^^fir 'qj.-^^ L^q*. ^ '^^ .1* •^ %,** - 9^f ^^ *«••• - ^ov^^ - x'^f^^^J" ^^'•^^^^V^ X'^'^^**^/^ ^c J" \''^^'\y %^*'^??*\/ x*^?^*'y n A Prize-Winner SCHOOL AGRICULTURE WITH EXPERIMENTS AND EXERCISES A TEXT-BOOK FOR RURAL AND GRADED SCHOOLS By MILO N. WOOD Principal High School, Pittsville, Wisconsin Illustrated New York ORANGE JUDD COMPANY LONDON KEGAN PAUL. TRENCH. TRUBNER & CO.. Limited 1912 v^ Copyright 1912 by Orange Judd Company All Rights Reserved Entered at Stationers' Hall, London, England Printed in U. S. A. r 0, t. CI.A» l!)(IKR PREFACE iii PREFACE WE are now in the midst of a great agricultural awakening. The population of the United States, which is increasing so rapidly as to be out of proportion to the increase in farm products, must be supplied with food; consequently, more land must be cultivated, haphazard methods of farming must be abandoned, and better systems along all agricultural lines must prevail. The trend of agricultural develop- ment is plainly visible. Soils once depleted by systems of farming which were the results of ignorance now respond to intelligent care by yielding bountiful crops; desert lands upon which grew scattering cacti and sage brush now produce under irrigation marvelous yields of fruit, vegetables, and other products; swamp lands, once thought worthless, are being drained and furnish homes for thousands of people; even soils that contained such large amounts of harmful salts as to make the growth of common plants impossible are being acted upon by irrigation and drainage until the salts are reduced to such an extent that farming is practicable. In the past the tillers of the soil longed for the life of the city. At the present time, high prices and the attractiveness of country life cause city people to long for the farm, and "Back to the farm!" is the cry. All PREFACE of this tends not only to arouse interest in agricultural problems, but to demand instruction in agricultural methods. A large part of such instruction must be done in the schools. The legislatures of a large number of states have placed agriculture in the common school curriculum as a result of the demands of the people. Truly this is a sensible thing to do. Why should not some of the time to be spent in school be used in acquiring knowledge of a subject which is not only of a disciplinary value, but which will help the pupils to earn a living? While instruction in this subject in graded, and rural schools must be of an elementary character, it should be sufficiently comprehensive to include most of the principles of general agriculture; it should not deal entirely with theory; it should include demonstrations of practical value; and the subject should be taught so as to appeal to the intelligence of the pupil rather than to his memory. It is for the purpose of promoting these ends that this book has been written. Throughout its preparation constant thought has been given the subject from the teacher's standpoint as well as from the pupil's. It is desired to make the work teachable. As the book is intended for classes in rural and graded schools, an effort has been made to have the language simple enough so that the pupils will find no difficulty in understanding PREFACE the subject matter. Many interesting topics have been omitted, but it is hoped that those given are sufficiently comprehensive to be of lasting value to the pupil. It is believed that the experiments, which follow each chapter, will prove of great value in making the subject a living subject, in connecting it with the home life of the pupil, in arousing the interest of the class, and in imparting knowledge of the fundamental principles of agriculture. Whether the exercises should precede the subject matter and the topics be developed inductively, whether they should be worked out in the class period, or whether they should follow as a means of illustrating principles under consideration, depends upon the class, the teacher, the time given to the particular topic, and the nature of the topic. The experiments are placed where the teacher can use the method best adapted to the conditions, and there are enough of them given so that selections can be made. It is not possible for most schools to have elaborate apparatus. The apparatus and materials necessary for performing the experiments given are very simple, easily obtained, and inexpensive. It is of value to the pupils to make an extensive study of some branch of agriculture upon which particular attention is needed by people in the community. If the school is in an apple district, the growing of apples would form a profitable study; if in a potato belt, potato growing should be studied; if in a swamp region, the PREFACE study of drainage would be profitable; if in an irrigated section, irrigation should receive special attention. Furthermore, it is of importance that the pupils be encouraged to read agricultural literature, such as bulle- tins farm papers, and books. As an aid to the teacher in accomplishing these purposes, a suggestive list of reference books follows each chapter. Questions like those usually asked at the end of each chapter in most text-books of agriculture have been omitted, because it is believed that they are of no value to the teacher or to the pupils. On the contrary, they tend to make the work of the teacher mechanical and to discourage originality on the part of the pupil. Neither does a summary following each chapter aid to develop the thinking power of the pupil. A suggestive outline summary follows each chapter when it is deemed advis- able to call the pupil's attention to particular points. For the most part the outlines are to be prepared by the pupil, and only a few suggestions in each case are given, to show him what is expected. After a pupil has com- pleted an outline of this type, it should prove of assist- ance in topic recitations, in his written work on agri- culture," and in reviewing. Its value will depend largely upon the extent of its use by the teacher. A great deal of attention has been given to the illus- trations in order to make them of practical use in devel- oping the different topics. PREFACE vii It is hoped that this book will help to bring about a closer relation between the community and the school, as well as to help make the study of agriculture interesting and profitable. Thanks are due the following for valuable suggestions, or for reading parts of the manuscript: W. A. Henry, Emeritus Professor of Agriculture, University of Wis- consin; G. H. Drewry, and W. H. Hunt, State School Inspectors of Wisconsin ; C. W. Burkett, Editor of the American Agriculturist; E. M. Griffith, State Forester of Wisconsin; Mary D. Bradford, Superintend- ent of the Kenosha Schools; W. E. Smith, Principal of the Reedsburg Training School for Teachers. Grateful acknowledgment is made to the Orange Judd Company for many of the photographs and line drawings, also to the United States Department of Agriculture, and to the University of Wisconsin for a number of photo- graphs. Special acknowledgment is due to G. E. Culver, Pro- fessor of Chemistry and Geology, and W. F. Lusk, Professor of Agriculture and Physics in the State Normal School at Stevens Point, for carefully reading and criti- cizing the entire manuscript. M. N. W. Pittsvillle, Wisconsin, March, 1912. TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I Soil Formation 1 II Classes of Soils 10 III Water in the Soil 16 IV Drainage 25 V Irrigation 33 VI Tillage 41 VII Plant Foods 49 VIII How the Legumes Help the Farmer .... 55 IX Soil Exhaustion and Crop Rotation .... 58 X The Seed and Germination 65 XI The Plant 80 XII Propagation of Plants 96 XIII Transplanting and Pruning 105 XIV Plant Enemies 112 XV The Orchard 123 XVI Small Fruits .141 XVII Forestry . 149 XVIII Farm Stock 157 XIX Cattle 159 XX Milk and Its Products 167 XXI Feeding the Stock 186 XXII Horses 194 XXIII Sheep 205 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Chapter Page XXIV Swine 212 XXV Poultry .218 XXVI Bees 230 XXVII Birds 239 XXVIII Farm Implements 245 XXIX Roads 250 XXX Beautifying Home and School Grounds . . .261 XXXI Country Life 272 Appendix 277 Index 331 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Page 1 A Portion of a Flood Plain 2 2 Soil Builders at Work 3 3 Section of Hill Left by Ice Sheet 4 4 Disintegrating Rock 5 5 Roots of Trees Breaking Up a Rocky Subsoil 6 6 Water Rising in Tube by Capillary Attraction 17 7 Water in the Soil 19 8 Land Needing Drainage 26 9 A Large Open Drain 27 10 Drain Tile in Trench Ready for Covering 28 1 1 Water Diverted from Stream as Needed 32 12 Diversion of a Small Stream Into a Reservoir 32 13 Division Box 34 14 Check System of Irrigation 35 15 Depressed Bed System 37 16 Irrigating a Field 38 17 Furrow Slices That Are Too Flat 42 18 A Sod Plow 43 19 A Stirring Plow 43 20 Plowing Which Pulverizes the Soil 44 21 A Harrow . 45 22 A Farm Roller .. . . 46 23 Testing the Effect of Plant-Food Materials on Potatoes „ . „ . 50 24 Effect of Lime on Plants 51 25 The Waste of Barnyard Manure 52 26 Arrangement of Plots for Experiment 1 53 27 Roots of Soy Bean Showing Tubercles 55 28 Clover Growing in Uninoculated and Inoculated Soils .... 56 29 A Crop on an Exhausted Soil 59 30 Cotyledons of Bean 65 31 Section of a Kernel of Corn 66 32 A Plate Germinator 67 xii SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Figure Page 33 Red Clover Seeds Mixed with Yellow Trefoil 68 34 The Seed Furnishes Food for the Young Growing Plant ... 69 35 Tobacco Seedlings from Light, Medium and Heavy Seeds ... 70 36 Select Cotton Fiber 71 37 A Desirable Stalk . 72 38 A Perfect Ear of Corn 73 39 Two Undesirable Ears 76 40 Desirable Kernels 77 41 Ten Prize Ears of Corn 78 42 Root Hairs of Radish 80 43 Root Hair with Soil Attached 81 44 Egg Prepared to Show Osmosis 81 45 a Tap Root of Alfalfa; b Fibrous Root of Raspberry 82 46 Cross Section of Oak Stem 83 47 Longitudinal Section of an Exogenous Stem 83 48 Potato Plant 84 49 Section of Leaf 86 50 Experiment to Show That Leaves Transpire Moisture .... 87 51 Section of a Cherry Blossom 88 52 A Typical Stamen 89 53 Fertilization of the Ovule 90 54 Strawberry Blossoms 91 55 Caulicle Marked to Show Growth 92 56 Stem Marked to Show Growth 93 57 Layering 96 58 Mound Layering 97 59 Some Different Forms of Cuttings . 98 60 Leaf Cutting 99 61 Cleft Grafting 99 62 Whip Grafting of Stem 100 63 Root Grafting ' 101 64 Budding 102 65 Types of Pruning Shears 106 66 Correct Pruning Of Apple Tree 106 67 Correct and Incorrect Pruning 107 68 Progress of Decay Due to Improper Pruning 108 69 Wrong Method of Cutting Off a Large Limb 108 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii Figure Page 70 The Right Way of Removing a Large Limb 109 71 Insect 112 72 The Four Stages of Insect Growth (Codling Moth) . . , . 113 73 Biting Insects 114 74 Sucking Insects . 115 75 Making Bordeaux Mixture 116 76 Annual Weed 118 77- Biennial Weed 119 78 A Perennial Weed 120 79 A Codling Moth Larva and Its Work 125 80 When to Spray for Codling Moth 125 81 Round-Headed Apple Tree Borer 126 82 Flat-Headed Apple Tree Borer 126 83 Tent Caterpillar and Web 127 • 84 Fall Web Worm 128 85 Canker Worm 129 86 Apple Aphis 129 87 Wooly Aphis 130 88 Apple Leaves Injured by Leaf Roller 131 89 San Jose Scale 132 90 Bitter Rot 132 91 Apple Scab 133 92 The Peach Borer 134 93 Peach Yellows -. 135 94 Peach Rosette 135 95 Black Spot of the Peach 136 96 The Plum Curculio and Its Work 136 97 Curculio Catcher 137 98 Plum Gouger and Infested Fruit 138 99 Strawberry Plant with Good Roots and Small Crown 143 100 Matted-Row Cultivation of Strawberries 144 101 Graded and Ungraded Fruit 145 102 Destructive Lumbering 150 103 A Tree with Too Much Side Light 152 104 A Group of Chestnut Sprouts 154 105 Young Pine Trees on Cut-Over Lands 155 106 Dairy Type (Guernsey Cow) 160 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Figure Page 107 Ayrshire Cow 161 108 Holstein Cow 162 109 Beef Type (Hereford) 163 no A Good Feeder 164 111 A Bad Feeder 164 112 Galloway Bull 165 113 How Milk Looks Under a Miscroscope . . . •. 167 114 Diagram Showing Average Composition of Milk 168 115 A Sanitary Cow Stable 169 116 A Filthy Cow Stable 170 1 1 7 How Bacteria Grow 1 72 118 A Cheap Pasteurizing Apparatus 173 119 An Up-to-Date Creamery 174 120 Babcock Testing Apparatus 176 121 Barrel Churn 177 122 Butter Worker 178 123 Worthless Camembert Chee^ 180 124 Penicillium Camemberti 181 125 Percheron Stallion 195 126 Belgian Draft Stallion 196 127 Suffolk Stallion 197 128 American Trotting Horse (Morgan Type) 198 129 Champion Hackney Stallion 201 130 A Shoe in Proper Position 202 131 Merino Ram 205 132 Southdown Ewe 206 133 Hampshire Downs ;...... 207 134 Cheviot Ewe 208 135 Lincoln Ewe 208 136 Cotswold Ram 209 137 Poland China Hog 212 138 Berkshire Hog 213 139 Duroc-Jersey Hog . 214 140 Tamworth Hog 216 141 Chester White Hog 216 142 White Leghorn Hen 218 143 Black Minorca Cockerel 219 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xv Figure Page 144 Silver Spangled Hamburg Cockerel 219 145 Light Brahmas . . .' 220 146 Buff Cochin Hen 221 147 Pair of Langshans 221 148 Barred Plymouth Rock Cock 223 149 Water Pan with Cover 225 150 Brown China Geese 226 151 Pair of Indian Runner Ducks 228 152 A Prize Turkey 228 153 Langstroth Hive with Supers 230 154 Small Sections with Comb Foundation 231 155 The Honey Bee 232 156 Queen Cells and Worker Cells 233 157 Different Stages in the Development of the Honey Bee .... 233 158 Examining a Brood Frame 235 159 Bee Veil and Smoker 236 160 Baltimore Oriole Attacking the Nest of a Tent Caterpillar . . . 240 161 Cooper Hawk (Chicken Hawk) 242 162 Birds Make War on Insects 244 163 Everything Is Done at One Operation 246 164 A Hay Loader 248 165 A Good Single Track Macadam Road 251 166 Cross Section of Two Good Forms for Earth Roads 252 167 Split Log Drag 253 168 A Road Machine 254 169 A Steam Road Roller 256 170 Rock Crusher „ . 257 171 First Course of Rock in a Macadam Road , . . 258 172 Prosperous Localities Have Good Roads 259 173 Farm Home Rich in Flowers and Comfort 262 174 Grouping Trees for Landscape Effect 264 175 Shrubs Are Effective When Placed Near the House 267 176 Vines are Artistic When Arranged in Retreating Corners .... 267 177 Shrubs and Vines May Be Used to Screen Unsightly Buildings . . 269 178 A Portion of a Neat and Attractive School Ground 270 179 In the Country There Is Plenty of Fresh Air and Sunshine ... 273 180 It Is Agreeable to Listen to the Murmur of the Wind in the Trees 275 SOIL FORMATION CHAPTER I SOIL FORMATION MAN is the highest form of life upon this earth. He obtains his food from plants and animals. Animals obtain their food from other animals or plants, and plants depend upon the soil for part of their food supply. We see, then, how important the soil is to all forms of life. Naturally, we desire to know what materials compose the soil, how it was formed, its relation to plant life, and the means by which man can c^id nature in bringing forth harvests from the ground. How Soil Is Formed — If two pieces of sandstone are pounded together, they break up into small grains of sand. In other words, the small particles of rock have been caused to separate. There are many agents of nature that form soil by breaking up and dissolving rock- material, and that add organic matter by causing the decay of plants and animals. The following assist in forming soil: 1. Moving water. 2. Moving ice. 3. Heat and cold. 4. Winds. SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 5. Earthworms, ants, and living animals. 6. Living plants. 7. Gases in the air and water. 8. The decaying of plants and animals. Moving Water — The amount of work done in soil forma- tion by moving water is very great. The rain water from the eaves wears trenches in the ground, and in the course of time may wear depressions in solid rock. The amount of work that moving water can do is increased to a great extent when it carries some rock particles to help grind the rock. It also depends upon the quantity of water in motion, the velocity with which the water flows, and the hardness of the rock. Moving water transports soil material. As a A Portion of a Flood Plain SOIL FORMATION Fig. 2. Soil Builders at Work Leaves, roots, stems, find their way back to the soil, and enrich It stream will carry coarser particles where it is swift than where it is slow, the material deposited is sorted. Moving water, then, wears, carries, sorts, and deposits material. The flood plains of rivers serve as examples of the work that moving water can do. Soils left by rivers in this way are called alluvial soils. Moving Ice — Ages ago the northern part of North America was covered by a great ice sheet. As this large ice sheet moved slowly along, it scraped up sand, gravel and rocks, which it ground together until much of it was reduced to fine particles. Some of the hard rocks which were not completely pulverized had their corners worn off and are called glacial bowlders. The rocks over which the glacier passed are grooved and scratched because SCHOOL AGRICULTURE of the rock material frozen In the bottom of the glacier. When the ice melted, it left the soil and the bowlders all mixed together without any definite arrangement. Because the material was not left in layers it is said to be unstrat- ified; but in some cases it was sorted and de- posited by the water which flowed from the melting glacier, there- fore stratification re- sulted. Heat and Cold — Changes In temperature will cause pieces of rock to chip off. When the change of temperature is slow we may not notice this, but when it is rapid we sometimes see the effects in a short time. If a rock is heated and suddenly cooled by throwing on cold water, it is apt to break in pieces. The effect of a change in temperature becomes more prominent where the water freezes in the cracks of rocks ; the expansion of the freezing water causes the rocks to split. The great power exerted by freezing water is seen in the bursting of water pipes in winter. Fig. 3. Section of Hill Left by Ice Sheet The materials are mixed together SOIL FORMATION Winds — When sand is blown violently against rocks, it possesses considerable cutting power. Winds also transport soil. Sometimes they leave the transported soil in large heaps, known as sand dunes. Q:, ^'-itl£^ Earthworms — Earth- worms increase the po- rosity of the soil by digging tunnels in the ground where they live. They bring the soil from these tunnels to the surface, where it is left in worm - shaped piles, called worm casts. Darwin has stated that worms often bring as much as one inch of soil to the surface in five years. In this way the renewing of the top soil is continually going on. Worms also assist in adding organic matter by dragging partly decayed leaves and vegetable matter into the ground. Ants — The work of ants in improving the soil lies chiefly in the tunnels which they dig. The earth does not pass through their bodies, as is the case with worms; conse- quently they do not materially aid in pulverizing the soil. Fig. 4. Disintegrating Rock The foices of nature are gradually breaking up this rock SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Other Animals — Other animals which burrow in the ground are gophers, field mice, moles, prairie dogs, and woodchucks. Their aid in soil formation is much less than that of earthworms or ants. f^V* -Z-^^t^^^- i- -^^'- - J_^-'. ' :^ ^m^m^ ^S^^S^^^K |?-:;>^>^-^ -^N i^=^-*'iS-. ^iC«^ ^^:>/^ V^ -C. - ?l^t^-* vX'^'- Fig. 5. Roots of Trees Breaking Up a Rocky Subsoil Living Plants — The higher forms of plant life aid in breaking up rocks and in making the particles of soil finer. Not only do plant roots grow into the cracks of rocks and break off pieces, but they produce acids which dissolve some materials in the rocks. SOIL FORMATION Besides the higher plant forms, we find in the soil very small one-celled plants called bacteria. They are so small that hundreds of them could be placed on the point of a pin. There are various varieties of bacteria, as there are various varieties of corn or other plants. At present we do not fully understand all varieties of bacteria found in the soil, but we know that some of them cause the decomposition of organic matter, and that some fix nitrogen in the soil in a form that can be made use of by plants. Gases in Air and Water — When water takes up carbon dioxide, its dissolving action on some rocks is greatly increased. Oxygen combines with the minerals of rocks and forms oxides. A familiar example is that of iron rusting. The crumbly iron rust, or iron oxide, is formed by the oxygen uniting with the iron. The Decaying of Plants and Animals — Plants and animals decay and form the organic part of the soil. When partially decayed, they form humus. As has been said before, humus increases the moisture-holding capacity of the soil, regulates its temperature, and finally serves as plant food. EXERCISES AND EXPERIMENTS 1. If you can observe the ice in a lake or a river when it breaks up in the spring, notice its grinding effect. How does it act on the banks? 8 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 2. Notice how water affects the roadside after heavy rains. Observe the action of small streams swollen after heavy rains. Is the water muddy? Where did the stream get the material which It carries? Where will this material settle? 3. Experiment to show the power of water and frost: Fill a glass bottle with water and cork It. Leave this out of doors overnight when the temperature Is below the freezing point. What happens to the bottle? What would you expect to see happen when water freezes In the cracks of rocks? 4. Observation of the work of earthworms: Earth- worms do most of their work at night. Notice that they come out of the ground after heavy rains. Look for worm casts on the ground In the morning. Is the soil In these casts finer or coarser than the soil In the ground? 5. If you live In a territory over which the Ice sheet passed, examine the glacial bowlders. Observe the grooves and scratches In the rocks. How were they made? 6. Experiment to show how water causes stratifica- tion by sorting and depositing the material: Put some soil Into a jar of water and shake vigorously. After It has stood awhile, observe that the coarser particles are at the bottom of the jar and the finer material on top. Place the following outline In your notebook for use In reviewing: SOIL FORMATION 1 r^ 1 . . £ .1 -1 i (0 Mineral matter from rocks. 1 . Lieneral origm or the soil \ /y^ r\ ■ ^^ c i ,. ° ( (z; Urganic matter rrom plants. 2. Soil-forming agents. fa. Wears the material. (1) Moving water ^ b. Carries the material. [c. Sorts and deposits the material. {a. Grinds the material, b. Carries the material, c. Deposits the material. (3) Heat and cold, especially in the presence of water. (4) Winds. (5) Earthworms, ants, and living animals. (6) Living plants. (7) Gases in the air and water. (8) Plants and animals decaying. REFERENCES Soils, Burkett. Physics of Agriculture, King. First Principles of Soil Fertility, Vivian, The Earthworm, Darwin. The Soil of the Farm, Scott and Morton. 10 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE CHAPTER II CLASSES OF SOILS Classes of Soils — Generally speaking, the different components of soils are sand, clay, and humus. Soils are known as sandy, clayey, humous, or loamy, according to the amount of each material they contain. Sandy Soils — When a large part of the soil consists of sand, it is said to be sandy. Sandy soils weigh more than other kinds.* They become warm rapidly; there" fore they can be worked early in the season. They can be cultivated easily, and they admit air and moisture readily. When very sandy, they are poor soils for growing most crops, because: L They do not contain enough plant food to supply the growing crops. 2. They absorb water rapidly, but they do not retain it; therefore the crops are apt to become dry and parched in times of drouth. 3. Because of their porous character they do not hold fertilizers well. The amount of fertilizer that passes through the soil and is lost depends upon whether the sand is fine or coarse, and whether the sandy top soil * The terms Light and Heavy, as applied to soils, have nothing whatever to do with their weight. Soils like sand that are easy to work are said to be light. Clay soils are hard to work, and are said to be heavy. CLASSES OF SOILS 11 has a subsoil of clay or of sand. If the subsoil is clay, the fertilizing materials do not pass through the top soil so readily. How to Improve Sandy Soils — Humus increases the ability of sandy soils to hold moisture, prevents the leach- ing of fertilizers, and is beneficial because of the plant food it contains. It can be supplied indirectly by green manuring; that is, by growing such crops as clover or peas and plowing them under; or it may be supplied by applying barnyard manure. Lime increases the moisture- holding capacity of sandy soils by causing the grains of sand to adhere to each other. Clay could be added to help retain the moisture, but its application is usually expensive. Clay Soils — Pure clay is composed of very fine soil particles packed closely together. Although it holds moisture for a long time, its compact nature prevents moisture and air from moving freely through it. Crops suffer on a soil containing too much clay, both in wet seasons and in dry seasons. In wet weather too much moisture is retained. In dry seasons baking causes the soil to become so hard that the roots of plants cannot penetrate it. Clay soils are difficult to work, because they are sticky when wet and hard when dry. How to Improve Clay Soils — We have seen that clay soils differ in character from sandy soils. Anything done 12 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE to make the soil warmer, to cause air and moisture to move freely through it, and to prevent its baking, will result in an improved condition. The addition of barnyard manure makes clay soils more porous, allowing air and moisture to move freely through them. Green manuring acts in the same way. The addition of lime causes clays to become more friable. All of these methods tend to keep the soil from baking. It should be remembered that the addition of humus will not improve wet clays unless they are properly drained. Humous Soils — Humus consists of partially decayed plants and animals. It is easily recognized by its dark color. Humous soils hold rather too much moisture, but they are fertile when properly drained. The addi- tion of coarse barnyard manure benefits this class of soils. Loamy Soils — A loam consists of a mixture of sand, clay, and humus. As these may be mixed in any pro- portion, there are several kinds of loams. It is con- venient to consider three classes of this type of soils; viz., loam, sandy loam, and clay loam. A loam contains about 50 per cent, of sand. A sandy loam consists of more than 60 per cent, of sand. A clay loam contains 30 per cent, of clay, or over. It should be remembered, however, that when a soil contains more than 60 per cent, of sand it is called sandy, and not loamy. In like manner. CLASSES OF SOILS a soil which is more than half clay is called a clay soil. Loams are good soils for the following reasons: 1 . They contain sand, which renders them warm and causes them to absorb moisture and air freely. 2. They contain clay, which renders them cool and prevents the moisture evaporating too rapidly. 3. They contain humus, which aids in retaining moisture, and, in the process of decomposition, furnishes food for plants. Limestone or Calcareous Soils contain about 20 per cent, of lime or over. Unless they contain too much lime, they are good soils, especially for raising grains and fruits. Limestone soils are easily worked. Alkali Soils are found chiefly in the arid regions in the western United States. They are so called because they contain a large amount of salts of various kinds. Such soils are unproductive for most crops until the salts are washed out by irrigation and drainage. Sugar-producing plants require large quantities of alkali. The growing of such plants on alkali soils is recommended. Sugar beets, sorghum, onions, asparagus, sweet clover, pears, and figs grow well on alkali soils. The Best Soil for general purposes contains sand, clay, humus, and lime in proper proportions. As few farms contain each of these materials in the right proportion, the farmer has to consider what crops his land is best 14 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE fitted for, as well as how to improve the condition of the land. EXERCISES AND EXPERIMENTS 1 . Examine some dry sand, dry clay, and dry humus. Notice the size, shape, and color of the grains in each. Moisten each of these soils and see which can be molded into a definite shape the best. Which soil remains crumbly? 2. Put a couple of handfuls of soil into a glass jar, pour on some water, and shake vigorously. Let the jar stand awhile. The sand settles at the bottom of the jar; some of the clay settles on top of the sand, while some of the finest clay is held in the water, making it look roily; some humus may be seen floating on top of the water. Try this with various soils and estimate the parts that are sand, clay, and humus. 3. Experiment to show how alkali salts gather on the surface of a soil in the form of a crust: Place a handful of salt in the bottom of a glass tumbler, fill the tumbler with sand, pour water on the sand, and set the tumbler aside in the sunshine. What happens when the water evaporates? 4. Experiment to show what portion of the soil is humus and what portion is mineral matter: Dry the soil thoroughly. After it is dry, heat it red-hot over the flames of a fire. The humus will burn. The portion CLASSES OF SOILS 15 of the soil that does not burn is mineral matter. Test equal amounts of various soils to see which contains the most humus in relation to the mineral matter.* Make an outline of each kind of soil to show the composition, characteristics, defects, and the ways of improving each. REFERENCES Soils, Buikett. The Soil of the Farm, Scott and Morton. First Principles of Soil Fertility, Vivian. Chemistry of the Farm, Warrington. Manures: How to Make and How to Use Them, Sempers. The Physical Properties of Soils, McCall. *The amount of film water is so small that it may be disregarded in this experiment. 16 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE CHAPTER III WATER IN THE SOIL Water Necessary for Plant Growth — Plants cannot live without food and water. The water containing soluble plant food is taken from the soil by the plant roots and passes through the plant to the leaves, where a great deal of it evaporates. For every pound of vegetation produced, from 100 to 600 pounds of water are required. The evaporation of the water from the surface of the land is also considerable. The question of water supply m the soil, then, becomes one of great importance. Kinds of Moisture in the Soil — There are three classes of water in the soil; viz., free water, capillary water, and film or hygroscopic water. Free Water — The water contained between the soil particles, which would drain away if it had a chance to do so, is called free water, or ground water. A hole dug in soil containing free water will be partly filled up by the free water, and the height to which the water rises in the hole will indicate the height of the free water in the soil. The upper surface of the free water is called the water table. It is the free water which supplies springs and wells. Capillary Water — If you place one end of a glass tube of small bore and open at both ends in a dish of water, WATER IN THE SOIL 17 act in the therefore in the soi the water inside the tube will rise above the water level in the dish. The small spaces between the soil particles same way as the space in the tube; the water will pass from space to space Welter level ^Iways moving from a \r\ tube. moist to a dry portion. Water level t .i • l -ii in dish. In the same way mk will rise in a strip of blotting paper, and oil through a lamp-wick. The force which causes liquids to pass through porous substances in this manner is called capillarity, or capillary attraction. Plants depend Fig. 6. Water Rising in Tube ^p^j^ ^\^q capillary Water of the soil y api ary ttraction ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^.^ Water SUpply. YoU can see the water rise in the soil by capillary attraction if you will perform the following experiment: Place a lamp chimney on a blotter in a saucer. Fill the chimney with dry soil, and pour some water in the saucer. Observe the water rise through the soil. Film or Hygroscopic Water is a very thin layer of water around each soil particle. It will pass off as steam if the soil is heated to a high temperature. Various Uses of Soil Moisture— 1. Some of the food materials cannot be used by growing plants until they are changed by chemical processes. The presence of moisture aids greatly in these chemical processes. 18 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 2. Plants cannot take up solid foods, but can take up foods in solution. Water dissolves plant foods. 3. The water carries the dissolved plant foods to the various parts of the plant. 4. Some of the water is used by plants to build up the plant tissues. 5. The water regulates the temperature of the soil. Capacity of Soils for Moisture — When the spaces between the soil particles are completely filled with water, the air is kept out of the soil; therefore the plants will die — as is commonly said, they drown. When there is a lack of water in the soil, the plants are not only unable to obtain moisture, but their roots cannot obtain the necessary plant food, because the food materials must be taken up in solution. It is supposed that crops suffer whenever the soil contains more moisture than one-half or less than one- fifth of the capacity of the spaces between the soil particles. What Can Be Done in Case of Too Little Moisture in the Soil — The lack of moisture in the soil is due to one or more of the following conditions: 1. Insufficient rainfall. 2. Too great percolation. 3. Evaporation. 4. Transpiration. WATER IN THE SOIL 19 Insufficient Rainfall — By irrigation, crops can be grown where there is little or no rainfall. The various systems of irrigation will be discussed later. Percolation is the term given to the passing of the free water downward through the soil. It is greatest in coarse-grained soils. There is an immense amount Fig. 7. Water in the Soil a, rain water percolating through the soil ; b. water rising by capillarity ; c, evaporation taking place at the surface ; d. evaporation prevented by a mulch of difference in the percolation of water in coarse-grained soils having coarse-grained subsoils, and in those having fine-grained subsoils. If a sandy soil has a subsoil of clay, the water does not pass downward as rapidly as 20 . SCHOOL AGRICULTURE it would if the subsoil were of sand or gravel. Per- colation can be prevented to a certain extent by adding clay, humus, barnyard manure, or by green manuring. Evaporation not only causes the ground to become dry, but it causes the soil to become cold. For this and other reasons the farmer desires to prevent it as much as possible. Evaporation is greatest when there is a high temperature, when the air is dry, when there are dry winds, and in coarse soils. It can be lessened by adding humus, clay, or manure. Shallow tillage with a fine- toothed cultivator greatly hinders evaporation. In this case the water rises by capillarity until it reaches the loose cultivated soil on top, through which it does not readily pass. Transpiration — Much of the water taken up by the plant is given off by the leaves. This transpiration of water, as it is called, is large, but varies in various plants. Sunlight and dry weather are conditions which make transpiration rapid. In some sections of the country there is not enough rainfall to supply a succession of crops with water; hence a system of farming known as dry-farming is followed. This is merely a way of saving moisture that plants would otherwise transpire for the use of future vegeta- tion. In dry farming, plants are grown one year, and the second year the land is allowed to lie idle. Although WATER IN THE SOIL 21 no crops are raised during the second year, surface tillage is followed in order to save the moisture already in the soil and that which is added by rains during the year. Crops are grown the third year. It will be seen that where this system is followed the rainfall of two or more years can be used for producing one crop. Too Much Moisture in the Soil — Lands that are low frequently have too much moisture on account of water running on them from higher lands, or the presence of springs, or floods which do not drain off on account of the compact nature of the soil. The only satisfactory way of treating such soils is to drain them. EXERCISES AND EXPERIMENTS 1 . (a) Place the same amount of dry sand, dry clay, and dry loam in separate tin cans. Slowly pour water on each until the spaces between the soil particles are completely filled. Which soil has the most space between its particles? (b) Punch holes in the bottom of each tin can and let the water drain off. Which soil retains the most water? Which retains the least? 2. Mold some sand, some clay that is slightly moist, and some clay that is very moist, into any shape and dry in the sun. Describe the condition of each in regard to baking. Would you plow a clay field when it is wet? Why, or why not? 22 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 3. Perform Experiment 1 with sand mixed with clay. How does the addition of clay affect the capacity of the soil for moisture? Does the soil retain more or does it retain less moisture after the clay is added? Mix humus with sand and note results in the same manner. 4. Mix some cut grass or leaves with sand and with clay. Pour on water and observe how the addition of the cut grass affects each in regard to absorption and retention of the water. Dry the mixture of cut grass and clay in the sun and notice how it bakes in comparison with clay without the grass. Then, what are some of the effects of green manuring on clay soils? On sandy soils? Have you seen green manuring used? What results did you observe? 5. Experiment to show the three kinds of soil water: Fill with sand a tin can having several holes in the bottom. (a) Saturate the sand with water. The water that runs off through the holes in the can is free water, (b) After the water ceases to drip from the can, remove the soil and weigh it. Spread it out to dry in a large dish. After it is thoroughly dried in the air, weigh it again. The loss of water due to evaporation is indicated by the loss of weight. The water that evaporated was the capillary water. WATER IN THE SOIL 23 (c) The film water is now around each soil par- ticle and can be removed by heating the soil at a temperature high enough to cause the water to pass off as steam. 6. Experiment to show how shallow cultivation affects the evaporation of water in the soil: Place two lamp chimneys in saucers and fill each with the same amount of moist soil. Be careful that the soil in each lamp chimney is of the same kind. Pack the surface of the soil in one lamp chimney at the beginning of the experiment, and stir the surface of the other frequently. At the end of several days weigh each soil and notice which has lost the most moisture. Fill the blanks in the following outline. Place your completed outline in a notebook for use in reviewing. WATER IN THE SOIL . CO) 1. Kinds of water in the soIl-< (2) 1(3) (1) To aid in chemical processes. 2. Uses of water in the soil< (2) (3) (4) X5) 3. Why do plants die when too much moisture is present in the soil? 4. Why do plants die when too little moisture is present in the soil? 24 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 5. What can the farmer do to improve his crops under the following conditions: (1) When the rainfall is insufficient (2) When percolation is great (3) When evaporation is great (4) When too much moisture is present in the soil REFERENCES Physics of Agriculture, King. How Crops Feed, Johnson. The Physical Properties of Soils, McCall. Soils, Burkett. DRAINAGE 25 CHAPTER IV DRAINAGE Why Important — In order to produce cultivated crops, land must be drained, either naturally or artificially. Although a large amount of land has been converted into farms by proper systems of drainage, thousands of acres, now useless, will make productive farms when drained. Various Benefits of Drainage — 1. Drainage deepens the top soil and the subsoil by removing the surplus water. 2. It improves the texture by causing sticky soils to crumble and become porous. On this account air is freely admitted. 3. Plants stand drouth better in a drained soil because their roots can go deeper than in an undrained soil where the water table is near the surface. 