Class <_ 
 
 Book 
 
 
 
 Cop)7ightN?_ 
 
 COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 
 
WOODWORK 
 
 : ^=== and =^=^^ 
 
 Mechanical Drawing 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLIAM PAUL FOX 
 
 FOX BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS 
 CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 
 
TT ^5 
 Fgs 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1914 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLIAM PAUL FOX 
 
 NOV .10 1914 
 
 CI. A 387783 
 
TO THE TEACHER 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING as a school study has successfully 
 passed the stage of experimental teaching and reached a 
 recognition that requires neither defense nor apology. But 
 there remains, as in all school work, a distinct necessity for 
 relating it to the every-day needs and desires of the child, not 
 so much the young child as the developing child in his teens. 
 To meet these needs by stimulating inquiry and promoting 
 activity along the line of directed work is the aim of the author. 
 The desire for the beautiful is also met by the large number of 
 projects offered, among which the pupil is left free to select the 
 ones he admires for construction. 
 
 Mechanical drawing is a necessary adjunct of good manual 
 training; the eye must aid the hand in the task set by the brain. 
 The exercises presented are designed to promote that skill 
 which in time would make the youthful worker able to select 
 and prepare his own drawing and to apply his knowledge to any 
 problem he may encounter. 
 
 Tools, hardware, stains, waxes, and lumber, in so far as they 
 come under the observation of the young student, receive men- 
 tion. 
 
 No attempt has been made to formulate a hard and fast 
 text; on the contrary the natural limitations incidental to widely 
 differing school districts have been kept in mind. It is hoped 
 the teacher will not only permit but encourage the greatest pos- 
 sible freedom of choice in selecting the task. 
 
 The author gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness for 
 suggestions and advice to many friendly sources — notably, John 
 J. Fox, John S. Kief, Walter H. Aitken, John T. Driscoll, and 
 Mary E. Tobin. 
 
 — 3 — 
 
TABLE OP CONTENTS 
 
 LESSON NO. PAGE 
 
 1. Saws : 7 
 
 2. Exercise in Laying-out and Sawing 8 
 
 3. The Plane 9 
 
 4. To Square a Board 12 
 
 5. Match Scratcher 15 
 
 6. Tea Pot Stand . 18 
 
 7. Calendar Back 19 
 
 8. Trellis 21 
 
 9. Pin Tray 23 
 
 10. Blotter Pad 25 
 
 11. Picture Easel 27 
 
 12. Ink Stand 29 
 
 13. Shelf 32 
 
 14. Whisk Broom Holder 35 
 
 15. Coat Hanger 38 
 
 16. Book Rack 40 
 
 17. Handkerchief Box 42 
 
 18. Child's Wheel Barrow 45 
 
 19. Hat and Coat Rack 46 
 
 20. A Costumer 49 
 
 21. A Tabouret 50 
 
 22. Foot Stool 53 
 
 23. Clock Case 55 
 
 24. Piano Bench 57 
 
 Suggested Problems 58 
 
 Lumbering 62 
 
 Finish 64 
 
 Hardware 67 
 
 Mechanical Drawing 69 
 
 Suggested Equipment 143 
 
 — 5 — 
 
LIST OF PLATES 
 
 PLATE NO. PAGE 
 
 1. The Plane and its Parts. . 10 
 
 2. Match Scratcher 15 
 
 3. Tea Pot Stand 18 
 
 4. Calendar Back 19 
 
 5. Trellis 21 
 
 6. Pin Tray 23 
 
 7. Blotter Pad 25 
 
 8. Easel 27 
 
 9. Ink Stand 29 
 
 10. Shelf 33 
 
 11. Whisk Broom Holder 35 
 
 12. Coat Hanger 38 
 
 13. Book Rack 40 
 
 14. Handkerchief Box 42 
 
 15. Wheel Barrow 44 
 
 16. Hat and Coat Rack 46 
 
 17. Costumer 48 
 
 18. Tabouret 50 
 
 19. Foot Stool 52 
 
 19(a). Foot Stool Details... 52 
 
 20. Clock Case 54 
 
 21. Piano Bench 56 
 
 22. Drawing Exercise 78 
 
 23. Geometric Constructions. 83 
 
 24. Bread Board 84 
 
 25. Kitchen Utensil Rack 85 
 
 26. Key Rack 86 
 
 27. Bench Hook 87 
 
 28. Ring Toss 88 
 
 29. Drawing Board 89 
 
 30. Letter Holder 90 
 
 31. Shelf 91 
 
 32. Nail Box 92 
 
 33. Corner Shelf 93 
 
 34. Sleeve Board., 94 
 
 ::■"). Xecktie Rack 95 
 
 36. Envelope Holder 96 
 
 37. Book Rack 97 
 
 38. Book Rack 98 
 
 39. Adjustable Book Rack 99 
 
 40. Book Rack 100 
 
 41. Magazine Rack 101 
 
 PLATE NO. PAGE 
 
 42. Magazine Rack 102 
 
 43. Handkerchief Box 103 
 
 44. Glove Box 104 
 
 45. Comb and Brush Rack. . . 105 
 
 46. Bench 106 
 
 47. Foot Stool 107 
 
 48. Foot Stool 108 
 
 49. Knife and Fork Box 109 
 
 50. Foot Stool 110 
 
 51. Book Ends Ill 
 
 52. Plate Rail 112 
 
 53. Plate Rack 113 
 
 54. Medicine Cabinet 114 
 
 55. Carrying Case 115 
 
 56. Tabouret 116 
 
 57. Tabouret 117 
 
 58. Clock 118 
 
 59. Clock Case 119 
 
 60. Towel Rack 120 
 
 61. Blackening Stand 121 
 
 62. Book Stand 122 
 
 63. Windox Box 123 
 
 64. Pedestal 124 
 
 65. Umbrella Stand 125 
 
 66. Lamp 126 
 
 67. Costumer 127 
 
 68. Child's Adjustable Chair. 128 
 
 69. Stool 129 
 
 70. Magazine and Book Rack. 130 
 
 71. Cedar Chest 131 
 
 72. Writing Desk 132 
 
 73. Settee .- 133 
 
 74. Telephone Seat and Stand 134 
 
 75. Settee 135 
 
 76. Arm Chair 136 
 
 77. Details for Arm Chair. . . 137 
 
 78. Chair 138 
 
 79. Fern Stand 139 
 
 80. Morris Chair 140 
 
 81. Table 141 
 
 82. Lamp 142 
 
 — 6 — 
 
Cross Cut 5a w Teeth 
 
 LESSON NO. 1 
 
 SAWS 
 
 Saws may be divided into two groups; first, power saws, 
 such as band and circular saws; second, all kinds of hand saws. 
 The second group is used in manual training. They are classified 
 as follows: 
 
 (1) The Cross-cut 
 Saw, for cutting across 
 the grain of the wood. 
 The teeth of this saw are 
 sharp pointed, Fig. 1, and 
 act like so many knives 
 cutting a double knife 
 line across the board. 
 The sharp point cuts, and 
 the body of the tooth 
 
 tears out the wood between the knife lines. 
 
 (2) The Rip Saw, for cutting in line with the grain of the 
 wood. This saw has chisel-pointed teeth, Fig. 2. Each tooth 
 cuts like a small chisel. A rip saw must be used in line with, not 
 across, the grain of the wood. 
 
 (3) The Back Saw, ^^^^- ^-^ - ^-^ r-^-^^z^: 
 tor tine, accurate cut- 
 
 ting and fitting. This R,p 5 * w TEETH <?•*, 
 
 is a cross-cut saw with /-^^^^^^Xs^^^^^^^^s^ Y7 
 a steel back to stiffen N. ^S—^ I 
 
 the blade. It has very v^__^- — — 
 
 small teeth, which are FIG - 2 
 
 not set, but depend for their clearance upon the wire edges left 
 by the file in sharpening; may be used for either ripping or 
 cross-cutting. 
 
 (4) The Turning Saw, for circular and irregular shaped 
 cutting. This saw has a blade 12 or 14 inches long, and from 
 i/s" to tV' wide, with rip saw teeth, and adjustable handles. 
 The frame is wood, with an iron or rope tie-bar. 
 
 (5) The Coping Saw, for circular and irregular shaped cut- 
 ting of thin boards. This saw has a narrow blade about 32" wide, 
 with small teeth, and a metal frame. 
 
 It is very important that a saw should be set correctly, that 
 is, it must cut easily without binding. A saw that is properly 
 sharpened must be set with every alternate tooth projecting to 
 one side. The other teeth must be bent slightly in the opposite 
 direction, Figs. 1 and 2. 
 
 — 7 — 
 
LESSON NO. 2 
 
 EXERCISE IN LAYING OUT AND 
 
 SAWING 
 
 1. Measuring from one end of the 
 board, lay out the length given by 
 the instructor. Use a two-foot four- 
 fold rule and lay on edge so that the 
 divisions on the rule are against the 
 boards, Fig. 3. This is the correct 
 way to use this type of rule for 
 accurate measuring. 
 
 2. Place handle of try square 
 against one edge of the board and 
 with pencil mark across the board, 
 Fig. 4. Mark in this manner all 
 boards which are to be squared. 
 Never saw a board without first 
 drawing a line. In ordinary work 
 a good test of accuracy is to saw 
 this line completely out; that is, it 
 should not show anywhere after the 
 cutting is completed. 
 
 3. Lay the board on top of the 
 bench with line to be sawed out- 
 side the edge of the bench. If the 
 board is a short piece, place it in 
 vise instead of on top of the bench. 
 The weight of a long board held by 
 the hand secures firmness so that a 
 vise is not needed. 
 
 4. Start the saw by drawing the 
 first few strokes towards the body. 
 Then push steadily away along the 
 marked line, Fig. 5. Do not press 
 down on the saw ; it cuts on the for- 
 ward and not on the backward 
 stroke. 
 
 5. Set the marking gauge at the 
 width given by the instructor. Mark 
 this width on board, Fig. 6. 
 
 6. Place board in the vise, and 
 with a rip saw cut along the line, 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 Save this board for planing 
 exercise. 
 
LESSON NO. 3 
 THE PLANE 
 
 1. Study carefully the drawing 
 of the plane and its parts, Plate 1. 
 Note the lateral adjusting lever, ad- 
 justing nut, the frog, the Y adjust- 
 ment, the plane iron, cap iron, cap, 
 the double plane iron (which is the 
 plane iron and cap iron together), 
 the knob, and the handle. 
 
 2. To sharpen the plane take 
 apart and remove the double plane 
 iron. Loosen the cap iron screw 
 which holds the plane iron to the 
 cap iron. The plane iron is the 
 only part which is sharpened. If 
 the bevel on plane iron is too 
 rounded or too short from sharpen- 
 ing on oil stone very often, have it 
 ground again. The bevel should be 
 about 25° or T y to 14" long. 
 
 3. Grinding — Place the plane 
 iron against a tool rest set at a dis- 
 tance suitable to obtain the bevel 
 wanted, Fig. 8. The tool rest shown 
 is a strip of wood nailed to the 
 grindstone frame. Grindstones 
 having cast iron frames sometimes 
 have adjustable tool rests. Hold 
 the plane iron against the stone 
 with both hands and grind the edge 
 
 square and straight. The safe way is to have the stone turn 
 away from you, though it cuts much faster when it is turning 
 toward you, which is the way mechanics use it. 
 
