Symolon 10 36 38 Barrows 42 (a) 60 43 Hall 44 8 40 5 15 45 6 46 (a) 47 48 7 49 A. F. Pipkin Chas. JockliQ E, R. Barnard ... do 50 (a) 51 12 240 160 52 53 Carl Landell JohnBentson (a) 54 10 56 57 5^ John Youlinat August Eckert 30 10 20 30 59 (a) 60 61 63 E. R. Barnard U. Skomars Chas. Luce 65 67 68 69 S.B.Bingquist J. A. Johnson 8 10 10 15 70 72 (a) 75 76 a "Well goes dry. QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. Only one ground water from Newington was analyzed, and the results are given in the follomng table. This is a highly mineral- ized water, very hard, containing much sulphate. According to a test * made by the Connecticut State Board of Health in 1898 the well (depth not given) at Center School yields better water, as its content of total solids is 156 parts and its total hardness 86 parts per million. 1 Connecticut State Board of Health Rept. for 1898, p. 291. 64 GEOUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS^ CONN. Analysis of water from the drilled well of Joseph Belden {No. 81, PL IX), collected June 17, 1915. [R. B. Dole, analyst.] Parts per million. Total solids at 180° C 1, 150 Total hardness as CaCOg 580 Silica (SiOs) 16 Iron (Fe) Tr. Calcium (Ca) 187 Magnesium (Mg) 67 Carbonate radicle (CO3) Tr. Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 116 Sulphate radicle (SO4) 705 Chlorine (CI) 5.3 WETHER SFEELD. POPULATION AND INDUSTRIES. Wethersfield, in the central part of the State in Hartford County, is reached by the Valley branch of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad (stations at Wethersfield and South Wethersfield) and by electric railway from Hartford. There are post offices at Wethersfield and South Wethersfield. The town was settled in 1635 and named in 1637. Its area is 14 square miles. The population of Wethersfield in 1910 was 3,148. The following table shows the population of the town from 1756 to 1910: Population of Wethersfield, 1756 to 1910. Year. Popula- tion. Per cent increase. Per cent decrease. 1756 2,483 3,489 3, 733 3,806 3,992 3,901 3,825 3,853 1 1774 40 7 2 5 1782 1790 1800 1810 1 3 1820 1830 1 Year. 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 Popula- tion. Per cent increase. 3,824 2,523 2,705 2,693 2,173 2,271 2,637 3,148 7 4 16 19 Per cent decrease. 1 34 19 The principal industries are agriculture and the manufacture of tools and mattresses. Shoes are made at the State prison, which is situated here. TOPOGRAPHY. The land slopes from the top of Cedar Mountain on the west bor- der eastward to Connecticut River. The highest elevation on the west border is about 325 feet. The land along Connecticut River is less than 20 feet above sea level. Cedar Mountain is formed by an outcrop of Triassic trap brought into position by faulting. The rocks dip eastward and underlie Connecticut River at a depth of about 75 feet. In this part of its course the Connecticut meanders over a broad flood plain, of which about 4 square miles lies within the town of Wethersfield. WETHERSriELD. 65 All the drainage in Wethersfield reaches the Connecticut through small brooks. In the south part of the town there are considerable areas of swamp land, but the north half is well drained. Goff Brook, which is the only named stream in the town, rises in a small lake in the southwest corner and enters the Connecticut near Rocky Hill. WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. Bedrocks. — Triassic sandstones and shales underlie all of Wethers- field except the extreme western part, where the trap rock comes to the surface Owing to the great amount of faulting to which this region has been subjected, the rocks are intensely fractured and afford storage for ground water. The fracturing, however, is con- fined to the upper part of the rock zone, and therefore water can not be obtained at very great depths (p. 20). Till. — The higher elevations in Wethersfield are covered by till, a glacial deposit consisting of a mixture of clay, sand, gravel, and bowlders. The till is 30 to 40 feet thick in some places, but in many others barely covers the rock surface; its average thickness is about 15 feet. (See PL IX, in pocket.) Stratified drift — The bedrock in the central part of the town is covered with a thin deposit of stratified drift consisting chiefly of sand. The stratified sands found in Wethersfield are parts of the lake deposits, which are more prominent to the north (p. 48). The occurrence of water in stratified drift is discussed on page 15. AUuviuin. — The surface of the flood plain is alluvium. The char- acter of the deposits underlying the alluvium has not been determined in Wethersfield, but they are doubtless similar to the deposits that occupy the same topographic position in Hartford (p. 48). GROUND- WATER SUPPLIES. Fifty dug weUs, ranging in depth from 9 to 33 feet and averagmg about 20 feet, were examined in Wethersfield. The average depth to water was 16 feet, the extremes being 1 foot and 27 feet. Nearly all of the wells in Wethersfield end in till. Four of those examined pene- trate rock and nine have recently failed. The daily consumption of water was reported for 22 wells, the average being 23 gallons. Driven points have been used to a small extent in Wethersfield, generally in combination with dug wells. Two of these wells were examined in which the points were driven to depths of 33 and 45 feet, respectively. From one of these 200 gallons per day is used. Ten drilled wells range in depth from 40 to 200 feet and average 100 feet, and yield 3 to 60 gallons per minute. The daily consumption reported for eight wells ranged from 6 to 3,200 gallons, excluding one well which is not used, and averaged 475 gallons. Five springs yieldmg from one-half gallon to 1 gallon per minute were observed. All were gravity springs an d three of them were intermittent, 97889°— wsp 374— 16 5 66 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS^ CONN. PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY. Wethersfield is supplied with water from the mains of the Hartford waterworks department (see p. 51), the service being metered and controlled by the Wethersfield fire district. RECORDS OF WELLS AND SPRINGS. Information concerning various important features of the wells and springs of Wethersfield is presented in the following tables: Dug wells in Wethersfield. Map No. Owner. - Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth. Depth to water. Eleva- tion of water table above sea. Yield per nunute. Amount used per day. Depth to rock. 2 Mrs. Fois Slope. .. Plain... Slope. . . Plain... Plain... Hill Plain... Plain. .. Slope. . . Hill Slope. . . Hill Hill Slope. . . Slope. . . Flat Slope. . . Hill Hill Slope. . . Plain... Flat Flat Slope. . . Slope. . . Hill Hill Flat Slope. . . Hill Flat.... Slope... Plain... Hill Slope. . . Slope. . . Flat Flat Slope. . . Flat.... Plain... Slope. . . Plain... Slope. . . Plain... Plain... Plain... Flat.... Plain. .. Plain... Feet. 145 50 60 50 60 110 85 215 225 223 205 190 190 155 135 90 120 116 150 110 107 100 100 115 130 195 210 180 217 220 208 220 200 200 155 185 182 145 110 100 175 135 125 45 40 45 45 30 32 35 Feet. 23 14.5 22 11 11 30 11 15 23 25 29 28 21 18 14 17 16 29 17 23 9 24 13 23 22 21 22 24 25 33 10 33 27 33 30 23 15.5 11 24 15 23.5 23 14 23 25 23 22 26 15 13.5 Feet. 20 13 13 10 8 26 7 13 Feet. 125 37 47 40 52 84 78 202 Gallons. Gallons. 3 Feet. 5 Standly Viscus W. A. Leaver 8 6 10 11 12 12 R. R. Duncan Goodrich.^ 40 14 20 3 (a) 4 22 23 Cowles 24.5 24 26 20 13 12 15 12 22 14.5 19.5 6.5 17 9 17 20 13 20 20 21 27 8 19 26.8 198.5 81 164 170 142 123 75 108 94 135.5 90.5 100.5 83 91 98 110 182 190 160 196 193 200 201 174.2 22.5 24 Michael Desmond. H.E.Wells C. W. Rhodes 0. A. Raymond... George L. Wells. .. Clark 30 25 26 (a) 15 35 120 5 15 15 5 40 29 30 32 33 35 3fi d'Lx 39 John A. Isaacson. . do... . 40 41 Antone Gassner. .. Eugene Grover 10 12 42 5 43 44 45 Churchill Bros C.E.Clark John Olson J. W. Thomas Mrs. Harris K. Kilby 46 10 47 48 C) 49 15 8 50 51 H. W. Whaples... Henry Carter 52 26 54 («) 31 55 23 20 14 10 15.5 14.5 19 22.5 12.5 10 23.5 10 19 1.5 13 11 132 165 168 135 194.5 85.5 156 112.5 112.5 35 16.5 35 26 28.5 19 24 56 6 13 57- (a) (a) 58 59 60 2 75 5 61 S. E. Wallbeoff.... E. J. Flannagan... Rev. Waters George Baxter 62 (a) 63 65 66 67 68 65 69 70 R. G. Fox 40 71 a Well goes dry. WETHEKSFIELD. Drilled wells in Wethersfield. 67 Map No. 0^vner. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth. Yield per minute. Amoimt used 3er day. Depth to rock. Drilled in year— Cost. Section. 1 A. Mannel Feet. 150 170 170 100 78 73 195 117 24 38 Feet. 44 200 116 60 56 124 135 40 117 117 Galls. 10 5 25 Galls. 15 30 Feet. 15 21 7 10 1908 1907 1909 1896 1909 1911 1910 1907 1905 1909 SIOO. 00 251.00 "iii'oo' 248. 00 530. 00 '234.06 Sand; hardpan; 7 Goodrich bro^^^l sandstone. Hardpan; brown 9 do sandstone. Hardpan; black 13 R.R. Wolcott A. G.Hubbard.... Frank Nowak ...'.. H.W.Wells F. A. Gr is wold John Turner J.C.Warner shale. Clay. Water flows. 16 18 28 34 37 ■^8 60 3 15 Good. 50 8 15 3,200 6 None. 62 5 Brown sandstone. Clav; gravel. Trap. Springs in Wethersfield. Map No. Owner. Eleva- tion above sea level. Yield per min- ute. Improvements. 3 4 17 19 21 27 31 53 Side of road . Mrs. Wall work Edward A. Isaacson. Feet. 135 50 76 115 Gallons. 1 1 175 95 205 Keg sunk. Hydraulic ram. Keg sunk. 2 by 2 foot box. QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. An analysis of water from the 200-foot drilled well of Mrs. Goodrich (No. 7, PI. IX) is given in the accompanying table. It represents a moderately mineralized; fairly hard calcium carbonate or hmestone water. According to tests ^ made by the Connecticut State Board of Health the well at the high school (depth not given) yields a water containing 232 parts of total sohds and having a total hardness of 120 parts per million, or water similar in composition to that from the Goodrich well, whereas the well water at the second district school contains 140 parts of total sohds and has a total hardness of 60 parts per million. 1 Coimecticut State Board of Health Kept, for 1898, pp. 294, 296, 68 GEOUND WATEE IN THE HAETFOED AND OTHEE AEEAS^ CONN. Analysis of water from the 200-foot drilled ivell of Mrs. Goodrich (No. 7, PI. IX), collected June 17, 1915. [R. B. Dole, analyst.] Parts per million. Total solids at 180° C '..... 337 Total hardness as CaCOg • 99 Iron (Fe) 25 Carbonate radicle (CO3) 5. 8 Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 220 Sulphate radicle (SO4) 41 Chlorine (CI) -. 23 EAST HARTFORD. POPULATION AND INDUSTKIES. East Hartford is in the central part of Connecticut, in Hartford County. It is reached by the Highland division of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Raikoad (stations at East Hartford and Burnside) and by the Springfield branch of the same road (stations at East Hartford and Burnhams) ; by electric railways from Hartford, Springfield, Glastonbury, Manchester, South Manchester, and Rock- ville. Post offices: Burnside, Hockanum, East Hartford, and Silver Lane. East Hartford was separated from Hartford and incorporated in October, 1783. The area of the town is 18 square miles. The census of 1910 reported the population as 8,138. The popula- tion from 1790 to 1910 is shown in the following table: Population of East Hartford, 1790 to 1910. Year. 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 Popula- tion. 3,016 3,057 3,240 3,373 2,237 2,389 2,497 Per cent increase. Per cent decrease. 33 Year. 1860, 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 Popula- Per cent tion. increase. 2,951 18 3,007 2 3,500 16 4, 455 27 6,406 45 8,138 27 Per cent decrease. The principal mdustries are agriculture (in which tobacco growing is a specialty) and the manufacture of paper. The repair shops of the Highland division of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad are situated here. TOPOGRAPHY. The flood plain of Connecticut River is about half a mile wide. Its east edge is marked by an abrupt rise of 35 feet to the broad terrace that extends eastward about 2 miles to the low hills formed EAST HARTFORD. 69 by the outcrop of bedrock along the eastern boundary of the town. More than half the town is less than 60 feet above sea level, and not over one-j&fth of it exceeds 100 feet. The highest elevation — 250 feet — is in Laurel Park, just east of Burnside. Connecticut River receives all the drainage from East Hartford. Hockanum River, a tributary of the Connecticut, occupies a narrow valley through the middle of the town, and Boyles Brook and Pewter- pot Brook drain the remainder. All these streams are small and occupy narrow valleys which have been cut through the terrace. About one-fourth of the town is under cultivation, and about one- fourth, adjacent to the river, is flood plain; the remaining half is wooded. The terrace lands, constituting about two-thirds of the town, support valuable tobacco fields. WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. Bedrock. — Triassic sandstones come to the surface along the east border of the town. The highest elevation of the rock surface is nearly 250 feet in Laurel Park, just east of Burnside. From this point it slopes downward m all directions but most rapidly west- ward to about 75 feet below sea level at Comiecticut River. The rock is coarse and conglomeratic, is intensely fractured, and owing to texture and structure it contains water which is recoverable by means of drilled wells (p. 20). (See PL IX.) Till. — Unstratified mixtures of clay, sand, gravel; and bowlders deposited by the last retreating glacier cover the bedrock on the hills in Laurel Park. Till is not present at the surface in East Hartford, where the elevation is less than 150 feet, but it forms a compara- tively thin layer between the rock surface and the overlying beds of stratified drift throughout the lower parts of the town. Stratijied drift. — The sediments deposited in the Comiecticut Val- ley were in large part assorted and the coarse materials were laid down along the sides and the fine clays in the center of the vaUey, with materials of medium grade, as sands and fine gravels, in intermediate positions. The zone of gravel deposits barely reaches into East Hartford and sections of gravel are exposed in only a few places in the southeast corner of the town and on the hillsides in Laurel Park. Sand, however, is the predominating surface material. It occurs generally over the terrace lands ranging in thickness from a few inches to 100 feet. The occurrence of water ill stratified deposits is discussed on page 15. Alluvium. — In the flood-plain belt along the river alluvium over- lies the stratified drift and in the northwest corner of the town it is about 40 feet thick. It consists prmcipally of fine reddish sand, with a large admixture of mica and some clay. Alluvium extends from the river to the edge of the terrace and follows up the vaUey of Hockanum River to the wall of the rock vaUev at Burnside. 70 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. SURFACE-WATER SUPPLIES. The paper mills at Burnside use water power when it is available, but it is generally necessary to employ steam or electric power dur- ing the summer months. Hockanum River receives sewage from towns situated all along its course and large amounts of waste from textile and paper mills. The smaller streams are much polluted from the residential and rural sections of the town. GROUND- WATER SUPPLIES. Thirty-one shallow wells, ranging in depth from 8 to 28 feet, and averaging 16 feet, were measured in East Hartford. The depth from the surface of the ground to the surface of the water in these wells ranges from 2 to 23 feet, and averages 13 feet. The yield was deter- mined approximately in two wells and found to be 3 and 4 gallons a minute, respectively. The amount of water used from 12 of the wells was reported as ranging from 5 to 240 gallons a day, and averaging 78 gallons. Five wells not included in this average are not used at all. Six of the wells examined fail during periods of drought. Measurements of 30 wells on the terrace indicate that the average depth of the water table is about 13 feet. On the flood plain the average depth to water is less than 5 feet, as is indicated by the presence of moisture at the surface throughout the greater part of the year. The fluctuation of the water table averages about 8 feet on the terrace, but on the flood plain it is about 2 feet, not including the distance to which water rises above the surface of the ground in times of flood. Eleven driUed wells, ranging in depth from 50 to 525 feet and averaging 173 feet, were examined in East Hartford (p. 71). Seven of the wells penetrate and draw their supphes from the sandstone. The yields of six wells range from 4 to 265 gallons a minute, and average 50 gaUons. The quantity of water used was reported for two wells as 159,000 gallons and 60 gallons a day, respectively. The cost of construction, as reported for five wells, ranged from $105 to $247.50, and averaged $180.50. A spring belonging to W. K. Ackley was reported to yield a gallon a minute. The water is pumped by wind to a 40-foot tank, and the consumption amounts to 240 gallons a day. The altitude of the spring is 22 feet above sea level. The deep deposits of sand forming the terrace store large quanti- ties of ground water. The general direction of the underflow is westward, and the amount of the fluctuation of the water table increases westward to the edge of the terrace. Conditions here are favorable for the construction and operation of driven wells, and EAST HARTFORD. 71 wells of this type are recommended to those who desire to obtain water supplies on the terrace. It is probable that supplies suffi- cient to form important additions to municipal systems are available by this means in this locaUty. PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY. East Hartford is a borough but is governed as a fire district and the water system is owned by the district. The water is obtained in the hills of Glastonbury from brooks that feed two reservoirs having capacities of 1,700,000 gallons and 1,500,000 gallons, respec- tively, and from these the water is distributed by gravity. The collecting basin comprises about 7 square miles, and is well protected against contamination. This system now supplies most of East Hartford and parts of Glastonbury and South Windsor, or a total population of about 8,000. The daily consumption is about 1,100,000 gallons, or 137 gallons per capita. This supply has been adequate and of excellent quality, but owing to the rapidly growing population and the increasing demand for water the district is prepared to enlarge the supply by the acquisition of other brooks in Glastonbury. RECORDS OF WELLS. Information concerning the wells of East Hartford is given in the Dug wells in East Hartford. following table Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Elevation above sea level. Depth. Depth to water. Elevation of water table above sea. Yield per min- ute. Amount used per day. 1 Plain Slope Flat Hill Slope Flat Slope Hill Hill Flat Flat Flat Flat Plain Slope Plain Flat Hill Hill Flat Slope Hill Hill Plain, Plain Plain Plain Plain Feet. 45 40 40 45 100 115 130 170 ISO 100 160 145 140 130 115 107 90 100 110 60 90 105 110 65 75 65 65 Feet. 12 11 14 10 23 20 18 25 23 16 10 10 11 15 19.5 17 19 14 13 12 8 17.5 28 27 12 8 14 Feet. 9 8 12 6.5 20 15 14 22 21 14 8 8 9 14 17 13 16.5 12 10.5 10 7 15 25 Feet. 36 32 28 38.5 80 100 116 148 159 86 152 137 131 116 98 94 83.5 88 99.5 50 83 90 85 Gallons. (a) Gallons. 2 Ruff 3 S. E. Roberts C. F.Roberts 4 5 3' 4 80 6 ... 8 Edward Rouff Mary S. Hurlburt Mulchv 100 160 9 Schoolliouse 10 11 R. L. HofTman U. S. Bailey 12 (a) 5 13 Teat 120 14 16 Hart 120 17 Lange 19 J. V.Ran 21 Charles Ott 25 25 30 15 31 32 Frederick Hayes C. H. Stump 6 50 33 E.A.Williams 34 (a) '"(aj" (a) 240 35 3fi Hyram Colbum H. L. Cowles 10 6 13.5 65 59 41.5 20 37 Andy Bi Iwell 38 39 L. Burnham Slope Slope nm 30 SO 100 16.5 10 22 15 6 21 15 74 79 41 Hamilton Forbes 42 o Well goes drj' 72 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. Drilled wells in East Hartford. Map No, Owner. Elevation above soa level. Depth. Yield per minute. Amoimt used per day. Depth to rock. Drilled in year— Cost. 15 Herbert Kennedy Feet. 120 120 110 120 125 120 150 65 65 50 38 38 Feet. 88 150 125 75 71 82 Gallons. 8 Gallons. 60 Feet, a 70 1906 18 J. W. Crowell 20 Mrs. John Hart 10 Good. Good. 4 25 25 22 20 1900 1900 1900 1902 $245.00 ??. Jacob Ott 127.00 23 Gustave Banzener 177. 50 24 N. Schu? 247.50 26 Laurel Park 27 Mrs. Levi 50 60 280 525 395 8 10 i> 105.00 28 Mrs. John Hansen 5 10 M Eagle Paper Mills Co East Hartford Manufactur- ing Co 1886 1825 1855 44 45 do.c 265 159,000 a Section: Sand; clay; hardpan; brown sandstone. b Drilling only; 18 feet dug. c Well in sandstone; steam pump. QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. The 150-foot drilled well of J. W. CroweU (No. 18, PI. IX) yields a hard, moderately mineralized calcium sulphate water, as the following analysis shows. According to tests ^ made in 1898 by the Connec- ticut State Board of Heatth the waters of six school weUs (depths not given) in East Hartford range in total solids from 24 to 355 parts, in chlorine from 2 to 72 parts, and in total hardness from 9 to 112 parts per milUon. These figures illustrate well the variability in composition that may be expected because of local differences in the character of the water-bearing beds. Analysis of water from the 150-foot drilled ivell of J. W. Crowell (No. 18, PI. IX), col- lected June 16, 1915. [R. B. Dole, analyst.] Parts per million. Total solids at 180° C 472 Total hardness as CaCOg 236 Iron (Fe) 30 Carbonate radicle (CO3) Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 98 Sulphate radicle (SO4) 218 Chlorine (CI) 24 MANCHESTER. POPULATION AND INDUSTRIES. Manchester is in the central part of the State, in Hartford County. It is reached by the Higliland division of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad (stations at Bucldand and Manchester) and by electric railway from Hartford and Rockville; the South Manchester Railroad connects Manchester and South Manchester, and the electric railway from Manchester Green connects with all passenger trains at 1 Connecticut State Board of Health Kept, for 1898, pp. 291-296. MANCHESTER. 73 Manchester: stage from South Windsor to Buckland. Post offices are maintained at Manchester, South Manchester, Buckland, Manchester Green, and Higliland Park. Manchester was separated from East Hartford and incorporated in May, 1823. The area of the town is 21 square miles. The population of Manchester in 1910 was 13,641. The population from 1830 to 1910 is shown in the following table: Population of Manchester. 1830-1910. Year. Popula- tion. Per cent increase. Year. Popula- tion. Per cent increase. 1830 1,576 1,695 2,546 3,294 4,223 1880 6,462 8,222 10,601 13,641 53 1840 8 50 29 28 1890 27 1850 . . 1900 29 I860 1910 29 1870 The principal industries are agriculture and the manufacture of silk, cotton, and woolen goods, paper, electric appliances, and needles. TOPOGRAPHY. Manchester is hilly throughout and practically all the hiUs are rock. The highest elevation is in the southwest corner of the town, where a group of rocky knobs reaches an elevation of 750 feet above sea level. Two-thirds of the town is more than 200 feet and about haK of it is more than 300 feet above sea level. The lowest elevation is 75 feet, where the Hockanum River crosses the east boundary. The terrace lands, which comprise large parts of East Hartford and South Windsor, extend into Manchester and occupy most of the northwest quarter of the town. (See PL IX, in pocket.) About nine-tenths of the drainage of Manchester is received by Hockanum River, which passes through Buckland and Manchester and drains the north half of the town. South Branch, the principal tributary of the Hockanum, passes through South Manchester and drains the south haK of the town. The headwaters of Pewterpot Brook and of Salmon Brook reach into the southwest corner of the town and receive a smaU part of the drainage. The fall of Hockanum River is about 20 feet to the mile, and that of South Branch 60 to 100 feet to the mile east of South Manchester and about 30 feet to the mile from this point west to its junction with the main stream. WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. Bedrocks. — From Manchester Green westward Triassic sandstones comprise the rock floor, but eastward the bedrocks are granite gneisses. The dividmg luie between these formations is a fault 74 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS; CONN. extending due north and south through the town. The rock- surface is rugged and has a maximum reUef of more than 300 feet. Joints or cracks in the rocks are apparent in all exposures, and they afford storage for gromid water as explained on page 20. Till. — On the highlands of Manchester the rock is covered with till or bowlder clay (p. 15), which is m places more than 30 feet thick and is of general occurrence at elevations exceedmg 200 feet. It probably occurs also in contact with the rock surface at lower elevations where the surface material is stratified drift. Till varies widely in porosity, and consequently in water-bearing capacity. Stratified drift. — The occurrence of gravel deposits in a belt nearly 2 miles wide extendmg from north to south through the middle of Manchester, and of sand covering the rock in the northwest quarter of the town, suggests the conclusion that the stratified drift is deepest beyond the borders of the town. The deposits of sand and gravel are important water bearers, the porosity being high and the storage capacity consequently large. The occurrence of water in glacial drift is discussed on page 15. SURFACE-WATER SUPPLIES. Water power has been developed at Buckland, Manchester, and South Manchester, but the supply is not adequate during dry seasons and some of the plants have been abandoned. Mills are frequently obhged to run slack or to employ steam power. Reservoirs for municipal suppHes have been located at South Manchester, on Porter Brook near the east border of the town, and at the headwaters of Hop Brook. With few exceptions these reservoirs have furnished adequate suppHes. Large quantities of sewage and wastes from textile mills are dis- charged into the streams. Wastes from some of the mills in South Manchester are discharged on filter beds which remove a part of the pollution, but much of the poUutmg matter in solution is carried through and enters the streams. The reservoirs that supply the town are above the sources of pollution and are protected against contamination. GROUND- WATER SUPPLIES. Sixty-four weUs rangmg in depth from 3 to 56 feet and averaging 21 feet were examined in Manchester. The range in depth to water was from 1 foot to 35 feet and the average was 11 feet. Most of these weUs end in tiU and eight of them penetrate rock. They yield in general sufficient water for domestic needs, but 10 weUs have recently been dry. The consumption of water, as reported from 28 wells, and not including 9 weUs which are not used, ranges from 5 to 120 gallons per day and averages about 23 gallons. MAHCHESTEE. 