4. Drainage helps to warm the soil. In an undrained soil, a large portion of the sun's heat is used to warm the unnecessary water contained between the particles of soil. When a soil is drained, the soil particles get the benefit of this heat; consequently the frost goes out of the ground earlier in the spring than from undrained soils. 26 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Fig. 8. Land Needing Drainage 5. A well-drained soil favors the growth of certain bacteria which change the nitrogen of the soil into nitrate salts. In this form the nitrogen is available for plant use. 6. Seeds will germinate better in a drained than in an undrained soil, because they will not rot. What Soils Need Draining — Compact soils like clay, and some of those having compact subsoils, need artificial draining, especially if they are low. All soils where the water table comes too near the surface should be drained. Water standing upon the surface of the land for long periods indicates the necessity of drainage. Soils pro- ducing water plants have too much moisture and should DRAINAGE 27 be drained. Water running in the furrow when the land is being plowed is an indication that drainage is necessary. What Soils Can Be Drained — All soils can be drained except those whose surface level is too near the level of the water in the outlet streams. For instance, a piece of land lying only a foot above the water level of a lake or a river draining it, is too low for artificial drainage. Land lying several feet above such a river or a lake can be drained. Kinds of Drains — All drains can be included under two classes; open drains, and underground drains. Open Drains are nothing more than ditches. The expense of digging such drains is considerable, because they must be made wide at the top. They take up too Fig. 9. A Large Open Drain 28 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE much valuable space, are in the way of cultivating implements, and are likely to become clogged. On account of these defects, open drains are not well suited to cultivated lands, but they are valuable for draining the surface water from marshes. To avoid caving in, they may be dug with sloping sides. Underground Drains, as the name indicates, are laid so the water channel is beneath the ground. Tile drainage is the best system of underground draining. Although the first cost is considerable, tile drains are cheap in the long run because of their lasting qualities. They are out of the way, the water flows through them freely, and they are not likely to become clogged. They present difficulties, however, when laid in muck soils, because the shrinkage of the soil moves the tile out of place. Open drains are best for such soils. Laying Underground Drains — Underground drains must be placed deep enough to be out of the way of Fig. 10. Drain Tile in Trench Ready for Covering DRAINAGE 29 plant roots and below the frost line. They must have a gentle slope. The distance apart the drains should be laid depends upon the character of the soil and the depth at which they can be placed. The tile used should be in good condition, and the ends should be placed close together. After the tiles are laid, there is always danger of the fine soil working through the joints and obstructing the drain before the ground settles. To guard against this, the joints are usually covered with cloth, or tarred building-paper. EXERCISES AND EXPERIMENTS 1. Experiment to show the effect of drainage on the germination of seeds: Fill two cans with the same kind of soil. Punch small holes in the bottom of one to let off the surplus water; the other can should have a water- tight bottom. Plant seeds in both, and at frequent intervals pour the same amount of water on each. Enough water should be added to keep the soil in the tight can very wet. Which seeds sprout first? Do the others sprout later, or do they decay? 2. Experiment to show the effect of drainage on the growth of plants: Set out some small plants in two cans of soil prepared as in Experiment I. After a time notice their condition. 3. Put some clay soil into two cans and keep it quite moist. In one set out a few corn plants about 2 inches 30 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE high; in the other set out some grass plants about the same height. After several days, notice which grows the better. If you had some wet clay land, would you grow corn or grass? 4. Experiment to show the effect of drainage on alkali soils: In Experiment 3, Chapter II, after the salt gathers on the surface, pour a continual stream of water on the soil for a while. What becomes of the salt? 5. Do you know of any land in your locality that needs draining? Could this land be drained? What effects would you expect to see from draining it? Fill in the following outline, and place it in your notebook for use in reviewing. DRAINAGE 1. Benefits of drainage < r(i) (2) (3) (4) (5) 1(6) 2. Things indicating the need of drainage 3. Lands that can be drained. 4. Kinds of drains \ S^C x t^ j"* , ( {Z) Underground. (1) Water standing on the surface. (2) -(3) DRAINAGE 31 r(a) They take up too much room. (1) Defects^ (b) 1(c) (2) Where open drains should be used 5. Open drains 6. Tile drains -< r(a) (1) Advantages of tile drains J ^ ^ _ 1(d) .:::i:::;: (2) Disadvantage of tile drains in muck soils. REFERENCES Farm Drainage, French. Drainage for Profit, Waring. Land Drainage, Miles. First Principles of Soil Fertility, Vivian. Soils, Burkett. 32 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Figure 1 1 Water Diverted from Stream as Needed Figure 12 Diversion of a Small Stream Into a Reservoir IRRIGATION • 33 CHAPTER V IRRIGATION Irrigation Necessary — In some of the dry western sections of the United States irrigation is absolutely necessary. It also pays to irrigate in some places where the rainfall is considerable. It is especially advantageous to irrigate where fruit is grown. A drouth at the time the fruit is nearing maturity always results in a loss. Things to Be Considered Before Irrigating — Before choosing a system of irrigation, we should consider the following: 1. The lay of the land, the character of the soil, and the kind of crops that can be grown the best. 2. Taking these into consideration, it is essential to plan on the amount of water the land will require. 3. The location of the water supply. 4. The expense. The Water Supply — The water may be obtained from streams, springs, lakes, wells, or storms. Water from streams is in common use. Sometimes it is simply turned aside into the irrigation ditches as needed. This is a poor method, because the stream may be low when the water is most needed. A much better plan is to store the 34 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE water in a reservoir, where it can be kept until it is wanted. Water from lakes and wells, as a rule, is pumped into reservoirs. The Reservoir should be above the land to be irrigated and as near to it as possible. Sometimes the small farmer can make reservoirs large enough to supply his farm; but the larger ones take so much capital that the co-operation of several individuals is usually necessary to build one. Frequently a stream bed can be converted into a reservoir by the construction of a dam, but there is apt to be a loss from leakage, and damage may result Fig. 13. Division Box IRRIGATION 35 Fig. 14. Check System of Irrigation from storms. It Is better to have the reservoir located out of the course of the stream, as shown in Figure 1 2. Preparation of the Land — In order that the land may be watered easily and properly, the surface should be prepared so it will have the correct slope. The cost of preparing the land for this purpose will be repaid manyf old in a few seasons. How the Water Is Carried — The water from the reservoir, or from the source of supply, is led to the various parts of the land through slightly sloping pipes, flumes, or ditches. Where there are hills and ravines to cross, the ditches may have to be made winding in order to avoid too great a slope. The water from the main ditch is turned into the side ditches by means of a division box, or a similar device. 36 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Systems of Irrigation — There are several systems of irrigation, each of which has its advantages. In choosing a system, we should decide in favor of the one that will distribute the moisture evenly to a good depth without too much expense, or too much waste of water. Flooding — The simplest form of irrigation is that in which the whole piece of land to be irrigated is flooded from the ditches until it is covered with water. This method is best suited for grains and grasses. Its prin- cipal defects are that it requires considerable work to handle the water, and that it is difficult to distribute the water evenly over the surface of the field. It Is being replaced, to a large extent, by the check method. The Check System is popular at present and has given satisfaction where other systems have failed. Low levees are made so the field is divided into plots, each plot being surrounded by a levee less than 1 foot in height. First one plot is flooded, then another, and so on. The Depressed Bed System is used in growing shallow- rooted plants, such as small fruits and vegetables. It can be used to the best advantage In light soils. This system is much like the check method, but the levees are wider and the ditches carrying the water are made in the top of them. The Raised Bed System — A system of irrigation known as the raised bed system is sometimes used for IRRIGATION 37 small fruits and vegetables in heavy soils. The ditches for carrying the water are lower than the surface of the beds. The Furrow System is widely used where the crops are grown in rows. The water is led from the main ditch through furrows which are made between the rows. Fig. 15. Depressed Bed System How to Save Soil Moisture — After the soil is irrigated, the moisture should be prevented from evaporating by shallow cultivation. Excessive Irrigation — Over-irrigation should be avoided. The application of an excessive amount of water to a soil containing alkali salts causes the salts to be washed from the higher to the lower soils, where they accumulate. On this account irrigated lands must be well drained. EXERCISES AND EXPERIMENTS 1. Observe whether there would be any advantage in irrigating your section of the country. Would it be 38 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE a benefit to your farm or other farms in your locality? When have you seen crops suffer for lack of moisture? What crops in particular? Do you regard irrigation as necessary in your locality or simply an aid in dry seasons? Fig. 16. Irrigating a Field Is there sufficient rainfall in your locality during the fruiting season? 2. Observe whether it would be possible to irrigate your farm. Where would you obtain the water? Is the source of supply higher than the land, or would the water* have to be pumped? Where would you wish to have the reservoir located? Would you prefer a IRRIGATION 39 reservoir for this farm only, or would you prefer one large enough to supply several farms? 3. If there is an irrigation system in your locality, visit it. Draw a map showing the source of water supply, the location of the reservoir, and the manner in which the water is led to the farm. 4. Draw a map of a farm in your locality, with plans for irrigation. Show the source of water supply, where you would place the reservoir, and how you would lead the water to the farm. After your teacher has examined the map, place it in your notebook. Make a review outline of this chapter by using the following: IRRIGATION 1 . Things to be considered J (2) before irrigating | (3) 1(4) r(l) The lay of the land. k2^ 2. Sources of water supply < (1) Streams. (2) (3) (4) (5) (1) Direct from streams. Disadvantages of. 3. How water may be used^ (2) From reservoirs. Advantages of... 40 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE (1) In stream bed. Disadvantages. 4. Location of reservoirs < 5. Ditches. Use (2) Out of stream's course. Advantages (I) 6. Systems of irrigation^ (3) (4) L(5) 7. Where each system may be used to the best advantage (1) Flooding system, for grains and grasses. (2) (3) (4) .(5) or- • • • ^- f (0 Danger of 8. Excessive irrigation | ^2) Remedy REFERENCES Irrigation Farming, Wilcox. Irrigation for the Farmer, Stewart. Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Wilcox and Smith. First Principles of Soil Fertility, Vivian. TILLAGE 41 CHAPTER VI TILLAGE What Is Meant by Tillage — Tillage is the stirring and breaking up of the soil by the use of plows, harrows, cultivators, or other implements. Open or general tillage covers the entire ground; intertillage covers only the ground between the plants. Purposes of Tillage — Some of the purposes of tillage are: 1. To loosen and pulverize the soil. 2. To bury manure, stubble, and rubbish. 3. To expose the soil to the action of the air and the weather. 4. To increase the amount of plant food. 5. To dry the soil. 6. To save the soil moisture. 7. To destroy weeds. 8. To destroy insects. 9. To cover the seeds. Various Ways of Plowing — Sometimes in plowing the furrow-slice is turned completely over so that it lies flat in the bottom of the furrow. This is apt to be the case when a plow having a moldboard with a gradual turn is used. Except in cases of light soils, or where heavy 42 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE sod is to be turned under, this flat-furrow system of plowing should not be used, because it does not suffi- ciently pulverize the soil. In lap-furrow plowing the furrow-slice is not turned completely over, but slightly laps over the one preceding it. This leaves large air spaces beneath the furrows, but it does not pulverize the soil as should be done. Fig. 17. Furrow Slices That Are Too Flat While the herbage is covered, the soil is pulverized poorly. It is not so good as it looks. The use of a plow having a bold moldboard; that is, a moldboard with a slight upward curve, results in loosening and pulverizing the soil. This kind of plowing leaves the soil with large air spaces. It is best for most soils. Grass and stubble can be turned under by use of the jointer, which is attached in place of the coulter. When to Plow — Sandy soils may be plowed when they are wet; but clay soils should not be plowed when wet. TILLAGE 43 because they are likely to puddle; that is, the particles of soil pack together so air is not readily admitted. Spring plowing is commonly done for most crops. It is an aid in drying and warming the soil. The object of spring plowing is to bring the soil into favorable condition for the CrODS. ^^§' '^" ^ ^°*^ Plow Fall plowing is sometimes done for the following reasons : 1 . It prepares the soil for the seeding of winter grains. 2. It destroys insects by bringing them to the surface after they become torpid. They are then exposed to the winter's cold. 3. It conserves the soil moisture. 4. It kills weeds. 5. It exposes the ground to the action of the air and the frost during the winter, leaving it in good condition for ab- sorbing rain and snow. 6. Some crops, such as spring wheat, need Fig. 19. A Stirring Plow compact Soils. Fall plowing allows the soil to settle before the spring crops are planted. 44 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 7. Fall plowing makes heavy soils mellow. Summer plowing is sometimes done to turn under green manures. Depth to Plow — As a rule, it is best to plow deeply, especially for root crops. The depth should be gradually increased, however, and not increased too much at a time, because in that case too large an amount of subsoil may be brought to the sur- face at once. The air and the water do not get time to act on this soil before the crops are planted. As a result, the crops cannot get sufficient plant food. On some sandy soils where the plant food is contained in a few inches of the top soil, it is not best to plow deeply. The Easiest Way to Plow — The nearer the horses are hitched to the load the easier they can haul it. In plowing, the horses should be hitched as close to the plow as possible without striking their heels. Many people are in the habit of adjusting the plow to the right depth by means of the beam- wheel. This should not be done. The plow should be adjusted by use of the Fig. 20, Plowing Which Pulverizes the Soil The best kind of plowing for most soils TILLAGE 45 clevis until it runs at the right depth. The height of the beam-wheel can then be regulated until it runs lightly on the ground. If the furrow turns over too flat, the plow cuts too wide; if it stands on edge, it is too narrow. The width of the furrow can easily be regulated by moving the clevis to the left or to the right, as the case may be. When the plow is properly adjusted, it should run without holding; that is, if the plow is a good one, and if there are no obstructions in the soil. Harrowing — A large number of styles of harrows and drags are in use. The purpose of harrowing may be to pulverize the soil, to smooth the surface preparatory to planting seeds, to destroy weeds, or to cause a surface mulch to save the moisture. Rolling and Planking — Rolling makes a smooth surface by crushing the lumps of earth and by press- ing the small stones into the soil. This is especially desirable after seeding land to grass. Rolling the soil causes the capillary water to rise faster; therefore seeds germinate quickly. As moisture evaporates rapidly from the compressed surface of a rolled field, it is desirable to form a surface mulch by going over the ground with a fine-toothed harrow. Fig. 21. A Harrow 46 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Planking acts in the same way as rolling. It is done by dragging a number of overlapping planks across the ground. Compact soils, like clay, should be planked instead of rolled. . t ji^L^jF T\^^ ^^fmM '^^wSI^'^m~ ^^f'wf r'^m^ ^V ijWtlHFjk X^JP'^^S "" W-.M~.^ *"" -- «'m"* r^^^^^^^i om^-' h m ':^ Fig. 22. A Farm Roller Cultivating the Crop — Various kinds of cultivators are in use for intertillage, each being suited to a particular class of work. Some of the objects of cultivating are to kill the weeds, to pulverize the soil, to admit air into the soil, and to save the soil moisture. EXPERIMENTS 1. Experiment to prove that deep tillage aids in the evaporation of water in the stirred ground : Fill TILLAGE 47 two cans with the same kind of wet soil. Deeply stir one of them often. Let the other stand with- out stirring. Which of the cans loses the more moisture? 2. To prove that shallow cultivation helps to retain the moisture in the soil, perform Experiment 6, Chap- ter in. 3. Experiment to show the effect of deep plowing on poor sandy soils: Fill two boxes with poor, washed sand, and place about half an inch of humus on each. Stir the soil in one to a depth of an inch, and thoroughly stir the soil in the other to a depth of several inches. Plant some small seeds in each and watch their growth for several weeks. What would be the effect of plowing poor sandy soils to a depth of 7 or 8 inches when nearly all of the plant food is contained in the first 3 inches of top soil? 4. Experiment to show the effect of packing the soil on the germination of seeds: Plant some seeds outdoors in the garden, or inside in a box. Press the soil with a board in some places, and in others leave it loose. Where do the seeds come up first? Then, what would be the effect of rolling a loose soil ? How would you prevent too rapid evaporation from the surface of a packed soil? Make a review outline of this chapter by using the following as a guide: 48 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE TILLAGE L What is tillage?. 2. Purposes of tillage < (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (0) 3. Different ways of plowing <^ (2) 1(3) (1) Spring plowing — objects 4. Kinds of plowing (2) Fall plowing — objects (3) Summer plowing — objects \ 0) (2) 5. Purposes of harrowing < /^\ 1(4) :::::::::: f(i) (2) 6. Objects of cultivating the crop < q\ 1(4) Z REFERENCES Soil and Crops of the Farm, Morrow and Hunt. Soils, Burkett. First Principles of Soil Fertility, Vivian. Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture, Hopkins. PLANT FOODS 49 CHAPTER VII PLANT FOODS Food Materials Found in Plants — There are 13 plant- food materials* found in plants. Of these, phosphoric acid, potash, nitrogen, and lime are the only ones that become exhausted in the soil and have to be supplied. When Plant-food Materials Are Lacking — We can tell when there is a deficiency of plant foods by applying various materials to the soil in plots. Then we can see in which plot the plants grow the best, and judge where certain plant-food materials are needed. Fertilizing tests can be made in the same way by using boxes, as shown in Figure 23. We can tell by its appearance when a crop is starving for a certain food material if we know how that food material affects the growth of the plant. Of course, if other conditions are not favorable to plant growth, this might not be a sure test. Let us see how * The 13 elements found in plants are phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sodium, iron, silicon, chlorin, sulphur, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon. The plant must take the first nine of these from the soil in the form of salt compounds; for example, potassium must be taken in the form of a potash salt. The other four elements are secured as follows: (1) Nitrogen must be secured from the soil by all plants except the legumes. By the aid of certain bacteria, the legumes are able to use the free nitrogen of the air. (2) Hydrogen is taken from the water. (3) Oxygen is secured from the air and from the water. (4) Carbon is taken from the carbon dioxide of the air. 50 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE each of the substances mentioned affects the growth of plants and how each may be supplied. Nitrogen — The plant depends largely upon nitrogen for the growth of the stalks and the leaves. When this element is lacking, the plant will be a sickly yellow and will not grow to its proper size. All plants except those belonging to the clover family must get their supply of nitrogen from the soil. Nitrogen is also the most expen- SOLUBLE PHOSPHORIC ACID INSOLUBLE PHOSPHORIC ACID-FLORIDA PHOSPHATE Fig. 23. Testing the Effect of Plant-Food Materials on Potatoes sive element to buy in fertilizers; therefore it is important for the farmer to consider the best way of restoring it to the soil. It may be supplied to the soil in the following ways: 1. By adding barnyard manure. 2. By means of bacteria, plants belonging to the clover family (legumes) can make use of the free nitrogen of the air. As the air contains a large amount of nitrogen, this class of plants is abundantly supplied without using PLANT FOODS 51 the fixed nitrogen* of the soil. Owing to the fact that nitrogen is stored in the roots and the other parts of the legumes, these crops can be plowed under to supply nitrogen to the soil. The growing of clover is one of the cheapest ways of restoring nitrogen to the soil. 3. Commercial fertilizers containing nitrogen can be used. As a rule they are expensive. Fig. 24. Effect of Lime on Plants Yield of alfalfa from limed and unlimed soils, a, unlimed ; b, limed Phosphoric Acid — Plants must have phosphoric acid in order to produce perfect seeds. The seeds will be small and shrunken if there is a shortage of phosphoric acid. Phosphoric acid can be supplied to the soil by *By fixed nitrogen is meant nitrogen combined with other materials in the form of compounds. 52 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Fig. 25. The Waste of Barnyard Manure applying barnyard manure, or phosphoric acid fertilizers. Barnyard manure is usually the cheaper Potash — Fruits and root crops require a considerable amount of potash. Without a good supply of potash, roots and fruits will be small and imperfect. Potash may be added to the soil by applying barnyard manure, unleached wood ashes, or commercial fertilizers. Lime — Plants that do not get enough lime grow spin- dling and do not produce much seed. The stalks of grain plants on soils deficient in lime are slender and weak. Lime aids greatly in forming stout stalks and luxuriant foliage. Lime is usually present in the soil in sufficient amounts, but sometimes it has to be added. It is generally applied for other reasons than that of serving as plant food. Some of these are: PLANT FOODS 53 1. It aids In decaying humus, thus forming more available plant food. 2. It benefits acid soils by destroying the acids. 3. It makes the soil more mellow. Lime can be added to the soil by applying marl, land plaster, or various other fertilizers, which can be pur- chased. Some plants, however, are injured by the application of lime. Watermelons do not seem to grow well when there is much lime in the soil. Value of Barnyard Manure — As barnyard manure con- tains nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, it is an excel- lent fertilizer. It also causes the soil to retain the proper amount of moisture, and improves the soil- texture. As the value of barnyard manure is considerable, the farmer should take good care of it, and not allow it to go to waste* EXERCISES AND EXPERIMENTS 1 . Spade up a piece of ground and divide it into three plots, as shown in the diagram. Apply some manure to the surface of the first plot, but do not mix it with 1 2 3 Fig. 26. Arrangement of Plots for Experiment 1 the soil. On the second add the same amount of manure to the square foot as you did on the first, but mix it with the soil. Leave the last plot without manure. 54 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Plant the same kind of crop in each plot and notice how the addition of the manure affects the growth of the crop. 2. Experiment to show the effect of potash on root crops: Prepare the ground in the way suggested in the preceding experiment. Supply potash by applying wood ashes. Plant some root crops, such as carrots, beets, or radishes, and notice where they grow the best. 3. Observe whether there are any places on your farm that would be benefited by the application of manure, or other fertilizers. How can you tell? Is any manure on your farm wasted? If so, how can this waste be prevented? If not, how is the waste prevented? Make an outline by using the following suggestions: 1 State what plant foods are sometimes wanting in the soil. 2. How does each food material affect the growth of the plant? 3. Tell how plants, or parts of the plants, appear under the following conditions: (1) When nitrogen is lacking. (2) When lime is lacking. (3) When there is a deficiency of potash. (4) When there is a shortage of phosphoric acid 4. State how each of these materials may be added to the soil. 5. How does lime benefit the soil? 6. Mention three plant-food materials found in barnyard manure. REFERENCES Soils, Burkett. Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Wilcox and Smith. How Crops Grow, Johnson. First Principles of Soil Fertility, Vivian. Fertilizers and Crops, Van Slyke. Talk on Manures, Harris. HOW THE LEGUMES HELP THE FARMER 55 CHAPTER VIII HOW THE LEGUMES HELP THE FARMER Legumes Restore Nitrogen to the Soil — Carefully dig up a thrifty clover plant and examine its roots. The small bunches which you see on the roots are called nodules or tubercles. They are the homes of millions of bacteria, which take nitrogen from the air. All the legumes, which are such plants as clovers, beans, peas,vetches, lentils, and alfalfa, have these tuber- cles on their roots. The roots, stems, leaves, and seeds of the legumes are rich in nitrogen. As the roots and tubercles de- cay, they add nitrogen to the soil. Even if the farmer uses the tops of the plants to feed the stock, the soil will be richer in nitrogen than it was before the legumes were planted. Legumes Take Some Plant Foods from the Soil — Although legumes having tubercles on their roots get Fig. 27. Roots of Soy Bean, Showing Tubercles 56 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE their supply of nitrogen from the air, and add nitrog- enous matter to the soil, they get potash and phosphoric acid from the soil. Because of this the soil may become poor in potash and phosphoric acid, even while becoming rich in nitrogen compounds. This is especially true if the legumes are cut for hay year after year; therefore it may be necessary to see that potash and phosphoric acid plant foods are supplied to the soil. Inoculation of Legumes — The value of the legumes in restoring nitrogen to the soil is due to the bacteria con- Fig. 28, Clover Growing in Uninoculated and Inoculated Soils a, uninoculated; b, inoculated tained in the tubercles on the roots. Without these bacteria the legumes can get their nitrogen from the soil only. When the bacteria are absent, the legumes do not grow well and they exhaust the soil of its nitrogen. On this account it is sometimes necessary to supply bacteria. HOW THE LEGUMES HELP THE FARMER 57 Bacteria for this purpose may be secured from the United States Department of Agriculture. When the soil is supplied with the bacteria it is said to be inoculated. Poor Soils and Clover — Clover will grow on soils which are very poor in nitrogen. Clover growing is called the "key to success" on sandy jack-pine lands. The growing of legumes is absolutely necessary on such lands if the farmer would sucteed. EXERCISES AND EXPERIMENTS 1 . Examine the roots of clover, beans, peas, vetches, and alfalfa. What difference in the size of the tubercles do you notice? 2. Inoculate some clover. 3. Make a list of the legumes grown in your locality. Make a brief summary of this chapter by answering the following questions: 1. Of what benefit are legumes to the soil? 2. What plant-food materials do legumes require from the soil? How can these plant foods be supplied to the soil? 3. Under what conditions are the legumes able to use the nitrogen from the air? 4. Under what conditions will the legumes take the nitrogen from the soil? 5. How can nitrogen-fixing bacteria be supplied when lacking? 6. Upon what soils is it especially necessary to grow clover, and why? REFERENCES Soils, Burkett. Clovers and How to Grow Them, Shaw, First Principles of Soil Fertility, Vivian. 58 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE CHAPTER IX SOIL EXHAUSTION AND CROP ROTATION How the Soil Becomes Exhausted — The table at the end of this chapter shows that tobacco takes a large amount of nitrogen and potash from the soil. If a farmer raises tobacco on the same piece of land for several successive years, the soil will become exhausted of these plant foods. We also notice that wheat would finally exhaust the soil of nitrogen; but wheat requires less nitrogen and less phosphoric acid than tobacco; therefore it is not so hard on the soil. On the other hand, butter removes only a small portion of each plant food. A farmer removes more nitrogen from his farm by selling one pound of tobacco than he would by selling 40 pounds of butter. What the Successful Farmer Should Do — A farmer to be successful must keep his land from being exhausted, and at the same time he must raise crops that will bring him a good financial return. For these reasons, dairying and crop rotation should be considered. Dairying — When a farmer goes into the dairy business, he grows considerable grass and other kinds of food for his live stock. A large portion of the elements that the feed contains is returned to the soil in the shape of manure. SOIL EXHAUSTION AND CROP ROTATION 59 The manure also increases the humus in the soil. On account of these facts, dairying is easy on the land. Moreover, if clover or other legumes are raised, nitrogen will be added to the soil. Many farmers have gone into the dairy business because they have found that it does not exhaust the soil as it does to raise grain crops for sale. What Crop Rotation Is — Suppose that we grow corn this year. If you will look at the table at the end of Fig. 29. A Crop on an Exhausted Soil the chapter, you will see that corn removes considerable nitrogen, some phosphoric acid, and a little potash. If we plant clover next year on the same piece of land, nitrogen will be restored to the soil, a small quantity of phosphoric acid will be removed, and a rather large 60 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE amount of potash. Now, at the end of the second year, let us see what we have done. We have removed crops for two years; we leave the soil with as much nitrogen as there was when we started; and if we add a small quantity of barnyard manure, there will be left a good supply of phosphoric acid and potash. Here, again, we see the advantage of the addition of manure, which means that if a farmer keeps live stock he will not have to pay out money for fertilizers. The system of following one crop by another that takes up different plant foods is called crop rotation. We have learned that a large portion of the plant foods in the soil is not available for plant use, but gradually becomes so. Crop rotation, with cultivation, aids greatly in increasing plant food for the succeeding crops. By using crop rotations and supplying manures, land can be farmed for years without becoming exhausted; in fact, it may be improved. The length of the roots of the various crops should also be considered in planning a system of rotation. For example, in the rotation just given, corn gets its food near the surface because it is shallow-rooted, while clover with its long roots gets its food farther below the surface. When one crop follows another one with roots of different length, it is easier on the soil than would be the case if both crops had roots of the same length. SOIL EXHAUSTION AND CROP ROTATION 61 Kinds of Crop Rotations — A crop rotation lasting three years is called a three-year rotation, one lasting four years a four-year rotation, and so on. Both systems are illus- trated in the following table. The farmer should be able to plan a system of rotation for his farm better than anyone else, being familiar with the conditions. He should usually plan to grow the following: (a) Some legumes to restore nitrogen to the soil. (b) Some crops for feeding live stock. (c) Some money crops for a cash income. (d) Cultivated crops for destroying weeds. EXAMPLES OF CROP ROTATIONS USED IN THE UNITED STATES Isl year 2nd year 3rd year 4th year 5th year 1 Potatoes Rye Clover 2 Corn Potatoes Rye Clover Clover 3 Corn Potatoes Wheat Clover 4 Corn Wheat Clover Clover 5 Corn Potatoes Clover Clover 6 Potatoes Wheat Clover Clover 7 Clover Corn Potatoes Turnips Wheat 8 Alfalfa Alfalfa Potatoes Wheat 9 Corn Tomatoes Clover Clover 10 Corn Sweet Potatoes Melons Clover 11 Broom corn Cowpeas Wheat 12 Corn Oats Cowpeas 13 Turnips Barley Clover Wheat 14 Sugar Beets Oats or Barley Clover Clover Wheat 15 Cotton Cowpeas and Clover Clover and Corn 16 Cowpeas Cotton Corn and Cowpeas 17 Corn-Clover Cotton-Wheat Cowpeas-Rye 62 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE The table on page 61 gives some of the systems of rotation in use in the United States. Each rotation is suited to certain conditions. For example, the first six are suitable for light soils, the seventh and fifteenth are good rotations where stock is kept, and the last three are suited to southern states, where crops can be grown both winter and summer. EXERCISES AND EXPERIMENTS 1. By using the tables at the end of this chapter, which show the amount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash removed from the soil, arrange the crops in order according to the amount of nitrogen removed. Place the crop that removes the most nitrogen first, the one that removes the next largest amount second, and so on. Represent each amount by drawing lines, letting each 1-16 inch in length represent one pound. For example, tobacco removes 43.8 pounds of nitrogen, and the line representing this amount would be about 2^^ inches long. Wheat removes 23.6 pounds of nitrogen, and the line representing this would be nearly 1 Vi inches long. Thus : Tobacco — 43.8 pounds nitrogen. Wheat — 23.6 pounds nitrogen. Make lines for the other crops. Show the amount of phosphoric acid and potash removed by the crops in the same way. Place these diagrams in your notebook. SOIL EXHAUSTION AND CROP ROTATION 63 2. Select from the table three rotations suitable for your section of the country. 3. Find out what crop rotations are used by some of your neighbors. Bring a list of these rotations to class for discussion. By using the diagrams you made, deter- mine whether the rotations are easy on the land or otherwise. Consider what fertilizing materials the farm- ers apply in each case. Can you improve any of the rotations. If so, how? 4. Dig up various plants and bring them to class. Classify them as deep feeders, medium feeders, and shallow feeders. SUMMARY 1. The soil becomes exhausted by planting the same crop year after year, and by not adding the necessary amount of fertilizers. 2. How to prevent soil exhaustion: (1) Do not grow the same crops, or crops using large quantities of the same plant foods, on the same piece of land for several successive years. (2) Restore nitrogen to the soil by growing legumes. (3) Restore potash, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen by applying barnyard manure. (4) If necessary, add commercial fertilizers. 3. In planning a system of rotation, we must consider the following: 64 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE (1) The kind of soil. (2) The crops that must be raised to feed the stock. (3) The crops that must be sold as money crops. (4) The crops that should be raised for restoring nitrogen to the soil. (5) The amount of manure or fertilizers that can be added. ELEMENTS REMOVED FROM THE SOIL BY 1000 POUNDS OF VARIOUS CROPS Nitrogen Phosphoric Acid Potash ~ Crops (pounds) (pounds) (pounds) Corn 18.2 7.0 4.0 Tobacco 43.8 5.0 7.3 Red Clover 4.0 22.0 Wheat 23.6 7.9 5.0 Beet (common) 2.4 0.9 4.4 Sugar Beet 2.2 1.0 4.8 Oats 20.6 8.2 6.2 Barley 15.1 7.9 4.8 Peas 8.2 9.9 Potatoes 3.2 1.2 4.6 Beef 22.0 15.5 1.8 Milk 5.3 1.9 1.8 Butter 1.0 0.6 0.3 REFERENCES Soils, Burkett. Fertilizers, Van Slyke. Talks on Manure, Harris. Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture, Hopkins. Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Wilcox and Smith. First Principles of Soil Fertility, Vivian. THE SEED AND GERMINATION 65 CHAPTER X THE SEED AND GERMINATION Structure of the Seed — Soak some beans in water over- night. Remove the thin coat which covers the seed and observe the two halves, each of which is called a coty- ledon. If you will carefully separate the cotyledons and examine the inner sur- PLUMULE CAULICLE COTYLEDON Fig. 30. Cotyledons of Bean face of each, you will find a small stem and a pair of little leaves clinging to one of them. The bud, composed of the little leaves, will de- velop into the top of the bean plant. This bud is called the plumule. The little stem is called the caulicle. Plumule, caulicle, and cotyledons, in the case of the bean, make up the embryo or young plant. In some kinds of seeds the cotyledons are not part of the embryo. The Pea — Examine some soaked peas. Compare the cotyledons of the pea with those of the bean in regard to shape. Examine the plumule with a magnifying glass. You will not be able to see the leaves distinctly until the plant grows some. 66 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE The Pumpkin Seed — Examine some pumpkin seeds. Compare the outer coat with that of the bean in regard to color, hardness, and thickness. Compare the coty- ledons with those of bean and pea. The Corn — Observe both sides of the kernel. What difference do you notice? Compare the coat with the coats of the seeds you have studied in regard to color, thick- ness, and hardness. Cut through a soaked kernel of corn so you will have a section the narrow way of the kernel as shown in Figure 31. The part of the kernel to the right of the diagonal line in the illustration is the cotyledon. When you examine the section which you made of the kernel, lift up the plumule and the caulicle with the point of a knife. The leaves of the plumule are rolled up. They can be seen better in a seed that has sprouted. The part to the left of the diagonal line in the illustration is not part of the cotyledon. It is food stored up for the use of the young growing plant. Germination is the early growth of the young plant. It is sometimes spoken of as the sprouting of the seed. PLUMULE CAULICLE Fie. 31. Section of a Kernel of C( The subject of germination is of especial importance to THE SEED AND GERMINATION 67 the farmer. Frequently seeds do not germinate because they are too old, or because of unfavorable conditions of temperature, moisture, or soil. It is easy to test seeds to make sure that they are suitable for planting. For convenience in testing seeds a germinator is used. How to Make a Germinator — When seeds are planted in the fields, they germinate in the soil. Sometimes seeds are germinated in hotbeds. Convenient germina- tors can be made by filling boxes with sawdust or with moss. A good germinator can be made from two dinner plates and a few sheets of blotting paper. Several sheets of blotting paper are placed on the lower plate, and the seeds are laid between them. Small seeds may be Fig. 32. A Plate Germinator germinated on top of the blotters. The blotters are moistened and covered with a plate turned bottom side up to keep them from drying. Conditions Necessary for Germination — The three conditions necessary for germination are: 1. A moderate supply of moisture. 