 4. Oil Stoning — Grinding does not sufficiently sharpen a 
 plane; it only gives the correct bevel. To sharpen a plane iron 
 hold in both hands on the oil stone at the same angle as the 
 bevel of the plane iron, and rub on the stone, Fig. 9, until you 
 raise a feather or wire edge, that is, until you can feel the metal 
 turned over on the straight side of the plane iron. Do not make 
 the feather edge large, as it is unnecessary. Press harder on 
 each edge in order to round the corners a trifle so as not to dig 
 into the wood and cause ridges. Turn the plane iron over and 
 hold perfectly flat on the straight side and rub, Fig. 10, until 
 
 — 9 — 
 
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 — 10 — 
 
the feather edge disappears on that 
 side. You will be able to feel it on 
 the beveled side now. Turn the 
 plane iron over again on the beveled 
 side and rub a few strokes. Con- 
 tinue these operations until the 
 feather edge disappears entirely. 
 Feel for it on both sides, but be 
 careful not to cut your fingers. 
 
 5. Adjusting the Plane — The ad- 
 justing nut is for gauging the thick- 
 ness of the shaving the plane is to 
 cut. An easy way to set a plane is 
 to draw the plane iron up by means 
 of the adjusting nut until it is even 
 with the bottom of the plane. Then 
 carefully turn the adjusting nut 
 while moving the plane across the 
 board until the shaving is of the 
 proper thickness. If the plane cuts 
 on either edge of the blade instead 
 of the center, turn the lateral ad- 
 justment toward the edge that it 
 is cutting until the shavings are 
 being cut in the middle of the plane 
 iron. Always cut very thin shav- 
 ings, and have your plane sharp. 
 
 6. In using the plane carefully 
 follow the directions given below: 
 
 When in the position shown in 
 Fig. 11, press down on the knob, 
 and hold up the handle so that the 
 
 bottom of the tool may be in the same plane as the surface of 
 the board you are handling. 
 
 As your plane moves along the board and is in the position 
 shown in Fig. 12, press on both knob and handle. 
 
 When the plane nears the position shown in Fig. 13, press 
 on the handle and take the pressure off the knob. 
 
 — li — 
 
LESSON NO. 4 
 TO SQUARE A BOARD 
 
 Lumber that is badly warped 
 should not be used. A board 8" 
 wide should not be more than y 8 " 
 out of true. Lumber that is warped 
 is sometimes flattened by steaming 
 or soaking in water, and when thor- 
 oughly soaked is clamped flat and 
 left to dry in a warm dry place, 
 either in a dry kiln or near hot 
 steam pipes. This is an expensive 
 operation and is seldom done in 
 shops, as the boards can be used by 
 sawing them into narrow strips. If 
 a board is warped considerably 
 more than y 8 " it is liable to crack 
 in the assembling of the problem. 
 
 Dressed Lumber. Take any 
 board and mark its concave sur- 
 face; this is the working face. To 
 find the concave face put the blade 
 of a try square across the grain of 
 the wood and test, Fig. 14. 
 
 1. Place the board in a vise and 
 plane one edge straight, Fig. 15, and 
 square with the working face 
 (marked face), Fig. 16. This edge, 
 which is straight and square with 
 the concave surface, is known as the 
 working edge. All measuring and 
 testing are done with reference to 
 this edge and the working face. 
 
 2. Chamfer corner opposite the 
 working edge, not more than y±'\ 
 less will do. This prevents split- 
 ting. Plane the end square with 
 the working edge, Fig. 17, and the 
 working face, Fig. 18. Plane from 
 the working edge toward the cham- 
 fer. 
 
 — 12 — 
 
3. Measure the length and mark 
 it with try square and pencil, Fig. 
 19, from the trued end. Chamfer 
 the other corner. Plane this end to 
 length and test the same as for the 
 first end. Square with the work- 
 ing edge, Fig. 17, and the working- 
 face, Fig. 18. 
 
 4. Set the marking gauge at the 
 required width and from the work- 
 ing edge gauge the width, Fig. 20. 
 If the board is wider than is re- 
 quired, saw with a rip saw to Vs" 
 from the gauge line. Plane to this 
 line, and have the edge straight and 
 square with the working face. It 
 will also be square with both ends. 
 
 5. Take a fine shaving off each 
 face to remove the dirt and ma- 
 chine planer marks, Fig. 21. 
 
 Another method is used when 
 boards are so near the correct width 
 that it would not be possible to cut 
 the chamfers and plane them out, 
 for when the board is completed 
 there should be no chamfers left. 
 In this second method the concave 
 side is found and the working edge 
 trued the same as in the first 
 method. The ends are trued by 
 planing about two-thirds across the 
 ends from the working edge, then 
 reversing and planing about two- 
 thirds across from the other edge, 
 Figs. 22 to 23. By taking a few 
 shavings off first in one direction 
 and then in the other the ends may 
 be planed just as well as by the 
 other method. After the ends are 
 trued the board is proceeded with 
 
 — 13 — 
 
in the same way as in the first 
 method. This method is used al- 
 most entirely with expensive woods 
 to save material. 
 
 There is a third method that is 
 used when the lumber is not dressed, 
 or when very accurate work is re- 
 quired. Instead of using the con- 
 cave face as the working face, either 
 one of the faces is used and planed 
 flat. In testing, the try square is 
 first placed across the grain, Fig. 
 14, and then diagonally across the 
 grain, Fig. 24. This second test 
 is to detect any twist in the board. 
 This true face is used as the work- 
 ing face, and the planing is pro- 
 ceeded with in the same manner as 
 in Methods 1 or 2. To plane the 
 last face the marking gauge is set 
 to the required thickness, Fig. 25, 
 and the board planed to this gauge 
 line. Pattern makers usually em- 
 ploy this method because of the 
 extreme accuracy of their work. 
 
 A fourth method is sometimes 
 used ; the following being the order 
 in which it is done : First, true face ; 
 second, true working edge; third, 
 gauge width and true second edge; 
 fourth, gauge thickness and true 
 other face; fifth, true first end; 
 sixth, true second end. This method 
 is employed where a number of 
 pieces of the same width are needed. 
 Take a board equal to the length of 
 the pieces required plus enough to 
 allow for sawing and planing of 
 ends. True both faces and edges. 
 Cut to required lengths and true 
 ends. 
 
 — 14 — 
 

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 •Match 5cqatche&- 
 
 
 PLATE 2 
 
 LESSON NO. 5 
 MATCH SCRATCHER 
 
 Saw off a piece of wood 5*4" 
 long and 31/2" wide. This allows 
 for planing. In sawing stock a 
 good rnle to follow is to allow y±' 
 longer and i/-/' wider than the re- 
 quired finished size. Plane stock 
 to 5" long and 3" wide. Use the 
 first method on page 12; follow 
 carefully the directions, step by 
 step. 
 
 Lay out a line 1" from each 
 edge; also from top. This makes 
 
 — 15 — 
 
 
 
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FIG. 30 
 
 three one-inch squares at top of 
 hoard. In the middle square draw 
 diagonals for the location of the 
 hole. In the corner squares draw 
 diagonals for the upper corners, 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 Place the board in a vise and 
 saw off corners tV" from the line 
 with a back saw. Start the saw 
 as if it were a cross-cut or a rip 
 saw. Gradually bring it to a hori- 
 zontal position so as to cut the full 
 width of the board, Fig. 28. 
 
 Plane the corners with a smooth- 
 ing plane to the lines, not below 
 them, Fig. 29. 
 
 Test often with a try square 
 while planing. 
 
 Bore hole with tV gimlet bit, 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 Plane the surfaces clean and 
 smooth. Use a bench-hook to hold 
 the board instead of the vise. Be 
 careful not to plane the board un- 
 even in thickness, Fig. 31. 
 
 Sandpaper the edges and sur- 
 faces with No. 1 sandpaper wrapped 
 around a block of wood. Hold this 
 against the surface and rub with 
 the grain, never across it, Figs. 32, 
 33, and 34. Do not round the cor- 
 ners. 
 
 Stain and wax. See directions 
 on pages 64 to 67. 
 
 Use a piece of No. iy 2 sandpaper 
 2 1 /£"x3%" for a scratcher and glue 
 it on. 
 
 — 16 — 
 
BOARD MEASURE 
 
 Quotations on lumber are made 
 at so much per thousand feet board 
 measure, represented by the letter 
 M. A thousand feet board meas- 
 ure equals 1,000 square feet of lum- 
 ber 1" or less in thickness. This 
 does not mean that lumber 1 / 4 ,/ in 
 thickness costs the same as lumber 
 1" in thickness, but it means that if 
 you bought 1 M of W lumber you 
 would receive the same surface 
 measurement as if you bought 1 M 
 of 1" lumber and that this lumber 
 would cover 1,000 square feet of 
 surface if used as a floor. In buy- 
 ing 1 M of 2" lumber you would re- 
 ceive 500 square feet of surface 
 measurement if used as a floor. 
 
 1. How many board feet of lum- 
 ber are needed to lay a 1" rough 
 floor in a barn 20' wide and 50' 
 long? 
 
 Solution: 20x50=1,000. 
 
 Ans. 1,000' board measure or 
 1,000' B. M. 
 
 2. How many board feet if this 
 floor is 2" thick? 
 
 Solution: 20x50x2=2,000. 
 Ans. 2,000' B. M. 
 
 3. For a floor 1%" thick? Solution: 20x50xl 1 />=l,500. 
 Ans. 1,500' B. M. 
 
 4. How many board feet in a board 1" thick, 1' 0" wide, and 
 10' 0" long? Ans. 10' B. M. 
 
 5. How many board feet in a board 1" thick, 9" wide, and 
 16' 0" long? Solution: 9/12x16=12. Ans. 12' B. M. 
 
 6. How many board feet in a board 2" thick, 10" wide, and 
 12' 0" long? 
 
 7. How much would a board 1" thick, 1' 0" wide, and 10' 0" 
 long cost with lumber worth $80.00 per M? Ans. $0.80. 
 
 8. How much would a board 1" thick, 18" wide, and 10' 0" 
 long cost with lumber worth $100.00 per M? 
 
 — 17 — 
 
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 71 
 
 T*' 
 
 Tea Pot 3tand 
 
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 LESSON NO. 6 
 TEAPOT STAND 
 
 Saw a piece of wood 5%" long 
 by 6" wide. 
 
 Plane to 5y 2 "x5y 2 ". 
 
 Mark for tV chamfer around 
 the top surface of the board with 
 a marking gauge, Figs. 35 and 36. 
 
 Plane chamfer, planing the ends 
 first. Use a diagonal stroke so as 
 not to break the edges, Fig. 37, or 
 plane the chamfer, cutting two- 
 thirds across the width of the board 
 and then reverse and plane two- 
 thirds across the other edge. 
 
 Plane the surface the same as 
 for the match scrateher, using 
 bench hook. 
 
 Sandpaper the same as in the 
 first problem. 
 
 Stain and wax. See pages 64 
 to 67. 
 
 — 18 
 
 , FIG. 37 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 Iz 
 
 
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 £ 
 
 
 
 -Calendar Baca 
 
 S, 
 
 LESSON NO. 7 
 
 CALENDAR BACK 
 
 Plane board 10"x5"x3/ 8 ". Mark 
 l 1 /^" from top and two sides, and 
 S 1 ^ from the bottom, using the 
 marking gauge, Fig. 38. 
 
 Bore tV' hole at any point in 
 enclosed figure with hand gimlet to 
 put the coping saw through. 
 