75 The depth of 27 drilled wells ranges from 45 to 500 feet and averages about 152 feet. The yield ranges from 3 to 150 gallons a minute. Satisfactory domestic supplies are obtained from drilled wells. Two wells drilled at the Porter reservoir for use in the municipal system were about 200 feet deep and yielded 50 gallons per minute, but they were abandoned because they did not flow and the yield was consid- ered too small to warrant pumping for municipal distribution. Fur- thermore, when the wells were pumped several important springs which contributed to the reservoir were cut off and it became evi- dent that no additional supply was obtained by pumping these wells. On the slopes in Manchester are numerous springs, some of which are permanent and furnish sufficient water for domestic supphes. Ten sprmgs were examined ranging in yield from 1.5 to 15 gallons a minute and averaging about 6 gallons. None of these are used on account of their inconvenient situation. PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES. The Manchester Water Co. supplies the village of Manchester at a flat rate from a reservoir near LydaUville, holding between 4,000,000 and 5,000,000 gaUons, and the Cheney Bros. Water Co. supplies South Manchester from two reservoirs on Porter Brook near the east border of the town. The reservoirs of the latter company receive drainage from an area of about IJ square miles and have a total storage capacity of about 161,000,000 gaUons. The population sup- phed is 9,000. The system is partly metered. RECORDS OF WELLS AND SPRINGS. The available information concerning the wells of Manchester is presented in the foUowmg tables: Dug vjells in Manchester. Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth. Depth to water. Eleva- tion of water table above sea. Yield per minute. Amount used per day. Depth to rock. 3a Z. F. Hills Plain. . . Plain. . . Hill Plain. . . Plain.... Plain Slope.... Slope.... Slope.... Slope.... Plain.... Hill Hill Hill Feet. 120 150 175 155 154 150 245 220 230 220 200 225 190 183 Feet. 19 IB 22 35 26 27 12 67 6 3 69 16 36 30 34 Feet. 17 14 21.8 Feet. 103 136 153.2 Gallons. Gallons. Feet. 4 7 ""(a)"" 15 30 12 8 Gillman 32 9 22 26 10 5 1 7 14 35 29.8 132 124 235 215 229 211 186 195 160.2 13 13 Mrs.E.E.Gillman Slater 17 18 C.T. Tack M. Doyle 19 5 5 25 60 20 21 W. McNaU 9 22 H. W. Wetherell . . 10 23 ?A a Well goes dry. 6 Well dug in spring. 76 GROUND WATER IX THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. Dug wells in Manchester — Continued. Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth. Depth to water. Eleva- tion of water table above sea. Yield per minute. Amount used per day. Depth to rock. 25 Plain.... Plain Slope.... Plam.... Flat (°) («) (°) Flat Slope.... Feet. 185 200 235 235 295 425 420 430 380 390 385 310 300 285 260 260 225 180 150 145 145 155 130 140 160 170 170 150 180 230 245 295 265 385 265 260 290 275 290 225 290 300 280 280 420 418 460 750 700 710 740 Feet. 20 22 26 14 16 21 12 22 20 22 "s 22 13 25 24 14 29 27 28 14 Feet. 18 20 25 11 15 17 11.9 18. 5 18 19 5 20 11.5 23 22.5 13.5 28 26.5 27.8 13.5 Feet. 167 180 210 224 280 408 408.1 411.5 362 371 380 290 288. 5 262 237.5 146.5 197 153.5 122.2 131.5 Gallons. Gallons. Feet. 26 28 10 29 V. Johnson 30 31 Risley 60 3? W. L.Fish L. McKee 12 34 35 ....:do 10 36 Joseph Hansen 2.5 37 42 Plain.... Plain.... Slope.... (") 5 43 44 45 R. Hastings 46 G. Henson Slope... - Plain.... Plain.... Plain.... Plain.... Plain.... Plain.... Plain.... Slope.... nill...-. Slope.... Clope.... Plain.... Plain.... Slope.... Slope.... Plain.... Slope.... Slope.... Plain.... Plain.... Slope.... Plain.... Plain.... Hill Hill Slope.... 31ope.... Slope Slope.... Slope Flat HilK... Slope..,. HiU Hilld... 50 53 54 F. Tiechert (^) 5 27 56 Cushman 57 59 Leritz 25 25 22 c61 18 17 14 29 16 25 29 17 24 21.5 19 27 20 36 32 31 32 17 30 17 13 15 23 20 15 18 24 22 19 131 108 121 20 60 Hill Bros 61 Ralph Noyes F. N. Buckland . . . . do 80 62 63 15 155 64 (&) 65 Ruddell 13 26 11 18 25 16 21.5 20 16 24 17 32 31.8 29 27 15.5 28 15.2 11.5 13 21.5 19 13 17.2 137 154 219 227 270 249 363.5 245 244 266 l'=8 2o8 193.2 261 273 264.5 252.5 4C4.5 406.5 447 728.5 681 697 722.8 14 66 70 Schoolhouse 71 72 8 73 74 M. Schildge Fred Browsky Mrs. "Weidman 10 25 15 7 76 77 1.5 78 79 "Wm. Keish John Bissel E.T. Carrier 81 20 3C 35 5 8 84 4 87 88 H F. Case 91 92 Katherine Calhoun John Porterfield . . . («-) 17 93 94 Ida Wear 5 8 96 D. J. Findley 9 98 99 1 Joseph Sipper J. Barthleim Matuchak 1 100 101 (^) a Located in Bolton. b Well goes dry. c Dug 45 feet: point driven 16 feet, d Well dug in spring. MANCHESTER. Drilled wells in Manchester. 77 Map No. Owner. Elevation above sea level. Depth. Yield per minute. Amovmt used per day. Depth to rock. Diameter, DriUed in year— Cost. 3 H. J. Wickham Clint Williams do Feet. 100 155 155 150 15 150 150 400 355 315 310 270 255 230 180 177 118 145 190 200 280 280 Feet. 125 67 30 a 207 102 225 250 271 200 60 60 64 71 70 C108 131 175 din cl88 C105 C104 99 150 /45 137 450 500 Gallons. 5 Good. Good. 12 Gallons. 400 Feet. 16 5 28 43 Inches. 1906 8312 50 5 74.00 6 60.00 10 Edward Hayes Mrs. Bean 450 50 f> 1,050.00 11 1 229. 00 12 Burr Good. 1905 14 Sumatra Tobacco Co. E. S. Ela 625.00 38 1906 1901 39 Fred Pitkin 20 800 4 20 20 40 Wadsworth 41 W. Pitkin 47 A. C. Knofla Corbin 3 60 20 15 48 20 1904 49 Frish 51 Jos. Bier 10 5 12 55 1906 1908 1901 216.00 52 Stone 262. 00 55 M. Hayes 20 58 Daniels 68 Charles Stimburg Charles Pukosky W. B. Porter F. Wittkopski Joseph Hager Good. 25 Good. 38 16 54 22 1909 1908 1910 1911 1908 1899 264.00 69 20 40 25 20 210. 00 80 208. 00 82 198.00 83 300. 00 85 E.T. Carrier TJermey 240 280 4 86 102 Cheney Bros ^150 USO *3 (A) ii) U) 10 50 8 8 6 1903 1911 103 ..?. do 180 120 3B Mrs. Chapman a Through sandstone and black slate. b Cost of whole system. c Through sandstone. d Drill passed through 11 feet of rock; bottom of well is gravel. « Through red sandstone. / Through sand and clay. g Flowing; mineral content 1,000 grains per gallon. h Total yield. i At depth of 80 feet. > Not used. * Flowing. Springs in Manchester. Map No. Owner. Elevation above sea level. Yield per minute. Improvements. 1 2 15 16 27 33 75 89 90 95 97 H.J. Wickham do Sumatra Tobacco Co . W. L. Fish Frank Schildge. Case Bros do D. C. Finley... Feet. 120 120 160 160 220 o405 340 500 500 Gallons. 15 15 2.5 3 Small. 1.5 4 2 1.5 Piped to several houses. Piped to barn. a Spring located in Bolton. QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. The four analyses of water from drilled wells in Manchester reported in the following table indicate considerable difference in mineral content, doubtless due to local differences in the character of the water-bearing beds. Two of the wells yield soft water of low mineral content and two yield hard water high in sulphate. All contain little chlorine. 78 GROUND WATEK IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS^ CONN. Analyses of water of drilled wells at Manchester. {Parts per million; R. B. Dole, analyst.] Constituents. Total solids at 180° C Total hardness as CaCOa Silica(Si02) Iron (Fe) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Carbonate radicle (CO3) Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) . Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CI) 258 160 .25 .0 94 10() 4.9 a 99 55 12 Tr. 24 2 58 20 2. 99 26 .0 26 5.3 4.2 455 255 15 ,10 .0 74 239 2.1 a Much organic matter. 1. "Well of Mrs. Chapman (PI. IX, No. 3B); sample collected June 16, 1915. 2. "Well of II. J. AVickham (PI. IX, No. 3), 125 feet deep; sample collected June 16, 1915. 3. "Well of F. "WTiitkofski (PI. IX, No. 82), 99 feet deep; sample collected June 16, 1915. 4. "Well of Joseph Hager (PI. IX, No. 83), 150 feet deep; sample collected June 16, 1915. SOUTH WINDSOR. POPULATION AND INDUSTRIES. South Windsor, in the central part of Connecticut, in Hartford County (PL IX), is reached by the Highland division and the Springfield branch of the Ne"w York, Ne-w Haven & Hartford Railroad (station at South Windsor, East Windsor Hill, Rye Street, and Burnhams), and by electric rail-way from Hartford and Springfield to South Windsor and East Windsor Hill. The village of Wapping is reached by stage from Buckland station in Manchester. Post offices are maintained at South Windsor, East Windsor Hill, Wapping, Rockville R. D. No. 3, Burnside R. D. No. 1, and Broad Brook R. D. No. 1. South Windsor -was incorporated in May, 1845; previous to this date the to"wn was included in East Windsor. The area of the to"wn is 30 square miles. The population of South Windsor in 1910 "was 2,251. The popula- tion from 1850 to 1910 is sho"wn in the follo"wing table: Population of South Windsor, 1850 to 1910. Year. 1850 1860 1870 1880 Popula- tion. 1,638 1,789 1,688 1,902 Per cent increase. 9 is' Per cent decrease. Year. 1890 1900 1910 Popula- tion. 1,736 2,014 2,251 Per cent increase. 16 12 Per cent decrease. The principal industry is agriculture, especially tobacco gro"wing About one-third of the towTi is under cultivation, and about 10 square miles is in woodland. TOPOGRAPHY. The west half of South Windsor, between the longitude of Wapping and Connecticut River, is a low flood plain, lying in general less than 50 feet above sea level. This flood plain is a little more than a mile SOUTH WINDSOE. 79 wide at the southwest corner of the to^vn and gradually narrows to less than a half mile in the northwest corner. A terrace, 3 miles wide, extends eastward from the flood plaui. South of Podunk River the surface of this terrace is somewhat liilly, omng to elevations of the rock surface, which reaches a height near Yin tons Mills of 275 feet; but from Podunk River north to the latitude of East Wmdsor Hill the surface is flat and stands at an elevation of about 85 feet. Be- tween Podunk River and Stoughtons Brook the terrace is divided into two benches. The upper one is contiauous \\'ith the plain in the north end of the town and the lower one, about a half mile wide, stands 50 feet above sea level. East of the terraced lands the toA\TL is hilly. The liighest eleva- tion, 390 feet, is in the northwest corner. The average stream gradient ui the hilly section is about 60 feet to the mile; in the western haK of the to^\^l it is about 20 feet to the mile. The drauiage of South Windsor reaches Connecticut River through Podunk River, Stoughtons Brook, and Scantic River. A compara- tively small area along ihe east border is draiaed by the headwaters of Hockanum River. These streams are all small and the only power developed ^vithin the town is at Vinton Mills, where a small sawmill is operated intermittently. The flood plains along the Connecticut produce hay where the ground is not swampy. WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. Bedrocks. — The bedrocks which come to the surface in many parts of South Windsor are brown sandstones of Triassic age. These rocks underhe the whole of South Wuidsor but are covered in the eastern part of the towTi by a heavy mantle of glacial drift. Sub- sequent to their deposition the sandstones throughout this region were faulted and fractured on a large scale, and as a result the rocks at the present time are cut in every direction by joiats which hold ground water (p. 20). TiU. — On the hills along the east border of the town the bedrock is covered with till or hardpan — a mixture of clay, sand, and gravel containing bowlders, some of which are 2 or 3 feet in diameter. Till immediately overlies the rock surface throughout the town, but m the eastern part it is covered by stratified deposits. Stratified drift. — Thin deposits of gravel are found in South Windsor at elevations between 100 and 200 feet above sea level. Below elevations of 100 feet the rock is covered with sand contaiaino: lenses of clay. The occurrence of ground water in glacial (^posits is dis- cussed on page 15. Alluvium. — The flood-plain area marks the distribution of alluvium. This deposit is about one-half mile wide except near the mouth of Scantic River, where it extends eastward into the Scantic River 80 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. valley, beyond the border of the town. The alluvium consists chiefly of sand, but small amounts of clay and organic matter are also present. GROUND-WATER SUPPLIES. Sixty-four dug wells, ranging in depth from 8 to 30 feet and aver- aging about 17 feet, were measured. The depth to water ranges from 7 to 28 feet and averages about 12 feet. Most of these wells are situated in stratified deposits and two of them penetrate rock. Thirteen of the wells have recently been dry. The daily consump- tion, as reported for 22 wells, ranges from 6 to 4,480 gallons. Driven points are being successfully used in South Windsor. The yield, as determined by measurements of three wells, is about 10 gallons per minute. The depths of seven wells range from 16 to 28 feet and average 22 feet. The average depth of 13 drilled wells is 123 feet, the extremes being 38 feet and 206 feet. Their yields range from 2 to 30 gallons a minute and average 16 gallons. The consumption as reported for seven wells ranges from 10 to 100 gallons a day. Seven springs were examined yielding from 1 to 12 gallons a minute and averaging 4 gallons. Four of these are used for domestic suppUes, in which the consumption ranges from 60 to 500 gallons a day. All are gravity springs, but they do not respond too readily to changes in the weather. The springs now in use have not been known to fail. In many places in the eastern part of the town the best supplies both for private and public uses are to be obtained from springs. Springs so situated that the water may be delivered to buildings through pipes by gravity usually afford the most economical supplies and should be preferred to wells. Driven wells are recommended in the areas of stratified drift in the western part of the town (PI. IX) because of their high efficiency and low cost, and where larger supplies are required than may be obtained from a single well of this type a gang of points connected at the surface to a common main is likely to produce the required amount (p. 40). Infiltration galleries (p. 42) situated at the base of the terrace should afford large supphes, and this method of development, as well as the use of driven wells, should receive consideration in connection with the proposed public supplies. In areas covered by till (PI. IX) the best type of well for moderate domestic service is a sanitary dug well (p. 43). Water from these sources is generally good and is adequate for domestic needs. Where the drift is so thin that water is not available throughout the year and whe;re larger supplies are required than may be obtained from dug wells drilled wells may produce adequate quantities of water (p. 38); indeed, drilled wells may yield domestic supplies in any part of the town. SOUTH WINDSOR. 81 RECORDS OF WELLS AND SPRINGS. The available information concerning the wells and springs of South Windsor is presented in the foLowing tables: Dug wer.s vn. South Windsor. Map No. Owner. Topo- gi-aphic position. E!eva= tion above sea level. Depth. Depth to water. Eleva^ tion of water table above sea. Yield per minute. Amount used per day. 1 E . A. Sawyer Hill Hill Plain.... Plain.... Plain.... Hill Slope.... Slope Plain.... Plain.... Hill Slope Plahi.... Flat Plain.... Plain.... Slope Slope Slope Plain.... Plain..,. Plain.... Plain.... Plain.... Slope.... Hill Hill Plain.... Plain..., Plain..., Slope..., Plain,.,, Plain,,,, Plain..,, Plain.... Plain.... Plain,... Plain,... Hill Slope Hill Slope Plain.,,, Plain..., Plain.... Plain,... Plam,,., Plain.,., Piam.,,, Plain..,. Plam.... Plain. .. Plain.... Slope Slope Slope Hill Slope.... Slope.... Slope Hill....- Hill Slope Hill Feet. 75 70 90 110 110 320 280 315 280 280 285 210 190 185 190 192 140 120 160 90 95 90 90 90 135 98 75 45 40 45 20 40 70 72 70 75 65 73 115 120 130 130 110 75 80 80 80 80 115 115 118 125 110 140 160 150 220 155 185 260 270 268 200 335 Feet. 16 20 11 10 10 28 15 14 30 18 17 21 24 21 18 24 18 15 14 11 11 19 10 24.5 28 24 16 14 13 15 15 16 17 15 15 12 18 19 18 6 12 24 13 16 15 13 14 19 22 20 20 11.5 16 19 13 14 8 12 13 18 17 19 14 14 C22 Feet. 12 17.5 7 8.5 8 Feet. 63 52.5 83 101.5 102 Gallons. Gallons. 20 2 3 (a) (a) 6 Edward Risley 20 6 8 John Bryan * 9 E . Belknap 14 12 28 17 16 20.5 23.5 18.5 17 22 16 12 12 9.5 7 18 8.5 23.5 27 266 303 252 263 269 189.5 146.5 167.5 173 170 124 108 148 80.5 88 72 81.5 66.5 108 13 Frank Dart (a) (a) 14 15 Hyram Skinner 16 Groves 17 19 Fred Ao Pierce 20 E . H. Kovers 21 W. Green 40 22 24 J. M. Preston 25 25 M. D. Sullivan 27 Aug. Stubenrough Frank H. Pierce 31 3.7 70 32 15 33 G.W.Hayes 36 Arthur M. Hayes 15 37 W. T. Walker (a) (a) (a). 05 6 38 L. P. Brown 39 G. S. Thresher 44 R. F. Southergill 14 12 12.5 14 13.5 15 15 13 12.5 11 17 17.5 17.8 10 21 12.8 14.5 11 12 13.8 17 18.5 18.5 18.5 11 14 18 12 11 7.8 61 33 27.5 31 6.5 25 55 61 77.5 64 48 55.5 97.2 110 109 117.2 95.2 64 68 66.2 63 61.5 96.5 96.5 107 111 92 128 149 142.2 15 47 M. J. Meade 4 80 48 jCinaiy 50 52 15 53 Leo Burnham 56 600 57 James "l^'adley 58 4,480 12 59 do (a) 00 E Imore 61 62 (o) 63 J. L.Hay:^ 64 L. A. Miner 3 (a) (a) 10 65 66 G. E.W.Naples 10 68 69 70 Schooli'ouse 71 72 do 74 Johnson 75 do 76 77 jurj^ess 78 C.P.Clark 81 rJcii colhouse 82 Henry Cady 15 83 84 85 Stroka 12.5 15.6 .A 18.2 13 8 19. o 142.5 169.5 246 251.8 255 192 315.5 (a) 10 87 92 P. L. Burgess 93 96 C. T, Tack 15 OV K. llikolite 20 98 Frank Rogers 10 a Well goes dry. b Depth to rock, 12 feet. 97889°— wsp 374—16 6 c Depth to rock, 16 feet. 82 GROUND WATER IX THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. Driven wells in South Windsor. Map No. Owner. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth. Depth to water. Yield per minute. 34 G. W. Hayes Feet. Feet. 28 28 Feet. 16 16 Gallons. olO 35 do olO 40 41 42 43 45 46 E. D . Famum 50 45 45 27 18 20 16 18 10 49 Good. 51 Good. 54 Mrs Rav fc Good. 55 Geo H Andrev.'s 65 Good. o 30 to 40 gallons used per day. b 40 gallons used per day. Drilled wells in South Windsor. Map No. O-^-ner. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth. Yield per minute. Amount used per day. Depth to rock. Drilled in year— Cost. 11 J. S, Brown Feet. 315 335 220 135 150 130 120 120 170 170 215 130 250 200 350 Feet. 137 162 161 Gallons. Gallon,?. 100 60 85 30 84 40 Feet. 12 Frank Dart 13 30 47 3.5 1911 18 J. W. Graham Nickols 23 28 67 79 80 86 88 89 90 94 95 99 Johnson. &118 5 E. E. Clark 1908 1911 1911 1908 1907 1901 L. J. Grant 160 110 100 C96 lie 102 100 38 20G 20 Wapping M. E. parsonage. . C. Grant 68 Wm. Clark 15 2 25 15 20 30 S240.00 Will Felt Simler ■ P. Jennings 10 1909 1899 Mrs. W. C". ThomDSon Levi Felt . . .". 8 50.00 a Red sandstone. b 30 feet of sand, then hardpan to rock. Springs in South Windsor. c Sand, gravel, and rock. Map No. 4 7 10 26 29 30 73 91 Owner. Yield Eleva tion , pgj, seflevd. P^^te. | per day Amount used Michael McGrath O'Connor & Havlin tobacco farm Budy Geo.* A. Smith. l\.\\\\\\.\."[[[[ Wapping creamery Fea. Gallons. 95 1.5 138 10 315 1.5 90 2.5 130 1 100 100 2 200 12 Gallons. 70 100 60 '566' Improvements. Hydraulic ram. Wind and gasoline engine. Wind. Piped to house and bam. Hydraulic ram. Do. EAST WINDSOR. POPULATION AND INDUSTRIES. East Windsor (PL IX) is in central Connecticut in Hartford County. It is reached by the Highland division and the Springfield branch of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad, with stations at Osborn, Broad Brook, and Melrose, and by the main line of the same EAST WINDSOR. 83 road, with, station at Warehouse Point; by electric railways from Hartford, Springfield, and Kockville. Post offices: East Windsor, Windsorville, Melrose, Broad Brook, and Warehouse Point. East Windsor was taken from Windsor and incorporated in May, 1768. The area of the town is 27 square miles. The population in 1910 was 3,362. The following table shows the population of the town from 1774 to 1910: Population of East Windsor, 1774 to 1910. Year. Popula- tion. Per cent increase. Per cent decrease. Year. Popula- tion. Per cent increase. Per cent decrease. 1774 2,999 3,237 2,600 2,766 3,081 3,400 3,536 3,600 1850 2,633 2,580 2,882 3,019 2,890 3,158 3,362 a 27 1782 8 1860 2 1790 20 1870 12 4 1800 6 11 10 4 2 1880 1810 1890 4 1820 1900 9 6 1830 1910 1840 a South Windsor was set ofi from East Windsor in 1845. About one-fourth of East Windsor is wooded and two-thirds of the town is under cultivation. Approximately 1,200 persons are engaged in agriculture. The manufacture of woolen and silk goods also forms an important industry. Rye gin is made on a large scale at Warehouse Point. Water power is used at Broad Brook and at Windsorville, both of which are situated on tributaries of Scantic River. TOPOGRAPHY. Along the east border of East Windsor irregulaj-ities in rock sur- face produce hills ranging in height from 200 to 300 feet. The area characterized by this topography is about a mile wide and extends along the entire east border. Between this area and Connecticut River is a plain which is about 100 feet in general elevation and which is dissected nearly to sea level by Scantic River and its tributaries. The valleys of these streams are narrow and the areas between them are poorly drained. This plain is probably a part of the bed of a lake which formerly occupied much of the Connecticut Valley north of Rocky HiU. The principal stream, Scantic River, enters the town about a mile west of Melrose and flows diagonally across to the southwest corner, where it joins the Connecticut. Its principal tributaries are Broad Brook and Ketch Brook, which drain the east half of the town. The west half is drained by Priors Creek and several short brooks which empty into the Connecticut. (See PI. IX, in pocket.) WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. Bedrocks. — Bedrocks — all Triassic sandstones — appear at the sur- face in the hills just east of Warehouse Point, at numerous places 84 GROUND WATER IX THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. along Scan tic River and its tributaries, and in the hills along tlie east border of the town. Numerous joints, many of which are water bearhig, traverse the rock in all directions and constitute the source of the ground water obtained from rock borings, as explained on page 23. Till. — Tlie bedrock in the eastern part of the to^vn is covered with till — a glacial deposit consisting of mixtures of bowlders, gravel, and sand, with small amounts of clay — which ranges in thickness from a mere film on the hilltops to 25 or 30 feet in the valleys. WeUs drilled through the stratified drift in the eastern part of the town have all encountered till immediately overlying the bedrock. It is believed, therefore, that till Hes between the stratified drift and the rock surface. Tlie occurrence of water in till is discussed on page 15. Stratified drift. — The till-covered areas are surrounded by stratified deposits consisting of coarse sand and gravel, and gravel deposits are found along the east border of East Windsor overlying the till at elevations of less than 225 feet. On the plauis in the eastern part of the town the surface material is principally sand containing lenses of clay and ranging in depth from a few feet to about 100 feet (p. 15). Alluvium. — Immediately along Connecticut River the surface material is alluvium, but the deposit is only a few yards wide. The alluvium also extends up the vaUey of Sc antic River from its mouth through East Windsor and Enfield. GROUND- WATER SUPPLIES. The depth of dug weUs in East Windsor, as determined by measure- ment of 31 wells, ranges from 10 to 65 feet and averages 17 feet. Depth to water ranges from 2 to 58 feet and averages 14 feet. Most of these wells end in stratified deposits and yield adequate supplies. Only two wells have recently been dry. The daily consumption of water reported for 15 wells ranges from 15 to 100 gaUons. Four of the wells examined are not used. Twenty-seven drilled wells, ranging in depth from 86 to 386 feet and averaging about 166 feet, and yielding 2.5 to 85 gallons a minute, were examined. Twenty-six of these wells penetrate rock. The daily consumption, as reported for 14 wells, ranged from 10 to 25,000 gallons. Small springs are common along the streams but are generally intermittent and are so situated as to be unimportant as sources of water for domestic use. A few permanent springs on the slopes in the central and western part of the town are capable of development. One of these yields about 6 gallons per minute and is subject to slight variation throughout the year. In the western part of the town, where the surface deposits consist largely of sand, one of the most suitable types of wells is the driven well described on page 40. Wells of this kind are especially desirable EAST WINDSOR. 