2. A proper amount of warmth. 68 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE that these 3. A certain amount of air. You can perform experiments to prove conditions are necessary for germination. To prove that moisture is necessary: Put seeds in two germinators of the same kind, say radish or cabbage seed, wheat, oats, or corn. Keep the material surround- ing the seeds moist in one and dry in the other. What results do you observe at the end of a few days? To prove that warmth is necessary: Put seeds in two germinators of the same kind. Place one in a room where the temperature is kept at 70 degrees; place the other where it is as low as 40, if possible. At the end 3y of the sixth day, notice how many seeds have germinated in each case. Some seeds require higher temperature for germination than oth- ers. For instance, corn germinates best when the temperature is about 80 degrees, and maple seeds will germinate when the temperature is near the freezing point. To prove that air is necessary: Plant seeds in two glass fruit-jars filled with moist sand. Fasten the cover Fig. 33. Red Clover Seeds Mixed with Yellow Trefoil ed clover seeds; b, seeds of yellow trefoil THE SEED AND GERMINATION 69 on one so it will be air tight. Don't put the cover on the other. After several days, compare the results. Vitality of Various Seeds — The farmer should test the vitality of seeds in order to make sure they will grow after they are planted. You can test the vitality of various seeds by placing a certain number of them in plate germinators and observing how many will sprout. Each day determine the percentage of the seeds that have germinated. Keep the results in your notebook, according to the following table: TABLE SHOWING PERCENTAGE OF VITALITY OF VARIOUS SEEDS Fig. 34 This experiment shows that the seed furnishes food for the young growing plant Seed Tested Total per cent germinated up to and including the 1st day 2nd day 3rd day 4th day 5th day 1 Corn 2 Oats 3 Wheat 4 Peas 5 Beans Impurities in Seeds — Small seeds, such as clover seed, frequently have other seeds and materials mixed with them. Examine samples of grass seeds with a magnifying glass. Pick out the impurities and determine the per- centage of good seed in each sample. 70 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Growth of the Plumule and the Caulicle — Plant bean, pea, corn, and pumpkin seeds in box germinators. Observe the growth of the caulicle and the plumule every day. Notice that in some seeds the caulicle forms part of the stem as well as the root. What part of the plant Fig. 35. Tobacco Seedlings from Light, Medium, and Heavy Seeds a, from light; b, from medium; c, from heavy seeds does the plumule form? How are the leaves folded on the various plants just before they break through the ground? How far above the surface of the ground do the leaves get before they unfold? Observe how the leaves unfold on various plants. Which plants have the hardest work to come through the ground? Depth to Plant Seeds — Plant seeds in glass jars filled with earth. Arrange the seeds spirally at various depths THE SEED AND GERMINATION 71 next to the glass, so their growth can be observed. Keep the jars wrapped In black cloth or paper when you are not examining the plants. You will learn from this experi- ment that large seeds should be planted deeper than small ones. Keep a record of the results of your experi- ment according to the following table: Seeds Planted Depth Planted Date of Planting Date when leaves come through the ground Clover No. 1 1 inch No. 2 1 inch No. 3 1 inch No. 4 1 inch No. 5 1i inch \ No. 6 2 inches No. 7 3 inches No. 8 4 inches No. 9 6 inches Corn No. 1 J inch The Seed Supplies the Young Plant with Food — Every- thing that grows must obtain food. How does the young plant get its food before its roots are developed? It must get it from the seed. To prove that the seed fur- nishes food for the grow- „. ,, c i . r> .. cu =* Fig. 36. Select Cotton Fiber mg plant, perform the Produced by two generations of seed selection 72 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE following experiment : Plant some peas in the box germinators. Dig up two of the plants when they are about 1 inch high. They should be as nearly the same size as possible. With a sharp knife carefully remove the cotyledons from one plant. Leave the cotyledons on the other. Fill a tumbler with rain water. Punch two holes in a piece of cardboard large enough to let the roots of the plants through, but small enough to hold them firmly. Place the cardboard on the tumbler and arrange the roots so they will hang in the water as shown in Figure 34. If the seed contains plant food, the plant having the cotyledons attached will grow faster Fig. 37. A Desirable Stalk ^\^^^ ^\^^ Q^l^^r onc. Plant various kinds of seeds and notice how they shrivel up as the food which they contain is used by the young, growing plants. Use of Cotyledons as Leaves — You will learn later that the leaves of plants are factories for manufacturing food materials. Observe that the cotyledons of bean, pumpkin, and squash come out of the ground on the stem of the plant. Why should they do this? If you will notice them closely, you will see that they have a greenish color. They are acting as leaves to manufacture THE SEED AND GERMINATION 73 food material while the real leaves are forming. The cotyledons of the squash form permanent leaves. Observe the veins in them. Notice how they differ in shape from the other leaves of the squash plant. Various Foods Found in Seeds — The principal foods found in seeds are: (1) Starches and sugars. ** (2) Fats and oils. (3) Proteids. We can find out whether these materials are present in seeds by applying certain tests. Fig. 38. A Perfect Ear of Corn Test for Starch — Moisten some starch with dilute iodine. The starch turns blue. This is the iodine test for starch. If iodine is applied to seeds containing starch, the portion of the seed containing the starch will 74 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE turn blue; if there is much starch present the iodine will turn it dark blue, while if a small amount is present the color will be light blue. Cut a kernel of corn in two and apply dilute iodine to the cut surface. What portion of the kernel contains starch? Test other seeds for starch. Test for Grape Sugar* — A very pretty test for glucose or grape sugar is performed as follows: Place a little corn syrup in a test tube. Pour on concentrated potas- sium hydrate, and a few drops of copper sulphate solution (blue stone) f, and boil over a lamp. The mixture will turn green, yellow, orange, and finally brick red. Test seeds for the presence of glucose. Test for Proteids — After reducing some seeds to a powder by pounding them, place them in a test tube, add a few drops of nitric acid, and boil over a lamp. The proteid will turn yellow. Add a few drops of ammonia and the proteid will turn orange. Be careful that no nitric acid is spilled on your clothes or your person. It should be handled with great caution. J * Test for cane sugar: (1) Add a solution of cobalt nitrate (5 grains of coLalt nitrate to 100 cubic centimeters of water) to the solution to be tested. (2) Add to this a strong solution of sodiumhyd rate. A violet color indicates the presence of cane sugar. This test applied to grape sugar results in a blue color, which finally changes to green. fAll the materials mentioned can be purchased at a drug store. Suitable test tubes can be had for 5 cents each. An alcohol lamp is a convenience, but any lamp may be used. tif nitric acid is spilled on the person, It should be washed off with water at once. THE SEED AND GERMINATION 75 Test for Fats and Oils — Reduce the seeds to a powder by pounding. Place the powder on a sheet of paper and heat on a tin, but not enough to burn the paper. If oil is present, it will make a spot on the paper. Indicate the results of the tests you have made for starches, proteids, and sugars in various seeds by placing a cross in the proper column of the following table : TABLE SHOWING FOODS FOUND IN VARIOUS SEEDS Seed Tested Starch Proteids Sugars Much Utde None Much Little None Much Uttle None Corn Beans Peas Wheat Rye Improvement of Plants by Seed Selection — The largest and heaviest seeds produce the largest and most vigorous plants. Light, small seeds may germinate, but the plants produced by them will be small and imperfect. No farmer can afford to slight the matter of seed selection. To select seeds carefully and test their vitality, means a larger yield to the acre, less work for the same amount of crops and, consequently, more profit. In considering this subject it might be well to take some special crop as a type for seed selection. 76 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Selecting Seed Corn — Farmers select their seed corn in various ways. Sometimes the seed is picked out after the corn has been put in the crib; sometimes the ears are selected while the corn is being husked; sometimes J -J^u ' Fig. 39. Two Undesirable Ears the farmer goes to the field before the harvest and care- fully selects the most desirable ears. This last method is the best, because the entire plant can be taken into account. In picking out seed corn it is advisable to consider the following points: (1) The time it takes for the seed to mature. (2) Desirable characteristics of the stalks, ears, and kernels. THE SEED AND GERMINATION 77 Time in Which Seed Should Mature — As a general statement, we may say that field corn should mature before frost comes, and that it should be late enough in maturing to use the entire period of good growing weather. Desirable Stalks — It is necessary to select seed ears from well-developed stalks having good root systems. The stalk should be thick at the base, it should gradually taper toward the top, and it should possess well-formed blades. Every part of the plant should be free from disease. A desirable stalk is shown in Figure 37. Desirable Ears — The shape of the ears should allow the greatest number of large and uniform kernels. Such an ear would be cylindrical, and well rounded at each end. The rows of kernels should be straight and close together. The cob should be of medium size. Desirable Kernels — The kernels should be wedge-shaped with straight edges. This allows them to fit to- gether so compactly on the ear that no space is wasted. Length is a desirable character to possess, because the longer the kernels are the larger the amount of grain to the ear. The kernels „. ,^ t^ • , , ^ . . Fig. 40. Desirable should be unirorm m size and shape. Kernels 78 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE In selecting type kernels from the ear, it is customary to take one or more at a third of the distance from the butt, and others the same distance from the tip. If the Fig. 41. Ten Prize Ears of Corn Showing the result of twenty years of seed selection kernels are too short or are defective in any way, the ear is discarded. By using the following, make an outline of this chapter. THE SEED AND GERMINATION 1. General structure of the seed. '\ n • ..• f ( 1 ) Definition of germination z. Uermination i )o( r^ ,. • * r • . • ( (Z) Conditions necessary ror germination. (a) (b) : (c)^ 3. Impurities sometimes mixed with seeds. THE SEED AND GERMINATION 79 4. State what part of the plant the plumule forms. The caulicle. 5. Of what use are the cotyledons to the growing plant? 6. Various food materials found in seeds < (2) 1(3) 7. Give some points under selection of seed corn. 8. State the importance of seed selection. REFERENCES Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Wilcox and Smith. Examination and Grading of Grains, Lyon and Montgomery. The Book of Corn, Myriclc. New Handbook of Plants, Henderson. The Study of Corn, Shoesmith. Manual of Corn Judging, Shamel. r( 1 ) Starches and sugars 80 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE CHAPTER XI THE PLANT Parts of the Plant — It is convenient to divide the plant into the following parts: (1) The root. (2) The stem. (3) The leaves. (4) The flowers. THE ROOT Roots have three kinds of important work to perform; viz., to anchor the plant, to absorb and carry food mate- rial in solution, and to serve as a storehouse for plant food. Roots Anchor the Plant — Each class of plants is suited to certain conditions of soil, tem- perature, and moisture. It is an advantage, therefore, for plants to be fixed in a place suited to their needs. The roots hold the plant in the soil. Roots Absorb and Carry Moisture — You can easily prove that plants take food material in solution through their roots by performing the following experiment: Put the same amount ^^' . of water in each of two tumblers. Place grass of Radish THE PLANT 81 plants In one tumbler so the roots will be In the water. Some water may evaporate from both tumblers, but In a day or two you will see that the water In the tumbler containing the plants diminishes much faster than it does In the other one. This shows that water Is taken up by the roots of plants. What part of the root absorbs water? Place some radish seeds In a germlnator until the roots are well started. You will notice that there are many very fine rootlets branching from the main roots. Carefully wash the soil away from the roots of other plants and you will notice that they also are supplied with fine With Soil rootlets, which are called root Attached j^^ij.g J^^ j.QQ^ J^g^jj.5 ^j^gQj.]^ water containing food material. The man- ner in which this Is done may be illustrated as follows: Remove a portion of the shell at each end of an egg, leaving the inner tough membrane whole. This can be done by tapping the ends of the egg until the shell Is full of small cracks. The small pieces can then be picked off without tearing the Inner membrane. Place the egg thus prepared on a wide-mouthed bottle filled with water, as in Figure 44. The water will pass through the membrane into the egg Fig. 43 Root Hair Fig. 44. Prepared to Show Osmosis 82 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE and increase the volume of material inside. As a result the membrane at the top of the egg will bulge out. This passing of liquids from one side of a membrane to the other shows us how root hairs take up solutions, and is known as osmosis. Fig. 45. a. Tap Root of Alfalfa; b. Fibrous Root of Raspberry Some Roots Serve as Storehouses for Food — Some roots, like those of the carrot and the beet, store up food for the future use of the plant. These thick, fleshy THE PLANT 83 Fig. 46. Cross Section of Oak Stem stem into three parts; viz., the bark on the out- side, the rings of wood inside the bark, and the pith in the center. As the stem gets older the pith gradually becomes less.* The Growth of a Stem — Nearly every boy has made whistles in the spring from willows, poplars, or other kinds of wood. The reason the bark slips off so readily is because between the bark and the woody portion there are cells which become filled with sap in the spring. This layer of cells occupies the position shown in Figure 47. It is roots are called tap roots, while roots like those of grass plants are called fibrous^ THE STEM A Type of Stem — Cut a cross section and a longitu- dinal section of a young oak stem. Notice that you can divide the i.;.i HEARTWOO. SAPWOOO BARK CAMBIUM LAYER *This chapter treats of the exogenous stem only. For a description of the endogenous stem see any good botanical text-book. Fig. 47. Longitudinal Section of an Exoge- nous Stem Arrows inside the cambium layer show path of the sap up the stem ; arrows outside the cambium layer show path of sap down the stem. 84 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE called the cambium layer. The cells of the cambium layer multiply and form the inner layer of bark and the outside layer of wood. As a result the wood is in the form of rings, each of which represents a year's growth. Fig. 48. Potato Plant Showing underground stems (tubers) and fibrous roots Path of Foods in the Stem— Most of the water taken up by the roots is needed by the leaves in their manu- facture of starch. How does the water get to the leaves? You can easily find this out by placing the cut end of a willow twig in red ink and letting it stand a few hours. Then split the stem lengthwise, and you will see that the ink passed up the outside portion of the wood just beneath the cambium layer, Figure 47. THE PLANT 85 After the food material is manufactured by the leaves, some of it is used immediately by the plant, and some of it may be stored up for future use. The roots require some of this food to build up their cells, and some roots, like the tap root, store up considerable food. Where does this food material pass to the roots? The food material passes downward through the inner layer of bark, just outside the cambium layer. Figure 47. You can prove this by tightly twisting a stout wire around a sapling. This will stop the food material from passing downward and, after a time, an enlargement will form above the wire. As this does not interfere with the upward passage of water, the leaves do not wither at first. After several months, however, the roots suffer from the lack of food supply; they will then cease to grow and will not be able to take up sufficient water; consequently, the leaves will wither and finally the tree will die. This shows why girdling kills a tree after a time, while for a short period after it is girdled, no harmful results may be apparent. Some Stems Serve as Storehouses for Food Material- Underground stems frequently store up food. The common Irish potato is an example of such an under- ground stem. THE LEAVES The leaves are of great importance to the plant. They manufacture food material and transpire (give off) water. 86 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Leaves Manufacture Plant Food — Leaves are factories for manufacturing starch or similar plant foods. When an article is manufactured several things are necessary. There must be a factory; there must be machinery in the factory; there must be some kind of power to run the machinery; and there must be a supply of raw material from which the manufactured article is made. Let us see if these conditions are found in the plant. If you will notice the leaf in the diagram, you will see little openings called stomata. They are the gates through which air is admitted to the leaves. Notice that the leaf contains air spaces. There are also cells filled with green gran- ules which are called chlorophyll grains.. They are really the machinery for making starch. What material does the plant use in making starch? It uses the carbon of the air taken in by the leaves, and water taken up by the roots. The water ^. ,^ o . , , , and the carbon from rig. 49. oection or Lear ,, . , a. stoma ; h, air space ; c. chloroplasts thc Carbon dlOXlde of Roses — Queen of Garden Flowers THE PLANT 87 the air meet in the chlorophyll cells and are combined in such a way that starch is formed. Sunlight may be said to be the power, for without light no starch can be made. You will now see that sunlight, chlorophyll, water, and carbon from the carbon dioxide of the air are necessary in forming starch. As all green parts of the plant contain chlo- rophyll, such parts can manu- facture starch, but most of the starch is manufactured in the le^aves. Leaves Transpire Moisture — That moisture is given off by the leaves of the growing plant may be shown as follows: Cut a slit in a piece of card- board, which place around the stem of a plant, as shown in Figure 50. Cover the plant with a drinking glass or with a glass jar. Leave the plant overnight. The moisture that the leaves give off will collect on the inside of the glass. Fig. 50. Experiment to Show that Leaves Transpire Moisture THE FLOWER The flowers with their many beautiful colors and their fragrance serve a very important use to the plants that bear them. Without flowers plants could not produce SCHOOL AGRICULTURE seeds. Without seeds most plants would soon disappear, because there would be no new plants to take the place of those that die. The Parts of the Flower — A flower when complete has four principal parts, each of which has a name and a function. These parts are the calyx, the corolla, the stamens, and the pistils. Fig. 51. Section of a Cherry Blossom a, sepal ; b, »tamen ; c, pistil ; d, petal The Calyx — Examine a cherry blossom. On the outside of the flower you will find several green leaflike parts, each of which is called a sepaL The sepals together form the calyx. In some cases the calyx is useful in protecting the inside parts of the flower bud. The Corolla — Inside of the calyx, you will notice several colored leaflike parts. In the plum blossom THE PLANT 89 there are five. Each of these parts is called a petal. The petals together make up the corolla. The Stamens — Inside of the corolla there is a group of slender parts, each with a knob on the end. These are called stamens. Each stamen has two parts. The slender, threadlike part is called the filament, and the knob on top of the filament is called the anther. Inside of the anther is a dustlike substance which is called pollen. The use of the anther is^ produce pollen. With- out pollen, seeds could not be formed. The Pistil — In the center of the flower you will find a part enlarged both at the top and at the bottom. (See Figure 5 1 .) This is called the pistil. Each plum blossom has one pistil; some kinds of flowers have more. There are three parts to the pistil; the enlarged top is called the stigma, the slender middle portion is called the style, and the enlarged part at the bottom is called the omry. Inside of the ovary is a small, seedlike part called an ovule. When fertilized by a pollen grain, each Fig. 52. A Typical Stamen a, anther containing pollen ; b, showing mode of attachment; c, filament 90 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE ovule develops into a seed. The use of the pistil, then, is to form seed. Without it no seed could be formed. How the Seed Is Formed — A drop of sticky liquid forms on the top of the stigma, so that any pollen which happens to touch it will stick fast. The alighting of the pollen on the stigma is called pollination. After a grain of pollen alights on the stigma, it sends out a tube which grows down through the style and into the ovary, as indicated in Figure 53. This process is called fertilization. After fertiliza- tion the ovules grow to form seeds. Without fertilization, no seeds would be formed. Parts of the Flower Necessary to Form Seeds — The stamens and pis- tils are necessary in the formation of seeds, but it is not necessary that they be on the same flower or even on the same plant. A flower that has either stamens or pistils, but not both, is said to be imperfect. A flower having both stamens and pistils is a perfect flower. The presence of the calyx and the corolla is not necessary in the production of seed. These parts are Fig. 53. Fertilization of the Ovule a, stigma ; b, style ; c, ovary ; d, pollen grain on stigma ; e, pollen tube; g, sperm cell which has descended the pollen tube and will fuse with the egg cell. THE PLANT 91 frequently wanting. For example, they are lacking in the corn plant. The tassels of the corn plant are the stamens, and the silks are the pistils. Pollination — Sometimes, in the case of perfect flowers, the pistil receives the pollen from the anthers of the same flower. More often the pollen is received from some other Fig. 54. Strawberry Blossoms a, perfect ; b, imperfect flower. The latter way is known as cross-pollination. It is found that stronger seeds; that is, seeds that will pro- duce the best plants, are produced by cross-pollination. How the Pollen Is Carried — In cross-pollination, the pollen must be carried from flower to flower in some 92 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE manner. The three most important ways that pollen is carried are: (1) It is carried by bees and other insects. (2) It is carried by the wind. (3) In some cases it is carried by the water. Bees get covered with the pollen from . the anthers. When they go to other flowers the pollen is brushed against the stigma, where it sticks. Most flowers have their nectar glands on the inside near the bottom, so the bees have to brush against the stigmas before they can get to the nectar. Pollen is also carried by the wind. This is a wasteful method; hence, plants that depend on wind pollina- tion produce a large amount of pollen. The pine tree is an example. In the case of water plants, pollen sometimes floats on the water from place to place. EXPERIMENTS AND EXERCISES 1. Experiment to see what portion of the caulicle grows most rapidly: After the caulicles on some beans or peas get to be about an inch long, mark them with waterproof ink as shown in the figure. Be sure that the marks are the same distance apart. As the caulicle grows, it will be an easy matter to see where the marks are farthest apart. What portion grows the most? Fig. 55 Caulicle marked so that its growth may be observed. THE PLANT 93 2. Mark some stems as shown in Figure 56 and observe which portion grows most rapidly 3. Does light influence the direction of growth of the stem? Place some plants so there will be more light on one side of them than on the other. Do they grow toward the light? If so, turn them away from the light and see whether they turn back toward it again or not. 4. Notice whether twining vines wind in the same direction the sun travels or in the opposite direction. Is this general direction of twining always the same in the same kind of plants? 5. Test stems and roots of various kinds for starches, proteids, and sugars. Fig.56. Stem Marked 6. Experiment to show how light ^° ^^^'^ ^^^ Growth affects the color of plants Grow some ^^ plants in the dark. Notice their light color. Place them in the light. What change do you see in their appearance? 7. To show how the stigma holds the pollen, dust some flour on the stigmas of some plants and try to blow it away. 8. If possible, examine the pollen from various flowers with a microscope and notice the diverse shapes of the pollen grains. 94 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Fill the outline below and place it in your notebook. THE PLANT '(0 (2) (3) .(4) 1. Parts of the plant 2. Roots ) (1) Use to the plant ^ (b) [(2) Root hairs. Use 3. Stems r(a) Bark. (I) Structure of the oak stem J (^> Cambium layer, (c) Wood. 1(d) Pith. {(a) To support the leaves, flowers and fruit, (b) To carry water and plant foods, (c) To store up plant food. (1) General structure (a) Outside portion containing stomata. ./ ^v.w,_.B. 01.1UV.I.U.V. I ^^^ Inside portion; air cells, chlorophyll Leaves -s cells. [(a) They manufacture L(2) Some uses of leaves to the plant I starch. [ (b) They transpire water (1) Use — to produce seed. 5. The flower (2) Structure of a com- plete flower (a) Calyx ((1) Made up of sepals. S 1(2) Use (b) Corolla, (a) Anther filled ( 1 ) Made up of''in8 stock for the insertion of scion; e, cross section , . - , ^ of stock with scion in place showing position With grafting wax. of cambium layer *Grafting wax can be made by melting together one ounce of tallow, two ounces of beeswax, and four ounces of resin. This should be worked until it is a light yellow. Cleft Grafting 100 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Whip Grafting is used where the stock is small. There should not be too much difference between the size of stock and scion. In whip grafting stock and scion are cut as shown in Figure 62. The two parts are then forced together, and wound with graft- ing cloth or with waxed cotton yarn *. Whip grafting is also used in root grafting where the scion is grafted upon the root instead of upon the stem. Budding — The proc- ess of budding is sim- ple. It consists in cut- ting the bud of one tree or shrub and placing it under the bark of the stock of another in such a way that the cambium layer of the bud and the cambium layer of the stock come together. Budding is usually done in July, August, or early September. Fig. 62. Whip Grafting of Stem a, stock ; b, scion ; c, stock and scion united *Grafting cloth is made by drawing strips of muslin through melted grafting wax. Cotton yarn may be waxed in the same manner. PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 101 Cutting the Bud — Buds are found where the stems of the leaves join those of the twig. They are cut so that a little of the wood comes off with them. The leaves are cut off so that a portion of the stem is left by which to handle the buds. Fig. 63. Root Grafting a, stock ; b, scion ; c, stock and scion united and tied Preparing the Stock and Inserting the Bud — As a rule, the lower the bud is placed on the stock the better. The stock should be at least as large as a lead pencil. A T-shaped cut is made in the bark of the stock and the 102 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE flaps of bark are loosened. The bud is inserted as shown in Figure 64 (d). The stock is then wound with raffia or cloth. As soon as the bud has united with the stock, the raffia or cloth should be cut to prevent girdling. The following spring the tree should have its top cut off just above the bud. Selecting the Parts of Plants for Propagation — Scions, buds, and cuttings should be selected with great care. They should be strong and healthy. Fig. 64. Budding a, method of cutting the bud ; b, bud cut ; c, method of preparing the stock ; d, bud inserted ; e, bud tied in place EXPERIMENTS AND EXERCISES 1. Propagate plants like currant, gooseberry, rasp- berry, or grapevine by layering. 2. Observe that the strawberry sends out runners. Notice how the buds on the runners send roots into the ground. PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 103 3. Plant cuttings of willow, poplar, or other trees or shrubs mentioned. How long does it take to form roots? 4. Plant some leaf cuttings of the begonia in clean, moist sand. Notice how the roots are formed. Where do the leaves of the new plant form? 5. Bring some branches to school. Show how grafting is done by cutting stock and scion, and fitting together. 6. Observe the condition of your fruit trees. Do they bear good fruit? If not, graft one or two this year as an experiment. Try grafting several kinds of apples on the same apple tree. 7. Get some catalogs of fruit trees from nurserymen in your locality. Notice the varieties of scions grafted upon particular roots. How many varieties of scions can you find grafted upon a certain variety of stock? 8. Cuttings may be started any time of year by use of a hotbed. The heat in a hotbed is furnished by fermenting manure. To make a convenient hotbed for school use and to grow cuttings in it proceed as follows: (1) Fill a deep box to within a few inches of the top with a mixture of decomposed manure, leaves, and straw. This mixture, kept moist, ferments and produces heat. (2) On top of the mixture place about four inches of sand, which should be kept moist after the cuttings are planted. (3) During cold nights the heat may be retained by covering the box. 104 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE (4) The heat given off the first few days will be too much for the growth of cuttings. Test the tempera- ture of the sand with a thermometer from day to day. When it lowers to 80 degrees, cuttings may be planted. (5) In planting cuttings place them firmly in the sand. Label each cutting with its name and date. Later place upon the label the date when the cutting starts to root. As soon as the roots are about an inch long, the cuttings may be transplanted. Keep a record showing the time required for each species to root, and the number of days from planting time to transplanting time. Make an outline based on the following: PLANT PROPAGATION i r- .L 1 £ r(0 From seeds. L Common methods of I .^^ j j propagatmg plants |(2) From buds by 1(b) cuttings. I (c) grafting. L(d) budding. (I) Layering is used in the propagation of 2. Cases where each method is used < REFERENCES (2) Green cuttings are used (3) Grafting and budding Plant Breeding— Experiments of Burbank and Nelsen, De Vries. Scientific Aspect of Luther Burbank, Jordan. Propagation of Plants, Fuller. Bulb Culture, Henderson. TRANSPLANTING AND PRUNING 105 CHAPTER XIII TRANSPLANTING AND PRUNING Very often it is desirable to remove a tree from its native place of growth to another place. This process is called transplanting. In transplanting trees great care must be taken. The death of most transplanted trees is due to improper treatment. Some of the causes of death among transplanted trees are the following: 1. They are transplanted at the wrong time of year. 2. So many roots are injured in digging that the tree cannot secure enough moisture for growth. 3. The roots are exposed too long before the tree is planted. 4. When the tree Is planted the roots are crowded into too small a hole. 5. The tree is planted too shallow; this exposes the roots to drouth. 6. The soil is left too loose around the roots. In this case the wind may rock the tree to and fro enough to tear the small root hairs, or to loosen the larger roots. When the soil is too loose the root hairs do not absorb the proper amount of food. 7. The soil is kept too wet after the tree is planted. 8. The soil is allowed to dry out after the tree is planted. 106 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 9. Too much of the top of the tree is left on. In that case more moisture is required than the roots are able to supply. How to Transplant Trees — In the trans- planting of trees the following should be observed: Fig. 65. Types of Pruning Shears 1 . Trees should be transplanted at the proper time. All trees, except evergreens, should be transplanted when the leaves are off. In the northern states this should be done in the spring, but in the southern states it is sometimes an advantage to transplant trees in the fall. 2. Care should be taken that the roots receive no in- jury. In taking up a tree as many of the roots should be left on as possible. If any of the roots are broken or badly bruised, they should be cut off so that smooth ends are left. Roots are frequently injured by ex- Fig. 66. Correct Pruning of Apple Tree ^posure tO the SUn Or the a, line showing where to cut back a one-year- old tree ; b lines showing where to cut jj.y g^ij. jj^ transplantmg back a two-year-old tree "-* .7 f o TRANSPLANTING AND PRUNING 107 trees the roots should be kept moist. It is also a good plan to wet the roots before the tree is planted. 3. Trees should not be planted when the soil is too wet or too dry. In the former case the air cannot get to the roots; in the latter case the roots cannot get enough moisture. 4. The hole should be large enough to receive the roots in their natural position. The roots should be spread out and the tree should be planted a little deeper than it grew before it was taken up. 5. The soil should be packed about the roots. This is done so that the soil will hold the tree firmly. It also aids the roots in absorbing water. 6. Some of the branch- es should be cut off. The largest portion of the roots is lost whep the tree is taken up. If the branches are reduced in a correspond- ing proportion, the roots can supply the necessary amount of moisture. Fig. 67. Correct and Incorrect Pruning a, correct ; b, incorrect 108 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Progress of Decay Due to Improper Pruning a, section showing stub left ; b, section chowing the prog- ress of decay 7. The soil about the tree should be culti- vated after the tree is planted in order to re- tain the moisture. PRUNING Purposes of Prun- ing —The following are some of the purposes of pruning trees: 1 . In transplanting trees, some of the branches are cut off so the roots will not have to supply so much moisture. 2. Trees are pruned to cause them to take the proper shape. One-year-old fruit trees are cut back as shown in Figure 66, so the tree will form a proper head at the right height. This cutting back causes the upper buds to grow, forming a branch- ing top. The top is also cut back as indicated in the illustration. After a few years it is not neces- sary to prune the tree every year. Fig. 69. Wrong Method of Cut- 3. Branches are thinned by ting Off a Large Limb Cutting, to admit sunlight. TRANSPLANTING AND PRUNING 109 4. Trees are sometimes pruned to get rid of diseased branches. Cutting the Branches — Small branches should be cut off just above the bud. When the branches are cut off just below, or between the buds, the portion of the stem above the bud is apt to decay, and may result in the death of the tree. Large limbs should be cut close to the branch from which they spring. In that case the wound will gradu- ally heal. If a branch is cut so a stub is left, decay will set in. In cutting a large branch, care should be taken that the condition shown in Figure 69 is not produced. This can be avoided by cutting the branch as shown in Figure 70. After the branch breaks, the stub should be cut off close to the tree, and covered with some preparation to protect the wound from insects and fungous growths. White lead is commonly used for this purpose, and may be applied to the cut surface with a paint brush. Fig. 70. The Right Way of Removing a Large Limb 1 1 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE EXPERIMENTS AND EXERCISES 1. Pull up a plant so a large number of the roots are torn off. Carefully dig up another plant of the same kind and size, leaving as many roots on as possible. Plant both of these in the same kind of soil supplied with the same amount of moisture, and notice whether there is any difference in growth. 2. Carefully dig up two plants of the same kind and size. Place one in mud and leave the other exposed to the air and sunshine for an hour. Plant both and notice whether there is any difference in growth. 3. Bring a small tree to school and learn how to prune it. How many of its branches would you cut off? Where would you cut them ? Which branches would you leave ? 4. If you have some valueless trees, experiment on them by trimming them in odd shapes. 5. Set out some trees in the school yard. Fill the blanks in the following outline and place it in your notebook : TRANSPLANTING AND PRUNING r(0 ..•• (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) 1(9) Death of transplanted trees ^ are due to the following TRANSPLANTING AND PRUNING 11 2. Things to observe in^ transplanting trees 3. Purposes of pruning (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) 1(7) fd) i(2) 1(3) 4. Where to cut the branches (1) A small branch should be cut off just above the bud. (2) Large branches should be cut off so that no stub is left. 5. When to prune- REFERENCES Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Wilcox and Smith. The Pruning Book, Bailey. Vegetable Growing, Watts. Beginner's Guide in Fruit Growing, Waugh. 112 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE CHAPTER XIV PLANT ENEMIES The farmer has to spend considerable time in fighting plant enemies. The principal enemies of plants are insects, bacteria, fungi, and weeds. INSECTS A true insect has a head, a thorax or chest, and an abdomen made up of several ringlike sections. It has six legs attached to the thorax. Some in- sects have wings and some do not. Insects breathe through lit- tle holes (spiracles) in their sides. Growth of the In- sect — Most insects pass through four wonderful stages of growth, viz.: 1 . The egg. The grown insect lays the eggs. Some kinds lay on plants, others in rotten wood, still others in the ground. 2. The egg hatches into a grub or a caterpillar, known as the larva. The grubs are big eaters, and are the cause of most of the damage to plants by insects. Ikdd Fig 71. Insect Showing head, chest, abdomen and spiracles PLANT ENEMIES 113 3. The larva spins a cocoon about itself, or wraps itself in a leaf. It is then called the pupa. During this stage the wings are developing and transformations of the body are taking place. The insect does not eat while in this state. 4. After the pupa stage the full-grown insect emerges. Classes of Insects — The farmer has to deal with two classes of insects; viz., biting, and sap-sucking insects. a be d Fig. 72. The Four Stages of Insect Growth (CodHng Moth) o, egg greatly enlarged ; b, larva ; c, pupa ; d, adult insect Biting Insects — These insects have jaws and chew the parts of the plants upon which they feed. The potato beetle is an example. This class of insects can be killed with poisons. One pound of Paris green to 50 gallons of water is generally used for spraying plants.