 Saw out opening with coping 
 saw tV inside of lines. Place the 
 coping saw blade through the hole, 
 
 — 19 — 
 
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 ^ 
 
 
 2- . /i\ 
 — — » » — *-*» — » 
 
 FIG. 38 
 
points of teeth facing away from 
 you. Put the blade in front slot, 
 holding the other end of blade in 
 the other hand with the front end 
 of saw frame against the bench, and 
 press against it until the frame is 
 sprung far enough to receive the 
 other end of the blade, Fig. 40. 
 
 Use both hands when sawing 
 and take easy strokes, keeping the 
 blade perpendicular at all times to 
 the board, Fig. 41. In turning cor- 
 ners do so very slowly. In taking 
 saw apart use same method as in 
 putting it together. 
 
 File to lines, using a flat file. 
 Place both hands on file, Fig. 42, 
 and keep horizontal so that the 
 filed edge will be perpendicular to 
 the board. In filing, the stroke is 
 forward and sideways at the same 
 time, so that the cut will be con- 
 tinuous along the whole length of 
 the edge. The file cuts on the for- 
 ward and not the backward stroke. 
 
 Plane clean, sandpaper, stain, 
 and wax. 
 
 Glue picture to the back and 
 cover with a piece of straw board. 
 
 Tack calendar to back with 
 brass tacks or use %" round-head 
 screws. 
 
 Suggestion. — Select a calendar 
 and picture with colors and design 
 in harmony with wood used. 
 
 — 20 — 
 
LESSON NO. 8 
 
 TRELLIS 
 
 Stock, finished size. 
 
 1 piece *4"xl%"x2'0". 
 1 piece *4"x %"x 9". 
 1 piece i,4"x %"x 6". 
 1 piece i,4"x y 2 "x 3". 
 
 Lay out as shown on your drawing for location of holes, rip 
 sawing, and pointing of bottom, with try square and marking 
 gauge, Fig. 43. 
 
 I*" 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
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 . 
 
 PLATE 5 
 
 FIG. 43 
 
 21 
 
Bore with tV dowel bit. Place 
 the bit in the brace and be sure to 
 get the jaws of the brace to fit 
 around the square shank of the bit. 
 Bore the holes, putting the board 
 in a vise, Fig. 45. Hold the brace 
 and bit perpendicular to the sur- 
 face of the board and bore until 
 tip of bit just comes through other 
 side of board. Then turn the board 
 around and bore from the other 
 side. This will leave a clean cut 
 hole from both sides, instead of a 
 ragged one on one side, as is the 
 case when the hole is bored through 
 from one side only. 
 
 With a rip saw, cut on marking 
 gauge lines, Fig. 46. Clean all 
 pieces with a plane. No sandpa- 
 pering is necessary. 
 
 Assemble parts, using two 7 / 8 " 
 blocks of wood to spread the arms, 
 Fig. 47. Be careful not to spread 
 them too far and thus split the 
 wood. %" No. 3 round-head screws 
 will make very nice work, although 
 %" brads may be used. 
 
 Give one coat of green paint to 
 protect the wood from moisture and 
 harmonize it with the foliage of the 
 plant the trellis is to be used with. 
 
 Suggestion. — By increasing or 
 decreasing the thickness of the 
 lumber and the width of the stock 
 a trellis of any desired size may be 
 constructed. 
 
 — 22 — 
 
LESSON NO. 9 
 
 PIN TRAY 
 
 Cut a piece of stock 7y 2 " long, 
 6y 2 " wide, and %" thick. With rip 
 saw cut this board into two pieces; 
 one 7yo" long by 3y 2 " wide, the 
 other 7y 2 " long by 3" wide. 
 
 Lay out with dividers and try 
 square as shown in Fig. 49. Fig. 
 50 is a photograph of the board 
 properly laid out. 
 
 Plane to the lines of both boards. 
 Keep the edges of both boards 
 straight and square with the con- 
 cave face of each. There will then 
 be two boards, one 7 1 / 2 // by 3" and 
 
 — 23 — 
 
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 h->w 
 
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 11 
 
 
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 FIG. 49 
 
the other 7y 2 " by 21/0". Their long- 
 narrow edges will be parallel and 
 square with the concave face of 
 both boards. 
 
 Saw ends of both boards tV 
 away from lines. Use coping saw. 
 
 In the larger board saw out the 
 enclosed space in the center. Use 
 coping saw. 
 
 Now file this inner opening with 
 the half round file. Then file the 
 ends with the flat side of the file 
 following the lines of the curve. Do 
 not file across the width of the 
 board, Fig. 51. 
 
 Plane all the surfaces of both 
 boards clean and smooth. 
 
 Sandpaper the opening, putting 
 the sandpaper around a half round 
 file, Fig. 52. 
 
 Sandpaper the curved ends by 
 rubbing them over sandpaper held 
 upon the bench. Use a rocking mo- 
 tion, Fig. 53. Sandpaper the re- 
 maining edges and surface in the 
 usual way. 
 
 Nail the two pieces together 
 with y 2 " brads, Fig. 54. 
 
 Set the nails tV" below the sur- 
 face, using nail set. Avoid strik- 
 ing the wood with the hammer. 
 
 With No. V2 sandpaper carefully 
 smooth the whole problem. 
 Stain and wax. 
 
 — 24 — 
 

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 LESSON NO. 10 
 
 BLOTTER PAD 
 
 Stock, finished size. 
 
 1 piece %"x3"x5". 
 1 piece %"xl"x3". 
 
 With marking gauge lay out a 
 line ^4" from the bottom along the 
 two long edges, Fig. 56. 
 
 Place in a vise, Fig. 57, with a 
 block of wood about 6" long, the 
 bottom side of the blotter pad fac- 
 ing away from the block. 
 
 Set the dividers at 5", placing 
 one leg of the dividers at one of 
 
 — 25 — 
 
the 14" lines and strike an arc. Do 
 the same from the other 14" line, 
 Fig. 57. At the intersection of 
 these arcs place one leg of the di- 
 viders and draw the bottom curve, 
 Fig. 58. On the other end do the 
 same. 
 
 Place in a vise and plane to 
 curve, Fig. 59. Sandpaper the bot- 
 tom, going across the grain, so as 
 to smooth out the flat sides left by 
 the plane, Fig. 60. 
 
 Shape handle. See Problem 
 No. 1. 
 
 Nail together with iy 2 " nails. 
 
 Finish. 
 
 Glue blotter to bottom. 
 
 
 Summaey. — These ten lessons 
 have illustrated the use of rip and 
 cross cut saws, the laying out and 
 sawing of boards; the use of the 
 try sqfuare; the use and adjustment 
 of the plane; the four methods of 
 squaring a board; the use of the 
 back-saw; the trueing of edges at 
 any angle; the use of a hand gim- 
 let bit; the use of sandpaper; the 
 cutting of a chamfer; the use of 
 coping saw and file; the use of 
 brace and bit; interior cutting; the 
 use of screws and nails; the assem- 
 bling of the parts of a project. 
 
 — 26 — 
 
PICTURE EASEL 
 
 Stock, finished size. 
 
 No. 1. 1 piece %"x5"xl0". 
 
 No. 2. 1 piece %"x3y 2 "x5y 2 ". 
 
 No. 3. 1 piece %"xl"x4y 2 " 
 On piece No. 1, plane the work- 
 edge and one end. Square the end 
 with the working edge. Use this 
 end for the bottom. Lay out de- 
 sign as shown on your drawing, 
 Fig. 62. Cut design with back saw, 
 Figs. 64 and 65, and plane true. 
 
 On piece No. 2, plane the work- 
 ing edge and both ends. Square the 
 ends with the working edge. Lay 
 out as shown on drawing, Fig. 63. 
 
 — 27 — 
 
 H 
 
 c 
 
 
 I fi Ik I 
 
 3k' 
 
 w> 
 
 FIG. B3 
 
On piece No. 3, true all edges. 
 
 Take a fine cut off all surfaces 
 of the three boards with a smooth- 
 ing plane. This will make them 
 smooth and clean. Then sandpaper. 
 
 After sandpapering, lay out the 
 following light lines with a sharp 
 pencil on piece No. 1; a center line 
 from top to bottom on both sides 
 of board; a horizontal line 1" from 
 the bottom on both sides of board. 
 The center line is for nailing No. 1 
 on No. 2. The bottom line for nail- 
 ing No. 1 on No. 3. 
 
 Decide which is to be used for 
 the back of piece No. 1, preferably 
 the convex side. (It makes a bet- 
 ter joint to place the concave side 
 against the piece it is to be nailed 
 to.) Drive four 1" No. 17 brads 
 into the board on the bottom line, 
 so that the points of the nails come 
 through. If the nails have been 
 driven in correctly the points will 
 pass through the lines on the other 
 side of the board. 
 
 Place piece No. 3 in position, 
 Fig. 66, and continue driving the 
 nails. Set the nails with a nail set. 
 Be careful not to mar the board. 
 The hammer should not touch it. 
 
 Place piece No. 1 against piece 
 No. 2 as it will stand when finished, 
 Fig. 67, and mark where it belongs. 
 Drive four 1" No. 17 brads through 
 the center line as you did for the 
 first piece. Put piece No. 2 in place, 
 Fig. 68, and finish. Eub all pencil 
 lines off with a rubber eraser and 
 sandpaper where needed. 
 
 Use the finish you prefer. 
 
 — 28 — 
 
^ 
 
 mortise to be 
 cut 3/fe of 
 Ink We// 
 
 'Ink 5TAND- 
 
 LESSON NO. 12 
 
 INK STAND 
 
 Stock, finished size. 
 
 1 piece 5" long, 6" wide, %" thick. 
 
 True all edges. 
 
 Lay out for groove and mortise, 
 with marking gauge, dividers, try 
 square and a pencil, Figs. 70 and 71. 
 See Lesson 10 for method of laying 
 out groove with dividers. 
 
 Sharpen gouge with a regular 
 oil stone, Fig. 72, and slip stone, 
 Fig. 73. Use the regular oil stone 
 
 — 29 — 
 
to raise the feather edge which will 
 lie on the inside of the curve, Fig. 
 72. Then alternate with the slip 
 stone on the inner curve, Fig. 73, 
 and the oil stone on the outer curve 
 until the feather edge disappears. 
 The slip stone is made of the same 
 material as the oil stone, the differ- 
 ence being in shape only. 
 
 With a rubber mallet and a 
 gouge cut the groove close to the 
 lines, Fig. 74. 
 
 Then finish without the rubber 
 mallet, holding the gouge in both 
 hands and carefully paring to the 
 lines, Fig. 75. Leave no large 
 ridges. 
 
 Scrape with a goose-neck 
 scraper all the ridges out of the 
 groove, Fig. 76. 
 
 Sandpaper the groove by wrap- 
 ping sandpaper around a cylinder 
 l 1 //' in diameter, Fig. 77, or make 
 a block about 5 ,/ xl 1 / 2 ,/ with an edge 
 curved to a %" radius. Use the 
 method followed in Lesson 10 in 
 making this block. The cylinder or 
 block should always have a smaller 
 radius than the groove. 
 
 Cut the mortise. Sharpen the 
 chisel as the plane iron was sharp- 
 ened with the exception that the 
 edge of the chisel is kept straight 
 instead of being slightly curved. 
 
 Place the chisel on the line, with 
 the straight side facing the out- 
 
 — 30 — 
 
side of the mortise. With a rubber 
 mallet cut about tV deep all around 
 the mortise, Fig. 78. Then put the 
 board in a vise and cut down tV, 
 chiseling across the grain of the 
 wood, Fig. 79. Repeat this opera- 
 tion until the mortise is about ^4" 
 deep. 
 