85 for tobacco irrigation, as they may be sunk at convenient spots in the fields and may be constructed in a few hours and at a very moder- ate cost. Such wells would be very useful in fields to which water must now be hauled from distant wells. PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY. A private company supplies water to Broad Brook, principally for fire protection but to some extent for domestic use. One reser- voir, about 5,000,000 gallons in capacity, is situated about 1^ miles southeast of the village. The revenue is collected at a flat rate. A reservoir might be constructed 2 miles east of the city near the head of the tributary that joins Broad Brook just north of the city, but the quantity of water carried by this stream should be determined before any development is undertaken. The available head is about 75 feet and the catchment area is about 3 square miles. Wells might also be sunk by driving perforated well casings into the strati- fied deposits near Scantic River to a depth of about 100 feet or to bedrock. RECORDS OF WELLS. The available information relating to the wells in East Windsor is set forth in the following tables : Dug wells in East Windsor. Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth. Depth to water. Eleva- tion of water table above sea. Yield per minute. Amount used per day. Depth to rock. 1 W. A. Lord John Winker Martin Cuscovitch . M. Bagg Hill Plain.... Plain.... Plain.... Plain.... Plain.... Plain.... Plain.... HiU Hill Slope Plain.... Plain,... Plam.... Plain.... Flat Plain.... Hill Plain.... Slope Plain.... HiU HiU HiU Slope HiU HiU HiU Slope.... Flat Plain.... Slope.... Feet. 130 100 115 120 110 115 145 120 196 130 130 105 100 107 100 100 107 130 55 60 65 80 106 100 110 105 140 80 95 90 85 220 Feet. 18 18 12 10 14 15 15 18 65 Feet. 17 13 8 6 9 Feet. 113 87 107 114 101 Gallons. Gallons. Feet. 18 2 4 20 20 25 5 6 C. C. Parker Fred Schlichting.. 7 10 14 15.5 58 131 104.5 138 12 Wm.HiU 5 35 13 Richard Carroll Herman Krah I. H. Stiles H.A.Hunt Barton Wells Thomas Porter ?.S ?4 13 13 11 14 13 14 18 14 12 18 15 12 25 12 11 27 21 12 25 17 22 22 12 10 9 12 7 2 16.5 11 9 16.5 13.5 10.5 14 6 8 25. 5 13 10 23.5 15 19 18.5 118 95 91 95 93 98 90.5 129 46 43.5 41. 5 69.5 92 94 102 79.5 127 70 71.5 75 66 201.5 25 20 26 28 29 20 an Allen 31 32 E. P.Carter 30 34 35 J. O.Walker (°) 20 40 20 36 37 38 W. P. Bissel 3<) 40 Town farm J. F. Strong H. J. AUen W. PI. Tallcott.... John Sheridan 100 15 25 15 41 2.5 45 47 («) 48 56 58 Barnard 59 H. M. Doane 10 30 22 a WeUgoes dry. 86 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS^ CONN. Drilled wells in East Windsor. Map No. Owner. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth. Yield per minute. Amoimt used per day. Depth to rock. Drilled in year— Cost. Section. 3 8 9 11 H 15 H.W.Allen E. M, Granger A. H. Grant Francis Dowdy Distilling Co. Michael Sullivan.. Ertel Feet. 105 150 150 125 230 148 150 150 178 180 175 180 170 200 145 145 145 135 200 200 200 195 200 210 215 220 225 Feet. 222 270 100 310 150 109 102 100 138 257 109 86 154 386 143 298 160 246 102 155 210 90 87 86 114 211 86 Gallons. 30 22 15 85 75 40 40 48 40 34 12 32 18 2.5 5 50 Small. 30 6 10 16 6 25 10 3 10.5 60 Gallons. 50 60 75 100 25' """so' 46" 60 25,000 Feet. 120 100 50 40 60 56 60 73 86 135 45 70 48 21 15 168 1906 1900 1902 1900 1905 1910 1907 1911 1910 1910 1911 1900 1911 1910 1909 1910 1885 1911 1910 1911 1911 1903 1910 1903 1911 1911 1910 $444.00 540. 00 "620.' 66' 300.00 218. 00 204. 00 200.00 276. 00 514.00 218. 00 360. 00 340.00 772.00 321. 75 596.00 "492.' 66" 204.00 310. 00 420.00 190.00 174.00 172. 00 228. 00 422. 00 172.00 Sand; clay; brown sandstone. Sand; clay; hard- pan. Sand; gravel; hard- pan. Sand; hardpan. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Sand; quicksand; bowlders. Sand ; quicksand ; hardpan. Sand; hardpan. Sand; clay; hard- pan. Sand; hardpan. 16 17 18 19 20 F. A.Curtis Frank Dowd Wm. Morris R. C. Lasbury do 21 22 J. P. Norton Miskill 27 33 42 Robert Bartlett . . . E. Newberry Farnham 43 FredEUsworth.... Albert Ellsworth . . John Sheridan Joseph Titus JohnLeantie Michael Dunn Wm. Stasowitz Andrew Hoffman . Jacob Gilson Geo. Barnard Howard Hamilton . 44 49 60 51 52 53 54 55 57 60 1,285 20 10 36" 36' 166 10 23 80 38 23 40 32 9 76 Sand; clay; hard- pan. Sand; hardpan. Do. Sand; clay; hard- pan. Sand; hardpan. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. The deeper of the two wells analyses of whose waters are given in the accompanying table yields a highly mineralized sulphate water. Data at other places in Connecticut, however, do not corroborate the conclusion that the shallower rock water is uniformly better than the deeper, and possibly the results of analyses of other rock waters in East Windsor would indicate opposite conditions. Analyses of water of drilled wells in East Windsor. [Parts per million; R. B. Dole, analyst.] Constituents. Total solids at 180° C Total hardness as CaCOs SUica(Si02) Iron (Fe) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Carbonate radicle (CO3) Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) . Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CI) 202 142 Tr. 182 11 6. .0 849 133 10 .15 54 1.5 .0 86 344 29 1. Well of E. Newberry (PI. IX, No. 33), 143 feet deep; sample collected June 18, 1915. 2. Well of Robert Bartlett (PI. IX, No. 27), 886 feet deep; sample coUected June 18, 1915. GROUND WATER TN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 87 WINDSOR. POPULATION AND INDUSTRIES. Windsor, in the central part of the State, in Hartford County, is reached by the Hartford division of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Eailroad, with station at Windsor and flag stations at Wil- sons and Haydens; by electric railway from Hartford to Rainbow and from Springfield. Post offices are maintained at Windsor, Poquonock, Rainbow, and Wilson. Windsor was settled in 1635 and named in 1637. The area of the town is 31 square miles. The population of the town in 1910 was 4,178. The following table shows the status of population from 1756^ to 1910: Population of Windsor, 1756 to 1910. Year. 1756 1774 1782 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830. Popula- tion. Per cent increase. Per cent decrease. 4,220 2,125 2,382 2,714 2,773 2,868 3,008 3,220 a 49 12 14 2 3 5 7 Year. Popula- tion. Per cent increase. 1840 2,283 3,294 3,865 2,^83 3,058 2,954 3,614 4,178 1850 44 14 I860 18~0 1880 10 1890 1900 22 16 1910 Per cent decrease. 29 28 "3 o East Windsor was set off from Windsor in 1768. About one-third of Windsor is under cultivation. The principal industry is agriculture, the main crop grown being tobacco. Nearly one-half of the area included in the town is wooded. Water power is developed at Rainbow and Poquonock, both of which are situated on Farmington River. TOPOGRAPHY. Windsor lies entirely within the area once leveled by glacial lake deposits, and the present topography has been produced by the dissection of the lake plain. The highest elevation in the town — 270 feet above sea level — is on the boundary near the northwest comer. At no other place does the elevation exceed 220 feet. The flood plain of Connecticut River, which is less than 20 feet above sea level, is about a mile wide near the mouth of Farmington River, but narrows both northward and southward from this locality, cov- ering an area of about 3 square miles. The average elevation of the town is about 150 feet, and about four-fifths of its area lies between 100 and 200 feet above sea level, (See PL IX, in pocket.) Farmington River has cut a narrow, steep-walled valley across the town and its tributaries are short and straight, leaving considerable areas between them without adequate drainage. Small lakes and ponds are found on these areas after rains, and in two or three shallow 88 GROUND WATER IN THE PIARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. basins between Poquonock and North Bloomfield water stands tliroughout the year. Previous to the ice invasion Farmington Eiver probably flowed due south from Farmington through South- ington and Cheshire to the sound at New Haven. Its valley was dammed by glacial deposits at Soutliington, and the stream was deflected northward along the Talcott Mountains to Tariffville, where it found a passage through the range and then meandered across the lake plain in Windsor to Connecticut River. The total fall of the river within the hmits of Windsor is 100 feet. WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. Bedrock. — Triassic sandstones and shales underlie the town and are exposed at several places along Farmington River and in some of the guUies tributary to it. Trap rocks do not outcrop in Windsor but appear at the surface near the town hne in East Granby and, overlain by sandstone, extend eastward through Windsor. Both the sandstones and the trap have been intensely fractured. Numerous cracks, cutting the rocks in all directions, dipping at all angles, and ranging from microscopic size to widths of several inches, afford storage for ground water. The occurrence of water under these conditions is discussed on page 20. Till. — The till consists of unstratified glacial debris deposited by the melting ice. The material is principally sand, but contains a small amount of clay and a large amount of gravel and bowlders. Till covers the rock in the north part of the town and in patches along Farmington River and southward to Wilson. The thickness of the till is variable, owing to the unevenness of the rock surface. In the deepest portions it is about 50 feet thick, but the average thickness is probably not more than 20 feet. Stratified drift. — Stratified drift occurs quite generally in Windsor. It consists chiefly of sand in the north parts of the town, but contains beds of clay in the extreme southern part. These deposits corre- spond in geologic position to the terraced deposits on the east side of Connecticut River in South Windsor (p. 15). GROUND-WATER SUPPLIES. Twenty-four shallow weUs, ranging in depth from 8 to 36 feet and averaging 16 feet, were examined. One of these, a driven point, 10 feet deep and If inches in diameter, yielded a good supply of water; the others were dug wells of the usual diameter, about 2i feet. The approximate yield of three of the wells was determined as 3.5 gallons, 4 gallons, and 8 gallons a minute, respectively. One well which yielded a very small quantity at the time it was examined WINDSOR. 89 was said to fail in dry weather. Tlie quantity of water used was reported for 12 wells, the range being 15 to 60 gallons and the average 26 gallons a day. All the wells examined end in the drift. The depth of drilled wells in Windsor, as estimated by examination of 10 wells, 7 of which end in bedrock, ranges from 44 to 337 feet and averages 147 feet. The yields were reported for 5 wells and range from 4 to 35 gallons, averaging 15 gallons a minute. The con- sumption, as determined for 6 wells, ranges from 20 to 45 gallons a day and averages 35 gallons. Measurements of 23 wells indicate that the water table lies 3 to 34 feet below the surface of the ground in Windsor, the average depth being 12 feet. Owing to the incomplete drainage, however, water stands at the surface of the ground at many places between the stream courses during the greater part of the year, and in and near such places adequate water supphes are readily obtainable. The wide distribution of sand deposits in Windsor favors development by means of driven wells, which would meet a special need for the cultivation of tobacco, the growing of which is confined to the sand plains. RECORDS OF WELLS AND SPRINGS. Information concerning the wells and springs examined in Wind- sor is presented in the following tables: Dug wells in Windsor. Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Elevar tion above sea level. Depth. Depth to water. Eleva- tion of water table above sea. Yield per minute. Amount used per day. 4 Plain Plain Valley.... Slope Slope Plain Plain Slope Plain Slope Plain Plain Plain Slope Plain Plain Plain Plain Slope Slope Slope Flat Hill Feet. 120 90 100 120 92 76 130 140 145 125 130 110 110 140 90 100 100 104 90 83 35 30 55 Feet. 13 18 10 20 13 9 12 27 15 8 9 8 8.5 15 17 20 13 9 36 32 10 18 20 Feet. 10 13 7 16 9 6 9 13 12 3 7.5 5.5 6.5 14 15 17 9 6 33.5 31.8 7 17 14 Feet. 110 77 93 104 83 70 121 127 133 122 122.5 104.5 103.5 126 75 83 91 98 Gallons. Gallons. 5 Scheely 8 15 6 7 W. H. DiclciTison L. J. Daniels 20 9 (a) 11 12 Henry M. Scott 30 13 20 14 E . Delebrand 25 15 17 Wm. Cook 4 20 18 W. A. Graham 18 19 do 20 Joe Twalcunis 21 Mrs. Rood 15 23 John King 40 24 Hensen. ." 20 25 ?8 Mrs. Moore 31 51.2 28 13 41 34 D. W. Bayley 60 35 A . Christensen 3fi Seth Marsh 3.5 30 a Well goes dry. 90 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. Drilled wells in Windsor. Map No. Owner Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth. Yield per mmute. Amonnt used per day. Depth to rock. Drilled in year. Cost. 1 Jacob Lang Feet. 140 140 140 100 100 85 85 80 85 80 Feet. 167 62.5 219 a 167 a 337 o82 a 111 a 143 135 44 Gallons. 8 Good. Gallons. 45 Feet. 80 1907 1909 ?, Clark Bros 3 W.L. Wolfe 10 J. H. Smith Good. 4 35 25 5 70 97 31.5 31 37 35 1906 1910 1908 1900 1909 1906 1898 $334 22 John C. King 26 Albert ArnuJius 25 25 25 40 20 ?7 Mrs. 0. B. Moore 29 Mrs. Henry Fox. . . . 80 F. V. Mills S'' Bert Philips Good. a Sandstone. Springs in Windsor. Map No. Owner. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth. Yield per mmute. 8 Merwin Feet. 140 25 Feet. Gallons. 3 33 N. Christenson 1.5 QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. The four analyses of water from drilled wells represent supplies moderate in mineral content but rather hard. They are all of the calcium carbonate type and low in sulphate and chlorine. Analyses of water from dnlled wells in Windsor. [Parts per million; R. B. Dole, analyst.] Constituents. Total solids at 180° C Total hardness as CaCOs- - - Iron(Fe) Carbonate radicle (CO3) Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) Sulphate (SO4) Chlorine(Cl) 1 2 3 358 172 218 190 84 155 .10 .30 Tr. Tr. 2.8 4.8 273 137 240 24 27 11 32 4.4 2.1 195 112 Tr. Tr. 202 4.3 6.4 1. Well of F. V. Mills (PI. IX, No. 30), 135 feet deep; sample collected June 17, 1915. 2. Well of J. H. Smith (PI. IX, No. 10), 167 feet deep; sample collected June 18, 1915. 3. Well of Albert Amurius (PI. IX, No. 26), 82 feet deep; sample collected June 17, 1915. 4. Well of Mrs. O. B. Moore (PI. IX, No. 27), 111 feet deep; sample collected June 17, 1915. BLOOMFIELD. POPULATION AND INDUSTRIES. Bloomfield, situated in the central part of Connecticut, in Hartford County, is reached by the Central New England Railway (stations at Cottage Grove, Bloomfield, and North Bloomfield), and by electric railway from Hartford. The post office is Bloomfield. Rural free delivery serves outlying parts of the town. BLOOMFIELD. 91 The town was incorporated in May, 1835. It has an area of 28 square miles. The population of Bloomfield in 1910 was 1,821. The popalation from 1840 to 1910 is shown in the following table: Population of Bloomfield, 1840-1910. Year. Popula- tion. Per cent increase. Per cent decrease. Year. Popula- tion. Per cent increase. Per cent decrease. 1840 986 1,412 1,401 1,473 1880 1,346 1,308 1,513 1,821 9 1850 43 1890 1900 1910 3 1860. 0.8 15 20 1870 5 The principal industries in Bloomfield are dairying and agriculture. Tobacco is grown on a large scale. TOPOGRAPHY. The west border of Bloomfield lies along the crest of the Talcott Mountain range. The elevations along this border are 500 to 800 feet above sea level. The land slopes steeply eastward and the level of the plains is reached within a distance of about 2 miles. The eastern two-thirds of the town stands about 150 feet above sea level and constitutes part of the lake plains which extend along both sides of Connecticut River above Hartford. Hog River is formed by the confluence of Wash Brook and other smaller brooks near Cottage Grove. Its headwaters receive the drainage from all parts of the town. The average fall of Wash Brook is about 6 feet to the mile. A very small amount of drainage passes into Mill Brook which crosses the extreme northeast corner. The eastern part of the town is very flat and the streams have not estab- lished a complete drainage system. There remain therefore many undrained or poorly drained areas which are swampy throughout the greater part of the year. (See PL IX, in pocket.) WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. Bedrocks. — The indurated rocks in Bloomfield consist of Triassic sandstones, shales, and traps. The outcrops of the three trap sheets produced the Talcott Mountains. Sandstones overlie the traps in the eastern part of the town but are covered by drift. A character- istic feature of the bedrocks is the extensive fracturing, as a result of which they constitute an important reservoir for the storage of water (p. 40). Till. — Unstratified deposits of sand, gravel, bowlders, and small quantities of clay cover the rock on the hiUs along the west border of the town. These deposits vary in thickness according to the 92 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. topography. On hilltops bedrock is exposed or barely covered, but on slopes the mantle is in some places 50 feet thick. The till extends eastward to the base of the hills. Its distribution is indicated by bowlder-strewn fields and stone fences and its thinness in general is indicated by the numerous outcrops of bedrocks. The quantity of water in the till is variable, depending on the rainfall, porosity of the material, and topographic position (p. 15). Stratified drift. — The plains in the eastern part of the town are part of the bed of an ancient lake which once occupied a large area in the Connecticut Valley north of Rocky Hill. The deposits here consist principally of sand with lenses of gravel along the west margin. The sand deposits in the central and eastern parts of the town range in thickness from 10 to 125 feet. They contain fairly large quantities of water and are porous enough to yield adequate suppHes for domestic use and the irrigation of tobacco fields (p. 15). GROUND- WATER SUPPLIES. In Bloomfield the depth of the water table below the surface of the ground, as determined by measurements of 44 wells, ranges from 5 to 30 feet and averages 13 feet. The fluctuation is greatest in the hills along the west border of the town, where extreme variations are com- mon, owing to the rapid underflow on the steep slopes. In the east half of the town the stratified deposits are thick and the underflow is not rapid. At many places water stands on the surface throughout the year. In this section the fluctuation is very slight. Forty-six dug and driven wells examined in Bloomfield range in depth from 7 to 43 feet and average 18 feet. Three of these are reported to pass entirely through the drift and to penetrate rock. The quantity of water used, as reported for 20 wells, ranges from 2 to 50 gallons a day and averages about 20 gallons. Six of the driven wells in the northeast corner of the town range in depth from 10 to 25 feet, the average being 16 feet, and the points commonly used are 3 feet long and If inches in diameter. These weUs obtain water in the stratified deposits and furnish suppHes for domestic needs and for tobacco irrigation. Thirteen of the drilled weUs range in depth from 28 to 190 feet and average 98 feet. Eight of these weUs draw water from bedrock. Ten wells were reported to yield 5 to 20 gallons a minute, the average being 13 gallons. The quantity of water used, as reported for four weUs, ranged from 5 to 75 gallons a day, and the daily average per weU was about 50 gallons. The wells cost $100 to $300; the average for five wells was $226. Six springs examined in Bloomfield yielded one-half gallon to 11 gallons a minute and averaged 4J gallons. Four of these furnish BLOOMFIELD. 93 private supplies, the quantities used ranging from 20 to 400 gallons a day and averaging 153 gallons. The small gravity springs found along the slopes of Talcott Moun- tains are both convenient and economical for use where arrange- ments can be made to deliver their water to houses and barns. In the hilly sections of the town, where springs are not available, suitable supplies can probably be obtained from dug wells equipped as described on page 43. On the sand plains in the eastern part of the town driven wells are recommended for domestic use and for tobacco irrigation. In the areas where unstratified drift constitutes the rock cover driven wells can not be used to advantage, but dug wells wiU generally furnish insufficient water for domestic needs. Drilled wells are not dependent on the character of the rock or drift and may be expected to fiu'nish moderate quantities of water anywhere in the town. RECORDS OF WELLS AND SPRINGS. The available information concerning the weUs and springs of Bloomfield is presented in the following tables : Drilled wells in Bloomfield. Map No. Owner. Elevation above sea level. Depth. Yield per mmute. Amount used per day. Depth to rock. Drilled in year— Cost. 20 A. C. Ca^e Feet. 210 215 218 130 135 125 125 135 125 135 145 160 110 164 Feet. 60 40 a 96 147 136 6 40 28 85 138 cl90 cl35 Gallons. 6 14 Cfallons. 5 60 50 Feet. 7 7 6 21 do 22 do 44 Henrv Keeny 1899 1899 1911 1897 1911 1911 1909 46 Alfred Marshall 50 Post offi ce 10 20 5 20 8 12 $100 51 W. L. Bumham 75 28 75 69 82 58 52 Mrs. G. K. Marvin 53 H. C. Cadwell 54 Jas. Francis 380 55 TTntHhipsf^n 220 61 Carrol Davis Edw. McKune 72 dllO c63 20 15 1904 1899 330 75 Geo. J. Maher 26 100 a Trap; schist; trap. b Till; hardpan. c Hardpan; black shale. Springs in Bloomfield. d Sand; quicksand. Map No. Owner. Elevation above sea level. Yield per mmute. Amount used per day. Improvements. 1 Adams Feet. 140 150 199 290 165 130 140 90 Gallons . Gallons. 40 20 150 3 25 W. Waugh A. Kelly 0.5 11 10 4 .75 .5 Compressed-air system; gas engine. Piped to buildings. 29 Connecticut Children's Aid Gillmartin 35 400 47 W. C. Hubbard Piped to house. 57 W. C. Wade 67 P.O. Banfield 94 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. Dug wells in Bloomjield. Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Elevation above sea level. Depth. Depth to water. Elevation of water table above sea. Yield per minute. Amount used per day. Depth to rock. 4 Flat Flat Hill HiU Slope Slope Flat Flat Slope.... Slope Hill HiU Hill Slope Slope Slope.... Valley . . Slope.... Slope.... Slope Slope.... Slope.... Hill. .... Slope.... Slope.... Hill Hill Hill Flat Flat Flat HiU HiU Flat Flat Flat Flat Flat HiU Slope.... Flat Flat Flat Flat Flat Slope.... Feet. 185 185 227 225 200 225 155 158 285 275 210 210 145 195 200 190 200 185 200 195 195 200 178 125 165 165 127 135 115 115 135 120 120 125 120 130 160 140 145 125 130 110 100 110 115 159 Feet. 32 19 20 9 20 16 17 20 13 11 9 11 21 25 30 10 25 17 16 20 15 14 21 16 22 15 14.5 33 10 7 22 18 18 19 13 10 16 18 43 11 14.5 18 20 14 30 13 Feet. 30 Feet. 155 Gallons. Gallons. Feet. 5 fi Victor Brzenski... do 17.5 7.5 15 9 11 16 10 9 5 7 14 15 6 7 117.5 185 216 144 142 275 266 205 203 131 180 S Belzinski 9 Howard Bloomer. . 14 15 L. M. Banning 20 16 17 18 A. C. Case 19 do 10 ?3 24 A.Kelly 45 15 ?fi Eugene Barnard.. ?7 8 24 15.5 14 14 13 13 17 11 21 11 12 30.5 8 5 21.5 14 14 7.5 8.3 7 13.5 16.5 15 8 11.5 8.5 19 11 27 10 182 176 169.5 186 181 182 187 161 114 144 154 115 104.5 107 110 113.5 106 106 117.5 111.7 123 146.5 123.5 130 117 118.5 101.5 81 59 88 140 •>8 H. M. Myrick 0. Johnson 20 30 31 (a) (a) 6 32 Burnham 13 33 50 20 34 F. W. Legeyt («) 36 37 W. J. Cooley C. H. Cooley... Capin Bros Geo. Humphrey. . . W. P. Francis C.F.Foster do 25 38 (a) 39 • 40 41 4? 12 2 5 5 30 10 30 10 20 15 43 45 Alfred MarshaU W.C.Hubbard.... Eddv (a) 48 49 56 58 Mohlolz 59 0. Blasig 60 Mills 6? Louise Asterm ill. . . A.A.MiUs J. Bumham A.Christ 65 4 66 68 69 A.M. Spenser G. R. Olin.... 35 70 71 73 Rathman io 74 Wm. Rockwell a WeU goes dry. Driven wells in Bloomjield. Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Elevation above sea level. Depth. Diameter. Yield per minute. 2 Barns Flat Flat Flat Flat Flat Feet. 180 180 180 180 Feet. 25 15 15 15 Inches. 1.5 Gallons. 2.5 10 Griffen-Newberger Tobacco Co 11 do 12 do 13 63 Flat Flat 130 120 10 13 64 Mix QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. The water from the 63-foot well of George J. Maher was analyzed as indicated in the accompanying table and was found to be hard and rather high in its content of chlorine. STAMFOKD. 95 Analysis of water from the 63 foot drilled well of George J. Maker (PL IX, No. 75), col- lected June 17, 1915. [R. B. Dole, analyst.] Parts per million. Total solids at 180° C 722 Total hardness as CaCOg 387 SiUca (SiOg) 10 Iron (Fe) 1.5 Calcium (Ca) 95 Magnesium (Mg) 26 Carbonate radicle (CO3) Tr. Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 75 Sulphate radicle (SO4) 19 Chlorine (CI) 245 STAMFORD. POPULATION AND INDUSTRIES. The town of Stamford is in the southwest part of Fairfield County, bordering Long Island Sound. It is reached by the New York divi- sion of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad, which has stations at Stamford and Glenbrook; by the New Canaan branch of the same road, with stations at Glenbrook, Springdale, and Talmadge Hill; by steamboat from New York; by stage from Pound Ridge and Bedford in New York, Long Ridge, High Ridge, and North Stam- ford; and by trolley from Darien, Greenwich, Sound Beach, Spring- dale, Shippen Point, and Glenbrook. Post offices are maintained at Stamford, Glenbrook, and Springdale. Rural free delivery covers outlying parts of the town. The area of Stamford is 38 square miles. It was settled in 1641 under New Haven jurisdiction, was named in 1642, and was incor- porated under Connecticut in October, 1662. The population of the town in 1910 was 28,836; of the city, 25,128. The population of the town from 1756 to 1910 is shown in the follow- ing table: Population of town of Stamford, 1756 to 1910. Year. Popula- tion. Per cent increase. Per cent decrease. Year. Popular tion. Per cent increase. Per cent decrease. 1756 2,768 3, 563 3,834 1840 3,516 5,000 7,185 9,714 11,297 15,700 18,839 28,836 1774 22 8 1850 44 44 35 16 40 20 53 1782 I860 1790 1870 1800 4,352 4,440 3,284 3,707 1880 1810 2 1890 1820 26 1900 1830 13 1910 The chief industries are agriculture and the manufacture of arti- ficial leather, bronzes, camphor, carriages, cocoa, cod-liver oil, 96 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. chocolate, drugs, dyestuffs, extracts, furs, hats, ink, insulated wire and cable supplies for rubber manufacturers, iron castings, japans and varnish, knit goods, locks, machinery, music boxes, Paris white, paints, pianos, pottery, sliirtwaists, shoes, stoves, thread, and whiting. TOPOGRAPHY. The surface of the town is, in general, rugged. Elevations exceed- ing 100 feet are found within a quarter of a mile of the shore, and the hills increase in height northward, reaching an elevation of 570 feet on the north boundary in the northwest comer of the town. The topography of Stamford has been produced by the dissection of a plateau and the subsequent deposition of glacial drift over the surface. With the possible exception of a few drift mounds, the hills are remnants of an old highland gashed by innumerable stream valleys, which are lined with glacial deposits. (See PI. X, in pocket.) The principal rivers are the Rippowam, the Mianus, and the Noroton. The Mianus is the largest stream, but it Hes near the boundary in the northwestern comer of the town and its drainage area in Stamford is comparatively small. In the vicinity of Kiver- bank the valley of this stream is constricted and the river falls 60 feet in less than a quarter of a mile, but north of Riverbank for a distance of 2 miles there is a flat, marshy valley floor, the remnant of a small glacial lake. Noroton River forms the east boundary of the town from 1^ miles above Springdale to the Sound, and it also drains only a small part of Stamford. Rippowam River passes through the town from north to south, and, with its tributaries, drains the greater part of it. About one-fourth the area of Stamford, comprising most of the slopes, is forested. In the northern part of the to^vn woods extend well into the vaUeys. The hilltops are generally bowlder-strewn grass lands. The plowed lands comprise less than one-quarter of the town, the small gardens and grain fields being separated by relatively large meadows. WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. Bedrocks. — The indurated rocks of Stamford are crystalline schists and gneisses. They are exposed in many places and are encountered in all of the driUed wells, in many of the dug weUs, and even in the excavations for buildings in the city. The rock surface is uneven and appears to correspond very closely to the topography of the present land surface. Almost aU the hills reveal rock ledges on their slopes and crests, and in many places the rivers have rock beds. AU these rocks are cut by joints that afford passage for water, which can frequently be seen trickhng from them in the exposures alon^ STAMFOED. 97 the roadsides. For further discussions of water in the bedrock see page 40. Till. — Unstratified glacial deposits are found in all parts of the town except in some places along the shore, where beach sand has accumulated, and in narrow belts along the principal streams, where stratified drift is found. Unstratified deposits abound in bowlders, some of which are 2 feet in diameter, and over large tracts the bowl- ders he at the surface so close together as to almost touch. Where the land is tilled they have been in large part cleared away and used in building fences. In a few places the mantle of till is 60 to 75 feet thick; in general it is thin, and the average thickness is probably not more than 20 feet. Rocks are exposed in practically all the hills and in most places the streams have rocky beds. Many of the do- mestic water supphes in the rural districts are obtained from the till. Stratified drift. — The stratified drift occurs in a manner suggesting that it was deposited by glacial streams that occupied valleys prac- tically identical with the valleys that contain the present streams. Kamelike deposits of stratified material are found in the northern part of the town, and stratified deposits form a conspicuous terrace in the southern part of the town, just north of the city of Stamford, on the east side of Mill River. The shore line is digitate, and the inner margins, as, for example, the shore of Wescott Cove, are sand beaches; the projections, however, such, for example, as Shipman Point, are covered with till. The gravel deposits in the northern part of the town and immediately north of the city should afford good supplies of water to driven wells, the conditions being especially favorable in the vicinity of Springdale and Glenbrook. For discus- sion of the occurrence of water in stratified deposits see page 15. SURFACE-WATER SUPPLIES. The topography of the north half of Stamford is favorable to the utihzation of surface-water supplies. Streams and springs are numer- ous, and the slopes are steep and thinly covered with drift, affording suitable conditions for controlling the run-off. The reservoir of the Stamford water department is situated in the valley of Rippowam River at North Stamford. A small dam has been constructed on a short tributary of the Mianus in the northwest corner of the town to control a seldom-used emergency supply of 14,000,000 gallons for Greenwich. Sites at which impounding reservoirs could be built are numerous in the northern part of Stamford. The best site is probably that in the valley of Mianus River in the vicinity of Riverbank. No sewage enters the streams in the northern part of Stamford except that from the usual rural settlements, but owing to the rough 97889°— wsp 374—16 7 98 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. topography and the steep slopes a large proportion of domestic and farm wastes is washed into the streams. GROUND-WATER SUPPLIES. Almost all the shallow wells in Stamford are sunk in glacial tiU and most of them either penetrate or closely approach bedrock. In the areas of deeper drift, as in the southeast part of the town, a bed of coarse gravel with some clay furnishes a good permanent supply wherever wells have penetrated it. Where the drift is thinner water is obtained chiefly from a zone of comparatively thin deposits just above the rock. The rough surface affords numerous small drainage slopes which are favorable for both dug wells and springs, and few wells fail in dry seasons. In the deeper vaUeys, such as that of Noroton River, water is easily obtainable and is abundant, as these vaUeys generally contain de- posits of sand and gravel. A well sunk by Mr. Waterbury, in Glen- brook, illustrates a practical method of procuring good supplies in such places. The well was made by driving a 6-inch well casing through 30 feet of sand to a bed of gravel. It was completed in a few hours and its yield was larger than could be determined by the methods commonly employed in pumping drilled wells. It is situ- ated near Noroton River and ends at a level below the bed of the stream. The range in depth of 139 shallow wells examined in this town lies only between 10 and 30 feet and the average depth is about 20 feet. The average yield, as computed from reports on 7 wells, is 3.7 gallons a minute, but the true average of aU the wells would probably be less than 3 gallons a minute. Out of 35 weUs, including none that were unused, the average daily consumption was found to be about 20 gallons to the well. Of the wells examined 1 1 were said to have failed in dry seasons, and 24 were said never to have failed. No. information was obtained on this point concerning the remaining 104 wells. All the drilled wells in Stamford of which records were obtained end in crystalline rocks. With few exceptions, these wells yield water that is sufficient and suitable for domestic use. The number of drilled wells in the city of Stamford is relatively large, notwithstand- ing the fact that city water is abundant, because some people using large quantities of water consider it cheaper to obtain water from weUs than from the public system. The higher parts of the city are not reached by the gravity system in use, and although pumping is resorted to in some places, drilled wells are commonly used instead. The average depth of 31 of the drilled weUs in Stamford is 208 feet, the deepest being 454 feet and the shallowest 75 feet. The yields of 24 wells range from 3 to 75 gallons a minute and average 30 gallons. STAMFOED. 99 The average daily consumption from 13 wells was found to be about 400 gallons. Owing to favorable topographic conditions there are many springs along the streams and on the hillsides, but practically aU fluctuate more or less with the seasons. The yield rarely exceeds 2 gallons a minute and the average is considerably less than 1 gallon. A num- ber of such springs are utihzed for domestic supphes and a few, such as Varuna Spring, furnish water that is sold. All the springs that were examined in Stamford are gravity springs situated on hillsides or at the foot of slopes and draw water from the drift. PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES. Stamford is supplied with water chiefly from a reservoir in the basin of Kippowam River, near North Stamford, but reserve sup- plies are stored in Mead Pond and Trinity Lake, both in Pound Ridge, New York. The main reservoir has an area of 114 acres, an average depth of 13 feet, and a capacity of 512,000,000 gallons. The capacity of Mead Pond is 80,000,000 gallons, and that of Trinity Lake is 450,000,000 gallons. About 20,000 inhabitants are supplied with water from this system and the consumption amounts to 2,000,000 gallons a day, or 100 gallons per capita. The water is gath- ered from an area of 22 square miles and suffices to maintain an over- flow at the dam during most of the year. In the summer of 1910 the water in the main reservoir was drawn to 4 feet below the crest of the dam, but even then more than three months' supply was in the reservoir when the rains came and fiUed it to overflowing. Springdale is suppHed from two drilled weUs, one of which has a surface elevation of 140 feet, is 454 feet deep, and yields 50 gallons per minute. The following log of this well was furnished by the driUer: Log of drilled well at Springdale waterworks. Thickness. Depth. Feet. Feet. Bowlder clay 16 10 Granite 84 100 " Hard glassy rock" (quartzite) 300 400 "Soft black micaceous rock" 54 454 To insure against emergencies occasioned by fires or disability of pumps the second well was drilled. This well, which was com- pleted in November, 1911, has a surface elevation of 90 feet, is 510 feet deep, and yields 45 gallons a minute. About 300 people are supplied from the Springdale system, and the daily consumption is 15,000 gallons, or 50 gallons per capita. RECORDS OF WELLS AND SPRINGS. The available information concerning the wells and springs of Stamford is presented in the following tables: 100 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. o §1 ggg| PJ3 C^CCl^S OP. OOOIIh d -^ o d d d d d> ® Pi a fl o o o CO ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ -^t^M'-*COt^OOa>.-i->*<0 ^ 0) pj03 *J rt r-( t-H 1-t (M (M r-( i-Hi-H e<50c4'«*oi>.ec-r-i»o 1— < 1-H I— I i-H I— I T— I »— I 1— ( 1-H 1— ( I— I 1— I r-l T-H I— I I— ( rH I— I I— I i-l T— t I— I I— I I— ( T-t r-l 1-4 OOOOOt^OiI>.COOOcOOO»OOQC^-0>fO(MC><»i-i(>505i-i(Nt^ coc 0'COOOt—0'C'^OOOOOOOe<500»CO»OOiOOO>piCOiOOOOr^iO>OOCaDiCiO ,ot^O(»oo■^co^ocoooo^~Tt^M(^5cnt>-05Cs^cot^c«r}.occo(^^c»l^3l^^^^oococ£^-. •^ i-MTHrH.-iT-(i--ie o C3 C ® fl02 02H-S 02E-' l(N es (N CS (N '^ d d d-ri d d d d d-^ d ,p; d-^ -^ -^ +i © d d d d d d d d d c?-^ d d d d SSS^SS ®®®S« fl^®9S2^,c« ©©(» ©©©©©©§©©©© eu a a ? a ft a o- &i2 & ^ Pv2 ^iS'^wft p,p C > c , . . .J4 . .M • • • . . . . o . . o . ■ . . . . . o • • o • • ■ . • I . M > • ;h ■ • • : : : i| : : : i : : : i-g i i : i i ; : : :^ : :^ : : : : :o : : : : : ...©-..g....®® g COCO 1-1 1-H o o oo i.oo 1—1 lOuoOOO t^ --"C lo t^ oi 00 ^ 05 «o lo e CO 06 CO -^ CO CO -^ t-- lO t> ■. t^ ^ rt I-H l-l T-l T-H C5 t-H i-H T-l r-l l-( ,-1 r-( 1-1 i-H 1-1 I-H .-( ,_, ^ ,_, >o^eoooojir>Tts 5^ g > 1 OC IT r- c S >CC 1- > 4 CC > a 1 1- t^ :g >oc 1- )U" r- If 1- a IT 1- ■^ oc CO 00 c CSr-lIM ?i o t^ UO MS :=: o C4(Nese^esiiM(NCCNi/MCO»COO>COCOOOiOOO»000 -^COCCOOi050COSC^ 1-H 1-H C^ 1— 1 tH T-< T-( 1-H I-H 1-H 1-H .^oecoeq-TH fH a o o 'ci.59 •t-i o h-^ o o - -It ^ ^ .i-i I' X ^, o ®t3u sc® _ I "I ■*;5 D (3 o ® "S iH o >000000( 102 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. fl d -^ fl a d H d d d d OOPhOOOOOOOO rtflpiaapiflGfl ooooooooo d d d "^ Q) Q « y OOOP-. o d d d d d d -^ d p,ap,ftP''*oc5'— ii— it-hc^i— it^cflr^,— lOkCOJioico-^e^c^iooi-H io-^i-Hu:)->^coeocM?^HP-iS!>PHP-iSSWMSScoftKSSKSmKWP-iMS(^SM P-iHp-(m5qKKWM 3 o o rP W pco o . ft . CPl P C3 p ^^ O . I/} -M ^)Tj'iocot^oo050'-Hertor^ooo50.-ie<)cO'*»n<»i^OiO-H (Nco-^»oot^oooo i-(C^NC^c^»csc^cvie^cscococococococotococo"^"*'^"*'Hoto STAMFOED, 103 OO P^Ah « ® « g fl fl C P! o o o o « «» (D p « -M 0+0 pq ft a 03 ft 104 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. Drilled wells in Stamford. ^fap No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Elevation above sea level. Depth. Yield per minute. Amount used per day. Depth to rock. Diam- eter. Drilled In year— 1 E. B. Hoyt (resi- dence). E.Y.Webber Hill Slope Slope. . . Slope. . . Slope. . . Slope.. . Hill Valley . . Slope. . . Hill Slope. . . Flat Hill Slope. . . Slope. . . Hill Slope. . . Hill Hill Hill Hill Hill Hill Hill Slope. . . Hill Hill Feet. 90 60 60 55 80 So 130 75 100 150 ^70 28 290 270 300 310 220 215 310 310 290 290 240 230 140 160 160 200 195 40 135 290 230 315 Feet. 200 150 Galh. 45 35 Galh. Feet. 60 40 Inches. 8 8 1909 2 4 500 1906 o 1911 5 8 George Webber Hartlett 208 80 90 400 95 454 510 100 250 301 90 200 130 310 183 275 150 275 183 176 153 200 300 412 300 155 135 150 132 205 129 40 2 3 10 4 500 50 50 12 18 10 I 16 1 ^^ J>45 20 8 1904 1904 9 Fovr^l 1907 11 Fred Berg 1910 12 McDougall SO 13 Springdale Water Co. do 48 If 1?'000 14 45 + 7 20 ch' 50 25 50 4 25 20 12 70 •? to [ 15,000 1911 24 W. M. Raymond Advocate Co 6 33 2,000 200 1896 38 W. W. Daschield.... do 39 1 1905 51 Town Farm 30 1897 52 Mrs. Towns 1900 62 Varima Spring War ter Co. Andrew Boyd J. N. Robbins ... Varian 8 74 50 40 dl909 80 4,000 1609 81 6 6 6 1899 82 O'Flinn 8.3 Rothchilds 60 1901 84 Robert Kerr 85 J. C. Bickel 15 5 3 10 50 5 4 8 8 50 400 100 89 Kans Bros 1910 92 A.E.Mitchell Mrs. Holbrook H. Pahner 93 103 20 20 20 1903 104 James Weed Hill Valley.. Slope. . . Hill Hill Hill 75 30,000 1901 114 Stamford Sanato- rium. Mrs. Gross E.P. Bro-n-n W. H. Childs Mrs. GurtrudeHall.. 1897 119 1896 123 148 40 60 6 1910 165 168 6 1911 a 1911 173 174 H. G. Ogden Dr. Morris Slope. . . Ravine.. 190 310 10 60 8 8 oigii" 175 Mayer Ice Co Diamond Ice Co A. Lynch Valley.. Flat Flat 35 25 104 90 75 176 50 177 eO 178 E.B. Hoyt (market). Mrs. Alexander W.D.Baldwin Crane Flat Shore... Shore... HiU HiU Slope Shore... Shore... Shore... 30 15 17 155 265 140 12 12 12 140 192 250 300 200 183 300 250 40 40 30 15 70 40 10 179 15,000 180 182 60 50 25 20 20 20 1902 184 Miss Smith 6 1897 189 C. Eckert Stamford Gas & Elec- tric Co. do 100 go go go 1902 190 1911 191 1911 192 do 1911 a Incomplete when visited. bTill. c Well is now dry. d WeU cost $500. e Water is foul. / Salt water is obtained after one-haLf hour's pumping. Water is salty. Springs in Stamford. Map No. Owner. Topographic position. Elevation above sea level. Yield per mmute. Improvements. 17 Schofel & Miller Slope Feet. 120 226 330 230 230 Gallons. 0.5 10 4 27 A. Hatch Slope Concrete reservoir. 35 C.A.Bruce Foot of slope.. Slope Piped to horse trough. 61 Varuna Spring Water Co J.B.Strang 167 Foot of slope.. 1 GEEENWICH. 105 QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. Analyses of water from three drilled wells in Stamford are given in the accompanying table. They represent moderately mineralized, moderately hard waters low in content of sulphate and chlorine. Analyses of water of drilled wells in Stamford. [Parts per million; R. B. Dole, analyst.) Constituents. Total solids at 180° C Total hardness as CaCOj Silica (SiOz) Iron(Fe) Carbonate radicle (COg) Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CI) 1. Well of Kans Bros. (PI. X, No. 89), 200 feet deep; sample collected June 26, 1915. 2. Well of Mrs. Gross (PI. X, No. 119), 150 feet deep; sample collected June 26, 1915. 3. Well of C. Eckert (PI. X, No. 189), 183 feet deep; sample collected June 26, 1915. 1 2 127 250 63 133 12 Tr. .10 .0 .0 106 131 14 38 2.4 19 138 71 Tr. .0 87 23 GREENWICH. POPULATION AND INDUSTRIES. Greenwich is in the southwest corner of Connecticut, in Fairfield County. It is reached by the New York division of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad (stations at Greenwich, Cos Cob, Riverside, and Sound Beach); by steamboat from New York daily during the summer and triweekly during the winter; by stage from Port Chester, N. Y., to the villages of Glenville and Pemberwick; and by trolley from Port Chester and Stamford. Post offices are maintained at Greenwich, Cos Cob, Glenville, Riverside, and Sound Beach. Greenwich was settled by the Dutch in 1640 and was acquired by Connecticut from New York in 1662. The area of the town is 49 square miles. The population of the town of Greenwich in 1910 was 16,463, of the borough, 3,886. The population of the town from 1756 to 1910 is shown in the following table: Population of Greenwich, 1756 to 1910. Year. 1756. 1774. 1782. 1790. 1800. 1810. 1820. 1830. Popula- tion. 2,051 2,776 2,623 3,047 3,533 3,790 3,801 Per cent increase. 37 Per cent decrease. Year. 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 Popula- Per cent tion. increase. 3,921 4 5,036 27 6.522 30 7,644 17 7,892 3 10,131 28 12.172 20 16,463 36 Per cent decrease. 106 GROUND WATER IK THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. The principal industries are agriculture and the manufacture of belting, woolens, hardware, etc. The town is a resort for New York City people during the summer, and there are many large country estates not essentially devoted to agriculture. TOPOGRAPHY. Greenwich is a highland town and its topography is characteristic of the highland areas. The land rises rapidly from the shore and reaches an elevation of 615 feet on the northwest boundary. In general, the topography is less rugged in Greenwich than in the adjoining town of Stamford; the divides are broader and the slopes gentler, but the relief is somewhat greater. In the southern half the average relief is about 100 feet; in the northern half about 250 feet. The principal streams in Greenwich are Mianus River, Byram River, Greenwich Creek, and Horseneck Brook. Byram River, the largest, drains about half of the town. Greenwich Creek and Horse- neck Brook receive most of the drainage from the eastern half. Mianus River enters the town about 2 miles above its mouth and receives very little drainage in Greenwich. The stream valleys are narrow, and there is an average fall of about 50 feet to the mile. The effect of glaciation is shown by five swampy areas, the remnants of small glacial lakes. (See PI. X, in pocket.) WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. Bedrocks. — Crystalline schists, gneisses, and granites constitute the larger part of the rock floor in Greenwich, but a small area in the northwest corner of the town is underlain by crystalline limestone. As a result of earth movements in past geologic time the bedrocks of this region have been thoroughly fractured throughout the upper zone. Irregular cracks extend from the surface to depths of several hundred feet and they constitute the only important source of water in these rocks. Cracks wide enough to allow a ready passage of water are, however, exceedingly rare at depths greater than about 300 feet, and it is therefore not usually advisable to sink wells deeper. The bedrocks everywhere lie near the surface and are exposed in a great many places. Some varieties of gneiss weather very readily, and where these are exposed, as, for example, in the railroad cuts between the Stamford and Greenwich raiboad stations, they form comparatively soft and shaly masses. Most of the rocks, however, have withstood weathering to such an extent that their appearance is not altered even in localities where they have been long exposed to attack of the atmosphere. Till. — TiU, which consists of mixtures of bowlders, sand, and clay, covers all the higher lands and is the predominating rock cover. It GREENWICH. 107 ranges in thickness up to about 80 feet, but the average is not more than 25 feet. On most of the hills the covering of till is thin and bedrock protrudes in many places, but some of the hills consist almost entirely of till. Stratified drift. — Stratified drift, consisting of layers of sand and gravel without bowlders, lies at the surface along the principal stream courses, but it is generally thin, exceeding 30 feet in thickness at only a few places. This material is most conspicuous in the vicinity of Round Hill. Deposits of beach sand occur at a few places along the shore, but in general the till extends down to the water line. (Seep. 15.) SURFACE-WATER SUPPLIES. The principal surface-water developments in Greenwich are on Putnam, Rockwood, and Converse lakes, the last two ^'lakes'' being in fact artificial reservoirs formed by the construction of dams. Putnam and Rockwood lakes ' supply the Greenwich waterworks. Converse Lake is said also to have been intended for the municipal system, but it has been used for the public supply only in emergency. Putnam Lake is in the upper part of the basin of Horseneck Brook, at an elevation of about 282 feet above sea level. Rockwood Lake is at the head of Greenwich Creek near Stanwich, at an elevation of about 300 feet above sea level. Converse Lake is at the head of the east branch of Byram River near Banksville, its upper lobe extending a short distance into New York. There are a few power plants on Byram River and at North Mianus on Mianus River GROUND-WATER SUPPLIES. In the rural districts of Greenwich water is most commonly obtained from dug wells. Forty dug wells, ranging in depth from 11 to 36 feet and averaging 16 feet, were examined. Thirty-four of these wells end in till and five ia sand; one ends at the rock surface, and seven penetrate rock. The depth to rock in eight wells ranges from 8 to 26 feet and averages 16 feet. The depth to water, as determined by measurements of 40 wells, ranges from 7 to 24 feet and averages 12 feet. The average yield, determined by measurement of five wells, is 3 gallons a minute, or about 4,500 gallons a day, the greatest yield being 4 gallons and the least 1.5 gallons. Reports of the quantity of water used from 24 wells show a maximum under 40 gallons a day and average |ibout 20 gallons. Four of the wells examined are said to fall frequently. Twenty-four drilled wells, ranging in depth from 70 to 1,000 feet and averaging 331 feet, were examined; excluding eight wells that are 500 feet or more in depth, the average depth is 233 feet. The position of bedrock in 21 wells ranges from the surface to 100 feet 108 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. below, and, including 13 wells which start on rock, average depth to rock is 16 feet. The maximum yield reported was 60 gallons a minute, and the average, excluding two dry wells, is about 12.5 gallons. The daily consumption reported for seven wells ranges from about 25 to 500 gallons and averages about 180 gallons a well. The average annual fluctuation of the water level in the wells of Greenwich, as determined from observations of four wells during 1912, is 9 feet, the greatest fluctuation being 12 feet and the least 6 feet. Wells situated on low flats generally show the least fluctua- tion, those on hillsides near the tops of slopes show the greatest fluctuation (fig. 2, p. 18). The average depth to the water table as determined from measurements of 40 wells in the town is about 12 feet. These measurements were made in June, 1912, when the water level was approximately at its average position. PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES. The borough of Greenwich obtains water from two reservoirs in the central part of the town, one, Putnam Lake, in the valley of Horseneck Brook, and the other, Rockwood Lake, at the headwaters of Greenwich Creek. Putnam Lake covers 105 acres and holds 570,000,000 gallons. Rockwood Lake covers 106|^ acres and holds 460,000,000 gallons. A reservoir with a capacity of 14,000,000 gal- lons is situated on a small tributary of Mianus River in Stamford, but has been rarely utilized. A drought during the winter of 1910 necessitated drawing temporarily from Converse Lake, a private reservoir at the headwaters of the east branch of Byram River near Banksville. All the water distributed by this system is purified by mechanical filtration. The average daily consumption is 5,000,000 gallons in summer and 3,000,000 gallons in winter. RECORDS OF WELLS AND SPRINGS. The available information concerning the wells and springs of Greenwich is presented in the following tables: Dug wells in Greenwich Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Elevation above sea level. Depth. Depth to water. Elevation of water table above sea. Fluctua- tion of water table. Yield per minute. 