* A stronger solution is used for spraying potatoes. Of course, poisons should not be used on plants that are soon to be eaten. (For other poisons, see the Appendix.) Sap-Sucking Insects — An insect of this class does not have jaws. It has a tube or beak through which it *About four pounds of Hme may be added to every fifty gallons of this solution 14 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE sucks the sap of plants. The plant louse is a sap-sucking insect. The application of poisons to plants will not kill sap-sucking insects, because they obtain the sap beneath the outer tissues of the plant. They can be killed by spraying with something that will close their breathing pores, or corrode their bodies. Kerosene emulsion is commonly used and is made as follows: Fig. 73. Biting Insects One half pound of hard soap, or one quart of soft soap, IS dissolved in one gallon of hot water, then two gallons of kerosene are added. This should be thoroughly stirred for a few minutes. About 30 gallons of water should be added when the emulsion is to be applied to the foliage. (For other insecticides, see the Appendix.) Other Methods — If the farmer can find out where the insects lay their eggs, he can destroy them. If the eggs are in rubbish, he can destroy them by burning the PLANT ENEMIES 115 rubbish. If they are In the ground, he should plow in the fall, so that they will freeze during the winter. BACTERIAL DISEASES One of the most destructive bacterial diseases of fruit trees is fire blight or pear blight. It is common on pear, apple, quince, and plum trees. The blossoms and tips of the twigs die, the leaves turn black, and cankers form on the limbs of the tree. When the fruit is affected, it turns brown and finally dies upon the tree. Fig. 74. Sucking Insects The only satisfactory treatment for this disease is to remove the diseased portion. The wound should be washed with a solution made by dissolving one part of corrosive sublimate in 1,000 parts of water. This sub- stance is very poisonous if taken internally and must be handled with great care. FUNGOUS DISEASES Fungous diseases include mold, smut, and rust. They are caused by little dustlike particles called spores. The 116 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE spores float In the air and settle on plants or other objects where they grow and multiply. Have you ever stepped on a dry puff-ball and noticed the cloud of dust that came from it? The cloud of dust was composed of millions of spores. Treatment of Fungous Diseases — The best way to treat these diseases is to apply remedies that will prevent Fig. 75. Making Bordeaux Mixture the growing of the spores. A common remedy is Bor- deaux mixture, which you can prepare as follows: Put 25 gallons of water in each of two wooden tubs. Put six pounds of copper sulphate (bluestone) in a sack and hang the sack in one of the tubs. In the other tub PLANT ENEMIES 117 put four pounds of lime. When the copper sulphate has dissolved and the lime has slaked, pour equal quan- tities of the liquids together in a barrel, as shown in the illustration. The solution should be strained by placing a strainer across the barrel. If preferred, the mixture may be made stronger and diluted afterward. When Bordeaux mixture is properly prepared it has a sky-blue color (not green.) To test it, allow a drop of a 10 per cent, solution of yellow prussiate of potash to fall on the surface of the mixture. If the drop turns a reddish brown, too much copper is present, and more lime must be added to the Bordeaux preparation. If the drop stays yellow, the mixture is all right. Frequently Bordeaux mixture injures peach trees; therefore it is made weaker when it is to be applied to them. (As to the various ways of making Bordeaux mixture, see the Appendix.) Sometimes fungous diseases can be prevented by treat- ing the seed. Oat smut and wheat smut can be prevented by soaking the seed in a solution made by adding one pound of formalin* to 36 gallons of water. The seed should be soaked in this for 10 minutes, and then be spread out to dry. One pound of formalin to 30 gallons of water is used for smut on barley, and for potato scab. (For other fungicides, see the Appendix.) *Formalin is a 40 per cent, solution of formaldehyde. 118 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE WEEDS "Weeds are plants that persist In growing where they are not wanted." They are objectionable because they rob the crops of food, moisture, and sunlight. They also serve as a breeding place for insects. Classification of Weeds — In order that the farmer may be able to fight weeds to the best advantage he should know something of their classification and life history. Weeds are divided into three classes: annuals, biennials, and perennials. Annual plants come up from seeds, blossom, ripen their seeds, and then die; all in one season. Ragweed, wild mustard, wild oats, shepherd's purse, and purslane are examples of this class of weeds. Method of Destroying Annual Weeds — The way to destroy weeds of this class is to prevent them from going to seed. This can be done by cutting them off or pulling them up. Biennial plants live two years. The first year they come up from seed, grow, and store up food in the roots. They do not produce , w, , ,o . seed the first year, and all the Annual Weed (Spiny •" Cocklebur) plant cxccpt the root dies. Ihe Fig 76, PLANT ENEMIES 119 second year the plant uses the food In the thickened root, grows, produces seed, and dies, root and all. Dandelion, barn grass, wild parsnip, bull thistle, and burdock are weeds of this class. Method of Destroying Biennial Weeds — This class of weeds can be destroyed by pulling up the roots, or by cutting off the part of the plant above the ground so that seeds will not be formed the second year. As a matter of fact, when the tops are cut off, bien- nial weeds sometimes live longer than two years, because the food supply of the roots Is not used. This win not happen If the plants are just cut before the seeds ripen. If persistent In cutting the tops off close to the ground, this class of weeds can be destroyed. Perennial weeds grow from seeds, and may also multiply from some form of root or underground stem. This class of plants may be said to live from year to year. Canada thistle, quack grass, cow thistle, yellow dock, and milk- weed are perennials. Fig. 77. Biennial Weed (Burdock) 20 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Method of Destroying Perennial Weeds — As weeds of this class grow from roots or underground stems as well as from seeds, they are very troublesome. Pulling them up will destroy them, but this can be done only on small areas. We have learned that plants cannot grow without leaves to manu- facture food. If the tops of the plants are kept cut off close to the ground, the roots will finally starve. This is the common way of destroying perennial weeds. Fall plowing is recommended where it will expose the roots to the action of frost. Sometimes weeds can be smothered by sowing some crop which covers the ground with a thick growth. Fig. 78. A Perennial Weed (Quack Grass) EXPERIMENTS AND EXERCISES 1. Collect cocoons and watch them in the spring to see how the insect comes out of them. 2. Examine the mouths of several insects. Are they sap-sucking or biting insects? How do insects breathe? 3. Examine kinds of smut and notice the spores. 4. Moisten a piece of bread and place it under a drinking glass. Notice how fast the mold grows. If possible, examine the mold with a microscope. PLANT ENEMIES 121 5. Make a list of the various different ways seeds are spread. 6. Make a list of weeds found in your locality, and state how each may be destroyed. 7. Bring various weeds to school, learn to what class each belongs and how to destroy it. 8. Has any crop in your locality ever been ruined by insects? If so by what insects? Could the crop have been saved? How? 9. Make a collection of weeds at the time of seeding. Mount them on pieces of cardboard. Label each with the name of the weed, the date when found, the locality where it was found, and the kind of soil upon which the weed grew. Also state its time and manner of seeding. 10. Make a collection of weed seeds. The seeds may be kept for future observation by placing them in small bottles. 1 1 . Count the seeds upon one mature pigweed. If each of the seeds grew, how many plants would be pro- duced next year? How many seeds would next year's plants produce if each pigweed had the same number of seeds as the one you examined this year? If each of these seeds grew, how many pigweeds would be produced ? Answer these questions when 50 per cent, of the seeds grow. When 10 per cent, of the seeds grow. 122 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Complete the following outline of plant enemies : (1) The egg. (2) The larv (3) The pupi [(4) The adult insect. I. Insects Plant 1 Ci. • rr r • .. (2) The larva , otages in lire or insect i )ii t-i * ' (3) The pupa 2. Classes II. Plant organisms (1) Biting insects — can be destroyed by applying poisons. (2) Sap-sucking insects — can be killed with kerosene emulsion. 1 . Bacteria (1) Cause plant diseases. [ (2) Prevention. (1) Caused by 2. Fungous diseases \ spores. (2) Prevention. 3. Weeds ^ (1) What are weeds r (2) Classes of weeds. (a) Annuals. Live 1 year. (b) (c) (3) Methods of destroying each class. (a) Annuals (b) Biennials (c) Perennials REFERENCES Weeds of the Farm and Garden Pammel. Insects and Insecticides, Weed. Insects Injurious to Vegetables, Chittenden. Fumigation Methods, Johnson. Fungous Diseases of Plants, Duggar. Stories of Insect Life, Weed. Injurious Insects and the Use of Insecticides, Sempers. THE ORCHARD 123 CHAPTER XV THE ORCHARD Every farmer should grow enough fruit for his own use. Some kinds of fruit can be grown wherever other crops can be raised. Of course, it does not pay the farmer to raise fruit when the orchard is neglected. Fruit trees must be properly selected, planted, and pruned. Their diseases must be treated and insect pests destroyed. THE APPLE The apple tree is one of the longest lived of fruit trees. It begins to bear fruit when from 5 to 10 years of age, and sometimes lives a hundred years. Some precocious varieties may bear a few specimens when younger than five years. Soil Suitable for Apple Trees — Apple trees will grow on almost any soil properly prepared. As has been stated before, fruit trees require considerable potash. The condition of the land must be considered, however, when applying fertilizers. Selection of Varieties — There are certain varieties suited to various sections of the country. (See the Appendix.) Make a list of varieties suited to your locality. 124 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Planting and Pruning — Apple trees should be planted when about two years old and set at the proper distance apart. This distance will depend upon the variety of the tree, the climate, and the soil. When the trees are planted close together, cultivation and spraying are interfered with, and the apple crop is reduced. The trees should be planted at least 30 feet apart; spreading varieties farther. Immediately after planting the trees should be pruned. (See Chapter XIII.) Insect Enemies and Plant Diseases — These must receive attention at the proper time, otherwise the fruit crop may be seriously damaged. The Codling Moth — The codling moth causes millions of dollars of damage to apples every year. The full- grown insect is a brownish-gray moth which lays its eggs on the calyx end of the fruit, or on the leaves or the branches. The eggs hatch into larvae. The larva as it hatches from the egg is about one-sixteenth of an inch long. It eats its way into the fruit, usually at the calyx end. Finally it leaves the fruit and finds a place of shelter under the bark of the tree, in cracks, or in holes, where it spins a cocoon about itself, and later the full- grown insect emerges. There may be two or three generations in a year. Methods of Destroying the Codling Moth — As the codling moth is a biting insect, it can be poisoned. Paris THE ORCHARD 25 Fig. 79. A Codling Moth Larva and Its Work green is commonly used for this purpose. It should be sprayed on the tree just after the blossoms have fallen, and again in about 10 days, before the calyxes close. The spray should be directed downward, so that it will fill the calyx cups with poison. The full-grown larva can sometimes be trapped by placing cloth bands about the tree. The bands should be left loose at the bottom so the larvae can easily get under to spin their cocoons. All loose bark should be scraped off the tree. Every few days the bands should be examined and the insects destroyed. Birds destroy a large number of larvae. When you see a woodpecker pecking away at a tree, let him alone. He may save you many dollars by destroying the insects. The Apple Tree Borer — The round- headed apple-tree borer is, next to the codling moth, the worst enemy to apple growing. The flat-headed borer injures the trees to a less extent, pig. 80. When to Spray The larvae bore into the tree and for Codling Moth I 1 . 1, . rj-11 a, right time to spray; b, too sometimes completely girdle it. 1 he late to spray 126 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE old adage, "An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure," is especially true in regard to this insect. The best preventive is made by adding washing soda to soft h c Fig. 81. Round-Headed Apple Tree Borer a, larva ; b, pupa ; c, beetle soap until it is about as thick as paint. If desired, one part of carbolic acid may be added to every 80 parts of the solution. The remedy should be applied to the trunk and the larger limbs with a whitewash brush. This also serves as a protection against scale insects and fungous diseases. The wash should be applied at intervals of two to four weeks during May, June, July, and possibly during August. If the borers have already made entrance to the tree, they Fig. 82. Flat-Headed Apple Hiay bc killed by forcing a fine Tree Borer ^jj-g Jj^j-q their burrows. Care a, larva; i, pupa; c, head of larva; i i i i i 1 j.beeUe should DG takcn not to cut the THE ORCHARD 127 bark of the tree any more than is absolutely necessary. Some recommend the application of kerosene emulsion wherever the castings of the larva are seen on the bark. It is claimed that the kerosene is absorbed by the castings and passes through the burrows. The amount of kero- sene necessary is so small that it does not injure the tree. Fig. 83. Tent Caterpillar and Web 128 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE The Tent Caterpillar is familiar to nearly every one. The eggs, laid in circular masses around the twigs, should be burned during winter or early spring. When the caterpillars are within the nest, they can be destroyed by burning the nest with a torch. Spraying with Paris green will also kill them. The tent caterpillar is seldom found on trees that are regularly sprayed. The Fall Web Worm is often mistaken for the tent caterpillar. It appears later in the season. Its web incloses the foliage upon which it feeds, while that of the tent cater- pillar is usually built in the crotches of the branches and does not inclose the leaves. The web worm feeds inside the web; the tent cater- pillar goes outside of the web to obtain its food. The eggs of the web worm are laid on the leaves. It is not easy to destroy the eggs, ^ „ „, , „, because they are discov- Fig. 84. Fall Web Worm ^ ^^ Notice that the web incloses the tips of the twigs. ereCl With dimCUlty . 1 tit THE ORCHARD 129 Fig. 85. Canker Worm a, male moth ; b, female moth ; e, eggs ; /, larva ; g. pupa tents should be burned when they are small. Spraying with poisons is most effective just before the caterpillars hatch. The Canker Worm — The canker worm is also called the ** measuring worm,*' because of the way it has of looping up its body when crawling. There are two species of the canker worm; one appears in early spring and the other in autumn. The damage caused by this insect is due to the larvae which feed upon the leaves of the trees. After the larva is full grown, it enters the ground, where it changes to the adult insect. As the female moth is wingless, it cannot fly, and may be prevented from ascending the tree to deposit the eggs by placing a band of cloth coated with tar around the base of the tree. Fall plowing will also destroy the insects by exposing them to the winter's cold. Spraying with arsenate of lead, or with Paris Fig. 86. Apple Aphis a, male; h, female 130 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE green, is recommended. Many of the common birds feed upon the canker worm. The Apple Aphis or louse may be destroyed by repeated sprayings with kerosene emulsion, or with tobacco water made by boiling one pound of tobacco in two gallons of water. The aphis is destroyed by the aphis lion (lace- winged fly), and also by the familiar ladybug. The Woolly Aphis — In the early stages of its life this insect covers itself with a white substance for protection. The insects are usually found in groups on the trunk or on the roots of the tree. They feed upon the sap. Where they are numerous, they may cause such irrita- tion that galls or swellings appear on the tree. They are easily killed by the application of kerosene emulsion when on the trunk. When they are on the roots they are difficult to destroy. The best remedy, in this case, is to dig away the upper surface of the soil around the tree and to apply about two pounds of tobacco to the surface thus prepared. The soil should then be replaced and a liberal amount of water applied. The tobacco water will soak through the ground to the roots, killing the insects with which it comes in contact. Fig. 87 Woolly Aphis THE ORCHARD 131 Leaf Rollers, Folders, and Crumplers — Although these insects eat the foliage, their chief injury is in preventing the leaves from performing their proper functions by rolling or folding them. The leaf crumpler rolls itself in a leaf and passes the winter in that state. The larvae Fig. 88. Apple Leaves Injured by Leaf Roller emerge early in the spring and feed upon the foliage. These insects can be controlled by spraying with poisons. Scale Insects — There are several varieties of scale insects. Probably the most common and destructive of this class is the San Jose scale. It does not confine its attack to fruit trees, but infests shade trees and 132 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Fig. 89. San Jose Scale a, healthy twig ; b, twig infested with scale ; c, enlarged scale shrubbery as well The Insect is smaller than a very small pinhead, and is protected by a grayish covering. It multiplies very rapid- ly. In feeding it inserts its beak into the plant tissues and sucks out the juices. Owing to their protective covering such strong contact insecticides are necessary to destroy them that these must be applied in winter or early spring while the tree is dormant. The most widely used remedies are miscible or soluble oils, and the lime-sulphur wash.* The ladybird beetles feed upon scale insects. Leaf Blight can usually be pre- vented by spraying with Bordeaux mixture when the trees are in full foliage. Two or three applica- tions at intervals of 10 days are recommended. Twig blight should be cut out. In removing the dis- eased twig, cut a little below the blighted part, and sponge the wound with a solution of corrosive sublimate (one part of corrosive sublimate to Fig. 90. Bitter Rot ''Directions for making these are given in the Appendi THE ORCHARD 133 1,000 parts of water). Disinfect the knives with this solution to prevent carrying the disease from one tree to another. Bitter Rot starts from spores, and first appears on the apple as small light brown spots, which afterwards enlarge and become depressed. As the spots become larger they become darker, and sometimes cause the Fig. 91. Apple Scab fruit to dry and shrink, as shown in the illustration. The best treatment is to spray with Bordeaux mixture at intervals of two weeks for about three months after the fruit is set. To avoid staining the fruit, as the apple nears maturity, use the ammoniacal copper carbonate solution* in place of the Bordeaux mixture. This dis- ease is also found on the bark of the branches and the *See the Appendix for the formula for the ammoniacal copper carbonate solution. 134 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE twigs, being known as canker. In this case, the diseased area is sooty black and sunken. The diseased part should be cut out and the wounds covered with white lead, or the diseased branches should be cut off and burned. b Fig. 92. The Peach Borer Apple Scab — This common disease of the apple is found on the buds and the leaves as well as on the fruit. The remedy is to spray with Bordeaux mixture just after the buds open, and again just after the petals have fallen. Usually two more applications, at intervals of two weeks, will be required. Leaf Spot Diseases — Leaf spot is a name applied to a variety of fungous diseases. The affected leaves are more or less covered with brown spots of different sizes. Bordeaux mixture is used as a preventive. The first application should be made two weeks after the petals have fallen, and another about six or seven weeks later. THE PEACH • . ^ The peach tree begins to bear fruit when tKree or four years old. It succeeds well only in certain parts of the Harvesting Peach Crop THE ORCHARD 35 country. In regard to selecting varieties suitable for any locality, see the Appendix. Potash fertilizers should be applied rather than nitrogenous fertilizers. A large amount of nitrogen causes an excessive growth of the wood and leaves at the expense of the fruit. The fruit of the peach is borne principally on the young shoots; hence the tree should be pruned to encourage a growth of young wood. Peach Yellows Peach Rosette Enemies of the Peach Tree — The peach borer is as much an enemy to the peach tree as the apple-tree borer is to the apple tree. The only satisfactory way to get rid of the borers is to dig them out with a sharp wire. 136 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Peach Yellows and Peach Rosette are very destructive diseases. No remedy is known for them. The only thing so far recommended is to dig out and burn the affected trees. Black Spot — This fungous disease spreads rapidly from fruit to fruit, especially in wet, hot weather. No diseased fruit should be allowed to lie on the ground. It should be burned. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture has been recommended . 1 1 should be remembered, however, that spraying with fungicides, or poisons, is likely to damage the foliage of peach trees. On this account the self-boiled lime sul- phur mixture is recommended in place of the Bordeaux mixture.* PLUM AND CHERRY These fruits can be grown in nearly every portion of the United States. The trees begin to bear when three or Fig. 95. Black Spot of the Peach Fig. 96, The Plum Curculio and Its Work *The formula for the self -boiled lime sulphur mixture is given in the Appendix. THE ORCHARD 137 four years old, and should be planted when they are one or two years old. Varieties for va- rious localities are given in the Appendix. The Plum Cur- culio is found in nearly all plum orchards. It is also found to a considerable ex- Fig. 97. Curculio Catcher tent on other fruits. The beetle lays an egg in each plum and makes a crescent-shaped cut around it, as shown in the illustration. The egg hatches into a larva, which eats its way into the fruit, which it causes to drop before ripening. The larva enters the ground and becomes a pupa. The mature beetle finally comes forth and passes the winter in cracks and under the loose bark. If these insects are suddenly alarmed, they will drop to the ground. By placing sheets under the tree and thumping the tree with padded sticks most of them can be caught. A convenient device for running under the tree is shown in Figure 97. It is a good plan to let 138 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE chickens run in the orchard, as they will destroy the larvae. Paris green will kill the curculio, and should be applied as soon as the petals fall. Fig. 98. Plum Gouger and Infested Fruit The Plum Gouger — The work of this insect resembles that of the curculio. It lays its eggs in the plums, but makes no crescent-shaped marks. The larvae feed upon the contents of the pit until they are full grown. The adult insect does a great deal of damage by cutting a hole through the calyx of the flower and eating the THE ORCHARD 139 ovule, which would otherwise develop into the seed. The methods of destroying this insect and the curculio are the same. Plum-Tree Aphis — The remedies are the same as for the apple-tree aphis. Brown Rot — This serious disease, which attacks the fruit, blossoms and twigs of the plum, cherry, and peach, first appears in the form of brown spots. The disease is more common in wet than in dry seasons. Infested fruits should not be allowed to lie on the ground, but should be burned. Spray with Bordeaux mixture, the same as for apple scab. Black Knot is easily recognized by the yellow-colored swellings on the twigs and small branches. The knots get darker as they get older. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture, as a preventive, is recommended, but the only satisfactory method of eradicating the disease is to cut off and burn the diseased limbs. Leaf Blight — To prevent this disease, spray with Bordeaux mixture after the blossoms are shed, and two or three times more at intervals of two weeks. Yellows and Rosette — The only way to deal with these diseases is to dig out and burn the affected trees. Powdery Mildew — In case of this disease in cherry trees, spray with Bordeaux mixture about two weeks 140 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE after the leaves are out, and repeat several times at intervals of ten days. EXERCISES 1. Examine various kinds of apples for the codling moth. Notice the manner in which the grub tunnels through the apple. 2. Examine the plum for the curculio. Notice the peculiar manner in which the eggs are laid. 3. Observe fruits and trees of various orchards. Make a list of the diseases you find. 4. What varieties of apples are grown in your locality? Are any varieties grown that are not suited to your locality according to the Appendix? If so, do they grow well? Make an outline for apple, plum, and cherry. In- clude the following : 1. Varieties suited to your locality. 2. Planting. 3. Insect enemies, and diseases; treatment for each. REFERENCES The Fruit Garden, Barry. The American Fruit Culturist, Thomas & Wood. Fumigation Methods, Johnson. Peach Culture, Fulton. Successful Fruit Culture, Maynard. Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Wilcox and Smith. Fruit Harvesting, Storing, and Marketing, Waugh. Citrus Fruits and Their Culture. Hume. The American Apple Orchard, Waugh. Pear Culture for Profit, Quinn. Plums and Plum Culture. Waugh. Beginner's Guide to Fruit Growing, Waugh. SMALL FRUITS 141 CHAPTER XVI SMALL FRUITS Importance of Growing Small Fruits — The growing of small fruits is profitable. Whether the fruit is grown for market, or for home use, the size of the fruit garden should not be so large that it cannot receive proper care. It should be planned so most of the cultivation can be done with a horse. This will save much time, and enable one to care for a larger area than he could otherwise. THE STRAWBERRY Strawberries are easy to raise and the yield is large. A strawberry bed containing 5 or 6 square rods will furnish fruit enough for the average family. The plants multiply rapidly from the runners which they send out. The Soil and Its Preparation — Light soil is better than heavy for strawberry plants. A cultivated crop should be grown on the land for at least one year previous to the setting out of the plants in order that weeds may be kept out and the larvae of grass root loving insects destroyed as much as possible. Before setting the plants, the soil should be plowed deeply and thoroughly pulverized by means of a harrow. The surface should be left smooth. Nitrogen and potash 142 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE fertilizers should be applied. The best way to apply these is in the form of well decomposed barnyard manure. Potash can be supplied by applying unleached wood ashes. Selection of Plants — Only the varieties that succeed best in your locality should be planted. (See the Appen- dix.) Young plants with an abundance of roots with small crowns, as shown in the illustration, should be selected. Setting the Plants — It is very important that straw- berry plants be set at the right depth. Care should be taken that the crown is not covered and that the roots are spread out. They should be planted about 1 8 inches apart, in rows 4 feet apart. Perfect and Imperfect Flowers — Strawberry plants bearing imperfect flowers will not be productive unless some plants bearing perfect flowers are planted near them. For this reason it is best to set every third row with plants bearing perfect flowers. Treatment of Vines — The object the first year is to produce a vigorous growth of plants; therefore, the blossoms should be picked the first season to keep the plants from bearing. This causes the plants to become strong so they are better able to produce fruit the second year. The vines should not be allowed to run together in a solid mat. They may be allowed to mat in the rows, but they should be cultivated between the rows. SMALL FRUITS 143 Mulching — A mulch acts as a protection against freezing and thawing. Marsh hay, or straw free from weed seeds, is commonly used for this purpose. In the North it is best to put the mulch on as soon as the ground Fig. 99. Strawberry Plant With Good Roots and Small Crown a, whole plant ; b, showing where to prune ; c, plant properly pruned begins to freeze. In cold countries it is a good plan to leave the mulch on late in the spring because the blossoms, thus retarded, are not so apt to freeze. The mulch can then be raked between the rows and left on until the 144 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE berries are picked. In this way it serves to keep down the weeds, and to prevent the earth from being washed against the fruit when there are heavy showers. Picking the Berries — Berries picked for market sell best when they are graded and placed in quart or pint boxes. The grading is done as the berries are picked from the vines. Fig. 100. Matted-Row Cultivation of Strawberries Treatment of the Strawberry Bed After the Berries Are Harvested — After the strawberries are picked, the mulch, if any has been used, should be removed. Some people mow off and rake up the tops of the plants with the mulch and burn them. This destroys some harmful SMALL FRUITS 145 insects and fungous diseases. The cultivator should be freely used and if the rows are narrowed down to 6 inches in width it is all the better, as new plants will be formed on each side of the row by fall. Not more than three crops of berries should Fig. 101. Graded and Ungraded Fruit be picked from the a, ungraded -.i. graded same bed. After that many crops have been obtained, the plants should be plowed under. INSECTS AFFECTING THE STRAWBERRY Strawberry Root Louse — When the plants do not attain their normal size, or when they are wilted, they should be examined for lice on the roots. Frequently, the aphis is found when ant hills are present in the straw- berry hills. The lice can be destroyed by burning over the infested patch late in the fall. As a precaution, all plants to be set out should be dipped in tobacco water made by steeping one pound of tobacco in a gallon of water for a half hour. Strawberry Leaf Roller — There are two or more broods of this insect a year. Their presence is easily detected by the folded leaves. This insect spends all of its life above the ground; hence it can be easily destroyed by burning over the patch soon after the fruiting season. 146 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE THE RASPBERRY The two varieties of raspberries are the red and the black. They multiply from suckers that grow from the roots or by the ends of the branches taking root in the ground. The plants begin to bear fruit when they are two years old. The Soil — Raspberries thrive well on moderately rich soils. The preparation of the soil should be the same as for the strawberry. Fertilizers may be applied in the shape of barnyard manure or commercial fertilizers. Planting and Cultivating — The plants are usually set about 4 feet apart, in rows 5 or 6 feet apart. At first they should be cultivated in both directions. Later the plants may be allowed to form a hedge, at which time cultivation will be in one direction only. Pruning — The top buds of the young shoots, which spring from the roots, should be pinched off. This will cause the growth of more side branches, which will bear fruit the following year. All the old canes that have borne fruit, as well as all diseased shoots, should be cut out. Preparation of Plants for Winter — In cold climates it is sometimes necessary to protect the plants by bending them over and covering them with straw. EXPERIMENTS AND EXERCISES 1. Find out from fruit growers what the average yield of small fruit is in your locality. SMALL FRUITS 147 2. Plan a small fruit garden on your farm. By draw- ing a diagram indicate where you would have each kind of fruit. Arrange the rows so a horse can be used in cultivating. 3. Cover the end of a strawberry runner with earth and see how long it is before the roots start. See how long it takes for the roots to become an inch long. Count the number of plants that have grown from one old plant and estimate the number of plants there will be next year if each of the young plants produces as many as the old one did. 4. Bend over some black raspberry (black-cap) plants and cover the tips with earth. Notice how roots form. 5. Get catalogs from nurserymen in your state and study the varieties of ^ach kind of fruit. Which stand frost best? Which are best for marketing? Which are best for table use? 6. Make a list of the varieties of strawberries and raspberries best suited to your locality as given in the Appendix. Place the list in your notebook. Ask the farmers which they prefer. Compare these with your list. 7. Find out the cost of strawberry plants for setting an acre, and the cost of caring for them until the strawberry patch is three years old. Find out the average yield per acre in your locality, and the average price of the berries. Compute the profit per acre. Make an outline, including the following: 148 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE THE STRAWBERRY 1. Kinds of plants suited to your locality^ 2. The best soil for strawberries 3. Preparation of the soil (1) It must be plowed. (2) It should be pulverized with a harrow and left with a smooth surface. (3) It may be necessary to apply fertilizers in the shape of barn- yard manure or wood ashes. 4. Selection of plants. Young plants with a good root growth and small crowns should be selected. r(l) Plants must be set at the proper 5. Setting the plants^ time. L(2) The roots should be spread out. 6. Imperfect varieties should have perfect varieties near them. 7. Treatment of vines Make an outline for the raspberry. REFERENCES The A B C of Strawberry Culture, Terry and Root. Bush Fruits, Card. Strawberry Culturist, Fuller. Successful Fruit Culture, Maynard. The Small Fruit Culturist, Fuller. The Fruit Garden, Barry. Grape Culturist, Fuller. Systematic Pomology, Waugh. Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Wilcox and Smith. FORESTRY 149 CHAPTER XVII FORESTRY Value of the Forests — The forest Is a great factor In the development of our country. It provides man with building material and fuel; It adds humus to the soil by supplying vegetable matter; It purifies the atmosphere; it serves as a windbreak and tempers the climate; It acts as a sponge for holding water, which drains off gradually, thus supplying streams with water In times of drouth and preventing disastrous floods. Destruction of Forests — Careless methods of lumbering and forest fires are responsible for the vanishing forests. It is common to see a forest completely spoiled in one cutting. Not only Is the young growth destroyed, but the tops of the trees and the limbs are left on the ground to furnish food for fires. The annual loss of forests due to fires amounts to millions of dollars. Forest fires are generally the result of carelessness. They are frequently caused by allowing fires to run while clearing land. Sometimes they are the result of camp fires. Sometimes a spark from a hunter's pipe, or from a locomotive, is sufficient to start them. High taxes on timber lands have forced many of the owners to cut all the timber without regard for the future growth. Of course, when 150 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE the forest is gone the owner does not have to pay taxes on the timber, but sometimes the land is of little value after the timber has been removed. Preservation of Forests — "Every civilized country in the world, except China and Turkey, practices forestry. Fig. 102. Destructive Lumbering The countries of Europe and Asia, taken together, have passed through all the stages of forest history and applied all the known principles of forestry. They are rich in forest experience. The lessons of forestry were brought home to them by hard knocks. Their forest systems FORESTRY 151 were built up gradually as the result of hardship. They did not first spin fine theories and then apply those theories by main force. On the contrary, they began by facing disagreeable facts. Every step of the way toward wise forest use, the world over, has been made at the sharp spur of want, suffering, or loss. As a result, the science of forestry is one of the most practical and most directly useful of all the sciences. It is serious work, undertaken as a measure of relief, and continued as a safeguard against future calamity. "Those countries which today manage their forests on sound principles have passed through four stages of forest experience. At first the forests were so abundant as to be in the way, and so they were either neglected or destroyed. Next, as settlements grew and the borders of the forests receded farther and farther from places where wood was needed and used, the question of local wood supplies had to be faced, and the forest was spared or even protected. Third, the increasing need of wood, together with better knowledge of the forest and its growth, led to the recognition of the forest as a crop, like agricultural crops, which must be harvested and which should therefore be made to grow again. In this stage silviculture, or the management of the forest so as to encourage its continued best growth, was born. Finally, as natural and industrial progress led to meas- ures for the general welfare, including a wiser and less 152 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE wasteful use of natural resources, the forest was safe- guarded and controlled so as to yield a constant maximum produce year after year and from one generation to another. Systematic forestry, therefore, applied by the Fig. 103. A Tree With Too Much Side Light Notice how low the branches grow nation for the benefit of the people and practiced increasingly by far-sighted private citizens, comes when the last lesson in the school of forest experience is mastered. FORESTRY 153 "The United States, then, in attacking the problem of how best to use its great forest resources, is not in the position of a pioneer in the field. It has the experi- ence of all the other countries to go upon. There is no need for years of experience with untried theories. The forest principles which hundreds of years of actual prac- tice have proved right are at its command. The only question is. How should these be modified or extended best to meet American conditions? In the management of the national forests the government is not working in the dark. Nor is it slavishly copying European countries. It is putting into practice, in America, and for Americans, principles tried and found correct, which will insure to all the people alike the fullest and best use of the forest resources."* The main principles of forestry are the same everywhere. Forestry does not aim to prevent trees being cut for lumber, but it does aim to prevent destructive lumbering. Correct methods of forestry will protect the forests and, at the same time, get the largest possible returns from the timber. If forests are to be preserved, the young growth must be saved, precautions must be taken in regard to setting fires, and various methods of taxation must be followed. For example, some states have laws by which any owner may have 40 acres or less of land exempt from taxation when it is planted to forest trees. *From Circular 140, Forest Service. 