 Plane clean and smooth, and 
 sandpaper. Finish in any manner 
 desired. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Tell how you would make a 
 blotter pad without using a han- 
 dle but in place of it gouging out 
 the sides for finger grips. 
 
 2. Tell how you could make a 
 pin tray out of a single block of 
 wood by using the gouge. 
 
 3. Make a drawing for an ink 
 stand for two bottles of ink; one 
 red and the other black. 
 
 4. Tell how to grind a gouge. 
 
 5. Tell how to oil stone a gouge. 
 
 6. Tell how to grind a chisel. 
 
 7. Tell how to oil stone a chisel. 
 
 — 31 — 
 
 v\r,. & 
 
LESSON NO. 13 
 
 SHELF— FREEHAND ORNAMEN- 
 TAL DESIGN 
 
 Stock, finished size. 
 
 Top, 1 piece %"x8"xl2". 
 Back, 1 piece %"x7y 2 "x8". 
 Bracket, 1 piece %"x7"x7". 
 
 True the top and cut the corners. 
 
 True the back and cut the cor- 
 ners. 
 
 True one edge and one end of 
 bracket. On this trued edge and 
 end mark off the length and width 
 of the bracket. The design when 
 finished will be drawn diagonally 
 on this piece. Make a freehand de- 
 sign on thick paper. Cut it out 
 with a knife and use it as a pattern 
 by placing it on the board and pen- 
 cil around the pattern. Fig. 80 is 
 a photograph of the lay out of the 
 bracket. 
 
 With a turning saw cut tV" away 
 from the line, Fig. 81. File to the 
 line with a half round file. The 
 curve when completed should be 
 continuous, that is, should have no 
 flat places. Plane and sandpaper 
 all pieces. 
 
 In the back piece draw a center 
 line from top to bottom on both 
 sides. Do the same with the top. 
 Now the problem is ready to be as- 
 sembled. 
 
FIG. S" 
 
 
 
 Drive five nails at reasonable 
 spaces apart into the back along 
 the center line so that the points 
 come through slightly on the other 
 center line. Place bracket in a vise, 
 Fig. 82. Drive nails in the back. 
 Remove from vise and test for ac- 
 curacy. Return to vise and com- 
 plete the nailing. Plane both ab- 
 solutely true, Fig. 83. 
 
 In the top piece, with marking 
 gauge, draw a line 5/16" parallel 
 with its back edge. This is the 
 nailing line for the top to the back. 
 Put 5 nails along the center line 
 and 4 nails along the back line. 
 Place the bracket and back in the 
 vise and nail the top to the bracket, 
 testing as before, Fig. 84. To nail 
 the top to the back place in the 
 vise so that the nails will not be 
 driven into the overhanging end, 
 Figs. 85 and 86. 
 
 Set all nails tV' below the sur- 
 face with a nail set. 
 
 Plane back smooth, and true if 
 necessary, Fig. 87. 
 
 Erase pencil lines or plane them 
 out. Then sandpaper and finish as 
 desired. 
 
 Note. — This shelf may be adapt- 
 ed to any desired position or mate- 
 rial. Plan a shelf for the kitchen 
 at your home. 
 
 — 34 — 
 

 
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 • Whisk Broom Holder- 
 
 
 
 Stock, finished size. 
 
 PLATE 11 
 
 LESSON NO. 14 
 WHISK BROOM HOLDER 
 
 Front, 1 piece 3 /4"x2"x6". 
 Back, 1 piece 3/ 8 " x 3y 2 "x8' 
 
 4i m 
 
 s-s-s 
 
 y~^ 
 
 x 
 
 
 * V 
 
 
 _ -x j§=-— ' 
 
 L 4*=- 
 
 v^ ; 
 
 IV 
 
 FIG. 88 
 — 35 — 
 
True the front piece, all four 
 edges. 
 
 True only the working edge of 
 the back piece. 
 
 Lay out front piece as shown in 
 Fig. 88, lower. Fig. 89, lower, 
 shows the front piece laid out with 
 reference to the centers of the holes 
 to be bored and the corners to be 
 cut. It is not necessary to lay out 
 the %" semi-circles because when 
 the centers are laid out, the tip of 
 the bit is placed at these centers 
 and the holes bored. The centers 
 for holes for the screws may be laid 
 out from the first. 
 
 Lay out the back piece as shown 
 in Fig. 88, upper, using the work- 
 ing edge, which is already trued, to 
 work from. Use a try square, a 
 marking gauge and dividers to 
 draw all lines. Fig. 89, upper, is a 
 picture of the complete lay out. 
 
 Chisel the corners of the front 
 piece using a 1" chisel. Sharpen 
 the chisel first, as a dull chisel tears. 
 Take a cut about y 8 " wide starting 
 on the edge with the grain and cut- 
 ting across the thickness of the 
 board, Fig. 90. 
 
 Place the piece on the bench- 
 hook or on a scrap piece of wood to 
 protect the bench. Continue tak- 
 ing y 8 " cuts, Fig. 91, until the curve 
 is completed. 
 
 Bore two holes with a %" dowel 
 bit, being sure to turn the board 
 over and bore from the other side 
 — 36 — 
 
when the tip of the bit comes 
 through. The holes show in Fig. 
 92. 
 
 With a back saw cut as shown 
 in Fig. 92, keeping at least 1/32" 
 away from the line in order to 
 smooth up later. Cut out the re- 
 mainder with a turning saw or use 
 small cuts and chisel it out. When 
 close to the line pare as shown in 
 Fig. 93. The stroke is somewhat 
 of a saw stroke, being from side to 
 side, as well as forward. The cut 
 must be very fine. The ends may 
 be chiseled in the same way, Fig. 
 94. Great care must be taken here 
 not to split the edges. These ends 
 may be carefully filed instead of 
 being chiseled. 
 
 With a rip saw and a back saw 
 cut the back piece tV" away from 
 the line and plane to lines square 
 with the concave surface. Chisel 
 the corners as in the first piece. 
 Complete with a file. Use the file 
 as in the previous problem. 
 
 File the corners of the front 
 piece in the same manner; also 
 with the half round file smooth the 
 inside of it. 
 
 Bore the holes for the screws 
 and countersink, Fig. 95. 
 
 Plane the board clean with a 
 smoothing plane and carefully 
 sandpaper. For the inside of the 
 front piece wrap sandpaper around 
 the file. Put together with flat- 
 head screws, Fig. 96. 
 
 Stain and wax. 
 
 — 37 — 
 

 ^=1 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 
 ,^-^^P 
 
 
 
 
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 18" 
 
 
 
 .1 
 
 
 K^J- — 
 
 
 1 
 
 Sectotcenfer Ccwr HANGER 
 
 
 
 PLATE 12 
 
 LESSON NO. 15 
 
 COAT HANGER 
 
 Stock. 
 
 1 piece 18y 2 "x3y 2 "x%". 
 
 Lay out as shown in Fig. 97. 
 
 With a turning saw cut tV' 
 away from the lines. Keep the saw 
 perpendicular to the board and be 
 sure it is not twisted, that is, the 
 handles should be turned exactly 
 alike at all times in their position. 
 Use both hands on the saw frame 
 and use easy strokes as the saw 
 blades are easily broken, especially 
 the narrow ones. 
 
 Trim to lines using spoke shave. 
 The blade of spoke shave is sharp- 
 ened in the same manner as the 
 blade of a plane and cuts much the 
 
 — 38 — 
 
same. It will be found better to 
 push the spoke shave away from 
 you in doing most work, though 
 sometimes it will be easier to pull 
 it toward you. The bottom edge 
 of the coat hanger should be cut 
 flat and square with the side. The 
 spoke shave is held perpendicular 
 to the side, Fig. 98. In cutting, cut 
 from the end of the board to the 
 middle and then reverse the board 
 and cut from the other end so as not 
 to cut against the grain of the 
 wood. 
 
 Cut the top edge in the same 
 manner, Fig. 99, and when it is 
 cut to the line round it a little by 
 turning the spoke shave, Fig. 100. 
 When finished round the end of the 
 piece with a chisel. See Figs. 90 
 and 91 in previous problem. 
 
 Plane clean with a smoothing 
 plane. It will be necessary be- 
 cause of the irregular shape to nail 
 extra blocks on the bench hook to 
 hold it. Be sure to remove these 
 blocks later. 
 
 Sandpaper the problem. The 
 bottom and sides are sandpapered 
 in the usual manner. For the top 
 edge take a half sheet of sandpaper 
 and hold it at both ends, and pull 
 it up and down as if polishing a 
 shoe with a cloth, Fig. 101. This 
 will rub off the ridges left by the 
 spoke shave. The blade of the 
 spoke shave being flat makes the 
 top edge many sided instead of 
 round. 
 
 Put the hook in the center. 
 
 Give two coats of shellac. 
 
 — 39- 
 
 ^^C: 
 
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 Q 
 
 AT 
 
 y- 
 
 3, 
 
 ra^ 
 
 IX 
 
 ft 
 
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 y (/k"/7o.8 F: Kerens 
 
 ■=$■- 
 
 #= 
 
 v5' 
 
 'Book Rack* 
 
 PLATE 13 
 
 LESSON NO. 16 
 
 BOOK RACK 
 
 So far all our joints have been 
 butt joints, that is, simply one 
 board against the other. In some 
 articles this joint is not as strong as 
 necessary and to secure the addi- 
 tional strength one piece is inserted 
 in the other. There are many ways 
 of doing this. The simplest is the 
 grooved joint used in the book rack. 
 In this problem the joint is rein- 
 forced by means of screws, though 
 it would in all probability be strong 
 enough with glue only. 
 — 40 — 
 
Lay out with the try square, 
 knife, Fig. 103, and marking 
 gauge, at both ends as shown in 
 Fig. 102, to the depth of the groove. 
 Saw as close to the lines as possible, 
 but be careful to keep within the 
 lines. 
 
 Cut out between the saw lines 
 with a chisel and rubber mallet, cut- 
 ting half way across and then re- 
 versing the board and cutting the 
 other half, Fig. 104. If necessary 
 trim with a chisel and rubber mal- 
 let, Fig. 105. Keep the chisel per- 
 pendicular to the face of the board 
 and watch the lines closely, as a 
 groove that is too wide is worth- 
 less. 
 
 If groove is not deep enough use 
 the chisel at a slight angle as you 
 would a knife, Fig. 106. 
 
 If the ends are too thick plane 
 them to the width of the groove; 
 clean all surfaces with a plane and 
 sandpaper. 
 
 Assemble, using glue and 
 screws. Be sure to test with a try 
 square so that the ends will be per- 
 pendicular to the bottom. 
 
 Plane the edge after the assem- 
 bling, Fig. 107, to take off any un- 
 evenness that may be present. 
 
 Sandpaper where necessary. Do 
 not forget the block of wood when 
 sandpapering. 
 
 Let the glue dry at least twenty- 
 four hours. 
 
 Stain and wax. 
 
 — 41 — 
 
PLATE 14 
 
 LESSON NO. 17 
 HANDKERCHIEF BOX 
 
 Consult the drawing for dimen ; 
 sions of pieces, Plate 14. 
 
 True both edges and ends. Lay 
 out the tongue and groove, Fig. 108, 
 using knife, try square, and mark- 
 ing gauge. Mark all cross lines, 
 Fig. 109, with a knife and try 
 square. Mark depth of tongue with 
 a marking gauge and cut out. Lay 
 out and cut the groove in the same 
 
 — 42 — 
 
manner. Plane smooth the surfaces 
 to be used for the inside of the box. 
 