3 Hill Slope.... Hill. .... Hill Valley . . Hill Slope.... Slope.... Hill Slope Slope.... Feet. 60 85 110 140 242 280 345 350 485 400 400 Feet. 12 11 20 17 14 28 13 15 23 18 12 Feet. 7 8 12 12 12 25 10 11 15 16 10 Feet. ^ 53 ^ 77 98 128 230 255 335 339 470 384 390 Feet. i Gallons. 5 George Clark (a) 6 Mrs. S. E. Marshall 7 Wm Wenzol 9 Chafi. Perin et al 10 11 12 W. Lockwood Ifi E. M. Hobby 10 a4 17 18 a Well goes dry. GEEENWICH. Dug wells in Greenwich — Continued. 109 Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Elevation above sea level. Depth. Depth to water. Elevation of water table above sea. Fluctua- tion of water table. Yield per minute. 25 Slope Slope Flat Flat Flat Flat Slope Plain.... Valley . . Hill Slope..,. Hill Slope Hill Valley.. Slope.... Hill Hill Hill Hill Slope Slope Hill Slope Slope Hill Hill Valley . . Plain.... Feet. 85 30 13 15 20 15 340 408 410 440 516 480 460 320 250 260 345 300 380 500 430 430 325 160 140 240 250 270 240 Feet. 16 13 12 16 14 12 33 18 12 36 23 16 30 21 13.5 15 20 13 12 21 13 15 32 15 30 25 19 15 11 Feet. 9 12 9 8 10 9 27 11 7 19 19 11 16 17 7.5 9 8 10 8 10.5 10 11 8 8 24(?) 22 14 7 10.5 Feet. 76 18 7 7 10 6 313 397 403 421 497 469 444 303 242.5 251 237 290 372 489.5 420 419 317 152 116(?) 218 236 263 229.5 Feet. Gallons. 27 31 G Kennedy Todd 32 34 35 37 (a) 38 E C Converse 39 W H Erhart . . .. 40 L Timmons . . 41 Mrs. John Clark 6 2 42 43 W Dove . .. 2.5 44 45 47 49 Schoolhouse 1.5 50 51 9 (a) 53 W T. Carrington 54 4 55 D M Griffin 57 King Street School. 12+ 58 59 61 Lown 63 64 65 Map No. Owner. Amount used per day. Depth to rock. Section. Wall. Cover 3 Gallons. 10 12 15 15 25 Feet. 8 10 Till and rock... Till and rock. . . Till Stone Open. Plank. 5 George Clark Stone 6 Mrs S E Marshall Stone Lattice shed. 7 Wm. Wenzel 15 14 Till and rock... Till and rock... Till Stone Open. Open. Open. Plank. 9 Chas. Periu and others Stone 10 Stone • 11 25 25 15 20 20 Till Stone 12 W Lockwood Till Stone Plflnk. 16 E. M. Hobby Till Stone Open. Open. Plank. 17 Till Stone 18 Till Stone 25 — Till Stone.. Open. Open. 27 Till Stone 31 G. Kennedy Todd Sand Stone 32 20 10 Till Stone Plank. 34 Till otone Open. Plank. 35 Till Stone 37 Till Stone Open. Open. Open. Plank. 38 E. C. Converse 10 40 25 20 25 Till Stone 39 W. H. Erhart Till Stone 40 L. Timmons Till Stone 41 Mrs. John Clark 22 Sand and rock . Till Stone. Lattice shed. 42 Stone., Stone Open. Open. Open. Open. Plank. 43 W. 0. Dove Till 44 Till Stone 45 Sand Stone.. 47 Sand Stone 49 Schoolhouse 2 Till Stone Plank. 50 Till Stone Stone Open. Plank, 51 R. A. Strong 20 30 8 15 10 Till and rock... Till 53 W. T. Carrington Stone Open. Shed. 54 Daniel Rvan Till Stone 55 D.M. GrlfTm Till Stone Open. Plank. 57 King Street School 25 Till and rock... Till Stone 58 Stone Open. Plank. 59 A. J. Peck 26 Sand and rock.. Till Stone 61 Lown 20 Stone 63 Stone Stone Stone. . Open. P ank. 64 Till 65 15 Till Plank. o Well goes dry. 110 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. Drilled wells in Greenvnch. Map No. Owner. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth. Yield per minute. Amount used per day. Depth to rock. Drilled in year— 1 Mrs. Alexander Feet. 160 160 35 240 360 500 520 300 230 190 265 258 255 100 80 12 12 20 12 325 500 425 Feet. 170 245 75 250 a 104 300 150 300 1,000 430 300 300 150 200 203 70 300 300 1,000 405 800 200? Gallons. 5 60 7 10 2.5 36 3 16 30 5 2 8 10 15 6 4 6 6? 22 30? 10 Gallons. 200 Feet. 2 II. 0. Ilavemever 4 North Mianus School 25 2 8 Chaiies Perin and others 1912 13 Thomas Paten 100 500 300 14 R. A. Elliott ■ 62 10 30 8 10 90 30 15 A. Bairett 1911 19 Booze 20 n. C. Krothoff 1911 21 do 1912 22 Ely School 23 do 24 Greenwich Country Club 26 Mrs. Judge McXowell 100 50 28 Edward Sandreuter 1912 29 G. Kpnnpdy Todd. , . 30 do ". 33 Roberts 36 Hotel 48 Griswold 52 "W. T. Carrington 56 Charles Purdy 60 62 Lown. 240 360 200 500 6 100 67 A. P. Stokes. - a Diameter of well 6 inches. Springs in Greenwich. Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Elevation above sea level. Yield per minute. Amount used per day. Improvements. 46 De Craft Slope . . . VaUey.. Feet. 280 235 Gallons. 1.5 8 Gallons. 30 Concrete reservoir; shed 66 Concrete cistern 8 by 12 feetf windmill. QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. No recent tests of water from drilled wells are available, but analy- ses of water from nine scbool wells, probably shallow, were made by the Connecticut State Board of Health in 1898.^ According to those analyses the waters ranged in total sohds from 52 to 109 parts, in total hardness from 15 to 44 parts, and in chlorine from 2 to 15 parts per milhon. If conditions here are similar to those around Hartford the waters of deep wells would be harder and would show a higher mineral content. SALISBURY. POPULATION AND INDUSTRIES. Salisbury is in Litchfield County, in the northwest corner of the State. It is reached by the Central New England Railway, which 1 Connecticut State Board of Health Rept. for 1898, pp. 291-296. SALISBURY. Ill has stations at Chapinville, Salisbury, Lakeville, and Ore Hill and which connects with the Berkshire division of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad at Canaan, on the east border of the town. The Harlem division of the New York Central & Hudson River Rail- road runs along the west border and connects with the Central New England Railway at ^lillerton. Post offices are situated at Salisbury, Chapinville, Lakeville, Ore Hill, and Lime rock. Salisbury was incorporated in October, 1741. Its area is 61 square miles. The population in 1910 was 3,522. The following table shows the population of the town from 1756 to 1910, inclusive: Population of the town of Salisbury, 1756 to 1910. Year. 1756. 1774. 1782. 1790. 1800. 1810. 1820. 1830. Popula- tion. 1,100 1,980 2,225 2,266 2,321 2,695 2,580 Per cent increase. 80 12 Per cent decrease. Year. 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 Popula- tion. 2,562 3,103 3,100 3,303 3,715 3,420 3,489 3,522 Per cent increase. Per cent decrease. 0.7 21 .1 6 12 8 2 1 The principal industries are agriculture, mining and smelting iron ore, and manufacture of car wheels and pocketknives. About 15,200 acres of land are under cultivation and about 200 people are engaged in farming. TOPOGRAPHY. The west half of Salisbury is mountainous, the principal peaks being Bear Mountain, Gridley Mountain, Mount Riga, Lions Head, and Indian Mountain. East of the mountains a narrow central vaUey extends from the Massachusetts line southward to Sharon. The east boundary of the town is formed by Housatonic River. Between the Housatonic and the central valley. Miles Mountain, Toms Mountain, Mount Prospect, GaUows HiU, Forge Hill, Red Rocks, and Sharon Mountain produce a rugged topography. The highest point in the State of Connecticut, 2,355 feet above sea level, is on Bear Mountain. The lowest land in the town, about 530 feet, is on the Housatonic in the southeastern corner of the town. About 22,800 acres, or a little less than half of the total area of the town, is mountainous. The central vaUey, which comprises nearly all the agricultural land of the town, is about a mile in average width in the southern half of the town but broadens to nearly 3 miles north of Mount Prospect. (See PI. XI, in pocket.) 112 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. Nearly aU the drainage reaches the Housatonic through Moore Brook, which occupies the central valley from ChapinviUe to Salis- bury, where it joins Button Brook to form Salmon Creek, flows through a narrow pass at Limerock, and finally enters the Housatonic above Limerock station. The fall of Moore Brook between Chapin- viUe and Salisbury is about 80 feet; of Salmon Creek from Salisbury to its mouth about 100 feet; and of Housatonic River between the Massachusetts line and the southern boundary of Salisbury, 130 feet. The following table shows the discharge of the Housatonic at Gaylords ville : Monthly discharge of Housatonic River at Gaylordsville, Conn., for 1906-1909. (^ [Drainage area , 1 ,020 square miles.] Month. Discharge in second-feet. Maximum. Minimum. Mean. Per square mile. Run-off (depth in inches on drainage area). Accu- racy. 1906 Januarj' February March April May June July August September October November December The year 1907. January February March April May June July August September October November December The year 1908, January February March April May June Jmy August September October November December The year 3,170 4,630 10,000 8,930 6,060 2,370 2,120 1,310 876 2,220 1,980 1,440 10,000 3,970 1,370 5,330 3,350 3,550 4,860 1,560 651 6,690 16, 100 11, 200 5,690 16, 100 6,430 12,600 4, 750 4,640 4,860 1,830 1,210 1,110 505 505 452 682 12,600 938 788 1,120 2,460 1,090 928 421 347 296 296 550 686 1,800 1,630 2,910 4,780 2,110 1,630 984 818 554 861 992 958 296 1,670 1,060 816 714 1,830 1,430 930 620 328 240 1,320 2,200 1,260 2,080 1,120 2,430 2,340 2,010 2,160 921 493 1,210 3,700 4,950 3,120 240 2,210 1,160 1,160 1,620 1,830 930 478 328 305 130 147 130 147 2,820 2,860 3,180 2,790 2,510 958 687 592 310 313 290 411 130 1,480 1.76 1.60 2.85 4.69 2.07 1.60 .965 .802 .543 .844 .973 .939 1.64 2.04 1.10 2.38 2.29 1.07 2.12 .903 .483 1.19 3.63 4.85 3.06 2.17 2.76 2.80 3.12 2.74 2.46 .939 .674 .580 .304 .307 .284 .403 1.45 2.03 1.67 29 23 39 78 11 .92 .61 .97 1.09 1.08 22.17 2.35 1.14 2.74 2.56 2.27 2.36 1.04 .56 1.33 4.18 5.41 3.53 29.47 3.18 02 60 06 84 05 .78 .67 .34 .35 .32 .46 19.67 a Discharge for 1906 is taken from U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 201, p. 114, 1907; dis- charge for 1907-8 from Water-Supply Paper 241, p. 172, 1910; and discharge for 1909 from Water-Supply raper261, p. 170, 1911. SALISBURY. 113 Monthly discharge of Housatonic River at Gaylordsville, Conn., for 1906-1909 — Contd. Month. Discharge in second-feet. Maximum. Minimum. Mean. Per square mile. Run -off (depth in inches on drainage area). Accu- racy. 1909. January February. . March ApriL May June July August September . October November. December. . 5, 450 10, 400 6,180 8,940 4,520 2,360 1,060 1,760 1,160 890 505 2,050 182 1,620 2,520 1,620 561 305 220 83 114 83 220 1,250 3,270 2,710 3,970 2,490 1,260 518 668 469 445 387 632 1.23 3.21 2.66 3.89 2.44 1.24 .508 . 655 .460 .436 .379 .620 1.42 3.34 3.07 4.34 2.81 1.38 .59 .76 .51 .50 .42 .71 The year. 10, 400 83 1,510 1.48 19.85 Note. — In the last column B indicates that the mean monthly flow is probably accurate within 10 per cent, C, within 15 per cent. Figures for 1906 are rated good. Minimum figures are low on account of storage of water at power plant above the station. Mean discharge estimated because of ice as follows: Jan. 16 to 31, 1909, 819 second-feet; Feb. 1 to 5, 1909, 650 second-feet; Dec. 24 to 31, 1909, 375 second-feet. Natural lakes of glacial origin constitute a picturesque feature of Salisbury. They have remarkably clear water and clean shores and are popular summer resorts. South of Lakeville, Wononskopomuc Lake and Wononpakook Lake occupy the central valley; the former is nearly circular and almost a mile in diameter; the latter is about a quarter of a mile wide and a mile long. The elevation of Wononskopo- muc Lake is about 760 feet; the elevation of Wononpakook Lake, about 735 feet. These two lakes are separated by a ridge of glacial material three-eighths of a mile wide. At Chapinville, in the northern part of the valley, there are two similar but somewhat larger lakes known as Twin Lakes, which are 735 feet above sea level and are separated by a strip of lowland only a few yards wide and connected by a small brook. The larger of the two is nearly circular and about a mile and a half in diameter; the other is half a mile wide and 2 miles long. Riga Lake and South Pond, near the top of Mount Riga, at an elevation of 1,700 feet, also owe their origin to glaciation. Riga Lake is about half a mile in diameter and is about twice as large as South Pond. Salisbury consists so largely of mountainous, woody, or swampy land that only about 15,200 acres, or two-fifths of its area, is under cultivation and only about 200 persons are engaged in agriculture. All the mountainous parts are forested. WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. Bedrocks. — ^The two principal rock formations in Salisbury are the Berkshire schist and the Stockbridge limestone.^ The distribution 1 See Gregory, H. E., and Robinson, H. H., Preliminary geological map of Connecticut: State Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 7, 1907. 97889°— wsp 374—16 8 114 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS^ CONN. of those rocks is indicated by the topography. The Berkshire schist is much more resistant to erosion than the limestone, and therefore forms the mountainous parts of the town. The limestone consti- tutes the bedrock in the valley, but it is believed to underlie the mountains of harder rocks also, particularly those along the west border. Pockets of iron ore occur in the limestone near its contact with the overlying schist, and the mining of these deposits is one of the principal industries. The only mine now in operation is at Ore Hill, but iron was formerly mined on a large scale at SaUsbury. The schist is a dense rock but is traversed b}^ joints, some of which are water bearing. However, the topography throughout the area underlain by schist is such that surface water affords a more practicable source of supply than ground water, and for this reason no attempt has been made in this town to obtain water from these rocks. The limestone also is a dense crystalline rock, but in many places it is readily soluble, as is indicated by the solution cavities along the west shore of Lake Wononpakook. Percolating waters have widened many of the joints, thereby affording free underground drainage (PL V, B, p. 21). For this reason water is not stored long in the limestone above the base levels of underground drainage. Most of the wells that have been drilled into this rock have failed to obtain a permanent supply of water. Till. — Till, which consists of mixtures of clay, sand, gravel, and bowlders, covers the rock in the mountainous districts and in the southern part of the central valley and is the most widely distributed surface deposit in Salisbury. Its thickness varies according to the topography. It is very thin immediately surrounding the rock out- crops and becomes thicker near the bottoms of the slopes. On the higher elevations the tiU was deposited by melting ice, but on the valley walls the material was squeezed against the rocks by advancing tongues of ice and remains as a plaster in some places 100 feet thick. On the valley floors it was heaped up by floods from the ice front and from the mountain sides. One hundred feet of till is exposed in the abandoned mine at Salisbury. The occurrence of water in tiU is discussed on page 15. Stratified drift. — Deposits of stratified drift not more than 25 feet thick are found in small areas in the northern part of the central vaUey near Twin Lakes, and a few small deposits that consist of sand and gravel and show fluviatile cross-bedding are exposed in ravines along the mountain sides at elevations of about 100 feet. The elevated deposits of stratified drift are drained rapidly and are there- fore not likely to afford good weUs, but the low-lying beds of sand and gravel may be expected to furnish good supplies of water. Alluvium.. — Deposits of alluvium are found on the lowlands along Moore Brook and smaller deposits along Salmon Creek. The flood SALISBUKY. 115 plains along the west side of the Housatonic between Falls village and Canaan are also covered by alluvium. These deposits are thin and are not important in determining the position of wells. SURFACE-WATER SUPPLIES. Water power is developed at the outlet of Wononskopomuc Lake and on Salmon Creek at Lime rock. A dam at the outlet of Twin Lakes at Chapinville furnishes power intermittently. Two impound- ing reservoirs at tlie headwaters of Burton Brook furnish the public water supply of Lakeville and SaHsbury. There is large opportunity for the* utilization of surface water. The lakes are capable of furnishing an almost unlimited quantity of good water and some of them are so situated that pumping would not be necessary. At present, however, the lakes in the valley are not protected against contamination. GROUND-WATER SUPPLIES. Shallow dug wells ranging in depth from 8 to 27 feet and averaging 15 feet furnish most of the private domestic supplies in Salisbury. The depth to water ranges from 4 to 25 feet and averages 11 feet but fluctuates with the rainfall, the fluctuation as determined for three weUs being 4, 5, and 6 feet, respectively. All except one of the wells examined obtained water from till and only two of them were reported to have failed. The yields, as determined in three wells, were 3, 3|-, and 8 gallons, respectively. The quantity of water used from 27 wells ranges from 10 to 60 gallons and averages 27 gallons a day. Drilled wells in Salisbury have not been generally successful, although this method of procuring water has not been fuUy tested. Ten wells, ranging in depth from 28 to 500 feet and penetrating bedrock, have been drilled. Two of these wells failed to obtain water in the limestone, and were therefore abandoned. Four others penetrated the crystalline rocks but were abandoned because the quantit}^ obtained was not adequate, although each of them fur- nished about 5 gallons a minute. The other four weUs yielded 5, 12, 20, and 60 gallons a minute, and are at present drawn upon to the extent of about 30 gallons, 200 gallons, 500 gallons, and 5,000 gallons a day, respectively. Springs are numerous on the hillsides in aU parts of the town. Most of them yield very small quantities of water, but a great many of them are capable of furnishing supplies for households. Fourteen springs were examined whose yields range from a quarter of a gallon to 20 gallons per minute. Seven of these are used, the consumption ranging from 20 to 500 gallons per day and averaging 110 gallons. 116 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS^ CONN. AH are gravity springs and fluctuate to some extent, but only two of those examined fail during dry weather. PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY. The public water system of Lakeville and Salisbury, operated by the Lakeville Water Co., takes its water from two reservoirs, with a total capacity of 18,000 gallons, at the head of Burton Brook. About 2,000 people are served from this system and the quantity has always been adequate. RECORDS OF WELLS AND SPRINGS. The available information concerning the wells and springs of Salisbury is presented in the following tables: Drilled wells in Salisbury. Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth Depth. to vrater. Feet. Feet. Feet. 920 16? 10 880 15 9 585 12 5 580 12 5 638 11 ^5 800 14 12 815 14 830 16 14 920 18 12.5 900 15 10 920 12.5 7 . 890 22 9 880 14 7.5 700 12 12 860 23 21 800 12 8 820 10 7 940 16 11 760 9 8 920 25 12 1,770 27 25 700 13.5 11 780 8 6 770 24.5 21.5 810 18 10 720 11 10 770 16 11 860 23 14 960 25.5 13 800 21 17 860 12 9 860 13 13 770 16 9 680 16 12 780 13 680 i2 9 640 9 8 680 10 8.5 670 12 10 Eleva- tion of water table above sea. Fluctua- tion of water table. Yield per minute. 2 3 4 5 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 16 17 18 22 23 25 26 27 28 32 34 36 37 44 45 46 47 52 53 54 55 57 58 59 61 62 63 66 E. C. Eggleston. Edward Garrity . J. Conour. ., John Lloyd . P. F.Cleveland. C. H. Bissel. E. E. Burch. Mike Walsh. , F. B. White. Hotclikiss School. Henry Wells Peter Garrity. D. T. Warner. J.King. Slope.. Slope. . Slope.. Slope.. Hill... Hill... Hill... Slope.. Slope. . Hill... Plain.. Hill... Hill... Valley. Hill... Hill... Flat... Flat... Flat... Slope.. Slope. . Slope.. Hill... Hill... Slope.. Hill... Hill... Hill... Slope.. Flat... Flat... Flat... Slope.. Flat... Feet. 910 871 580 575 633.5 788 801 816 907.5 890 913 881 872.5 688 839 792 813 929 752 908 1,745 689 774 748.5 800 710 759 846 947 783 851 847 761 768 757 671 632 671.5 660 Feet. Gallons. (a) 8 + Dry. "3.' 5 SALISBURY. Drilled wells in Salisbury — Continued. 117 Map No. Owner. Amount used per day. Section. Wall. Cover. 2 E. C. Eggleston Gallons. 50 50 25 40 30 50 30 20 35 Till Plank. 3 Edward Garrity Till Stone Open. Plank. 4 Till Stone Stone 5 Alluvium Till Plank. g Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Plank. 9 Till Open. Plank. 10 J. Conour Till 11 John Lloyd Till Plank. 12 Till Open. 13 P. F Cleveland Till Plank. 14 Till Open. Plank. 16 C. H. Bissel 60 15 30 10 15 10 20 10 10 10 15 Till 17 E E Burch Till Plank. 18 Mike Walsh Till Open. Plank. 22 F B White Till 23 Till Plank. 25 Hotchkiss School Till Stone Shed. 26 Henry Wells Till Plank. 27 Till Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Open. Open. Plank. 28 Peter Garrity Till 32 D. T. Warner Till 34 Till Open. Open. Plank. 36 Till 37 J. King Till 44 Till 45 Till Stone Open. 46 Till 47 10 50 Till Plank. 52 Till Stone Stone Plank. 53 Till Plank. 54 Till Plank. 55 10 20 Till Stone Plank. 57 Till Plank. 58 Till 59 Till Plank, 61 20 15 Till Stone Stone Stone -. . Stone Open. Shed. 62 Till 63 Till Ppen. Open. 66 20 Till a Well goes dry. Drilled wells in Salisbury. Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth. Yield per minute. Amount used per day. Depth to rock. Section. Pump. Diam- eter. 19 Mike Walsh Joseph Parsons... W.K.Warner... J.F.Fisher .... do Hill Slope . . . Hill Flat Flat Slope. . . Slope. . . Flat Slope. . . Valley.. Feet. 735 845 920 750 538 950 800 760 940 750 Feet. 34 250 60 500 500 200 150 200 C215 28 Gallons. a 12 5 5 4.5 4 5 60 20 Gallons. 200 30 5,000 500 Feet. (?) 22 40 (?) 8 8 Inches. 21 24 (b) 5 4 38 39 Limestone Limestone Schist Schist None. None 4 41 do None 42 do None 43 Beal 51 Salisbury School . Bierce 6 56 Limestone 4 a Flows 1 gallon per minute; used only in summer. b Log: Feet. Till 18 Limestone 145 Schist 87 c Well drilled in 1901; cost $3.75 per foot. 118 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. Springs in Salisbury. Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Elevation above sea level. Yield per minute. Amount used per day. Temper- ature. Improvements. 6 Feet. Slope finO Gallons. 0.25 4.5 Slight. 1 0.5 1 a 20 2 2 20 5 6 7 bO.5 Gallons. 59 55 57 55 59 57 48 56 58 50 57 56 56 57 56 Horse trough. Do 7 Slope. . . Slope. . . Slope. . . Slope. . . Slope. - . Valley.. Slope. . . Slope. . . Swamp . Slope. . . Flat Slope... Slope.. . Slope.. . 600 820 870 945 1,200 1,090 1,300 920 7G0 740 960 770 775 640 15 Do ?0 Mike Walsh 20 30 50 50 500 ?q 30 D.T.Warner 31 Pettee 33 3o Bushnell 40 Henry Schoville 48 49 Little 20 100 60 64 65 a No variation in vield. b Well goes dry QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. Two Salisbury ^vaters, analyses of which are given below, are mod- erate in mineral content, distinctly hard, calcium carbonate in type, and low in their contents of sulphate and chlorine. Analyses of ivater from drilled wells in Salisbury. [Parts per million; R. B. Dole, analj'st.] Constituents. , 1 ! 2 Total solids at 180° C 319 Total hardness as CaCOs 160 lion (Fe) .7 Carbonate radicle (CO3) - Tr. Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 360 Sulphate radicle (SO4) 21 Chlorme (Cl) 1.1 325 245 Tr. Tr. 313 32 5.4 1. Well of Joseph Parsons (PI. XI, No. 21), 250 feet deep; sample collected June 25, 1915. 2. Well of Mr. Bierce (PI. XI, No. 56), 28 feet deep; sample collected June 25, 1915. NORTH CANAAN. POPULATION AND INDUSTRIES. North Canaan is in Litchfield County, in the northwest corner of Connecticut. It is reached by the Berkshire division of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Kailroad (station at Canaan), by the Central New England Railw^ay (stations at Canaan and East Canaan), and by daily stage from Southfield, Mass., via Mill River and Clay- ton, and by trolley from Sheffield, Mass. There are post offices at Canaan and East Canaan. The town has an area of 19 square miles. It w^as separated from the town of Canaan and incorporated in May, 1858. The village of Canaan is in the town of North Canaan. The population of North Canaan in 1910 w^as 2,171. The following table shows the population from 1870 to 1910, inclusive: NOETH CANAAN. Population of North Canaan, 1870 to 1910. 119 Year. 1870 1880 1890 Popiila- Percent tion. I increase. Per cent decrease. 1,695 1,537 1.683 10 Year. 1900. 1910. Popular tion. Per cent increase. 