154 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE It Is sometimes a good plan to cut the large trees in order to give the young ones a chance to grow; but it is necessary that the young growth should not be injured, and that the tops of the trees cut should not be left to furnish material for fires. H m ^K^S W^ ^ ^f^^^^AP Mi^m W Pi MM if. ' ':l M^^P^Mr-jri W> y^A '<^^ tw&-i m 1 •If \ ' iTjl ttji kTJ'^^S N rlr ^IfiL^liHi "11 I 1 M -it '-'^ 1 .^ ^ i eSu^i^ 1 ' ^["^iWi ^M ^^flffir lilll o^^B ^m Fig. 104. A Group of Chestnut Sprouts a, before thinning ; b, ahei thinning The Farm Wood Lot — Every farmer who is fortunate enough to have a wood lot will be well repaid in the future if he keeps it in the best possible condition. Not only is it becoming difficult to secure good lumber, but wood is becoming scarce. If lumber is to be produced, attention should be given to quality. This means that FORESTRY 55 the number of trees to the acre must be adjusted so there will not be too much side light. Side light causes branches to develop along the trunks of the trees. Lum- ber from such trees will be full of knots. Fig. 105. Young Pine Trees On Cut-Over Lands These trees came up from seed and have not been injured by fire or by live stock Attention must be given to the young growth. Large crowned trees that take up too much room and hinder the young growth from getting necessary light can be removed with profit. When cutting wood, the undesir- able crooked trees and those that are dead should be removed in order to give more space to the choice trees. 156 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Figure 104 (a) shows four choice trees and several unde- sirable ones. Figure 104 (b) shows the four choice trees after the undesirable ones have been removed, leaving more space for their development. If possible, trees should be cut when the snow is deep, because the young growth will be less likely to be injured. The brush should be piled and burned in wet weather, so it will not furnish food for fire in dry weather. In burning the brush piles care should be taken that the growing trees are not injured. It is not a good plan to seed the wood lot to grass for pasture. When the wood lot is pastured, the young growth is certain to be injured by the stock. When there are open spaces in the wood lot, it may be necessary to plant trees. In planting, small seedlings 6 or 7 inches high should be selected. If the seedlings are much larger it is difficult to remove them from the ground without injuring the roots. The farmer should have some knowledge of the habits of growth of forest trees. The references which follow contain excellent information on this subject. REFERENCES Forest Planting, Jarchow. The Landscape Beautiful, Waugh. Our Native Trees and How to Know Them, Keeler. First Book of Forestry, Roth. Practical Forestry, Fuller. Landscape Gardening, Waugh. FARM STOCK 157 CHAPTER XVIII FARM STOCK Care of the Stock — The successful farmer has learned that it pays to take good care of the live stock. Food, drink, shelter, and light for the stock need to be looked after. This requires constant study, considerable time, and more expense than it does to raise the ordinary farm crops. If this is the case, why does it pay to have stock on the farm? Why It Pays to Keep Stock — In a previous chapter we learned the following: 1. That the selling of crops from the land removes plant food materials from the soil. 2. That unless these plant foods are returned in the shape of fertilizers, the land finally becomes exhausted and it becomes impossible to raise good crops. 3. That barnyard manure is usually the best and cheapest fertilizer. When animals are raised on the farm, most of the farm crops fed to them are returned to the soil in the shape of manure. The animal products, such as meat, butter, and eggs that the farmer sells do not take away much fertility from the farm and they bring in considerable money. 158 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE We see, then, that there are two reasons why stock should be kept: First. The selling of animal products does not remove much soil fertility. Second. Stock farming pays financially. Breeds of Live Stock — It does not pay to keep "scrub" stock. Nothing but pure-bred stock should be kept. Each breed of live stock has certain characteristics which are common to it and different from those of other breeds. A great many breeds are known to the world, but we need to consider only a few of the most important ones. CATTLE 159 CHAPTER XIX CATTLE Classes of Cattle — Cattle may be divided into two great classes or types. The dairy type includes the breeds most valuable for milk, butter, and cheese. The beef type includes the breeds especially valuable for beef. The Dairy Type — The form of a dairy cow presents a wedge-shaped appearance. This is true whether the cow is looked at from behind, from the side, or from above. In general appearance the dairy cow is loose and angular. The head of a dairy cow is small and the mouth large. The udder should be wide and full, extending well forward and high up in the back between the thighs. The milk veins should be large and extend forward, with numerous branches. Jersey Cattle— This popular breed of cattle originated on the island of Jersey near France. In order to keep the breed in its pure state, a law was once passed forbidding the bringing of other cattle to the island for breeding purposes. Jersey cattle are rather small. They always have a light-colored ring around the muzzle. The nose and the tongue may be either dark or light. Pure-bred Jerseys may be brown, light red, tan, yellow, or gray in color. 160 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE With these colors more or less white may be found. It will be noticed that the color varies more in this breed of cattle than in any other. Guernsey Cattle — This breed was produced on the island of Guernsey, where it has been the policy of the people to exclude all cattle of foreign breeds. The Fig. 106. Dairy Type (Guernsey Cow) animals resemble the Jerseys to a considerable extent, and it is thought that the two breeds descended from the same parent stock. They are larger than the Jerseys and vary less in color. There are large patches of white on the legs and on the underside of the body. CATTLE 61 There is a small light-colored ring around the muzzle. Guernsey cattle give a good supply of rich milk. Ayrshire Cattle are natives of the county of Ayr in southwestern Scotland. They are good cows for butter and cheese. While their milk is not exceptionally rich, it is above the average. The color of Ayrshire cattle is Fig. 107. Ayrshire Co\ The some shade of red or brown, with white patches, muzzle may be either dark or light If you will examine a map of the southwestern part of Scotland, you will see that the surface of the country is broken and hilly. For this reason the cattle had to 162 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE travel long distances in order to satisfy their hunger; therefore they became a hardy breed. Ayrshire cattle thrive well on scanty pasture and coarse feed. Holstein-Friesian Cattle — These large cattle, which originated in Holland, are sometimes called Dutch cattle, or simply Holstein cattle. They are black-and-white. Fig. 108. Holstein Cow They give a large quantity of milk, which is not as rich as that of most other breeds. Other Breeds — Brown Swiss, Devon, Dutch Belted, Polled Durham, Red Poll, and Shorthorn are the names of some other breeds valuable for milk. The Beef Type — The beef animal should not be angular like the dairy type. The body of the beef animal is CATTLE 163 well rounded and compact. The back is broad. It has been suggested that the general shape of a beef animal resembles that of a brick set on edge. A good beef animal must lay on flesh rapidly. Good and Bad Feeders — While some breeds are espe- cially valuable for beef, there are found among all breeds Fig. 109. Beef Type (Hereford) certain cattle which do not take on flesh properly. Such cattle are said to be **bad feeders." Cattle that take on flesh rapidly are said to be "good feeders." It is difficult to describe which calves will prove to be good feeders and which will be bad feeders; but when the difference is as marked as that shown in Figures 64 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Fig. 110. A Good Feeder 1 1 and 111, good and bad feeders can be eas- ily distinguished. Shorthorn Cattle — This important breed of cattle originated in Durham County, Eng- land. For this reason it is sometimes called the Durham breed. In color, Shorthorn cattle may be either red or white, or a mixture of the two colors. These cattle are large and of a quiet disposition. The breed will do well on coarse fodders. Although Shorthorns are prized highly for beef, they are valuable as milk producers. Polled Durham — This breed originated in America. It was developed from the Shorthorn breed, which they resemble, except that they do not have horns. Hereford Cattle — This breed of cattle originated in Hereford County, England. In color, the animals are red of various shades. The face, breast, under part of the body, legs, and a strip along the Fig. 111. A Bad Feeder CATTLE 165 back are white. These animals are hardy and can with- stand a cold climate. They are distinctly a beef breed. Galloway Cattle originated in a district of that name in Scotland. It is a hornless, black breed. The hair is long, fine, and thick, and for that reason the hides make good robes. These cattle are able to withstand great extremes of temperature. They are raised to a considerable extent in the western part of the United States. Aberdeen Angus cattle probably originated from the Galloway. They are the same color, but are a little Fig. 112. Galloway Bull 166 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE larger. They are well adapted to indoor feeding as well as to pasturing. Devon Cattle — Devon County, England, is the home of this breed. The Devon cattle were originally milk producers, but at present are valued chiefly for their beef. They are red, and do well on light pastures Red Polled cattle originated in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk, in England. They resemble the Devon, but are more popular in this country. REFERENCES The Study of Breeds, Shaw. Principles of Breeding, Davenport. Farm Stock, Burkett. Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, Plumb. Animal Breeding, Shaw. Our Domestic Animals, Burkett. American Cattle, Allen. The Wild Cattle of Great Britain, Storer. Farmer's Cyclopedia of Live Stock, Wilcox and Smith. The Farmer's Veterinarian, Burkett. MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 167 CHAPTER XX MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS Composition of Milk— The largest portion of milk is water, in which fat globules are floating. Figure 113 shows a drop of milk under a microscope. You can find some of the other things that are in milk by performing the following experiments: 1. Put some milk in a tumbler and pour on some weak acid or vinegar. Shake the tumbler. The milk curdles. It is from this curd that cheese is made. The curdled portion is called case- in, which is a form of proteid. Heat some milk and notice the scum or film that forms upon it. This scum is another form of proteid called albumen. 2. Test some milk for sugar. Use the same test as you did for testing the sugar in seeds. Milk sugar is not as sweet as ordinary sugar. It is used a great deal for coating pills. 3. If milk is evaporated in a clean dish and then burned some mineral matter will be left. Fig. 1 1 3. How Milk Looks Under a Microscope 168 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE We see, then, that milk Is composed of water, fat, casein, albumen, sugar, and mineral matter. The average per cent, of each of these is given in Figure 114. Quality of Milk — Whether a dairy cow is profitable or not depends as much upon the quality of the milk as it does upon the quantity. The quantity of butter that can be made from a certain amount of milk depends upon the amount of fat present. The richness of milk is also important in cheese making. The amount of casein in the milk increases with the amount of fat, and the fat in the milk makes the cheese much richer than it would be if none were present. Pure Milk — It is important that pure milk be used in making butter or cheese. In order that the milk may be pure it is necessary for the farmer to know how it becomes contami- nated and how to prevent contamination. How Milk Becomes Contaminated — Milk often becomes contaminated because the milker is care- less, because the utensils used are unclean, or because it is allowed to stand in the barn for some time. Milk carries diseases readily. Scarlet fever and diphtheria are carried in --mter-^ ^Min eral Matter .7% Casein and Albumen 3.3% Fat 4% Sugar 5% Fig. 114. Diagram Showing Average Composition of Milk MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 169 milk. Many instances are on record where typhoid fever has been carried in milk because the milking utensils were washed in water containing typhoid bacteria. Milk from diseased cattle should not be used. The farmer Fig. 115. A Sanitary Cow Stable should test every cow that he has as well as all that he adds to the herd in order to be sure that no animal has tuberculosis. Preventing Contamination of Milk — In order that the milk may be in good condition the following should be observed: 1. The cows should be free from disease. 2. The feed should be free from substances which 170 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE cause odors or flavors to appear in the milk. Cows should also have pure water to drink. 3. The importance of cleanliness in the dairy cannot be overstated. The cows, yards, barns, stalls, utensils, and clothes of the milker should be clean-. 4. The milker should be free from disease. 5. The stable should be light and well ventilated. Fig. 116. A Filthy Cow Stable It is impossible to produce pure milk under such conditions as these Bacteria — Bacteria have a great deal to do with the milk supply. Although bacteria are so small that millions of them may be contained in a single drop of milk, they multiply very rapidly. Many people think MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 171 all bacteria are harmful, but some are not only harmless but very helpful. Those said to cause diseases are examples of the harmful kind. A certain kind of bacteria gives butter its flavor. The souring of milk is due to bacteria which work on the milk sugar and turn it to acid. We need to use the utmost care and cleanliness in order to keep the harmful bacteria out of the milk. Pasteurization of Milk — It has been found possible to destroy nearly all harmful bacteria in milk by pasteuri- zation. This is done by keeping the milk for twenty or thirty minutes at a temperature of 150 degrees Fahren- heit, after which it should be cooled rapidly to a tem- perature of 50 degrees or less. Many dairymen do not heat the milk to a temperature high enough to kill the harmful bacteria, or keep the milk heated long enough. Such a method of pasteuri- zation is worse than useless, because it merely keeps the milk from souring by killing the lactic acid bacteria, while the harmful kind may live in great numbers. This method of cheating the unsuspecting customer into buying unhealthful milk cannot be too strongly condemned. Milk Products — Some milk products are cream, butter, cheese, condensed milk, concentrated milk, evaporated cream, and milk powder. Condensed Milk has been on the market for over 50 years. Condensed milk factories require milk that is 172 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE produced under the best conditions possible; therefore they have done much to encourage sanitary milk pro- duction by enforcing certain rules ^- » which the dairyman must follow if he is to sell milk to the con- 2, ^'. ^ b densing factory. There are two *"' " kinds of condensed milk. Both Fig. 1 1 7. How Bacteria Grow i • i ill , , , . ,.^ kmds are produced by evapora- The growth of bactena at different temperaturesduring 24 hours is shown tion. In onc kind a krgc amount here. Each dot represents a single f •1111 11 bacterium, a, at 50 degrees, seven ; Ot SUgar IS addcd tO kCCp thC baC- and h, a. 70 degrees. 700 bacteria. ^^^J^ f ^^^ multiplying. Thc Othcr kind is unsweetened. It is sterilized by heat in order to prevent the growth of bacteria. Both kinds are placed in sealed cans. Concentrated Milk — In manufacturing concentrated milk the skim milk is evaporated, and the proper amount of pasteurized cream is added. When concentrated milk is used, it is diluted with water. Evaporated Cream is a mixture of milk and cream evaporated to less than one-half of its original volume. It is sterilized by heat and sealed in cans. Milk Powder — There are several methods of reducing milk to a dry form. Powdered milk keeps well, but when it is dissolved the product does not act like fresh milk. Powdered milk has its uses, but it is considered inferior to milk in a liquid form. MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 173 Butter-Making — Although creameries make most of the butter used in this country, there are still some farmers who prefer to make their own butter. There is a good demand for first class homemade butter, and frequently a high price is paid for it. The following are the steps used by creameries in the manufacture of butter : 1. The milk is tested for fat. 2. The cream is ripened. 3. The cream is churned 4. The butter is washed, salted and worked. 5. The butter is packed. How Milk Is Tested for Fat — The Babcock test, which was discovered by Dr. Babcock of Madison, Wisconsin, is the one used in the United States. The test is made as follows: By use of a pipette, 1 7.6 cubic centimeters of milk are put into a test bottle. Then sul- phuric acid of the correct strength is measured in a grad- uate, and 1 7.5 cubic centimeters of it carefully poured down the side of the test bottle into the milk. The acid and the milk should be thoroughly mixed by being gently shaken A Cheap Pasteurizing Apparatus 174 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE with a rotary motion. The mixture becomes hot and has a dark color. The bottles are put in the tester, and the machine is rapidly rotated for five or six minutes. Enough warm water is then added to each bottle to bring the fat up into the neck. The bottles are whirled again for two or three minutes, after which they are removed. The per cent of fat can be read on the neck of the bottle. Separating the Cream — Cream was formerly separated from the milk by the gravity system. As the particles of fat are lighter than the rest of the milk particles, if the milk is allowed to stand for a time, the heavier par- ticles will sink and force the particles of fat to the surface, when the cream can be skimmed from the top. The cream sepa- rator has almost entirely replaced the gravity sys- tem because it saves time and removes a larger per cent, of butter fat. Various separa- tors are on the market, but all work on the same principle. A rapidly revolving bowl throws the heavier particles of Fig. 119. An Up-to-Date Creamery This creamery is built entirely of stone. The inside is finished in cement. There is nothing to decay and produce odors. The whole interior is arranged so that it can be washed with running water. MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 175 milk outward, leaving the lighter particles of fat in the center of the bowl. By means of a mechanical arrange- ment the fat particles are drawn off through one pipe and the skimmed milk through another. Ripening of the Cream — The primary purpose of ripening the cream is to give flavor to the butter. It is also thought that if the cream is allowed to ripen or sour it will churn easier and produce more butter than if it is churned sweet. It has been found that the ripening of cream is due to bacteria. Sometimes a starter of sour milk or cream containing these bacteria is added to the fresh cream to hasten the ripening process. Such starters, however, are apt to contain various types of bacteria, and may not give good results. On this account commercial cultures or starters are prepared in which the bacteria desired for the ripening process are cultivated, while the other types are excluded as much as possible. These cultures give good satisfaction. Coloring — If the butter is to be colored, the coloring matter should be added to the cream before starting to churn. The standard coloring matter prepared from the pulp surrounding the annatto seed is harmless. Churning — A great many kinds of churns are in use. The best kinds are those without inside fixtures, such as the barrel, or simple swinging churn. The motion in churning should be such that the cream will fall against 176 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Fig. 120. Babcock Testing Apparatus 1 and 7, Babcock testers; 2, acid dipper; 3, acid measure ; 4. pipette; 5 and 6, test bottles MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 177 the ends and sides of the churn with as much force as possible. If a barrel churn is used it should not be more than half full of cream. To secure good results the cream should be at the proper temperature. So many conditions enter into the- problem that no definite tem- perature can be given. A temperature between 55 and 65 degrees Fahrenheit is generally considered best. Churning should not be con- tinued until the butter is in a solid mass, but should be stopped as soon as the but- ter gathers in small clusters This makes it much easier to get rid of the buttermilk, drained off, and the butter changes of water. After this, salt should be added, preferably while the granules of butter are in the churn, and the butter should be mixed with the salt by rocking the churn. Before the butter is worked it is a good plan to let it stand in the churn for half an hour until the salt is dissolved. Working the Butter — After the salt is dissolved the butter should be worked by pressure. A convenient apparatus is the lever butter worker. The working should cease as soon as the butter is thoroughly mixed. Fig. 121. Barrel Churn The buttermilk should be rinsed with two or three 178 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE and the excessive moisture removed. If the working is continued too long, the butter will have a greasy texture. Packing — To bring a good price the butter should be made attractive by being molded and wrapped in parch- ment paper, or in suitable cartons. Besides using this method of packing, creameries pack large amounts of butter in tubs made expressly for the pur- pose. Cheese Making — There are over 200 varieties of cheese made in the world. All of them can be placed under two divisions; viz., hard cheeses, and soft cheeses. Under the first mentioned we Fig. 122. Butter Worker J^^^^ Cheddar, SwisS, and Edam cheeses; under the second, Camembert, Brie, Roquefort, Limburger, Gorgonzola, and Stilton. Bacteria, molds, and enzymes or ferments enter into cheese making. There is still a great deal to learn in regard to the work that each of these does in the ripening process of various cheeses. A great deal of experience is necessary in order to make cheese successfully. MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 179 Cheddar Cheese — If the milk to be used for the making of the cheese is not sufficiently ripe, a starter is used. When the milk is ripe, it is slowly heated to a tempera- ture of about 100 degrees Fahrenheit. Rennet diluted with water is mixed with the milk in order to cause the casein to coagulate. The rennet acts in somewhat the same way as the vinegar which you added to the milk when performing the experiment mentioned at the beginning of this chapter. After the rennet is added the milk gradually thickens until it is a solid mass. The curd is cut in small cubes before it begins to separate from the whey. After the curd is cut it is allowed to sink. The whole mass is then gently agitated to keep the particles of curd from sticking together and to aid in the separation of the whey. Next, heat is applied very gradually until a temperature of 98 degrees Fahrenheit is reached. The curd must be covered with some whey until a sufficient amount of lactic acid is developed, after which the whey is removed and the particles of curd allowed to mat together. The matted curd is then cut in blocks, and the blocks are again cut into fine particles. Salt is mixed with the particles. The cheese is now covered with a bandage and placed in a press. After pressure has been applied for a little less than an hour, the cheese is removed, washed with hot water, turned, and replaced in the press for about 180 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE twenty-four hours. After being removed from the press, the cheese is cured or ripened. This takes from one to three months. It is during the curing process that most of the flavors are developed. Sometimes, during the ripening period. Fig. 123. Worthless Camembert Cheese Showing porous texture produced by gas-forming bacteria harmful bacberia and yeasts produce gases which cause the cheese to become full of holes. The gases pro- duced are also apt to spoil the flavor of the cheese. In order to prevent gassy cheese, harmful bacteria and yeasts must be kept out of the product as far as possible. MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 181 The following test is sometimes used to ascertain if the milk to be used in cheese making contains gas-forming bacteria : A pint jar is filled half full of the milk to be tested, and is placed in a tub half full of water. The water must be warm enough to raise the temperature of the milk to 98 degrees Fahrenheit. When the temperature of the milk reaches this point, 10 drops of rennet extract are added. The jar should be left undisturbed until the milk curdles. The curd should then be stirred with a case knife to cause it to separate from the whey. As the curd settles, the whey should be poured off from time to time until the curd particles collect in a solid mass. The texture of the curd can be seen by cutting through it. Camembert Cheese — The chief difference between hard and soft cheeses is that a larger amount of water is left in the soft varieties. The bacteria which cause the sour- ing of milk continue to grow during the making of Camembert cheese. This growth is important. Mold appears upon the surface of this cheese. The mold is at first a pure white, but later becomes gray. The Fig. 124. Penicillium Cam- emberti A mold that grows on Camem- bert cheese. The common form of branching and spore production is shown in a, b, and c. Germinating spores are shown in d. 182 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE mold aids the ripening of the cheese by producing an enzyme or ferment. The ferment at first acts upon the surface of the cheese, but finally affects the whole interior as well. Roquefort Cheese is made almost entirely in France, where there are numerous caves of just the right tempera- ture to favor the ripening process. Private companies have secured control of the Roquefort cheese industry by buying these caves. The ripening of Roquefort cheese is due to the growth of a blue mold. The mold grows throughout the entire cheese. It is first grown on bread. The bread is then ground up and the powder placed in layers throughout the curd. The spores then grow and produce mold in the cheese. Limburger Cheese — It is thought that this cheese depends entirely upon the growth of bacteria for its ripening. Dutch Cheese, or cottage cheese, is not subjected to a ripening process. It is made by heating curdled butter- milk or sour milk. The whey is then removed and the cheese used in a fresh state. This cheese may be cured like other cheeses, but the curing process changes its character. Whey Cheese is another homemade cheese which is not cured. In making this cheese whey is slowly boiled MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 183 down until a brown mass remains. This toothsome cheese is not much used except by Scandinavians. EXPERIMENTS AND EXERCISES 1. Test milk for proteids and for sugar. Use the test given on page 74. 2. Milk testing 3 per cent, fat is said to give a low test, and milk testing 5 per cent, a high one. Find out what each cow on your farm tests. Find the average test of the herd. Is the test low, medium, or high? Bring your list to class and compare with the lists of other pupils. 3. Experiment to show the effect of unclean milk dishes on the souring of milk: Let some milk sour in two dishes. Then wash one of the dishes and scald it thoroughly. Merely empty the sour milk out of the other one without washing it. Now put some milk in both dishes and let it stand. Examine these from time to time and notice which sours first. Judging from this experiment, what would be the result of not properly washing and scalding other milk dishes? 4. Experiment in pasteurizing milk: Heat some milk to a temperature of 155 degrees Fahrenheit, then place the milk in cold water until it cools to a temperature of 50 degrees. Put some of this milk in a clean bottle, and put some milk that has not been pasteurized in another bottle. Cork the bottles tightly and set them side by 184 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE side. Examine them every day. Compare the keeping qualities of the milk in the two bottles. 5. Visit a creamery and observe how the milk is tested, and how the butter is made. 6. Place some bread under a tumbler and keep it moistened until mold forms upon it. Examine the mold with a magnifying glass. Shake some spores from the bread-mold upon cheese, and keep the cheese slightly moistened. Do the spores produce mold upon the cheese? 7. Get samples of the different kinds of cheese. Examine them with reference to appearance, odor, and taste. Make an outline of this chapter, based upon the following : OUTLINE OF MILK PRODUCTS (1) Water. (2) , (3) Casein. (4) (5) (6) I. Composition of milk 2. Uses of milk 3. Diseases carried by milk 4. How to get good milk. (1) The cow must be free from disease. (2) (3) MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 185 5. Milk products (1) Condensed milk. (2) (3) (4) ,- (5) Butter-making. (a) Steps in butter-making- ^, ((a)Kindsn^)^^f^,^- L(6) Cheese ] ^ ^ . 1(2) Soft. ((b) Ripening of cheese due to (1) Bacteria. (2) (3) REFERENCES First Lessons in Dairying, Van Norman. Practical Dairy Bacteriology, Conn. The Science and Practice of Cheese Making, Van Slyke and Publow. Modern Methods of Testing Milk and Milk Products, Van Slyke. The Business of Dairying, Lane. Questions and Answers in Milk and Milk Testing, Publow Questions and Answers in Butter Making, Publow. Bacteria in Milk, Conn. 186 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE CHAPTER XXI FEEDING THE STOCK Classes of Foods — The various kinds of foods needed by animals are: Water, mineral matter, protein, carbo- hydrates and fats. Water — As all animals require water, it is important that the stock be supplied with an abundance. Mineral Matter is used to build up the bones and the teeth. As a general rule, rations consisting of a variety of feeds contain sufficient mineral matter to supply the demands of the body. Protein is the only constituent of feeds that contains nitrogen. Protein feeds are sometimes called "flesh formers" because they build up the lean flesh and repair the waste of the body. Protein material also forms a large part of the blood, skin, nerves, hair, horn, wool, and the casein and albumen of milk. When the carbohydrates and fats in feeds are not sufficient to produce heat and energy, the body may call upon the proteins for those purposes. The farmer must give considerable attention to supplying the stock with this necessary class of feeds. Usually the feeds containing a large proportion of protein are the most expensive. FEEDING THE STOCK 187 Carbohydrates and Fats — Carbohydrates Include starches and sugars. They are used to furnish heat, and power of motion (energy) for the body, or are used to make fat. Fats are used for the same purpose as carbohydrates. One pound of fat, however, is 2.4 times* as valuable for producing heat and energy as one pound of carbohydrates. This fact is considered in the tables in this book. To make the tables as simple as possible the carbohydrates and the fats are combined. Feeding the Stock — In feeding the stock the following things should be kept in mind: 1 . There should be regular times for feeding each day. 2. The stock should be given the proper amount of digestible feed. 3. To supply the stock with the needed amount of digestible matter, it is necessary that definite quantities each of dry matter, protein, carbohydrates and fat be fed each day. 4. Protein, carbohydrates and fats must be rightly proportioned in the feed, otherwise there will be a waste of feed. A ration in which the proportion is not correct is said to be "badly balanced." A ration containing the protein, carbohydrates and fats in proper proportion is said to be "well balanced." Such a ration is known as a "balanced ration." *Sometimes 2.25 is used instead of 2.4. 188 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Feeding Standards and Balanced Rations — Balanced rations differ according to the animals to be fed. As a result of experiments in feeding, tables have been prepared which are accurate enough to serve as guides in feeding. Such a table for cattle is given at the end of this chapter. Let us make a balanced ration for a dairy cow. Turn- ing to the table of feeding standards (Table A), we find that a dairy cow weighing 1,000 pounds and giving 16H pounds of milk, needs daily about 27 pounds of dry matter. She needs 2 pounds of digestible protein, and 12 pounds of carbohydrates and fats. We also notice that the nutritive ratio is 1 to 6. This means that six times as many pounds of carbohydrates and fats as protein should be fed. Let us place these amounts at the head of our table as shown below. Suppose that we have red clover hay, corn fodder, and wheat bran to feed. We find the amount of dry matter, protein, carbo- TABLE OF BALANCED RATION FOR DAIRY COW (PER 1,000 POUNDS LIVE WEIGHT) FEED USED Pounds of Dry Matter Pounds of Protein Pounds of Carbohydrates and (Fate X 2.4) Nutritive Ratio Required by standard 27. 2. 12. 1:6 Red clover hay (15 lbs.) Corn fodder (10 lbs.) Wheat bran (6 lbs.) 12.6 5.8 5.3 1.02 0.25 0.73 5.98 3.75 2.74 Total 23.7 2.00 12.47 1 :6.23 FEEDING THE STOCK 189 hydrates and fats in each of these as given in the table of feeding standards (Table I) in the Appendix. To get the correct amount of each feeding stuff is a matter of guessing to a certain extent. We have to estimate the number of pounds of each until we get the right amount. Suppose that in making a trial ration we decide to try 15 pounds of clover hay, 10 pounds of corn fodder, and 6 pounds of wheat bran. By looking at the table (Table I) in the back of the book, we find: 1. That 15 pounds of clover hay contain 12.6 pounds of dry matter, and the following digestible nutrients: Protein, 1.02 pounds. Carbohydrates and fats, 5.98 pounds. 2. From the same table we find the materials for 10 pounds of corn fodder to be as follows: Dry matter, 5.8 pounds. Protein, 0.25 pounds. Carbohydrates and fats, 3.75 pounds. 3. For 6 pounds of wheat bran, we find: Dry matter, 5.3 pounds. Protein, 0.73. Carbohydrates and fats, 2.74. We can now arrange these figures in a convenient table. By adding the various materials we get this result: Dry matter, 23.7 pounds. Protein, 2.0 pounds. Carbohydrates and fats, 12.47 pounds. 190 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE The dry matter is 3.3 pounds less than the amount required by the standard, but four or five pounds too little or too much of dry matter is of little importance. The protein should always be nearly the same as that required by the standard, but it may vary a little. In the ration we have just made the protein is exact. Usually it will not be convenient to get so close a result. In our ration we have 0.47 of a pound too much of carbo- hydrates and fats, but that is near enough. It should be remembered that balanced rations which are approximately correct are all that are necessary in feeding. Cost of Feeding — The great problem of the farmer is to use those feeds that will produce the best results with the least expense. It is not always the cheapest feeds that will do this. Frequently it is best to sell some feeds having a wide ratio and buy others having a narrow ratio.* Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs — Some feeds have more manurial value than others. This should be con- sidered in making a profitable ration and in determining what feeds to sell and what feeds to buy. (See Table III at the back of the book.) *The terms "medium ratio," "wide ratio," and "narrow ratio" are used to indicate the relation between the amount of protein, and the amount of carbo- hydrates and fats. For example, in feeding a dairy cow, 1 to 6 would be a medium ratio, 1 to 8 would be a wide ratio, and 1 to 5 would be a narrow ratio. FEEDING THE STOCK 191 EXERCISES 1. The balanced ration given on page 188 is for a dairy cow weighing 1 ,000 pounds. From the same table make a ration for a cow weighing 900 pounds. 2. Make a ration of corn, red clover hay, corn stover, wheat bran, and linseed meal for fattening cattle (per 1 ,000 pounds live weight) in the third or finishing period by filling in the following table: BALANCED RATION FOR FATTENING CATTLE (PER 1,000 POUNDS) FEED USED Dry Matter Protein Carbohydrates and (Fats X 2.4) *Required by standard 26. 2.7 16.7 Corn (10 lbs.) Red clover hay (10 lbs.) Corn stover (5 lbs.) Wheat bran (5 lbs.) Linseed meal, N. P. (2 lbs.) Total ___ 3. Make a ration for fattening cattle in the third period. Use 10 pounds of corn, 5 pounds of barley screenings, 10 pounds of alsike clover, and 2 pounds of linseed meal. Arrange these in a table similar to the one in Exercise 2. Do you think this ration is exact enough for practical purposes? 4. Make a ration for growing dairy cattle 6 to 12 months old (weight 500 pounds). Include in this *From Table A. 192 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE ration red clover hay, wheat bran, and linseed meal. 5. Make a ration for a dairy cow weighing 1,000 pounds, using such feeds as are commonly used on your farm. TABLE A. FEEDING STANDARDS FOR CATTLE* (A day and per 1000 pounds live weight, except where otherwise stated) Uve Weight (pounds) Dry Matter (pounds) Digestible Nutrients ANIMAL Protein (pounds) Carbohy- drates and (Fatsx2.4) Nutritive Ratio (pounds) (1) Oxen, at rest in stall 1000 18 0.7 8.2 1:11.8 (2) Fattening Cattle First, or preliminary period 1000 30 2.5 16.2 1: 6.5 Second, or main period 1000 30 3.0 16.2 1: 5.4 Third, or finishing period 1000 26 2.7 16.7 1: 6.2 (3) Milch Cows Yielding 10 lbs. milk daily 1000 25 1.6 10.7 1: 6.7 Yielding 16.5 lbs. milk daily 1000 27 2.0 12.0 1: 6.0 Yielding 22. lbs. milk daily 1000 29 2.5 14.2 1: 5.7 Yielding 27.5 lbs. milk daily 1000 32 3.3 14.8 1: 4.5 Age. Months - 2-3 150 3.5 0.6 2.7 1: 4.5 (4) Growing Cattle (Dairy breeds) 3-6 6-12 12-18 300 500 700 7.2 13.5 18.2 0.9 1.0 1.26 4.56 6.8 9.43 1: 5.1 1: 6.8 1: 7.5 L 18-24 900 23.4 1.35 11.45 1: 8.5 r 2-3 160 3.7 0.67 2.84 1: 4.2 (5) Growing Cattle (Beef breeds)" 3-6 6-12 330 550 7.9 13.8 1.16 1.37 5.41 8.18 1: 4.7 1: 6.0 12-18 750 18.0 1.5 10.20 1: 6.8 1 18-24 950 22.8 1.71 12.31 1: 7.2 *Adapted from Henry's "Feeds and Feeding." FEEDING THE STOCK 193 6. Place the tables you have made in your notebook for future reference. REFERENCES Feeding Farm Animals, Shaw. Feeds and Feeding, Henry. Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Wilcox and Smith. Principles of Animal Nutrition, Armsby. Farmer's Cyclopedia of Live Stock, Wilcox and Smith. The Management and Feeding of Cattle, Shaw. 194 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE CHAPTER XXII HORSES Origin of the Horse — It is believed that all breeds of horses have descended from the same parent stock. The difference in surroundings are believed to be largely the cause of the variations of the types of horses. For example, where there was plenty of feed and a mild climate the early horses developed large bodies and heavy limbs; but where the feed was scarce and the climate cold a smaller type of horse was developed. Breeds — The various breeds may be classed as draft horses, roadster breeds, coach horses, and ponies. DRAFT HORSES The draft horse is large and heavy. The back is broad and the legs short. In general, the depth of the body should be about the same as the length of the leg. The draft horse should have upright shoulders in order to provide a proper support for the collar. Percheron, French Draft, Clydesdale, English Shire, Belgian Draft, and Suffolk Punch horses are some of the breeds of draft horses. The Percheron was developed in the district of La Perche in France. A horse of this type is white, gray. Prize Percheron Stallion HORSES 195 black, or dark brown, with an intelligent head, rather small ears and eyes, strong shoulders and chest, a plump body, short legs, and well-shaped hoofs. It makes a good farm horse, because it is gentle, strong, and active. The French Draft — This breed of horse is similar to the Percheron. - . -.J^ » .,-«>--. r~~r^ ~ ~ , , .,,.,-.,,, .7^ 'f'' --*--?2^ n g^^^u —yi - Fig. 125. Percheron Stallion The Clydesdale horse is a native of Scotland. Horses of this type are black, bay, or chestnut, with white markings. They have long hair on the lower part of the legs. The neck is arched and muscular, the head is generally of good shape, and the shoulders are sloping. The Clydesdale is^ a popular farm horse in this country. 