 Test the parts by putting them 
 together with hand screws. The 
 jaws of the screws must be paral- 
 lel when tightened. Take apart by 
 loosening the screw in the end of 
 the jaw; do not touch the middle 
 screw. Give each surface of the 
 joint a thin coat of glue and clamp 
 the parts together, tightening the 
 screw in the end of the jaw only. 
 This pressure forces out all surplus 
 glue and also forces the glue into 
 the pores of the wood, thus doing 
 the work of numerous small nails, 
 Fig. 110. 
 
 Plane the top and bottom edges 
 flat, Fig. 111. Now the box is ready 
 for the top and bottom. 
 
 Make top and bottom pieces 
 each i/x" larger than the space to 
 be covered. Glue them in place, 
 Fig. 112. The slight projection is 
 to be planed off later when the glue 
 dries, Fig. 113. Plane the whole 
 box smooth. Round the corners to 
 the radius in the drawing. The box 
 is now ready to have the lid sawed 
 off. With a marking gauge draw 
 a horizontal line ItV from the top 
 of the box on the four sides, Fig. 
 114. On this line, with rip saw, 
 cut off the lid, Fig. 115. Plane 
 these edges smooth. Stain, shellac, 
 and wax the box inside and out. 
 Place hinges and clasp when the 
 box is thoroughly dry. 
 
 — 4.°, — 
 
— 44 — 
 
LESSON NO. 18 
 
 A CHILD'S WHEELBARROW 
 
 Before starting the construction of this problem carefully 
 study the working drawing. Make out a stock bill on a form 
 similar to the one shown in Fig. 116. Have this stock bill 
 passed upon by your instructor. 
 
 5 TOCK BlL L (Finished 5i 3 eJ 
 
 no of Pa 
 
 Ihickns 
 
 Width 
 
 Length 
 
 Description 
 
 mark 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cut your stock, using the bill for 
 sizes, allowing enough extra length 
 and width for planing and sawing. 
 
 True all pieces to finished size 
 as shown on your stock bill. 
 
 The handles are shaped with a 
 spoke shave, Fig. 117, and finished 
 by rubbing them with a strip of 
 sandpaper, in a manner similar to 
 that used in polishing a shoe with a 
 cloth, Fig. 118. 
 
 Fit the wheel and axle to the 
 handles. This requires careful fit- 
 ting. Put the box together with 
 nails or screws. Nail the box to 
 the handles, having the wheel, axle 
 and handles assembled at the time 
 the nailing is done. 
 
 Secure four wrought iron braces 
 and fasten the legs to the handles 
 with them, using %" No. 6 screws. 
 
 Finish as desired. 
 
 — 45 — 
 
LESSON NO. 19 
 HAT AND COAT RACK 
 
 Carefully make a stock bill on form similar to one shown 
 in Fig. 116. True pieces to correct sizes and shapes. 
 
 Lay out the holes for the dowels. With marking gauge draw 
 a center on the inner edge of each of the vertical pieces and 
 also on the ends of the horizontal pieces. Place the two 
 vertical pieces together and with a try square draw lines across 
 
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 ^S 
 
 r- 
 
 --!-- 
 
 .IT 
 
 .p 
 
 n 
 
 .Ol 
 
 > 
 
 V*l 
 
 -SL 
 
 'j^/ 
 
 V 
 Q 
 
 o 
 
 — 46 — 
 
FIG. 119 
 
 at the proper distances, Fig. 119. 
 With the horizontal pieces the 
 marking gauge may be used for 
 both the center lines and the cross 
 lines. Care should be taken to 
 mark from the same edge for all 
 the holes in each piece. Before 
 boring the holes test by placing the 
 pieces together in their respective 
 positions; see if the lines coincide. 
 Bore %" holes l 1 /^' deep, being 
 sure to have them perpendicular to 
 the plane in which they are bored. 
 
 Cut enough dowel pins 2 1 / 4" long 
 to put the problem together. Point 
 the ends about tV' with a dowel 
 pointer or a knife. 
 
 Put the problem together with 
 clamps, without glue. If correct 
 after testing, take apart, put glue 
 on the dowels, Fig. 120, in the dowel 
 holes, and on both surfaces of the 
 pieces, Fig. 121. Clamp together, 
 Fig. 123, and allow twenty-four 
 hours to dry. 
 
 Plane surfaces smooth and clean. 
 Scrape with a cabinet square 
 scraper, Fig. 124. 
 
 Fit y±' molding for the mirror. 
 In cutting the miters use tee bevel 
 for marking and testing. Set bevel 
 at 45°. Cut the back from y 8 " or 
 ■h" stock. 
 
 Finish as desired. 
 
 — 47 — 
 
LESSON NO. 20 
 A COSTUMER 
 
 The making of a half lap joint 
 is the new exercise taken up in this 
 problem. Square the two pieces 
 for the base 18" by 1%" by 1%", 
 and make sure that they are ex- 
 actly alike. Then with knife, try 
 square, and marking gauge lay out 
 the grooves, which must be exactly 
 in the center of the pieces, of the 
 same width of a piece, and one-half 
 the thickness, so that they will fit 
 into each other. 
 
 With back saw cut close to the 
 lines, Fig. 125. With chisel and 
 mallet cut out the piece between 
 the saw kerfs, Fig. 126. Cut from 
 both sides so as not to break the 
 edges. Carefully trim the bottom 
 of grooves with a sharp chisel, Fig. 
 127. If the grooves are not quite 
 wide enough or deep enough pare 
 carefully with chisel to proper size, 
 Fig. 128. 
 
 Put together with glue and 
 clamp. Allow twenty-four hours to 
 dry. Scrape off any surplus glue, 
 and plane top and bottom surfaces 
 flat. 
 
 Shape and true all the other 
 pieces. 
 
 Assemble problem. 
 
 From the large variety of hat 
 and coat hooks obtainable, choose 
 the ones best adapted to the har- 
 mony of the problem. Be simple 
 rather than ornate. 
 
 — 49 — 
 
LESSON NO. 21 
 A TABOURET 
 
 The new problem involved in this project is to glue two 
 boards together to make a board wide enough for the top. 
 Every other feature of the construction of a tabouret has been 
 worked out in some previous problem. 
 
 Decide the particular kind of tabouret to be made. See illus- 
 trations on page 61. Then shape all the required material. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 i 
 
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 -Tabouret- 
 
 
 
 PLATE 18 
 — 50 — 
 
In preparing the top select two boards whose combined width 
 will be at least 1" more than the width, and 1" more than the 
 length. 
 
 Note the grains of the two pieces; see that they are alike in 
 direction. Test this by planing off a shaving in each. Mark 
 the direction of the grain with a pencil. 
 True the two edges to be glued. 
 Make them slightly concave 
 from end to end, about 1/100". This 
 is to avoid possible end cracking 
 due to shrinkage. Place the two 
 edges together and draw a thin 
 piece of paper through the space. 
 If the paper does not bind the space 
 is accurate, Fig. 129. 
 
 These two edges are dowelled 
 together. Care must be taken that 
 the dowel holes in both boards ex- 
 actly agree. There are two meth- 
 ods by which this may be done. 
 Here is one of them — On one of the 
 edges drive in three brads, one in 
 the middle, and one 3" from each 
 end. With the cutting pliers or 
 file, cut off the heads of the brads. 
 Place the other edge exactly in 
 position over these brads and tap 
 the board with the hammer so that 
 the brad makes a mark. Draw out 
 the three brads. In the six marked 
 places bore the dowel holes. The 
 other method is to draw a center 
 line with the marking gauge in each 
 edge; then place the boards to- 
 gether and with a try square, draw 
 three lines across both edges, one 
 in the middle, and one 3" from each 
 end, Fig. 130. 
 
 Put dowel pins in place. 
 
 Clamp boards together, using 
 hand screws to prevent bulging, Fig. 
 131. Separate, and if correct in 
 every particular, glue. 
 
 Clamp together again and let 
 glue set for twenty-four hours. 
 
 Then shape the top. 
 
 FIO. 131 
 
 — 51 — 
 
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 ■Foot Stool- 
 
 Padded Leather Top 
 
 PLATE 19 
 
 1 
 
 'A 
 
 \£k 
 
 ZReod 8" fane 
 
 ■ i Holes %'deep 
 
 ZReod IZ/onq 
 
 h 
 
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 X 
 
 Holes 
 
 d 
 
 5 ides- 4- Pes P'eepa^ 
 
 t33> 
 
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 Leo Data if 
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 . -^ Holes countersunk 
 JL for /if Flat Head Sere * 
 
 2 Reo'd T long 
 
 2 Redd 1 1' long J 
 
 I?- Ik Flat Head Screws Reo'd 
 I- Leaf her Padded Top 37/3" to be fitted after assembling of problem. 
 OfT/7/L5 FOG FOOT 5 TOOL {Podded Leather Top) 
 
 'LATE LV»a 
 
LESSON NO. 22 
 FOOT STOOL 
 
 True all pieces and lay out all 
 dowel holes. 
 
 Chamfers may be cut with chisel, 
 Fig. 132. 
 
 Put on the strips for fastening 
 the top with screws before gluing 
 together. 
 
 Glue both ends together; be care- 
 ful to keep them flat and square, 
 Fig. 133. One clamp is enough, 
 though two are sometimes used. It 
 is easier to keep the ends flat by 
 using one on each side. Let the 
 glue dry for twenty-four hours. Be 
 sure to place pieces of wood be- 
 tween jaws of the clamps so as not 
 to mar the surface of the legs of 
 the problem. 
 
 Glue the sides to the ends, Figs. 
 134 and 135. Keep problem square 
 and let dry for twenty-four hours. 
 Fit the board to be used for the top. 
 Allowance must be made for pad- 
 ding; this will amount to at least 
 y 8 " all around, depending entirely 
 on how thickly it is padded; it may 
 take y±' or more. 
 
 Cotton or hair may be used for 
 padding. Put more in the center 
 than on the edges, and stretch a 
 piece of cheese cloth over the cot- 
 ton, tacking it on the bottom with 
 short tacks. The leather is then 
 tacked over this and the top set in 
 and screwed from the bottom. 
 
 When staining, filling, or wax- 
 ing, take off the top so as not to soil 
 it. 
 
 — 53 — 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
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 i . 
 
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 i 
 i 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 if 
 
 
 
 
 ^* 
 
 — 
 
 
 .p 
 
 •t* 
 
 % 
 
 .,/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /(? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '^7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Li 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 U 
 
 
 f\/^~ 
 
 \ 
 
 1 3 
 
 » -8 / 
 
 l ^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 — 54 — 
 
LESSON NO. 23 
 CLOCK CASE 
 
 Before working this project se- 
 cure a small clock 1%" to 2 1 / 4" in 
 diameter. 
 
 Select any suitable blocks of 
 wood, one for the top and one for 
 the base. 
 
 Remove the various projections 
 of the clock, leaving the works and 
 the enclosing case untouched. 
 These are to be inserted into the 
 wood. 
 
 Measure the diameter of the 
 clock with a rule. 
 
 Mark the diameter on the front 
 and back of top piece, using the 
 dividers. 
 
 This is the diameter of the hole 
 when finished. 
 
 Within this circle draw another 
 circle 14" less in radius, using same 
 center. 
 
 On the circumference of the 
 small circle bore %" holes, close to- 
 gether. See Fig. 136. 
 
 With the gouge and rubber mal- 
 let cut out the center, Fig. 137. 
 
 Place top in vise and trim to re- 
 quired size of hole, Fig. 138. Test 
 by placing clock in the hole. 
 
 Assemble and finish. 
 