1,803 2,171 7 20 Per cent decrease. The principal industries are agriculture; the manufacture of pig iron and Hme, and the quarrying of marble and quartzite. TOPOGRAPHY. The region east of the village of Canaan is mountamous. Rattle- snake HiU, which lies between Canaan and Sodom, 1,000 feet above sea level, or 340 feet above Housatonic River, is produced by out- crops of Umestone and quartzite. The foothills of Ball Mountain, between Sodom and the east border of the town, attain an elevation along the east boundary of 1,300 feet. Canaan Mountain rises on the south side of Blackberry River to an elevation of 1,927 feet a short distance south of the south boundary. A low range of Ume- stone hills extends along the west border of the to^Ti from the lati- tude of Canaan to the south line. The highest point in these hills is 800 feet above sea level. Between these hills and Canaan Moun- tain and between Rattlesnake Hill and Housatonic River there is a flat plain about a mile wide and 680 feet above sea level, which was formerly the bed of the Housatonic. (See PL XI, in pocket.) The Housatonic forms the west boundary of North Canaan and receives as tributaries all the minor streams of the town. Konkapot River enters the to\\Ti of Clayton, follows around the north foot of Rattlesnake Hill, crosses the State Hne, and enters the Housatonic west of Ashley Falls, Mass. Blackberry River, which drains nearly the entire town, flows across the town along the north foot of Canaan Mountain and enters the Housatonic west of Canaan. Whiting River flows southward through Canaan Valley to East Canaan, where it joins Blackberry River. A smaU amount of power is developed on Blackberry River at Canaan. The woodlands m North Canaan are confined to the hilltops and comprise an area of only about 5 square miles. The remamder of the town is devoted to agi'iculture, about haH bemg tilled land and the rest meadows. WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. Bedrocks. — Most of the rock floor of North Canaan is composed of Stockbridge limestone, but an area in the northeast corner of the town, north of Blackberry River and east of Whiting River, is under- lain by Becket gneiss. Canaan Mountain consists of Berkshire schist, and in Rattlesnake Hill and at the Central New England Railway 120 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. bridge over Wliiting River the Cheshire C'Poughquag") quartzite ^ comes to the surface. All of these rocks outcrop in many places and the limestone and quartzite are quarried. (See p. 20.) Till. — Unstratified glacial deposits cover the rock on Canaan Moun- tain and Rattlesnake Hill and on the hills in the northeast quarter of the town. They range in thickness from a few inches surrounding the rock exposures to 25 or 30 feet. (See p. 15.) Stratified drift. — In the lowlands along Housatonic and Blackberry rivers bedrock is covered with stratified sand and gravel. These deposits form a terrace bordering the hills near the mouth of Black- berry River and a much broader terrace extendmg from Canaan northward along the base of Rattlesnake Hill. Similar deposits occur along Squabble Brook north of Sodom. The stratified deposits range in thickness from a few feet to about 50 feet, the thickest deposits being just west of Canaan. The water-bearing capacity of these deposits is large, and by means of dug or driven wells water suitable for domestic use or for additions to public suppHes is available. Infiltration galleries (p. 42) m the stratified deposits in the central and west parts of the town would probably afford rather large quan- tities of water, and this method of utilization should receive consid- eration in connection with proposed public supplies. GROUND-WATER SUPPLIES. The average depth of 16 dug weUs is 14 feet and the depth to water ranges from 5 to 19 feet and averages 11 feet. The fluctuation of the water table was reported for three weUs to be 4, 7, and 8 feet, respec- tively. All the weUs examined end in tdl and only two fail in dry weather. The quantity of water used daily, as reported for 10 weUs, ranges from 10 to 40 gallons and averages 21 gallons. A drilled well, 333 feet deep, in the village of Canaan (see No. 23, PI. XI), at an elevation of 670 feet, was sunk at a cost of $1,800, for the purpose of obtainuig a supplementary supply for the public waterworks. It yielded, however, only 17 gallons a minute, and as this quantity was considered inadequate it was abandoned, a larger supply being obtained by sinking a shallow well into the drift. Springs are common on the hillsides, but all of them yield small quantities of water and most of them are intermittent. The average yield of the permanent springs is about a gallon a minute. The yield of the springs is, however, generally much greater than the amount used, which averages only about 35 gallons a day. PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY. The water supply for the village of Canaan is obtained from a 3,000,000-gaUon reservoir on the north slope of Canaan Mountain. 1 See Preliminary geological map of Comiecticut: State GeoL and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 7, 1907. NORTH CANAAN. 121 The reservoir is fed by springs which have a combined yield of 55,000 gallons a day. All the water is used for domestic needs, and about 1,000 persons are supphed. The consumption in summer is 65,000 gallons a day. In dry summers, when the supply is inadequate, additional water is ob tamed from a dug well 12 feet square and 12 feet deep, lined with plankmg. The water in this well is usually 6 feet deep, but pumpmg at the rate of 110 gallons a minute lowers it nearly to the bottom. RECORDS OF WELLS AND SPRINGS. The available information concerning the wells and springs of North Canaan is presented in the followuig tables: Dug wells in North Canaan. Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth. Depth to water. Eleva- tion of water table above sea. Fluctua- tion of water table. 1 Feet. 700 720 715 720 700 880 860 855 818 810 822 815 765 780 815 850 680 Feet. 10 a 17 11 10 12 Feet. 10 16 10 7 10 9 11 10 8 5 8 Feet. 690 704 705 713 690 871 849 845 810 805 814 Feet. 2 ii. R.'cadweU Flat Flat Flat Slope Slope Flat Hill Flat Flat Flat Flat Flat Slope.... HiU mu Flat 7 3 R . D . Miller 4 T, P. Couch 6 E. P. Adsit 7 8 16 12 10 10 14 16 18(?) 22 19 23 12 11 E. Taylor 12 Rogers 13 Langdon 14 15 Thomas Morris 4 17 15(?) 19 12 19 6 750(?) 761 803 831 674 18 19 21 George Preny 8 ?? Canaan Water Co Map No. Owner. Amount used per day. Section. Wall. Cover. 1 Gallons. 30 (&) 20 Till Stone Open. Loose boards. 2 H. R. Cadwell Till Stone 3 R. D. Miller Till stone Shed. 4 T. P. Couch Till Stone Plank. 6 E.P.Adsit Till Stone Plank. 7 Till stone Open. Lattice shed. 8 20 25 15 10 clO 20 20 40 10 Till Stone 11 E . Taylor Till 12 Rogers Till 13 Langdon Till Stone Open. Open. Plank. 14 Till Stone .... 15 Thomas Morris Till Stone . . 17 Till St'one . Plank. 18 Till Stone . Plank. 19 Till Stone Latt ice shdd. 21 George Prenv Till Stone Plank. 22 Cfinafin WatPT Cn , Till Plank Shed. a Tile at bottom, 2 feet. b Well goes dry. Dry. 122 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS^ CONN. Springs in North Canaan. Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Yield per minute. Amount used per day. 5 Slope.... Slope Slope Slope.... Slope Feet. 735 980 1,120 845 755 Gallons. 4 0.25 0.5 1 1.5 Gallons. 30 9 20 10 16 Thomas Morris . . ^ 60 ?A CANAAN. POPULATION AND INDUSTRIES. Canaan, in Litchfield County, in the northwest corner of Connec- ticut, is reached by the Berkshire division of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Raiboad, which has stations at Falls Village and Lime rock; by mail carrier from Cornwall Hollow through South Canaan and Huntsville daily, and also over Barrack Moun- tain by Lime rock station, part of Lime rock village, and Amesville daily. Post offices are maintamed at Falls Village and during the summer at Pine Grove. The rural free deUvery reaches outlying parts of the town. Canaan was incorporated in October. 1739. The area of the town is 33 square miles. The population in 1910 was 702. The population from 1756 tc 1910, inclusive, is shown in the follo^ving table. The chief industry is agriculture. Population of Canaan, 1756 to 1910. Year. Popula- tion. Per cent increase. Per cent decrease. Year. Popula- tion. Per cent increase. Per cent decrease. 1756 1,100 1,635 2,061 1840 2,166 6 1774 48 26 laio 2.627 21 8 1782 18G0 2'.S.34 1790 1870 1,257 1.157 a 55 1800 2,137 2,203 2,332 2,301 1880 8 1810 3 6 1890 970 1900 . 820 1910 702 16 1820 16 1830 1 14 a North Canaan was set off from Canaan in 1858. TOPOGRAPHY. The topography of Canaan is produced by faulting and by erosion. Canaan Mountain occupies the northeast corner of the town, and Barrack Mountain and Titus Mountain occupy the south haK. Lowlands, which were at one time flood plains of Housatonic River, extend from Lime rock station northward to the town line and from Housatonic River eastward to South Canaan and the base of Canaan CAISJ^AAN. 123 Mountain. The general elevation of these lowlands is about 680 feet above sea level. The highest elevation in the town is Bradford Mountain, the principal peak on Canaan Mountam, which is 1,927 feet above sea level. The altitude of Barrack Mountain is 1,140 feet, of Cobble Hill 1,278 feet, and of two peaks which form the northern part of Titus Mountain 1,420 and 1,450 feet, respectively. (See PL XI, in pocket.) Housatonic River forms the west boundary of Canaan and receives all the drainage from the towTi; its principal tributary is Hollenbeck River. The south branch or main stream of Hollenbeck River rises in the hills east of Huntsville, flows through a narrow valley between Cobble Hill and Beebe EQll, passes through South Canaan, and enters the Housatonic 1 mile north of Falls Village. The east branch of Hollenbeck River rises in Wangum Lake, near the top of Canaan Mountain, at an elevation of 1,410 feet, and flows between Cobble HiU and Canaan Mountain to its confluence with Hollenbeck River haK a mile north of South Canaan. The north branch of this river rises near the town hne at the foot of Canaan Mountain and flows due south till it joins ^Hollenbeck River. The lowlands between Canaan Mountain and Housatonic River are poorly drained and are marshy throughout the greater part of the year. The mountainous parts of Canaan, comprising an area of about 25 square miles, are forested. The cultivated lands are confined to the valleys in the immediate vicinity of South Canaan. WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. Bedrocks. — Berkshire schist and Becket gneiss ^ constitute the rock floor in the mountamous parts of the town. The Cheshire (^^Pough- quag") quartzite appears at the surface in Cobble Hill and at several places south of Hollenbeck River. All the lowland area is imderlain by Stockbridge hmestone. The steep slopes in the southern and western parts of the town afford numerous rock exposures, but the limestone appears at the surface only in the low hifls adjacent to Housatonic River. The occurrence of water in rocks of this kind is discussed on page 20. Till. — The rocks throughout the eastern and southern parts of the town at elevations of more than 700 feet above sea level are covered with mixtures of bowlders, sand, and clay, ranging in thickness from a few inches to 25 or 30 feet. (See p. 15.) Stratified drift. — Stratified deposits of sand and gravel occur gener- ally at elevations less than 700 feet. The thickest deposits are in the valley just west of Canaan Mountain and in the immediate vicinity of South Canaan, where they are in some places more than 30 feet deep. I See Preliminary geological map of Comiecticut: State Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 7, 1907. 124 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFOED AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. These deposits afford an opportunity for obtaining ground-water suj^plies by means of dug and driven wells. (See p. 38.) SURFACE-WATER SUPPLIES. Opportunity for the development of power is afforded by the south and east branches of Hollenbeck Eiver. Water supply of moderate size for public use may be obtained from Wangum Lake or by con- structing impoundnig reservoirs at a number of points along the south slope of Canaan Mountain and along the south border of the town. GROUND- WATER SUPPLIES. The average depth of shallow wells is 16 feet and the maximum depth about 23 feet, but water is obtained wdthin 10 feet of the surface on the lowlands north of South Canaan. The depths to water range from 5 to 20 feet and average about 12 feet. The fluctuation of the water table was observed in two wells to be 5 and 6 feet, respectively. The yield of one well was estimated at about 3 gallons a minute. The quantity of water used daily from two wells was reported as 10 and 15 gallons. Six of the wells examined end in till and two in alluvium. Two of the wells which end in till fail during dry weather. There are four drilled wells in Canaan, ranging in depth from 42 to 90 feet and averaging about 62 feet. The yields obtained from three of these wells were Ih gallons, 2 gallons, and 3 gallons, respectively. Springs yielding from half a gallon a minute to 6 gallons a minute and averaging about 2 gallons a minute are numerous on the slopes throughout the town. All are gravity springs, and most of them are intermittent. Four of the springs examined are used for private supphes, the average consumption being about 47 gallons a day. RECORDS OF WELLS AND SPRINGS. The available information concerning the wells and springs of Canaan is presented in the following tables : Dug wells in Canaan. Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth. Depth to water. Eleva- tion of water table above sea. Fluctua- tion of water table. Yield per minute. 1 Flat Slope Slope Flat Flat Hill Flat Flat Feet. G85 720 715 875 690 935 680 680 Feet. 10 20 23 14 10 22 Feet. 5 20 19 6 10 18 11 10 Feet. 680 700 096 869 680 917 669 670 Feet. Gallons. ?, Dry. 4 7 H. Scoville 6 3 10 11 17 D . Brinton 18 W.J. Russell 11 5 («) a "Well goes dry. WINDHAM. Dug wells in Canaan — Continued. 125 Map No. Owner. Amount used per day. Section. Wall. Cover. 1 Gallons. Alluvium... Till Stone Stone Open. Plank, ?, 4 Till Plank. 7 H. Scoville 10 Alluvium... Till Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Plank. 10 Plank, 11 Till Open, Plank. 17 D. Brinton Till 18 W. J, Russell 15 Till Plank. Drilled ivells in Canaan. Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth. Yield per minute. Amount used per day. Depth to rock. Section. Diam- eter. Qual- ity of water. 15 G. Schultis.... L. J. Morris... J. M. Benja- mtne. do Slope.... HiH Hm Hill Feet. (iOO 580 585 585 Feet. 90 72 42 43 Gallons. 1.5 2 3 Gallons. Feet. 8 19 Inches. Limestone. . - Rusty. 16 Limestone. . 19 Limestone. . Schist 4 20 1 Springs in Canaan. Map No. Owner, Topo- graphic position. Ele ra- tion above sea level. Yield per minute. Amount used per day. Temper- ature. 3 Slope Slope.... Slope Slope Valley.. Valley. . Slope.... Slope Feet. 775 800 930 800 750 905 868 740 Gallons. 6 0.5 1 1 1 3 2,5 2 Gallons. 100 40 ° F 5 55 6 M. C. Dean 54 8 Lucas 30 20 51 9 E. S. Parker 53 12 54 13 14 54 WINDHAM. POPULATION AND INDUSTRIES. The town of Windham is in the southwestern comer of Windham County, in the east-central part of the State. It is reached by the Highland division of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Rail- road (stations at WiUimantic, North Windham, and South Windham) by the New London Northern Railroad (stations at Willimantic and South Windham); by electric railway from Baltic, Norwich, and New London; and by stage from Ashford, Warren ville, Mount Hope, and Mansfield Center. Post offices are maintained at Willimantic, Windham, North Windham, and South Windham, and outlying parts of the town are reached by rural free delivery. 126 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. Windham was incorporated in May, 1692. Its area is 26 square miles. The population of the to^vn of Windham in 1910 was 12,604; of the city of WiUimantic, 11,230. The following table shows the popu- lation of the to^vn from 1756 to 1910, inclusive. Population of Windham, 1756 to 1910. Year. Popula- tion. Per pent increase. Per cent decrease. 1756 1774 1782 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 2.446 3,528 3.571 2,765 2. 644 2, 4] 6 2.489 2.S12 44 1 23 4 9 3 13 Year. Popula- tion. Per cent increase. 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 Per cent decrease. 3.382 20 4,503 33 4,711 5,412 15 8, 264 53 10,032 21 10.137 1 12,604 24 Water power has been developed on a large scale at WiUimantic by means of dams built across WiUimantic River. Most of these structiu'es are owned by the American Thread Co. The principal industries in Windham are manufacturing and agri- culture. The principal manufactured products are spool cotton, silk twist, silk and cotton fabrics, carriages, and silk-making, paper- making, and other machinery. TOPOGRAPHY. The average elevation of Windham is 400 feet above sea level. The highest elevation, 661 feet, is on Obwebetuck Hill; the lowest, 100 feet, is in the southeastern corner of the town. Blake Hill, Prospect HiU, and Obwebetuck Hill, between the Shetucket and the western boundary of the town, are produced by undulation of the rock sur- face. The hills in the eastern half of the town are also rock, hills, but between Windham Center and WiUimantic the topography is due to vaUey filling. (See PL XII, in pocket.) The principal stream is Shetucket River, which is produced by the confluence of the WUlimantic and Nachaug at WiUimantic. About one-half of the area of Windham is forested and about one- fourth is under cultivation, the rest of the town being occupied by the city of WiUimantic. Most of the farm lands are situated on the plain that lies between WiUimantic and Windham Center and extends southward along the river to the Franklin boundary. WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. Bedrocks. — The rock floor of Windham consists of gneisses and schists of unknown age, which have been classified according to their lithologic characters. The western half of the town is underlain by WINDHAM. 127 rocks which in the publications of the Connecticut State Geological and Natural History Survey have been designated the Willimantic gneiss, and the eastern half by rocks which have been designated Scotland schist, Hebron gneiss, and Eastford granite gneiss. ^ These rocks are exposed in many places along the eastern, southern, and western borders, but in the central and northern parts of the town they are covered by glacial deposits. All these rocks contain joints, the largest of which extend to depths of 200 or 300 feet and yield small quantities of water (p. 20). Till. — ^At elevations of more than 300 feet above sea level the rock is covered with unstratified drift, the average thickness of which is about 25 feet. (See p. 15.) Stratified drift. — Stratified deposits consisting of gravel and some sand are found in most places where the surface is less than 300 feet above sea level. Some of the sections along the west side of Shetucket River near South Windham reveal thicknesses of 25 feet. These deposits constitute the most important water-bearing formation in Windham (p. 40). GROUND- WATER SUPPLIES. Seventeen dug wells in Windham range in depth from 12 to 26 feet and average about 15 feet. Depth to water ranges from 2 to 21 feet and averages about 13 feet. The fluctuation of the water table in one well was 10 feet, and one well yielded 5 gallons a minute. The quantity of water used, reported for four wells, ranged in amount from 20 to 40 gallons a day. Three other wells are not used at all. Only one of the wells examined in this town is known to fail in dry seasons. The well of the Willimantic Bottling Co. (No. 22, PL XII), which is the only drilled well in Windham, is 178 feet deep, the lowest 163 feet being in rock. Its elevation is 270 fact above sea level. It is used only occasionally to supply drinking water, the quantity used being about 20 gallons a day. Springs are common along the slopes west of Shetucket River and on the hillsides in the eastern part of the town. All are gravity springs, averaging in yield between 1 and 2 gallons a minute. At a few places in the vicinit}^ of Windham Center small springs occur in groups and, being properly developed, yield very desirable supplies. The quantity of water used from one of these groups exceeds 1,200 gallons a day. The stratified sands and gravels of Windham contain large quan- tities of ground water. Driven weUs drawing from these deposits would probably yield sufficient water to meet the needs of the vil- lages in this town, and it is possible that Willimantic could obtain 1 See Preliminary geological map of Comiecticut: State Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 7, 1907. 128 OEOUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS; CONN. water in this manner should the present supply become inadequate. Infiltration galleries (p. 42) in the stratified deposits along Willi- mantic River would afford large quantities, and should receive con- sideration in coiuiection with proposed public systems. PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY. The waterworks of Willimantic are owned by the city. The water is pumped from Willimantic River at a dam 2 miles north of the city to a reservoir that will hold 5,000,000 gallons. About 12,000 people are served with 600,000 to 900,000 gallons a day. Meters are exclu- sively used. The water is considered good, and no shortage has been reported. RECORDS OF WELLS AND SPRINGS. The available information concerning the wells and springs of Windham is presented in the following tables: Dug wells in Windham. Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth. Depth to water. Eleva- tion of water table above sea. Fluctua- tion of water table. Yield per mmute. 1 Slope . . . Slope.. . Plain... Plain... Plain... Slope.. . Slope . . . Slope . . . Plain... Plain... Plain... Plain... Slope... Hill Plain... Slope.. . Hill Plain... Feet. 275 300 285 265 265 318 300 365 490 310 300 350 285 325 265 230 225 280 Feet. 20 12 21 26 22 16 Feet. 14 9 15 19 21 14 14 14 16 15 16 2 12 13 7 12 14 Feet. 261 291 270 246 244 304 286 351 474 295 284 348 273 312 258 218 211 Feet. Gallons. 2 3 A. Lewis 4 5 (a) 6 7 9 Brookman 15 18 16.5 18 10 11 12 Thompson 5 13 15 16 Gould 16 12 17 18 17 19 Wilson 10 20 W. E. Light 24 Map No. Owner. Amount used per day. Depth to rock. Section. Wall. Cover. 1 Gallons. 20 Feet. Till Stove Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Plank, 2 Till Open. Open. Shed. 3 A. Lewis Till 4 Till 30 Gravel Till Open. Open. P:ank. 6 7 TUl 9 Brookman 15 Till Stone Stone Stone Stone Plank. 10 Till Open. Open. Plank. 11 Till 12 Thompson 2.5 Till 13 Till None. 15 Till Stone Stone Stone Open. Open. 16 Gould Till 17 Till Open. Open. Pank. 19 Wilson 40 Till 20 W.E. Light Sand and gravel. Stone 24 o Well goes dry. FKAXKLIN. Springs in Windham. 129 Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Yield per minute. Amount used per day. TemjKT- ature. Improvements. 8 Slope . . . Gallons. Cfallon.s. °F. 55 55 56 55 Horse trough. 14 Slope . . . 1,200+ 18 Valley . . Slope . . . 1 21 Windham Aqueduct Co 14 families supplied. QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. The Willimantic Bottling Co.'s well yields moderately mineralized, rather hard water that would probably form hard scale in boilers because of its content of sulphate. It contains only a trace of iron. Analysis of water of the 178-foot drilled well of the Willimantic Bottling Co. {PI. XII, No. 22), collected June 15, 1915. [R. B. Dole, analyst.] Parts per million. Total solids at 180° C 228 Total hardness as CaCOg 103 Silica (SiOo) 37 Iron (Fe) Tr. Calcium (Ca) 23 Carbonate radicle (CO3) 4. 5 Bicarbonate ro dicle (HCO3) 75 Sulphate radicle (SOJ 69 Chlorine (CI) 5.4 FRANKLIN. POPULATIOX AND IXDUSTRIES. Franklin is in the north-central part of New London County, in the east-central part of the State. It is reached by the New London Northern Kailroad, which has stations at Franklin, North Franklin, and Yantic (just over the south line of the town), and by electric railway from Willimantic, Baltic, Norwich, and New London. Post offices are at Yantic and North Franklin. Hural free delivery reaches all parts of the town. Franklin was taken from Norwich and incorporated in May, 1786. The area of the towa is 20 square miles. The population of Franklin in 1910 was 527. The population from 1800 to 1910, inclusive, is shown in the following table. The principal industry is agriculture. Population of Franklin, 1800 to 1910. Year. 1800. 1810. 1820. 1830. 1840. 1850. Popula- tion. Per cent tncreaise. Per cent decrease. 1,210 1,161 1,161 1,194 1.000 895 4 , 3 16 Year. Popula- tion. Per cent increase. 1860 ; 2,358 1870 ! 731 1880 1 686 1890 1 5S5 1900 1 546 1910 ! 527 163 Per cent decrease. 69 6 15 6 3 97889°— wsp 374—16- 130 GEOUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. TOPOGRAPHY. The present topography has been produced by the dissection of a peneplain and the subsequent fiUing of the valleys with glacial depos- its. The highest elevations in" Frankhn are the summits of the nine hills, including Prospect Hill, Avery Hill, Hearthstone Hill, and Blue Hill, which embrace nearly the entire area of the town. The hills have a uniform height of about 520 feet above sea level. The valleys have been filled to some extent with glacial drift, which forms flat valley floors standing about 180 feet above sea level. The accumulations of drift in the valleys have interrupted drainage, and considerable areas are therefore swampy. Four brooks in the northern part of Frankhn empty into a swamp just east of Avery HiU, and Beaver Brook, a tributary to Shetucket River, rises in this swamp. Similar areas he along Susquetonscut Brook, a tributary to Yantic River. Beaver Brook and Susquetonscut Brook carry nearly all of the drainage in Franklin, but a small amount enters Shetucket River directly. About half the area of Frankhn is forested, including most of the slopes and considerable areas in the low swampy lands in the central and western parts of the town. The remaining haK is nearly all •under cultivation. WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. Bedrocks. — The town of Frankhn is underlain by crystalline rocks which in pubhcations of the Connecticut State Geological and Natural History Survey have been designated the Scotland schist, the Hebron gneiss, the Canterbury granite gneiss, and the Pomfret phyUite.^ These rocks are exposed in many places throughout the town (PI. XII, in pocket). All are broken by joints, or cracks, the largest of which probably extend 200 or 300 feet below the surface and are capable of furnishmg moderate supphes of water. (See p. 20.) Till. — ^Unstratified deposits of bowlders, gravel, sand, and clay cover the rock in most places. The extent of these deposits is indi- cated by the distribution of bowlders on the surface of the ground. Their thickness ranges from a few mches to 30 feet and averages about 15 feet. The deepest deposits are at the bases of the slopes and the thinnest on the tops of the hills, where the rocks are barely covered. The occurrence of water in tiU is discussed on page 15. Stratified drift. — Kamehke deposits of stratified drift are found in the valley in the central part of the town between Hearthstone Hill and Franklin and between Hearthstone and Pautipaug Hill. Although these deposits are small in extent and probably not very thick, they are nevertheless important sources of ground water for domestic use. 1 See Preliminary geological map of Comiecticut: State Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 7, 1907. FRANKLIN. 131 GROUND-WATER SUPPLIES. Dug wells ill Frankliii range iii depth, from 8 to 32 feet and average 18 feet. Depth to water ranges from 5 to 29 feet and averages about 15 feet. The fluctuation of the water table ranges from 5 to 20 feet and averages about 10 feet. Nearly all the wells end in till and most of them are situated on slopes where the drift is thin and the ground- water supply therefore small. About 30 per cent of the shallow wells m the town go dry. The quantity of water used, as reported for six wells, ranges from 10 to 40 gallons per day and averages about 30 gallons. Two wells have been drilled to depths of 125 feet and 235 feet, respectively. One of these wells is not used because of the high iron content of its water. From the other well about 50 gallons per day is used. Neither well is suitable for domestic supply on account of the iron hi the water. Both wells end in crystalline rocks, from which the iron is derived. Gravity springs, many of which are intermittent, issue on the num- erous slopes throughout the town and range in yield from very small amounts to about 6 gallons a minute. The largest springs are at low levels and the water which they furnish must therefore be carried or pumped. RECORDS OF WELLS AND SPRINGS. The available information concerning the wells and springs of Franklin is presented in the f ollowuig tables : Dug wells in Franklin. Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth. Depth to water. Eleva- tion of water table above sea. Fluctua- tion of water table. Yield per minute. 1 Hill Slope... Hill Hill Plain... Slope.. . Slope... Slope... Plain... Slope... Plain... Slope. . . Plam... Plain... Plain... Slope.. . Slope... Slope.. . Hill Hill Hill Hill Slope... Hill Slope.. . Feet. 310 275 470 435 190 150 185 210 200 185 180 160 150 173 175 200 300 355 480 510 285 380 240 315 295 Feet. (?)11 13 (?)16 12 Feet. 10 10 15 10 10 7 29 15 11 5 23 20 16 16 16 12 Feet. 300 265 455 425 180 143 158 195 189 180 157 140 134 159 159 188 Feet. Gallons. 2 4 5 « 6 AI. F. Rodman 7 8 32 24 8 Mabry 10 20 11 1? S. G. Hartshorn 15 (?)25 20 18 20 18 14 10 14 13 17 28 27 2.5 1o T. O'nearn 16 5 7 (a) 17 18 F. S.Barber 19 ?,0 John Howe (a) (a) ?,1 School m 12 343 9?i (a) 25 G. L. Ladd 16.5 23 25 12 11 10 493.5 202 355 228 304 2S5 6 27 E.Mitchell 28 Town hall (a) 9.9 31 M. H. Race (o) 32 a Well goes dry. 132 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. Bug wells in Franhlin — Continued. Map No. Owner. Amount used per day. Depth to rock. Section. Wall. Cover. 1 Gallons. 35 Feet. Till . .. Plank Till.. .. Stone riank 4 Till Plank. 5 11 Till Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Open. Open. Open. Open. Open. Plank. M. F. Rodman Till 7 Till 8 Mabry Till 10 20 60 Till . 11 Till 12 S. G. Hartshorn Till Shed. 15 T. O'Hearn Till Open. Open. Open. Open. Plank. 10 20 Till 17 Till 18 F. S. Barber Till 19 Till Till ?,0 John Howe 10 20 40 14 10 Plank. ?1 School Till Plank. 99, Till Open. Open. Open. Open. Plank. 23 . 12 17 Till ?.=i G. L. Ladd Till 27 E.Mitchell Till .... 28 Town hall Till 29 Till Plank. 31 M. H. Race Till Plank, 32 Till Plank. Drilled wells in Franhlin. Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Elevation above sea level. Depth. Yield per mmute. Amount used per day. Depth to rock. Quality of W' ater. Drilled in year— 3 Mrs. F. E. Johnson Sherman Loomis . . Hill Hill Feet. 460 500 Feet. 125 235 Gallons. 26 Gallons. 50 Feet. Rusty... Rusty... 1911 24 15 1911 Springs in Franhlin. Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Elevation above sea level. Yield per minute. Amount used per day. Temper- ature. 9 Slope.. . Slope... Slope . . . Slope... Slope.. . Feet. 190 230 230 235 260 Gallons. 0.5 .2 .5 6 1 Gallons. 55 13 55 14 54 26 50 30 Woodward « QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. The shallow well of T. O'Hearn yields soft water of very low mineral content. Analysis of water of the 25 foot (?) well of T. O^Hearn {PL XII, No. 15), collected June 15, 1915. [R. B. Dole, analyst.] Parts per million. Total solids at 180° C 46 Total hardness as CaCOg 19 Iron (Fe) 10 Carbonate radicle (CO3) Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 27 Sulphate radicle (SOJ 3 Chlorine (Cl) 2.9 GKOUXD WATEE IX THE HAETFOE-D AXD OTHEE AEEAS^ CONN. 133 SAYBROOK. POPULATION AND INDUSTRIES. Saybrook is in the south-central part of Connecticut, in ^Middlesex County. It is reached by the Valley branch of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad (station at Deep River), and by steam- boats from Hartford and New York daily during the open season. The post office is at Deep River. The western part of the town receives mail by rural delivery from Deep River. Saybrook was settled in 1635 and united with Comiecticut in December, 1644. The area of the town is 15 square miles. The population of Saybrook in 1910 was 1,907. The population from 1756 to 1910 is shown in the following table: Population of Sayhrooh, 1756 to 1910. Year. 1756 1774 1782 1790 1800 ISIO 1820 1830 Popula- tion. Per cent increase. Percent i decrease. 1 1 1,931 2,687 2,738 3,233 3,363 3,996 4,165 5,018 II 39 2 18 4 19 4 20 1 1 Year. 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 Popula- tion. 3,417 2,904 1,213 1,267 1,362 1,484 1,634 1,907 Per cent increase. 9 10 17 Per cent decrease. a 32 15 58 a Westbrook was set off from Saybrook in 1840. The principal industries are agriculture and the manufacture of piano keys, piano-player actions, ivory and bone goods, wire goods, button hooks, crochet needles, etc. Four dams on Deep River, in the vicinity of Deep River, furnish power. TOPOGRAPHY. The lowest elevation in Saybrook is sea level along Connecticut River; the highest is about 460 feet, in the northwest corner of the town. The rock cover is generally thin and the present topography is due chiefly to undulations of the rock floor. Connecticut River forms the east boundary of Saybrook and receives all the drainage from the town. Deep River rises in the northwest corner of the town and enters the Comiecticut at Deep River. The total fall of this stream is 400 feet, or an average of about 50 feet to the mile. HaK the area of Saybrook, including most of the hills and steep slopes, is wooded. The farm lands occupy the central part of the town about Winthrop and areas near the Connecticut south of Deep River. WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. Bedroclcs. — The bedrocks, which Gregory has named Mamacoke, Middletown, and Haddam gneisses and Haddam granite gneiss,^ 1 See Preliminary geological map of Connecticut: State Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 7, 1907. 134 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. appear at the surface on the liillsides throughout the town (PL XIII, in pocket). Jomts or cracks appear in all exposures and range in size from partings that are barely visible to openings an inch or more in width. The largest extend 200 or 300 feet below the surface, afford- ing space for the storage of ground water (p. 20). Till. — Glacial drift forms a mantle over the rock surface throughout the greater part of the to^\ai and consists of typical till or unstratified sand and clay containing numerous bowlders. It ranges in thick- ness from a few inches to about 30 feet and averages about 20 feet. Many domestic water supplies are obtained from dug wells which end m till. (See p. 15.) Stratified drift. — In the vicinity of Deep River the drift includes patches of sand which were deposited by water around the hills. These deposits are not, however, large enough to be of much impor- tance m determining the location of wells. GROUND-WATER SUPPLIES. The average depth of shallow wells is about 12 feet. Eighteen wells examined ranged in depth from 8 to 18 feet. The depth to water, as determined by the measurement of 22 wells, ranges from 5 to 17 feet and averages about 10 feet. The total fluctuation of the water table in three wells was 3, 5, and 7 feet, respectively. Nearly all the wells m Saybrook are situated in till and afford adequate supphes. Only one well was reported to go dry. The quantity of water used daily, as reported for six wells, ranges from 10 to 30 gallons and averages 20 gallons. Springs are common along the streams and on the slopes in Say- brook, but they are generally small, few yielding more than half a gallon per minute, and all responding to changes in the weather. PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY. Part of Deep River is supplied with water from a reservoir of the GuiKord Chester Water Co., near Chester. A flat rate is charged and the quantity of water delivered is not measured. RECORDS OF WELLS AND SPRINGS. The available information concerning the wells and springs of Saybrook is presented in the following tables: SAYBEOOK. Dug wells in Sayhrooh. 135 Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth. Depth to water. Eleva- tion of water table above sea. Fluctua- tion of water table. Yield per minute. 1 HiD Plain.... Slope.... VaUej-.. Slope.... Plain.... Slope.... Slope.... Slope.... Hill Slope Slope Slope Hill Hill Hill Slope Slope.... Hill Slope — Slope.... Plain.... Feet. 160 146 200 260 300 360 390 370 290 290 300 300 140 140 140 140 20 30 20 40 60 155 Feet. 14 9 Feet. 14 5 11 9 13 8 10 16 8 9 10 8.5 7 6 5 6 8 11.5 17 15 16 10 Feet. 146 141 189 251 287 252 380 354 282 28 290 291.5 133 134 135 134 12 18.5 3 25 44 145 Feet. Gallons. 2 3 4 11 13 14 12.5 17 9.5 10.5 11 9.5 11 9 8 10.5 5 L. T. Louis 5 6 7 Jacob Hemmig...' 8 9 J. M. Moot 4 10 13 i 14 Ifi 17 18 ?0 (a) ?? ?3 12 18.5 3 ?4 R, fl, TlrivVmaTi ?o E.E.Smith ?6 A. E. Lord ?.7 12 7 Map No. Owner. Amount used per day. Section. Wall. Cover. 1 Gallons. 20 TiU Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Open. 2 Till Open. 3 Till 4 Till Open. Open. 5 L.T.Louis 10 Till 6 Till Plank. 7 Jacob Hemmig Till Open. 8 Till Open. Open. Open. Open.' Open. 9 J. M. Mook Till 10 15 Till 13 Till 14 Till 16 20 Till Plank. 17 Till Plank. 18 Till Open. 20 Till Open. ?.?. Till Plank. 23 Till Plank. ?4 R. C. Brockman 30 Till Open. 25 E . E . Smith Till Plank. ?f> A. E. Lord Till Plank. 27 30 Till Shed. a Well goes dry. Springs in Sayhrooh. Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Yield per minute. Amount used per day. 11 Slope.... Slope.... Slope.... Valley.. Slope Feet. 230 235 165 140 105 Gallons. Gallons. 12 15 0.2 19 21 .5 136 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OT^HER AREAS, CONN. ESSEX. POPULATION AND INDUSTRIES. Essex, in the soutli-central part of Connecticut, in Middlesex County, comprises an area of 13 square miles. It is reached by the Valley branch of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad, by steamboat from Hartford and New York daily during the open season, and by the Shore Line Electric Railroad from Deep River and New Haven. Post offices are maintained at Essex, Centerbrook, and Ivoryton. Essex was separated from Old Saybrook and incorporated in May, 1854. The population of Essex in 1910 was 2,745. The population of the town from 1850 to 1910 is shown in the following table: Population of Essex, 1850 to 1910. Year. Popula- tion. Per cent increase. Per cent decrease. 1850 950 1,764 1,669 1,855 1860 86 1870 5 1880 11 Year. 1890 1900 1910 Popula- tion. 2,035 2,530 2,745 Per cent increase. 10 24 9 Per cent decrease. The principal industries are agriculture, wood turning, and nickel plating, and the manufacture of augers and bits, bone and ivory goods, and piano keys and piano boards. Boat building, sail mak- ing, and the repair of vessels is carried on to some extent. Water power developed along Falls River is used by manufactur- mg plants at Ivoryton and Centerbrook. TOPOGRAPHY. The topography of Essex is characterized by numerous hills about 200 feet high, rising above flat drift-filled valley floors. The highest elevation is 360 feet, in the northeast corner of the town, and the lowest elevation is sea level, along Connecticut River. The tidal flat along Connecticut River is about half a mile wide. Rock is exposed in all the hills, but in the valleys the drift is in some places more than 50 feet thick. Connecticut River forms the east boundary of Essex and receives all the drainage from the town. Falls River enters the town at the southeast corner and flows through Ivoryton and Centerbrook to the Connecticut at Essex. The total fall within the town is about 100 feet, or about 20 feet to the mile. The farm lands lie along Trout Brook and Falls River and com- prise about one-fourth the area of the town. Woodlands comprising ESSEX. 137 about 5 square miles occupy the borders of the town, includmg practically all the hills. WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. Bedrocks. — The Mamacoke, Middletown, and Hebron gneisses and the Haddam granite gneiss of the Connecticut State Geological and Natural History Survey fonn the rock floor of Essex and appear at the surface on most of the hillsides throughout the town (PL XIII, in pocket). For description of water in bedrock see page 20. TiU. — Till, which cjonsists of heterogeneous mixtures of bowlders, gravel, sand, and clay, is distributed over the rock surface throughout the western part of the town .and at elevations above 40 feet in the eastern part. Its thickness ranges from a few inches to about 25 feet. The occurrence of water in the till is described on page 15. Stratified drift. — Deposits of sand are found in the vicinity of Centerbrook and at elevations less than 40 feet surrounding the hills in the east part of the town. In the vaUey of the south branch of FaUs River, south of Centerbrook, weUs 20 feet deep end in strati- fied drift, and the total thickness of the deposit probably exceeds 50 feet. In the vicinity of Essex it is, however, less than 20 feet thick. The occurrence of water in deposits of this kind is discussed on page 15. GROUND-WATER SUPPLIES. The average depth of 16 wells measured in Essex is 15 feet, the extremes bemg 5 and 30 feet. Depth to water ranges from 2 to 24 feet and averages 12 feet. The total fluctuation of the water in two wells was 4 and 6 feet, respectively. Nearly all the weUs in Essex end in till, but only two were said to fail. The quantity of water used, as reported for nine weUs, ranges from 15 to 50 gallons per day, the average being 26 gallons. Many small springs issue on the slopes throughout the town, but none of those observed is known to be permanent. AU are gravity springs, deriving their water from very local sources, and few of them are so situated that they are of value for domestic supplies. A spring belonging to H. A. Pratt (No. 13, PI. XIII) yielded half a gallon a minute. The altitude of the spring is 50 feet above sea level and the temperature of the water 55° F. The drift-filled central vaUey of Essex is believed to contain prin- cipally stratified deposits of sand and gravel. The depth of the filling has not been determined, but it is probably more than 50 feet in the central part. The conditions are favorable for the storage of a large quantity of ground water, which could be most econom- ically recovered by means of driven wells (p. 40). 138 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS^ CONN. PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY. A small part of Essex is supplied with water from a reservoir of the Guilford Chester Water Co. near Chester. A flat rate is charged, and no record of consmnption is kept. RECORDS OF WELLS. Information concernmg the wells of Essex is presented m the Dug wells in Essex. folio whig tahles: Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth. Depth to water. Eleva- tion of water table above sea. Fluctua- tion of water table. 1 David Gannon HiU Hill Valley.. Plain.... Slope Slope Hill Flat Slope Slope.... Slope Slope Flat Plain.... Hill Flat Flat Flat Slope.... Feet. 280 120 250 110 105 210 2G0 50 20 23 25 58 18 45 160 33 30 15 40 Fed. 17 116 16 Feet. 15 15 13 11 14.5 14.5 Feet. 265 105 237 99 90.5 195.5 Feet. 2 3 Alfred Wilcox 6 4 5 19.5 18 30. 25 8 12 15 13 19 13 5 6 7 Charles Lund 8 24 4.5 10 15 13+ 16 11 2 9 12 9 26 15.5 13 10 9 C. C. Dibble 10 E. A. Parker 11 12 H. A. Pratt 14 D. F. Doane 2 34 158 24 18 6 4 15 16 Matt Bro^vn 17 W. I. Doane ■ 18 P. E. Post 13 11 19 E. J. Pratt 20 A. H. Pratt Map No. Owner. Amount used per day. Depth to rock. Section. WaU. Cover. 1 David Gannon Gallons. 20 Feet. Till Stone Stone Stone..*. Stone Stone Open. Open. Open. 2 16 Till 3 Alfred Wilcox a 50 TiU 4 TiU 5 Till Open. 6 30 50 TiU 7 Charles Lund TiU Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Board Stone Stone Stone Plank. 8 Till Open. Open. Open. Open. Open. Shed. 9 C.C. Dibble 15 TiU 10 E. A. Parker. TiU 11 Dry. 20 25 10 TiU 12 H. A. Pratt.. TiU 14 D. F. Doane Sand TiU 15 Open. Open. Plank. 16 Matt Brown TiU 17 W.I. Doane TiU 18 P. E. Post ol5 TOl Open. Open. Plank. 19 E. J. Pratt Till 20 A.H.Pratt TiU o Well goes dry. GROUND WATER IX THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. 139 WESTBROOK. POPULATION AND INDUSTRIES. Westbrook comprises an area of 19 square miles lying in tlie south- central part of Connecticut, near the mouth of Connecticut River, in Middlesex County. It is reached by the New London division of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad and by electric railway from New Haven. There are post offices at Westbrook and Grove Beach. Westbrook was separated from Saj^brook and incorporated in May, 1840. The population of Westbrook in 1910 was 951. The population from 1840 to 1910 is sho^\Ti in the following table. The principal industries are agriculture and fishing. Population of Westbrook, 1840 to 1910. Year. Popula- tion. Per cent increase. Per cent decrease. Year. Popula- tion. Per cent increase. Per cent decrease. 1840 1,182 1,202 974 987 1880 878 874 884 951 11 1850 2 1890 .5 1860 19 1900 1 8 1870 1 1910 TOPOGRAPHY. The surface of Westbrook slopes gradually toward the tidal flat, which is about three-quarters of a mile wide. The highest elevation is 350 feet. Practically all the drainage in Westbrook enters the Sound at Menunketesuck Point through Patchogue and Menunketesuck rivers. The former drains the east half of the town and the latter the west half. Woodlands comprise an area of about 12 square miles. The farm lands are situated principally in the vicinity of Westbrook, in the southeast comer of the to^m, and extend northward along Trout Brook. WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. Bedrocks. — ^Tlie southern haH of Westbrook is underlain by rocks which have been designated in publications of the Connecticut State Geological and Natural History Survey Mamacoke gneiss, Stony Creek granite gneiss, and Lyrae granite gneiss. The northern half is underlain by rocks which have been designated Middletown gneiss and Haddam granite gneiss.^ There are a few exposures along the shore, but in 1 See Preliminary geological map of Connecticut: State Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 7, 1907. 140 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. the northern part of the town outcrops are numerous.- (See PL XIII, in pocket.) The occurrence of water in crystalline rocks is discussed on page 20. TUl. — Till, consisting of a heterogeneous mixture of bowlders, gravel, sand, and clay, occurs generally throughout the town. Its average thickness is about 20 feet and maximum thickness about 30 feet. The occurrence of water in till is described on page 15. Stratified drift. — ^Isolated deposits of sand, 5 to 10 or 15 feet thick, occur along the west side of the valley of Trout Brook and at a few places in the northwestern part of the town. None of these deposits are extensive and they are not important as a source of ground water. Beach sand has accumulated along the shore of Westbrook Harbor, but tiU extends out to the water's edge at Chapman Point and on the west side of the town. GROUND-WATER SUPPLIES. The depth of dug wells in Westbrook, as determined by measure- ments of 29 wells, ranges from 9 to 29 feet and averages about 18 feet. The depth to water, measured in 31 weUs, ranges from 5 to 25 feet and averages 14 feet. Four wells have shown fluctuations ranging from 3 to 6 feet. Three of the wells examined penetrate rock and three have failed during recent dry seasons. The daily consumption of water, as reported for 13 wells, ranges from 5 to 30 gallons, aver- aging 15 gallons. A number of weUs have been dug south of West- brook within a few rods of the shore and at elevations only a few feet above sea level. These wells range in depth from 15 to 25 feet and contain large supplies of fresh water. In the southern part of the town are two drilled weUs 40 and 135 feet deep, respectively. Both end in rock and produce good domestic supphes. One of these wells is within half a mile of the shore and ends at a pomt more than 100 feet below sea level. The other weU is a little more than a mile from shore and extends 5 feet below sea level. A few small springs issue on the slopes in the northern part of the town, bud they are not suitably situated for use in domestic supphes. One spring (Xo. 33, PI. XIII), located at an altitude of 140 feet, was found to yield 0.5 gallon of water a minute. RECORDS OF WELLS. The available information regarding the weUs of Westbrook is set forth in the following tables : WESTBROOK. Dug ivells in Westbrook. 141 Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Elevation above sea level. Depth. Depth to water. Elevation of water table above sea. Fluctua- tion of water table. 1 Mrs. Heflin Flat Flat Flat Flat Flat Flat Flat Hill Flat Flat Ravine.. Slope Plain... Slope. .. Hill Hill Slope.... Slope Hill HUl Hill Hill Slope Hill..... Valley. . Shore... Shore... Sh&re... Shore... Flat Slope Feet. 18 30 30 25 30 50 50 30 38 40 120 140 210 • 160 205 230 175 200 175 155 150 120 55 30 15 15 12 13 15 90 100 Feet. 13.5 11 26 22 Feet. 12.5 9 24.5 22 8 12 19 23.5 19 12 16 21 9 14 15 13 5.5 9.5 15 12 13 16.5 18 12.5 12 12 12 12 13 9 12 Feet. 5.5 21 5.5 3 22 38 31 6.5 19 28 105 119 201 146 190 217 1G9.0 190.5 160 143 147 103.5 37 17.5 3 3 10 6 2 81 88 Feet. 2 H. M. Platts 3a 4 A. H. Reynolds 5 6 Steinbach 14.5 21 25 20 13.5 18 23 11 16.5 18.5 15 9 14.5 22 7 W. Z. Jones 8 9 10 11 1? John Hayden 13 4 14 15 16 Robert Harvey 6 17 S. E. Stevens 18 19 20 21 H. C. finhmelre ., 16 18.5 19 28.5 13 18 24 18 20 10.5 14 22 23 24 25 E. A. Dean 27 3 28 29 4 30 31 R. W. Wright 32 Map No. Owner. Amount used per day. Depth to rock. Section. Wall. Cover. 1 Mrs. Heflia Gallons. 10 5 Feet. Sand Till Stone Stone Stone Stone Open. Open. Open. Open. 2 H. M. Platts 3 Till 4 A. H. Reynolds Till 5 6 Steinbach 30 10 25 15 Till Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Plank. 7 W. Z. Jones Till Open. Open. Open. Open. Open. 8 Till 9 20 Till 10 Till 11 Till 12 John Hayden oO a 10 10 15 20 Till 13 11 Till Open. Open. Open. Open. Open. Open. 14 Till 15 Till 16 Robert Harvey Till 17 S.E.Stevens Till... 18 Till 19 Till Plank. 20 21 H. C. Schmelre 10 20 Till Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone ... Stone Stone Tile Plank. 22 15 Till Open. ?3 Till Open. 24 Till Open. 25 E. A. Dean . Till Open. Shed. 27 28 Plank. 29 30 31 ii. W. Wright Till Open. 3-^ a 15 Till Open. a Well goes dry. 142 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. Drilled wells in Westbrooh. Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Elevation above sea level. Depth. Amount used per day. Depth to rock. Quality of water. Drilled in year— 3 Wm. Johnson Flat Flat Slope. . . Feet. 35 25 Feet. 40 135 Gallons. 30 25 Feet. 10 Rusty... Good... 1908 ?fi John Veeser 34 11. 11. Stannard 8o Knough Slope 1 QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. Both of the waters that were analyzed from drilled wells in West- brook, though from different depths, are moderate in muieral content and fairly soft. Analyses of water from drilled wells in Westbrook. [Part? per million; R. B. Dole, analyst.] Constituents. Total solids at 180° C Total hardness as CaCOs Iron (Fe) Carbonate radicle (CO3) Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) . Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CI) 72 140 57 64 .25 .15 .0 .0 12 74 10 23 34 13 1. Well of Wm. Johnson (PI. XIII, No. 3), 40 feet deep; sample collected June 14, 1915. 2. Well of John Veeser (PL XIH, No= 26), 135 feet deep; sample collected June 14, 1915. OLD LYME. POPULATION AND INDUSTRIES. Old Lyme is situated in the south-central part of Connecticut, at the mouth of Connecticut River, in New London County. It is reached by the New London division of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad (stations at Lyme and Black Hall), by steam- boat from Hartford and New York daily during the open season, and by stage from North Lyme. Post offices are maintained at Lyme, South Lyme, Black Hall, and Sound View. Old Ljone was taken from Lyme and incorporated in May, 1855, as South Lyme. The name was changed to Old Lyme in 1857. The area of the town is 27 square miles. The population in 1910 was 1,181. The following table shows the population from 1860 to 1910. The principal industry is agriculture : Population of Old Lyme, 1860 to 1910. Year. Popula- tion. Per cent increase. Per cent decrease. Year. PODUlar tion. Per cent increase. Per cent decrease. 1860 1,304 1,362 1,387 1890 1,319 1,180 1,181 5 1870 4 2 1900 11 1880. 1 1910 ' OLD LYME. 143 TOPOGRAPHY. The south and west borders of Old Lyme are characterized by tidal flats, which reach a width of 2 miles ua the southwest corner of the town. In the vicmity of Roger Lake, on the north border, a broad flat area, 50 feet above sea level, 2 miles long and 1 J miles wide, marks the position of an ancient lake. Hills produced by undula- tions of the rock floor and ranging in height from 100 to 260 feet occur throughout the other parts of the town. The highest pomt, 270 feet above sea level, is on the east border. (See PI. XIII, in pocket.) Connecticut Eiver forms the western boundary and Long Island Soimd the south boundary, and aU the dramage enters these water bodies. The prmcipal streams within the town are Lieutenant, Duck, and Blackball rivers and Mill Creek, all tidal for 1 to 3 miles above their mouths. Roger Lake, 49 feet above sea level, lies partly in the town of Lyme and partly in Old Lyme; its outlet is a tributary to Lieutenant River. The tidal flats lie along the south and west borders of the town and extend up BlackhaU River to Black HaU and up Lieutenant River nearly to Laysville. Woodlands along the west border of the town and in the central part, extending from Black Hah north to Rogers Lake, occupy about haK the area of Old Lyme. The cultivated lands are situated m the valleys of Blackball River and Lieutenant River. WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. Bedrocks. — The bedrocks consist of the formations named by Greg- ory Mamacoke gneiss and Lyme granite gneiss.^ The former is exposed in the hills in the eastern and southern parts of the town and the latter appears at the surface in the northwest quarter of the town. The occurrence of water m rocks of this type is discussed on page 20. Till. — ^Unstratified deposits of sand, clay, and bowlders of glacial origm lie at the surface in the eastern half of the town and on the hills in the western half, except where bedrock is exposed. These deposits range in thickness from a few inches to about 30 feet and average about 20 feet. See page 15 for a discussion of the occurrence of water in this formation. Stratified drift. — In the vicinity of Roger Lake and extending west- ward from the lake about IJ miles and southward from the town hne to LaysviUe, a distance of nearly 2 miles, is a deposit of stratified sand and gravel exceeding 15 feet in thickness. SmaU deposits of sand are found at several places in the vaUey of BlackhaU River (PL XIII). J gee Preliminary geological map of Comiecticut: State Geol. and Nat. Hist. Siirvey Bull. 7, 1907. 144 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS^ CONN. GROUND- WATER SUPPLIES. Dug wells in Old Lyme range in depth from 8 to 35 feet and average about 15 feet. Depth to water, as determined by measurements of 40 wells, ranges from 5 to 34 feet and averages 12 feet. The average fluctuation of the water table, as determined by measurements of 4 weUs, is about 4 feet. Three of the weUs examined penetrate rock and 3 had recent!}^ been dry. Reports for 14 wells indicated an average daily consumption ranging from 10 to 35 gallons and aver- aging about 15 gallons. Eight of the wells examined are not used. Six drilled wells ui Old Lyme range in depth from 90 to 314 feet. The yields were not determmed but are sufficient for domestic needs. From one of these weUs 30 gallons a day is used and from another 2,000 gallons a day; the other four are seldom used. The stratified deposits in the vicinity of Roger Lake are probably thick enough to store a large supply of ground water. A pubhc water supply is needed now and the newly constructed electric railroad will increase this demand. The utihzation of the ground waters in the vicinity of Roger Lake by means of driven wells should receive con- sideration. The lake itself lies too low to be available for use with- out pumping. RECORDS OF WELLS. Information concerning the weUs of Old Lyme is set forth in the following tables: Dug wells in Old Lyme. Map No. O^vner. Topo- graphic position. Elevation above sea level. Depth. Depth to water. Elevation of water table above sea. Fluctua- tion of water table. Yield per Tninute. 1 Flat Valley. . Slope Flat Slope.... Flat Hill Plain.... Plain.... Hill Flat Flat Flat Slope Slope — Slope Flat Hill Hill Slope.... Hill Hill Slope Slope Slope.... Slope.... Slope.... Plain.... Plain.... Plain.... Slope Feet. 16 35 23 16 14 15 18 24 30 22 18 18 19 60 85 30 8 45 45 70 135 173 214 50 25 35 32 50 50 48 60 Feet. 13 9 8 8 13 12.5 14 12 14 14 12 17 10 11 10.5 18 14 15 15 12 35 12 12 10 9 14 13 12 10 11 17 Feet. 11 5 6 6 11 11 12 8 14 13 10 16 9 9 8 16 5 Feet. 5 30 14 10 3 4 6 16 16 9 8 2 10 51 77 14 3 Feet. Gallons. 2 S. P. Monroe 3 B. L. Bramble 7 J. A. De Wolf 8 Black Hall School 9 10 11 Byron Maynard 12 do 3+ 6 (a) (a) 13 W. P. Howard 14 Henry Austin 15 H. H. Haines 5 4 16 (a) 17 18 W. L. Anderson 19 Mrs. C. Roberts 20 23 2+ 24 14.7 10 34 30.3 60 101 25 Leonard 26 Brown 27 G. H. Reed 28 11 8 203 42 29 Matthew Rouland E. J. Swaney 30 31 do 1 12 12 9.5 8.2 9 15 23 20 40.5 41.8 39 45 32 T. J. Dickey 33 84 Mrs. Georgeanna Maynard 35 36 a Well goes dry. OLD LYME. Dug wells in Old Lyme — Continued. 145 Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Elevation above sea level. Depth. Depth to water. Elevation of water table above sea. Fluctua- tion of water table. Yield per minute. 38 Fred Harding Slope — Hill Slope — Hill Plain.... Plain.... Slope.... Slope.... Flat Slope Slope Hill Feet. 75 110 60 43 40 50 20 35 18 20 60 208 Feet. 20 28 17 32 20 12 18.5 10 13 21 22 20 Feet. 18 21 13 30 16 10 16.5 8 11 20 18 16 Feet, bl 89 47 13 24 40 3.5 27 7 42 192 Feet. Gallons. 39 40 41 42 43 44 ■ 45 E. P. Trowbridge 46 47 48 49 H. C. Pearson Map No. Owner. Amount used per day. Depth to rock. Section. Wall. Cover. 1 Gallons. 60 Feet. Till Stone Plank. 2 S. P. Monroe ^ill Stone Open. Open. Plank. 3 B. L. Bramble Till Stone 7 J. A. De Wolf Till Stone 8 Black Hall School Till Stone Shed. 9 Sand Stone Open. Open. 10 Till Stone 11 Byron Maynard Till 12 .do 14 Till Stone Shed. 13 W. P. Howard Till Stone Open. Open. Open. Open. Open. Open. Open. Shed. 14 Henry Austin 30 25 15 10 Till, sand Till Stone 15 H. H. Haines Stone 16 Sand Stone 17 Till Stone 18 W. L. Anderson Till Stone 19 Mrs. C. Roberts Till Stone 20 Sand Stone 23 Till Stone Open. Open. Plank. 24 Till Stone 25 Leonard Till Stone 26 Brown 20 Till Stone Shed. 27 G. H. Reed Till Concrete Stone Open. Open. Open. Open. Plank. 28 20 15 15 Till 29 Matthew Rouland Till Stone 30 E. J. Swaney Till Stone 31 do Till Stone 32 T. J. Dickey Till Stone Open. Open. Open. Plank. 33 Gravel Gravel Gravel Till Stone 34 Mrs. G eorgeanna Maynard — 30 Stone 35 Stone 36 Stone Open. Open. Open. Open. Shed. 38 Fred Harding 20 30 Till Stone 39 Till Stone 40 Till Stone 41 Till Stone 42 Till. . . Stone Plank. 43 Sand, gravel. . . Till Stone Open. Open. Open. 44 Stone 45 E. P. Trowbridge Till Stone 46 Till Stone 47 20 Till Stone Open. Open. Open. 48 Till Stone 49 H. C. Pearson 35 18 TiU, rock Stone 97889°— wsp 374— 16- -10 146 GROUND WATER IN THE HARTFORD AND OTHER AREAS, CONN. Drilled wells in Old Lyme. Map No. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Elevation above sea level. Depth. Yield per miiiute. Amount used per day. Quality of water. Drilled in year— 4 Mrs. Clara Noves Flat Flat Flat Shore... Shore Hill Feet. 20 25 20 12 8 82 Fctt. Gallons. 30 2,000 1911 $ L. F. LowTv 1911 6 J. A. De Wolf 90 101 160 314 Low 21 Mrs. Sill Iron 22 Uale 37 H. L. Hoffman 1908 QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. The subjoined analysis shows the composition of water from a dug well supplying the house system of Fred Harding (PI. XIII, No. 38). The water is low in mineral content and fairly soft. Analysis of water of dug loell of Fred Harding, June 14, 1915. [R. B. Dole, analyst.] Parts per million. Total solids at 180° C 110 Total hardness as CaCOg 35 Iron (Fe ) Tr . Carbonate radicle (CO3) Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 40 Sulphate radicle (SOJ 21 Chlorine (CI) 9.5 INDEX. A. Page. Acknowledgments for aid 11 Absorption of rain water by gravel, sand, and clay 16 Analyses of well waters 52, 59,64,68,72,78,86,90,95, 105, 118, 129, 132, 142, 146 Areas examined, towns included in 11-13 Avery Hill, elevation of 130 B. Barrack Mountain, elevation Oi 123 Bear Motmtain, elevation of Ill Beaver Brook, area drained by 130 Black Hall, post office and railroad station at . 142 Blackberry River, area drained by 119 Blackball River, course of 143 Bloomfield, ground- water supplies in 92-93 groimd- water supplies in, quality of 94-95 population and industries of 90-91 records of wells and springs in 93-94 topography of 91 water-bearing formations in 91-92 Blue Hill, elevation of 130 Bradford Mountain, elevation of 123 Broad Brook, post office and railroad station at 82-83 public water supply of 85 Brookliae, Mass., municipal pump tag plant at 31-34 Brooklyn, N. Y., mimicipal pumping plant at 34 Buckland, post office and railroad station at. 72 Burnhams, railroad station at 68, 78 Burnside, post office and railroad station at. . 68 B jTam River, area drained by 106 C. Canaan, population and industries of 122 records of wells and springs in 124-125 surface-water supplies in 124 topography of 1 22-123 water-bearing formations in 123-124 Canaan Mountain, elevation of 119 Casings, methods of perforating 41 Cedar Mountain, elevation of 59, 65 Centerbrook, post office at 136 Chapinville, post office and railroad station at : 110-111 Circulation of water in crystalline and trap rocks 20-22 in limestones and Triassic sediments 22-23 Clayton, railroad station at 59 Cobble Hill, elevation of 123 Page. Connecticut, cooperation by 10-11 Connecticut River, Essex drained by 136 Old Lyme drained by 143 Saybrook drained by 133 water of, quality of 49 Connecticut River Valley, sections through, plate showing 18 Converse Lake reservoir, capacity and loca- tion of 107, 108 Cos Cob, post office and railroad station at. . . 105 Cottage Grove, railroad station at 90 Cowles, Henry C, acknowledgment to 11 Crystalline rocks, water in 20-22 D. Data, reliability of 13 Deep River, post office and railroad station at. 133 Deep River, course of 133 DUlon & Douglass, well of 50 Drift, stratified, character of 15-16 stratified, sections of, plate showing 17 unstratified, character of 15-16 Duck River, course of 143 Dune, section of, at South Windsor, plate showing 16 E. East Canaan, post office and railroad sta- tion at 118 East Hartford, ground- water supplies in 70-71 ground-water, supplies in, quality of 72 population and industries of 68 public water supply of 71 records of wells in 71-72 surface-water supplies in 70 topography of 68-69 water-bearing formations in 69 East Windsor, ground-water supplies in 84-85 ground- water supplies, quality of 86 population and industries of 82-83 public water supply of 85 records of wells in 85-86 topography of 83 water-bearing formations in 83-84 East Windsor Hill, post office and railroad station at 78 Elm wood, post office and railroad station at. . 52 Essex, ground-water supplies in 137 population and industries of 136 public water supply in 138 records of wells in 138 topography of 136-137 water-bearing formations in 137 147 148 INDEX. P. Page. Falls River, course of 136 Falls Village, post office and railroad station at 122 Farmtngton River, area drained by 87-88 Field work, nature of 11 Fissures, circulation of water through 23 in crystalline rock, plate showing 20 in sandstone, plate showing 21 in trap rock, plate showing 20 Forbes, F. F., on the municipal pumping plant at Brookline, Mass 31-34 Franklin, ground-water supplies in 131 ground-water supplies in, quality of 132 population and industries of 129 records of wells and springs in 131-132 topography of 130 water-bearing formations in 130 G. Glacial drift, water in 15-17 Glenbrook, post office and railroad station at. 95 Glcnville, post office at 105 Goff Brook, course of 65 Gray, Hadley G., acknowledgment to 11 Greenwich, grovmd- water supplies in 107-108 ground-water supplies in, quality of 110 population and industries of 105-106 public water supplies of 108 records of wells and springs in 108-110 surface-water supplies in 107 topography of 106 water-bearing formations in 106-107 Greenwich Creek, area drained by 106 Ground-water, annual supply of 18-20 relation of rainfall to 13-14 Grove Beach, post office at 139 Guilford Chester Water Co., service of 134, 138 H. Hartford, ground-water supplies in 49-51 ground-water supplies in, quality of 51-52 municipal water supply of 51 population and industries of 46-47 surface-water supplies in 49 topography of 47 water-]) earing formations in 47-49 Hartford area, map of In pocket. towns included in 11-13 Hartford Electric Light Co. , wells of 50 Hartford Sanatorium, yield of well at 24 Hartford waterworks, collecting areas of, map showing 52 test wells of 50-51 Hearthstone Hill, elevation of 130 Highland Park, post office at 73 Hobby, E. M., acknowledgment to 11 Hockanum, post office at 68 Hockanum River, area drained by 69, 73 pollution of 70 Hog River, area drained by 90 Hollenbeck River, area drained by 123 course of 123 Horseneck Brook, area drained by 106 Housatonic River, area drained by 111-112, 119,123 monthly discharge of, at Gaylordsville. . 1 12-113 1. Page. Infiltration galleries, construction of 42-43 use of, for municipal water supplies 30-31 Investigation, history of 10-11 Iron ore, occurrence of 114 T vor5-ton, post office at 136 K. Konkapot River, drainage area of 119 L. Ladd, G. L. , acknowledgment to 11 Lakeville, post office and railroad station at 110-111 Lieutenant River, course of 143 Lime rock, post office at Ill railroad station at 122 Long Bros., well of 50 M. Manchester, ground-water supplies in 74-75 ground water, quality of 77-78 population and industries of 72-73 public water supplies of 75 records of wells and springs in 75-77 surface-water supplies in 74 topography of 73 water-bearing formations in 73-74 Mead I'ond reservoir, capacity of 99 Melrose, post office and railroad station at. . . 82-83 Menim.ketesuck River, area drained by 139 Mianus River, area drained by 96, 106 reservoir on 97 Mill Creek, course of 143 Moore Brook, area drained by 111-112 Municipal use, ground water for, quality of. . 27 ground water for, quantity of 26-27 sources of 27-36 N. Nepaug River, reservoir on 51 Newington, ground- water supplies in 60-61 ground- water supplies in, quality of 63-64 population and industries of 59 public water supply of 61 records of wells and springs in 62-63 topography of 59-60 water-bearing formations in 60 Newtown, old name of Hartford 46 Noroton River, area drained by 96 North Canaan, ground-water supplies in 120 population and industries of 118-119 public water supply of 120-121 records of wells and springs in 121-122 topography of 119 water-bearing formations in 119-120 Noyes River, area drained by 53 pollution of 54 O. Obwebetuck Hill, elevation of 126 Old Lyme, ground-water supplies in 144 ground-water supplies in, quality of 146 population and industries of 142 records of wells in 144-146 topography of 143 water-bearing formations in 143 Ore Hill, post office and railroad station at. . 110-111 Osbom, railroad station at 82 INDEX. 149 b P. Page. Palm, Frank , aclmowledgment to 11 Park River, area drained by 47,53,60 Par kville, post office at 46 Patchogue River, area drained by 139 Pine Grove, post office at 122 Plainfield, N. J., municipal pumping plant at. 34-36 Podunk River, area drained by 79 Poquonock, post office at 87 Precipitation, average yearly and monthly . . 14-15 relation of ground water to 13-14 Priors Creek, area drained by 83 Prospect Hill, elevation of 130 Putnam Lake reservoir, capacity and loca- tion of 107 Q. Quantity of water, estimate of, in crystalline rocks and traps 21-22 estimate of, in the glacial drift 18-20 in the limestones and Triassic sedi- ments 24-25 R. Rainbow, post office at 87 Rainfall, see Precipitation. Rattlesnake Hill, elevation of 119 Riga Lake, location of 113 Rippowam River, drainage area of 96 reservoir on 97 Riverside, post office and railroad station at. . 105 Rockwood Lake reservoir, capacity and loca- tion of 107 Roger Lake, location of 143 S. Salisbury, ground- water supplies in 115-116 ground-water supplies in, quality of 118 population and industries of 110-111 public water supply of 116 records of wells and springs in 116-118 surface-water supplies in 115 topography of 111-113 water-bearing formations in 113-115 Salisbury area, map of In pocket. towns included in 13 Salmon Creek, drainage area of 111-112 Sandstone, contact of trap rock with, plate showing 48 Say brook, grotmd- water supplies in 134 population and industries of 133 public water supply in 134 records of wells and springs ki 134-135 topography of 133 water-bearing formations in 133-134 Say brook area , map of In pocket. towns included in 13 Scantic River, area drained by 79, 83 School wells, water of, tests of 58, 63, 72, 110 Shetucket River, area drained by 126, 130 Shooting wells, advisability of 40 Silver Lane, post office at 68 Solution channels in limestone, plate sho\ving 21 Sound Beach, post office and railroad station at 105 Sound View, railroad station at 142 Page. South Pond, location of 113 South "Windsor, ground- water supplies in 80 population and industries of 78 records of wells and springs in 81-82 topography of 78-79 water-bearing formations in 79-80 Springdale, post office and railroad station at . 95 Springs, quality of water from 37 records of. See undernames of towns. sanitary equipment for 37 use of, for municipal water supplies 28-29 Stamford, ground- water supplies in 98-99 ground- water supplies in, quality of 105 population and industries of 95-96 public water supplies in 99 records of wells and springs in 99-104 svirface- water supplies in 97-98 topography of 96 water-bearing formations in 96-97 Stamford area, map of In pocket. towns included in 13 Streams, use of, for municipal water supplies . 28 Suckiage, the Indian name o f Hartford 46 Susquetonscut Brook, area drained by 130 T. Talcott Moxmtains, elevation of 90 Talmadge Hill, railroad station at 95 Till, section of, at Windham, plate showing. . . 16 Titus Moxmtain, elevation of 123 Trap rock, contact of, with imderlying sand- stone, plate showing 48 water in 20-22 Tribus, L. L., on the municipal pumping plant at Plainfield, N.J 34-36 Trinity Lake reser vo ir , capacity of 99 Turneaure, F. E., and Russell, H. L., on a municipal pumping plant at Brooklyn, N.Y 34 Twin Lakes, location of 113 V. Virginia Health Bulletin, essentials of a good well from 43-44 W. Wapping, post office at 78 Warehouse Point, post office at 83 Water supply, problem of 9-10 Water table, position of 17-18 Waterworks at Plainfield, N. J., plan of 34 Wells, consumption of water from 37 drilled, abrasion method of drilling 38-39 cost of 39 equipment of 39-40 percussion method of drilling 38-39 quality of water from 39 driven, closed-end, construction of 40-41 municipal supplies from 30, 31-36, 41-42 open-end, construction of 40-41 sanitary care of 42 dug, construction of 43-46 delivery of by gravity from 46 failure of, causes for 44-46 quality of water from 37, 38 sanitary care of 37,38 150 INDEX. rage. Westbrook, ground-water supplies in 140 ground- water supplies in, quality of 142 population and industries of 139 records of wells in 140-142 topography of 139 water-bearing formations in 139-140 West Hartford, developments of water in, suggestions for 56-57 ground- water supplies in 54-56 quality of 58-59 population and industries of 52 record of wells and springs in 57-58 springs in 56 surface-water supplies in 54 topography of 53 water-bearing formations in 53 Wethersfield, grovmd- water supplies in 65-66 ground- water supplies in, quality of 67-68 population and industries of 64 public water supply of 66 records of wells and springs in 66-67 topography of 64-65 water-bearing formations in 65 ^^^litulg River, area drained by 119 Page. "Willimantic, post office and railroad station at 125 Willimanl ic area, map of In pocket. towns included in 13 Wilson, post office at 87 Windham, ground- water supplies in 127-128 groimd- water supplies in, quality of 129 population and industries of 125-126 public water supply of 128 records of wells and springs in 128-129 topography of 126 water-bearing formations in 126-127 Windsor, ground- water supplies in 88-89 ground- water supplies in, quality of 90 population and industries of 87 records of wells and springs in 89-90 topography of 87-88 water-bearing formations in 88 Windsorville, post office at 83 Wononpakook Lake, location of 113 Wononskopomuc Lake, location of 113 Y. Yantic, post office and railroad station at 129 O ^^, 'a. WATER SUPPLY PAPER 374 PLATE I'X MAP OF HARTFORD AEEA, OONNBOTICUT Showing rock outcrops, wooded areas, and ground-water conditions CaJ5 /0^>S I G-3/ o^^ 35' U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY GEORGE OTIS SMITH, DIRECTOR WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 374 PLATE X LEGEND FORMATIONS latifled drift ^Os Observed rock outciops (SOif^t giieuises, granilM, and cri/s- lalli t eUone of early Paleosoie anl ] c Paleozoic age. Areas tiol 'tip dlyr] k outcrops or siratijied VEGETATION Woods } ot icooded are chiefly GROUND WATER Depth to water tiible more thAn 10 feet, generally less than 20 feet { In the ) ei an ing areas depth is tcs.s than 10 feet JFater level undei-goes beasoial fliottations. Map ^ows appjonmate a eruge conditions) .. s 01 driven well .., Drilled well "V m ■^pvmg Qers correspond to ers used in tables MAP OF STAMFORD AREA, CONNECTICUT Showing rock outcrops, wooded areas, and ground-water conditions Contour interval 20 feet Datum U mean tea level 1916 LEGEND FORMATIONS -KStratilied drift m n h |rved rock outcrops ■■a) Crystalline rocks b) Limestones ot occupied by rock outcrops tratified drift are covered icilh till) VEGETATION U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY GEORGE OTIS SMITH, DIRECTOR WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 374 PLATE XI Ji_J_r I I 1 I V ] ^ 1 fTMFTnK^ V-.CT^r rjIKj M' Prospe I/, H ir ,i \ if) "IS * f M I ill *- \ BaT-rack M* , // '\.' -.A, )]' ^ i> >..^. LEGEND FORMATIONS □ Stlatlrleil drift (Ihsevved rook outcrops («) rrysti.lliner.K-k3 Woods (Area-t tint iraoilcd art! rhieJUj ijrass lands hut iu part cultvatcd Jields) GROUND WATER Depth to water table more than 10 feet, generally less than 20 feet (/;i remaining areas depth is ijowratly less than 10 feet, ifatm- level midw- goen sefisonal Jluotuatiom, Map shows approiciviate arerago conditiotm) Dug or driven well — — ^ ~~ r^ — 1^ - v^ _^_ MAP OF SALISBURY AREA, CONNECTICUT Showing rock outcrops, wooded areas, and ground-water conditions Scale esrsSD Contour Interval 20 feet U. S^ GEOLOGICAL SURVEY GEORGE OTIS SMITH, DIRECTOR LEGEND FORMATIONS Stratiflefl drift \\\ Observed roclt outcrops (Areas not occupied by rock ovlcrnps or stratijied drifl are covered loith till) Woods GROUND WATER Depth to water table more than 10 feet, generally less than 20 feet (/7i remaimny areas depth to watei- iv gmerally less than 10 feet. Water level undergoes seasonal Jtvctuations. Map sliom approximate average con- d%tions) •Z;.7.,r.\,,..L.' MAP OF WILLIMANTIC AREA, CONNECTICUT l'S„r3',:r Showing rock outcrops, wooded areas, and ground-water conditions ■'"""dar.es by a.j.eiiis Dug or cU'iven well Drilled well '\ Contour interval 20 feet 1B16 ^d rock outcrops U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY GEORGE OTIS SMITH, DIRECTOR WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 374 PLATE XIII -^f=Tn:;;7T M'ArcHeH '4 1 \- o H II J \ ^ ^ 1 \\ \. r LEGEND FORMATIONS Stratified drift Observed rook outcrops {Areas not occupied by rock outorops or stratified driJX arc covered with tOl) VEGETATION Woods GROUND WATER Depth to water table more than 10 feet, generally less tlian 20 feet ( In remaining areas depth is less than lUfeeU Water level undergoes season- al HHCiiialif)}is. Map shorn ai>prox- ■age cowMtions) MAP OF SAYBROOK AREA, CONNECTICUT Showing rock outcrops, wooded areas, and ground-water conditions Contour interval 20 feet » 275 83 m o V * o \ V "-C^ • ■ « ^^ . :^Hc. %.^" : '^r- ^<^'= vP V •^ ^ ^^^ <»• V'- ^^ AUG 83 w^u=jxo N. MANCHESTER, ^^=^ INDIANA 46962 '^♦: LIBRARY OF CONGRESS III II nil III I IIIIH 019 953 661 8