196 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE The English Shire horse was developed in England. He is more massive than the Clydesdale, but lacks the quality of the latter breed. Fig. 126. Belgian Draft Stallion The Belgian Draft Horse was developed in Belgium. The older types were fat, unattractive, and not good for hard work. They have been greatly improved, how- HORSES 197 ever, and many have been sold in recent years at the Chicago market. Horses of this breed are easy keepers. There seem to be no characteristic colors for this breed; red and blue roans are common, also browns and bays. Fig. 127. Suffolk Stallion The Suffolk Punch — A horse of this type has a long body, and short, light-boned legs. Horses belonging to this breed are a chestnut or sorrel. They are easy keepers. Few of them are used in this country. ROADSTER BREEDS Horses of this type are of light weight, with long legs, heads set gracefully on the long, slender neck, and shoul- •'■ \ ■ ' ■m fli *5 ' ' ,5 ""I & 1- -S^ II^^^^^^^^^^^^HBMHRi^^^^^ »J H^^H^^^^p ' f^^i-i ^R^w ' ■••■•^^ 4^v ^^ '^' -^ ' ^K ^#.,'™' ^^^■^R '^mp ^B»»:j ;'f B ffc* '^^hI^^^b ^^^b* 4 -• '^ -^m^ ft ju^P ""*'* vV^^^^hI ^ ^ ^^^^ ^^ fl^^H^^H ■■•^ ^ ''Ikk. -f^^^^^H| ^^ fllH -M|| f^^^H^^ ^ ^'^■pl ^JHH^^^Hk ^ 1 m^^JK^^' "'^^^^^^^^hIH^I^IIk m SWINE 213 Breeds of Swine — Swine are generally classified, accord- ing to size, into small, medium, and large breeds. For our purpose we shall simply consider the important breeds without any attempt to classify them. The principal breeds are Poland China, Berkshire, Duroc-Jersey, Tam- worth, Large Yorkshire, and Chester White. The Poland China originated in Ohio. Its color is black and white in patches. The head is short and thick,* the face is dished, and the ears are drooping. This is a popular breed in the United States. The Berkshire is black, with some white on the head, feet, and the end of the tail. The head is short, the face dished, and the ears erect. Animals of this breed do Fig. 138. Berkshire Hog 214 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE well in pasture. They are raised to a considerable extent in the South. The Duroc- Jersey is red or yellow, with occasional spots of black. The head is short, with a slightly dished face, the ears drooping, the body long, and the hair thick and coarse. These hogs are good feeders, are easily fattened, and grow rapidly. The Tamworth-This hardy breed is of English origin. In color the Tarn worths are various shades of red. The nose is long and straight, the ears erect, and the legs long. The Large Yorkshire — The Yorkshires have long, narrow bodies, erect ears, and dished faces. The Chester White is preferred to this breed in the United States. ^^^^^^^^H' t.'fi'j':' "" ^ 1 ^PM|" 1 ^'' ^^' ff-- i ||y ^HMiiyi^^^^^^__^i^ ^r.I~^^^!^.i,.^ M Fig. 139. Duroc- jersey Hog SWINE 215 The Chester White, as the name indicates, is white in color, but the skin sometimes has a blue tinge in spots. The breed is a native of Pennsylvania. Ex- cept in color, it differs little from the Poland China. Chester White hogs are large in size, are good lard hogs, and are raised to a considerable extent in the United States. TABLE D*. FEEDING STANDARDS FOR SWINE (PER DAY) Live Weight (pounds) Dry Matter (pounds) Digestibl i Nutrients ANIMAL Protein (pounds) Carbohy. drates and (Fats X 2.4) Nutritive Ratio (pounds) Fattening swine First period 100 3.6 0.45 2.66 1:5.9 Second period 100 3.2 0.40 2.52 1:6.3 Third period 100 2.5 0.27 1.89 1:7.0 Growing swine (breeding stock) Age in Months 2-3 50 2.2 0.38 1.52 1:4.0 3-5 100 3.5 0.50 2.50 1:5.0 5-6 120 3.8 0.44 2.67 1:6.0 6-8 200 5.6 0.56 3.88 1:7.0 8-12 250 6.3 0.53 3.95 1:7.5 Growing fattening swine Age in Months 2-3 50 2.2 0.38 1.52 1:4.0 3-5 100 3.5 0.50 2.50 1:5.0 5-6 150 5.0 0.65 3.56 1:5.5 6-8 200 6.0 0.72 4.29 1:6.0 8-12 300 7.8 0.90 5.70 1:6.4 *Adapted from Henry's "Feeds and Feeding." 216 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Fig 140. Tamworth Hog ^K , ^ ^ '^B^^B ■i^j -JJYrJ^ir'Nr* v^'^^^^IM '^ ^^IHk^^ s^%^^*^^ ■IHi^S l^-s* ™-W"*W ^^ Fig. 141. Chester White Hog SWINE 217 EXERCISES 1. Observe the various breeds of swine raised in your locality. Which breeds are raised to the greatest extent ? 2. Make a ration consisting of skimmed milk and corn for a pig weighing 150 pounds. 3. A hog weighing 150 pounds is to be fed whey, middlings, and corn. Make a ration adapted for the purpose. 4. Make a ration for a hog weighing 200 pounds. Include corn and middlings in the ration. REFERENCES Swine in America, Coburn. Diseases of Swine, Craig. Farmer's Cyclopedia of Live Stock, Wilcox and Smith. Swine Husbandry, Coburn. The Hog Industry, Rommel. Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, Plumb. Our Domestic Animals, Burkett. 218 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE CHAPTER XXV POULTRY CHICKENS Breeds of Chickens — Pure-bred chickens require no more food or care than inferior fowls. It pays to keep them. There are over 100 standard varieties in this country, but only a few of them are popular. The breedsof chickens may be divided into the follow- ing classes: 1 . Egg Breeds. Those kept chief- ly for the eggs which they pro- Fig. 142. White Leghorn Hen i 2. Meat breeds. Those valuable for table use. 3. General purpose breeds. Those valuable both for eggs and for table use. Egg Breeds. The principal egg breeds are the Leg- horns, the Minorcas, and the Hamburgs, with several varieties in each breed. POULTRY 219 Leghorns are rather small fowls with large red combs and wattles. Brown, white, black, and buff are the prevailing colors. Leghorns are excellent egg producers and very rarely want to sit. They should not be kept in close confinement. Minorcas — Minorcas are either black or white. The black variety is preferred. The breed resembles the Leghorns somewhat, but the fowls are larger, have larger combs, and their ear lobes are pure white. The Minorcas are practically non-sitters and very good lay- Fig. 143. Black Minorca Cockerel ers. Hamburgs — The six varieties which compose this breed are all attractive birds. They are light feeders, and good layers, but the eggs are rather small. They are practical- ly non-sitters. Fig. 1 44. Silver Spangled Hamburg Cockerel 220 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Meat Breeds — Brahmas, Cochins, Langshans, and Indian Game are classed under meat breeds. Brahmas — There are two varieties of this popular breed, the Light and the Dark. The Light Brahmas are pre- ferred. They are very large fowls with small combs. Fig. 145. Light Brahmas The feet are more or less covered with feathers, as shown in the illustration. They lay large, brown eggs, are good sitters, and can be kept in close confinement. Cochins — There are four varieties of Cochins: Buff, Partridge, Black, and White. They rank next to the POULTRY 221 Brahmas in size, being slightly smaller. They are very hardy, fair layers, and good sitters. Langsham — There are two varieties of this fowl. Light and Black. They are fair layers and good sitters. The Indian Game is distinctly a meat breed. They are good sitters but poor layers. General Purpose Breeds — Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds, and Orpingtons are the most popular gen- eral purpose breeds. Other general purpose breeds are the Hou- dan, the Java, and the Dominique. Fig. 146. Buff Cochin Hen Fig. 147. Pair of Langshans The Plymouth Rocl^s — For general purpose fowls the various varieties of Plymouth Rock are probably the 222 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE most popular of all breeds, with the barred in the lead. The fowls are good layers and good sitters. Wyandottes — There are eight varieties of this breed, which ranks close to the Plymouth Rock in popularity. They are about the same size as the Plymouth Rock, are very hardy, easily cared for, and bear close confine- ment well. They are good layers and sitters. The Houdans — All Houdans have a large top-knot of feathers on the head, as shown in the illustration. They have five toes on each foot instead of four, the usual number. They are good fowls for table use, are good layers, and non-sitters, but their top-knots make them unpopular as farm fowls. Care of Chickens — In order to produce eggs, chickens must be given suitable feeds. They must be sheltered from cold or disagreeable weather. Sometimes they must receive attention in regard to diseases. Most diseases of chickens are the result of insanitary and improper conditions. Location and Kind of Poultry House — It is very impor- tant that a dry place be selected for the poultry house. A porous soil is preferable to one of clay, because it can be kept in a more sanitary condition. If possible, a southern or an eastern slope should be chosen. As chickens like plenty of sunshine, the building should be lighted by windows on the southern side. The floor POULTRY 223 should be covered with some material to make the chick- ens scratch for their feed. Clean straw, either cut or „ 'sJf~*'^ Fig. 148. Barred Plymouth Rock Cock 224 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE whole, placed about six inches deep on the floor, is excel- lent for this purpose. In the fall some dry dust from the road should be placed in boxes or barrels for winter use. A box of this should be kept where the chickens can take a dust bath whenever they choose. This will do much to keep them free from lice. It is an excellent plan to have a scratching shed with an open front facing the south, so the chickens will get plenty of sunshine. In mild weather they should have an inclosure to run in. Cleanliness — The walls and roosts should be sprayed frequently with whitewash. No filth should be allowed in the scratching shed or in the yards. The chickens should be supplied with water. A convenient way of doing this is to place the pan on a shelf about 8 inches from the floor, and have a cover above the pan, as shown in the illustration. This arrangement will prevent the chickens from getting into the pan. Feeding — When hens are allowed to roam at will they eat grains, green feeds, insects, worms, and grit. It has been found that if hens are to lay well when confined in winter, they must be given such feeds as they eat when allowed to roam in summer. A variety of grain should be fed in small quantities. The fowls must receive plenty of green feeds, such as cabbages, turnips, beets, and potatoes. These may be chopped fine, cut in two and left on the floor, or hung on a string at a convenient Every boy and girl can raise good poultry POULTRY 225 height. When the latter method is used, the fowls will get considerable exercise. Clover hay cut fine may be fed after boiling water is poured over it and it is allowed to stand a few hours. Animal matter should be fed to take the place of insects. Chopped meat scraps or animal meal may be used for this purpose. Green cut bone should be fed. When starting to feed green cut bone, not over one pound a day should be given to every 40 hens. After they are used to the cut bone, one pound for every 20 hens is suffi- cient. A bone cutter is a convenience, and where a large number of chickens is kept it is a necessity. Milk makes an excellent feed for poultry. When sour milk is fed, too much must not be given. Crushed oyster shells, old mortar, and fine gravel should be fed. When chickens are properly fed and cared for there is no reason why they should not lay as well in winter as in summer. Incubators and Brooders — By means of the incubator and the brooder it is possible to hatch eggs and raise chickens without setting hens. Fig. 149. Water Pan With Cover Fig. 150. Brown China Geese POULTRY 227 DUCKS Ducks can easily be raised on the farm. If they have access to a swimming pond they will obtain much food from it, but they can be raised just as well without it. The natural food of the duck consists of grasses, small fishes, insects, etc. For this reason ducks should not be fed much hard grain. The feathers of the duck serve to keep out almost any amount of cold. On this account they do not need as warm houses as chickens do. So long as a duck can keep its feet warm the rest of its body will be comfortable. While it is the nature of the duck **to take to water," it must not be kept in a damp place. This means that the duck house must be dry. GEESE Geese must have free range of water if they are to be raised successfully. They cannot be raised profitably in such large numbers as ducks can, yet there are usually some places on the farm that are not good for anything else. Lands having streams or springs in them make good goose pastures. TURKEYS The meat of the turkey always brings a high price in the market. The turkey is of a roving disposition and does not do well when kept in confinement. The young 228 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Fig. 151. Pair of Indian Runner Ducks Fig. 152. A Prize Turkey POULTRY 229 turkeys are very delicate and require careful attention until they are two or three months old REFERENCES Making Poultry Pay, Powell. Farm Poultry, Watson Profitable Poultry Production, Kains. Turkeys and How to Grow Them, Myrick. Duck Culture, Rankin Farmer's Cyclopedia of Live Stock, Wilcox and Smith. Our Domestic Animals, Burkett. Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture, Robinson. The Diseases of Poultry, Salmon 230 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE CHAPTER XXVI BEES Many people have spent their lives in studying bees. Strange to relate, the blind Hubber discovered many wonderful things about these interesting insects. He was able to do this with the help of his wife and a hired man, whose work he directed with astonishing foresight. Honey Bees have been domesticated for a long time. They were formerly kept in straw hives, but no progres- sive beekeeper would think of using such old-fashioned methods today. The hives used now are built on the Langstroth principle. The frames in the hive are adjust- able, and boxes called "supers" can be added to the top of the hive. Each super contains small boxes or sections. In order to aid the bees in building the comb straight, a strip of wax called **comb foundation" is placed in each section. Each small section contains about one pound of honey. „. , „ , , „. „,. , Kinds of Bees — The hive Fig. 153. Langstroth Hive With . i. i Supers contains three kmds of bees. BEES 231 The workers are the smallest and there are many thou- sands of them in a single hive. The big, clumsy, lazy drones are the male bees, and are destroyed or driven out by the workers when winter approaches. As they have no stings, they cannot defend themselves. The Fig. 154. Small Sections With Comb Foundation queen bee is longer than the worker bee. She is the mother of the whole colony. She does not gather honey. Her occupation is that of laying eggs. She sometimes lays 3,000 or 4,000 eggs a day, laying one in each cell. Various Kinds of Cells — There are three kinds of cells in each hive : honey cells, drone cells, and queen cells. The bees store honey in the honey cells, which are also used in the rearing of worker bees. The drone cells are of larger size but the same shape as the honey cells, and are used for breeding drones. These kinds of cells 232 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE are usually placed nearly horizontal in the hives. The long thimble-shaped cells for breeding queens are larger than either of the other kinds of cells, and are usually placed in a vertical position. Fig. 155. The Honey Bee a, worker ; b, queen ; c, drone Development of the Young Bees — The eggs hatch in about three days into little white grubs or larvae. The hungry larvae are fed by the young worker bees, commonly called nurse bees. The queen bee larvae receive a spe- cial kind of bee food manufactured by the workers. It is sometimes called "royal jelly," because only the queen regularly receives it. When the larvae get older they are fed honey and pollen. When the larvae have suffi- ciently grown, the nurse bees stop feeding them and cover each cell with a porous cap. Each larva then spins a cocoon about itself, gradually changes into the pupa state, and later the fully developed bee bites a hole through the cell and comes out. BEES 233 Queen bees are hatched from the same kind of eggs as the worker bees, but the royal jelly is believed to be responsible for their developing into queens instead of workers. The drones come from eggs called unfertilized eggs, and nothing but drones can result, no matter how much they are fed. The Business of the Workers — As you have already seen, some of the young workers are nurse bees. Their \^\^JX^^^ business is to feed the larvae. 'f''-fC'\ Some of the worker bees gather 'i[ \ riArtar for honey, some make Fig. 156. Queen Cells and Fig. 157. Different Stages in the Develop- Worker Cells ment of the Honey Bee ITie long thimble-shaped cells are a, egg ; i, young larva ; c, old larva; d, pupa. Ma- queen cells ture bees are shown in figure 1 55. wax, some gather pollen for bee bread, and some gather bee glue from the buds of trees. The bee glue is used to fasten in the comb and to fill the cracks in the hive. 234 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE The Honey Gatherers — Perhaps you have observed bees going from flower to flower, gathering the nectar through their long tubelike tongues. The bee swallows the nectar and stores it in a honey sack within its body. It then flies to its home and deposits the nectar in a cell. The nectar is not honey, however, and it must remain in the cell for some time before it is sealed up. The bees are continually forcing currents of air through the hive by rapidly moving their wings. This aids in evap- orating the water from the nectar. Finally the honey is ready to be sealed and each cell is gradually capped. The Wax Makers — When the bees desire to make wax they gorge themselves and hang together in festoons while they wait for the honey to digest. The wax comes out between the rings of the abdomen. Each bee has a wonderful pair of little pincers on each hind leg, with which it takes the wax flakes from the rings of its abdomen. Before the wax can be used to build honey- comb it must be moistened in the mouth of the bee. Swarming — There comes a time in the history of most bee colonies when the old bees with their queen leave the hive and venture forth to seek a new home. They leave the honey they have stored up for the future gen- eration. After leaving the hive, the bees fly round and round the queen, moving farther and farther away from the hive. They usually collect on the branch of some BEES 235 nearby tree before leaving for their new home. The bee- keeper takes advantage of this and shakes them into a new hive, which they are generally willing to accept as their home. It is desirable to make the colony as strong as possible; hence, the beekeeper sometimes combines two swarms, or resorts to various means to prevent swarming. When there is plenty of room in the hive, when the hive is shad- ed and well ventilated, bees are not so likely to swarm as when the hive is crowded and overheated. Other methods used to pre- vent swarming are de- scribed in the references given at the end of this chapter ^^^' ^^^* Examining a Brood Frame Avoiding Stings — Many people who would like to keep bees do not do so because of stings. To avoid stings it is necessary that the beekeeper move slowly and quietly. Bees resent any quick motion, or any dodging of the head, be it ever so slight. It is not advisable to wear black clothing, as that color seems to excite bees. 236 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE A bee veil is useful in protecting the face. A "smoker" which burns wood is a necessity, especially when remov- ing the honey or opening the hive. There is nothing that will subdue bees like a few puffs of smoke. If pos- sible, bees should be handled during the middle of the day when the weather is warm. It is best not to handle them at night or when the weather is cold and damp. Some varieties of bees are more gentle than others. This should be taken into account when starting an apiary. Fig. 159. Bee Veil and Smoker Races of Bees — The most gentle variety of bees is the Caucasian. It was introduced into our country from Russia by the United States Department of Agriculture. Caucasian bees are good workers and good defenders of their hives in case other bees try to rob them. The Carniolans are also a gentle race of bees, but not so gentle as the Caucasians. They are good honey BEES 237 gatherers, and owing to their hardiness winter well, even in cold climates. Italian bees are very popular in the United States. They are good workers and excellent honey gatherers, but in wintering qualities are somewhat inferior to the other races. The Italians are not so gentle as the two races first mentioned. The Cyprians are excellent honey gatherers. They are good defenders of the hive, but their spiteful nature makes them difficult to handle. This race of bees is not manageable with smoke. The Cyrians are similar to the Cyprians. The Black or Brown bees are poorer honey gatherers, and poorer defenders of their hives than the other races we have mentioned. They are very spiteful and trouble- some. It does not pay to bother with this variety. Wintering the Bees — This is one of the great problems in beekeeping. To winter bees successfully it is neces- sary that each colony should have a good queen, that it should have a good cluster of healthy bees, that it should have an abundant supply of food, and that it should be protected from changes in temperature. EXERCISES 1. Cover a bee with a drinking glass and examine it. Notice the pockets on the hind legs. Examine them with a magnifying glass. 238 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 2. Leave the bee under the glass for several hours. Then catch another bee and place it under the tumbler. If both are from the same hive, you may see the new- comer feed the hungry bee. 3. Get a piece of honeycomb and examine the cells. Do you know why the cells are built six-sided? Why are they placed on a slant? 4. Get a beekeeper to cut out a few brood cells for you. Notice that the queen cells differ from the others. 5. Watch bees to learn which kinds can obtain nectar from red clover blossoms. You will find that honey bees, with the exception of a single recently developed variety, do not have tongues long enough to reach the nectar in red clover blossoms. Do bumble bees work on red clover blossoms? REFERENCES The A B C and X Y Z of Bee Culture, Root. The Beekeeper's Guide, Cook. How to Keep Bees, Comstock. The Mysteries of Beekeeping Explained, Root. The Bee People, Morley. BIRDS 239 CHAPTER XXVII BIRDS Birds Help Mankind — Birds are great benefactors of the human race; therefore they should be protected In every possible manner. Although some birds eat grain and small fruit, they more than repay the little damage by destroying a large number of insects and weed seeds. If all the birds were killed it is certain that under present conditions insects would have a chance to multiply to such an extent that they would ruin all plant life upon the earth. The damage that birds do is usually exaggerated. If a farmer sees a bird eat a few grains of wheat, he is apt to accuse the birds of destroying his wheat crop. He does not take account of the insects and weed seeds the birds destroy. If the Cooper hawks, the sharp- shinned hawks, or the great horned owls catch chickens, the other 50 or more varieties of owls and hawks are classed as chicken thieves, and are killed for the damage done by two or three varieties. The farmer forgets that hawks and owls feed largely on rats, mice, grasshoppers, crickets, and May beetles. In like manner the crow is credited with destroying corn fields, but is not credited for his work in devouring immense numbers of grasshoppers and cutworms. It is 240 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE true that the crow eats sprouting corn, but the farmer can prevent this by tarring the seed when it is planted. This is much easier than killing crows, and as the crows will not eat the seed soaked in tar, they will turn their Fig. 160. Baltimore Oriole Attacking the Nest of a Tent Caterpillar attention to the insects in the corn field. Bad as the crow is, he should be given credit for the good that he does. The extermination of the crow would be a loss to the country. BIRDS 241 Results of Investigations — For years the United States Department of Agriculture has had experts studying birds in order to get exact information concerning their food. The results of these investigations show that birds are great insect eaters, that there are only a few varieties of birds that eat grain and fruit to a large extent, and that the majority of people do not appreciate the value of birds to the farmer. Classes of Birds — We might classify birds in many ways. First, we might classify them as being harmful or helpful to man. There would, of course, be only a few harmful varieties. Secondly, we might classify them according to their habits, as wading birds, swimming birds, perching birds, and so on. Inasmuch as the farmer is chiefly interested in the economic value of birds, the United States Department of Agriculture suggests a scheme of classification based upon the manner in which birds obtain food. We might have the following classes: 1. Birds that search the ground for insects and their larvae. This class includes thrushes, sparrows, larks, wrens, grouse, quail, and blackbirds. 2. Birds that make a specialty of digging larvae out of the tree or shrub as well as picking up insects at the surface. Woodpeckers belong to this class. 3. Birds that pick up insects on the trunks, branches, and leaves of trees. This class includes the tanagers, orioles, warblers, chickadee, cuckoos, waxwings, and vireos. 242 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 4. Birds that catch their food while flying in the air. Whippoorwill, night hawk, swift, swallows and flycatchers of various kinds, and some of the warblers belong to this class. Enemies of Birds — Birds are reduced in numbers by man, cats, snakes, the elements, and accidents. Boys, not realizing their economic value, shoot birds for sport, men hunt them, and women indirectly cause the death of many by wearing them upon hats, and of many more that starve because their parents are killed. Cats kill an enormous number of birds. Severe storms and accidents cause the death of some birds. Many deaths are due to birds flying into unsus- pected objects, such as broken branches, telegraph wires, lighthouses, etc. As the English sparrow drives other birds away and takes possession of the nests, it must be regarded as a common enemy. Protecting the Birds — Nearly all states have laws intended to protect birds. People who study birds Fig. 161. Cooper Hawk (Chicken Hawk) BIRDS 243 become interested, realize their value, and lose their desire to kill. If bird houses are built many varieties of birds will take possession of them. Dishes of water placed where birds can have access to them, suet tied to con- venient posts, and the absence of cats and dogs, encourage birds to make their homes on the premises. In short, if birds are convinced that they are welcome and that no danger awaits them, they will be glad to live near our dwellings. EXERCISES 1 . See how many kinds of birds you can find. Observe what kinds of food each bird eats. If you notice any birds new to you, use a bird guide. 2. Observe the feet and the bills of birds to see how they differ. 3. Make a bird calendar similar to the following: BIRD CALENDAR Name of Bird Date when first seen Food Insects Seeds Fruit Robin 4. Find the number of acres in your state. It is likely that there are at least four birds to the acre on the average. If this is the case, how many birds are 244 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Fig. 162. Birds Make War on Insects there in the state? If each bird eats 10 insects a day (this is below the average), how many insects would be destroyed in three months? REFERENCES Bird Guide, Reed. Teachers' Manual and Portfolio of Bird Life, Chapman. The American Natural History, Hornaday. Bird Studies with a Camera, Chapman. In Bird Land, Keyser. In Nesting Time, Miller. A Year with the Birds, Flagg. Our Native Birds, Lange. Birds that Hunt and Are Hunted, Blanchon. Bird Homes, Dugmore. The Bird Book, Eckstorm. North American Birds, Chapman. Bird World, Stickney and Hoffman. Water Birds, Reed FARM IMPLEMENTS 245 CHAPTER XXVIII FARM IMPLEMENTS Modern Methods Require Good Implements — The purchasing, repairing, and caring for farm implements take considerable of the farmer's time. There is a great deal of difference between the implements used by our ancestors and our modern farm machinery. Contrast the methods of bygone days, when it was deemed suffi- cient to plow the ground with a crooked branch of a tree, to plant the seed by hand, and to stir the soil around each plant with a clam shell fastened to a* stick, with our present-day method of turning the prairie sod with a steam plow, of cultivating several rows of plants at once, and harvesting acres with improved machinery where our ancestors harvested square rods. No matter how small a farm is, some tools are necessary. In purchasing tools the farmer should secure those suitable for the purpose intended. He should also keep them in repair and protect them from the action of the weather. Kinds of Tools — The kinds of tools used on the farm will depend upon the crop to be harvested as well as upon other conditions. For example, if a farmer grows clover hay on land covered with stones and knolls, he would not be wise in purchasing a side-delivery hay- rake. If he wishes to cultivate closely planted rows of 246 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE small crops, he would not use a cultivator with broad shovels. The selection of farm tools is no small task, especially if the wearing qualities of the tools are consid- ered. It pays to purchase good tools, even if they cost more than poor ones. If it is necessary to save to the Fig. 163, Everything Is Done At One Operation extent of purchasing cheap machinery, one should see that the material is of good quality where the heaviest wear is. Keeping the Tools in Order — It pays to take good care of the tools, not only because they last longer, but because it saves labor. If a hoe is used to cut weeds, it will pay to sharpen it. If a piece of machinery is worn, it will pay to replace the worn-out part if the rest of the machine is all right. If there are any tools in need of repair, the sooner they receive attention the better. FARM IMPLEMENTS 247 Many times there are evidences of neglect on the part of the farmer. Some farmers will build a barn and let it stand without painting until the wood starts to decay. They will spend several hundred dollars in plows, harrows, self-binders, and other machinery, which they will often let stand exposed to the elements until ruined. How to Protect Farm Tools and Machinery — In the first place, there should be a shelter of some kind for all implements and machinery. Such a sheltered place need not be expensive. There should be some means at hand for repairing machinery. It is convenient to have a blacksmith outfit, especially if the farm is far away from town. A blacksmith outfit will more than pay for itself in a few years. All woodwork should be painted. A coat of good paint will do much to keep the wood from decaying. All unpainted metal surfaces should be kept polished, as polished surfaces resist decay. Metal parts after use should have all adhering particles of soil removed. For example, when an implement is used in sticky soils, it should not be allowed to lie around covered with mud. Lastly, there should be a place for everything, otherwise tools are apt to be lost or left exposed to the elements, and a great deal of inconvenience is sure to result. EXERCISES 1. Observe tools and machinery on various farms. Are they properly protected from the elements? Esti- FARM IMPLEMENTS 249 mate the cost of the tools and the machinery exposed to the action of the weather, and the cost of sheds neces- sary to protect them. The estimated cost of the shed is what per cent, of the estimated cost of the machinery? How many years do you think the machinery would last exposed to the weather? How much would be saved each month by having the machinery properly protected? 2. Examine the tools on your farm. Are any in need of repairs of any kind ? Do you know how to make the necessary repairs? If not, inquire of someone, or inquire in class. Is there a place for everything on your farm? Make plans for keeping farm tools in definite places. Are there any tools on your farm that have been injured by being exposed to the weather? How could this have been prevented? 3. Visit various farms in your neighborhood. Who are able to keep the most tools to the acre, the farmers who give proper care, or those who give them improper care? 4. Place a piece of sheet iron outdoors where it will be exposed to moisture, and another one where it will be dry. Notice how soon the exposed piece rusts. REFERENCES Farm Machinery and Farm Motors, Davidson and Chase. Farm AppHances. Farm Conveniences. Modern Blacksmithing, Holstrom. Farm Engines and How to Run Them, Stephenson. Complete Carriage and Wagon Painter, Schreiber. Handy Farm Devices and How to Make Them, Cobleigh 250 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE CHAPTER XXIX ROADS An experienced traveler can estimate the condition of a community by the roads. Prosperous locaUties have good roads. Good roads help to beautify the country through which they pass. They also raise the value of property near them, and save time and expense in hauling products to market. People are beginning to see that money spent for building good roads is a paying invest- ment. Good roads are cheaper in the end than poor ones. Hitherto a large portion of the money spent for building roads has been wasted. This is largely because people left the overseeing of roads to men who did not under- stand road building. In many cases, if experts had been employed to supervise the work, the money expended for keeping the roads in repair could have been used to build good roads in the first place. People have not realized how expensive poor roads are. The first illus- tration in this chapter shows a recently completed road which cost about $2,000 a mile. For 30 years farmers had been dragging small loads to market over several miles of sandy road. Now they are able to haul several times as much. In a few years this road will pay for itself. Of course, the first cost of good roads is greater than the first cost of poor ones, but very little repair ROADS 251 work will have to be done on good roads. Poor roads require so much repairing that after several years they will have cost a large amount. It is better to spend the money for good roads in the first place. -Several things are to be Grade, drainage, founda- Factors to Be Considered considered in road building, tion and surface, qual- ity of materials used, and workmanship are factors that enter into road building. Grades — As a larger load can be hauled on a level than on a road running up and down hill, roads should be built as level as possible. It is much better to have roads level and winding than to have them run straight on section lines when they go up and down hills. It takes no more time to go around hills than it does to go over them. Drainage, Foundation, and Surface — Good drainage is necessary wherever good roads are desired. The founda- tion of roads must be compact and not soaked with water. When a road is paved, the paved surface rests on the foundation: therefore the foundation should be firm. The Fig. 165. A Good Single-Track Macadam Road 252 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE surface of a road should also be firm, free from ruts, and should have a slight slope from the center to each side. In this way the surface water will be carried off. Some- times it is necessary to have side ditches or pipes of tile to carry away the water. Quality of Materials — Good material should be used when building roads. It is better to have a narrow road-bed built of good material than a wide one of poor quality. For example, a certain paved road was made wide and constructed entirely of sandstone in order to lessen the expense. While sandstone would have been all right for the lower layers of the road, it proved to be very poor material for the surface. The rolling of wagons over the surface reduced the sandstone to powder which was carried away by winds and washed away by rains. In a short time the large rock became exposed and made the road very rough. Finally the surface was covered with crushed rock of better grade. This made a good road. It would have been cheaper if the proper material had been used in the first place. ROADS 253 Workmanship — The overseer of road building should thoroughly understand his business, and the rest of the workmen should be intelligent enough to do their work properly. There has been too much haphazard work in the construction of roads. Sandy Roads — Sandy roads make traffic difficult. Roads of sand are exceptions to most rules that apply to other roads. For instance, sandy roads should not have a round surface. The surface should be flat. Sandy roads are best, when moist. They are poorest when dry. Moisture renders sand firm; hence, is not advisable to drain sandy roads. Fig. 167. Split Log Drag It How to Improve Sandy Roads — Straw, flax, marsh hay, bark, shingle sawdust, or shavings, when applied to the surface of sandy roads and covered with soil, will make a good road for five or six years. If clay does not have to be hauled too far, it can be applied to the surface. In the South sandy roads are improved by the addition of clay. Seven or 8 inches of clay is applied to the road, and the clay and the sand are thoroughly mixed while wet. The surface is rounded and rolled. This kind of a road is called the sand-clay road. 254 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE The Making of Earth Roads — Pure clay makes poor roads, because the road-bed becomes soft when wet, and water does not pass through clay fast enough to make drainage satisfactory. Excellent roads are made by mixing clay, sand, and gravel together. In preparing the road-bed, all stumps, brush, and large rock should be first removed and the holes filled with Fig. 168. A Road Machine material similar to that making up the rest of the road- bed. The surface of the road-bed should then be rolled when the ground is moist. By use of a road machine a finishing layer should be applied and rolled. The roll- ing should be done by use of a road roller built for ROADS 255 the purpose and not left to be done by passing rigs. Frequently the mistake is made of dumping loose earth and chunks of sod in the center of the road, the idea being that travel will pack and level the surface. The action of narrow-tired wheels on such a surface causes ruts to appear, and in a short time the road is in bad condition. If the surface of the road is compacted with a heavy roller, narrow-tired wheels will not be so apt to leave ruts and ridges. Of course, thorough drain- age is necessary on this type of road. The road should have a gentle slope from the center to each side so the water from rains will run off. A rolled surface is necessary to have a good earth road. Wide tires improve, narrow tires destroy a road. When- ever ruts appear in the road they should be filled. This can be accomplished by road machines or by using the split-log drag. This drag is made by sawing through a log lengthwise and fastening the two halves together by cross pieces so their edges will form a sort of a scraper. By drawing this over the road at a slant, the dirt will be scraped toward the center. This drag is useful in rounding up earth roads and filling ruts. Sometimes planks are used instead of logs for the making of road drags. Another mistake is often made in filling up holes in the road by packing them with the wrong material. For instance, if a hole in the road is filled with rock, the 256 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE material around it will pack down and wear away faster than the rock, and a bump will be the result. The holes in a road should be packed full of material like that of which the road is made. Gravel Roads — Sometimes earth roads can be improved by applying gravel to the surface. The gravel should be rolled with a road roller in order to make the surface firm. Shell Roads — It is difficult in some parts of the country to secure gravel and rock suitable for road building. Shells can sometimes be easily shells is applied to the rolled. This makes a good Fig 169. A Steam Road Roller of obtained. A thick layer surface of the road and road for a few years, but the shells wear so rapidly that considerable attention must be given in order to keep the road in repair. Oiled Roads — In making oiled roads, the road-bed is first plowed. Then crude oil is applied and mixed with the soil by harrowing. Finally the road is leveled and rolled. The oiled roads of California have been very satisfactory. Macadam roads are named after J. L. McAdam, a Scotchman. The purpose of the road is well expressed ROADS 257 in McAdam's own words: "The stone is employed to form a secure, smooth, water-tight flooring, over which vehicles may pass with safety and expedition at all seasons of the year. Its thickness should be regulated only by the quality of the material necessary to form such a flooring and not at all by any consideration as to its own independent power of bearing weight. The erroneous idea that the evils of an underdrained, wet, clayey soil can be remedied by a large quantity of material has Fig. 170. Rock Crusher caused a large part of the costly and unsuccessful expen- ditures in making stone roads." The success of a macadam road depends largely upon the foundation. If a suitable foundation is not prepared, the dirt will gradually work to the surface, while the 258 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE WmmmmB Fig. 171. First Course of Rock on a Macadam Road a, before rolling ; b, after rolling. Notice liow compact the rock is after it is rolled. stones will sink deep into the mud. The foundation should be solid, and should be of the same curvature as the finished road. The finished road- bed is covered with crushed rock. By using a rock crusher, a large quantity of stone can be crushed in a short time. As the crushed rock comes from the crusher, it is usually separated into various sizes by a revolving screen. The crushed rock is generally applied to the road in layers, the coarser layer being placed at the bottom. This layer is rolled before the upper layers are applied. For the top layer finer material is used. Telford roads differ from the macadam roads in having the bottom layer consist of large flat stones placed side by side. Macadam roads are just as good as telford roads for most purposes. It is thought by some that the telford roads are better in swampy places, but a good foundation is necessary in all road building. Cost of Roads — The cost of roads depends upon the materials used, the width of the road, the machinery to ROADS 259 be used, the cost of labor, and various local conditions. The cost of the same kind of road will not be the same in different localities. A road over which there is exten- sive traffic will soon pay for itself, but one over which there is little travel might not. In the latter case it would not be policy to build a very expensive road, while in the former case an expensive road would soon pay for itself. A road in most farming districts should not be too costly. Usually a narrow macadam road will not be too expensive. Although a single-track macadam road usually costs at least $1,000 a mile, it is some times possible to build cheaper ones. EXERCISES 1 . Examine roads in your vicinity. Are they properly drained? Do you find any ruts? Of what materials is the road made? What material should be used to fill the ruts? Is the surface of the road gently sloping from the center to each side? Has the surface of the road Fig. 172. Prosperous Localities Have Good Roads 260 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE been packed with a road roller? Suggest means of improving a particular road in your locality. 