 Note: Any deep mortise of any 
 shape can be made in the same man- 
 ner, as for example, in a 1" square 
 mortise, a 1" hole would be bored 
 and chiseled square. 
 
 — 55 — 
 
Nj 
 
 '"-CM 
 
 Mi 
 
 ~f* 
 
 18 
 
 ^r 
 
 O 
 
 — CG — 
 
LESSON NO. 24 
 
 PIANO BENCH 
 
 Before attempting this or any other large problem, make a 
 careful detail drawing showing each piece as it ought to be 
 when completed. The drawing may be so exact that each part 
 of the problem could be made by a different pupil and the whole 
 assembled as a .project without any mistakes. 
 
 True all pieces before attempting to assemble any. In lay- 
 ing out the dowel 
 holes carefully 
 match-mark each 
 joint; that is, parts 
 that go together 
 mark with the 
 same figures. 
 
 Glue the ends 
 together. See Les- 
 son No. 22, Fig, 
 133; only in this 
 problem it is nec- 
 essary to use at 
 least two clamps, 
 one at the rail and 
 one at the cross 
 piece. Glue the ends FIG - 139 
 
 to the rails and stretcher, Fig. 140. Test to see if corners are 
 square. Fit corner blocks and nail and glue in place. Plane the 
 top edges of rails and legs flat to receive top. Screw cast iron 
 knees to rails. 
 Be sure to 
 have them 
 about tV' be- 
 low the top of 
 sides, so that 
 the top may 
 be drawn 
 down to the 
 sides. Use no 
 glue in fasten- 
 ing the top to 
 the rails, be- 
 cause of ex- 
 pansion and 
 contraction of 
 top. 
 
 — 57 
 
Fis*s. 141, 142, 143, and 144 axe photographs of finished problems. If any of 
 these are chosen first make a working drawing. 
 
 — 58 — 
 
FTO. 142 
 
 — 59 — 
 
FIG. 143 
 
— 61 — 
 
LUMBERING 
 
 The trees are cut down. The winter time is the best time 
 for cutting, as there is less sap in the tree at this time of the 
 year. The summer is the next best, the fall and the spring being 
 the least favorable times. The trees are stripped of their 
 branches, and shipped to the saw mill. Here they are sawed 
 into timbers, planks, boards, etc. 
 
 Seasoning. Lumber cut from freshly felled trees is not fit 
 for use in permanent structures of any kind, as it is green. It 
 
 Upper, sawing logs into lengths; lower, a large load of white pine logs; right, 
 yellow pine in a southern forest. 
 
 contains sap and moisture which will evaporate and cause the 
 lumber to shrink, especially across the grain. Some woods 
 shrink as much as one inch to a board twelve inches wide. In 
 length lumber shrinks very little. It is evident what would 
 become of a structure made from wood in this condition. To 
 prevent this the lumber is seasoned. That is, it is piled in a 
 stack in such manner that the air may circulate around each 
 piece. It is left in these stacks for a period ranging from three 
 months to four years, depending on the lumber, its thickness, 
 
 — 62 — 
 
and the use for which it is designed. Some of the best grades 
 of lumber are placed under open sheds to dry to protect them 
 from snow, rain, and the direct rays of the sun. Too fast drying 
 causes checks and cracks. 
 
 Kiln Drying. Lumber that is used for furniture should be 
 kiln dried as well as air dried. The lumber is piled into a room 
 that is heated by steam. The temperature is slowly raised to 
 about 180° F., and the lumber is left in this room from four 
 days to four weeks, depending on the thickness and kind of 
 lumber. In some kilns today the lumber is kept in live steam 
 for the first few days. In this way much of the sap is washed 
 out of the wood. Some manufacturers claim many disadvan- 
 tages for this last method, and it is not generally used. 
 
 Dressed Lumber. Lumber for cabinet work or any fine 
 carpenter work is usually dressed on two sides, or, in other 
 words, is planed with a machine planer on both faces. Lumber 
 dressed in this manner is known as S-2-S or surfaced two sides. 
 If it is only surfaced on one side, as is the case of fence boards, 
 it is known as S-l-S. Lumber that has been surfaced on both 
 faces and both edges is known as S-4-S. 
 
 S-l-S means plane 1 surface and size to thickness. 
 
 S-2-S means plane 2 surfaces and size to thickness. 
 
 S-4-S means plane 2 surfaces and 2 edges and size to thick- 
 ness and width. 
 
 S-1-S-l-E means plane 1 surface and 1 edge and size to thick- 
 ness and width. 
 
 Before starting to plane the board it is well to know the 
 terms generally used to denote the different surfaces. The 
 two large surfaces are called the faces. The two narrow sur- 
 faces, running with the grain of the wood, are called the edges. 
 The two surfaces running across the grain of the wood are 
 called the ends. 
 
 — 63 — 
 
FINISHING 
 
 1. Finishing is the term used for the protecting and beauti- 
 fying coat that is given the wood. It may be paint, shellac, 
 stain, wax, varnish, or any suitable combination of these, such 
 as stain and wax, stain and shellac, stain, filler and shellac, and 
 varnish, or any other combination which will protect and 
 beautify the wood. 
 
 2. In cabinet work finish plays a most important part. Wood 
 without a protecting coat of some kind will soon crack, warp, 
 twist, and lose its beauty. To protect the wood a coating is 
 needed that will keep the air and moisture out of the wood. 
 For woods that have little or no beauty, paint is used. For 
 lawn furniture paint is very satisfactory as it stands the weather 
 better than varnish. 
 
 3. Paint is a mixture of raw or boiled linseed oil, pigment, 
 and a dryer. Linseed is the oil extracted from flax seed. The 
 pigment is the coloring matter. It may be white lead, zinc 
 white, yellow ochre, lamp black, or many others too numerous 
 to mention, depending on the color wanted. The dryer is the 
 oxidizing agent to dry the linseed oil into a hard film. 
 
 4. Staining is to wood as dyeing is to cloth. All colors are 
 not appropriate to wood. Prussian blue should never be used 
 on any kind of wood. 
 
 5. Almost any color, if not subdued, will spoil rather than 
 beautify the wood. Stain should be transparent and enhance 
 the wood. 
 
 6. Stains are divided into the following: 
 
 7. (a) Water Stains, which stain deeply and give some 
 effects which cannot be obtained in any other way. They raise 
 the grain of the wood, and for this reason are not always de- 
 sirable for manual training work. 
 
 8. (b) Spirit Stains, which arc mad' with alcohol, also stain 
 deeply, but do not raise the grain of the wood; the only objec- 
 tion to them is that some stains tnat are manufactured tend to 
 lap when used in the hands of the boys. 
 
 9. (c) Oil Stains, which are very good for manual training, 
 but little trouble being encountered with them. All stains are 
 put on in much the same way. 
 
 — 64 — 
 
10. Directions for Use. Have the wood well planed and 
 finely sandpapered, then apply the stain freely with a brush; 
 allow it to remain on the surface from three to thirty minutes, 
 after which wipe off the surplus stain which has not struck in. 
 
 11. The depth of shade can be regulated by applying the 
 stain more or less freely, and also by varying the length of time 
 before wiping it off. Allow twenty-four hours or more for the 
 stain to dry thoroughly. 
 
 12. In finishing open grained woods, such as oak, ash, ma- 
 hogany, and chestnut, stain as above directed, and then fill with 
 paste wood filler. See Section No. 15. After the work has 
 been filled, complete the finish by applying shellac, varnish, or 
 wax according to the finish desired. 
 
 13. On the close grained woods, such as pine, cypress, and 
 birch, do not use fillers. 
 
 14. A wax finish can be obtained by applying a thin coat of 
 shellac, and finishing with Standard Prepared Wax. 
 
 15. Filler. Thin with turpentine or benzine to the consist- 
 ency of flowing varnish; apply it to the surface of the wood 
 with a brush, going over no more surface at a time than will 
 admit of being cleaned off before hardening. After the filler 
 has set, giving the appearance that the gloss has left it, rub off 
 with excelsior, shavings or cloth. Eub across the grain when 
 practicable; then clean out the crevices with a sharp stick; 
 after which wipe the whole problem thoroughly with a cloth 
 or rag. Should the filler at any time wipe off too hard, or dry 
 too fast for the work, add a little linseed oil, just sufficient for 
 the purpose intended. Allow twenty-four hours to dry. Then 
 apply shellac, varnish, or wax, whichever is preferred. 
 
 16. Shellac is gum dissolved in alcohol and is of two kinds, 
 white and orange. The white is nearly transparent. The 
 orange shellac is, as its name implies, orange in color. For 
 manual training work the white is preferable because it is diffi- 
 cult for a boy to apply the orange. If the coats are not put on 
 evenly an unsightly smeared appearance results. 
 
 17. Keep the shellac in covered tin cups and use rubber-set 
 brushes, as the bristles do not come out of them so easily. Keep 
 the shellac thin. 
 
 — 65 — 
 
18. In flowing shellac put it on quickly with a 1%" or 2" 
 chisel brush. Do not go over the surface more than once as the 
 shellac sets rapidly and cannot be brushed out. Laps will show 
 if you do. Sandpaper carefully after each coat is dry, using 
 sandpaper without a block of wood, holding it in the tips of 
 the fingers. 
 
 19. Copal varnish is made from copal gum, linseed oil, and 
 turpentine. The oil and gum are first boiled together and 
 then the turpentine is added. The compound is drawn off in 
 vats and allowed to age and settle. The time for aging varies 
 from one month to a year or more, depending upon the quality 
 and kind of varnish made. 
 
 20. To flow copal varnish use it as it conies from the manu- 
 facturer. If it is too thick place it in a warm room for twenty- 
 four hours. If it is then too thick add a small quantity of 
 turpentine. In flowing the varnish use l 1 2" or 2" chisel varnish 
 brush; put varnish on quickly and thick. Wipe the varnish out 
 of the brush into the can and then pick up all the surplus varnish 
 with it. It may be necessary to dry the brush again. The 
 varnish should be brushed out thin enough so that it will not 
 run. Then let it dry from one to three days, depending on the 
 kind and quality. It should not feel sticky when dry. Sand- 
 paper after each coat is dry, but not after the last. The room 
 in which the varnishing is done must be free from dust, warm, 
 and well ventilated. 
 
 21. Wax. The exact composition of the wax manufactured 
 for use is kept secret by the manufacturers. 
 
 22. In applying any of these waxes it is well to read care- 
 fully the directions on the can. The general directions which 
 will apply to all waxes are: Have the surfaces planed smooth 
 and finely sandpapered. In open grained wood, such as oak, 
 ash, etc., fill with paste filler. See section No. 15. When filler 
 is dry, apply a coat of wax, using a piece of cloth or brush. 
 Let dry from five minutes to half an hour, depending on the 
 kind of wax used. Polish with a stiff brush or cloth, alio wing- 
 first coat twenty-four hours to dry. Apply a second coat in 
 the same manner. Should a higher gloss be desired, as on soft 
 woods, give a thin coat of shellac, and sandpaper before apply- 
 ing the wax. 
 
 — 66 — 
 
HARDWARE 
 
 Nails may be had in either the cut or wire variety and they 
 are made in varying lengths with diameters suitable to the use 
 for which they are manufactured. Cut nails, made from sheet 
 steel or iron, have ceased to be generally used in the present day 
 building operations. Wire nails, made from steel wire of the 
 diameter desired when finished, have now generally replaced cut 
 nails. In ordering nails read the letter d as " penny" and use 
 the following scale as a guide: 
 
 3 4 5 6 7 
 
 LENGTH OF NAILS 
 
 9 10 12 16 20 30 40 50 60d 
 
 1 11411/2 1% 2 2V4 21/2 23/4 3 3V4 31/2 4 4y 2 5 5i/ 2 6in. 
 
 Brads, nails with small heads, are generally ordered by 
 length and gauge, ranging from 3/16" to 3" in length and 
 gauged by numbers to indicate the diameter. 
 
 No. 
 
 of Gage 
 
 Decimal 
 Equivalent 
 
 No. 
 of Gage 
 
 Decimal 
 Equivalent 
 
 No. 
 of Gage 
 
 Decimal 
 
 Equivalent 
 
 Nc. 
 of Gage 
 
 Decimal 
 Equivalent 
 
 1 
 
 .2830 
 
 6 
 
 .1920 
 
 11 
 
 .1205 
 
 16 
 
 .0625 
 
 2 
 
 .2625 
 
 7 
 
 .1770 
 
 12 
 
 .1055 
 
 17 
 
 .0540 
 
 3 
 
 .2437 
 
 8 
 
 .1620 
 
 13 
 
 .0915 
 
 18 
 
 .0475 
 
 4 
 
 .2253 
 
 9 
 
 .1483 
 
 14 
 
 .0800 
 
 19 
 
 .0410 
 
 5 
 
 .2070 
 
 10 
 
 .1350 
 
 15 
 
 .0720 
 
 20 
 
 .0348 
 
 Screws, made of iron or brass, come in sizes from Vi" to 6" 
 and in gauges from to 30. One large manufacturer catalogues 
 screws 1W long in 19 different gauges. In ordering screws give 
 the length in inches, and the gauge number. The following is 
 the gauge generally used and the table gives the equivalent in 
 decimals of an inch: 
 
 No. 
 
 Inch 
 
 No. 
 
 Inch 
 
 No. 
 
 Inch 
 
 No. 
 
 Inch 
 
 No. 
 
 Inch 
 
 
 
 .0578 
 
 5 
 
 .1236 
 
 10 
 
 .1894 
 
 15 
 
 .2552 
 
 22 
 
 .3474 
 
 1 
 
 .0710 
 
 6 
 
 .1368 
 
 11 
 
 .2026 
 
 16 
 
 .2684 
 
 24 
 
 .3737 
 
 2 
 
 .0842 
 
 7 
 
 .1500 
 
 12 
 
 .2158 
 
 17 
 
 .2816 
 
 26 
 
 .4000 
 
 3 
 
 .0973 
 
 8 
 
 .1631 
 
 13 
 
 .2289 
 
 18 
 
 .2947 
 
 28 
 
 .4263 
 
 4 
 
 .1105 
 
 9 
 
 .1763 
 
 14 
 
 .2421 
 
 20 
 
 .3210 
 
 30 
 
 .4520 
 
 — 67 — 
 
In common use there are five kinds of screws, — lag, round- 
 head, flat-head, fillister-head, and oval-head. Lag screws are 
 ordered by length and diameter, in inches. 
 
 In preparing wood for screws holes must first be bored, and 
 if flat or oval-head screws are to be used the hole must be coun- 
 ter-sunk. The diameter of the hole bored in the upper piece of 
 wood must equal or be a trifle larger than the diameter of the 
 
 screw. In the under board 
 the hole must be smaller in 
 order that a good thread 
 may be formed in the wood. 
 For example, — a No. 8 
 screw is about 11/64" in di- 
 ameter; for this screw use 
 a 3/16" bit for the upper 
 board, and a y 8 " bit for the 
 lower board if it is hard 
 wood ; if it is soft wood use 
 a 3/32" bit. 
 
 In boring holes for 
 screws an automatic boring 
 tool is very handy. The 
 drills for these tools come 
 in different sizes from 
 3/64" to 12/64", by 64ths. 
 Gimlet bits come in 
 sizes from 2/32" to 3/8" by 
 32nds. The sizes are 
 marked on the shank. For 
 example, — a 3/16" bit is 
 marked 6, and a 1 / 4" bit is 
 marked 8. 
 
 Hinges, locks, clasps, 
 screw eyes, screw hooks, 
 handles, coat hooks, etc., 
 come in a large variety of 
 styles and qualities, the 
 best way to gain an idea of 
 their variety being to see 
 
 1, Lag Screw; 2, Flat Head Screw; 3, Round f , , ,, . 
 
 Head Screw; 4, Eosette Countersink; 5, Gimlet Some 0I tne Catalogues tnai 
 Bit; 6, Twist Drill; 7, Dowel Bit; 8, Screw are put Out by the different 
 
 Driver Bit. manufacturers. 
 
 — 68 — 
 
MECHANICAL DRAWING 
 
 In the manufacturing field today the making and reading 
 of working drawings is becoming as important as the reading 
 and writing of the language of the country. The reasons for 
 this are manifold. Foremost among them is economy of labor 
 and material, which accurate drawing makes possible. With 
 the advance in building and engineering even the lowest paid 
 workmen are required to be able to read working drawings. 
 Owing to the division of labor, each individual must make his 
 part to fit in with the parts made by others in order to complete 
 the project. 
 
 It would be impossible to build one of our skyscrapers with- 
 out the use of working drawings. The steel work, for instance, 
 in these buildings is often completed before the foundations are 
 finished, and measurements are only taken from drawings. 
 
 One need not go to these great complicated pieces of work 
 to find working drawings in use. Even in the small shops one 
 finds the men working almost entirely from drawings made by 
 someone else, an architect for example. 
 
 Drawing is to the manufacturer the same as writing is to 
 the author, a means of conveying ideas to another. Though in 
 writing there are many languages, in drawing, no matter what 
 language the draftsman speaks, his drawings will be understood 
 with the exception of his notes which are on the drawing. In 
 a well worked-out drawing a thorough knowledge can be had 
 of what is meant without reading the notes. 
 
 The Tools Generally Used in Mechanical Drawing Are: 
 
 (a) The drawing board, a rectangular board made of soft 
 wood so that the thumb tacks may be easily put in and drawn 
 out of it. The edges should be square and straight. Drawing 
 boards come in many sizes and styles, usually from 12"xl7" to 
 60"x84". In manual training the small board, 12"xl7", is large 
 enough, though it is well to have a larger board in the shop ; one 
 36"x48" will take care of any kind of drawing that may be 
 attempted in the ordinary course of the work. 
 
 (b) The tee square, which is a straight edge made of wood, 
 or sometimes of steel, with a cross piece at one end, which in 
 
 — 69 — 
 
most tee squares is fixed. In the more expensive ones, one side 
 of this crosspiece is fixed and the other side is adjustable. In 
 the one with the fixed cross piece, or head, as it is sometimes 
 called, the cross piece is at right angles to the straight edge. 
 In the others any angle can be had by adjustment. Many of 
 the better straight edges now have transparent edges about 
 Vz" wide. These are very convenient as they enable the drafts- 
 man to see the lines under the square. 
 
 (c) The drawing triangle, which always has one right angle, 
 the other angles varying. These angles give the triangle its 
 name, such as the 45° and the 30° -60° triangle. There are 
 other triangles, but these two are universally used, some drafts- 
 men possessing only these two. 
 
 (d) The scale, which need only be a rule with the ordinary 
 divisions into eighths and sixteenths, is made in different styles 
 to suit the convenience of the draftsmen. The one shown in 
 the cut is triangular in shape and made of box wood. It has 
 eleven different scales. This makes it very popular among 
 draftsmen. 
 
 FIG. 147 
 
 Photograph of Drawing Board, Tee Square, 45° Triangle, 30°-60° Triangle, Thumb 
 
 Tacks, and Triangular Scale. 
 
 — 70 — 
 
(e) The compass, used for drawing circles, which comes in 
 all qualities and prices. 
 
 (f) The dividers, which are used for spacing equal distances. 
 
 (g) The ruling pen, which is used for inking lines. 
 
 (h) The bow compasses and dividers, which are used where 
 greater accuracy is required. They are operated by means of 
 a round milled nut and screw, and can be set very fine. 
 
 (i) The lengthening bar, which is used to increase the size 
 of the compass. 
 
 FIG. 148 
 Photograph of a set of drawing instruments. 
 
 (j) Rubber erasers, which are made for both ink and pencil 
 erasing. A soft eraser is the best, one that least spoils the 
 surface of the paper in erasing. 
 
 (k) Erasing shields, which are used in erasing lines or blots 
 without spoiling the rest of the drawing. 
 
 (1) Protractors which are used for the measuring of angles, 
 and are generally made of metal. 
 
 (m) Ink, which is black. A waterproof carbon ink is gen- 
 erally used, and comes prepared. Inks may be had in any 
 color, most of which are not waterproof, and these may be 
 mixed together or with water to give different colors or shades 
 of color. 
 
 — 71 — 
 
(n) Paper for pencil work, which is commonly known as 
 detail paper. It is cream colored and tough, and stands erasing 
 well. It comes in different weights and grades, depending on 
 the character of the drawings to be made. For complicated 
 drawings the best should be used. Paper for ink drawings is 
 white, and may be smooth, medium rough, or rough. 
 
 (o) Pencils, which should be high grade graphite, ranging 
 from H. B. to 9 H. For general use in manual training a 3 H 
 pencil is the best. 
 
 (p) Tracing cloth, which is a linen cloth with a preparation 
 on it that makes it transparent. 
 
 (q) Tracing paper, which is a transparent paper to take the 
 place of tracing cloth. It is cheaper, but not nearly so good, 
 and is used only in cheap drawings. 
 
 Processes in the Ordinary Drafting Room 
 
 1. A free-hand sketch is first made of the object with its 
 conditions. 
 
 2. A pencil drawing is made on detail paper to scale, with 
 drawing instruments. This is carefully checked to discover any 
 inaccuracies. 
 
 3. A sheet of tracing cloth is placed over the pencil drawings 
 and with a ruling pen the drawing is inked on the tracing cloth. 
 This is again checked and if any mistakes are found they are 
 corrected. 
 
 4. The drawing is now ready for blue prints to be made. In 
 large cities these tracings are generally sent to some blue print 
 concern which makes it a business to print them. If the drafts- 
 man makes his own prints, he uses blue print paper, which is a 
 white paper with an emulsion on it that is sensitive to light. 
 A printing frame, very much like one used in photography, 
 only larger, with a glass in it, is used. The tracing is placed 
 in the frame toward the glass and the paper with its sensitized 
 surface next the tracing. Then the back is put on which holds 
 the paper against the cloth. It is exposed to the sunlight until 
 the paper has a bronze tinge. Then it is removed from the 
 frame and washed in salt water. The black lines on the tracing 
 have protected that part of the paper from the light. When the 
 
 — 72 — 
 
washing is finished the paper is blue with the exception of the 
 places where there were lines on the tracing. These lines 
 remain white, thus giving a blue background with white lines. 
 Now the prints are hung up to dry. As many prints can be 
 made as desired from the same tracing. 
 
 5. Machines are now made to produce blue prints. They 
 are lighted by electricity. Sometimes the tracing and paper 
 are fed at one side of the machine and at the other side the 
 print, all finished and ready for use, is produced in about two 
 or three minutes. 
 
 GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR MECHANICAL DRAWING 
 
 1. Fasten paper to drawing 
 board with thumb tacks. 
 
 2. See that upper edge of paper 
 is parallel with upper edge of tee 
 square when head of tee square is 
 held against left-hand edge of 
 board. 
 
 3. Parallel lines, horizontal, ver- 
 tical, and diagonal, constitute 
 simple definite problems. 
 
 4. To draw horizontal parallels 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 J 
 
 c 
 
 ') 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 ~) 
 
 r 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FIG. 150 
 Illustration showing the use of Tee Square in drawing horizontal parallels. 
 
 — 73 — 
 
hold head of tee square against 
 left-hand side of drawing board ; 
 push it up or down as needed. See 
 Figs. 149 and 150. 
 
 5. To draw vertical parallels 
 hold tee square as before. Place 
 triangle so that right angle touches 
 tee square, and move triangle back 
 and forth along tee square as 
 needed for lines. Figs. 151 and 152. 
 
 6. To draw parallels at 45° set 
 tee square as before, placing 45° 
 
 angle of triangle on tee square, and moving triangle back and 
 forth as needed. 
 
 7. It would in many cases be impossible or inconvenient to 
 draw all projects full size. For this reason drawings are made 
 to scale. That is they are made half size, quarter size, eighth 
 size, etc. In fact any scale will do that fits the convenience of 
 the draftsman. The scales generally used are: 6"=l'-0" ; 3"= 
 
 l'-O"; li/ 2 "==l , -0 / 
 
 and i/ 8 "=l'-(r. 
 
 &"=l'-0"; 3/ 8 " = l'_0" ; l"=l'-0"; 14' 
 
 :l'-0' 
 
 FIG. 152 
 
 Illustration showing the use of Tee Square and Triangle in drawing vertical parallels 
 and parallels at 45° to vertical. 
 
 — 74 — 
 
FIG. 153 
 Illustration showing the method of testing the 90° angle of a triangle. 
 
 7. To draw parallels at any angle omit the use of tee square 
 and use two triangles, making one the guide. 
 
 8. Lines are important in mechanical drawing. The kinds 
 used are as follows (See Fig. 155) : 
 
 All these points are illustrated throughout this text. 
 
 FIG. 154 
 
 Illustration showing the use of two triangles in drawing parallel lines at any angle. 
 
 — 75 — 
 
• DiFFeREtrrJCiHOS of L vves • 
 
 Dotted Lines are used to indicate 
 
 the. hidden edges of objects 
 DasnLmes a/so -to shew hidden 
 
 ports 
 Center lines. 
 
 Construct/on Lines, light -full 
 
 lines used os name implies 
 
 « Dimension Lines, light lines with 
 
 arror/ heads to denote extren> 
 i Ties On these lines figures 
 are placed to indicate size 
 of objects 
 
 Projection L me s. also light lines 
 
 Lines of the object full lines 
 
 to denote all visible edges 
 
 - Border Lines, fulf lines of 
 suffi c/enf Width to nor men 
 ije w/th sije of drawing. 
 
 In constructing anu figure 
 drow fines of indefinite 
 length When figure /5 enclosed 
 fill in with fu// lines ON these 
 points are illustrated 
 throughout this text 
 
 FIG. 155 
 
 FIG. 156 
 
 Illustration showing the different positions of the 
 
 Tee Square and Triangle in drawing 
 
 a border line. 
 
 — 76 — 
 
LESSON NO. 1 
 
 Drawing Exercise to Illustrate Use of Tee Square, Triangle, 
 
 Compass, and Scale 
 
 1. Draw border line 1" from left-hand edge of paper and 
 i/2" from all other edges. 
 
 2. Bisect the enclosed rectangle vertically and horizontally. 
 
 3. In upper left-hand rectangle draw horizontal lines ^4" 
 apart; use tee square. See page 78. 
 
 4. In upper right-hand rectangle draw vertical lines ^4" 
 apart; use tee square and triangle. 
 
 5. In lower left-hand rectangle draw diagonal lines 45° to 
 the horizontal; use tee square and 45° triangle. 
 
 6. In lower right-hand rectangle draw both diagonals and 
 both diameters. Use light lines. Mark center. 
 
 7. Around this center draw a circle 2" in diameter. Use 
 compass. 
 
 8. Within this circle inscribe a square on the diameters. 
 Use a tee square and 45° triangle. 
 
 9. Circumscribe a square around this circle. Use tee square 
 and triangle. 
 
 10. Using the center in (7) draw a circle 3" in diameter. 
 Use compass. 
 
 11. Circumscribe this circle with a square. Draw in light 
 lines. Use tee square and triangle. 
 
 12. With tee square and 45° triangle draw diagonal lines 
 tangent to the circle in (10). The resulting enclosed figure is 
 an octagon. 
 
 13. The completed figure consists of: (a) 2" circle with an 
 inscribed and circumscribed square, (b) a3" circle with a cir- 
 cumscribed octagon. 
 
 See plate 22. 
 
 — 77- 
 
— 78 — 
 
EXERCISES PRELIMINARY TO WORKING DRAWINGS 
 
 LESSON NO. 2 
 To Find Horizontal and Vertical Axes of Projection. 
 
 1. Select any rectangular prism no dimension of which 
 exceeds 4". 
 
 2. Secure three pieces of ordinary window glass each 6" 
 square. 
 
 FIG. 157 
 
 Isometric drawing of a glass projection box with block in it. See Lesson No. 2, 
 Sections 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. 
 
 — 79 — 
 
3. Set these three pieces of glass together with cloth hinges, 
 letting them thus enclose the rectangular prism. 
 
 4. Look down from above at the top of the prism. With a 
 piece of chalk trace the lines you see on the glass. 
 
 5. From directly in front trace a front view on the glass. 
 
 6. From a direct side study trace a side view. 
 
 7. With dotted lines extend all these lines towards the glass 
 sides. These dotted lines will intersect similar lines of the three 
 views. 
 
 8. Remove the prism. Open the glass figure on a suitable 
 sheet of paper. 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
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 -1 
 
 
 o 
 
 •si 
 K 
 
 Horizontal #x/s Of F'roXection 
 
 End 
 Elevation 
 
 FIG. 158 
 
 To illustrate Lesson No. 2, Sections 9, 10, 11. 
 — 80 — 
 
9. We now have the horizontal axis of projection which is 
 the line extending through the hinge between the top and front 
 and continuing through the top of the other view. "We also 
 have the vertical axis of projection at right angle to this. 
 
 10. The top view is known as the plan; the one below the top 
 is known as the front elevation; the other view is the end 
 elevation. 
 
 11. In the square not covered by glass continue the dotted 
 lines of the top view from the vertical axis to the horizontal axis. 
 
 12. In good sentences give an oral description of the entire 
 lesson. 
 
 LESSON NO. 3 
 To Make and Read a Working Drawing 
 
 1. Eeview Exercise 2, studying all features. 
 
 2. Make a drawing to represent same. 
 
 3. Enclose this drawing in suitable border lines. 
 
 4. Put in the two axes in full lines. 
 
 5. In place of the dotted lines used on the glass use light 
 projection lines. 
 
 6. As a new problem make another drawing, using measure- 
 ments, of a rectangular prism 4"x2"xl 1 / / 2". 
 
 Note: The methods used in Exercises 2-3 may be applied 
 to any geometric solid. See Fig. 159. Draw as many views as 
 are needed for the complete details of any object. 
 
 LESSON NO. 4 
 To Make a Working Drawing of the First Object to be 
 
 Constructed 
 
 1. Select the object — some one-piece simple problem. 
 
 2. Study its details and take its measurements. 
 
 3. Then make a working drawing full size. 
 
 4. Put in dimension lines, keeping them *4" away from 
 object. 
 
 5. The axes of projection may now be omitted. 
 
 Note: Have many similar exercises to develop facility in 
 both reading and making drawings. To older pupils there 
 should be given some exercises in geometric drawing, such as 
 bisecting an angle, constructing a hexagon and the like, as these 
 problems arise in connection with advanced manual training 
 work. See Plate 23. 
 
 — 81 — 
 
Front Elev Ea/o Elev. 
 
 FIG. 159 
 
 Projection of a rectangular pyramid showing the axes of projection. 
 
 — 82 — 
 
— 83 — 
 

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 Bit, expansive 1 
 
 Bit, Gimlet, 2/32 to 7/32 1 set 
 
 Bit, Forstner, Mi-inch 1 
 
 Bit, Forstner, %-inch 1 
 
 Bit, Screwdriver, large and small 2 
 
 Bit Brace, common, 10-inch 3 
 
 Bit Brace, ratchet, 10-inch 1 
 
 Blade, Saw, coping 3 doz. 
 
 Blade, Jack Plane 10 
 
 Blade, Smooth Plane 10 
 
 Brushes, Counter* 6 
 
 Chisel, Ms-inch 2 
 
 Chisel, Vi-inch 2 
 
 Chisel, Munich 6 
 
 Chisel, %-inch 6 
 
 Chisel, 1-inch 24 
 
 Clamp, Colt's iron, 6-inch 6 
 
 Clamp, Colt's iron, 30-inch 4 
 
 Clamp, Wood, hand screw, 6-inch opening 8 
 
 Clamp, Wood, hand screw, 10-inch opening 6 
 
 Clamp, Wood Bar, 24-inch 3 
 
 Clamp, Wood Bar, 36-inch 3 
 
 Countersink 2 
 
 Divider, 7-inch 6 
 
 File, Flat Bastard, 8-inch 12 
 
 File, Half Round Bastard, 8-inch 12 
 
 File, Bit 1 
 
 File, Saw, slim taper, 5-inch 1 
 
 File Card and Brush 1 
 
 Frame, Saw, coping 12 
 
 Gouge, %-inch 12 
 
 Grindstone 1 
 
 Hammer, bell faced 6 
 
 Knife, Chip Carving 12 
 
 Knife, Whittling 24 
 
 Mallet, rubber , A . 12 
 
 Marking Gauge 12 
 
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ARTICLE QUANTITY 
 
 Nail Set, assorted 6 
 
 Oiler, steel 6 
 
 Plane, Jack 24 
 
 Plane, Smooth 24 
 
 Punch, Carving, assorted 12 
 
 Rule. 4-fold, 2 ft 24 
 
 Saw, Back 12 
 
 Saw, Panel 12 
 
 Saw, Rip 12 
 
 Saw, Turning, 14-inch 3 
 
 Saw, Turning, 12-inch 3 
 
 Saw, Turning, blade 14-inch 6 
 
 Saw, Turning, blade, 12-inch 6 
 
 Scraper, Gooseneck, 2 1 / / 2x5-inch 3 
 
 Scraper, Cabinet, sq., 2V2x5-inch 6 
 
 Screwdriver, 7-inch 6 
 
 Spoke Shave, common 6 
 
 Slip, Stone, India , 1 
 
 Stone, Oil, India 6 
 
 Trysquare, 7y2-inch 24 
 
 Wrench, Monkey, 8-inch 1 
 
 DRAWING TOOLS FOR A CLASS OF TWENTY-FOUR 
 
 ARTICLE QUANTITY 
 
 Compass, 4-inch 24 
 
 Compass, Blackboard, 18-inch 1 
 
 Drawing Board, 12 inch by 17 inch 24 
 
 Pencils, Drawing, 3H 36 
 
 Scale, 12-inch 24 
 
 Tee Square, 17-inch 24 
 
 Thumb Tacks 1 gross 
 
 Triangle, 60°, 9" 24 
 
 Triangle, 45°, 7" 24 
 
 SUGGESTED EQUIPMENT FOR FINISHING 
 
 ARTICLE QUANTITY 
 
 Brushes, 1" Rubber-set 3 
 
 Brushes, IV2" Rubber-set 3 
 
 Iron Box, for waste and oil 1 
 
 Shellac Cup, cone top 6 
 
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