2. Do roads in your locality run over hills? If so, where could they have been built so the grade would have been less? Draw a map showing this condition. 3. If possible, visit a stone crusher in action. What kind of rock is used? Is the crushed rock separated into various sizes? If so, what is the average size of the pieces in each assortment? 4. Visit roads while they are being built or repaired. Outline the results of your observations. Q. D U a H C HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS 261 CHAPTER XXX BEAUTIFYING HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS It is just as important to. have attractive grounds as it is to have attractive buildings. Besides the satisfac- tion and comfort derived from having beautiful grounds, the farm will be increased enough in value to make improvement a paying proposition. Have you ever passed by a farmhouse badly in need of a coat of paint, where there was no grass, no trees, and no flowers on the premises? How much would you be willing to pay for such a place? Many times farm buildings appear unsightly because the surrounding grounds are neglected. Not all people can have costly farm buildings, but the grounds can be made attractive at little expense. Unsightly buildings can be made to appear beautiful by the judicious planting of trees, shrubs, and vines. Even old rickety buildings take on a cheerful aspect when their ugliness is softened by climbing vines. In starting an attractive farm home it is necessary to plan on the location and size of the buildings, the style of landscape gardening to be followed, the size of the lawn, and the amount of money to be expended. Size and Kind of Buildings — Buildings do not neces- sarily have to be massive in order to be beautiful. Farm HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS 263 buildings should not be patterned after city buildings. For example, a house with a large number of gables may look all right packed in with a lot of other houses in a city, but such a building would not look well in the country where it would be isolated. A country house should have strong lines and should not be too high. A tall, narrow building looks ridiculous in the country, especially when set on a high hill. Large trees at the side will modify the appearance of a house, but in spite of all that can be done, a tall, narrow house on a country hill cannot be pleasing to the eye. It is important, then, that the style of the farm buildings be planned to fit the location. Location of the Buildings — Before building it is neces- sary to consider the topography of the land and the drainage. Usually it is best to build on the upper part of a slope where the drainage will be perfect. The water supply should be given a great deal of attention in order that it may be free from contamination. On this account the barn should never be placed on a slope above the house, but below it. In that way no seepage water from the barn will enter the well. Styles of Landscape Gardening — It is not possible for most farmers to secure the services of an expert land- scape gardener. As it takes years of study to understand all the details of landscape gardening, the farmer cannot be expected to have a comprehensive knowledge of the HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS 265 subject. He can, however, study the fundamental principles so he will make no grave mistake from the artistic standpoint. There are two types of landscape gardening. One is the geometrical or Italian type, and the other the natural or English type. In the geometrical style, the walks, drives, trees, and shrubs are arranged according to some geometrical plan, such as circle, square, triangle, and so forth. The natural type is the one generally favored for country homes in America. This plan follows the order of nature as closely as possible. Sometimes the skillful landscape gardener combines the geometrical and the natural style in one, but no one else should attempt such a combination. Whether it is best to choose the geometrical or the natural type will depend upon the preference of the in- dividual as well as upon the natural conditions. If the area of ground is very small, the geometrical type can be used to good advantage. If the grounds are large, the natural type is best because it does not take so much work to keep the grounds in order as it does when the geometrical type is used. The natural type should not have the appearance of being constantly interfered with by man. The geometrical type clearly indicates man's effort to regulate and modify nature's plan and still have the various parts blend into one harmonious whole. 266 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE The Plan — After deciding which type of landscape gardening to use, a plan should be made. This should include all the details as well as the main characteristics of the design, and all the details should be subordinate to the one main idea which runs throughout the entire plan. After the plan is made, the appearance of the completed grounds should be considered from all points of view. It is well to ask one's self these questions: 1. Is there sufficient unity? Does one idea prevail throughout the plan? 2. Does the grouping of objects harmonize? 3. Will the cost according to the plans exceed the amount of money on hand for that purpose? 4. How can the plan be improved upon? Is there anything overdone? Walks and Drives — Only walks that are absolutely necessary should be laid. If the natural type is used, the walks approaching the house should not follow straight lines. Nature does not follow straight lines, but works in graceful curves. Of course, geometrical designs are exceptions to this rule. The Lawn — An effective lawn must be open. Trees and shrubs should not be scattered here and there upon the lawn, but should be placed at the sides and in the rear. The center of the lawn is no place for flower beds. In order to have a beautiful lawn there should be a thick stand of grass of uniform color. To secure this. HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS 267 Fig. 175. care should be taken that the grass seed does not contain varieties which will produce a mottled effect. For example, a mixture of blue grass and rye grass does not go well together, be- cause the rye grasses are lighter in color and more rapid in growth than the blue grasses. Frequently it is an advantage to use a sin- gle variety of grass seed instead of mixtures. Kentucky blue grass grows well on heavy soils, and on light sandy soils white clover is best. Redtop also makes a good lawn. On sandy soils where a mixture is desired, blue grass, redtop and white clover will be found satisfactory. In the South, lawns require grass plants which have underground rootstalks. Bermuda grass and St. Augus- tine grass is used extensively for lawns in the South. Shrubs Are Effective When Placed Near the House Fig. 176. Vines Are Artistic When Arranged in Retreating Corners 268 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Lawn seed should be sown thickly. Two and one-half to four bushels an acre is the amount usually sown. To secure a good lawn it is necessary that the land be well drained, deeply plowed, and well fertilized. The surface should be made smooth before the seed is sown. Trees, Shrubs and Vines — As stated before, trees should not be scattered upon the lawn. They should be arranged at the sides and the rear so as to leave the lawn open. A mixture of evergreen and deciduous trees gives a pleas- ing effect. Coniferous trees when used alone give a melancholy effect. Conifers, however, can be used to advantage on slight slopes. As a rule, shrubs should not be planted singly. They should be arranged in groups. Tall, upright shrubs should be placed in the center or in the background, and the lower varieties should be arranged so as to hide the bare stalks of the larger kinds. Bare stalks should not show in group planting; they should be hid by smaller shrubs or flowers. Groups of shrubs are more pleasing when they are made up of several kinds than when each group is made up of a single variety. The varieties should not contrast too strongly. They must harmonize in the groups. A person should have some reason for setting shrubs in particular places. If the walk turns, shrubs may be placed in the turn. If an unsightly building is to be screened, shrubs and vines may be used for that purpose. HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS 269 Fig. 1 77. Shrubs and Vines May Be Used to Screen Unsightly Buildings Shrubs are very effec- tive when placed in a mass near the house. Shrubs and vines are also artistic when ar- ranged in retreating corners. Vines are use- ful for hiding unsightly buildings, for furnish- ing shade, and for covering old fences. Among the perma- nent vines, English ivy, Japanese honeysuckle, five-fingered ivy, or Virginia creeper, and bittersweet are useful. When fast-growing vines are desired, annual vines, such as the moonflower, morning glory, cypress vine, sweet pea, and wild cucumber, may be used School Grounds should be models for the community to follow. The majority of school grounds in the large cities are given considerable care; but in the small towns, and in the country, in spite of the fact that nature favors the growth of trees, shrubs, and flowers, school grounds are frequently neglected. It requires a great deal of public spirit upon the part of teachers, pupils, and citizens of the community to have attractive school grounds. 270 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE When * 'Arbor Day" is set apart for the beautifying of the school premises, lasting results can be secured if a definite plan is made beforehand, especially if attention is given to the grounds afterwards. Too often the planting is done without any definite plan. Another drawback to the planning of beautiful school grounds is the size of the ground. In the country where one would expect to see a large lawn and plenty of room, it is not uncommon to see a schoolhouse situated on just a few square rods of land which must be used as a playground. A civic improvement society should be organ- ized in every school district. The purpose of the society should be to plan for the improvement of the community in every possible way. The pupils of a school can organize a society to beautify the school grounds. Try it. EXERCISES 1 . Make simple plans for beautifying your school yard. Bring the plans to class for discussion. How can the A i - ■ • ^\ 5^%.'-: % tf'' : h l'™ t^ ^'', k^'" w*^ '*: ^ w^ V' 'i^ ii^w -^: ^> '''^' :'"' '9 Wm. ■ --Si m -..1 R''.f '•• ^^ 1:' Fig. 178. A Portion of a Neat and Attractive School Ground HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS 271 grounds be improved? After the plans are discussed in class and corrected, place a copy of the best plan in your notebook. 2. Make a plan for beautifying your home grounds. 3. Observe the planting of trees, shrubs, and vines on various grounds. Make diagrams showing the placing of those that are satisfactory. How can the planting on any of the grounds be improved? Make a drawing showing how you would improve some particular ground. REFERENCES Landscape Gardening, Waugh. Landscape Gardening as Applied to Home Decoration, Maynard. How to Plan the Home Grounds, Parsons. The Water Garden, Bisset. Lawns and How to Grow Them, Barron. Ornamental Gardening for Americans, Long. Picturesque Gardens and Ornamental Gardening, Henderson. The Landscape Beautiful, Waugh. Art Out-of-Doors, Van Rensselaer. In God's Out-of-Doors, Quayle. 272 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE CHAPTER XXXI COUNTRY LIFE The problem of keeping country boys and girls on the farm has been a large one. Many boys leave the farm in order to secure the supposed advantages of the city. The country boy has not found the chances for progress on the farm to be satisfactory. Too often his home has been unattractive, his education hampered, his work tedious, and social advantages not of the best. He has had too little of the right kind of reading matter, and too little education along needed lines. Furthermore, farming in the past has not been regarded as work that required knowledge and skill. All this is now changing, but it will be years before the advantages of country life are fully appreciated. At present there is an awakening in regard to the needs of country boys and girls. As it is realized that country pupils should have some education along the lines they are supposed to follow, the teaching of agriculture and home economics is recognized as necessary. In many cases schools are improved by combining several small districts into one and establishing a large central school. Where this is done the children have advantages afforded by a city school as well as the pleas- ure of living in the country. COUNTRY LIFE 273 Traveling libraries have done much to supply neces- sary reading matter. Rural mail routes enable the farmer to receive daily papers, and thus keep up with the progress of the world as well as if he lived in town. Telephones lessen expenses by saving hours of travel. Fig. 179. In the Country There Is Plenty of Fresh Air and Sunshine There is a tendency to make farm life more pleasant. Beautiful homes, attractive schools, and modern home conveniences do much to make farm life more enjoyable. Boys and girls on the farm do not realize the disad- vantages of city life. In the crowded sections of the 274 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE larger cities the prevalence of dust and dirt makes life disagreeable and unhealthful. In the city there is too little room. Whole families live in single rooms in tene- ment houses, which are generally dark and poorly venti- lated. Under such conditions the health of the people is undermined. Children do not have a chance to grow up in healthful surroundings. Frequently the only play- grounds the children have are the alleys and the streets. Of course, a small portion of the population belongs to the wealthy class who do not share the disadvantages mentioned; but life in the city even at its best has its undesirable side. The great complexity of city life involves intense competition. Life in the city among all classes is one continual struggle. The nervous strain is great. Success is uncertain. In the country there is plenty of fresh air and sunshine. Is it not more pleasant to look upon the fields, the trees, and the flowers than to gaze upon city streets flanked with massive buildings? Is not the starry sky at night more restful to the eye than the glittering lights of the city? Is it not more agreeable to hear the song of birds and the murmur of the wind in the trees than to listen to the confused noises of a city thoroughfare? There is a growing realization of the advantages of farm life. The tendency for people to drift to the city is not so great as formerly. In fact, at present there is a tendency to return to the farm. With good roads, COUNTRY LIFE 275 good telephone service, rural mail delivery, good schools, and better prices, farm life has many attractions which it has lacked in the past. Fig. 180 It is agreeable to listen to the murmur of the wind in the trees APPENDIX APPENDIX 279 APPENDIX TABLE L Average Digestible Nutrients in American Feeding Stuffs (Adapted from Henry's "Feeds and Feeding") FEEDING STUFFS Pounds of Dry matter Feeding Stuffs (pounds) 100 86.8 10 8.7 5 4.3 100 90.1 10 9.0 5 4.5 100 91.1 10 9.1 5 4.6 100 78.8 10 7.8 5 3.9 100 92.3 10 9.2 5 4.6 100 87.1 10 8.7 5 4.9 100 83.4 10 8.3 5 4.2 100 88.7 10 8.8 5 4.4 Digestible Nutrients Protein (pounds) Carbohy- drates and (Fats X "ZA) (pounds) 2.8 0.28 0.14 4.90 0.49 0.24 4.80 0.48 0.24 4.80 0.48 0.24 4.5 0.45 0.22 5.90 0.59 0.29 7.90 0.79 0.39 10.80 1.08 0.54 46.8 4.7 2.3 45.7 4.6 2.3 49.3 4.9 2.5 42.1 4.2 2.1 54.8 5.5 2.7 43.8 0.4 0.2 43.7 4.4 2.2 42.3 4.2 2.1 280 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE TABLE L Average Digestible Nutrients in American Feeding Stuffs — Continued FEEDING STUFFS . Pounds of Dry matter Feeding Stuffs (pounds) f 100 88.4 10 8.8 1 5 4.4 f 100 84.7 10 8.4 1 5 4.2 f 100 90.3 10 9.0 1 5 4.5 f 100 90.3 { 10 9.0 I 5 4.5 f 100 90.4 1 10 9.0 1 5 4.5 f 100 91.6 J 10 9.2 I 5 4.6 f 100 89.3 10 8.9 1 5 4.5 f 100 91.1 J 10 9.1 1 5 4.5 f 100 38.4 10 3.8 1 5 1.9 f 100 34.7 i 10 3.5 I 5 1.7 Digestible Nutrients Protein (pounds) Hay—(Cont.) Marsh hay Red Clover Alsike clover White clover Crimson clover Alfalfa Cowpea hay Oat hay Green Fodders Timothy grass Redtop grass. 2.40 0.24 0.14 6.80 0.68 0.34 8.40 0.84 0.42 11.50 1.15 0.57 10.50 1.05 0.52 11.00 1.10 0.55 10.80 1.08 0.54 4.30 0.43 0.22 1.2 0.12 0.06 2.1 0.21 0.11 APPENDIX 281 TABLE I. Average Digestible Nutrients in American Feeding Stuffs — Continued FEEDING STUFFS Pounds of Feeding Stuffs Dry matter (pounds) Digestible Nutrients Protein (pounds) Carbohy- drates and (Fats X 2.4) (pounds) Green Fodders — (Cont.) Kentucky blue grass Alfalfa (grass) Red clover (grass) Alsike clover (grass) Pasture grasses (mixed) Cowpea Soja (soy) bean Green barley fodder Green oat fodder Green rye fodder. 100 10 5 100 10 5 100 10 5 100 10 5 100 10 5 100 10 5 100 10 5 100 10 5 100 10 5 100 10 5 34.9 3.5 1.7 28.2 2.8 1.4 29.2 2.9 1.5 25.2 2.5 1.2 20.0 2.0 1.0 16.4 1.6 0.8 24.9 2.5 1.2 21.0 2.1 1.1 37.8 3.8 1.9 23.4 2.3 1.2 3.0 0.3 0.15 3.9 0.39 0.19 2.9 0.29 0.14 2.7 0.27 0.13 2.5 0.25 0.13 1.8 0.18 0.09 3.2 0.32 0.16 1,9 0.19 0.09 2.6 0.26 0.13 2.1 0.21 0.11 21.7 2.2 1.1 13.9 1.4 0.7 16.5 1.6 0.8 14.5 1.4 0.7 11.4 1.1 0.6 9.2 0.9 0.5 12.2 1.2 0.6 11.2 1.1 0.6 21.3 2.1 1.1 15.0 1.5 0.7 282 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE TABLE L Average Digestible Nutrients in American Feeding Stuffs — Continued FEEDING STUFFS Pounds of Dry matter Feeding Stuffs (pounds) 100 20.6 10 2.0 5 1.0 100 28.9 10 2.9 5 1.4 100 16.0 10 1.6 5 0.8 100 16.0 10 1.6 5 0.8 100 20.7 10 2.0 5 1.0 100 57.8 10 5.8 5 2.9 100 59.5 10 5.9 5 2.5 100 86.4 10 8.6 5 4.3 100 90.4 10 9.0 5 4.5 100 92.9 10 9.2 5 4.6 Digestible Nutrients Protein (pounds) Green Fodders — (Cont.) Green sorghum Hungarian grass \ Green oats and peas f Green peas and barley Green fodder corn Dry Fodder Fodder corn (field cured) Corn stover (field cured) Straw Pea vine straw I Wheat straw . Rye straw 0.6 0.06 0.03 2.0 0.2 0.1 1.8 0.18 0.09 1.7 0.17 0.08 1.0 0.1 0.05 2.5 0.25 0.12 1.7 0.17 0.08 4.3 0.43 0.21 0.4 0.04 0.02 0.6 0.06 0.03 APPENDIX 283 TABLE I. Average Digestible Nutrients in American Feeding Stuffs — Continued FEEDING STUFFS Pounds of Drv matter Feeding Stuffs (pounds) 100 90.8 10 9.0 5 4.5 100 85.8 10 8.5 5 4.3 100 20.9 10 2.0 5 1.0 100 23.9 10 2.4 5 1.2 100 27.5 10 2.8 5 1.4 100 20.7 10 2.0 5 1.0 100 25.8 10 2.6 5 1.3 100 21.0 10 2.1 5 1.0 100 24.0 10 2.4 5 1.2 100 28.0 10 2.8 5 1.4 Digestible Nutrients Protein (pounds) Carbohy- drates and (Fats X 2.4) (pounds) Straw — {Conl.) Oat straw Barley straw Silage Corn silage Sorghum silage Alfalfa silage Cowpea vine silage Soja-bean silage Barnyard millet and soja bean silage Corn and soja bean silage... Clover silage 1.2 0.12 0.06 0.7 0.07 0.03 0.9 0.09 0.04 0.6 0.06 0.03 3.0 0.3 0.15 1.5 0.15 0.07 2.7 0.27 0.13 1.6 0.16 0.08 1.6 0.16 0.08 2.0 0.2 0.1 40.5 4.1 2.0 42.6 4.3 2.1 13.0 1.3 0.6 15.4 1.5 0.8 13.1 1.3 0.6 10,8 1.1 0.5 11.8 1.2 0.6 10.9 1.1 0.5 14.7 1.5 0.7 15.9 1.6 0.8 284 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE TABLE L Average Digestible Nutrients in American Feeding Stuffs — Continued FEEDING STUFFS Pounds of Feeding StuflFs Dry matter (pounds) Digestible Nutrients Protein (pounds) Carbohy- drates and (Fats X 2.4) (pounds) Concentrates Corn (average) Corn and cob meal . . . Corn bran Gluten meal Wheat Wheat bran Wheat shorts Wheat middlings Wheat screenings. . . . Rye 8.9 4.5 0.9 8.5 4.2 0.8 9.0 4.5 0.9 9.2 4.6 0.9 8.9 4.5 0.9 8.8 4.4 0.9 8.8 4.4 0.9 4.4 0.9 8.8 4.4 0.9 8.8 4.4 0.9 0.79 0.39 0.08 0.44 0.22 0.04 0.74 0.37 0.07 2.58 1.29 0.26 1.02 0.51 0.10 1.22 0.61 0.12 1.22 0.61 0.12 1.28 0.64 0.13 0.98 0.49 0.10 0.99 0.49 0.10 7.7 3.8 0.8 6.7 3.4 0.7 7.1 3.5 0.7 6.9 3.5 0.7 7.3 3.7 0.7 4.6 2.3 0.5 5.9 2.9 0.6 6.1 3.1 0.6 56.3 2.8 0.6 7.0 3.5 0.7 APPENDIX 285 TABLE I. Average Digestible Nutrients in American Feeding Stuffs — Continued FEEDING STUFFS Pounds of Feeding Stuffs Dry matter (pounds) Digestible Nutrient- Protein (pounds) Concentrates — ( Cont.) Rye bran Rye shorts Barley Malt sprouts Brewer's grains (wet) Brewer's grains (dried) Oats Oat meal Oat feed and oat shorts. . Buckwheat 4.4 0.9 9.0 4.5 0.9 8.9 4.5 0.9 8.9 4.5 0.9 2.4 1.2 0.2 9.2 4.6 0.9 8.9 4.5 0.9 9.2 4.6 0.9 9.23 4.61 0.92 8.7 4.4 0.9 1.15 0.57 0.11 1.19 0.59 0.12 0.87 0.44 0.09 1.86 0.93 0.19 0.39 0.19 0.04 1.57 0.78 0.16 0.92 0.46 0.09 1.15 0.57 0.11 1.25 0.62 0.12 0.77 0.38 0.08 286 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE TABLE L Average Digestible Nutrients in American Feeding Stuffs — Continued Pounds of Feeding Stuffs Dry matter (pounds) Digestible Nutrients FEEDING STUFFS Protein (pounds) Carbohy- drates and (Fats X 4.4) (pounds) Concentrates — (Cont.) Buckwheat bran ■( 10 5 1 8.9 4.5 0.9 0.74 0.37 0.07 3.5 1.7 0.3 Buckwheat middlings f i 10 8.7 4.4 0.9 2.2 1.1 0.22 4.6 2.3 0.5 Buckwheat shorts 1 '1 10 8.9 4.4 0.9 2.11 1.05 0.21 4.7 2.3 0.5 Cottonseed meal . . .1 i 10 9.2 4.6 0.9 3.72 1.86 0.37 4.6 2.3 0.5 Flax seed 1 ■i 10 9.0 4.5 0.9 2.06 1.03 0.20 8.7 4.3 0.9 Linseed meal (old process) . . 10 9.0 4.5 0.9 2.93 1.46 0.29 4.9 2.5 0.5 Linseed meal (new process). f 10 8.9 4.4 0.9 2.82 1.41 0.28 4.7 2.3 0.5 Peas 10 8.9 4.4 0.9 1.68 0.84 0.17 5.4 2.7 0.5 Soja (soy) bean , . ■1 10 8.9 4.4 0.9 2.96 1.48 0.29 5.7 2.8 0.6 Cowpea ■1 10 8.5 4.2 0.8 1.83 0.91 0.18 5.7 2.8 0.6 APPENDIX 287 TABLE I. Average Digestible Nutrients in American Feeding Stuffs — Continued FEEDING STUFFS Pounds of Feeding Stuffs Dry matter (pounds) Digestible Nutrients Protein (pounds) Carbohy- drates and (Fats X iA) (pounds) Roots and Tubers Potato i I Beet, common Beet, sugar Beet, mangel Carrot Rutabaga Flat turnip Artichoke Miscellaneous Cabbage Sugar beet pulp. 100 21.1 10 2.1 5 1.1 100 13.0 10 1.3 5 0.6 100 13.5 10 1.4 5 0.7 100 9.1 10 0.91 5 0.45 100 11.4 10 1.1 5 0.6 100 11.4 10 1.1 5 0.6 100 9.5 10 0.9 5 0.45 100 20.0 10 2.0 5 1.0 100 15.3 10 .1.5 5 0.7 100 10.2 10 1.0 5 0.5 0.9 0.09 0.05 1.2 0.12 0.06 1.1 0.11 0.05 1.1 0.11 0.05 0.8 0.08 0.04 1.0 0.1 0.05 1.0 0.1 0.05 2.0 0.2 0.1 1.8 0.18 0.09 0.6 0.06 0.C3 16.2 1.6 0.8 9.0 0.9 0.4 10.4 1.0 0.5 5.6 0.5 0.3 8.3 0.8 0.4 8.6 0.9 0.4 7.7 0.8 0.4 17.3 1.7 0.9 9.2 0.9 0.5 7.3 0.7 0.4 288 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE TABLE L Average Digestible Nutrients in American Feeding Stuffs — Continued FEEDING STUFFS Pounds of Feeding Stuffs Dry matter (pounds) Digestible Nutrients Protein (pounds) Carbohy- drates and (Fats X 2.4) (pounds) Miscellaneous — (Cont.) Sugar beet leaves Pumpkin, field Pumpkin, garden Acorns, fresh -. Cow's milk Skim milk (separator milk). . Buttermilk Whey. 100 10 5 100 10 5 100 10 5 100 10 5 100 10 5 100 10 5 100 10 5 100 10 5 12.0 1.2 0.6 9.1 0.9 0.45 19.2 1.9 0.9 44.7 4.5 2.2 12.8 1.2 0.6 9.4 0.9 0.5 9.9 1.0 0.5 6.6 0.6 0.3 1.7 0.17 0.08 1.0 0.1 0.05 1.4 0.14 0.07 2.1 0.21 0.10 3.6 0.36 0.18 2.9 0.29 0.15 3.9 0.39 0.19 0.8 0.08 0.04 5.1 0.5 0.3 6.5 0.7 0.3 10.2 1.0 0.5 38.5 3.8 1.9 13.8 1.4 0.7 5.9 0.6 0.3 6.6 0.7 0.3 5.4 0.5 0.3 APPENDIX 289 TABLE II. Fertilizing Constituents in American Feeding Stuffs (Per 1000 pounds) (From Henry's "Feeds and Feeding") FEEDING STUFFS Nitrogen Phosphoric Acid Potash (pounds) (pounds) (pounds) 18.2 7.0 4.0 14.1 5.7 4.7 16.3 12.1 6.8 50.3 3.3 0.5 38.4 4.1 0.3 23.6 7.9 5.0 26.7 28.9 16.1 28.2 13.5 5.9 26.3 9.5 6.3 24.4 11.7 8.4 17.6 8.2 5.4 23.2 22.8 14.0 18.4 12.6 8.1 15.1 7.9 4.8 35.5 14.3 16.3 8.9 3.1 0.5 36.2 10.3 0.9 20.6 8.2 6.2 17.2 9.1 5.3 5.2 2.4 5.2 14.4 4.4 2.1 4.9 0.7 5.2 36.4 17.8 12.8 42.8 21.9 11.4 36.1 13.9 10.3 54.3 16.6 13.7 57.8 18.3 13.9 31.3 12.7 11.7 67.9 28.8 8.7 30.8 8.2 9.9 53.0 18.7 19.0 4.1 1.5 3.3 17.6 5.4 8.9 10.4 2.9 14.0 9.1 2.3 7.5 Concentrates Corn, average Corn and cob meal Corn bran Gluten meal Gluten feed Wheat Wheat bran Wheat shorts Wheat middlings Wheat screenings Rye Rye bran Rye shorts Barley Malt sprouts Brewer's grains, wet Brewer's grains, dried .... Oats Oat feed or shorts Oat hulls Buckwheat Buckwheat hulls Buckwheat bran Buckwheat middlings Flax seed Linseed meal, old process. Linseed meal, new process Cottonseed Cottonseed meal Peas Soja (soy) bean Roughage Fodder corn, green Fodder corn, field cured... Corn stover, field cured. . . Pasture grasses (mixed) 290 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE TABLE IL Fertilizing Constituents in American Feeding Stuffs (Per 1000 pounds) — Continued FEEDING STUFFS Nitrogen Phosphoric Acid (pounds) (pounds) 4.8 2.6 4.3 1.6 4.9 1.3 3.3 1.5 2.3 0.9 3.9 1.6 12.6 5.3 13.1 4.1 11.5 3.6 11.9 4.0 12.0 3.5 14.1 2.7 16.1 4.3 23.2 6.7 5.9 1.2 4.6 2.8 6.2 2.0 13.1 3.0 7.9 7.0 5.3 1.3 4.3 1.3 7.2 1.3 2.7 1.0 2.9 1.5 4.4 1.1 20.7 3.8 23.4 6.7 27.5 5.2 20.5 4.0 21.9 5.1 19.5 5.2 17.5 4.0 14.3 3.5 Roughage (Cont.) Timothy Orchard grass Oat fodder, green Green rye fodder Sorghum Hungarian grass Hay Timothy Orchard grass Redtop Kentucky blue grass Hungarian grass Mixed grasses Rowen (mixed) Soja bean hay Straw Wheat straw Rye straw Oat straw Barley straw Wheat chaff Fresh Legumes Red clover, green Crimson clover, green Alfalfa, green Cowpea, green Soja bean, green Alsike clover, green Legume Hay and Straw Red clover Alsike clover White clover Crimson clover Alfalfa Cowpea Soja bean straw Pea vine straw APPENDIX 291 TABLE II. Fertilizing Constituents in American Feeding Stuffs (Per 1000 pounds) — Continued FEEDING STUFFS Nitrogen (pounds) Phosphoric Acid (pounds) Potash (pounds) Silage Corn silage Rools and Tubers Potato Beet, common Beet, sugar Beet, mangel Flat turnip Rutabaga Carrot Parsnip Artichoke Miscellaneous Cabbage Sugar beet leaves Pumpkin, garden Dried blood Meat scrap Dried fish Beet pulp Cow's milk Skim milk Buttermilk Whey 3.2 2.4 2.2 1.9 1.8 1.9 1.5 1.8 2.6 3.8 4.1 1.1 135.0 113.9 77.5 1.4 5.3 5.6 4.8 1.5 1.1 1.2 0.9 1.0 0.9 1.0 1.2 0.9 2.0 1.4 1.1 1.5 1.6 13.5 7.0 120.0 0.2 1.9 2.0 1.7 1.4 3.7 4.6 4.4 4.8 3.8 3.9 4.9 5.1 4.4 4.7 4.3 6.2 0.9 7.7 1.0 2.0 0.4 1.8 1.9 1.6 1.8 VARIETIES OF FRUIT RECOMMENDED FOR VARIOUS SECTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES The following lists of varieties of fruits recommended for plant- ing are from reports by the United States Department of Agri- culture. The original information was secured from fruit growers in the various districts. Only those varieties which have been successfully grown for years are given. Many new varieties are not included in the lists. As the districts are large, all varieties APPENDIX 293 of fruit recommended for each district may not succeed equally well in all portions of it. To find the varieties of fruit suitable for any district, first find the number of the district on the map, and then find the number in the vertical columns. The letters in the column show what qualities make the fruit desirable. For example, "t" indicates that the particular variety is desirable for dessert and cooking. A comma between two parts of a name indicates that the last part is given first. Thus, "Adriatic, White" is the same as White Adriatic. When a variety is commonly known by more than one name, the names that are less preferable are placed in parentheses. The American Pomological Society has recommended the adoption of short names as far as possible. The parts of the names in italics are eventually to be dropped. Varieties of fruit very highly recommended are marked with capital letters. A ruler or other straight edge, placed across the columns in line with the various products, will help facilitate the interpreta- tion of the following tables KEY Recommended for Marked Kitchen use a Market b Dessert c Cider d Wine e Raisins r Curing g General use h Kitchen -and market s Kitchen and dessert t Market and dessert x Kitchen, market, and dessert y Cider and kitchen i Cider and market n 294 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE IT CDCCI - . ^ CfiEQ u . ») X a >< Eh o H " Tfl 'Jl >^ -« u o >iH >^ xm o •^ H« Ux>^-H mu a - - ^ o ^ « X «« ;j - ^j: <>^ HP5P50<; . wX^m x;jO « O X- y^ PQU crXH^OU XH*-m^o:e . >i cc^>^ a - X*-J X-- ^ a cs ■gQt 1^ si -1^ ii-t'^-S-^ S^ S O 3 3^ 3^ ti £ ^ OJ O 3 5 5 o >^^ <:< pgpQpqpgmpqpqpq p; p5eQ pquoaouQQQi 3=:=3 c: i 03 eS rt APPENDIX 295 >- o u >>-< xM — CH cri-»^>^UH < ^ "^XK X ">V2 o 03 >. J2 O >, XCQ — OH « X "^ Z>hO rt 93 5JC/2 J2 X X t«cn O ;z; V >,!j H a >, :^>H c3 Xffl — O*-' X !J 'OZ X "I >^0 ^ oj *J « en x^ X wC/3 «iO ^ ^>H<->H0-^ ci*^ ^ U ■y> X^\/i XtTi'Xl'X} cdH >^x a c O 0/ 4) -a ci s 2.^ * fefi^CJ _ - 2 ^ a ^£ as ^-3^ ■S..22 2 n 5 ■" 5 55 c 2 •~" "^ ^ ^ "^ ^ -■ '-• -■ flj 3.^!^ O Cg O w.i-i ^H *-< ^ii4 ^H ^^ ^^ WM ^^ 296 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE >Hy2 >i >< -M Cfi X >j « X CO >H « >HC/2 yjHcn x--« X >^ai >-i x*^ . cfi « m CO m X « !^>H X>^ cnC/2*^>H c«XfHH 05 "xX03 ^OxUixicoo.-s CO M >j X pq o X >i X O X 03 «x>. CO >.>.jXi xw ><>-. X " ■*^>HC/3>«i-*^H fqc/3 X cS >-.^ U O "CT! O >i cc c/2 >. >< ^, X CO X >-. CO >i X U O CO coU =3 >.><{ 42 >>ix! X X CO X >,>,in « 4-. >H t/: X -^ « m u >■-« " u CO CO o cj >.><) c« c„><1 >>xy3cojH xHH ^ en X Mo OC/3 CO U-O-l X « >Hcn X X <«><)>«i>H >HC/3C«H >>« x-^-^ J= CO X eS>Hp5 oXO CO c« o C8 >HCfi Cfi>.« c«4^ :fi^< >.-£! U ■^1 o2 c _ Mc -d yi g o to s S.2 •3^1-5 ^;z;:z;;z;ooOOL,pLHiiHpLHD-P4tftftfP3p:5P5tftftf -^Q^tf 3 a a^ N tS^ ^ O S';^ 1^ O C >> 11^ APPENDIX 297 >. X >1 X X C3 pa - >^ >^ X - - «>H >^ X >H -X ^ >^ Xx^ y;>- >^ X XCfi >H « 'X m =«a "^ X >HCfiX! xx-m x>H t^XCO X XCfi >, W X . >. >^ X «>. >* X >, CB >- X X J= >H X XX Cfi >i X J3 M m j2 K X - j: X >HxxxxH^ >^ ^X2:X X x*^ . . < >v ^ »: >s y,HKH cS o - X m X c3 >> X XO u -- >: X e- ixJH" MJ2 X « X cS>H M X X X jO X>1 x>. >* X-^-^ X *^ . X JH X X>H CQX m >. > X- m 02(23 «><1 JH «>> X XJ2 m >. >> X Cfl cflp5 « X >^cfi X X x*j^ 'X X ■il 1*3 CfiCC « • :^-f ei £ .-OX «.£ oLS g"-® ■o ?P a a P^ a; 2; ^ & : S.E = = = S *** 4; rt O ^■•C^C-^^^ 4* « ^ « l* « O 298 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE X o y,'-A ccX! XJJ3 oMaa o o o><]>< ^XH>^>«1 eaX »=>«1 ->^HX >^><1^ c«><^ xj=e ^- uu o x><1f »> X>^ =4 X >«^ ><1H><^X X ^'^M ^ xcfi>^. X yM XX u XX x X X X y. . X Cfi Cfi u . " XX " u X X « xX X y XX X U o X X X « xX >< xX X Cx X . ' M ;^ '/3 X .- . tc c: X X H . 'J3 O X H '^ - Cfi Hca cfiXX cfiHX <« v,min < C M X . c x H X ■^ < '- X « m X « X'-r. C5 rt P5 . xcfi m X .X XJ Cfi . X «H « « xX^-" =" X. *-a Cfi X X cfiH cfi xcfi ^ XX P5 Cfi X Cfi X J2 t-1 Hn ^^xx Cfi-w Cfi «^ 03^73 (X! H .X . cse M X I ^05 = fr,-^ 2- 2CJ 5 p = J2 C ~ ^ o 2 £ 2 ^ ^^-a^ « 5-5 a CSS -_._-^ C. OS c3J3 0-2?3 cS^^OOi X o— l* 3 c1^ 300 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE S'O g^U X 9= >j B rt X H « g^ >. X *. >< g ^^- e<5 >< yj ^ x^ - «<; *^ X Cfi ^ =«c/.>^g- nXcfiw lXlpQ-i X >^ Cfi =3 ><) -fl X y. y J2 >- r/} X y. ^ X J2 « X J3 >H Cfi X y X X '/; X X X! >< X P3 X >. X a ' ^ 'y pq X X e c« >^ X c« X >^ XX "'Xa ^X «x>^ J= ^ Cfi X X cnx Xcfiyi X n . X =3 Uj= X X « c3 ■« XJ2 X « X ja -o c« X X X « X X cfi cs p5 «>^rt caX^pq xX ^ c/3 >«i >< X X X Xc^ X i^ir^ ^ ^ Oj2 X X MIX! cS M XJ3 X P5 xX pq X «X X XX X X OJ X xc« «^ cj coxn cs><;- = J2 X en xX X X><^ « («>«i(riP3 X xj=pq m x xX x x x « X X »: X! -a o K C ^ OS « B C "» S5~ ^ _ l|1 s 2 55 n^ fcU <<^ X u^^ nm*^ u« *^ o O X X X xxpq-^XO o XX O^ X mopam-Qwm-^ x « o x x X x« cqx««*^ X ^X X ^x« XX opaeqecQpq x u x x x -2 oJ ^1^. .Su fe:2 aj ti u oj t- - . ... g c« . c ^. . w -X 2 'X . rx . (X! « rXX) . =3 . >H . . m >j . « >. rt . « y2 cSCT! CJ >j tn e8C« ^ C3 . >/X . X xsiin '^ o^Cfi o3C«CJ>^ ^ .-< .cfiCfi g .<)->« O >,« ■ : : § c : : fe o "3 6 X g >> >^ APPENDIX 303 '.y, V v^ y. y. o c '^'^J o o o U . . ;j' o o X CJ c^CJ rtU «^ o . o o :i o o U O V o - :* - w^ X U U o cj u y. •"• y. >^ =s-^X>< - K -'^ rt>^ V3 rX V. vj u rt y ^;^ CJ x-i1 X r. :e :S X S3 X :* :t :«rxj >i «'A <;'-/3 < - O M rt - X CJ f <- X - ^x CTJII ITifl >< ->i ;. S x<*!^ !-l rrr^ -<<*; rf < X X. =* L. S II IS 5 i' 'aUJ: " ^ "^ "^ 1s a; cS , 304 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE ^ X P3 "IX >< -^P3 V} OX X HCQ X oX>^ X Hm-^cfi *<>'1 >< X o m X-a X! X o X O J2P5 X X 0) xX " o W oXX O J3S> 4> XJsXWXtXl «^ X X X Ox ^j= X XWXX! ug « X ox P5pa !u XX! X !> X « %» X O pqm o XJ2 X wo X! U J2PQ a;X-0 XX « « X O P5X! ^ ^ o - ^ S X^U i-! « O xX j= O^ xWX WW ><>< g " x^ §^ g«.o pq X X pQ w "-Q x&q « l^a X x><^ y k!^ ^ xo pa pqo X! u X >^ V X j: xj >^ " xox pq ^j= ^X x^>< x^ XO Xca X pq y X >< y-X ^— o o o ^° g: o v a a' cs j: ti tH leS i«H ii-i S i5 LT u5? ^ — «^ o t-ls o a fe 3 ma.i;.s 306 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE j:j=W C/1 D «2 « Cfl y3C/3 « . Xfl . IX! to . . « . . .« . . . ■KCfiOJ "1 . SI wt/2 Cfi cc « «C/2 ■"Cfi . . 3 S'. _g ai.2; g =s 2 s ^ I X>^><>^>< XX>^>^XX>^>< ><->^X x><>ix be :S M > WO is ■S§SSSzoiiicCo-icC&^ ;;5U n ^.mm\ 2 CO ^- to X y. - xxxx>^xxxxx-M><^xxxxxxxxx><^xXXx c« eS 5 ■*• 8c« M^ .5.*; cs.i 1) ^ >.3 o E cS i § So S 3.ti S^.^o = 2 ©"a 3 3 "c ?s X o o =3 o.Sf <*t:^ 0>^0>^^ H 05 D CO o UJ Du < D^ O Di O en O 1 UJ ~s s "o" o Du s s X X XX XXX XXX S^SplhH^ >5 to ^g o o >. 3> >J U tc s -. >i >^ >i fcc >. >* 5gouu >H M "^liH >Ji^ ^^^ggouo >. >H >.>^ >> >J ^- 3S s 5UQC!hjS; ;S0C crt 00 H *^ i> *^+^ o to *^H U •o *.- u "* HH so - o< ^ H o •W c -^ •E -o- 60 ^ a ^ ,r 1 S s l:§E-§ ^ Q 3: ZtJ^ 1 APPENDIX 309 yDfH H « ^ -nm^'^m en « ccf-i M to 03C/3H mCfi+^H-^ X »= fH- xcfiH "= "^ H U21X! tn Cfi ^J C/2 Cfi H -^ H C/3 C/3H 05 xH *^-»-' O §"121 M O >j S 3 S g £C cS cS 5 ^ 3 PS C O *' i* H >• - ^ X X ^ X xt^>< J2 P5 X X X X XX X >< « X m t^ X X X X ><5 «>^ X X X X X Xj= m X XX X X >^P5 P5X n>^, X X X XP5 xp5>< X X « XXi X Xl X X XX X X x><) Xffl X>< X X X xX X X X X ca Xn X e X xxXX X xX X P5 XmXxx X X>^x X X xcQXPsm X X xxXX « X xX « >«^eQ pqm x XX X X X o ^■^ ^x 0) 3 a 310 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE ^ a X < ^« C/; «r/2*Jn P5 X -o ' W o c/2 "I cfi +j CQ !XiX tXiMm^xicnu: vrn X pq H^ >^ irpq t«c«r/:f^q5xc/)X><'" -^ '^ ai orn X 'fQ XC/2 XX "1^ M c/i M c/2 H P3 >^ c/2 X ^PQcr; >Kcn cfi « «X pau tn HWX x>^ «U n >i e j: X o-M^ X X o « P5 - pa P5X H^ xy, o o ■^X >^ >. XUH xX u XJ X >. «H X >^ ffiXOH-Q X xXO X! J= ^ xCH« xXX o W J2 >.«>< X X o -Q X« X >-.CX oH^a X >-.-2 ■" X X o o w S< ^ ^ y. 05 « Xiffl pq xpq X P5 xqa « '7= x >« X «J2J2^ M o B xj= « a. X ^eaj2 »= i^ ^ X^ ry, X! ^ j^ J ^ o e n =« M X j: J^ J o Xe xscfix v^ xc/2a«opa « a xa c^m ;■ ^Q 312 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE TABLE OF SOME COMMON WEEDS (U. S. Department of Agriculture) NOTE 1 — This table presents the common and the technical names, with methods of eradication, of some of the common trou- blesome weeds found in the United States. NOTE 2 — By alternate cultivation and smothering of crops is meant clean cultivation during the dry season and a heavy seeding of some annual crop, as crimson clover, cowpeas, millet, or oats, that will cover the ground thickly cind choke the weeds during the growing season. KEY: A, Annual; B, Biennial; P, Perennial. Common name Technical name Dura- tion Time of seeding Methods of propa^gation and distribu- tion of seed Methods of eradication Barnyard grass, barn grass, cocks foot Black mustard Broom rape Buffalo bur, beaked horse nettle Burdock, great dock Bull thistle; com- mon thistle Jur grass; hedgehog grass. Rocky Mountain sand bur, sand bur, sand spur Panicum crusgalli Brassica nigra Orobanche ramosa Solanum rostra- turn Arctium lappa Carduus lanceo- latus Cenchrus tribu- loides July to September July to October July to September July to November August to October July to N ovember July to November Seeds; in grain seed Seeds; in grass and grain seeds Seeds Seeds; tumble- weed Seeds; animals Seeds; wind Seeds; animals Prevention of seeding P revention of seeding; culti- vated crops Clean seed; culti- vation of crops Heavy seeding; close cultivation Prevention of seeding; grub- bing in summer Prevention of seeding; cutting in fall Cultivation; burn- ing APPENDIX 313 TABLE OF SOME COMMON "^EEDS— Continued Common Technical name Dura- tion Time of seeding Methods of propagation and distribu- tion of seed Methods of Eradication Buttonweed, alliga tor head Canada thistle Charlock, wild mus- tard, yellow mus- tard Chess, cheat, wheat thief; Willard's brome grass Chickweed Clover dodder, al falf a dodder, love Cockle, corn cockle, rose campion Couch grass, quack grass, quick grass, witch grass, dur- fee grass Curled dock, yellow dock Dandehon English bindweed, morning glory False flax, gold of pleasure, wild flax Field dodder, love vine, clover dod- der Diodia teres Carduus arvensis Brassica arvensis Bromus secalinus Alsine media Cuscuta epithy- mum Agrostemma githago Agropyron repens Rumex crispus Taraxacum tarax- acum Convolvulus ar- vensis Camelina sativa Cuscuta arvensis July to November July to October June to October August to October March to July June to November July to September August to September July to October May to November August to October June to August July to November Seeds Creeping roots; seeds Seeds; in grain seed Seeds; in grain seeds Seeds; in grass seed Seeds; in clov- er and alfal- fa seed Seeds; in grain seed Rootstocks Seeds; crown- forming root Seeds; wind; crown-forming root Seeds; creep- ing roots Seeds; in flax and grain seed Seeds; in clov- er and alfal- fa seeds Prevention of seeding; close cultivation Alternate cultiva- tion and heavy cropping Prevention of seeding; cultiva- tion; hoed crops Clean seed; culti- vation Cultivation in fall and early spring Clean seed; culti- vation Clean seed; vation culti- \lternate cultiva- tion and heavy cropping; close grazing Alternate cultiva- tion and heavy cropping Cultivation; dig- ging roots in lawns Prevention of seeding; late cultivation P r e v"e n t i o n of seeding Clean seed; culti- vation of crops other than clover 314 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE TABLE OF SOME COMMON WEEDS-Con//nuec/ Common name Technical name Dura- tion Time of seeding Methods of propagation and distribu- tion of seed Methods of eradication Great ragweed, hogweed Hedge bindweed, morning-glory Horse nettle, bull nettle, sand briar Horseweed, butter- weed, colt's tail, fleabane Jimson weed, Jamestown weed, thorn apple Manroot, man-of- the-earth, morn ing glory Milk weed, cotton- weed, silk weed Morning glory Moth Mullein Narrow-leaved stick seed, beggar tick Nut sedge, nut grass, coco, coco sedge Ox-eye daisy, bull'; eye, white daisy whiteweed Ambrosia trifida Convolvulus sepi- um Solanum carolin- ense Leptilon cana- dense Datura tatula Ipomoea pandu rate Asclepias syriaca Ipomoea nil, Ipo moea purpurea Verbascum blat- taria Lappula lappula Cyperus rotundus Chrysanthemum leucanthemum August to October August to October August to November July to October August to October August to October August to September August to December July to November July to October August to November July to October Seeds Seeds; root- stocks Seeds; running roots Seeds; wind Seeds Seeds; root- stocks Seeds; winds; creeping roots Seeds Seeds; in grass seed Seeds; animals Tubers; in nur- sery pack- ing; seeds Seeds; root stocks Cultivation; heavy cropping Late cultivation Alternate cultiva- tion and heavy cropping Prevent ion of seeding; late cultivation Prevention of seeding Prevention of seeding; killing roots with coal oil Prevention of seeding; culti- vation; heavy cropping Prevention of seeding; thor- ough cultivation Sowing clean seed; cultivation; grubbing in fall Sowing clean seed; cultivation Alternate cultiva- tion and smoth- ering crops Prevention of seeding; cultiva- tion; application of salt APPENDIX 315 TABLE OF SOME COMMON "^EEDS— Continued Common name Technical name Dura- tion Time of seeding Methods of propagation and distribu- tion of seed Methods of eradication Passion maypop Pennycress, French weed Pigeon grass, fox tail, yellow foxtail Pigweed, earless weed, rough ama anth Prickly lettuce, compass plant milkweed, wild lettuce Prickly pear, cac- tus Purslane, garden purslane, pursely, pusley Ragweed, bitter- weed, hogweed, richweed, Roman wormwood Ribgrass, black plantain, buck- horn, deer tongue, English plantain, ripple grass, lame- leafed plantain Russian thistle, Russian cactus, Russian saltwort, Russian tumble- weed Shepherd's purse, mother's heart, tooth wort Passiflora incar- nata Thlaspi arvense Setaria glauca Amarantus retro flexus Lactuca scariola integrata Opuntia humifusa Portulaca oleracea Ambrosia artemis- iaefolia Plantago lanceo- latae Salsola kalitragus Bursa bursa-pas- toris August to October June to December July to November August to November July to November July to December June to December August to November July to November August to November May to December Seeds Seeds, wind Seeds; in clov 'T seed Seeds Seeds; wind Seeds; animals Seeds Seeds; wind Seeds; crown forming roots Seeds; wind Seeds Thorough cultiva- tion; prevention of seeding Burning; thorough cultivation Burning; thorough cultivation Prevention of seeding; thor- ough cultivation Prevention of seeding; burning Permitting grass to grow and burning Closer cultivation Prevention of seeding; burning Clean seed; culti vation Cultivation; graz- ing; mowing for hay; burning Cultivation 316 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE TABLE OF SOME COMMON WEEDS-Coniinued Common Technical name Dura- tion Time of seeding Methods of propagation and distribu- tion of seed Methods of eradication Small carrot, bristly carrot, southern wild carrot Smartweed, swamp persicaria, shoe- strings Sorrel, field sorrel, horse sorrel, red sorrel, sheep sor- rel, sourweed Sow thistle, field sow thistle, pe- rennial sow this- tle Spanish needles, bur marigold, beggar ticks Spring cocklebur, Bathurst bur, Chinese thistle, dagger cocklebur Squirrel tail, foxtail wild barley Star thistle, Texas thistle Stubble spurge, spotted spurge Tarweed Toad flax, butter- and-eggs, impu- dent lawyer, ram- stead, snapdragon Trefoil, black med- ic, nonesuch Daucus pusillus Polygonum am- phibium emer- sum Rumex acetosella Sonchus arvensis Bidens bipinnata Xanthium spino- sum Hordeum jubatum Centaurea ameri- cana Euphorbia nutans Madia sativa Linaria linaria Medicago lupulina July to August August to September June to November August to November July to November August to November July to October July to September August to November June to November August to November April" to December Seeds; ani mals; wind Seeds; root- tocks Seed; in clover seed; root- stocks Seeds; wind; creeping roots Seeds; animals Seeds: animals Seeds; wind; animals Seeds; wind Seeds Seeds; animals Root-stocks; seeds Seeds; in clov- r seed Cultivation ; pre- vention of seed- ing Prevention of seeding; culti- vation Cultivation; smothering crops Thorough cultiva- tion and smoth- ering crops Prevention of seeding Prevention of seeding; cultiva- tion Prevention of seeding; culti- vation Prevention of seeding; culti- vation Prevention of seeding; burn- ing stubble Prevention of seeding; burn- ing Cultivation; heavy cropping Clean seed; culti- vation APPENDIX 317 TABLE OF SOME COMMON "^EEDS— Continued Common name Technical name Dura- tion Time of seeding Methods of propagation and distribu- tion of seed Methods of eradication Tumbleweed, pig- weed Wild buckwheat, black bindweed Wild carrot, bird's nest. Queen Anne's lace Wild gourd, cala- bazita Wild oats Wild garlic, field garlic, crow gar- lic, wild onion Wild parsnip Yellow daisy brown-eyed Su- san, cane flower, niggerhead, ox- eye daisy Yellow dock, bitter dock, broad- leaved dock Yellow dog fennel, bitter-weed Yellow melilot, yel- low sweet clover Amaranthus grae- cizans Polygonum con- volvulus Daucus carota Cucurbita peren nis Avena fatua Allium vineale Pastinaca sativa Rudbeckia hirta Rumex obtusifo- lius Helenium, tenui- folium Melilotus ofEci nalis August to October July to October July to November June to September July to September August to September July to October July to September August to October August to November July to October Seeds; wind Seeds; wind; animals Seeds; ani- mals; wind Seeds Seeds; oats seed Bulblets; seeds Seeds Seeds Seeds Seed Seeds; in hay and clover seed Prevention of seeding; burning Sowing clean seed; cultivation Grubbing in fall; cultivating Killing the roots with coal oil Sowing clean seed; burning; pas- turing Alternate cultiva- tion and heavy cropping Prevention of seeding; cultiva- tion Prevention of seeding; culti- vation Prevention of seeding; culti- vation Prevention of seeding; culti- vation Cultivation; in- creased fertili- zation 318 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES (United States Department of Agriculture) STANDARD BORDEAUX MIXTURE Copper sulphate (bluestone) 6 pounds Lime 4 pounds Water to make 50 gallons This mixture often injures the foliage of the peach and the Japanese plum, and sometimes russets the fruits of apples and pears. THE 5-5-50 BORDEAUX MIXTURE FORMULA Copper sulphate 5 pounds Lime 5 pounds Water to make 50 gallons When this mixture is used there is less danger of scorching or russeting the fruit than when the "Standard Mixture" is used. PEACH BORDEAUX MIXTURE Copper sulphate 3 pounds Lime 9 pounds Water to make 50 gallons This form of Bordeaux mixture is more harmless to the foliage on account of the excess of lime. DUST BORDEAUX MIXTURE (1) Dissolve 4 pounds of copper sulphate in 4 gallons of water. (2) Dissolve 4 pounds of lime in 4 gallons of water. (3) Prepare 60 pounds of slaked lime dust. The lime dust is best prepared by slowly sprinkling a small quantity of water over a heap of quicklime, using barely enough water to cause the lime to crumble into a dust. APPENDIX 319 The first two solutions should be poured together into a tub. Allow the resulting precipitate to settle, decant off the liquid, pour the wet mass of material into a double flour sack, and squeeze out as much water as possible. Spread out the doughlike mass in the sun to dry. Then crumble the material into a powder, and screen the powder through a sieve of brass wire having 80 meshes to the inch. Finally mix the powder with the slaked lime dust. COPPER SULPHATE SOLUTION Copper sulphate 3 pounds Water 50 gallons The manner of making this solution is the same as for the Bor- deaux mixture, except that lime is not added. This solution is very injurious to plants in foliage; therefore it should be applied only during the dormant period. COPPER ACETATE SOLUTION Dibasic acetate of copper 6 ounces Water 50 gallons Add the acetate of copper to the water and stir thoroughly. Although this mixture is much inferior to the Bordeaux mixture as a fungicide, it can be applied to ripening fruit without the staining effect of the latter. The copper acetate solution is injuri- ous to the foliage. AMMONIACAL COPPER CARBONATE Copper carbonate 5 ounces Strong ammonia (26° Baume) 2 to 3 pints Water to make 50 gallons 320 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE ( 1 ) Dilute the ammonia with about two gallons of water in order to increase the solvent action of the ammonia upon the copper carbonate. (2) Add water to the carbonate to make a thin paste. (3) Pour on about half of the diluted ammonia, stir vigorously for several minutes, allow it to settle, pour off the liquid, leaving the undissolved copper salt behind. Repeat the operation until all the salt is dissolved. (3) Add the remainder of the water to make 50 gallons. This mixture is inferior to the Bordeaux mixture as a fungicide. It is used as a substitute for Bordeaux mixture when stains upon ornamental plants and maturing fruits are objectionable. Plants susceptible to injury from the Bordeaux mixture are also likely to be injured by the ammoniacal copper carbonate solution. EAU CELESTE (MODIFIED) Copper sulphate 4 pounds Ammonia 3 pints Sal soda 5 pounds Water to^ make 45 gallons Dissolve the copper sulphate in 10 or 12 gallons of water, add the ammonia and dilute to 45 gallons; then add the sal soda and stir until dissolved. Eau celeste is an effective dormant spray for the peach leaf-curl and other similar diseases, but it is unsafe to use on the foliage of most plants LIME-SULPHUR WASH The following formula may be used: Unslaked lime 20 pounds Flowers of sulphur 15 pounds Water to make 45 to 50 gallons APPENDIX 321 The lime should be slaked in a small quantity of water. The sulphur should be mixed into a stiff paste and added to the lime which has been slaked. The mixture should then be boiled for an hour, after which the full amount of cold water can be added, The mixture should be strained and used at once. This mixture, which is much used for scale insects, should be applied just before the buds open. SELF-BOILED LIME-SULPHUR MIXTURE Sulphur 10 pounds Lime 10 pounds Water 50 gallons Place the lime in a barrel and add enough water to start it slaking and to keep the sulphur off the bottom of the barrel. Add the sulphur, which should first be worked through a sieve to break up the lumps, and finally add enough water to slake the lime into a paste. Considerable stirring is necessary to prevent caking at the bottom. After the violent boiling which accompanies the slaking of the lime is over, the mixture should be diluted ready for spraying, or at least enough cold water added to stop the cooking. The mixture should then be strained to remove the coarse particles of lime, but all of the sulphur should be worked through the sieve. This mixture is not injurious to peach foliage. SULPHUR AND RESIN SOLUTION Sulphur (flowers or flour) 16 pounds Resin (finely powdered) H pound Caustic soda (powdered) 10 pounds Water to make 6 gallons 322 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE (1) Place the sulphur and the resin, thoroughly mixed, in a barrel and make a thick paste by adding about 3 quarts of water. (2) Stir in the caustic soda. After several minutes the mass will boil, turning a reddish brown, and should be stirred thoroughly. (3) After boiling has ceased add about 2 gallons of water and pour off the liquid into another vessel. Then add water to make 6 gallons. This form of stock solution should be used at the rate of 1 gallon to 50 of water for spraying most plants and for soaking seeds. POTASSIUM SULPHID Potassium sulphid 1 ounce Water 3 gallons Dissolve the potassium sulphid in the required amount of water and use immediately. This mixture is effective for surface mildews. CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE Corrosive sublimate 1 part Water 1000 parts This solution is used to disinfect tools used in cutting out pear blight. PARIS GREEN For general purposes: Paris green 1 pound Water 50 to 100 gallons For pome fruits and grapes : Paris green 1 pound Water 150 to 200 gallons APPENDIX 323 Milk of lime from slaking three pounds of lime for each 50 gallons of spray should be added. Paris green may be added to Bordeaux mixture. In that case no lime will need to be added, as the Bordeaux mixture contains lime. ARSENATE OF LEAD Arsenate of lead may be applied at the rate of 2, 3, or 4 pounds for every 50 gallons of water or Bordeaux mixture. It is advisable to add lime water when the arsenate of lead is used with water. SCHEELE'S GREEN Scheele's green is used the same as Paris green. HELLEBORE Hellebore may be applied dry, diluted with from 5 to 10 parts of flour, or with water at the rate of one ounce to the gallon. Hellebore acts as an internal poison to insects, but is harmless to man in the quantities recommended. WHALE-OIL SOAP WASH For aphides and pear psylla: Dissolve 1 pound of soap in 3 or 4 gallons of water. For scale insects: Dissolve 2 gallons of soap in 1 gallon of water, and apply when the trees are dormant. MISCIBLE OILS Step 1. Preparation of the emulsifier — In preparing the emul- sifier an iron kettle provided with a board cover and a thermom- eter should be used. The formula for the emulsifier is as follows: 324 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Menhaden oil 10 gallons Carbolic acid 8 gallons Caustic potash 15 pounds This is heated to 290° or 300° F. and then the following are added: Kerosene 2 gallons Water 2 gallons The kerosene is added while the mixture is at the high tempera- ture, but the water must not be added until the mixture has cooled below the boiling point. Step 2. Mixing the emulsifier and the oils — No heat is required in the mixing of the emulsifier with petroleum or other oils. The emulsifier may be used with kerosene or with crude petroleum, with or without the addition of resin or other oils. The following is easily made and is efficient as a spray while trees are dormant: Emulsifier 3 2-3 gallons Paraffin oil 40 gallons Resin oil 6 gallons Sufficient water to give a ready emulsion. From 3 to 5 gallons of the miscible oil are used to make 50 gallons of spray. TOBACCO SOLUTION Tobacco solutions must be strong in order to make an effective spray. One pound of tobacco should be steeped in each gallon of water. This solution is effective as a spray against aphides and thrips. LIME-SULPHUR SPRAY CALENDAR FOR APPLES The first spraying for San Jose scale and other pests should be made while the buds are dormant with full strength lime-sulphur APPENDIX 325 wash (1 part to 9); the second when the leaf buds unfold, but with dilute wash (I to 33). Subsequent sprayings the same as with Bordeaux mixture. All sprayings of the foliage should be with dilute wash. BORDEAUX SPRAY CALENDAR FOR APPLES Number of application Material Time of application First Second Third Fourth Bordeaux mixture and arsenical Bordeaux mixture and arsenical Bordeaux mixture and arsenical Half-strength Bordeaux mixture and full-strength arsenical After leaf buds unfold and before flower buds open Just after petals fall 7 or 8 days later. (This may be omitted in dry seasons, and in dry States.) 3 weeks later Exhibitor: Address: SCORE CARD FOR MARKET MILK (United States Department of Agriculture) NUMERICAL SCORE Flavor, 40 Composition, 25 Bacteria, 20 Acidity, 5 Appearance of package and contents, 1 Perfect score. 100 Judge' 326 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE DESCRIPTIVE SCORE Composition Bacteria Acidity Package and contents Excellent Good Fair Bad Flat Bitter Weedy Garlic Silage Manure Smothered Other taints Perfect Fat, — cent. per Perfect Total, - Perfect per cent. Solids not fat, per cent. Liquefiers, Perfect Foreign mat- ter Metal parts Unattractive Remarks: Date: , Judie. DIRECTIONS FOR SCORING Flavor If rich, sweet, clean, and pleasant flavor and odor, score perfect (40). Deduct for objectionable flavors and odors according to conditions found. Composition If 3.25 per cent, fat or above and 8.5 per cent, solids not fat or above, score perfect (25). Deduct 1 point for each one-fourth per cent, fat below 3.25 and 1 point for each one-fourth per cent, solids not fat below 8.5. Bacleria Less than 10,000 per cubic centimeter (perfect). . 20 Over 10,000 and less than 25,000 per cubic centimeter.... 19 APPENDIX 327 Over 25,000 and less than 50,000 per cubic centimeter... 18 Over 50,000 and less than 75,000 per cubic centimeter.... 17 Over 75,000 and less than 100,000 per cubic centimeter 16 Deduct 1 point for each 25,000 above 100,000. When an unusually large number of liquefying bacteria are present, further deduction should be made according to conditions found. Acidity If 0.2 per cent, or below, score perfect (5). Deduct 1 point for each 0.01 per cent, above 0.2 per cent. (If Mann's test is used, discontinue adding indicator on first appearance of a pink color.) Appearance of Package and Contents If package is clean, free from metal parts, and no foreign matter can be detected in the contents, score perfect (10). Make deduc- tions for conditions found. SCORE CARD FOR SANITARY INSPECTION OF DAIRIES (United States Department of Agriculture) [Face of Card] Owner or lessee of farm Town State Total number of cows Number milking Quarts of milk produced daily Product is sold at wholesale retail. Name and address of dealer to whom shipped Permit No Date of inspection , 191. Remarks DETAILED SCORE— [Back of Card] Equipment Perfect Allowed Score COWS Condition Health (outward appearance) Comfort Bedding 2 Temperature of stable 1 Protected yard 1 Cubic feet of space per cow: Over 300, 2; over 400, 4; 500 to 1,000, 6 Feed Water Clean 6 Fresh 2 STABLE Location Well drained 3 Free from contaminat- ing surroundings... 3 Construction Tight, sound floor 3 Gutter 1 Stall, stanchion, tie.. 1 Low-down manger ... 1 Smooth, tight walls. . 1 Smooth, tight ceiling. 2 Box stall 1 Light: 1 sq. ft. glass per cow, 2; 2 sq. ft., 4; 3 sq. ft., 6; 4 sq. ft., 8; even distribution, 2 . Ventilation: Sliding win- dows, 2; hinged at bot- tom, 4; King system or muslin curtain, 8 Stable yard (drainage) MILK ROOM Location Convenience 2 Free from contaminat- ing surroundings. . . 4 Construction Floor 1.5 Walls and ceilings 1 Light 5 Ventilation 5 Screens 5 Arrangement Equipment Hot water or steam.. 2 Cooler ... .. 2 Narrow-top milk pail 1 Other utensils 1 Water supply for utensils.. Clean 6 Convenient 2 Abundant 2 Milking suits Total. 100 Methods Perfect Allowed COWS Cleanliness STABLE Cleanliness Floor Walls Ceiling Ledgi 4 2 2 1 Mangers and parti- tions 1 Windows . 1 No other animals in stable 1 Stable air Removal of manure To field or proper pit 4 30 feet from stable . . 2 Cleanliness of stable yard. . MILK ROOM Cleanliness Care and cleanliness of utensils Inverted in pure air 2 Clean (superficially) 4 SteriUzed 4 MILKING Cleanliness Clean, dry hands ... 4 Udders washed and dried 10 Cleaned with moist cloth 8 Cleaned with dry cloth 4 CARE OF MILK Cooling Removed from stable immediately after milking each cow and promptly cooled 10 Cooled to 50° F. or below 10 51° to 55° F 8 56° to 60° F 6 Storing Below 50° F 8 51° to 55° F 6 56° to 60° F 4 Transportation Iced in summer 10 Jacket or wet blanket in summer 8 Dry blanket 4 Covered wagon 2 Total. (328) APPENDIX 329 Score of methods multiplied by 2— . . . . Score of equipment multiplied by 1 = . . . . Total divided by 3= . . . . final score. Note — Deductions may be made for exceptionally bad conditions. Note — If the herd has not been tuberculin tested within a year, the limit for the score will be 80. INDEX INDEX 333 INDEX (Italicized figures refer to exercises) Aberdeen Angus Cattle, 165 Acid soils, 53 Agents of soil formation, 1 Air, effect on germination, 6S; nitrogen in, 50, 55 Alfalfa, 55 Alkali salts, 13, H, 30, 37 American saddle horse, 199 American trotter, 199 Ammonia, 74 Ammoniacal copper carbonate solution, 133; formula, 319 Animals in soil, 6 Annual plants, 118 Annual rings, 84 Anther, 89 Ants, 5 Aphis, 130 Appendix, 279-329 Apple, 123-134; soil suitable for, 123; varieties, 123, 294-297; planting and pruning, 124; insect enemies of, 124-132; tree borer, 125-127; tent caterpillar, 128; fall web worm, 128; canker worm, 129; aphis, 130; woolly aphis, 130; leaf roller, 131; tree diseases, 132-134; blight, 132; bitter rot, 133, 134; scab, 134; leaf spot, 134; spray calendar, 325 Apricots, varieties for different sections, 303 Arsenate of lead, formula, 323 Ashes, 5It, 142 Asparagus, 13 Ayrshire cattle, 161-162 Bacteria, in legumes, 50, 55, 57; in soil, 7, 26; in milk, 170 Bacterial diseases, 115 Baking of soils, 11, SI, 22 Balanced rations, 187-190, 191, 192; for dairy cow, 188; for horses, 203; for sheep, 211; for swine, 217 Bark, 83 Barley smut, 117 Barn grass, 119 Barnyard manure, 11, 12, 20, 50, 52, 53, 59, 60, 157 Beam-wheel, 44 Bean, 55, 57, 65 Beautifying home and school grounds, 261- 271 Beef tvpe of cattle, 162 Bees, 230-237, 237-23S; kinds of, 230, 231; bee cells, 231, 232; development of young, 232; swarming, 234, 235; races of, 236, 237; wintering, 237 Beets, 54 Begonias, 97, 103 Belgian draft horse, 196 Berkshire pigs, 213 Biennial plants, 118-119 Birds, 125, 130, 239-243; 21t3-2U; classes of, 241-242; enemies of, 242; means of pro- tection, 242; bird calendar, 243 Biting insects, 113 Bitter rot, 133-134 Blackberries, varieties, 311 Blackbirds, 241 Black knot, 139 Black spot of peach, 136 Blight, fire or pear, 115; leaf, 132; twig, 132 Blue stone, 74 Bordeaux mixture, 116-117, 132, 133, 134, 136, 139; formula, 318; spray calendar, 325 Borer, apple tree, 125-127; peach, 135 Brahmas, 220 Branches, methods of pruning, 109 Breeds; chickens, 218-222; horses, 194-200; live stock, 158; swine, 213-215 Brooders, 225 Brown rot, 139 Brown Swiss Cattle, 162 Budding, 100-102 Buildings on the farm, 261-263 Burdock, 119 Butter, 173-178; coloring, 175; churning, 175; working, 177-178; packing, 178 Calcareous soils, 13 Calcium, 49 Calendar, sprav, 324-325 Calyx, 88 Cambium layer, 84, 99, 100 Camembert cheese, 181-182 Canada thistle, 119 Cane sugar test, 74 Canker, 133-134 Canker worm, 129 Capacity of soils for moisture, 18 Capillary water, 16-17, 20, 22, ^5 Carbohydrates, 187 Carbon, 49, 86 Care of horses, 200-203 Carnations, 97 Carniolan bees, 236 334 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Carrots, 5i Casein, 167, 168 Caterpillar, tent, 128 Cattle, 159-166; Jersey, 159-160; Guernsey. 160-161; Ayrshire, 161-162; Holstein, 162; Brown Swiss, 162; Devon, 166; Dutch Belted, 162; Polled Durham, 164; Red Polled, 162; Shorthorn, 162, 164; Beef type, 162; Dairy type, 159; good and bad feeders, 163; Hereford, 164; Galloway, 165; Aberdeen Angus, 165; feeding standards for, 192 Caucasian bees, 236 Caulicle, 65, 70, 92 Check method of irrigating, 36 Cheddar cheese, 179-181 Cheese, 178-185, ISIi; kinds of, 178; Cheddar, 179-181; test for curd, 181; Camembert, 181-182; Roquefort, 182; Limburger, 182; Dutch, 182 Cherry, 136-137, 139, HO, 303-304 Chester White hogs, 215 Cheviot sheep, 209 Chickadee, 241 Chickens, 218-225; breeds of, 218-222; care of, 222-225; feeding, 224-225 Chlorin, 49 Chlorophyll, 86, 87 Chrysanthemums, 97 Churns, 175, 177 Civic improvement societies, 270 Classes of; birds, 241-242; cattle, 159; foods, 186-187; insects, 113-114; sheep, 206; soils, 10-14, H-lo; weeds, 118 Clay, 11, 12, 13, H, 20, 21-^2, 42, 46 Cleft grafting, 99 Cleveland bay horse, 200 Clevis, 45 Clover, 51, 57; on poor soils, 57 Clover seed, 69 Coach horses, 199-200 Cobalt nitrate, 74 Cochins, 220 Cocoon, 113, 120, 125 Codling moth, 124, 125, UO Coloring matter in butter, 175 Comb foundation, 230 Commercial fertilizers, 51, 52 Composition of milk, 167-168 Composition of soils, 15 Concentrated milk, 172 Condensed milk, 171-172 Conditions necessary for germination, 67, 69 Conifers, 268 Conservation of soil moisture, 20, 45, 37, 53 Contamination of milk, 168-170 Copper acetate solution, formula, 319 Copper sulphate solution, 74; formula, 319 Corn, 66, 68, 76, 77, 78, 79 Corolla, 88, 89 Corrosive sublimate solution, 115, 132; formula, 322 Cost of feeding, 190 Cost of roads, 258-259 Cotswold sheep, 209 Cotyledons, 65, 72 Country life, 272-275 Cow thistle, 119 Crab apples, varieties, 302 Cream, separation of , 174-175; ripening of, 175 Crop rotation, 59-62, 62-6 Jf; kinds of, 61; examples of, 61 Cross pollination, 91 Crows, 240 Cuckoo, 241 Cultivation, 46, 60 Curculio, 137, 1^0 Curd test, 181 Currants, 96, 97, 102; varieties, 311 Cuttings, 96-97, IDS Cyprian bees, 237 Cyrian bees, 237 Dairying, effect on soil, 58-59 Dairy type of cow, 159 Dairy score card, 327-329 Dandelion, 119 Decaying plants, 7 Deep tillage, i7 Delaine, 207 Depressed bed system of irrigation, 36 Depth to plant seeds, 70-71 Depth to plow, 44 Devon cattle, 166 Digestible nutrients in feeding stuffs, 273-288 Diseases; bacterial, 115; fungous, 115; of apple, 132-134; of orchard, HO Division box, 34 Dorset, horned, 208 Draft horses, 194-197 Drainage, 25-29, 29-31; importance of, 25; benefits of, 25-26; need of, 26; kinds of, 27-29; open drains, 27-28; tile drains, 28-29; underground drains, 28-29; of irri- gated lands, 37; in road building, 251 Drives, 266 Drone bees, 233 Drone cells, 231 Dry farming, 20 Ducks, 227 Durham cattle, 164 Duroc- Jersey hogs, 214 Dust Bordeaux mixture, formula, 318 Dutch Belted cattle, 162 Dutch cheese, 182 Ears of corn, 77 Earth roads, 254-256 Earthworms, 5, 8 Eau Celeste, formula, 320 Egg breeds of chickens, 218-219 Eggs of insects, 112, 114 Elements, in plants, 49; removed from the soil by crops, 64 INDEX 335 Embryo, 65 Emulsion, kerosene, 11-1 Enemies; of birds, iii; of plants, lb2-120, English Shire horse, 196 English sparrow, '2-i'-2 English type of landscape gardening, 265 Evaporation, 16, 20, £J, i6 Excessive irrigation, 37 Exhaustion of soil, 58-62, 6^2-6i Exogenous stem, 83-85 Fall plowing, 43-44 Fall web worm, 128 Farm buildings, 261-263 Farm implements, 245-247, 2^7, 248, 2^9 Farm stock, 157-158 Farm tools, 245-247, 2^7, 248, 2^9 Farm woodlot, 154 Fats, 187; test for, 75, 173-174 Feeding standards; for cattle, 192; for horses, 204; for sheep, 210; for swine, 215; for chickens, 224-225 Feeding stuffs, 279-288; manurial value of, 190; fertilizing constituents in 289-291 Feeding the stock, 186-187 Feeds, cost of, 190 FertiHzation; of flowers, 90; of soils, 10-13, 49-53, 53-5^, 56, 63, 135, 141-142, 146, 157 Fertilizing constituents of feeding stuffs, 289-291 Fibrous roots, 83 Figs, 13; varieties, 308 Filament, 89 Film water, 17, 23 Fine-wooled breeds, 206-207 Fire blight, 115 Fires in forests, 149 Fixed nitrogen, 51 Flat-headed apple tree borer, 125-127 Flooding system of irrigation, 36 Flower, 87-92 Flycatchers, 242 Foods, classes of, 186-187; for plants, 49-53, 53-5A; in roots, 82-83; in seeds, 71-75; in stems, 85; manufactured in leaves, 86-87 Forests, 149-156; value of, 149; destruction of, 149; preservation of, 150-154; fires in, 149; planting, 156 Formalin solution, 117 Formation of soil, 1-7, 7-9 Formulas; insecticides and fungicides, 318- 325; Paris green, 113; kerosene emulsion, 114; corrosive sublimate solution, 115, 132; Bordeaux mixture, 116; formalin solution, 117; miscible oils, 132; lime-sulphur wash, 132; ammoniacal copper carbonate solu- tion, 133; tobacco decoction, 145 Foundation of roads, 251 Free nitrogen, 50 Free water, 16, 22 French coach horse, 199 French draft horse, 195 French merino, 207 Frost, 8 Fruit, 123-140, 141-146, 1^0, H6-U8; vari- eties for different sections, 291-311; effect of potash on, 52 j Fuchsias, 97 Fungicides, 109, 117; formulas, 318-325 Fungous diseases, 115-117 Furrow system of irrigating, 37 Galloway cattle, 165 Gases in air and water, 7 Geese, 227 General purpose breeds, 221-222 Geometrical type of landscape gardening, 265 Geraniums, 97 German coach horse, 200 Germination, 29, 45, 65-78, 78-79 Glacier, 3, 8 Glucose test, 74 Gooseberries, 96, 97, 102; varieties, 309 Gouger, plum, 138 Grafting, 98-100, 103; cleft, 99; whip, 100; root, 100 Grape fruit, varieties, 308 Grape sugar test, 74 Grapes, varieties, 304-306 Grapevines, 96, 97, 102 Greenhouse plants, 97 Green manuring, 11, 12, 20, 22 Ground water, 16 Grouse, 241 Growth; of insects, 112-113; of roots, 92; of stem, 83-84, 93 Guernsey cattle, 160-161 Hackney horse, 200 Hamburgs, 219 Hampshire Down sheep, 209 Harrowing, 45 Hawks, 239 Heat; effect on soil, 4; effect on germination, 67 Heavy soils, 10 Hellebore, formula, 323 Hereford cattle, 164 Hives for honey bees, 230 Hogs, 212-216, 217; feeding standards fur, 215; rations for, 217 Holstein cattle, 162 Home grounds, 261-270, 270-271 Honey bees, 230-237, 237-238 Honey cells, 231 Horned Dorset sheep, 208 Horses, 194-203, ^^rt.,'-^O.J, -origin of, 194; breeds of, 194-200; draft type, 194-197; roadster type, 197-199; coach, 199-200; care of, 200-203; feeding, 200-202; shoeing, 202; feeding standards for, 204; rations for, 203 Hotbed, 103 Houdans, 222 336 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Humus, 11, 12, 13, lit, 20, 53, 59 Hydrogen, 49 Hygroscopic water, 17, 23 Ice sheet, 3, 8 Imperfect flower, 90 Implements, 245-247, 2^7, £i9 Improvement of, country life, 272-275; plants, 75-77; soils, 11-12; roads, 250-259, 259'S60 Impurities in seeds, 69 Incubators, 225 Inoculation; of legumes, 56; of the soil, 57 Insecticides, formulas, 318-325 Insects, 112-115, ISO; growth of, 112-113; classes, 113-114; biting, 113; methods of destroying, 113-114; as enemies of the apple, 124, 125; apple tree borer, 125-127; tent caterpillar, 128; fall web worm, 128; canker worm, 129; aphis, 130; leaf rollers, 131; scale insects, 131-132; insects affecting the strawberry, 145; root louse, 145 InsufBciect rainfall, 19 Iodine test for starch, 73-74 Irrigation, 19, 33-37, 37-40 Italian bees, 237 Italian type of landscape gardening, 265 Jack pine lands, 57 Jersey cattle, 159-160 Kakis, varieties, 306 Kernels, 77 Kerosene emulsion, 114 Ladybug, 130 Lakes, use in irrigation, 33 Land plaster, 53 Landscape gardening, 263-265 Langshans, 221 Langstroth hives, 230 Lap-furrow plowing, 42 Large Yorkshire hogs, 214 Lark, 241 Larva, 112, 125, 137, 141 Larvae of bees, 232 Lawns, 266-268 Lavering, 96, 102 Lekf blight, 132-133, 139 Leaf cuttings, 97, 103 Leaf rollers, 131, 145 Leaf spot diseases, 134 Leaves, 85-87 Leghorn chickens, 219 Legumes, 51, 55-57, 57 Leicester sheep, 210 Lemons, varieties, 307 Lentils, 55 Levees for irrigation, 36 Libraries, 273 Lice, 114, 130 Life in the country, 272-275 Light, effect on plants, 93 Light soils, 10 Limburger cheese, 182 Lime in soils, 11, 52, 53 Limestone soils, 13 Lime-sulphur mixture, self-boiled, 136; formula, 321 Lime-sulphur wash, 132; formula, 320 Lincoln sheep, 209 Live stock, 157-158 Living plants in soil, 6 Loamy soils, 12-13, 21 Long-wooled breeds of sheep, 209-210 Macadam roads, 256-258 Magnesium, 49 Mandarins, varieties, 308 Manure, barnvard, 11, 12, 20, 50, 53, 53- 51t, 60, 63, 157 Manurial value of feeding stuffs, 190 Manuring, green, 11, 12, 20, 22 Marl, 53 Marshes, 28 Materials for road building, 252 Maturing of seed, 77 Meat breeds of chickens, 220, 221 Medium-wooled breeds of sheep, 207-209 Merino, 206 Mildew, 139-140 Milk, 167-183, 183-185, 325-329 Milkweed, 119 Mineral matter in soil, 1, 9, H, 186 Minorcas, 219 Miscible oils, 132; formula, 323-324 Moisture, 16-21, 21-24, 37, 67, 68, 80-82, 87 Mold, 115, 120 Moldboard, 41, 42 Moth, codling, 124-125, IW Muck, 28 Mulch, 45, 143 Mustang ponies, 200 Mustard, wild, 118 Natural type of landscape gardening, 265 Nectar, 234 Nectarines, varieties, 308 Night hawks, 242 Nitric acid, 74 Nitrogen, 26, 49, 50-51, 55, 57, 58, 59, 62, 141 Nodules, 55 Nutrients in feeding stuffs, 280-288 Oak stem, 83 Oat smut, 117 Oiled roads, 256 Oils, miscible, 132 Oils, test for, 75 Olives, varieties, 306 Onions, 13 Open drains, 27-28 Oranges, varieties, 307 INDEX 337 Orchard, H3-1-10 Orchard diseases, IW Organic matter in soil, 1, 9 Origin of horse, 194 Origin of swine, 212 Oriole, 241 Osmosis, 81, 82 Outlines on; corn, 78, 79; drainage, 30, 31; horses, ^03-20!,; irrigation, 39-1,0; milk, 184-185; plant, 91,-95; plant enemies, li:2; pruning. 111; seeds, 78-79; tillage, 1,8; water in soil, 23-21,; soil formation, 9; strawberry, 11,8 Ovary, 89 Ovule, 89 Oxford sheep, 209 Oxygen, 7, 49 Packing butter, 178 Paris green, 113, 124, 128, 129; formulas, 322-323 Parsnip, 119 Pasteurization of milk, 171, 183 Path of food materials in stem, 84-85 Pea, 55, 57, 65 Peach, 134-136; varieties, 301-302; borer, 135; Bordeaux mixture for, 318; yellows, 136; rosette, 136 Pears, 13; varieties, 298-299; blight, 115 Percheron breed of horses, 194-195 Percolation, 19-20 Perfect flower, 90 Petals, 89 Phosphoric acid, 49, 51, 52, 56, 59, 62 Phosphorus, 49 Photosynthesis in leaves, 86 Pigs, 212-216, 217 Pistil, 89-90 Pith, 83 Planking, 46 Plant, 6, 16, 50-52, 80-92, 92-95, 96-102, 102-101,, 118-119, 121-122 Plant enemies, 112-120, 120-122 Plant foods, 44, 49-53, 53-5 i, 55-57, 57, 86-87 Plant lice, 114 Planting apple trees, 124; forest trees, 156; berries, 142 Plate germinator, 67 Plowing, 41-45, 47, iS Plum, 136-140, 11,0; curculio, 137; gouger, 138; tree aphis, 139; blossoms of, 88; va- rieties, 299-300 Plumule, 65, 70 Plymouth Rocks, 221, 222 Poland China hogs, 213 Polled Durham cattle, 164 Pollen, 89, 91, 92, 93 Pollination, 90, 91 Pomelos, varieties, 308 Ponies, 200 Poplars, 83, 97 Potash, 49, 52, oi, 56, 59, 62, 123, 135. 141, 142 Potassium, 49 Potassium hydrate, 74 Potassium sulphid formula, 322 Potatoes, 113 Potato scab, 117 Poultry, 218-229 Poultry house, 222-224 Powdered milk, 172 Powdery mildew, 139 Preface, iii-vii Products of milk, 171-183, 183-185 Propagation of plants, 96-102; 102-101, Proteid test, 74, 93, 167 Protein, 186 Pruning, 108-109, 110, 111, 124, 146 Pumpkin seed, 66 Pupa, 113 Pure milk, 171 Purslane, 118 Quack grass, 119 Quail, 241 Quahty of milk, 168 Queen bee, 233 Queen cells, 232 Quinces, varieties, 306 Races of bees, 236-237 Radishes, 54 Raffia, 102 Ragweed, 118 Rainfall, 19 Raised bed system of irrigation, 36-37 Rarabouillet sheep, 207 Raspberry, 96, UQ, 11,7, 11,8; varieties, 310 Rations; for cattle, 187-190; for dairy cow, 191-192; for horses, 203; for sheep, 211; for swine, 217 Reservoirs for irrigation, 34-35 Ripening of cream, 175 Roads, 250-259, 259-260 Roadster tvpe of horse, 197-199 Rollers, leaf, 131 Rolling and planking, 45-46, 1,7 Root, 52, 54, 80-83, 106; grafting of, 100, 110 Roquefort cheese, 182 Roses, 97 Rosette, 136, 139 Rot, bitter, 133-134 Rot, brown, 139 Rotation of crops, 59-62, 62-6^ Round-headed apple tree borer, 126 Runners on strawberrv; 102 Rust, 115 Saddle horses, 199 Salts in soils, 13, 11,, 37 Sand, 11,, 21, 22 Sand dunes, 5 Sandy loam, 12 338 SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Sandy soils, 19, 4^2, 44 San Jose scale, 131-132 Sap-sucking insects, 113-114 Scab, apple, 134 Scab, potato, 117 Scale, insects, 131-132 Scheele's green, formula, 323 School grounds, 269-270, 270-271 Scion, 98, 99 Score cards; for market milk, 325-326; for sanitary inspection of dairies, 327-329 Scrub stock, 158 Seeds; effect of drainage on germination of, 29; effect of phosphoric acid in growth of, 51; germination of, 65-78, 78-79; structure of, 65; vitality of, 69; impurities in, 69; depth to plant, 70-71; foods in, 71-72, 75; test for starches, proteids and sugars in, 73-74; test for fats and oils in, 75; selection of seed as a means of improving plants, 76, 77; mode of formation, 90 Self-boiled lime sulphur mixture, 136; for- mula, 321 Sepals, 88 Shallow tillage, 47 Sheep, 205-210, 210-211 Shell roads, 256 Shepherd's purse, 118 Shetland ponies, 200 Shoeing horses, 202 Shorthorn cattle, 162, 164 Shrubs, 268-269 Silicon, 49 Silks of corn, 91 Small fruit, 141-146, 1^6-1 lt7 Smut, 115, 117, 120 Sodium, 49 Sodium hydrate, 74 Soil; formation, 1-7, 7-9; agents of formation, 1; classes of, 10-14, Ih-lo; sandy, 10-11; clay, 11-12; humus in, 12; loams, 12-13; calcareous type, 13; alkali, 13, H, 30; tex- ture of, l!^, 25, 53; composition of i^; mois- ture in, 16-21, 21 -2 It, 37; green manuring of, 22; drainage of, 25-29, '-19-31; supply of nitrogen in, 50; poor soils and clover, 57; exhaustion of, 58-62, 62-61t; when to plow, 42; soil suitable for trees, 105, 107; soil suitable for apple trees, 123; soil suitable for raspberries, 146 Sorghum, 13 Sparrow, 241 Spiracles, 112 Spores, 115, 2^0 Spring plowing, 43 Springs, use in irrigation, 33 Stamen, 89 Starch; test for, 73-74; manufacture in leaves, 86 Stem, 83-85; growth of, 83-84; path of foods in, 84-85; as storehouse for food material, 85; growth of, 93; stem cutting, 97 Stigma, 89 Stings of bees, 235-236 Stock, 98, 99, 100; on the farm, 157; feeding of, 186-190, 191-193 Stomata, 86 Storm water, use in irrigation, 33 Stratification of soils, 4, S Strawberry, 141-145, l!,7-lhS; varieties, 309 Streams, use in irrigation, 33 Style, 89 Styles of landscape gardening, 263-265 Subsoil, 44 Suffolk Punch, 197 Sugar beets, 13 Sugar in milk, 167 Sugar-producing plants, 13 Sugar test, 74, 167 Sulphur, 49 Sulphur and resin solution, formula, 321 Supers, 230 Surface of roads, 253 Swallow, 242 Swarming of bees, 234-235 Sweet clover, 13 Swift, 242 Swine, 212-216, 217 Systems of irrigation, 36-37 Tanager, 241 Tap root, 83 Tassels of corn plant, 91 Telephones, 273 Telford roads, 258 Temperature; effect on rock, 4; effect on germination, 68 Tamworth hogs, 214 Tent caterpillar, 128 Testing milk, 183 Texture of soil, lit, 25, 53 Thistle, 119 Thoroughbred horse, 199 Thrushes, 241 Tile drains, 28-29 Tillage, 41-46; kG-ltS Tobacco, 58 Tobacco decoction, 145; formula, 324 Tools on the farm, 245-247, 2it7, 248, 2It9 Transpiration of moisture, 20-21, 85, 87 Transplanting, 97, 105-109, 110-111 Trees on the lawn, 268 Trotting horses, 197-199 Tubercles, 55 Turkeys, 227 Twig blight, 132 Twining vines, 93 Underground drains, 28-29 Underground stems, 85 Value of forests, 149 Varieties of fruits for different sections, 292-311 Vegetation, decaying, in soils, 7 . INDEX 339 Vetch, 55, 57 Vines, 93, 269 Virco, 241 Vitality of seeds, 69 Warbler, 241, 242 Water; in the soil, 16-21; ^i -24,". evaporation of, 16; free or ground, 16; capillary, 16-17; film or hygroscopic, 17; supply in irrigating, 33-34; methods of applying in irrigating, 35-37; transpired by leaves, 85, 86; water table, 16 W'atermelons, 53 Waxed grafting cloth, 100 Wax for grafting, 99 W'eb worm, 128 Weeds, 118-120, 121;^ classes of, 118-119; methods of destroving, 118-120; annual, 118; biennial, 118-119; perennial, 119-120; table of, 312-317 Wells, use in irrigation, 33 Welsh ponies, 200 Whale oil soap wash, formula, 323 Wheat, 58 Wheat smut, 117 Whey cheese, 182 Whippoorwill, 242 White lead, 109, 134 Wild mustard, 118 Wild oats, 118 Wild parsnip, 119 Willow, 83, 97, 103 Wind as a pollen carrier, 92 Wintering bees, 237 Wood ashes, 54, 142 Woodlot, 154 Woodpecker, 241 Worker bees, 233 Workmanship in road building, 253 W'orm, canker, 129 Worm, fall web, 128 Wren, 241 W>andottes, 222 Yellow dock, 119 Yellows, 136, 139 Yield of fruit, ll,Cy Yorkshire hogs, 214 C 194 JUL 17 1912 V ^0 -or «•• 4 _«y ^ • /% 4: "^0^%"^' 0* • . ^o' ."^.^la: