LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. -ri UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. IMPROVEMENT OF THE MIND / BY ISAAC WATTS, D.D. • 4 EDITED DY STEPHEN N. FELLOWS, D.D. PItOFESSOR OF MENTAL AND MORAL SCIENCE, AND DIDACTICS, IN THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA "Whoever has the care of instructing others, may be charged with deficiency in his duty, if this book is not recommended." —Dr. Johnson '-£>! & A. S. BARNES & COMPANY NEW YORK AND CHICAGO Copyright, 1885, Oy A. 3. Barms *fr Vo PREFACE THE Improvement of the Mind by Doctor Watts is full of practical wisdom. Prof. L. F. Parker, of the Chair of History in the State University of Iowa, writes as fullo \vs : "Watts' little volume on the Improvement of the Mind cost him twenty years of capital thinking, and is still the most comprehensive, most suggestive, and best of its kind. It is not only uncqualed but incomparable ; so far below it, in my estimation, are all its competitors. Whoever induces a young person, on the verge of active life to read "Watts" carefully, has done much, very much, to ennoble him in all thought and living." It is in the hope of recovering to the youth of the present age, this excellent but almost forgotten book, that the work of recasting it has been attempted. In endeavoring to adapt it to the needs of the present, the following changes have been made : First — Nearly one-third of the book has been eliminated, as being too theological or too closely related to the age and coun- try of the author. Seeonel — A brief but comprehensive analysis has been pre- pared, which appears as a table of contents. Third — Prominence is given to some of the more essential doctrines by stating them in large type, while explanatory and illustrative matter is given in smaller type. But few changes have been made in the text other than those mentioned above, as it seemed desirable to preserve the unique and forcible style of the author. The original work was first published in 1727, and although it is over one hundred and fifty years old, yet its teachings are in substantial harmony with the truest pedagogical doctrines of to-day. It is believed that in its present form and dress it is adapted to private read- ing, and reading circles, and also as a text-book in Secondary and Normal Schools. S. N. F. A Sketch of the Life of the Author. Isaac Watts, D.D., an English dissenting clergyman and poet, was born in Southampton, July 17, 1(>74, and died in London, November 25, 174S. Ho was educated by his father, who kept a boarding school in Southampton and then an academy in London. When a boy he Mas very studious, spending for books the little money received as presents, and devoting his leisure hours to study and reading, instead of joining other boys in play. At school he allowed himself no time for exercise and play, and very little for sleep. He used to mark all the books he read; abridge some, and annotate others of them. In 1G98 he was chosen assistant minister to the Rev. Isaac Chauneey, of an Independent Congregation in Mark Lane, London, of which he became pastor in 1702, and remained at his post until his death. Doctor Watts wrote largely for almost all classes of readers, students of all ages, in Science, Literature, Poetry and Divin- ity. His complete works have been published in various editions of from six to nine volumes. His Logic ami his Improvement of the Mind are the best known of his prose writings. Of his literary merits Doctor Johnson said : "He has provided instruction for all ages, from those who are lisp- ing their first lessons to the enlightened readers of Locke ; he has left neither corporal nor spiritual nature unexamined. He has taught the science of reasoning and the science of the stars. His character, therefore, must be judged from the multiplicity and diversity of his attainments, rather than from any single performance. Of his Hymns, James Montgomery said : "Every Sabbath, in every region "where his native tongue is spoken, thousands and tens of thousands of voices are sending the sacrifices of prayer and praise to God in the strains which he prepared a century ago. Probably no poetry in the language has been more widely read or warmly prized. Doctor Watts was small in stature, being little mone than five feet high, and waa never married. Monuments have been erected to his memory in Abney Park and Westminster Abbey. Table of Contents. Preface ....... Sketch of ttif Life of the author Introduction ....... CHAPTER I. General Rules for the Improvement of Knowledg I. Importance of a good judgment II. Mistakes of human nature in general III. A slight view of momentous things 1. Survey of the vast regions of learning . 2. Numberless variety of questions 3. Thoughts on puzzling inquiries . 4. Read accounts of vast treasures of knowledge IV. Presume not too much on a bright genius . V. Ready wit does not constitute a learned man VI. A life of learning not one of ease VII. Daily industry animated by hope of discoveries VIII. Penetrate into the depth of matters IX. Daily account of new ideas gained X. Avoid a dogmatical spirit. 1. It forbids further improvement of knowledge 2. It leads to arrogance of mind . XI. Be willing to retract mistakes . XII. Danger of indulging fancy and humor XIII. Beware of a spirit of jest and ridicule XIV. Virtue leads to truth ... XV. Vain conceit of personal powers XVI. Ask Divine guidance. .... CHAPTER II. Five Eminent Methods of Gaining Knowledc 1. Observation ..... 2. Reading ..... 3. Lectures ....'. 4. Conversation ..... 5. Meditation. ..... I. Observation— Its advantages : 1. It lays the foundation of all knowledge 2. It gives clear conceptions of things 3. It makes learning continuous . 19 19 19 20 20 20 21 21 22 23 24 21 25 26 26 2<» 27 27 28 28 2) 29 31 32 32 33 31 34 35 (5 CONTENTS. II. Reading — Its advantages: 1. We become acquainted with tho living and the dead ....... 35 2. Wo acquire the learning of the wisest and best men ....... 35 3. We gain their best thoughts carefully elaborated 36 4. We may review what wo have read ' . . 30 [II. Lectures— Their advantages : 1. Instruction isTmore impressive . . .37 2. Instruction can teach what is most necessary 37 3. Sensible means of instruction may be used 4. The pupil may ask questions . . . 38 IV. Conversation — Its advantages: 1. Opportunity for explaining obscurities . . 38 2. Doubts may be proposed and solved . . 39 3. Advantages of comparison of ideas . . . 39 4. Hidden treasures of knowledge revealed . ^0 5. Conversation stimulates thought . . .40 6. We test the truth and value of our own knowledge 40 7. It furnishes knowledge of men and affairs of life 41 V. Meditation— Its advantages: 1. It alone forms personal judgment . . .42 2. It makes knowledge personal ... 42 3. It secures deeper penetration into the the themes of knowledge . . . . . .43 CHAPTER III. Rules Relating to Observation. I. Its aim should be the enlargement of knowledge . 45 IT. Encourage a laudable curiosity in the young . 45 II r. Note what is uncommon, and review . . .46 IV. Keep mind free from passions and prejudices . 47 V. Avoid an impertinent curiosity .... 48 VI. Observe for personal good .... 48 VII. Do not publish observed faults in others. . . 48 VIII. Do not erect general theories from limited observation 40 CHAPTER IV. Of Books and Reading. I. Wise selection of books T I. Hooks should be first read in a general way . III. Form a reading circle to rc;u\ the same book IV. Form circle to read distinct treatises on one subject V. Consider whether the sentiments are right or not VI. Note faults or defects in the book VII. Make an analysis of the book VIII. If needed, prepare an index . IX. Improvement of reasoning powers X. Thoughtful reading secures correct judgment . 49 50 51 51 51 52 53 53 54 55 CONTENTS. 7 XI. Read with the mind open to truth . . . 56 XII. Caul ion. . . . . . . .56 XIII. How to road hooks on morality . . . 57 X I Y. Some books should be read but once . . . 58 XV. Others should be reviewed .... 59 XVI. Frequently consult dictionaries . . . .00 XVII. Study subjects rather than authors ... 01 CHAPTER V. Judgment of Books. I. Examination of title-page and preface . . .01 II. Careful reading of a few chapters determines value of a book. ....... 02 III. Agreement with our own principles no test of value . 63 IV. Overestimation of a book, because it contains new truths ........ 63 V. Undervaluation of a book, because it contains nothing new ........ 4q VI. Beware of judgment based on pretended knowledge 05 VII. Do not merely echo the judgment of others . . 05 VIII. Do not condemn a book, because of a few mistakes 00 IX. Seek beauties rather than blemishes . . .08 X. Justly estimate the parts of a book ... 09 XI. Be cautious in receiving the judgment of others . 70 CHAPTER VI. Of Living Instructors and Lectures, of Teachers and Learners. I. Teachers absolutely necessary for most persons . 70 • II. Different instructors necessary . . . 71 III. Teachers should have skill in the art of teaching . 71 IV. Teachers should have diligence, patience, and adapt- ability 72 V. The learner should attend with constancy and care 73 VI. The learner should seek opportunity to ask questions 73 VII. The learner should maintain honorable opinion of his tutor 73 VIII. Arrogance of youth ..... 74 IX. The pupil should maintain freedom of thought . 74 X. The learner should accept no opinion without suffi- cient evidence . . . . . .71 CHAPTER VII. Of Inquiring into the Sense and Meaning of any Writer or Speaker, and Especially the Sense of the Sacred Writings. I. Learn the language wherein the author's mind is expressed ... ... 75 II. Examine words and phrases employed by contem- poraneous authors ..... 70 II. Compare words and phrases in different places . 75 CONTENTS. IV. Consider the subject as treated indifferent places by the same author .... 76 V. Observe scope and design of writer . . 7<> VI. Ex-plain mystical terms by those thai arc plain 70 VII. Consider persons addressed . . . .77 VIII. Sense of an author known by the inferences drawn from his own propositions ... 77 IX. Objections may reveal the sense . . .77 X. Let not latent prejudices warp the sense . 7s XI. Lay aside a carping spirit, and road with candor 78 CHAPTER VIII. Rules of Improvement by Conversation. I. Seek acquaintance of those wiser than ourselves 7!> II. When in company, waste no time in trifles III. Lead others into a discourse of matters of their vo cation ..... IV. Converse with men of various countries and parties so V. In mixed company, cultivate all VI. lie not provoked at differing opinions . VII. Seek to learn from inferiors . VIII. Seek variety of views on subjects IX. Reading a basis of conversation X. Give diligent attention when one is speaking XL Plain language may show great sense XII. Cultivate a modest manner of inquiry . XIII. Agree with others as far as you can X I V. Be not afraid to confess your ignorance XV. Be not too forward in the presence of elders XVI. A time when "A fool may be answered according to his folly" ..... XVII. Be not fond of displaying your logical powers XVIII. A void warm party spirit XI X. Instruct others by apt questioning XX. Do not affect to shine above others . X XL You may modestly simplify another's language XXII. Patiently bear contradiction . 79 HI) 81 si 81 82 82 83 83 84 84 85 80 87 87 ss ss ss ss S!) 89 90 XXIII. Avoid every thing that tends to provoke passion XXIV. Cultivate self-control .... X X V. ( 'ullivate a candid and obliging manner XXVI. Choose wise and good companions . . 90 XXVII. Persons unlit for associates in the inquiry for truth id XXVIII. Beware of being such an associate for others . 92 XXIX. Review in solitude facts learned . . .92 XXX. Notice defects in others for personal improvement 93 XXXI. How to make the highest improvement and bo universally desired as an associate . . 94 CHAPTER IX. of Disputes and Debates. L When a dispute occurs .... M 1 1. Objects of disputes ..... 94 CONTENTS. 95 95 95 96 97 97 98 III. They arc often without forms of order IV. A few general rules should be observed V. Points of agreement VI. Clear the question of doubtful terms VII. Fix the precise points of inquiry VIII. Seek truth rather than victory IX. Yield to reason X. Beware of making fatal concessions XI. Utilize such concessions of an opponent XII. Use "argumentum ad hominem" XIII. Repress all passion . . . • • jJJ XIV. These general directions necessary in all debates 100 CHAPTER X. Of Study, or Meditation. I. The necessity of study . . . : ■ Jjjl II. Learn to distinguish between words and things III. Be not too hasty to know things above your pres 101 105 ent powers . . • i • ir • ■ rio IV. Be not frightened at apparent difficulties . . iu^ V. Proceed slowly from the known to the unknown 103 VI*. Study not too many things at once . . • 103 VII. Keep the end always in view . . . 104 VIII. Exercise care in proportion to the importance ot the subject . . . m • • • }°J IX. Give not a favorite study undue importance . 10b X. Despise not other learning than your own . 107 XI. Give clue time to each study . j°7 XII. Overtaxing the mind .... lj» XIII. Impatience for solution of difficulties. . . io» XIV. Certainty in every study impossible . . J0b XV. Utility the end of speculative study . . . ioj CHAPTER XI. Of Fixing the Attention. I. Necessity of attention . . , • * }}2 II. Rules for gaming greater facility of attention . iiu 1. Liking the study of knowledge pursued . 110 2. Use sensible things for illustration . . Ill 3. Read authors of connected reasonings . . HI 4. Fine prospects not to influence a place for s tud y • • • * x * 4. }}o 5. Be not hasty in determining important points li^s 6. Do not indulge the more sensual passions and appetites . . • • • i 7. Fix and engage the mind in the pursuit ot study . • • • • .113 CHAPTER XII. On Enlarging the Capacity of the Mind. I. Ability to receive sublime ideas without pain . 114 II. Ability to receive new and strange ideas without _ surprise ...••• 114 10 CONTENTS. III. Ability to receive many ideas at once without con- fusion . . . . . .IK! IV. How capacity of thought may be increased . . 120 J. Labor to gain an attentive and patient temper of mind ...... 120 2. Accustom yourself to form clear and distinct ideas . . . . . .121 3. Use diligence to acquire a large store of ideas 121 4. Lay up daily new ideas in regular order . 122 5. Observe a regular progressive method . 12:: " (i. Peruse and solve intricate questions . . 121 CHAPTER XIII. Of Improving the Memory. I. Our memory is our power of retaining and recall- ing what we learn . . . . .121 II. All other abilities of the mind borrow their beauty and perfection from memory . . . 125 III. Memory is useful to the speaker as well as the Learner . . . . . . 125 IV. Good judgment and good memory are very differ- ent qualifications . . ' . . . 126 V. A happy memory is a good foundation for wise and just judgment ..... 126 VI. How some' persons have good judgment without a happy memory . . . . .127 VII. A line genius often has a feeble memory . 128 VIII. Crowding the memory may prevent and cramp invention ...... 12S IX. Lay up nothing in the memory but what has just value . . . . . . .12!) X. One's own improvements together with those bor- rowed make a wealthy and a happy mind . 12it XI. How many excellent judgments are lost for want of a stronger and more retentive memory . 129 XII. The great advantages of remembering the noble sentiments of others as well as one's own . . 130 XIII. The mind itself is immaterial; the brain is its in- strument ...... 130 XIV. The memory grows from the period of infancy . 131 XV. Memory requires the cultivation of habits of at- tention ....... 131 XVI. The memory is affected by various bodily diseases L31 XVII. Excess of wine as well as excess of study may injure the memory . . . . . 132 XVIII. A good memory has several qualifications . . 132 i. It is ready to receive and admit . . 132 2. It is large and copious .... 132 3. It is strong and durable . . . 133 4. It is faithful and active .... 133 XTX. Every one of these qualifications mav be improved 133 XX. One great and general direction is to give the memory proper and sufficient exercise . . 133 130 13G CONTENTS. 11 XXI. Our memories are improved or injured according to their exercise ..... 133 XXII. The memory of a child should not be overbur- dened 134 XXIII. Particular rules: 1. Due attention and diligence to learn and know things. We should engage our delight in order to fix the attention . . . 134 2. Clear and distinct apprehension of the things which we commit to memory is necessary. For this reason, take heed that you do not take up with words instead of things . 135 3. Method and regularity in the things we com mit to memory .... Let it be disposed in a proper method 4. A frequent review of things has a great in- fluence to fix them in the memory. . 136 The art of short-hand is of excellent use . 137 Teach in order to establish your own knowledge ...... 138 5. Pleasure and delight in the things we learn, give great assistance towards the remem- brance of them. . . . • 138 6. The memory of useful things may receive considerable aid if they are thrown into verse ...... 139 7. We may better imprint any new idea upon the memory by joining with it some circum- stance of the time, place, company, etc. . 140 8. Seek after a local memory . . .141 9. Every thing should be distinctly written and divided into periods .... 142 The memory gains by having the several ob- jects of our learning drawn out into schemes "and tables ...... 143 Once writing will fix a thing more in mind than reading five times .... 143 10. Sometimes, we can remember sentences by taking first letters of every word and mak- ing a new word of them . . . 144 CHAPTER XIV. Of Determining a Question. I. Consider whether it be knowable at all II. Consider again whether the matter be worthy of your inquiry . ..... III. Consider whether the subject of your inquiry bo easy or difficult ...... IV. Consider whether the subject be any ways useful or not . . . . . V. Consider what tendency it has to make you wiser and better ...... 145 145 145 146 146 12 CONTENTS. VI. Consider whether it be dressed up and entangled in more words than is needful . . . 146 VII. Be careful to keep the point of inquiry the same 140 To state a question, oftentimes fully resolves the doubt ' .147 VIII. If the question relate to an axiom, it should not be suddenly admitted or received . . . 1 47 IX. Call only such a proposition as requires no proof whatever, an axiom .... 147 X. Keep up a just indifference to either side of the question ...... 148 XI. For the most part, people are born to their opinions ...... 148 XII. Do not take up with partial examination. Take these instances to show what a partial examina- tion is : 1. When you examine an object at too great a distance . . . . . .140 2. When you turn the question only in one light 149 3. When you ask the report of those only who were not eye or ear witnesses, and neglect those who saw and heard . . . 149 4. To try to determine by natural reason only . 150 5. To examine without the use of reason . . 150 XIII. Take heed lest some darling notion be made a test of truth or falsehood . . . . .150 XIV. Tie watchful as far as possible against any false bias 151 XV. Be careful lest your zeal have too powerful an in- fluence, and stop up all avenues of further light. Zeal must not reign over the powers of our un- derstanding . . . . . .151 XVI. Do not oppose banter and ridicule to any doctrines of professed revelation. Such a test is silly and unreasonable. The best sense may be set in a most unreasonable light by this grinning faculty 152 XVII. These very men who employ jest and ridicule, cry out loudly against all penalties and persecutions of the state. Penal and smarting methods are every whit as wise as banter and ridicule . . lf>4 XVIII. It is a piece of contempt and profane insolence to treat any tolerable or rational appearance of such a revelation with jest and laughter. Let such sort of writers lay aside all their pretenses to reason as well as religion .... 154 XIX. Ou reading philosophical, moral, or religious con- troversies, let the force of argument alone influ- ence your assent or dissent. The bigots of all parties are generally the most positive . 155 XX. So large a question may be proposed as ought not in justice to be determined at once. In the main, it is enough to incline to that side which has the fewest difficulties ..... ir>»; CONTENTS. 13 XXI. Take a full survey of the objections against any question, as well as the arguments for it . 157 XXII. In matters of moment, seek after certain and conclusive arguments .... 153 XXIII. Degrees of assent should always bo regarded ac- cording to the different degrees of evidence . 158 XXIV. Why then does our Saviour so much commend a strong faith ? The God of nature has given every man his own reason to he the judge and to direct his assent ...... 159 God will not require us to assent to any thing without reasonable or sufficient evidence . . 159 XXV. Concerning truth and duties the reason is the same 160 XXVI. Three rules in judging of probabilities : 1. That which agrees most with the constitution of nature, carries the greatest probability in it 1G1 2. That which is most conformable to the con- stant observations of men, is most likely to be true ...... 101 3. We may derive a probability from the attesta- tion of wise and honest men . . 101 XXVII. We ought to stand firm in such well established principles ...... 102 XXVIII. We are but fallible: therefore there is no need of our resolving never to change our mind . 102 CHAPTER XV. Of Inquiring into Causes and Effects. I. When inquiring into the cause of any particular effect consider . . . . . . 103 1. What effects you have shown of a kindred nature ...... 103 2. What are the several possible causes . 164 3. What things preceded the event . . . 104 4. Whether one cause or a concurrence of several causes, be sufficient. This is the course to be followed both in natural philosophy and in the moral world. .... 164 II. When inquiring into the effects of any particular cause or causes . . . . . 165 1. Consider the nature of every cause apart . 165 2. Consider the causes united together . . 165 3. Consider what the subject is . . . 165 4. Be frequent in setting such causes at work whose effects you desire to know . 165 5. Observe carefully when you see any happy effect. Treasure it up .... 165 6. Take a just survey of all the circumstances. In this manner physicians practice ; so also the preacher . . . . .166 11 CONTEXTS. CHAPTER XVI. Methods of Teaching and Reading Lectures. I. lie; that has learned any thing thoroughly, is gen- erally best prepared to teach . . . 117 II. He must also be acquainted with word's . . 168 III. A tutor should have much candor and use every mild and engaging method .... 1G8 IV. The advantages of the Socratical method of dispu- tation . . . . . . . 168 1. The form of a dialogue . . . 168 2. Something very obliging in it . . 109 3. Draw a pupil on to discover his own mistakes 10!) 4. The most easy reasoning . . . .109 V. The most useful is by reading lectures . . 109 VI. The tutor should explain what is dark and difficult 170 VII. Teachers should endeavor to join profit and pleasure together. They should be very solic- itous that learners take up their meaning . 171 VIII. lie who instructs others, should use the most proper style. He should run over the foregoing lecture in questions proposed to the learners . 171 IX. Let the teacher always accommodate himself to tin; genius, temper, and capacity of his disciples . 17'J X. ('uriosity is a useful spring of knowledge . 173 XI. When a lad is pert, let the tutor take every just occasion to show him his error . . '. 173 XII. The tutor should watch the learner's growth of understanding. Let him guard and encourage the tender buddings ..... 174 XIII. Call the reason into exercise . . . 174 XIV Let the tutor make it appear that ho loves his pupils, and seeks nothing so much as their in- crease of knowledge . . . . .174 XV. Those that hear him have some good degree of es- teem and respect for his person and character. 175 CHAPTER XVII. Of an Instructive Style. I. The most necessary and most useful character of a stylo fit for instruction, is that it be plain, perspicuous, and easy ..... 175 II. The errors of stylo ..... 170 1. The use of many foreign words . . .170 2. Avoid a fantastic style .... 170 3. Affected words that are used only at court . 170 4. A mean, vulgar style . . . 170 5. An obscure and mysterious manner of expres 177 sion ...... 177 6. A long and tedious style .... 177 III. Some methods whereby a style proper for instruc- tion may be obtained .... 178 1. Accustom yourself to road those authors who think and write with great clearness . . 178 CONTENTS. ir> 2. Got a distinct and comprehensive knowledge of the subject . . . . .178 8. Bo well skilled in the language . . 17.s 4. Acquire a "variety of words . . . 170 5. Learn the art of shortening your sentences I7it 6. Talk frequently to young and. ignorant persons ISO CHAPTER XVIII. Convincing Other Persons of any Truth, or Deliver- ing Them from Errors and Mistakes. I. We are naturally desirous of bringing all the world into our sentiments . . . 180 II. The following directions may be useful . . 180 1. Choose a proper place, a happy hour, and the fittest concurrent circumstance . . 181 2. Make it appear that you mean him well . . 1S1 3. The softest and gentlest address is the best way to convince. It is a very great and fatal mistake to make the difference appear as wide as possible. Human nature must be flattered a little ..... 181 4. Watch over yourself, lest you grow warm in dispute. You must treat an opponent like a friend. Truth oftentimes perishes in the fray . . . . . . .182 5. Neither attempt any penal methods or severe usage ...... 183 6. Always make choice of those arguments that are best suited to his understanding and capacity ..... 184 7. Lead the mind onward to perceive the truth in a clear and agreeable light . . 184 8. Allow a reasonable time to enter into the force of your arguments. Address him therefore in an obliging manner . . . .131 9. Make the person you would teach his own instructor ...... 185 10. Be not very solicitous about the nicety with which it shall be expressed . . .186 11. You may sometimes have happy success by setting him to read a weak author who writes against it ... . 186 12. To convince a whole family or community, first make as sure as we can of the most in- telligent and learned .... 137 CHAPTER XIX. Of Authority. Of the Abuse of it: and of its Real and Proper Use and Service. I. The influence which other persons have upon our opinions, is usually called authority . . 188 16 CONTENTS. II. Three eminent and remarkable cases v. herein authority will determine the judgment and prac- tice of mankind. ..... 18!) 1. Parents are appointed to judge for their children. This is a dictate of nature . 1v " The great Judge will not punish be} demerit .... It is hard to say at what exact time ol child is exempted from the soverci parental dictates 2. Another case is in matters of fact. The au thority or testimony of men ought to sway our assent, when multitudes concur in the same testimony. Yet, that theft) have b so many falsehoods, should make us wit cautious . . ... 3. Believe what persons under inspiration dictated to us. It is enough if our of reason can discover the divine Au 111. Some other cases wherein we ought to pay ~ deference to the authority anil sentiment of < 1. We ought to pay very great deferens sentiments of our parents 2. Persons of years and long experience in human affairs . . . . .1 3. Persons of long standing in virtue and piety T.»r 4. Men in their several professions and arts 195 5. The narratives of persons wise and sober CHAPTER XX. 0Y Of Treating and Managing the Prejudices of Men. I. Mankind stands wrapped round in errors, and en- trenched in prejudices .... 195 II. Several methods to be practiced . . 1% 1. By avoiding the power and ii ace of the prejudice without any direct attack upon it 190 Begin at a distance, then silently observe what impression this makes upon him . 197 2. We may expressly allow and indulge those prejudices for a season. When the preju- dices of mankind can not be conquered at once, yield to them for the present . 197 3. Make use of the very prejudices under which a person labors, in order to convince him 109 Men are but children of a larger size . 200 THE MOVEMENT OF THE MIND. PART I. "TIONS FOR THE ATTAINMENT OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. INTRODUCTION. .•..No man is obliged to learn and know every thing; this can neither be sought nor required, for it is utterly im -o c ible ; yet all persons are under some obligation to o their own understanding ; otherwise it will be a oarren desert, or a forest overgrown with weeds and brambles. Universal ignorance or infinite errors will overspread the mind which is utterly neglected and lies without any «t ivation. Skill in the sciences is indeed the business and profes- sion of but a small part of mankind 5 but there are many others placed in such an exalted rank in the world, as allows them much leisure and large opportunities to cultivate their reason, and to beautify and enrich their minds with various knowledge, Even the lower orders of men have particular callings in life, wherein they ought to acquire a just degree of skill ; and this is not to be done well, without thinking and reasoning about them. The common duties and benefits of society, which belong to every man living, as we are social creatures, and even our native and necessary relations to a family, IS INTRODUCTION. a neighborhood, or government, oblige all persons, whatsoever, to use their reasoning powers upon a thousand occasions; every hour of life calls for some regular exercise of our judgment, as to time and things, persons and actions : without a prudent and discreet determination in matters before us, we shall be plunged into perpetual errors in our conduct. Now that which should always be practiced must at some time be learned. Besides, every son and daughter of Adam has a most important concern in the affairs of the life to come, and therefore it is a matter of the highest moment, for every one to understand, to judge, and to reason right about the things of religion. It is vain for any to say, we have no leisure time for it. The daily intervals of time, and vacancies from necessary labor, together with the one day in seven in the Christian world, allow suffi- cient time for this, if men would but apply themselves to it with half so much zeal and diligence as they do to the trifles and amusements of this life, and it would turn to infinitely better account. Thus it appears to be the necessary duty and the interest of every person living, to improve his understanding, to inform his judgment, to treasure up useful knowledge, and to acquire the skill of good reasoning, as far as his station, capacity, and circum- stances furnish him with proper means for it. Our mis- takes in judgment may plunge us into much folly and guilt in practice. By acting without thought or rea- son, we dishonor the God that made us reasonable creatures, we often become injurious to our neigh- bors, kindred, or friends, and we bring sin and misery upon ourselves ; for we are accountable to God, our Judge, for every part of our irregular and mistaken conduct, where He hath given us sufficient advantages to guard against iho.^e mistakes. CHAPTER I. GENEIML ItULES FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF KNOWLEDGE. Rule I. — Deeply possess your mind with the vast importance of a good judgment, and the rich and ines- timable advantage of right reasoning. Review the in- stances of your own misconduct in life ; think seriously with yourselves how many follies and sorrows you had escaped, and how much guilt and misery you had pre- vented, if from your early years you had but taken due pains to judge aright concerning persons, times, and things. This will awaken you with lively vigor to address yourselves to the work of improving your rea- soning powers, and seizing every opportunity and ad- vantage for that end. II. Consider the weaknesses, frailties, and mis- takes of human nature in general, which arise from the very constitution of a soul united to an animal body and subjected to many inconveniences thereby. Con- sider the depth and difficulty of many truths, and the flattering appearances of falsehood, whence arises an infinite variety of dangers to which we are exposed in our judgment of things. Read with greediness those authors that treat of the doctrine of prejudices, prepos- sessions, and springs of error, on purpose to make your soul watchful on all sides, that it suffer itself, as far as possible, to be imposed upon by none of them. III. A slight view of things so momentous is not sufficient. You should therefore contrive and practice some p roper methods to acquaint yourself with your own ignorance, and to ingress your mind with a deep and 19 20 GENERAL RULES painful sense of the low and imperfect degrees of your present knowledge, thai you may be incited with labor and activity to pursue after greater measures. Among others, you may find some such methods as these suc- cessful. 1. Take a wide survey now and then of the vast and unlimited region of learning. Let your meditations run over the names of all the sciences, with their numerous branchings, and innumerable particular themes of knowledge ; and then reflect how few of them you are acquainted with in any tolerable degree. The most learned of mortals will never find occasion to act over again what is fabled of Alexander the Great, that when he had conquered what was called the eastern world, he wept for want of more worlds to conquer. The worlds of science are immense and endless. 2. Think what a numberless variety of questions and difficulties there are belonging even to that particular science in which you have made the greatest progress, and how few of them there are in which you have arrived at a final and undoubted certainty ; excepting only those questions in the pure and simple mathematics, whose theorems are demonstrable, and leave scarce any doubt ; and yet, even in the pursuit of some few of these, mankind have been strangely bewildered. 3. {Spend a few thoughts sometimes on the puzzling inquiries concerning vacuums and atoms, the doctrine of infinites, indivisibles, and incommensurables in geometry, wherein there appear some insolvable difficulties : do this on pur- pose to give you a more sensible impression of the poverty of your understanding and the imperfection of your knowledge. This will teach you what a vain thing it is to fancy that you know all things, and will instruct you to think modestly of your present attainments, when every dust of the earth and every TO OBTATN KNOWLEDGE. 21 inch of empty space surmounts your understanding and triumphs over your presumption. Arithmo had been bred up to accounts all his life and thought himself a complete master of numbers. But when he \\as pushed hard to give the square root of the number 2, he tried at it and labored long in millesimal fractions, till he confessed there was no end of the inquiry ; and yet he learned so much modesty by this perplexing question, that he was afraid to say it was an impossible thing. It is some good degree of improvement, when we are afraid to be positive. 4. Bead the accounts of those vast treasures of knowledge which some of the dead have possessed, and some of the living do possess. Eead and be astonished at the almost incredible advances which have been made in science. Acquaint yourself with some persons of great learning, that by converse among them and comparing yourself with them, you may acquire a mean opinion of your own attainments and may thereby be animated with new zeal, to equal them as far as possible, or to exceed: thus let your diligence be quickened by a generous and laudable emulation. If Yanillus had never met with Scitorio and Palydes, he had never imagined himself a mere novice in philosophy, nor ever set himself to study in good earnest. Eemember this, that if upon some few superficial acquirements you value, exalt, and swell yourself, as though you were a man of learning already, you are thereby building a most impassable barrier against all improvement ; you will lie down and indulge in idleness, and rest yourself co^<^e^^ ^h^^dstofd^ip jiiid shameful ignorance. Muttiau scientiam pervenissent jp se illuc pervenisse non putassent. IV. Presume not too much upon a bright genius, a ready wit, and good parts ; for this, without labor and study, will never make a man of knowledge and wisdom. This has been an unhappy temptation to persons of a 22 GENEB \T, RULES vigorous and gay fancy, to despise learning and study. They have been acknowledged to shine in an assembly, and sparkle in a discourse on common topics, and thence they took it into their hearts to abandon reading and labor, and grow old in ignorance; but when they had lost their vivacity of animal nature and youth, they became stupid and sottish even to contempt and ridicule. Lucidus and Scintillo are young men of this stamp ; they shine in conversation ; they spread their native riches before the ignorant; they pride themselves in their own lively images of fancy, and imagine themselves wise and learned'; hut they had best avoid the presence of the skillful and the test of reasoning; and I would advise them once a day to think forward a little, what a contemptible figure they will make in age The witty men sometimes have sense enough to know their own foible; and therefore they craftily shun the attacks of argument, or boldly pretend to despise and renounce them, because they are conscious of their own ignorance and inwardly confess their want of acquaintance with the skill of reasoning. V. As you are not to fancy yourself a learned man because you are blessed with a ready wit ; so neither must you imagine that large and laborious reading, and a strong memory, can denominate you truly wise. What that excellent critic has determined when he decided the question, whether wit or study makes the best poet, may well be applied to every sort of learning : Ego ncc studium sine divitc vena, Nee rude quid prosit, video, ingenium: alterius sic Altera poscit opem res, et conjurat amice. — llor. dc Art. Port. Thus made English : Concerning poets there has been contest, Whether they're made by art or nature best ; But if T may presume in this affair, Among the rest my judgment to declare, No art without a genius will avail, And parts without the help of art will fail : But both ingredients jointly must unite, Or verse will never shine with a transcendent light. — Oldham, TO (TBTATN KNOWLEDGE. 23 It is meditation and studious thought, it is the exer- cise of your own reason and judgment upon all you read thai gives good sense even to the best genius and affords your understanding the truest improvement. A boy of a strong memory may repeat a whole book of Euclid, yet be no geometrician ; for he may not be able perhaps to demonstrate one single theorem. A well-furnished library and a capacious memory are indeed of singular use toward the improvement of the mind ; but if all your learning be nothing else but a mere amassment of what others have written, without a due penetration into the meaning, and without a judicious choice and determination of your own sentiments, I do not see what title your head has to true learning, above your shelves. Though you have read philosophy and theology, morals and metaphysics in abundance, and every other art and science, yet if your memory is the only faculty employed, with the neglect of your reason- ing powers, you can justly claim no higher character but that of a good historian of the sciences. VI. Be not so weak as to imagine that a life of learning is a life of laziness and ease ; dare not give up yourself to any of the learned professions, unless you are resolved to labor hard at study, and can make it your delight and the joy of your life, according to the motto of our late Lord Chancellor King : .... Labor ipse voluptas. (Labor, itself, is a pleasure.) It is no idle thing to be a scholar indeed. A man much addicted to luxury and pleasure, recreation and pastime, should never pretend to devote himself entirely to the sciences, unless his soul be so reformed and refined, that he can taste all these entertainments eminently in his closet, among his books and papers. 24 GENERAL RULES Sobrino is a temperate man and a philosopher, and he feeds upon partridge and pheasant, venison and ragouts, and every delicacy, in a growing understanding, and a serene and healthy soul, though lie dines on a dish of sprouts or turnips. Lan- guinos loved his ease, and therefore chose to be brought up a scholar; he had much indolence in his temper; and as he never cared for study, he falls under universal contempt in his profession, because he has nothing but the gown and the name. VII. Let the hope of new discoveries, as well as 1 lie satisfaction and pleasure of known truths, animate your daily industry. Do not think learning in general is arrived at its perfection, or that the knowledge of any particular subject in any science can not be improved, merely because it has lain live hundred or a thousand years without improvement. The present age, by the blessing of God on the ingenuity and diligence of men, lias brought to light such truths in natural philosophy, and such discoveries in the heavens and the earth, as seemed to be beyond the reach of man. But may there not be Sir Isaac Newtons in every science? You should never despair therefore of finding out that which has never yet been found, unless you see something in the nature of it which renders it unsearchable and above the reach of our faculties. VIII. Do not hover always on the surface of things, nor take up suddenly with mere appearances; but pene- trate into the depth of matters, as far as your time and circumstances allow, especially in those things which re- late to your own profession. Do not indulge yourselves to judge of things by the first glimpse, or a short and superficial view of them ; for this will fill the mind with errors and prejudices, and give it a wrong turn and ill habit of thinking, and make much work for retract ion. As for those sciences, or those parts of knowledge, which either your profession, your leisure, your inclina- tion, or your incapacity, forbid you to pursue with much application, or to search far into them, you must be con- TO OBTAIN KNOWLEDGE. 25 tented with an historical and superficial knowledge of them, and not pretend to form any judgment of your own on those subjects which you understand very im- perfectly. IX. Once a day, especially in the early years of life and study, call yourselves to an account what new ideas, what new proposition or truth you have gained, what further confirmation of known truths, and what ad- vances ytfu have made in any part of knowledge ; and let no day, if possible, pass away without some intellec- tual gain: such a course, well pursued, must certainly advance us in useful knowledge. It is a wise proverb among the learned, borrowed from the lips and practice of a celebrated painter, Nulla dies sine linea, " Let no day pass without one line at least;" and it was a sacred rule among the Pythagoreans, That they should every evening thrice run over the actions and affairs of the day, and examine what their conduct had been, what they had done, or what they had neglected ; and they assured their pupils, that by this method they would make a noble progress in the path of virtue. Nor let soft slumber close your eyes, Before you've recollected thrice The train of action through the day : Where have my feet chose out their way. What have I learn'd, where'er I've been, From all I've heard, from all I've seen ? What know I more that's worth the knowing ? What have I done that's worth the doing? What have I sought that I should shun ? What duty have I left undone ? Or into what new follies run ? These self-inquiries are the road That leads to virtue, and to God. I would be glad, among a nation of Christians, to find young men heartily engaged in the practice of what this heathen writer teaches. 26 GENERAL RULES X. Maintain a constant watch at all times against a dogmatical spirit : fix not your assent to any proposil ion in a firm and {inalterable manner, till you have sonic firm and unalterable ground for it, and till you have a; rived at some clear and sure evidence ; till you have turned the proposition on all sides and searched the matter through and through, so that you can not be mis- taken. And even where yon may think you have full grounds of assurance, be not too early, nor too frequent, in expressing this assurance in too peremptory and posi- tive a manner, remembering that human nature is al- ways liable to mistake in this corrupt and feeble state. A dogmatical spirit has many inconveniences attending ii : as 1. It stops the car against all further reasoning upon that subject, and shuts up the mind from all further im- provements of knowledge. If you have resolutely fixed your opinion, though it be upon too slight and insuffi- cient grounds, yet you will stand determined to renounce the strongest reason brought for the contrary opinion, and grow obstinate against the force of the clearest ar- gument. Positivo is a man of this character ; and has often pro- nounced his assurance of the Cartesian vortexes; last year some further light broke in upon his understanding, with uncontrollable force, by reading something of mathematical philosophy ; yet having asserted his former opinions in a most confident manner, lie is tempted now to wink a little against the truth, or to prevaricate in his discourse upon that subject, lest by admitting conviction, he should expose himself to the necessity of confessing his former folly and mistake: and he has not humility enough for that. 2. A dogmatical spirit naturally leads us to arrogance of mind, and gives a man some airs in conversation which are too haughty and assuming. Audens is a man of learning, and very good company ; but his infallible assurance renders his carriage sometimes insupportable. TO OBTAIN KNOWLEDGE. 27 A dogmatical spirit inclines a man to be censorious of his neighbors. Every one of his own opinions appears to him written as it were with sunbeams ; and lie grows angry that his neighbor does not see it in the same light. He is tempted to disdain his correspondents, as men of a low and dark understanding, because they will not believe what lie does. Furio goes farther in this wild track and charges those who refuse his notions with willful obstinacy and vile hypocrisy ; he tells them boldly, that they resist the truth and sin against their consciences. XI. Though caution and slow assent will guard yon against frequent mistakes and retractions; yet you should get humility and courage enough to retract any mistake, and confess an error: frequent changes are tokens of levity in our first determinations ; yet you should never be too proud to change your opinion, nor frightened at the name of changeling. Learn to scorn those vulgar bug- bears, which confirm foolish man in his old mistakes, for fear of being charged with inconstancy. I confess it is better not to judge, than to judge falsely ; it is wiser to withhold our assent till we see complete evidence ; but if we have too suddenly given up our assent, as the wisest man does sometimes, if we have professed what we find afterwards to be false, we should never 'be ashamed nor afraid to renounce a mistake. That is a noble essay which is found among the Occasional Papers, i i to encour- age the world to practice retractations"; and I would recommend it to the perusal of every scholar and every Christian. XII. He that would raise his judgment above the vul- gar rank of mankind, and learn to pass a just sentence on persons and things, must take heed of a fanciful temper of mind and a humorous conduct in his affairs. Fancy and humor, early and constantly indulged, may expect an old age overrun with follies. 28 GENERAL RTJLB6 The notion of a humorist is one that is greatly pleased, or greatly displeased, with little things ; who sets his heart much upon matters of very small importance ; Avho has his will determined every day by trifles, his actions sel- dom directed by the reason and nature of things, and his passions frequently raised by things of little moment. Where this practice is allowed, it will insensibly warp the judgment to pronounce little things great, and tempt you to lay a great weight upon them. In short, this temper will incline you to pass an unjust value on almost every thing that occurs ; and every step you take in this path is just so far out of the way to wisdom. XIII. For the same reason have a care of trifling with tilings important and momentous, or of sporting with things awful and sacred : do not indulge a spirit of ridicule, as some witty men do on all occasions and sub- jects. This will as unhappily bias the judgment on the other side, and incline you to pass a low esteem on the most valuable objects. Whatsoever evil habit we indulge in practice, it will insensibly obtain a power over our un- derstanding and betray us into many errors. Jocander is ready with his jests to answer every thing that he hears ; he reads books in the same jovial humor, and has gotten the art of turning every thought and sentence into merriment. How many awkward and irregular judgments does this man pass upon solemn subjects, even when he designs to be grave and in earnest! His mirth and laughing humor is formed into habit and temper, and leads his understanding shamefully astray. You will see him wandering in pursuit of a gay flying feather, and he is drawn by a sort of ignis fatuus into* bogs and mire almost every day of his life. XIV. Ever maintain a virtuous and pious frame of spirit ; for an indulgence of vicious inclinations de- bases the understanding and perverts the judgment. Whoredom and wine, and new wine, take away the heart and soul, and reason of a man. Sensuality ruins the better faculties of the mind ; an indulgence to appetite and pas- TO OBTAIN KNOWLEDGE 29 sion enfeebles the powers of reason; it makes the judg- ment weak and susceptible of every falsehood, and espe- cially of such mistakes as have a tendency towards the gratification of the animal : and it warps the soul aside strangely from that steadfast honesty and integrity that necessarily belongs to the pursuit of truth. It is the vir- tuous man who is in a fair way to wisdom. " God gives to those that are good in His sight wisdom, and knowl- edge, and joy," Eccles. 2: 26. XV. Watch against the pride of your own reason and a vain conceit of your own intellectual powers, with the neglect of divine aid and blessing. Presume not upon great attainments in knowledge by your own self-suffi- ciency : those who trust to their own understanding en- tirely are pronounced fools in the word of God ; and it is the wisest of men gives them this character. " He that trusteth in his own heart is a fool," Pro v. 28: 26. And the same divine writer advises us to " trust in the Lord with all our heart, and not to lean to our under- standings, nor to be wise in our own eyes," chap. 3 : 5, 7. XVI. Offer up, therefore, your daily requests to God the Father of lights, that He would bless all your at- tempts and labors in reading, study, and conversation. Think with yourself how easily and how insensibly, by one turn of thought, He can lead you into a large scene of useful ideas: He can teach you to lay hold on a clue which may guide your thoughts with safety and ease through all the difficulties of an intricate subject. Think how easily the Author of your beings can direct your motions, by His providence, so that the glance of an eye, or a word striking the ear, or a sudden turn of the fancy, shall con- duct you to a train of happy sentiments. By His secret and supreme method of government, He can draw you to read such a treatise, or converse with such a person, who may give you more light into some deep subject in 30 GENERAL RULES* an hour, than you could obtain by a month of your own solitary labor. Implore constantly His divine grace to point your inclination to proper studies, and to fix your heart there He can keep off temptations on the right hand, and on the left, both by the course of His providence, and by the secret and insensible intimations of His Spirit. He can guard your understandings from every evil influence of error, and secure you from the danger of evil books and men, which might otherwise have a fatal effect and lead you into pernicious mistakes. Even the poets call upon the muse as a goddess to assist them in their compositions. The first lines of Homer in his Iliad and his Odyssey, the first line of Mussbus in his song of Hero and Leander, the beginning of Hesiod in his poem of Works and Days, and several others furnish us with sufficient examples of this kind ; nor does Ovid leave out this piece of devo- tion, as he begins his stories of the Metamorphoses. Christianity so much the more obliges us, by the precepts of Scripture, to invoke the assistance of the true God in all our labors of the mind, for the improvement of our- \ selves and others. Bishop Saunderson says, that study i without prayer is atheism, as well as that prayer without study is presumption. And we are still more abun- dantly encouraged by the testimony of those who have acknowledged, from their own experience, that sincere prayer was no hinderance to their studies: they have gotten more knowledge sometimes upon their knees, than by their labor in perusing a variety of authors; and they have left this observation for such as follow, Bene orasse est bene studulsse, "praying is the best studying.' 7 To conclude, let industry and devotion join together, and you need not doubt the happy success. Prov. 13 : U : THE FIVE METHODS. 31 "Incline thine ear to wisdom; apply thine heart to understanding; cry alter knowledge, and lift up thy voice : seek her as silver, and search for her as for hidden treasures; then shalt thou understand the Tear of the Lord," etc., which "is the beginning of wisdom." It is "the Lord who gives wisdom even to the simple, and out of his mouth cometh knowledge and understanding." CHAPTER II. READING, INSTRUCTION BY LECTURES, CONVERSATION, AND STUDY, COMPARED. There are five eminent means or methods whereby the mind is improved in the knowledge of things ; and these are observation, reading, instruction by lectures, conversation, and meditation ; which last in a most peculiar manner, is called study. Let us survey the general definitions or descriptions of them all. 1. Observation is the notice that we take of all oc- currences in human life, whether they are sensible or intellectual, whether relating to persons or things, to our- selves or others. It is this that furnishes us, even from our infancy, with a rich variety of ideas*and propositions, words and phrases : it is by this we know that fire will burn, that the sun gives light, that a horse eats grass, that an acorn produces an oak, that man is a being capable of reasoning and discourse, that our judgment is weak, that our mistakes are many, that our sorrows are great, that our bodies die and are carried to the grave, and that one generation succeeds another. All those things which we see, which we hear or feel, which we perceive by sense or consciousness, or which we know 32 THE FIVE METHODS in a direct manner, with scarce any exercise of our reflect- ing faculties or our reasoning powers, may be included under the general name of observation. When this observation relates to any thing that imme- diately concerns ourselves, and of which we are conscious, it may be called experience. So I am said to know or experience that I have in myself a power of thinking, fearing, loving, etc., that I have appetites and passions working in me, and many personal occurrences have attended me in this life. Observation, therefore, includes all that Mr. Locke means by sensation and reflection. When we are searching out the nature or properties of any being by various methods of trial, or when we apply some active powers, or set some causes to work to observe what effects they would produce, this sort of ob- servation is called experiment. So when I throw a bullet into water, I find it sinks ; and when I throw the same bullet into quicksilver, I see it swims : but if I beat out this bullet into a thin hollow shape, like a dish, then it will swim in the water too. So when I strike two Hints together, I find they produce fire ; when I throw a seed in the earth, it grows up into a plant. All these belong to the first method of knowledge; which I shall call observation. 2. Reading is that means or method of knowledge whereby we acquaint ourselves with what other men have written, or published to the world in their writings. These arts of reading and writing are of infinite advan- tage; for by them we are made partakers of the senti- ments, observations, reasonings, and improvements of all the learned world, in the most remote nations, and in former ages almost from the beginning of mankind. 3. Public or private lectures are such verbal in- structions as are given by a teacher while the OF IMPROVEMENT COMPARED. 33 learners attend in silence. This is the way of learning religion from the pulpit ; or of philosophy or theology from the professor's chair; or of mathematics, by a teacher showing us various theorems or problems, i. e., speculations or practices, by demonstration and opera- tion, with all the instruments of art necessary to those operations. 4. Conversation is another method of improving our minds, wherein, by mutual discourse and inquiry, we learn the sentiments of others, as well as communicate our sentiments to others in the same manner. Some- times, indeed, though both parties speak by turns, yet the advantage is only on one side, as when a teacher and a learner meet and discourse together : but frequently the profit is mutual. Under the head of conversation we may also rank disputes of various kinds. 5. Meditation or study includes all those exercises of the mind, whereby we render all the former methods useful for our increase in true knowledge and wisdom. It is by meditation we come to confirm our memory of things that pass through our thoughts in the occurrences of life, in our own experiences, and in the observations we make. It is by meditation that we draw various in- ferences, and establish in our minds general principles of knowledge. It is by meditation that we compare the various ideas which we derive from our senses, or from the operations of our souls, and join them in proposi- tions. It is by meditation that we fix in our memory whatsoever we learn, and form our judgment of the truth or falsehood, the strength or weakness, of what others speak or write. It is meditation or study that draws out long chains of argument, and searches and finds deep and difficult truths which before lay concealed in darkness. It would be a needless thing to prove, that our own 34 THE FIVE METHODS solitary meditations, together with the few observations that the most part of mankind are capable of making, are not sufficient, of themselves, to lead ns into the attainment of any considerable proportion of knowledge, at least in an age so much improved as ours is, without the assistance of conversation and reading, and other proper instructions that are to be attained in our days. Yet each of these five methods have their peculiar advantages, whereby they assist each other; and their peculiar defects, which have need to be supplied by the other's assistance. Let us trace over some of the partic- ular advantages of each. I. One method of improving the mind is observation, and the advantages of it are these : 1. It is owing to observation, that our mind is furnished with the first simple and complex ideas. It is this lays the ground-work and foundation of all knowledge, and makes us capable of using any of the other methods for improving the mind: for if we did not attain a variety of sensible and intellectual ideas by the sen- sations of outward objects, by the consciousness of our own appetites and passions, pleasures and pains, and by inward experience of the actings of our own spirits, it would be impossible either for men or books to teach us any thing. It is observation that must give us our first ideas of things, as it includes in it sense and con- sciousness. 2. All our knowledge derived from observation, whether it be of single ideas or of propositions, is knowledge gotten at first hand. Hereby we see and know things as they are, or as they appear to us; we take the impressions of them on our minds from the original objects themselves, wiiich give a clearer and stronger conception of things: these ideas are more lively, and the propositions (at least in many eases) are much more OF IMPROVEMENT COMPARED. 35 evident. Whereas, what knowledge we derive from lec- tures, reading, and conversation, is but the copy of other men's ideas, that is, the picture of a picture; and it is one remove farther from the original. 3. Another advantage of observation is, that we may gain knowledge all the day long, and every moment of our lives ; and every moment of our existence we may be adding something to our intellectual treasures thereby, except only while we are asleep, and even then the re- membrance of our dreaming will teach us some truths, and lay a foundation for a better acquaintance with human nature, both in the powers and in the frailties of it. II. The next way of improving the mind is by read- ing, and the advantages of it are such as these : 1. By reading we acquaint ourselves, in a very extensive manner, with the affairs, actions, and tlioughts, of the living and the dead, in the most remote nations and most dis- tant ages, and that with as much ease as though they lived in our own age and nation. By reading of books we may learn something from all parts of man- kind; whereas, by observation we learn all from our- selves, and only what comes within our own direct cognizance ; by conversation we can only enjoy the assistance of a very few persons, viz., those who are near us and live at the same time when we do, that is, our neighbors and contemporaries; but our knowledge is much more narrowed still, if we confine ourselves merely to our own solitary reasonings, without much observation or reading; for then all our improvement must arise only from our own inward powers and meditations. 2. By reading we learn not only the actions and the senti- ments of different nations and ages, but we transfer to ourselves the knowledge and improvements of the most learned men, the wisest and the best of mankind, 36 THE FIVE METHODS when or wheresoever they lived : for though many books have been written by weak and injudicious persons, yet the most of those books which have obtained great repu- tation in the world, are the products of great and men in their several ages and nations : whereas we can obtain the conversation and instruction of those only who are within the reach of our dwelling, or our acquaint- ance, whether they are wise or unwise : and sometimes that narrow sphere scarce affords any person of great eminence in wisdom or learning, unless our instructor happen to have this character. And as for our study and meditations, even when we arrive at some good degrees of learning, our advantage for further improve- ment in knowledge by them, is still far more contracted than what we may derive from reading. 3. When we read good authors, ice learn the best, the most labored, and most refined sentiments, even of those wise and learned men ; for they have studied hard, and have committed to writing their maturest thoughts, and the result of their long study and experience : whereas, by conversation, and in some lectures, we obtain many times only the present thoughts of our tutors or friends, which (though they may be bright and useful), yet, at first perhaps, may be sudden and indigested, and are mere hints which have risen to no maturity. 4. It is another advantage of reading, that we may review what we have read ; we may consult the page again and again, and meditate on it at successive seasons, in our serenest and retired hours, having the book always at hand : but what we obtain by conversation and in lec- tures, is oftentimes lost again as soon as the company breaks up, or at least when the day vanishes, unl< happen to have the talent of a good memory, or quickly retire and note down what remarkable thoughts or ideas we have found in those discourses. And lor the same OF IMPROVEMENT COMPARED. 37 reason, and for the want of retiring and writing, many a learned man has lost several useful meditations of his own, and could never recall them again. III. The advantage of verbal instructions by public or private lectures are these : 1 There is something more sprightly, more dehgMJiU ana entertaining, in the living discourse of a wise, learned, and well qualified teacher, than there is m the silent and sedentary practice of reading. The very turn of voice, the good pronunciation, and the polite and alluring manner which some teachers have attained, will engage the attention, keep the soul fined, and convey and insinuate into the mind, the ideas of things .namorc lively and forcible way, than the mere reading of books in the silence and retirement of the closet. 2 A tutor or instructor, when he paraphrases and explains other authors, can mark out the precise point of difficulty or controversy, and unfold it. He can show you which paragraphs are. of greatest importance, and which are of less moment. He can teach his hearers what authors, or what parts of an author are best worth reading on any particular subject, and thus save h» dis- ciples much time and pains, by shortening the labors of their closet and private studies. He can show you what were the doctrines of the ancients, in a compendium which perhaps would cost much labor and the perusal of many books to attain. He can inform you what new doctrines or sentiments are arising in the world before they come to be public ; as well as acquaint you with his own private thoughts, and his own experiments and observations, which never were, and perhaps sever will be published to the world, and yet may be very valuable and useful. ,, nM 3 A living instructor can convey to our senses those notions with which he would furnish our minds, when 38 TIIE FIVE METHODS ho toadies us natural philosophy, or most parts of mathe- matical learning. He can make the experiments before our eyes. He can describe figures and diagrams, point to the lines and angles, and make out the demonstration in a more intelligible manner by sensible means, which can not so well be done by mere reading, even though we should have the same figures lying in a book before our eyes. A living teacher, therefore, is a most neces- sary help in these studies. I might add also, that even where the subject of dis- course is moral, logical, or rhetorical, etc., and which does not directly come under the notice of our senses, a tutor may explain his ideas by such familiar examples, and plain or simple similitudes, as seldom find place in books and writings. 4. When an instructor in his lectures delivers any mailer of difficulty^ or expresses himself in such a manner as seems obscure, so that you do not take up his ideas, clearly or fully, you have opportunity, at least when the lecture is finished, or at other proper seasons, to inquire how such a sentence should be understood, or how such a difficulty may be explained and removed. If there be permission given to free converse with the tutor, either in the midst of the lecture, or rather at the end of it, concerning any doubts or difficulties that occur to the hearer, this brings it very near to conversation or discourse. IV. Conversation is the next method of improve- ment, and it is at tended with the following advantages : 1. When ire converse familiarly with a learned friend, we have his own help at hand to explain to us every word and sentiment that seems obscure in his discourse, and to inform us of his whole meaning ; so that we are in much less danger of mistaking his sense : whereas in books, whatsoever is really obscure may also abide always ob- OF IMPROVEMENT COMPARED. 39 scurc without remedy, since the author is not at hand, thai wc may inquire his sense. H Ave mistake the meaning oi* our friend in conversa- tion, we are quickly set right again ; but in reading, we many times go on in the same mistake and are not capable of recovering ourselves from it. Thence it comes I o pass that we have so many contests in all ages about the meaning of ancient authors, and especially the sacred writers. Happy si lould we be could we but converse with Moses, Isaiah, and St. Paul, and consult the prophets and apostles, when we meet with a difficult text, : but that glorious conversation is reserved for the ages of ful uie blessedness. 2. When we are discoursing upon any theme with a friend, ire may j)i'oj>ose our doubts and objections against his sentiments, and have them solved and answered at once. The difficulties that arise in our minds may be removed by one enlightening word of our correspondent : whereas in reading, if a difficulty or question arises in our thoughts, which the author has not happened to mention, we must be content without a present answer or solution of it. Books can not speak. 3. Not only the doubts which arise in the mind upon any subject or discourse are easily proposed and solved in conversation, but the very difficulties we meet with in books, and in our j)rivate studies, may find a relief by friendly conferences. We may pore upon a knotty point in solitary meditation many months without a solution, because perhaj)S we have gotten into a wrong track of thought ; and our labor (while we are pursuing a false scent) is not only useless and unsuccessful, but it leads us perhaps into a long train of error for want of being corrected in the first step. But if we note down this difficulty when we read it, wc may propose it to an in- genious correspondent when wc see him ; we may be re- 40 THE FIVE METHODS lieyed in ti moment, and find the difficulty vanish : he beholds the object perhaps in a different view, sots it before us in quite another light, leads us at once into evidence and truth, and that with a delightful surprise. 4. Conversation calls out into light what has boon lodged in all the recesses and secret chambers of the soul : by occasional hints and incidents it brings old useful notions into remembrance ; it unfolds and displays the hidden treasures of knowledge with which reading ob- servation, and study, had before furnished the mind. By mutual discourse the soul is awakened and allured to bring forth its hoards of knowledge, and it learns how to render them most useful to mankind. A man of vast leading without conversation is like a miser, who lives only to himself. 5. In free and friendly conversation, our intellectual powers are more animated, and our spirits act with a superior vigor in the quest and pursuit of unknown truths. There is a sharpness and sagacity of thought that attends conversation beyond what we find whilst we are shut up reading and musing in our retirements. Onr souls may be serene in solitude, but not sparkling, though perhaps we are employed in reading the works of the brightest writers. Often has it happened in free discourse, that new thoughts are strangely struck out, and the seeds of truth sparkle and blaze through the com- pany, which in calm and silent reading w^ould never have been excited. By conversation you will both give and receive this benefit; as flints, when put into motion, and striking against each other, produce living lire on both sides, which would never have arisen from the same hard materials in a state of rest. 6. In generous conversation, amongst ingenious and learned men, we have a great advantage of proposing our private opinions, and of bringing our oicn sentiments to the OF IMPROVEMENT COMPARED. 41 test, and learning in a more compendious and safer way what the world will judge of them, how mankind will receive them, what objections may be raised against them, what delects there are in our scheme, and how to correct our own mistakes; which advantages are not so easy to he obtained by our own private meditations : for the pleasure we take in our own notions, and the passion of self-Love, as well as the narrowness of our views, tempt us to pass too favorable an opinion on our own schemes ; whereas the variety of genius in onr several associates will give happy notices how our opinions will stand in the view of mankind. 7. It is also another considerable advantage of con- versation, that it furnishes the student with the Icnoidl- edge of men and the affairs of life, as reading furnishes him with book learning. A man who dwells all his days among books may have amassed together a vast heap of notions ; but he may be a mere scholar, which is a con- temptible sort of character in the world. A hermit, who has been shut up in his cell in a college, has contracted a sort of mould and rust upon his soul, and all his airs of behavior have a certain awkwardness in them ; but these awkward airs are worn away by degrees in com- pany : the rust and the mould are filed and brushed off by polite conversation. The scholar now becomes a citi- zen or a gentleman, a neighbor, and a friend; he learns how to dress his sentiments in the fairest colors, as well as to set them in the strongest light. Thus he brings out his notions with honor ; he makes some use of them in the world and improves the theory by the practice. But before we proceed too far in finishing a bright char- acter by conversation, we should consider that something else is necessary besides an acquaintance with men and books: and therefore I add, V. Mere lectures, reading, and conversation, without 42 THE FIVE METITODS thinking, are not sufficient to make a man of knowledge and wisdom. It is our own thought and reflection, study and meditation, that must attend all the other methods of improvement and perfect them. It carries these advantages with it: 1. Though observation and instruction, reading and conversation, may furnish us with many ideas of men and things, yet it is our own meditation, and the labor of our own thoughts, that must form mr judgment of things. Our own thoughts should join or disjoin these ideas in a proposition for ourselves : it is our own mind that must judge for ourselves concerning the agreement or disagreement of ideas, and form propositions of truth out of them. Beading and conversation may acquaint us with many truths, and with many arguments to sup- port them ; but it is our own study and reasoning that must determine whether these propositions are true, and whether these arguments are just and solid. It is confessed there are a thousand things which our eyes have not seen, and which would never come within the reach of our personal and immediate knowledge and observation, because of the distance of times and places : these must be known by consulting other persons ; and that is done either in their writings or in their discourses. But after all, let this be a fixed point with us, that it is our own reflection and judgment must determine how far we should receive that which books or men inform us of, and how far they are worthy of our assent and credit. 2. It is meditation and study that transfers and con- veys the notions and sentiments of otliers to ourselves, bo as to make them properly our own. It is our own judgment upon them, as well as our memory of them, that makes them become our own property. It does as it were concoct our intellectual food, and turns it into a OF IMPROVEMENT COMPARED. 43 part of ourselves: just as a man may call his limbs and his flesh his own, whether he borrowed the materials from the ox or the sheep, from the lark or the lobster : whether he derived it from corn or milk, the fruits of the trees, or the herbs and roots of the earth ; it is all now become one substance with himself, and he wields and manages those muscles and limbs for his own proper pur- poses, which once were the substance of other animals or vegetables; that very substance which last week was grazing in the field or swimming in the sea, waving in the milk-pail, or growing in the garden, is now become part of the man. 3. By study and meditation ive improve the hints that we have acquired by observation, conversation, and read- ing : we take more time in thinking, and by the labor of the mind we penetrate deeper into the themes of knowl- edge and carry our thoughts sometimes much farther on many subjects, than we ever met with, either in the books of the dead or discourses of the living. It is our own reasoning that draws out one truth from another, and forms a whole scheme or science from a few hints which we borrowed elsewhere. By a survey of these things we may justly conclude, that he who spends all his time in hearing lectures, or poring upon books, without observation, meditation, or converse, will have but a mere historical knowledge of learning, and be able only to tell what others have known or said on the subject : he that lets all his time flow away in conversation, without due observation, read- ing, or study, will gain but a slight and superficial knowl- edge, which will be in danger of vanishing with the voice of the speaker: and he that confines himself merely to Ms closet, and his own narrow observation of things, and is taught only by his own solitary thoughts, without instruction by lectures, reading, or free conversation, will 44 RULES RELATING be in danger of a narrow spirit, a vain conceit of him- self, and an unreasonable contempt of others ; and after all, he will obtain but a very limited and imperfect a lew and knowledge of things, and he will seldom learn how to make that knowledge useful. These jive methods of improvement should be pursued, jointly, and go hand in hand, where our circiunstances are so happy as to find opportunity and conveniency to enjoy them all ; though I must give opinion that two of them, viz : reading and meditation, should employ much more of our time than public lectures, or conversation and discourse. As for observation, we may be always acquiring knowledge that way, whether we are alone or in company. But it will be for our further improvement, if we go over all these live methods of obtaining knowledge more distinctly and more at large, and see what special ad- vances in useful science we may draw from them all. CHAPTEE 111. RULES RELATING TO OBSERVATION. Though observation, in the strict sense of the word, and as it is distinguished from meditation and study, is the first means of improvement, and in its strictest sense does not include in it any reasonings of the mind upon the things which we observe, or inferences drawn from them ; yet the motions of the mind are so exceedingly swift, that it is hardly possible for a thinking man to gain experiences or observations without making some secret and short reflections upon them, and therefore in giving a few directions concerning this method of im- provement, I shall not so narrowly confine myself to the TO OBSERVATION. 45 first mere impression of object on the mind by observa- tion ; but include also some hints which relate to the first, most easy, and obvious reflections or reasonings which arise from them. I. Let the enlargement of your knowledge be one constant view and design in life ; since there is no time or place, no transactions, occurrences, or engagements in life, which exclude us from this method of improving the mind. When we are alone, even in darkness and silence, we may converse with our own hearts, ob- serve the working of our own spirits, and reflect upon the inward motions of our own passions in some of the latest occurrences in life ; we may acquaint ourselves with the powers and properties, the tendencies and in- clinations, both of body and spirit, and gain a more intimate knowledge of ourselves. When we are in company, we may discover something more of human nature, of human passions and follies, and of human affairs, vices, and virtues, by conversing with mankind and observing their conduct. Nor is there any thing more valuable than the knowledge of ourselves and the knowledge of men, except it be the knowledge of God who made us and our relation to Him as our Governor. When we are in the house or the city, wheresoever we turn our eyes, we see the works of men ; when we are abroad in the country, we behold more of the works of God. The skies above, and the ground beneath us, and the animal and vegetable world round about us, may entertain our observation with ten thousand varieties. Endeavor therefore to derive some instruction or im- provement of the mind from every thing which you see or hear, from every thing which occurs in human life, from every thing within you or without you. II. In order to furnish the mind with a rich variety of ideas, the laudable curiosity of young people should 46 IIULES DELATING be indulged and gratified, rather than discouraged. It is a very hopeful sign in young persons, to see them curious in observing, and inquisitive in searching into the great- est part of things that occur ; nor should such an inquir- ing temper be frowned into silence, nor be rigorously re- strained, but should rather be satisfied with proper answers given to all those queries. For this reason also, where time and fortune allow it, young people should be led into company at proper sea- sons, should be carried abroad to see the fields, and the woods, and the rivers, the buildings, towns, and cities, distant from their own dwelling ; they should be enter- tained with the sight of strange birds, beasts, fishes, in- sects, vegetables, and productions both of nature and of art of every kind, whether they are the products of their own or foreign nations : and in due time, where Providence gives opportunity, they may travel under a wise inspector or tutor to different parts of the world for the same end, that they may bring home treasures of useful knowledge. III. Among all these observations write down what is most remarkable and uncommon : reserve these re- marks in store for proper occasions, and at proper seasons take a review of them. Such a practice will give you a habit of useful thinking ; this will secure the workings of your soul from running to waste ; and by this means even your looser moments will turn to happy account both here and hereafter. And whatever useful observations have been made, let them be at least some part of the subject of your con- versation among your friends at next meeting. Let the circumstances or situation in life be what or where they will, a man should never neglect this im- provement which may be derived from observation. Let him trawl for his own humor as a traveler, or pursue TO OBSERVATION. 47 his diversions in what part of the world he pleases as a gentleman : let prosperous or adverse fortune call him to the most distant parts of the globe ; still let him carry on his knowledge and the improvement of his soul by wise observations. In due time, by this means, he may render himself some way useful to the societies of mankind. IV. Let us keep our minds as free as possible from passions and prejudices ; for these will give a wrong turn to our observations both on persons and things. The eyes of a man in the jaundice make yellow observa- tions on every thing ; and the soul, tinctured with any passion or prejudice, diffuses a false color over the real appearance of things, and disguises many of the com- mon occurrences of life : it never beholds things in a true light, nor suffers them to appear as they are. Whensoever, therefore, you would make proper obser- vations, let self, with all its influences, stand aside as far as possible ; abstract your own interest and your own concern from them, and bid all friendships and enmi- ties stand aloof and keep out of the way, in the ob- servations that you make relating to persons and things. If this rule were well obeyed, we should be much better guarded against those common pieces of miscon- duct in the observations of men, viz : the false judg- ments of pride and envy. How ready is envy to mingle with the notices which we take of other persons. How often is mankind prone to put an ill sense upon the action of their neighbors, to take a survey of them in an evil position and in an unhappy light ! And by this means we form a worse opinion of our neighbors than they deserve ; while at the same time pride and self-flattery tempt us to make unjust observations on ourselves in our own favor. In all the favorable judg- ments we pass concerning ourselves, we should allow a little abatement ou this account. 48 RULES RELATING TO OBSERVATION. V. In making your observations on persons, take care of indulging that busy curiosity which is ever inquir- ing into private and domestic affairs, with an endless itch of learning the secret history of families. It is but seldom that such a prying, curiosity attains any valuable ends : it often begets suspicions, jealousies, and disturb- ances in households, and it is a frequent temptation to persons to defame their neighbors : some persons can not help telling what they know : a busybody is most liable to become a tattler upon every occasion. VI. Let your observation, even of persons and their conduct be chiefly designed in order to lead you to a better acquaintance with things, particularly with hu- man nature ; and to inform you what to imitate and what to avoid, rather than to furnish out matter for the evil passions of the mind, or the impertinencies of dis- course and reproaches of the tongue. VII. Though it may be proper sometimes to make your observations concerning persons as well as things the subject of your discourse in learned or useful con- versations, yet what remarks you make on particular persons, particularly to their disadvantage, should for the most part lie hid in your own breast, till some just and apparent occasion, some necessary call of Provi- dence, leads you to speak to them. If the character or conduct which you observe be greatly culpable, it should so much the less be published! You may treasure up such remarks of the follies, inde- cencies, or vices of your neighbors as may be a constant guard against your practice of the same, without expos- ing the reputation of your neighbor on that account. It is a good old rule, that our conversation should rather belaid out on tilings than on persons; and this rule should generally be observed, unless names be concealed, wheresoever the faults or follies <>f mankind arc oui present theme. OF BOOKS AND READ TNG. 49 YITT. Be not too hasty to erect general theories from a few particular observations, appearances, or experi- ments. This is what the logicians call a false induction. When general observations are drawn from so many par- ticulars as to become certain and indubitable, these are jewels of knowledge, comprehending great treasure in little room : but they are therefore to be made with the greater care and caution, lest errors become large and diffusive, if we should mistake in these general notions. A hasty determination of some universal principles, without a due survey of all the particular cases which may be included in them, is the way to lay a trap for our own understandings, in their pursuit of any sub- ject, and we shall often be taken captives into mistake and falsehood. Niveo in his youth observed, that on three Christmas Days together there fell a good quantity of snow, and now hath writ it down in his almanac, as a part of his wise remarks on the weather, that it will always snow at Christmas. Euron, a young lad, took notice ten times, that there was a sharp frost when the wind was in the north-east; therefore, in the middle of the last July, he almost expected it should freeze, because the weather-cocks showed him a north-east wind ; and he was still more disappointed, when he found it a very sultry season. CHAPTEE IV. OF BOOKS AND READING. I. The world is full of Books ; but there are multi- tudes which are so ill written, they were never worth any man's reading ; and there are thousands more which may be good in their kind, yet are worth nothing when the month or year, or occasion is past for which they were written. Others may be valuable in themselves for some special purpose, or in some peculiar science, but are not fit to be perused by any but those who are en- 50 OF BOOKS AND READING. gaged in that particular science or business. To what use is it for a divine or a physician, or a tradesman, to read over the huge volumes of reports of judged cases in the law ? or for a lawyer to learn Hebrew and read the Eabbins ? It is of vast advantage for improvement of knowledge, and saving time, for a young man to have the most proper books for his reading recom- mended by a judicious friend. II. Books of importance of any kind, and especially complete treatises on any subject, should be first read in a more general and cursory manner, to learn a little what the treatise promises, and what you may expect from the writer's manner and skill. And for this end I would advise always that the preface be read and a survey taken of the table of contents, if there be one, before the survey of the book. By this means you will not only be better fitted to give the book the first reading, but you will be much assisted in your second perusal of it, which should be done with greater attention and deliberation, and you will learn with more ease and readiness what the author pretends to teach. In your reading, mark what is new or unknown to you before, and review those chapters, pages, or paragraphs. Unless a reader has an uncommon and most retentive memory, I may venture to affirm, that there is scarce any book or chapter worth reading once, that is not worthy of a second perusal. At least take a careful review of all the lines or paragraphs which you marked, and make a recollection of the sections which you thought truly valuable. There is another reason also why I would choose to take a superficial and cursory survey of a book, before I sit down to read it and dwell upon it with studious attention ; and that is, that there may be several difficul- ties in it which we can not easilv understand and con- OF BOOKS AND READING. 51 quer at the first reading, for want of a fuller compre- \u n ion of the author's whole scheme. And there lore in such treatises, we should not stay till we master every difficulty at the first perusal ; for perhaps many of these would appear to be solved when we have proceeded far- ther in that book, or would vanish of themselves upon a second reading. III. If three or four persons agreed to read the same book, and each brings his own remarks upon it, at some set hours appointed for conversation, and they commu- nicate mutually their sentiments on the subject and debate about it in a friendly manner, this practice will render the reading of any author more abundantly bene- ficial to any one of them. IY. If several persons engaged in the same study, take into their hands distinct treatises on one subject, and appoint a season of communication once a week, they may inform each other in a brief manner concern- ing the sense, sentiments, and methods of those several authors, and thereby promote each other's improve- ment, either by recommending the perusal of the same book to their companions, or perhaps by satisfying their inquiries concerning it by conversation, without every one's perusing it. Y. Eemember that your business in reading or in conversation, especially on subjects of natural, moral, or divine science, is not merely to know the opinion of the author or speaker, for this is but the mere knowl- edge of history ; but your chief business is to consider whether their opinions are right or not, and to im- prove your own solid knowledge on that subject by meditation on the themes of their writing or discourse. 1 teal freely with every author you read, and yield up your assent only to evidence and just reasoning on the subject. 52 OF BOOKS AND READING. Here I would be understood to speak only of human authors, and not of the sacred and inspired writings. In these our business is only to find out the true sense, and understand the true meaning of the paragraph and page, and our assent then is bound to follow when we are before satisfied that the writing is divine. Yet I might add also, that even this is sufficient evidence to demand our assent. But in the composures of men, remember you are a man as well as they ; and it is not their reason, but your own that is given to guide you when you arrive at years of discretion, of manly age and judgment. VI. Let this therefore be your practice, especially after you have gone through one course of any science in your academical studies ; if a writer on that subject maintains the same sentiments as you do, yet if he does not explain his ideas or prove his positions well, mark the faults or defects, and endeavor to do better, either in the margin of your book, or rather in some papers of your own, or at least let it be done in your private meditations. As for instance : "Where the author is obscure, enlighten him: where he is imperfect, supply his deficiencies : where he is too brief and concise, amplify a little, and set his notions in a fairer view : where he is redundant, mark those para- graphs to be retrenched : when he trifles and grows impertinent, abandon those passages or pages : when he argues, observe whether his reasons be conclusive : if the conclusion be true, and yet the argument weak, endeavor to confirm it by better proofs : where he derives or infers any proposition darkly and doubtfully, make the justice of the inference appear, and make further inferences or corollaries, if such occur to your mind : where you suppose he is in a mistake, propose your objections and correct his sentiments: what he OF BOOKS AND READING. 53 writes so well as to approve itself of your judgment, both as just and useful, treasure it up in your memory, and count it a part of your intellectual gains. Note, many of these same directions, which I have now given, may be practiced with regard to conversation as well as reading, in order to render it useful in the most extensive and lasting manner. VII. Other things also of the like nature may be use- fully practiced with regard to the authors which you read, viz.: If the method of a book be irregular, reduce it into form, by a little analysis of your own, or by hints in the margin: If those things are heaped together, which should be separated, you may wisely distinguish and divide them : if several things relating to the same subject are scattered up and down separately through the treatise, you may bring them all to one view by ref- erences ; or if the matter of a book be really valuable and deserving, you may throw it into a better method, reduce it to a more logical scheme, or abridge it into a lesser form : all these practices will have a tendency both to advance your skill in logic and method, to improve your judgment in general, and to give you a fuller survey of that subject in particular. When you have finished the treatise with all your observations upon it, recollect and determine what real improvements you have made by reading that author. VIII. If a book has no index to it, or good table of contents, it is very useful to make one as you are reading it: not with that exactness as to include the sense of every page and paragraph, which should be done if you designed to print it ; but it is sufficient in your index to take notice only of those parts of the book which are new to you, or which you think well written and well worthy of your own remembrance or review. Shall I be so free as to assure my younger friends, 54 OF BOOKS AND READING. from my own experience, that these methods of reading will cost some pains in the first year of your study, and especially in the first authors which you peruse in any science, or on any particular subject : but the profit will richly compensate the pains. And in the following years of life, after you have read a few valuable books on any special subject in this manner, it will be easy to read others of the same kind, because you will not usually find very much new matter in them which you have not already examined. If the writer be remarkable for any peculiar excel- lences or defects in his style or manner of writing, make just observations upon this also ; and whatsoever orna- ments you find there, or whatsoever blemishes occur in the language or manner of the writer, you may make just remarks uj)on them. And remember that one book read over in this manner, with all this laborious medita- tion, will tend more to enrich your understanding, than the skimming over the surface of twenty authors. IX. By perusing books in the manner I have described, you will make all your reading subservient not only to the enlargement of your treasures of knowledge, but also to the improvement of your reasoning powers. There are many who read with constancy and dili- gence, and yet make no advances in true knowledge by it. They are delighted with the notions which they read or hear, as they would be with stories that are told ; but they do not weigh them in their minds as* in a just balance, in order to determine their truth or falsehood ; they make no observations upon them, or inferences from them. Perhaps their eyes slide over the pages, or the words slide over their ears, and vanish like a rhap- sody of evening tales, or the shadows of a cloud flying over a green field in a summer's day. Or if they review them sufficiently to fix them in their OF BOOKS AND READING. 55 remembrance, it is merely with a design to tell the tale over again, and show what men of learning they are. Thus they dream out their days in a course of reading, without real advantage. As a man may be eating all day, and, for want of digestion is never nourished ; so those endless readers may cram themselves in vain with intellectual food, and without real improvement of their minds, for want of digesting it by proper re- flections. X. Be diligent therefore in observing these directions. Enter into the sense and arguments of the authors you read; examine all their proofs, and then judge of the truth or falsehood of their opinions * and thereby you shall not only gain a rich increase of your understanding, by those truths which the author teaches, when you see them well supported, but you shall acquire also by degrees a habit of judging justly and of reasoning well, in imitation of the good writer whose works you peruse. This is laborious indeed, and the mind is backward to undergo the fatigue of weighing every argument and tracing every thing to its original. It is much less labor to take all things upon trust : believing is much easier than arguing. But when Studentio had once persuaded his mind to tie itself down to this method which I have prescribed, he sensibly gained an admirable facility to read, and judge of what he read by his daily practice of it, and the man made largo advances in the pursuit of truth ; while Plumbinus and Plunieo made less progress in knowledge, though they had read over more folios. Plumeo skimmed over the pages like a swallow over the flowery meads in May. Plumbinus read every line and syllable, but did not give himself the trouble of thinking 4 and judging about them. They both could boast in company* of their great reading, for they knew more titles and pages than Studentio, but were far less acquainted with science. I confess those whose reading is designed only to fit them for much talk and little knowledge, may content 56 OF BOOKS AND READING. themselves to run over their authors in such a sudden and trifling way; they may devour libraries in this maimer, yet bo poor reasoners at last ; and have no solid wisdom or true learning. The traveler who walks on fair and softly in a course that points right, and examines every turning before he ventures upon it, will come sooner and safer to his journey's end, than he who runs through every lane he meets, though he gallops full speed all the day. The man of much reading and a large retentive memory, but without meditation, may become, in the sense of the world, a knowing man ; and if he converse much with the ancients, he may attain the fame of learning too ; but he spends his days afar off from wisdom and true judgment, and possesses very little of the substantial riches of the mind. XI. Never apply yourselves to read any human author with a determination beforehand either for or against him, or with a settled resolution to believe or disbelieve, to confirm or to oppose, whatsoever he saith ; but always read with a design to lay your mind open to truth, and to embrace it wheresoever you find it, as well as to reject every falsehood, though it appear under ever so fair a disguise. How unhappy are those men who seldom take an author into their hands but they have deter- mined before they begin whether they will like or dislike him ! They have got some notion of his name, his char- acter, his party, or his principles, by general conversa- tion, or perhaps by some slight view of a few pages ; and having all their own opinions adjusted beforehand, they read all that he writes with a prepossession either for or against him. Unhappy those who hunt and purvey for a party, and scrape together out of every author all those things, and tho^e only, which favor their own tenets, while they despise and neglect all the rest ! XII. Yet take this caution. I would not be under- OF BOOKS AND READING. 57 stood here, as though I persuaded a person to live without any settled principles at all, by which to judge of men, and books, and things : or that I would keep a man always doubling about his foundations. The chief things that I design in this advice, are these three : 1. That after our most necessary and important prin- ciples of science, prudence, and religion, are settled upon good grounds, with regard to our present conduct and our future hopes, we should read with a just freedom of thought all those books which treat of such subjects as may admit of doubt and reasonable dispute. Nor should any of our opinions be so resolved upon, especially in younger years, as never to hear or to bear an opposition to them. 2. When we peruse those authors who defend our own settled sentiments, we should not take all their argu- ments for just and solid ; but we should make a wise dis- tinction between the corn and the chaff, between solid reason- ing and the mere superficial colors of it ; nor should w T e readily swallow down all their lesser opinions because we agree with, them in the greater. 3. That when we read those authors which oppose our most certain and established principles, we should be ready to receive any informations from them in other points, and not abandon at once every thing they say, though w r e are well fixed in our opposition to their main point of arguing. ...... Fas est ab hoste docerL — Virg. Seize upon truth where'er 'tis found, Amongst your friends, amongst your foes, On Christian or on heathen ground ; The flower's divine where'er it grows : Neglect the prickles and assume the rose. XIII. What I have said hitherto on this subject, relating to books and reading, must be chiefly under- stood of that sort of books, and those hours of our read- 58 OF BOOKS AND liEADINO. ing and study, whereby we design to improve the intellectual powers of th<' mind with natural, moral, or divine knowledge. As for those treatises which are written to direct or to enforce and persuade our prac- tice, there is one thing further necessary; and that is, that when our consciences are convinced that these rules of prudence or duty belong to us, and require our conformity to them, we should then call ourselves to account, and inquire seriously whether we have put them in practice or not; we should dwell upon the arguments, and impress the motives and methods of persuasion upon our own hearts, till we feel the force and power of them inclining us to the practice of the things which are there recommended. If folly or vice be represented in its open colors, or its secret disguises, let us search our hearts, and review our lives, and inquire how far we are criminal ; nor should we ever think we have done with the treatise while we feel ourselves in sorrow for our past misconduct, and aspiring after a victory over those vices, or till we find a cure of those follies begun to be wrought upon our souls. In all our studies and pursuits of knowledge, let us remember that virtue and vice, sin and holiness, and the conformation of our hearts and lives to the duties of true religion and morality, are things of far more consequence than all the furniture of our understanding, and the ri chest treasures of more speculative knowledge; and that, because they have a more immediate and effectual influence upon, our eternal felicity or eternal sorrow. XIV. There is yet another sort of books, of which it is proper I should say something, while I am treating on this subject ; and these are history, poesy, travels ; books of diversion or amusement : among which we may reckon also little common pamphlets; newspapers, or such like: for many of these I confess once reading may be suf- ficient, where there is a tolerable good memory. OF BOOKS AND READING. 59 Or when several persons are in company, and one reads to the rest such a sort of writing, once hearing maybe sufficient, provided that everyone be so atten- tive, and so free, as to make their occasional remarks on such lines or sentences, such periods or paragraphs, as in their opinion deserve it. Now all those paragraphs or sentiments deserve a remark, which are new and uncommon, are noble and excellent for the matter of them, are strong and convincing for the argument con- tained in them, are beautiful and elegant for the lan- guage or the manner, or any way worthy of a second rehearsal ; and at the request of any of the company, let those paragraphs be read over again. Such parts also of these writings as may happen to be remarkably stupid or silly, false or mistaken, should become subjects of an occasional criticism, made by some of the conrpany ; and this may give occasion to the repe- tition of them, for the confirmation of the censure, for amusement or diversion. Still let it be remembered, that where the historical narration is of considerable moment, where the poesy, oratory, etc., shine with some degrees of perfection and glory, a single reading is neither sufficient to satisfy a mind that has a true taste for this sort of writings ; nor can we make the fullest and best improvement of them without proper reviews, and that in our retirement as well as in company. Who is there that has any taste for polite writings that would be sufficiently satisfied with hearing the beautiful pages of Steele or Addison, the admirable descriptions of Virgil or Milton, or some of the finest poems of Pope, Young, or Dryden, once read over to them, and then lay them by for ever ? XV. Among these writings of the latter kind we may justly reckon short miscellaneous essays on all man- ner of subjects ; such as the Occasional Papers, the Tatters, 60 OF BOOKS AND READING. the Spectators, and some other books that have been compiled out of the weekly or daily products of the press, wherein are contained a great number of bright thoughts, ingenious remarks, and admirable observations, which have had a considerable share in furnishing the present age with knowledge and politeness. I wish every paper among these writings could have been recommended both as innocent and useful. I wish every unseemly idea and wanton expression had been banished from amongst them, and every trifling page had been excluded from the company of the rest when they had been bound up in volumes : but it is not to be expected, in so imperfect a state, that every page or piece of such mixed public papers should be entirely blameless and laudable. Yet in the main it must be confessed, there is so much virtue, prudence, ingenuity, and goodness in them, especially in eight volumes of Spectators, there is such a reverence for things sacred, so many valuable remarks for our conduct in life, that they are not improper to lie in parlors, or summer-houses, or places of usual residence, to entertain our thoughts in any moments of leisure or vacant hours that occur. There is such a discovery of the follies, in- iquities, and fashionable vices of mankind contained in them, that w r e may learn much of the humors and madnesses of the age and the public world, in our own solitary retirement, without the danger of frequenting vicious company, or receiv- ing the mortal infection. XVI. Among other books which are proper and requi- site, in order to prove our knowledge in general, or our acquaintance with any particular science, it is necessary that we should be furnished with vocabularies and dictionaries of several sorts, viz., of common words, idioms, and phrases, in order to explain their sense ; of technical words or the terms of art, to show their use in arts and sciences; of names of men, countries, towns, rivers, etc. , which are called historical and geographical dictionaries, etc. These are to be consulted and used upon every occasion ; and never let an unknown word pass in your reading without seeking for its sense and meaning in some of these writers. If such books are not at hand, you must supply the JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. Gl want of them as well as you can, by consulting such as can in form you: and it is useful to note down the mat- ters of doubt and inquiry in some pocket-book, and take the first opportunity to get them resolved, either by per- sons or books, Avhen we meet with them. XVII. Be not satisfied with a mere knowledge of the best authors that treat of any subject, instead of ac- quainting ourselves thoroughly with the subject itself. There is many a young student that is fond of enlarging his knowledge of books, and he contents him- self with the notice he has of their title-page, which is the attainment of a bookseller rather than of a scholar. Such persons are under a great temptation to practice these two follies. (1.) To heap up a great number of books at a greater expense than most of them can bear, and to furnish their libraries infinitely better than their understanding. And (2) when they have gotten such rich treasures of knowledge upon their shelves, they imagine themselves men of learning and take a pride in talking of the names of famous authors, and the sub- jects of which they treat, without any real improvement of their own minds in true science or wisdom. At best their learning reaches no farther than the indexes and tables of contents, while they know not how to judge or reason concerning the matters contained in those authors. And indeed how many volumes of learning soever a man possesses, he is still deplorably poor in his under- standing, till he has made those several parts of learn- ing his own property by reading and reasoning, by judg- ing for himself and remembering what he has read. CHAPTEE V. JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. I. If we would form a judgment of a book which we have not seen before, the first thing that offers is the 62 JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. title-page, and we may sometimes guess a little at the import and design of a book thereby ; though it must be confessed that titles are often deceitful and promise more than the book performs. The author' s name , if it be known in the world, may help us to conjecture at the performance a little more, and lead us to guess in what manner it is done. A perusal of the preface or intro- duction (which I before recommended) may further assist our judgment ; and if there be an index of the contents, it will give us still some advancing light. If we have not leisure or inclination to read over the book itself regularly, then by the titles of chapters we may be directed to peruse several particular chapters or sections, and observe whether there be anything valua- ble or important in them. We shall find hereby whether the author explains his ideas clearly, whether he reasons strongly, whether he methodizes well, whether his thought and sense be manly, and his manner polite ; or, on the other hand, whether he be obscure, weak, trifling, and confused ; or, finally, whether the matter may not be solid and substantial, though the style and maimer be rude and disagreeable. II. By having run through several chapters and sec- tions in this manner, we may generally judge whether the treatise be worth a complete perusal or not. But if by such an occasional survey of some chapters our ex- pectation be utterly discouraged, we may well lay aside that book ; for there is great probability he can be but an indifferent writer on that subject, if he affords but one prize to divers blanks, and it may be some downright blots too. The piece can hardly be valuable if in seven or eight chapters which we peruse there be but little truth, evidence, force of reasoning, beauty, in- genuity of thought, etc., mingled with much error, ignorance, impertinence, dullness, mean and common JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. 63 thoughts, inaccuracy, sophistry, railing, etc. Life is too short, and time is too precious, to read every new book quite over, in order to find that it is not worth the reading. III. There are some general mistakes which persons are frequently guilty of in passing a judgment on the books which they read. One is this : when a treatise is written but tolerably well, we are ready to pass a favorable judgment of it and sometimes to exalt its character far beyond its merit, if it agree with our own principles and support the opinions of our party. On the other hand, if the author be of different sentiments and espouse contrary prin- ciples, we can find neither wit nor reason, good sense, nor good language in it ; whereas, alas ! if our opinions of things were certain and infallible truth, yet a silly author may draw his pen in the defense of them, and he may attack even gross errors with feeble and ridiculous argu- ments. Truth in this world is not always attended and supported by the wisest and safest methods ; and error, though it can never be maintained by just reasoning, yet may be artfully covered and defended. An ingenious writer may put excellent colors upon his own mistakes. Books are never to be judged of merely by their subject, or the opinion they represent, but by the justness of their sentiment, the beauty of their manner, the force of their expression, or the strength of reason, and the weight of just and proper argument which appears in them. IV. Another mistake which some persons fall into is this : when they read a treatise on a subject with which they have but little acquaintance, they find almost every thing new and strange to them: their under- standings are greatly entertained and improved by the occurrence of many things which were unknown to them 64 JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. before; they admire the treatise and commend the author at once ; whereas, if they had attained a good de- gree of skill in that science, perhaps they would find that the author had written very poorly, that neither his sense nor his method was just and proper, and that he had nothing in him hut what was very common or trivial in hi:; discourses on that subject. Hence it comes to pass that Cario and Faber, who were both bred up to labor and unacquainted with the sciences, shall admire one of the weekly papers, or a little pamphlet that talks pertly on some critical or learned theme, because the matter is all strange and new to them, and they join to extol the writer to the skies ; while at the same time, persons well skilled in the.se different subjects, hear the impertinent tattle with a just contempt : for they know how weak and awkward many of these diminutive discourses are ; and that those very papers of science, politics, or trade, which were so much ad- mired by the ignorant, are perhaps but very mean perform- ances ; though it must also be confessed there are some excellent essays in those papers, and that upon science as well as trade. V. But there is a danger of mistake in our judgment of books, on the other hand also : for when we have made ourselves masters of any particular theme of knowledge, and surveyed it long on all sides, there is perhaps scarcely any writer on that subject who much entertains and pleases us afterwards, because we find little or nothing new in him ; and yet, in a true judgment, perhaps his sentiments are most proper and just, his explication clear, and his reasoning strong, and all the parts of the discourse are well connected and set in a happy light ; but we knew most of those things be- fore, and therefore they strike us not, and we are in danger of discommending them. Thus the learned and the unlearned have their several distinct dangers and prejudices ready to attend them in their judgment of the writings of men. These which I have mentioned are a specimen of them, and indeed but a mere specimen ; for the prejudices that warp our judg- ment aside from truth are almost infinite and endless. JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. G5 VI. Yet I can not forbear to point out two or three more of these follies, that I may attempt something to- wards the correction of them, or at least to guard others against them. There are some persons of a forward and lively temper, and who are fond to intermeddle with all ap- pearances of knowledge, will give their judgment on a book as soon as the title of it is mentioned, for they would not willingly seem ignorant of any thing that others know. And especially if they happen to have any superior character or possessions of this world, they fancy they have a right to talk freely upon every thing that stirs or appears, though they have no other pre- tense to this freedom. Divito is worth forty thousand pounds. Politulus is a fine young gentleman, who sparkles in all the shining things of dross and equipage. Aulinus is a small attendant on a min- ister of state, and is at court almost every day. These three happened to meet on a visit where an excellent book of warm and refined devotions lay on the window. What dull stuff is here ! said Divito ; I never read so much nonsense in one page in my life ; nor would I give a shilling for a thousand such treatises. Aulinus, though a courtier, had not used to speak roughly, yet would not allow there was a line of good sense in the book, and pronounced him a madman that wrote it in his secret retirement, and declared him a fool that published it after his death. Politulus had more manners than to differ from men of such rank and character, and therefore he sneered at the devout expressions as he heard them read, and made the divine treatise a matter of scorn and ridicule ; and yet it was well known, that neither this fine gentleman, nor the courtier, nor the man of wealth, had a grain of devotion in them be- yond their horses that waited at the door with their gilded chariots. But this is the way of the world; blind men will talk of the beauty of colors, and of the harmony or dispropor- tion of figures in painting ; the deaf will prate of discords in music; and those who have nothing to do with religion will arraign the best treatise on divine subjects, though they do not understand the very language of the Scriptures, nor the com- mon terms or phrases used in Christianity. VII. I might here name another sort of judges, who will set themselves up to decide in favor of an author, 66 JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. or will pronounce him a mere blunderer, according to the company they have kept and the judgment they have heard passed upon a book by others of their own stamp or size, though they have no knowledge or taste of the subject themselves. These, with a fluent and voluble tongue, become mere echoes of the praises or censures of other men. Sonillus happt ned to be in the room where the three gentle- men just mentioned gave out their thoughts so lively upou an admirable hook of devotion : and two days afterwards he met with some friends of his, where this book was the subject of conversation and praise. Sonillus wondered at their dullness, and repeated the jests which he had heard east upon the weak- ness of the author. His knowledge of the book, and his de- cision upon it, was all from hearsay, for he had never seen it ; and if he had lead it through, he had no manner of right to judge about the tilings of religion, having no more knowledge or taste of any thing of inward piety than a hedgehog or a bear has of politeness. When I had written these remarks, Probus, who knew all the four gentlemen, wished they might have an opportunity to read their own character as it is represented here. Alas! Probus, I fear it would do them very little good, though it may guard others against their folly ; for there is never a one of them would find their own name in these characters if they read them, though all their acquaintance would acknowledge the features immediately and see the persons almost alive in the picture. VIII. There is yet another mischievous principle which prevails among some persons in passing a judg- ment on the writings of others, and that is, when from the secret stimulations of vanity, pride, or envy, they despise a valuable book, and throw contempt upon it by wholesale : and if you ask them the reason of their severe censure, they will tell you, perhaps, they have found a mistake or two in it, or there are a lew senti- ments or expressions not suited to their tooth and humor. Bavis cries down an admirable treatise of philosophy and says there is atheism in it, because there are a few sentiments that seem to suppose brutes to be mere machines. Under the same influence, Momus will not allow J'aradizc Lout to be a JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. 67 good poem, because he has read some Hat and heavy lines in it; and he thought Milton had too much honor done him. It is a paltry humor that inclines a man to rail at any human per- formance, because it is not absolutely perfect. Si; nt delicta tamen quibus ignovisse velimus, Nam neque chorda sonum reddit quern vult manus et mens, Nee semper feriet quodcunque minabitur arcus : Veruni ubi plura nitent in carmine, non ego paucis Oflendar maculis, quas aut incuria fudit, Aut humana parum cavit natura. — llor. da Art. Pott. Thus Englished : Be not too rigidly censorious : A string may jar in the best master's hand, And the most skillful archer miss his aim. So in a poem elegantly writ, I will not quarrel with a small mistake, Such as our nature's frailty may excuse. — Roscommon. This noble translator of Horace, whom I here cite, has a very honorable opinion of Homer in the main ; yet he allows him to be justly censured for some grosser spots and blemishes in him : For who without aversion ever looked On holy garbarge, though by Homer cooked ; Whose railing heroes, and whose wounded gods, Make some suspect he snores as well as nods. Such wise and just distinctions ought to be made when we pass a judgment on mortal things ; but Envy con- demns by wholesale. Envy is a cursed plant; some libers of it are rooted in almost every man's nature, and it works in a sly and imperceptible manner, and that even in some persons who in the main are men of wisdom and piety. They know not how to bear the praises that are given to an ingenious author, especially if he be living, and of their profession ; and therefore they will, if pos- sible, find some blemish in his writings, that they may nibble and bark at it. They will endeavor to diminish the honor of the best treatise that has been written on any subject, and to render it useless by their censures, 68 JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. rather than suffer their envy to lie asleep and the little mistakes of that author to pass unexposed. Perhaps they will commend the work in general with a pretended air of candor 5 but pass so many sly and invidious re- marks upon it afterwards, as shall effectually destroy all their cold and formal praises. IX. When a person feels any thing of this invidious humor working in him, he may by the following consid- eration attempt the correction of it. Let him think with himself how many are the beauties of such an author whom he censures, in comparison with his blemishes, and remember that it is a much more honorable and good- naturedthingto find out peculiar beauties than faults ; true and undisguised candor is a much more amiable and divine talent than accusation. Let him reflect again, what an easy matter it is to find a mistake in all human authors, who are necessarily fallible and imperfect. I confess, where an author sets up himself to ridicule divine writers, and things sacred, and yet assumes an air of sovreignty and dictatorship, to exalt and almost deify all the pagan ancients, and cast his scorn upon all the moderns, especially it' they do but savor of miracles and the Gospel ; it is fit the admirers of this author should know, that nature and these ancients are not the same, though some writers unite them. Reason and nature never made these ancient heathens their standard, either of art or genius, of writing or heroism. Sir Richard Steele, in his little essay, called the Christian Hero, has shown our Saviour and St. Paul in a more glorious and transcendent light than a Virgil or Homer could do for their Achilles, Ulysses, or JEneas : and I am persuaded, if Moses and David had not been inspired writers, these very men would have ranked them at least with Herodotus, if not given them the superior place. But where an author lias many beauties consistent with virtue, piety, and truth, let not little critics exalt themselves and shower down their ill nature upon him without bounds or measure 5 but rather stretch their own powers of soul till they write a treatise superior to that which they condemn. This is the noblest and surest manner of sup] - sis inc. JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. GO A little wit or a little learning, with a good degree of vanity and ill nature, will teach a man to pour out whole pages of remark and reproach upon one real or fancied mistake of a great and good author: and lliis may be dressed up by the same talent:; and made enter- taining enough to the world, which loves reproach and scandal : but if the remarker would but once make this attempt, and try to outshine the author by writing a better book on the same subject, he would soon be con- vinced of his own insufficiency, and perhaps might learn to judge more justly and favorably of the performance of other men. A cobbler or a shoemaker may find some little fault with the latchet of a shoe that an Apelles had painted, and perhaps with justice too, when the whole figure and portraiture is such as none but Apelles could paint. Every poor low genius may cavil at what the richest and the noblest hath j)erformed ; but it is a sign of . envy and malice, added to the littleness and poverty of genius, when such a cavil becomes a sufficient reason to pronounce at once against a bright author and a whole valuable treatise. X. Another, and that a very frequent fault in passing a judgment upon books, is this, that persons spread the same praises or the same reproaches over a whole treatise, and all the chapters in it, which are due only to some of them. They judge as it were by wholesale, without making a due distinction between the several parts or sections of the performance ; and this is ready to lead those who hear them talk into a dangerous mis- take. Milton is a noble genius, and the world agrees to confess it : his poem of Paradise Lost is a glorious performance and rivals the most famous pieces of antiquity ; but that reader must be deeply prejudiced in favor of the poet, who can imagine him equal to himself through all that work. Neither the sublime sentiments, nor dignity of numbers, nor force or beauty of expression, are equally maintained, even in all those parts 70 OF LIVING INSTRUCTIONS which require grandeur or beauty, force or harmony. I can not but consent to Mr. Dry den's opinion, though I will not use his words, that for some scores of lines together there is ueoldness ; ; l flatness, and almost a perfect absence of that spirit of poesy which breathes, and lives, and Uames in other pages. XI. When you hear any person pretending to give his judgment of a book, consider with yourself whether lie be a capable judge, or whether he may not lie under some unhappy bias or prejudice, for or against it, or whether he has made a sufficient inquiry to form his justest sentiments upon it. Though he be a man of good sense, yet he is incapable of passing a true judgment of a particular book, if he be not well acquainted with the subject of which it treats, and the manner in which it is written, be it verse or prose : or if he hath not had an opportunity or leisure to look sufficiently into the writing itself. Again, though lie be ever so capable of judging on all other accounts, by the knowledge of the subject, anil of the book itself, yet you are to consider also whether there be any thing in the author, in his manner, in his language, in his opinions, and his particular party, which may warp the sentiments of him that judgeth, to think well or ill of the treatise, and to pass too favorable or too severe a sentence concerning it. 1 f you find that he is either an unfit judge because of his ignorance or because of his prejudices, his judgment of that book should go for nothing. CHAPTER VI. AND LEAKNEES. I. There arc few persons of so penetrating a genius, and so just a judgment, as to be capable of learning the BY TEACHERS. 71 arts and sciences without the assistance of teachers. There is scarce any science so safely and so speedily learned, even by the noblest genius and the best books, without a tutor. His assistance is absolutely necessary for most persons, and it is very useful for all beginners. Books are a sort of dumb teachers ; they point out the way to learning ; but if we labor under any doubt or mistake, they can not answer sudden questions, or ex- plain present doubts and difficulties : this is properly the work of a living instructor. II. There are very few tutors who are sufficiently furnished with such universal learning, as to sustain all 1 he parts and provinces of instruction. The sciences arc numerous, and many of them lie far wide of each other ; and it is best to enjoy the instructions of two or three tutors at least, in order to run through the whole ency- clopaedia, or circle of sciences, where it may be obtained ; then we may expect that each will teach the few parts of learning which are committed to his care in greater perfection. But where this advantage can not be had with convenience, one great man must supply the place of two or three common instructors. III. It is not sufficient that instructors be compe- tently skillful in those sciences which they profess and teach ; but they should have skill also in the art or method of teaching, and patience in the practice of it. It is a great unhappiness indeed, when persons by a spirit of party, or faction, or interest, or by purchase, are set up for tutors, who have neither due knowledge of science, nor skill in the way of communication. And, alas ! there are others who, with all their ignorance and insufficiency, have self-admiration and effrontery enough to set up themselves ; and the poor pupils fare accord- ingly and giow lean in their understandings. And let it be observed also, there are some very 72 OF LIVING INSTRUCTIONS learned men, who know much themselves, but have not the talent of communicating their own knowledge ; or else they are lazy and will take no pains at it. Either they have an obscure and perplexed way of talking, or they show their learning uselessly and make a long periphrasis on every word of the book they explain, or they can not condescend to young beginners, or they run presently into the elevated parts of the science, because it gives themselves greater pleasure, or they are soon angry and impatient, and can not bear with a few im- pertinent questions of a young, inquisitive, and sprightly genius; or else they skim over a science in a very slight and superficial survey, and never lead their disciples into the depths of it. IV. A good tutor should have characters and qualifi- cations very different from all these. He is such a one as both can and will apply himself with diligence and concern, and indefatigable patience, to effect what he undertakes ; to teach his disciples and see that they learn ; to adapt his way and method, as near as may be, to the various dispositions, as well as to the capac- ities of those whom he instructs, and to inquire often into their progress and improvement. And he should take particular care of his own tem- per and conduct, that there be nothing in him or about him which may be of ill example ; nothing that may savor of a haughty temper, or a mean and sordid spirit ; nothing that may expose him to the aversion or to the contempt of his scholars, or create a prejudice in their minds against him and his instructions : but, if possible, lie should have so much of a natural candor and sweet- ness mixed with all the improvements of learning, as might convey knowledge into the minds of his disciples with a sort of gentle insinuation and sovereign delight, and may tempt them into the highest improvements of BY TEACHERS. 73 their reason by a resistless and insensible force. But I shall have occasion to say more on this subject, when I come to speak more directly of the methods of the com- munication of knowledge. V. The learner should attend with constancy and care on all the instructions of his tutor ; and if he hap- pens to be at any time unavoidably hindered, he must endeavor to retrieve the loss by double industry for time to come. He should always recollect and review his lectures, read over some other author or authors upon the same subject, confer upon it with his instructor, or with his associates, and write down the clearest result of his present thoughts, reasonings, and inquiries, which he may have recourse to hereafter, either to re-examine them and apply them to proper use, or to improve them farther to his own advantage. VI. A student should never satisfy himself with bare attendance on the lectures of his tutor, unless he clearly takes up his sense and meaning, and understands the things which he teaches. A young disciple should behave himself so well as to gain the affection and ear of his instructor, that upon every occasion he may, with the utmost freedom, ask questions, and talk over his own sentiments, his doubts, and difficulties with him, and in an humble and modest manner desire the solution of them. VII. Let the learner endeavor to maintain an honorable opinion of his instructor, and needfully listen to his instructions, as one willing to be led by a more experienced guide ; and though he is not bound to fall in with every sentiment of his tutor, yet he should so far comply with him as to resolve upon a just consid- eration of the matter, and try and examine it thoroughly with an Inmost heart, before he presume to determine against him : and then it should be done with great <4 OF LIVING raSTRUCTIONS. modesty, with an humble jealousy of himself, and ap- parent unwillingness to differ from his tutor, if the force of argument and truth did not constrain him. VIII. It is a frequent and growing folly in our age, that pert young disciples soon fancy themselves wiser than those who teach them : at the first view, or upon a very little thought, they can discern the insig- nificancy, weakness, and mistake of what their teacher asserts. The youth of our day, by an early petulancy, and pretended liberty of thinking for themselves, dare reject at once, and that with a sort of scorn, all those sentiments and doctrines which their teachers have de- termined, perhaps, after long and repeated considera- tion, after years of mature study, careful observation, and much prudent experience. IX. It is true teachers and masters are not infallible, nor are they always in the right ; and it must be ac- knowledged, it is a matter of some difficulty for younger minds to maintain a just and solemn vener- ation for the authority and advice of their parents and the instructions of their tutors, and yet at the same time to secure to themselves a just freedom in their own thoughts. We are sometimes too ready to imbibe all their sentiments without examination, if we rever- ence and love them ; or, on the other hand, if we take all freedom to contest their opinions, we are sometimes tempted to cast off that love and reverence for their per- sons which God and nature dictate. Youth is ever in danger of these two extremes. X. But I think I may safely conclude thus : Though the authority of a teacher must not absolutely determine the judgment of his pupil, yet young and raw and un- experienced learners should pay all proper deference that can be to the instructions of their parents and teachers, short of absolute submission to their dictates. OF KNOWING THE SENSE. 75 Yet still we must maintain this, that they should never receive any opinion into their assent, whether it be conformable <>r contrary to the tutor's mind, 'without sufficient evidence of it first given to their own reason- ing powers. CHAPTER VII. OF INQUIRING INTO THE SENSE AND MEANING OF ANY WRITER OR SPEAKER, AND ESPECIALLY THE SENSE OF THE SACRED WRITINGS. It is a great unhappiness that there is such an ambi- guity in words and forms of speech, that the same sen- tence may be drawn into different significations : whereby it comes to pass, that it is difficult sometimes for the reader exactly to hit upon the ideas which the writer or speaker had in his mind. Some of the best rules to direct us herein are such as these :• I. Be well acquainted with the tongue itself, or language, wherein the author's mind is expressed. Learn not only the true meaning of each word, but the sense which those words obtain when placed in such a par- ticular situation and order. Acquaint yourself with the peculiar power and emphasis of the several modes of speech, and the various idioms of the tongue. The sec- ondary ideas which custom has superadded to many words should also be known, as well as the particular and primary meaning of them, if we would understand any writer. II. Consider the signification of those words and phrases, more especially in the same nation, or near the same age in which that writer lived, and in what sense they are used by authors of the same nation, opinion, sect, party, etc. 76 OF KNOWING THE SENSE III. Compare the words and phrases in one place of an author, with the same or kindred words and pi i rases generally called parallel places ; and as one ex- plains another which is like it, so sometimes a contrary expression will explain its contrary. Remember always that a writer best interprets him- self; as we believe the Holy Spirit to be the supreme agent in the writings of the Old Testament and the New, he can best explain himself. Hence the theological rule arises, that Scripture is the best interpreter of Scripture ; and therefore concordances, which show us parallel places, are of excellent use for interpretation. IV. Consider the subject oti which the author is treating, and by comparing other places where he treats of the same subject, you may learn his sense in the place which you are reading, though some of the terms which he uses in those two places may be very different. And on the other hand, if the author uses the same words where the subject of which he treats is not just the same, you can not learn his sense by comparing those two places, though the mere words may seem to agree : for some authors, when they are treating of a quite different subject, may use perhaps the same words in a very different sense. V. Observe the scope and design of the writer; inquire into his aim and end in that book, or section, or paragraph, which will help to explain particular sen- tences; for we suppose a wise and judicious writer di- rects his expressions generally toward his designed end. VI. When an author speaks of any subject occa- sionally, let his sense be explained by those places where he treats of it distinctly ami professedly: where he speaks of any subject in mystical or metaphorical terms, explain them by other places where he treats of OF WRITERS oil SPEAKERS. 77 the same subjects in terms that are plain and literal: where he speaks in an oratorical, affecting, or persuasive way, let this bo explained by other places where he treats of the same theme in a doctrinal or instructive way : where the author speaks more strictly and partic- ularly on any theme, it will explain the more loose and general expressions: where he treats more largely, it will explain the shorter hints and brief intimations ; and wheresoever he writes more obscurely, search out some more perspicuous passages in the same writer, by w T hich to determine the sense of that obscure language. VII. Consider not only the person who is introduced speaking, but the persons to whom the speech is directed, the circumstances of time and place, the tem- per and spirit of the speaker, as w r ell as the temper and spirit of the hearers : in order to interpret Scripture well, there needs a good acquaintance with the Jewish customs, some knowledge of the ancient Eoman and Greek times and manners, which sometimes strike a strange and surprising light upon passages which were before very obscure. VIII. In particular propositions, the sense of an author may sometimes be known by the inferences which he draws from them ; and all those senses may be excluded wilich will not allow of that inference. Note. This rule indeed is not always certain, in read- ing and interpreting human authors, because they may mistake in drawing their inferences : but in explaining Scripture it is a sure rule ; for the sacred and inspired writers always make just inferences from their own propositions. Yet even in them, we must take heed we do not mistake an allusion for an inference, which is many times introduced almost in the same manner. IX. If it be a matter of controversy, the true sense of the author is sometimes known by the objections 78 OF KNOWING THE SENSE. that are brought against it. So we may be well assured, (he apostle speaks against our "justification in the sight of God, by our own works of holiness," in the od, 4th, and 5th chapters of the Epistle to the Romans, because of the objection brought against him in the beginning of the 6th chapter, viz. : "What shall we say then 3 shall Ave continue in sin that grace may abound?" which objection could never have been raised, if he had been proving our justification by our own works of righteousness. X. In matters of dispute, take heed of warping the sense of the writer to your own opinion, by any latent prejudices of self-love and party spirit. It is this reign- ing principle of prejudice and party, that has given such a variety of senses both to the sacred writers and others, which would never have come into the mind of the reader if he had labored under some such prepos- sessions. XI. For the same reason take heed of the prejudices of passion, malice, envy, pride, or opposition to an au- thor, whereby you may be easily tempted to put a false and invidious sense upon his words. Lay aside there- fore a carping spirit, and read even an adversary with attention and diligence, w r ith an honest design to find out his true meaning ; do not snatch at little lapses and appearances of mistake, in opposition to his declared and avowed meaning ; nor impute any sense or opinion to him which he denies to be his opinion, unless it be proved by the most plain and express language. Lastly, remember that you treat every author, writer, or speaker, just as you yourselves would be willing to be treated by others. OK CONVERSATION. 79 CHAPTEE VII L RULES OF [IMPROVEMENT BY CONVERSATION. I. If we would improve our minds by conversation, it is a great happiness to be acquainted with persons wiser than ourselves. It is a piece of useful advice therefore to get the favor of their conversation fre- quently, as far as circumstances will allow : and if they happen to be a little reserved, use all obliging methods to draw out of them what may increase your own knowledge. II. Whatsoever company you are in, waste not the time in trifle and impertinence. If you spend some hours amongst children, talk with them according to their capacity ; mark the young buddings of infant rea- son ; observe the different motions and distinct workings of the animal and the mind, as far as you can discern them ; take notice by what degrees the little creature grows up to the use of his reasoning powers, and what early prejudices beset and endanger his understanding. By this means you will learn to address yourself to children for their benefit, and perhaps you may derive some useful philosophemes or theorems for your own entertainment. III. If you happen to be in company with a merchant or a sailor, a farmer or a mechanic, a milk-maid or a spinster, lead them into a discourse of the matters of their own peculiar province or profession ; for every one knows, or should know, their own business best. In this sense a common mechanic is wiser than the philosopher. By this means you may gain some im- provement in knowledge from every one you meet. 80 OF CONVERSATION. IV. Confine not yourself always to one sort of com- pany, or to persons of the same party or opinion, either in matters of learning, religion, or civil life, lest, if you should happen to be nursed up or educated in early mistake, you should be confirmed and established in the same mistake, by conversing only with persons of the same sentiments. A free and general conversation with men of very various countries and of different parties, opinions, and practices, so far as it may be done safely, is of excellent use to undeceive us in many wrong judgments which we may have framed, and to lead us into j uster thoughts. Tt is said, when tho king of Biam, near China, first con- versed with some European merchants, who sought the favor of trading on his coast, he inquired of them some of the com- mon appearances of summer and winter in their country ; and when they told him of water growing so hard in their rivers that men and horses and laden carriages passed over it, and that rain sometimes fell down as white and light as feathers, and sometimes almost as hard as stones, he would not believe a syllable they said ; for ice, snow, and hail, were names and things utterly unknown to him and to his subjects in that hot climate ; he renounced all traffic with such shameful liars, and would not suiter them to trade with his people. V. In mixed company, among acquaintances and strangers endeavor to learn something from all. Be swift to hear ; but be cautious of your tongue, lest you betray your ignorance, and perhaps offend some of those who are present too. The Scripture severely censures those who speak evil of the things they know not. Ac- quaint yourself therefore sometimes with persons and parties which are far distant from your common life and customs: this is away whereby you may form a wiser opinion of men and things. Prove all things, and hold fast that which is good, is a divine rule, and it comes from the Father of light and truth. Hut young persons should practice it indeed with due limitation, and under the eye of their elders. OF CONVERSATION. 81 VI. Be not frighted nor provoked at opinions dif- ferent from your own. Some persons are so confident they are in the right, that they will not come within the hearing of any notions but their own: they canton out to themselves a little province in the intellectual world, where they fancy the light shines ; and all the rest is in darkness. They never venture into the ocean of knowl- edge, nor survey the riches of other minds, which are as solid and as useful, and perhaps are finer gold than what they ever possessed. Let not men imagine there is no certain truth but in the sciences which they study, and amongst that party in which they were born and educated. VII. Believe that it is possible to learn something from persons much below yourself. We are all short- sighted creatures ; our views are also narrow and limited ; we often see but one side of a matter, and do not extend our sight far and wide enough to reach every thing that has a connection with the thing we talk of; we see but in part, and know but in part ; therefore it is no wonder we form not right conclusions ; because we do not survey the whole of any subject or argument. Even the proud- est admirer of his own parts might find it useful to consult with others, though of inferior capacity and penetration. We have a different prospect of the same thing (if I may so speak) according to the different posi- tions of our understanding towards it : a weaker man may sometimes light on notions which have escaped a wiser, and which the wiser man might make a happy use of, if he woulcLcondescend to take notion of them. VIII. It is of considerable advantage, when we are pursuing any difficult point of knowldege, to have a society of ingenious correspondents at hand, to whom we may propose it : for every man has something of a different genius and a various turn of mind, whereby 82 OF CONVERSATION. the subject proposed will be shown in all its lights, it will be represented in all its forms, and every side of it be turned to view, that a juster judgment may be framed. IX. To make conversation more valuable and useful, whether it be in a designed or accidental visit, among persons of the same or of different sexes, after the necessary salutations are finished, and the stream of com- mon talk begins to hesitate, or runs flat and low, let some ono person take a book which may be agreeable to the whole company, and by common consent let him read in it ten lines, or a paragraph or two, or a few pages, till some word or sentence gives an occasion for any of the company to offer a thought or two relating to that subject : interruption of the reader should be no blame ; for conversation is the business : whether it be to confirm what the author says, or to improve it, to enlarge upon or to correct it, to object against it, or to ask any question that is akin to it; and let every one that please add their opinion and promote the conver- sation. Observe this rule in general, whensoever it lies in your power to lead the conversation, let it be directed to some profitable point of knowledge or practice, so far as may be done with decency ; and let not the discourse and the hours be suffered to run loose without aim or design: and when a subject is started, pass not hastily to another, before you have brought the present theme of discourse to some tolerable issue, or a joint consent to drop it. X. Attend with sincere diligence, while any one of the company is declaring his sense <>f the question pro- posed : hear the argument with patience, though it differ ever so much from your sentiments, for you your- self are very desirous to be heard with patience by OF CONVERSATION. 83 others who differ from you. Let not your thoughts be active and busy all the while to find out something to contradict, and by what means to oppose tho speaker, especially in matters which are not brought to an issue. This is a frequent and unhappy temper and practice. You should rather be intent and solicitous to take up the mind and meaning of the speaker, zealous to seize and approve all that is true in his discourse ; nor yet should you want courage to oppose where it is necessary j but let your modesty and patience, and a friendly temper, be as conspicuous as your zeal. XI. When a man speaks with much freedom and ease, and gives his opinion in the plainest language of common sense, do not presently imagine you shall gain nothing by his company. Sometimes you will find a person who, in his conversation or his writings, delivers his thoughts in so plain, so easy, so familiar, and perspicuous a manner, that you both understand and assent to every thing he saith, as fast as you read or hear it : hereupon some hearers have been ready to con- clude in haste, Surely this man saith none but common things ; I knew as much before, or, I would have said all this myself. This is a frequent mistake. Pellucido was a very great genius ; when he spoke in the senate, he was wont to convey his ideas in so simple and happy a manner as to instruct and convince every hearer, and to en- force the conviction through the whole illustrious assembly ; and that with so much evidence, that you would have been ready to wonder, that every one who spoke had not said the same things : but Pellucido was the only man that could do it ; the only speaker who had attained this art and honor. XII. If any thing seem dark in the discourse of your companion, so that you have not a clear idea of what is spoken, endeavor to obtain a clearer conception of it by a decent manner of inquiry. Do not charge the speaker with obscurity, either in his sense or his Avoids, 81 OF CONVERSATION. but entreat his favor to relieve your own want of penetration, or to add an enlightening word or two, that you may take up his whole meaning. If difficulties arise in your mind, and constrain your dissent to the things spoken, represent what objection some persons would be ready to make against the senti- ments of the speaker, without telling him you oppose. This manner of address carries something more modest and obliging in it, than to appear to raise objections of your own by way of contradiction to him that spoke. XIII. When you are forced to differ from him who delivers his sense on any point, yet agree as far as you can, and represent how far you agree ; and if there be any room for it, explain the words of the speaker in such a sense to which you can in general assent, and so agree with him, or at least, by a small addition or alter- ation of his sentiments, show your own sense of things. It is the practice and delight of a candid hearer, to make it appear how unwilling he is to differ from him that speaks. Let the speaker know that it is nothing but truth constrains you to oppose him ; and let that dif- ference be always expressed in few, and civil, and chosen words, such as may give the least offense. And be careful always to take Solomon's rule with you, and let your correspondent fairly finish his speech before you reply; "for he that answereth a matter before he heareth it, it is folly and shame unto him." Prov. 18 : 13. A little watchfulness, care, and practice in younger life, will render all these things more easy, familiar, and natural to you, and will grow into habit. XIV. As you should carry about with you a constant and sincere sense of your own ignorance, so you should not be afraid nor ashamed to confess this ignorance, by taking all proper opportunities to ask and inquire for OF CONVERSATION. »0 farther information; whether it be the meaning of a word, the nature of a thing, the reason of a proposition, the custom of a nation, etc., never remaining in ignor- ance for want of asking. Many a person had arrived at some considerable degree of knowledge, if he had not been full of self-con- tent, and imagined that he had known enough already, or else was ashamed to let others know that he was unacquainted with it. God and man are ready to teach the meek, the humble, and the ignorant; but he that fancies himself to know any particular subject well, or that will not venture to ask a question about it, such a one will not put himself into the way of improvement by inquiry and diligence. A fool may be ' ' wiser in his own conceit than ten men who can render a reason;" and such a one is very likely to be an everlasting fool ; and perhaps also it is a silly shame renders his folly incurable. Stultorum incurata pudor nialus ulcera celat. —Hor. Epist. 16. Lib. 1. In English thus : If fools have ulcers, and their pride conceal them, They must have ulcers still, for none can heal them. XV. Be not too forward, especially in the younger part of life, to determine any question in company with an infallible and peremptory sentence, nor speak with assuming airs, and with a decisive tone of voice. A young man, in the presence of his elders, should rather hear and attend, and weigh the arguments which are brought for the proof or refutation of any doubtful proposition ; and when it is your turn to speak, propose your thoughts rather in the way of inquiry. By this means your mind will be kept in a fitter temper to receive truth, and you will be more ready to correct and improve your own sentiments, where you have not been 8$ or conversation: too positive in affirming them. But if you have magis- terially decided the point, you will find a secret unwil- lingness to retract, though you should feel an inward conviction that you were in the wrong. XVI. It is granted, indeed, that a season may happen, when some bold pretender to science may assume haughty and positive airs, to assort and vindicate a gross and dangerous error, or to renounce and vilify some very important truth : and if he has a popular talent of talking, and there be no remonstrance made against him, the company may be tempted too easily to give their assent to the imprudence and infallibility of the presumer. They may imagine a proposition so much vilified can never be hue, and that a doctrine which is so boldly censured and renounced can never be defended. Weak minds are too ready to persuade themselves, that a man would never talk with so much assurance unless he were certainly in the right, and could well maintain and prove what he said. By this means truth itself is in danger of being betrayed or lost, if there be no oppo sition made to such a pretending talker. Now in such a case, even a wise and a modest man may assume airs too, and repel insolence witli its own weapons. There is a time, as Solomon, the wisest of men, teaches us, " when a fool should be answered according to his folly, lost he be wise in his own con- ceit," and lest others too easily yield up their faith and reason to his imperious dictates. Courage and posi- tivil y are never more necessary than on such an occasion. But it is good to join some argument with them of real and convincing force, and let it be strongly pronounced too. "When such a resistance is made, you shall find some of those bold talkers will draw in their horns, when their fierce and feeble pushes against truth and reason are OF CONVERSATION. 87 repelled with pushing and confidence. It is pily indeed that truth should ever need such sort of defenses ; but we know that a triumphant assurance hath sometimes supported gross falsehoods, and a whole company have been captivated to error by this means, till some man with equal assurance has rescued them. It is pity that any momentous point of doctrine should happen to fall under such reproaches, and require such a mode of vin- dication : though if I happen to hear it, I ought not to turn my back and to sneak off in silence, and leave the truth to lie baffled, bleeding, and slain. . Yet I must confess, I should be glad to have no occasion ever given me to fight with any man at this sort of weapons, even though I should be so happy as to silence his insolence and to obtain an evident victory. XVII. Benotfondof disputing every thing pro and con, nor indulge yourself to show your talent of attacking and defending. A logic which teaches nothing else is little worth. This temper and practice will lead you just so far out of the way of knowledge, and divert your honest inquiry after the truth which is debated or sought. In set disputes, every little straw is often laid hold on to support our own cause ; every thing that can. be drawn in any w r ay to give color to our argument is advanced, and that perhaps with vanity and ostentation. This puts the mind out of a proper posture to seek and receive the truth. XVIII. Do not bring a warm party spirit into a free conversation which is designed for mutual im- provement in the search of truth. Take heed of allow- ing yourself in those self-satisfied assurances which keep the doors of the understanding barred fast against the admission of any new sentiments. Let your soul be ever ready to hearken to farther discoveries, from a con- stant and ruling consciousness of our present fallible and 88 OF CONVERSATION. imperfect state; and make it appear to your friends, that it is no hard task to you to learn and pronounce those little words, "I was mistaken," how hard soever it be for the bulk of mankind to pronounce them. XIX. As you may sometimes raise inquiries for your own instruction and improvement, and draw out the learning, wisdom, and fine sentiments of your friends, who perhaps may be too reserved or modest; so, at other times, if you perceive a person unskillful in the matter of debate, you may, by questions aptly pro- posed in the Socratic method, lead him into a clearer knowledge of the subject: then you become his in- structor, in such a manner as may not appear to make yourself his superior. XX. Take heed of affecting always to shine in company above the rest, and to display the riches of your own understanding or your oratory, as though you would render yourself admirable to all that are present. This is seldom well taken in polite company ; much less should you see such forms of speech as should insinuate the ignorance or dullness of those with whom you con- verse. XXI. Though you should not affect to flourish in a copious harangue and a diffusive style in company, yet neither should you rudely interrupt and reproach him that happens to use it : but when he has done speaking, reduce his sentiments into a more contracted form ; not with a show of correcting, but as one who is doubtful whether you hit ui>on his true sense or not. Thus mat- ters may be brought more easily from a wild confusion into a single point, questions may be sooner determined and difficulties more easily removed. XXII. Be not so ready to charge ignorance, prejudice, and mistake upon others, as you are to suspect yourself of it : and in order to show how free you are from preju- OF CONVERSATION. 89 dices, learn to bear contradiction with patience ; let it be easy to you to hear your own opinion strongly op- posed, especially in matters which are doubtful and dis- putable, amongst men of sobriety and virtue. Give a patient hearing to arguments on all sides ; otherwise you give the company occasion to suspect that it is not the evidence of truth has led you into this opinion, but some lazy anticipation of judgment, some beloved presumption, some long and rash possession of a party scheme, in which you desire to rest undisturbed. If your assent has been established upon just and sufficient grounds, why should you be afraid to let the truth be put to the trial of argument? XXIII. Banish utterly out of all conversation, and especially out of all learned and intellectual conference, every thing that tends to provoke passion or raise a fire in the blood. Let no sharp language, no noisy ex- clamations, no sarcasms, no biting jests be heard among you ; no perverse or invidious consequences be drawn from each other's opinions, and imputed to the person : let there be no willful perversion of an other's meaning ; no sudden seizure of a lapsed syllable to play upon it, nor any abused construction of an innocent mistake : suffer not your tongue to* insult a modest opponent that begins to yield ; let there be no crowing and triumph, even where there is evident victory on your side. All these things are enemies to friendship, and the ruin of free conversation. The impartial search of truth requires all calmness and serenity, all temper and candor ; mutual instructions can never be attained in the midst of pas- sion, pride, and clamor, unless we suppose, in the midst of such a scene, there is a loud and penetrating lecture read by both sides, on the folly and shameful infirmities of human nature. XXIV. Whensoever, therefore, any unhappy word 00 OF CONVERSATION. shall arise in company, that might give yon a reasonable disgust, quash the rising resentment, bo il ever so just, and command your soul and your tongue into silence, lest you cancel the hopes of all improvement for that hour, and transform the learned conversation into the mean and vulgar form of reproaches and railing. The man who began to break the peace in such a society, will fall under the shame and conviction of such a silent reproof, if he has any thing ingenuous about him. If this should not be sufficient, let a grave admonition, or a soft and gentle turn of wit, with an air of pleasantly, give the warm disputer an occasion to stop the progress of his in- decent fire ; if not, to retract the indecency and quench the flame. XXY. Inure yourself to a candid and obliging man- ner in your conversation, and acquire the art of pleasing address, even when you teach, as well as when you learn : and when you oppose, as well as when you assert or prove. This degree of politeness is not to be attained without a diligent attention to such kind of directions as are here laid down, and a frequent exercise and practice of them. XXVI. If you would know what sort of companions you should select for the cultivation and advantage of the mind, the general rule is, choose such as, by their brightness of parts, and their diligence in study, or by their superior advancement in learning, or peculiar ex- cellence in any art, science, or accomplishment, divine or human, may be capable of administering to your improvement; and be sure to maintain and keep some due regard to their moral character always, lest while you wander in quest of intellectual gain you fall into the contagion of irreligion and vice. No wise man can ven- ture into a house infected with the plague, in order to see the finest collections of any virtuoso in Europe. OF CONVERSATION. <)l XXV: I. Xoris it every sober person of your acquaint- ance, ao, nor every man of bright parts, or rich in learning, that is lit to engage in free conversation for the inquiry after truth. Let a person have ever so illusl rious talents, yet he is not a proper associate for such a pur- pose, if he lie under any of the following infirmities : 1. If he be exceedingly reserved, and hath either no in- clination to discourse, or no tolerable capacity of speech and language for the communication of his sentiments. 2. If he be haughty and proud of his knowledge, im- perious in his airs, and always fond of imposing his sentiments on all the company. 3. If he be positive and dogmatical in his own opinions, and will dispute to the end ; if he will resist the brightest evidence of truth, rather than suffer himself to be over- come, or yield to the plainest and strongest reasonings. 4. If he be one who always affects to outshine all the com- pany, and delights to hear himself talk and flourish upon a subject, and make long harangues, while the rest must all be silent and attentive. 5. If he be a person of whiffling and unsteady turn of mind, who can not keep close to a point of controversy, but wanders from it perpetually, and is always solicitous to say something, whether it be pertinent to the question or not. G. If he be fretful and peevish, and given to resentment upon all occasions : if he knows not how to bear contra- diction, or is ready to take things in a wrong sense ; if he is swift to feel a supposed offense, or to imagine him- self affronted, and then break out into a sudden passion, or retain silent and sullen wrath. 7. If he affects wit on cdl occasions, and is full of his con- ceits and puns, quirks or quibbles, jests and repartees ; these may agreeably entertain and animate an hour of mirth, but they have no place in the search after truth. 92 OF CONVERSATICfN. 8. If he carry always about him a sort of craft, and cun- ning, and disguise, and act rather like a spy than, a friend. Have a care of such a one as will make an ill use of free- dom in conversation, and immediately charge heresy upon you, when you happen to differ from those senti- ments which authority or custom has established. In short, you should avoid the man, in such select con- versation, who practices any thing that is unbecoming the character of a sincere, free, and open searcher after truth. Now, though you may pay all the relative duties of life to persons of these unhappy qualifications, and treat them with decency and love, so far as religion and humanity oblige you, yet take care of entering into a free debate on matters of truth or falsehood in their company, and especially about the principles of religion. I .con- fess, if a person of such a temper happens to judge and talk well on such a subject, you may hear him with at- tention, and derive what proft you can from his dis- course ; but he is by no means to be chosen for a free conference in matters of learning and knowledge. XXVIII. While I would persuade you to beware of such persons and abstain from too much freedom of dis- course amongst them, it is very natural to infer that you should watch against the -working of these evil qual- ities in your own breast, if you happen to be tainted with any of them yourself. Men of learning and in- genuity will justly avoid your acquaintance, when they find such an unhappy and unsocial temper prevailing in you. XXIX. To conclude, when you retire from com- pany, then converse with yourself in solitude, and inquire what you have learned for the improvement of your understanding, or for the rectifying your inclina- tions, for the increase of your virtues, or the ameliorat- OF CONVERSATION. 93 ing your conduct and behavior in any future parts of Life. If you have seen some of your company candid, modest, humble in their manner, wise and sagacious, just and pious in their sentiments, polite and graceful, as well as clear and strong in their expression, and univer- sally acceptable and lovely in their behavior, endeavor to impress the idea of all these upon your memory, and treasure them up for your imitation. XXX. If the laws of reason, decency, and civility, have not been well observed amongst your associates, take notice of those defects for your own improvement: and from every occurrence of this kind remark something to imitate or to avoid, in elegant, polite, and useful con- versation. Perhaps you will find that some persons present have really displeased the company, by an ex- cessive and too visible an affectation to please, i. e., by giving loose to servile flattery or promiscuous praise; while others were as ready to oppose and contradict every thing that was said. Some have deserved just cen- sure for a morose and affected taciturnity ; and others have been anxious and careful lest their silence should be interpreted a want of sense, and therefore they have ventured to make speeches, though they had nothing to say which was worth hearing. Perhaps you will observe that one was ingenious in his thoughts and bright in his language, but he was so topful of himself that he let it spill on all the company ; that he spoke well, indeed, but that he spoke too long, and did not allow equal liberty or time to his associates. You will remark that another was full charged, to let out his words before his friend had done speaking, or impatient of the least opposition to any thing he said. You will remember that some per- sons have talked at large, and with great confidence, of things which they understood not, and others counted every thing tedious and intolerable that was spoken upon 94 OF DISPUTES IN GENERAL. subjects out of their sphere, and they would fain confine the conference entirely within the limits of their own narrow knowledge and study. The errors of conver- sation are almost infinite. XXXI. By a review of such irregularities as these, you may learn to avoid those follies and pieces of ill conduct which spoil good conversation, or make it less agreeable and less useful ; and by degrees you will ac- quire that delightful and easy manner of address and behavior in all useful correspondences, which may render your company every where desired and be- loved; and at the same time, among the best of your companions, you may make the highest improvement, in your own intellectual acquisitions. CHAPTEE IX. OF DISPUTES IN GENERAL. I. Under the general head of conversation for the improvement of the mind, we may rank the practice of disputing ; that is, when two or more persons appear to maintain different sentiments, and defend their own or oppose the other's opinion, in alternate discourse, by some methods of argument. II. As these disputes often arise in good earnest, where the two contenders do really believe the different proposi- tions which they support ; so sometimes they are ap- pointed as mere trials of skill in academies or schools by the students ; sometimes they are practices, and that with apparent fervor, in courts of judicature by lawyers, in order to gain the fees of their different clients, while both sides perhaps are really of the same sentiment with regard to the cause which is tried. OF DISPUTES IN GENERAL. 1)5 IIT. In common conversation disputes are often managed without any forms of regularity or order, and they turn to good or evil purposes, chiefly according to the temper of disputants. They may sometimes be successful to search out truth, sometimes effectual to maintain truth and convince the mistaken; but at other times a dispute is a mere scene of battle in order to vic- tory and vain triumph. IV. There are some few general rules which should be observed in all debates whatsoever, if we would find out truth by them, or convince a friend of his error, even though they be not managed according to any settled forms of disputation ; and as there are almost as many opinions and judgments of things as there are persons, so when several persons happen to meet and confer to- gether upon any subject, they are ready to declare their different sentiments, and support them by such reason- ings as they are capable of. This is called debating or disputing, as is above described. Y. When persons begin a debate they should al- ways take care that they are agreed in some general principles or propositions, which either more nearly or remotely affect the question in hand; for otherwise they have no foundation or hope of convincing each other; they must have some common ground to stand upon, while they maintain the contest. When they find they agree in some remote proposi- tions, then let them search farther, and inquire how near they approach to each other's sentiments, and whatsoever propositions they agree in, let these lay a foundation for the mutual hope of conviction. Hereby you will be prevented from running at every turn to some original and remote propositions and axioms, which practice both entangles and prolongs dispute. As for instance, if there was a debate proposed betwixt a Prot- 9G OF DISPUTES IN GENERAL. estant and a Papist, whether there be such a place as Purgatory? Let them remember that they both agree in this point, that Christ has made satisfaction or atone- ment for sin, and upon this ground let them stand, while they search out the controverted doctrine of Purgatory by way of conference or debate. VI. The question should be cleared from all doubt- ful terms and needless additions; and all things that be- long to the question should be expressed in plain and in- telligible language. This is so necessary a thing, that without it men will be exposed to such sort of ridiculous contests as were found one day between the two unlearned combatants Sartor and Sutor, who assaulted and de- fended the doctrine of transubstantiation with much zeal and violence; but Latino happening to come into their company and inquiring the subject of their dispute, asked each of them what he meant by that long hard word transubstantiation. Sutor readily informed him that he understood — bowing at the name Jesus : but Sartor as- sured him that he meant nothing but bowing at the high altar. "No wonder, then," said Latino, "that you can not agree when you neither understand one another, nor the word about which you contend." I think the whole family of the Sartors and Sutors would be wiser if they avoided such kind of debates till they understood the terms better. But alas! even their wives carry on such conferences: the other day one was heard in the street explain- ing to her less learned neighbor the meaning of metaphysical science; and she assured her, that as physics were medicines for the body, so metaphysics were physics for the soul; upon this they went on to dispute the point— how far the divine ex- celled the doctor. Auditum admissi risnm teneatis, amici? Ridentem dicere vcrum quid vetat? Can it be faulty to repeat A dialogue that walk'd the street? Or can my gravest friends forbear A laugh, when such disputes they hear ? OF DISPUTES IN GENERAL. 97 Vri. And not only the sense and meaning of the words used in the question should be settled and adjusted be- tween the disputants, but the precise point of inquiry should be distinctly fixed; the question in debate should be limited precisely to its special extent, or de- clared to be taken in its more general sense. This sort of specification or limitation of the question hinders and prevents the disputants from wandering away from the precise point of inquiry. It is this trifling humor or dishonest artifice of changing the question and wandering away from the first point of debate, which gives endless length to dis- putes and causes both disputants to part without any satisfaction. And one chief occasion of it is this: when one of the combatants feels his cause run low and fail, and is just ready to be confuted and demolished, he is tempted to step aside to avoid the blow, and betakes him to a different question : thus, if his adversary be not well aware of him, he begins to entrench himself in a new fastness, and holds out the siege with a new artillery of thoughts and words. It is the pride of man which is the spring of this evil, and an unwillingness to yield up their own opinions even to be overcome by truth itself. VIII. Keep this always, therefore, upon your mind as an everlasting rule of conduct in your debates to find out truth, that a resolute design, or even a warm affec- tation of victory, is the bane of all real improvement, and an effectual bar against the admission of the truth which you profess to seek. This works with a secret, but a powerful and mischievous influence in every dispute, unless we are much upon our guard. It appears in frequent conversation ; every age, every sex, and each party of mankind, are so fond of being in the right, that fchey know not how to renounce this unhappy prejudice, this vain love of victory. 98 OF DISPUTES IN GENERAL. When truth with bright evidence is ready to break in upon a disputant, and to overcome his objections and mistakes, how swift and ready is the mind to engage wit and fancy, craft and subtlety, to cloud and perplex and puzzle the truth, if possible ! How eager is he to throw in some impertinent question to divert from the main subject! How swift to take hold of some occa- sional word, thereby to lead the discourse off from the point in hand ! So much afraid is human nature of part- ing Avith its errors and being overcome by truth. Just thus a hunted hare calls up all the shifts that nature hath taught her : she treads back her mazes, crosses and con- founds her former track, and uses all possible methods to di- vert the scent, when she is in danger of being seized and taken. Let puss practice what nature teaches ; but would one imagine that any rational being should take such pains to avoid truth and to escape the improvement of its understanding? IX. When you come to a dispute in order to find out truth, do not presume that you are certainly possessed of it beforehand. Enter the debate with a sincere design of yielding to reason, on which side soever it appears. Use no subtle arts to cloud and entangle the question; hide not yourself in doubtful words and phrases; do not affect little shifts and subterfuges to avoid the force of an argument; take a generous pleasure to espy the first rising beams of truth, though it be on the side of your opponent; endeavor to remove t lie little obscurities that hang about it, and suffer and encourage it to break out into open and convincing light ; that while your opponent perhaps may gain the better of your reasonings, yet you yourself may triumph over error ; and I am sure that is a much more valuable acqui- sition and victory. X. Watch narrowly in every dispute, that your opponent does not lead you unwarily to grant some principle of the proposition, which will bring with it OF DISPUTES IN GENERAL. 99 a fatal consequence, and lead you insensibly into his sentiment, though it be far astray from the truth; and by this wrong step you will be, as it were, plunged into dangerous errors before you arc aware. Remember this short and plain caution of the subtle errors of men. Let a snake but once thrust in his head at some small unguarded fold of your garment, and lie will insensibly and unavoidably wind his whole body into your bosom, and give you a pernicious wound. XL On the other hand, when you have found your opponent make any such concession as may turn to your real advantage in maintaining the truth, be wise and watchful to observe it, and make a happy improve- ment of it. XII. When you are engaged in a dispute with a per- son of very different principles from yourself, and you can not find any ready way to prevail with him to embrace the truth by principles which you both freely acknowledge, you may fairly make use of his own principles to show him his mistake, and thus convince or silence him from his own concessions. If your opponent should be a Stoic philosopher or a Jew, you may pursue your argument in defense of some Christian doctrine or duty against such a disputant, by axioms or laws borrowed either from Zeno or Moses. And though you do not enter into the inquiiy how many of the laws of Moses are ab- rogated, or whether Zeno was right or wrong in his philosophy, yet if from the principles and concessions of your opponent, you can support your argument for the Gospel of Christ, this has been always counted a fair treatment of an adversary, and it is called argumentum ad hominem, or ratio ex concesHis. St. Paul sometimes makes use of this sort of disputation, when he talks with Jews or heathen philosophers; and at last he silences if not convinces them : which is sometimes necessary to be done against an obstinate and clamorous adversary, that just honor might be paidto truths which heknewwere divine, and that the onlytrue doctrine of salvation might be confirmed and propagated among sinful and dying men. XIII. Yet great care must be taken, lest your 100 OF DISPUTES IN GENERAL. debates break in upon your passions, and awaken them to take part in the controversy. When the oppo- nent pushes hard, and gives just and mortal wounds to our own opinions, our passions are very apt to feel the strokes, and to rise in resentment and defense. Self is so mingled with the sentiments which we have chosen, and has such a tender feeling of all the opposition which is made to them, that personal brawls are very ready to come in as seconds, to succeed and finish the dispute of opinions. Then noise, and clamor, and folly, appear in all their shapes, and chase reason and truth out of sight. How unhappy is the case of frail and wretched man- kind in this dark or dusky state of strong passion and glimmering reason ! How ready are we, when our pas- sions are engaged in the dispute, to consider more what loads of nonsense and reproach we can lay upon our opponent, than what reason and truth require in the controversy itself ! Dismal are the consequences man- kind are too often involved in by this evil principle ; it is this common and dangerous practice that carries the heart aside from all that is fair and honest in our search after truth, or the propagation of it in the world. Happy souls, who keep such a sacred dominion over 11 R'ir inferior and animal powers, and all the influences of pride and secular interest, that the sensitive tumults, or these vicious influences, never rise to disturb the superior and better operations of the reasoning mind ! XIY. These general directions are necessary, or at least useful, in all debates whatsoever, whether they arise in occasional conversation, or are appointed at any certain time or place : whether they are managed with or without any formal rules to govern them. CHAPTER X. OF STUDY OR MEDITATION. T. It has been proved and established in some of the foregoing chapters, that neither our own observa- tions, nor our reading the labors of the learned, nor the attendance on the best lectures of instruction, nor enjoying the brightest conversation, can ever make a man truly knowing and wise, without the labors of his own reason in surveying, examining, and judging con- cerning all subjects upon the best evidence he can ac- quire. A good genius, or sagacity of thought, a happy judgment, a capacious memory, and large opportunities of observation and converse, will do much of themselves towards the cultivation of the mind, where they are well improved; but where, to the advantage of learned lecturers, living instructions, and well chosen books, diligence and study are superadded, this man has all human aids concurring to raise him to a superior degree of wisdom and knowledge. Under the preceding heads of discourse it has been already de- clared how our own meditation and reflection should examine, cultivate, and improve all other methods and advantages of enriching the understanding. What remains in this chapter is to give some farther occasional hints how to employ our own thoughts, what sort of subjects we should meditate on, and in what manner we should regulate our studies, and how we may improve our judgment, so as in the most effectual and com- pendious way to attain such knowledge as may be most useful for every man in his circumstances of life, and particularly for those of the learned professions. IT. The first direction for youth is this— learn be- times to distinguish between words and things. Get clear and plain ideas of the thing? you are set to study. 101 102 OF STUDY OR MEDITATION. Do not content yourselves with mere words and names, lest your labored improvements only amass a heap of unintelligible phrases, and you feed upon husks instead of kernels. This rule is of unknown use in every science. III. Let not your students apply themselves to search out deep, dark, and abstruse matters, far above their reach, or spend their labor in any peculiar subjects, for which they have not the advantages of necessary antecedent learning, or books, or observations. Let them not be too hasty to know things above their present powers, nor plunge their inquiries at once into the depths of knowledge, nor begin to study any science in the middle of it ; this will confound rather than en- lighten the understanding ; such practices may happen to discourage and jade the mind by an attempt above its power; it may balk the understanding, and create an aversion to future diligence, and perhaps by despair may forbid the pursuit of that subject forever afterwards: as a limb overstrained by lifting a weight above its power may never recover its former agility and vigor ; or if it does, the man may be frighted from ever exerting its strength again. IV. Nor yet let any student, on the other hand, fright himself at every turn with insurmountable difficulties, nor imagine that the truth is wrapt up in impenetrable darkness. These are formidable specters which the understanding raises sometimes to flatter its own laziness. Those things which in a remote and con- fused view seem very obscure and perplexed may be ap- proached by gentle and regular steps, a::d may then un- fold and explain themselves at large to the eye. The hardest problems in geometry, and the most intricate schemes or diagrams, may be explicated and understood step by step; every g^at mathematician bears a constant witness to the observation. 01? STUDY OE MEDITATION". 103 V. In learning any new thing, there should be as little as possible first proposed to the mind at once, and that being understood and fully mastered, proceed then to the next adjoining part yet unknown. This is a slow, but sale and sure way to arrive at knowledge. If the mind apply itself at first to easier subjects, and things near akin to what is already known, and then advance to the more remote and knotty parts of knowledge by slow degrees, it would be able in this manner to cope with great difficulties, aud prevail over them with amazing and happy success. Mathon happened to dip into the last two chapters of a new book of geometry and mensuration as soon as he saw it, and was frightened with the complicated diagrams which he found there, about the frustums of cones and pyramids, etc., and some deep demonstrations among conic sections ; he shut the book again in despair and imagined none but a Sir Isaac Newton was ever fit to read it. But his tutor happily persuaded him to begin the first pages about lines and angles; and he found such surprising pleasure in three weeks' time in the victories he daily obtained, that at last he became one of. the chief geometers of his age. YI. Engage not the mind in the intense pursuit of too many things at once ; especially such as have no relation to one another. This will be ready to distract the understanding and hinder it from attaining perfec- tion in any one subject of study. Such a practice gives a slight smattering of several sciences, without any solid and substantial knowledge of them, and without any real and valuable improvement; and though two or three sorts of study may be usefully carried on at once, to entertain the mind with variety, that it may not be overtired with one sort of thoughts, yet a multitude of subjects will too much distract the attention and weaken the application of the mind to any one of them. Where two or three sciences are pursued at the same time, if one of them be dry, abstracted, and unpleasant,- 104 OF STUDY OR MEDITATION. as logic, metaphysics, law, languages, let another be more entertaining and agreeable, to secure the mind from weariness and aversion to study. Delight should be in- termingled with labor as far as possible, to allure us to bear the fatigue of dry studies the better. Poetry, practical mathematics, history, etc., are generally es- teemed entertaining studies and may be happily used for this purpose. Thus while we relieve a dull and heavy hour by some alluring employments of the mind, our very diversions enrich our understandings, and our pleasure is turned to profit. VII. In the pursuit of every valuable subject of knowl- edge, keep the end always in your eye, and be not di- verted from it by every petty trifle you meet witli in llie way. Some persons have such a wandering genius that they are ready to pursue every incidental theme or occa- sional idea, till they have lost sight of the original sub- ject. These are the men who, when they are engaged in conversation, prolong their story by dwelling on every incident, and swell their narrative with long parentheses, till they have lost their first designs ; like a man who is sent in quest of some great treasure, but he steps aside to gather every flower he finds, or stands still to dig up every shining pebble he meets with in his way, till the treasure is forgotten and never found. VIII. Exert your care, skill, and diligence, about every subject and every question, in a just propor- tion to the importance of it, together with the danger and bad consequences of ignorance or error therein. Many excellent advantages flow from this one direction. 1. This rule will teach you to be very careful in gaining some general and fundamental truth in philosophy, and religion, and in human life; because they are of the highest moment, and conduct our thoughts with case into a thousand inferior and particular propositions. OF STUDY OR MEDITATION. 105 2. This rule will direct us to bo more careful about practical points than mere speculations, since they are commonly of much greater use and consequence. 3. In matters of practice we should be mod careful to fix our end right, and wisely to determine the scope at which we aim, because that is to direct ns in the choice and use of all the means to attain it. If our end be wrong, all our labor in the means will be vain, or perhaps so much the more pernicious as they are better suited to at- tain that mistaken end. If mere sensible pleasure, or human grandeur, or wealth, be our chief end, we shall choose means contrary to piety and virtue, and proceed apace towards real misery. 4. This rule will engage our best powers and deejiest at- tention in the affairs of religion, and things that relate to a future world : for those propositions which extend only to the interest of the present life, are but of small im- portance when compared with those that have influence upon our everlasting concernments. 5. And even in the affairs of religion, if we walk by the conduct of this rule, we shall be much more laborious in our inquiries into the necessary and fundamental articles of faith and practice, than the lesser appendices of Christianity. The great doctrines of repentance towards God, faith in our Lord Jesus Christ, with love to men, and universal holiness, will employ our best and brightest hours and meditations, while the mint, anise, and cum- min, the gestures, and vestures, and fringes of religion, will be regarded no farther than thoy have a plain and evident connection with faith and love, with holiness and peace. (>. This rule will make us solicitous not only to avoid such errors, whose influence would spread wide into the whole scheme, of our own knowledge and practice, but such mistakes also whose influence would be yet more ex- 100 OF STUDY OK MEDITATION. tensive and injurious io others as well as to ourselves : per- haps to many persons or many families, to a whole church, a town, a country, or a kingdom. Upon this account, persons who are called to instruct others, who are raised to any eminence either in Church or State, ought to be careful in settling their principles in matters relating to the civil, the moral, or the religions life, lest a mistake of theirs should diffuse wide mischief, should draw along with it most pernicious consequences, and perhaps ex- tend to following generations. These are some of the advantages which arise from the eighth rule, viz. : Pursue every inquiry and study in pro- portion to its real value and importance. IX. Have care lest some beloved notion, or some darling science, so far prevail over your mind as to give a sovereign tincture to all your other studies and discolor all your ideas, likeaperson in the jaundice, who spreads a yellow scene with his eyes over all the objects which he meets. I have known a man of peculiar skill in music, and much devoted to that science, who f< >und out a great resemblance of the Athanasian doctrine of the Trinity in every single note, and he thought it carried something of argument in it to prove that doctrine. I have read of another who accommodated the seven days of the first week of creation to seven notes of music, and thus the wdiole creation became harmonious. Under this influence, derived from mathematical studies, some have been tempted to cast all their logical, their metaphysical, and their theological and mora] learning into the method of mathematicians, and bring everything relating to those abstracted, or those prac- tical sciences, under theorems, problems, postulates, scholiums, corollaries, etc., whereas, the matter ought always to direct the method ; for all subjects or matters of thought can not be moulded or subdued to one form. OF STUDY OR MEDITATION. 107 Neither the rules for the conduct of the understanding, nor the doctrines nor duties of religion and virtue, can be exhibited naturally in figures and diagrams. Things are to be considered as they are in themselves; their na- tures are inflexible, and their natural relations unalter- able ; and therefore, in order to conceive them aright, we must bring our understanding to things, and not pretend to bend and strain things to comport with our fancies and forms. X. Suffer not any beloved study to prejudice your mind so far in favor of it as to despise all other learn- ing. This is a fault of some little souls, who have got a smattering of astronomy, chemistry, metaphysics, his- tory, etc., and for want of a due acquaintance with other sciences, make a scoff at them all in comparison of their favorite science. Their understandings are hereby cooped up in narrow bounds, so that they never look abroad into other provinces of the intellectual world, which are more beautiful, perhaps, and more fruitful than their own : if they would search a little into other sciences, they might not only find treasures of new knowledge, but might be furnished also with rich hints of thought and glorious assistances to cultivate that very province to which they have confined themselves. XI. Let every particular study have due and proper time assigned it, and let not a favorite science prevail with you to lay out such hours upon it, as ought to be employed upon the more necessary and more impor- tant affairs or studies of your profession. "When you have, according to the best of your discretion, and according to the circumstances of your life, fixed proper hours for particular studies, endeavor to keep to those rules ; not indeed, with a superstitious preciseness, but with some good degrees of a regular constancy. Order and method in a course of study saves much time and makes large 10S OF STUDY OR MEDITATION. improvements. Such a fixation of certain hours will have a happy influence to secure you from trilling and wasting away your minutes in impertinence. XIT. Do not apply yourself to any one study at one time longer than the mind is capable of giving a close attention to it without weariness or wandering. Do not overfatigue the spirits at any time, lest the mind be seized with a lassitude, and thereby be tempted to nauseate and grow tired of a particular subject before you have finished it. XIII. In the beginning of your application to any new subject be not too uneasy under present difficulties that occur, nor too importunate ami impatient for answers and solutions to any questions that arise. Perhaps a little more study, a little further acquaintance with the subject, a little time and experience will solve those difficulties, untie the knot, and make your doubts vanish : especially if you are under the instruction of a tutor, he can inform you that your inquiries are perhaps too early, and that you have not yet learned those prin- ciples upon which the solution of such a difficulty depends. XIV. Do not expect to arrive at certainty in every subject which you pursue. There are a hundred things wherein we mortals in this dark and imperfect state must be content with probability, where our best light and reasonings will reach no farther. We must balance argu- ments as justly as we can, and where we can not find weight enough on either side to determine the scale with sovereign force and assurance, we must content ourselves, perhaps, with a small preponderation. This will give us a probable opinion, and those probabilities are sufficient for the daily determination of a thousand actions in human life, and many times even in matters of religion. It is admirably well expressed by a late writer — OF STUDY Oli MEDITATION. 109 "When there is a great strength of argument set before us, it' we will refuse to do what appears most lit for us, till every little objection is removed, we shall never take one wise resolution as long as we live.' 7 Suppose I had been honestly and long searching what religion I should choose, and yet I could not find that the argument in defense of Christianity arose to complete certainty, but went only so far as to give me a probable evidence of the truth of it : though many difficulties still remain, yet I should think myself obliged to receive and practice that religion j for the God of nature and reason has bound us to assent and act according to the best evi- dence we have, even though it be not absolute and com- plete, and as He is our Supreme Judge, His abounding goodness and equity will approve and acquit the man whose conscience honestly and willingly seeks the best light and obeys it as far as he can discover it. But in matters of great importance in religion, let him join all due diligence with earnest and humble prayers for divine aid in his inquiries ; such prayer and such diligence as eternal concerns require, and such as he may plead with courage before the Judge of all. XV. Endeavor to apply every speculative study as far as possible, to some practical use, that both your- self and others may be the better for it. Inquiries even in natural philosophy should not be mere amusement, and much less in the affairs of religion. Eesearches into the springs of natural bodies and their motions should lead men to invent happy methods for the ease and con- venience of human life ; or at least they should be im- proved to awaken us to admire the wondrous wisdom and contrivances of God our creator in all the works of Nature. CIIAPTEB XI. OF FIXING THE ATTENTION. I. A student should labor, by all proper methods, to acquire a steady fixation of thought. Attention is a very necessary thing in order to improve our minds. The evidence of truth does not always appear immedi- ately, nor strike the soul at first sight. It is by long attention and inspection that we arrive at evidence, and it is for want of it we judge falsely of many things. We make haste to determine upon a slight and a sudden view, Ave confirm our guesses which arise from a glance, we pass a judgment while we have but a confused or obscure perception, and thus plunge ourselves into mis- takes. This is like a man who, walking in a mist, or being at a great distance from any visible object (sup- pose a tree, a man, a horse, or a church, ) judges much amiss of the figure, and situation, and colors of it, and sometimes takes one for the other ; whereas, if he would but withhold his judgment till he came nearer to it, or stay till clearer light comes, and then would fix his eyes longer upon it, he would secure himself from those mistakes. II. Now, in order to gain a greater facility of atten- tion, we may observe these rules: 1. Get a good liking to the study of knowledge you icould •pursue. We may observe, that there is not much diffi- culty in confining the mind to contemplate what we have a great desire to know ; and especially if they are matters of sense, or ideas which paint themselves upon the fancy. It is but acquiring a hearty good will and reso- lution bo search out and survey the various properties OF FIXING THE ATTENTION. Ill and parts of such objects, and our attention will b(5 engaged, if there be any delight or diversion in the s1 udy or contemplation of them. Therein re, mathematical studies have a strange influence towards fixing the atten- tion of the mind and giving a steadiness to a wandering disposition, because they deal much in lines, figures, and numbers, which affect and please the sense and imagina- tion. Histories have a strong tendency the same way, for they engage the soul by a variety of sensible occur- rences ; when it hath begun, it knows not how to leave off; it longs to know the final event, through a natural curiosity that belongs to mankind. Voyages and travels, and accounts of strange countries and strange appear- ances, will assist in this work. This sort of study detains the mind by the perpetual occurrence and expec- tation of something new, and that which may gratefully strike the imagination. 2. Sometimes we may make use of sensible things and corporeal images for the illustration of those notions, which are mere abstracted and intellectual. Therefore, diagrams greatly assist the mind in astronomy and philosophy ; and the emblems of virtues and vices may happily teach children, and pleasingly impress those useful moral ideas on young minds, which perhaps might be conveyed to them with much more difficulty by mere moral and abstracted discourses. I confess, in this practice of representing moral subjects by pictures, we should be cautious lest we so far immerse the mind in corporeal images, as to render it unfit to take in an abstracted and intellectual idea, or cause it to form wrong con- ceptions of immaterial things. This practice, therefore, is rather to be used at first, in order to get a fixed habit of atten- tion, and in some cases only ; but it can never be our constant way and method of pursuing all moral, abstracted, and spiritual themes. 3. Apply yourself to those studies, and read those authors who draw out their subjects into a perpetual chain of 1V2 OF FIXING THE ATTENTION. connected reasonings, wherein the following parts of the discourse are naturally and easily derived from those which go before. Several of the mathematical sciences, if not all, are happily useful for this purpose. This will render the labor of study delightful to a rational mind, and will fix the powers of the understanding with strong attention to their proper operations by the very pleasure of it. Labor ipse voluptas is a happy proposition where- soever it can be applied. 4. Do not choose your constant place of study by the finery of the prospects, or the most various and entertaining scenes of sensible things. Too much light, or a variety of objects which strike the eye or the ear, especially while they are ever in motion or often changing, have a natural and powerful tendency to steal away the mind too often from its steady pursuit of any subject which we contemplate; and thereby the soul gets a habit of silly curiosity and impertinence, of trilling and wan- dering. Vagario thought himself furnished with the best closet for his studies among the beauties, gaieties, and diversions of Ken- sington or Hampton Court ; but after seven years professing to pursue learning, he was a mere novice still. 5. Be not in too much haste to come to the determination of a difficult or important point Think it worth your waiting to find out truth. Do not give your assent up to either side of a question too soon, merely on this account, that the study of it is long and difficult. Bather be con- tented with ignorance for a season, and continue in sus- pense till your attention, and meditation, and due labor, have found out sufficient evidence on one side. Some are so fond to know a great deal at once, and love to talk of things with freedom and boldness before they truly understand them, that they scarcely ever allow them- selves attention enough to search the matter through and through. OF FIXING THE ATTENTION. 113 G. Have a care of indulging the more sensual passions and appetites of animal nature; they are great enemies to attention. Let not the mind of a student be under the influence of any warm affection to things of sense, when he conies to engage in the search of truth or the im- provement of his understanding. A person under the power of love, or fear, or anger, great pain, or deep sorrow, hath so little government of his soul, that he can not keep it attentive to the proper subject of his meditation. The passions call away the thoughts with incessant importunity towards the object that excited them ; and if we indulge the frequent rise and roving of passions, we shall thereby procure an unsteady and unattentive habit of mind. Yet this one exception must be admitted, viz. : If we can be so happy as to engage any passion of the soul on the side of the particular study which we are pursuing, it may have great influence to fix the attention more strongly to it. 7. It is, therefore, very useful to fix and engage the mind in the pursuit of any study by a consideration of the divine pleasures of truth and knowledge — by a sense of our duty to God — by a delight in the exercise of our intel- lectual faculties — by the hope of future service to our fellow creatures, and glorious advantage to ourselves both in this world and that which is to come. These thoughts, though they may move our affections, yet they do it with a proper influence : these will rather assist and promote our attention, than disturb or divert it from the subject of our present and proper meditations. A soul inspired with the fondest love of truth and the warmest aspirations after sincere felicity and celestial beatitude, will keep all its powers attentive to the incessant pursuit of them : passion is then refined and consecrated to its divinest purposes. CHAPTER XII. OF ENLARGING THE CAPACITY OF THE MIND. There are three things which in an especial manner go to make up that amplitude or capacity of mind which is one of the noblest characters belonging to the understanding. 1. When the mind is ready to take in great and sublime ideas without pain or difficulty, 2. When the mind is free to receive new and strange ideas, upon just evidence, without great surprise or aversion. 3. When the mind is able to conceive or survey many ideas at once without confusion, and to form a true judgment de- rived from that extensive survey. The person who wants either of these characters may, in that respect, be said to have a narrow genius. Let us diffuse our meditations a little upon this subject. I. That is an ample and capacious mind which is ready to take in vast and sublime ideas without pain or difficulty. Persons who have never been used to converse with any thing but the common, little, and obvious affairs of life, have acquired such a narrow or contracted habit of soul, that they are not able to stretch their intellects wide enough to admit large and noble thoughts; they are ready to make their domestic, daily, and familiar images of things the measure of all that is, and all that can be. II. I proceed now to consider the next thing wherein the capacity or amplitude of the mind consists, and that is, when the mind is free to receive new and strange ideas and propositions upon just evidence without any great Surprise or aversion. Those who conline them- CAPACITY OF THE MINI). 115 selves within the circle of their own hereditary ideas and opinions, and who never give themselves leave so much as to examine or believe any thing besides the dictates of their own family, or sect, or party, are justly charged with a narrowness of soul. Let us survey some in- stances of this imperfection, and then direct to the cure of it. 1. Persons who have been bred up all their days within the smoke of their father' s chimney, or Avithin the limits of their native town or village, are surprised at every new sight that appears, when they travel a few miles from home. This narrowness of mind should be cured by hearing and reading of accounts of different parts of the world, and the histories of past ages, and of nations and coun- tries distant from our own, especially the more polite parts of mankind. Nothing tends in this respect so much to enlarge the mind as traveling, i. e., making a visit to other towns, cities, or countries, besides those in which we were born and educated; and where our con- dition of life does not grant us this privilege, we must endeavor to supply the want of it by books. 2. It is the same narrowness of mind that awakens the surprise and aversion of some persons, when they hear ®f doctrines and schemes in human affairs, or in religion, quite different from what they have embraced. Perhaps they have been trained up from their infancy in one set of notions, and their thoughts have been confined to one single track both in the civil or religious life, without ever hearing or knowing what other opinions are current among mankind : or at least they have seen all other notions besides their own represented in a false and malignant light; whereupon they judge and condemn at once every sentiment but what their own party re- ceives; and they think it a piece of justice and truth to lay heavy censures upon the practice of every sect in 116 OF ENLARGING THE Christianity or politics. They have so rooted themselves in the opinions of their party, that they can not hear an objection with patience, nor can they bear a vindication, or so much as an apology, for any set of principles beside their own ; all the rest is nonsense or heresy, folly or blasphemy. This defect also is to be relieved by free conversation with, persons of different sentiments : this will teach us to bear with patience a defense of opinions contrary to our own. If Ave are- scholars, we should also read the objections against our own tenets and view the prin- ciples of other parties, as they are represented in their own authors, and not merely in the citations of those who would confute them. We should take an honest and unbiased survey of the force of reasoning on all sides, and bring all to the test of unprejudiced reasoning and divine revelation. Note, this is not to be done in a rash and self-sufficient manner; but with an humble de- pendence on divine wisdom and grace, while we walk among snares and dangers. By such a free converse with persons of different sects (especially those who differ only in particular forms of Christianity, but agree in the great and necessary doc- trines of it) we shall find that there are persons of good sense and virtue, persons of piety and worth, persons of much candor and goodness, who belong to different parties and have imbibed sentiments opposite to each other. This will soften the roughness of an unpolished soul, and enlarge the avenues of our charity towards others, and incline us to receive them into all the de- grees of unity and affection which the word of God re- quires. TIT. The capacity of the understanding includes yet another qualification in it, and that is, an ability to re- ceive many ideas at once without confusion. The CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 117 ample mind take3 a survey of several objects with one glance, keeps them all within sight and present to the soul, that they may be compared together in their mutual respects; it forms just judgments, and it draws proper inferences from this comparison, even to a great length of argument, and a chain of demonstrations. 1. The narrowness that belongs to human souls in general is a great imperfection and impediment to wisdom and happiness. There are but few persons who can con- template or practice several things at once ; our faculties are very limited, and while we are intent upon one part or property of a subject, we have but a slight glimpse of the rest, or we lose it out of sight, But it is a sign of a large and capacious mind, if we can with one single view take in a variety of objects 5 or at least when the mind can apply itself to several objects with so swift a succession, and in so few moments, as attains almost the same ends as if it were done in the same instant. 2. This is a necessary qualification in order to great knowl- edge and good judgment; for there are several things in human life, in religion, and in the sciences, which have various circumstances, appendices, and relations attending them ; and without a survey of all those ideas which stand in connection with and rela- tion to each other, we are often in danger of passing a false judgment on the subject proposed. It is for this reason there are so numerous controversies found among the learned and unlearned world, in matters of religion as well as in the affairs of civil government. 3. It is owing to the narrowness of our minds that we are exposed to the same peril in the matters of human duty and prudence. In many things which we do, we ought not only to consider the mere naked action itself, but the persons who act, the persons towards 118 OF ENLARGING Till: whom, the time when, the place where, the manner how, the end for which the action is done, together with the effects that mast or that may follow, and all other sur- rounding circumstances : those things must necessarily be taken into our view, in order to determine whether the action, which is indifferent in itself, be either lawful or unlawful, good or evil, wise or foolish, decent or indecent, proper or improper, as it is so circumstantiated. Let me give a plain instance for the illustration of this matter. Mario kills a dog, which, considered merely in itself, seems to be an indifferent action : now, the dog was Timon's, and not his own; this makes it look unlawful. But Timon bid him do it ; this gives it an appearance of lawfulness again. It was done at church, and in time of divine service; these circumstances added, cast on it an air of irreligion. But the dog flew at Mario, and put him in danger* of his life; this relieves the seeming impiety of the action. Yet Mario might have escaped by flying thence; therefore the action appears to be improper. But the dog was known to be mad ; this further circumstance makes it almost necessary that the dog should be slain, lest he might worry the assembly and do much mischief. Yet again, Mario killed him with a pistol, which he happened to have in his pocket since yesterday's journey ; now hereby the whole congregation was terrified and discomposed, and divine service was broken off: this carries an appearance of great indecency and impropriety in it : but after all, when we consider a further circumstance, that Mario, being thus violently assaulted by a mad dog, had no way of escape, and no other weapon about him, it seems to take away all the colors of impropriety, indecency, or unlawfulness, and to allow that the preservation of one or many lives will justify the act as wise and good. Now, all these concurrent appendices of the action ought to be surveyed, in order to pronounce with justice and truth concerning it. There are a multitude of human actions in private life, in domestic affairs, in traffic, in civil governments, in courts of justice, in schools of learning, etc., which have so many complicated circumstances, aspects, and situations, with regard to time and place, persons and things, that it is impossible for any one to pass a rigid judgment concerning them, without entering into most of these circumstances, and surveying them extensively, and comparing and balancing them ail right. CAPACITY OF THE MINI). 1 L9 1. Whence by the way I may take occasion to say, how many thousands are there who take upon thorn to pass their censures on the personal and the domestic actions of others, who pronounce boldly on the affairs of the public, and determine the justice or madness, the wisdom or folly of national administrations, of peace and wai, etc., whom neither God nor men ever qualified for such a post of judgment! They were not capable of entering into the numerous concurring springs of action, nor had they ever taken a survey of the twentieth part of the circumstances which were necessary for such judgments or censures. 5. It is the narrowness of our minds, as well as the vices of the will, that oftentimes prevents from taking a full view of all the complicated and concurring appen- dices that belong to human actions : thence it comes to pass that there is so little right judgment, so little justice, prudence, or decency, practiced among the bulk of man- kind ; thence arise infinite reproaches and censures — alike foolish and unrighteous. «You see, therefore, how needful and happy a thing it is to be possessed of some measure of this amplitude of soul, in order to make us very wise, or knowing, or just, or prudent, or happy. 6. I confess this sort of amplitude or capacity of mind is in a great measure the gift of Nature, for some are born with much more capacious souls than others. The genius of some persons is so poor mid limited, that they can hardly take in the connection of two or three propositions, unless it be in matters of sense, and which they have learned by experience : they are utterly unfit for speculative studies; it is hard for them to discern the difference betwixt right and wrong in matters of reason on any abstracted subjects ; these ought never to set up for scholars, but apply themselves to those arts and pro- fessions of life which are to be learned at an easier rate by slow degrees and daily experience. 120 OF ENLARGING THE Others have a soul a little more capacious and they can take, in the connection of a few propositions pretty well; but if the chain of consequences be a little prolix, here they stick and are confounded. If persons of this make ever devote themselves to science, they should bo well assured of a solid and strong constitution of body, and well resolved to bear the fatigue of hard labor and diligence in study : if the iron be bent, King Solomon tells us, we must put more strength. But, in the third place, there are some of so bright and happy a genius and so ample a mind, that they can take in a long train of propositions, if not at once, yet in a very few moments, and judge well concerning the dependence of them. They can survey a variety of complicated ideas without fatigue or disturbance; and a number of truths offering themselves as it were at one view to their understanding, doth not perplex or con- found them. This makes a great man. IV. Now, though there may be much owing to nature in this case, yet experience assures us, that even a lower degree of this capacity and extent of thought may be increased by diligence and application, by frequent exercise, and by the observation of such rules as these: 1. Labor, by all means, to gain an attentive and patient temper of mind, a power of confining and fixing your thoughts so long on any one appointed subject, till you have surveyed it on every side and in every situation, and run through the several powers, parts, properties and relations, effects and consequences of it. He whose thoughts are very fluttering and wandering, and can not be fixed attentively to a few ideas successively, will never be able to survey many and various objects dis- tinctly at once, but will certainly be overwhelmed and confounded with the multiplicity of them. The rules for fixing the attention in the former chapter are proper to be consulted here. CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 12L 2. Accustom yourself to clear and distinct ideas in every thing you. think of. Be not satisfied with obscure and confused conceptions of things, especially where clearer may be obtained ; for one obscure or con- fused idea, especially if it be of great importance in the question, intermingled with many clear ones and placed in its variety of aspects towards them, will bo in danger of spreading confusion over the whole scene of ideas, and thus may have an unhappy influence to overwhelm the understanding with darkness and pervert the judgment. A little black paint will shamefully tincture and spoil twenty gay colors. Consider yet further, that if you content yourself frequently with words instead of ideas, or with cloudy and confused notions of things, how impenetrable will that darkness be, and how vast and endless that confu- sion which must surround and involve the understanding, when many of these obscure and confused ideas come to be set before the soul at once ; and how impossible will it be to form a clear and just judgment about them. 3. Use all diligence to acquire and treasure up a large store of ideas and notions : take every opportunity to add something to your stock: and by frequent recollection fix them in your memory; nothing tends to confirm and enlarge the memory like a frequent review of its possessions. Then the brain being well furnished with various traces, signatures, and images, will have a rich treasure always ready to be proposed or offered, to the soul, when it directs its thoughts towards any par- ticular subject. This will gradually give the mind a faculty of surveying many objects at once, as a room that is richly adorned and hung round with a great variety of pictures strikes the eye almost at once with all that variety, especially if they have been well surveyed one by one at first: this makes it habitual and more easy to 122 OF ENLARGING THE the inhabitants to lake in many of those painted scenes with a single glance or two. Here note, that by acquiring a rick treasure of notions, L do not mean only single ideas, but also propositions, observations, and experiences, with reasonings and arguments npon the various subjects that occur among natural and moral, common or sacred affairs; thai when you are called to judge concerning any question, you will have some principles of truth, some useful axioms and observations, always ready at hand to direct and assist your judgment. 4. It is necessary that we should as far as possible entertain and lay up our daily new ideas in a regular order, and range the acquisitions of our souls under proper heads, whether of divinity, law, physics, mathematics, morality, politics, trade, domestic life, civility, decency, etc. , whether of cause, effect, substance, mode, power, property, body, spirit, etc.. We should inure our minds to methods and order continually; and when we take in any fresh ideas, occur- rences, and observations, we should dispose of them in their proper places, and see how they stand and agree with the rest of our notions on the same subjects: as a scholar would dispose of a new book on a proper shelf among its kindred authors; or as an officer at the post- house in London disposes of every letter he takes in, placing it in the box that belongs to the proper road or county. In any of these cases, if things lie all in a heap, the addition of any new object would increase the confusion. but method gives a speedy and short survey of them with ease and pleasure. Method is of admirable advan- tage to keep our ideas from a confused mixture, and to preserve them ready for every use. The science of on- tology, which distributes all beings, and all t lie affections CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 12.'i of being, whether absolute or relative, under proper ., is of good service to keep our intellectual acqui- sitions in such order us that the mind may survey them at one,'. 5. As method is necessary for the improvement of the mind, in order to make your treasure of ideas most u je- ful, so iii all your further pursuits of truth and acquire- ments of rational knowledge, observe a regular pro- gressive method. Begin with the most simple, easy, and obvious ideas; then by degrees join two, and three, and more of them together : thus the complicated ideas, growing up under your eye and observation, will not give the same confusion of thought as they would do if they were all offered to the mind at once, without your observing the original and formation of them. An eminent example of this appears in the study of arithme- tic. If a scholar, just admitted into the school, observes his master performing an operation in the rule of division, his head is at once disturbed and confounded with the manifold comparisons of the numbers of the divisor and dividend, and the multiplication of the one and subtraction of it from the other; but if he begin regularly at addition, and so proceed by subtraction and multiplication, he will then in a few weeks be able to take in an intelligent survey of all those operations in division, and to practice them himself with ease and pleasure, each of which at first seemed all intricacy and confusion. Beginning with A, B, C, and making syllables out of letters, and words out of syllables, has been the foundation of all that glorious superstructure of art and science which have enriched the minds and libraries of the learned world in several ages. These are the first steps by which the ample and capacious souls among mankind have arrived at that prodigious extent of knowledge, which renders them the wonder and glory of the nation where they live. Though Plato and Cicero, Descartes and Mr. Boyle, Mr. Locke and Sir Isaac Newton, were doubtless favored by nature with a genius of uncommon amplitude; vet, in their early years, and first attempts with science, this "was but limited and narrow, in comparison with what they attained at last. But how vast and capacious were those powers which they afterwards acquired by patient at- tention and watchful observation, by the pursuit of dear ideas, and a regular method of thinking. 124 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. (5. Another means of acquiring this amplitude and capacity of mind, is a perusal of difficult entangled questions and of the solution of them in any science. Speculative and casuistical divinity will furnish us with many such cases and controversies, In moral and political subjects, PuffendorfT's Law of Nature and Nations, and several determinations therein, will promote the same amplitude of mind. An attend- ance on public trials, and arguments in the civil courts of justice, will be of good advantage for this purpose, and after a man has studied the general principles of the law of Nature, and the laws of England, in proper books, the reading the reports of adjudged cases, collected by men of great sagacity and judgment, will richly improve his mind toward acquiring this desirable amplitude and extent of thought, and more especially in persons of that profession. CHAPTER XIII. OF IMPROVING- THE MEMORY. I. Memory is a distinct faculty of the mind of man, very different from perception, judgment, and reasoning, and its other powers. Then we are said to remember any thing, when the idea of it arises in the mind with a consciousness at the same time that we have had this idea before. Our memory is our natural power of retaining what we learn, and of recalling it on every occasion. Therefore we can never be said to remember any tiling, whether it be ideas or propositions, words or things, notions or arguments, of which we have not had some former idea or perception, either by sense or im- agination, thought or reflection; but whatsoever wo learn OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 125 from observation, book:;, or conversation, etc., it must all be laid up and preserved in the memory , ii* wo would make it really useful. II. So necessary and so excellent a faculty is the memory of man, that all other abilities of the mind borrow from hence their beauty and perfection ; for the other capacities of the soul are almost useless with- out this. To what purpose are all our labors in knowl- edge and wisdom, if we want memory to preserve and use what we have acquired? What signify all other intellectual and spiritual improvements, if they are lost as soon as they are obtained ? It is memory alone that enriches the mind, by preserving what our labor and in- dustry daily collect. In a word, there can be neither knowledge, nor arts, nor sciences, without memory; nor can there be any improvement of mankind in virtue or morals, or the practice of religion, without the assistance and influence of this power. Without memory the soul of man would be but a poor, destitute, naked being, with an everlasting blank spread over it, except the fleeting ideas of the present moment. III. Memory is very useful to those who speak as well as to those who learn ; it assists the teacher and the orator, as well as the scholar or the bearer. The best speeches and instructions are almost lost, if those who hear them immediately forget them. And those who are called to speak in public are much better heard and accepted, when they can deliver their discourse by the help of a lively genius and a ready memory, than when they are forced to read all that they would com- municate to their hearers. Beading is certainly a heavier way of conveyance of our sentiments ; and there are few mere readers who have the felicity of penetrating the soul and awakening the passions of those who hear, by such a grace and power of oratory, as the man who seems 126 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. to talk every word from his very heart, and pours out the very riches of his own knowledge upon the people round about him by the help of a free and copious memory. This gives life and spirit to every thing that is spoken, and has a natural tendency to make a deeper impression on the minds of men: it awakens the dullest spirits, causes them to receive a discourse with more affection and pleasure, and adds a singular grace and ex- cellence, both to the person and his oration. IV. A good judgment and a good memory are very different qualifications. A person may have a very strong, capacious, and retentive memory, where the judgment is very poor and weak; as some times it hap- pens in those who are but one degree above an idiot, who have manifested an amazing strength and extent of memory, but have hardly been able to join or disjoin two or three ideas in a wise and happy manner to make a solid rational proposition. There have been instances of others who have had but a very tolerable power of memory, yet their judgment has been of a much superior degree, just and wise, solid and excellent. V. Yet it must be acknowledged, that where a happy memory is found in any person, there is one good foundation laid for a wise and just judgment of things, wheresoever the natural genius has any thing of sagacity and brightness to make a right use of it. A good judg- ment must always in some measure depend upon a survey and comparison of several tilings together in the mind, and determining the truth of some doubtful proposition by that survey and comparison. When the mind has, as it were, set all those various objects present before it, which are necessary to form a true proposition of judg- ment concerning any thing, it then determines that such and such ideas are to bo joined or disjoined, be ailirmed OF [MPKOVING THE MEMORY. 127 or denied; and this is ;i consistency and correspond- ence with all those other ideas and propositions which any May relate or belong to the same subject. Now, there can be no such comprehensive survey of many things without a tolerable degree of memory; it is by reviewing things past Ave learn to judge of the future: and it hap- pens s >me times that if one needful or important object or idea be absent, the judgment concerning the thing in- quired will thereby become false or mistaken. VI. You will inquire then, How comes it to pass that there are some persons who appear in the world of business, as well as the world of learning, to have a good judgment, and have acquired the just character of prudence and wisdom, and yet have neither a very bright genius or sagacity of thought, nor a very happy memory, so that they can not sat before their minds at once a large scene of ideas in order to pass a judgment. Now, we may learn from Penseroso some accounts of thin difficulty. You shall scarcely ever find this man forward in j udging and determining things proposed to him ; but he always takes time, and delays, and suspends, and ponders things maturely, before he passes his judgment: then he practices a slow meditation, ruminates on the subject, and thus perhaps in two or three nights and days rouses and awakens those several ideas, one after another, as he can, which are necessary in order to judge aright of the thing proposed, and makes them pass before his review in succession: this he doth to re- lieve the want both of a quick sagacity of thought and of a ready memory and speedy recollection; and this caution and practice lays the foundation of his just judgment and wise conduct. He surveys well before he judges. Whence I can not but take occasion to infer one good rule of advice to persons of higher as well as lower genius, and of large as well as narrow memories, viz.: That they do not too hastily pronounce concerning matters of doubt or inquiry, where there is not an urgent necessity of present action. The bright genius 128 OF IMPROVING TITE MEMORY. is ready to be so forward as often betrays itself into great errors in judgment, speech, and conduct, without a continual guard upon itself, and using* the bridle of the tongue. And it is by this delay and precaution that many a person of much lower natural abilities shall often excel persons of the brightest genius in wisdom and prudence. VII. It is often found that a fine genius has but a feeble memory; for where the genius is bright and the imagination vivid, the power of memory may be too much neglected and lose its improvement. An active fancy readily wanders over a multitude of objects and is con- tinually entertaining itself with new flying images; it Jims through a number of new scenes or new pages with pleasure, but without due attention, and seldom suffers itself to dwell long enough upon any one of them, to make a deep impression thereof upon the mind and commit it to lasting remembrance. This is one plain and obvious reason why there are some persons of very bright parts and active spirits, who have but short and narrow powers of remembrance : for having riches of their own, they are not solicitous to borrow. VIII. And as such a quick and various fancy and in- vention may be some hindrance to the attention and memory, so a mind of a good retentive ability, and which is ever crowding its memory with things which it learns and reads continually, may prevent, restrain, and cramp the invention itself. The memory of Lectorides is ever ready, upon all occasions-, to offer to his mind some thing out of other men's writings or conversations, and is presenting him with the thoughts of other persons perpetually; thus the man who had naturally a good flowing invention, does not sutler himself to pursue his own thoughts. Some persons who have been blessed by nature with sagacity and no contemptible genius, have too often for- bid the exercise of it, by tying themselves down to the memory of the volumes they have read and the sentiments of other men contained in them. OF [MPROVING THE MEMORY. 129 Where the memory has been almost constanl ly employ- ing itself in scraping together new acquirements, and where there has not been a judgment sufficient to dis- tinguish what things were fit to be recommended and treasured up in the memory, and what things were idle, useless, or needless, the mind has been filled with a wretched heap of hodgepotch of words or ideas; and the soul may be said to have had large possessions, but no true riches. IX. I have read in some of Mr. Milton's writings a very beautiful simile, whereby he represents the books of the Fathers, as they are called in the Christian Church. Whatsoever, saith he, Old Time with his huge drag- net has conveyed down to us along the stream of ages, whether it be shells or shell-fish, jewels or pebbles, sticks or straws, sea- weeds or mud, these are the ancients, these are the fathers. The case is much the same with the memorial possessions of the greater part of mankind. A few useful things, perhaps, mixed and confounded with many trifles, and all manner of rubbish, fill up their memories and compose their intellectual possessions. It is a great happiness therefore to distinguish things aright, and to lay up nothing in the memory but what has some just value in it and is worthy to be numbered as a part of our treasure. X. Whatsoever improvements arise to the mind of man from the wise exercise of his own reasoning powers, these may be called his proper manufactures ; and whatsoever he borrows from abroad, these may be termed his proper treasures: both together make a wealthy and a happy mind. XI. How many excellent judgments and reasonings are framed in the mind of a man of wisdom and study in a length of years ! How many worthy and admirable notions has lie been possessed of in lite, both by his own 130 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. reasonings, and his prudent and laborious collections in the conrse of his reading I But, alas ! how many thou- sands of them vanish aw ay again and are lost in empty air, for want of a stronger and more retentive memory ! When a young- praetioner in the law was once said to contest a point of debate with that great lawyer in the last age, Sergeant Maynard, he is reported to have answered him, "Alas! young man, I have forgot much more law than ever thou hast learnt or read. 7 ' XII. What an unknown and unspeakable happiness would it be to a man of judgment, and who is engaged in the pursuit of knowledge, if he had but a power of stamp- ing all his own best sentiments upon his memory in some indelible characters; and if he could but imprint every valuable paragraph and sentiment of the most excellent authors he has read, upon his mind, with the same speed and facility -with which he read them! If a man of good genius and sagacity could but retain and survey all those numerous, those wise and beautiful ideas at once, which have ever passed through his thoughts upon any one subject, how admirably would he be furnished to pass a just judgment about all present objects and occurrences! What a glorious entertain- ment and pleasure would felicitate his spirit, if he could grasp ail these in a single survey, as the skillful eye of a painter runs over a line and complicate piece of history wrought by the hand of a Titian or a Raphael, views the whole scene at once, and feeds himself with the extensive delight! But these are joys that do not belong to mortality, XIII. Thus far 1 have indulged some loose and uncon- nected thoughts and remarks with regard to the different powers <»f wit, memory, and judgment. For it w r as very difficult to throw them inlo a regular form or method without more room. Let us now with more regularity treat of the memory alone. OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 131 "Though the memory be a natural faculty of the mind of man, and belongs to spirits which are not incarnate- though the mind itself is immaterial — a principle superadded to matter, yet the brain is the instrument which it employs in all its operations. Though it is not matter, yet it works by means of matter, and its operations are materially affected by the condition of the brain, its principal organ. Through the medium of the brain and nervous system the mind obtains a knowledge of the external world. The memory receives impres- sions of facts and events, and treasures up their images; and it also becomes the retentive receptacle of the ideas and conclusions derived from meditation and reflection. XIV. The immaturity of the brain in early life renders it incapable of becoming the instrument of powerful mental actions, and the images which are then impressed upon the memory are chiefly those of facts and events. The memory grows from the period of infancy and may be greatly improved by proper exercise, or injured by sloth. XV. The improvement of the memory requires the cultivation of habits of attention, or of intense applica- tion of the mind to whatever is, at the time, its more immediate object of pursuit. Slight impressions are soon forgotten, but whatever is impressed upon the mind by fixed attention and close thought, is indelibly stamped upon the memory and becomes as durable as the mind itself. Many persons of advanced age will tell long stories of things which occurred during the early period of their lives, and were so deeply engraven upon the memory as to be retained in their most minute particulars through a long succession of years. XVI. The memory is more or less affected by various diseases of the body; chiefly from injuries of 132 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. the head, affections of the brain, fever, and diseases of extreme debility. Numerous cases are on record of per- sons who, from the influence of disease, have recovered a knowledge of things long forgotten; and of others who have lost all knowledge of persons and things. Aman who was born in Franco, but had spent most of his liiV in England and entirely lost the habit of speaking French, received an injury on the head, and, during the illness which followed, always spoke in the French language. Another, when recovering from an injury of the head, spoke the W< 1 li language, which he learned in childhood, but had subsequently entirely forgotten. Another entirely lost his mental faculties during a severe illness. For several weeks subsequent to his recovery he remembered nothing and understood nothing; but at the expiration of two or three months he gradually recovered his memory and other faculties. Impressions which are deeply engraven upon the mind appear never to be effaced; but the power of calling them up is sometimes lost, until sickness or some other cause restores that power. The faculties of the mind are greatly assisted or injured by the condition of the brain, which in most aged people relaxes its energies, and a want of close attention to passing events prevents lasting impressions from being made on the memory. XVII. The brain being the chief instrument of the mind, whatever tends to promote a healthful and vigor- ous condition of that organ may help to preserve the memory; but excess of wine, or luxury of any kind, as well as excess in study and application to the business of life, may injure the memory by overstraining and weakening the brain. XVIII. A good memory has these several qualifica- tions: 1. It is ready to receive and admit, with great ease, the various ideas both of words and things which are learned or taught. 2. It is large and copious to treasure up these ideas in great uumber and variety. OF [MPROVING THE MEMORY. 13.3 3. It is strong and durable to retain for a considerable time those words or thoughts which are committed to it. 4. It is faithful and active to suggest and recollect, upon every proper occasion, all those words or thoughts which have been recommended to its care, or treasured up in it. XIX. Xow in every one of these qualifications a memory may be injured or may be improved : yet I shall not insist distinctly on these particulars, but only in general propose a few rules or directions whereby (li is noble faculty of memory, in all its branches and qualifications, may be preserved or assisted, and show what are the practices that both by reason and experi- ence have been found of hapx>y influence to this purpose. XX. There is one great and general direction which belongs to the improvement of other powers as well as of the memory, and that is to keep it always in due and proper exercise. Many acts by degrees form a habit, and thereby the ability or power is strengthened and made more ready to appear again in action. Our memories should be used and inured from childhood to bear a moderate quantity of knowledge let into them early, and they will thereby become strong for use and service. As any limb well and duly exercised grows stronger, the nerves of the body are corroborated thereby. Milo took up a calf and daily carried it on his shoulders ; as the calf grew, his strength grew also, and he at last arrived at firmness of joints enough to bear the bull. XXI. Our memories will be in a great measure moulded and formed, improved or injured, according to the exercise of them. If we never use them, they will be almost lost. Those who are wont to converse or read but a few things only, will retain but a few in their memory ; those who are used to remember things but for an hour, and charge their memories with it no longer, will retain them but an hour before they vanish. And 134 OF IMPROVING Tin; MEMORY. lei words be remembered as well as things, that so you may acquire a copia verborum as well as rerum, and be more ready to express your mind on all occasions. XXII. Yet there should be a caution given in such cases: the memory of a child or any infirm person should not be overburdened ; for a limb or a joint may be over- strained by being too much loaded, and its natural power never be recovered. Teachers should wisely judge of the power and constitution of youth, and impose no more on them than they are able to bear with cheerfulness and improvement. And particularly they should take care that the memory of the learner be not too much crowded with a tumultu- ous heap or overbearing multitude of documents or ideas at one time; this is the way to remember nothing, one idea effaces another. An overgreedy grasp does not retain the largest handful. But it is the exercise of memory with a due moderation, that is one general rule towards the improvement of it. . XXIII. The particular rules are such as these : 1. Due attention and diligence to learn and know things, which we would commit to our remembrance, is a rule of great necessity in this case. When the attention is strongly fixed to any particular subject, all that is said concerning it makes a deeper impression upon the mind. There are some persons who complain they can not remember divine or human discourses which the3 r hear, when, in truth, their thoughts are wandering half the time, or they hear with such coldness and indifference, and a trifling temper of spirit, that it is no wonder the things which are read or spoken make but a slight impression on the mind and get no firm footing in the seat of memory, bul soon vanish and are lost. It is needful, therefore, if we would maintain a long remembrance of the things which we read, or hear, that or TMmovTNr, ttti: memory. 135 we should engage our delight and pleasure in those subjects, and use the other methods which arc before prescribed in order to fix the attention. Sloth, indolence, andidleness, will no more bless the mind with intellectual riches, than it Avill fill the hand with gain, the field with corn, or the purse Avitli treasure. Let it be added also, that not only the slothful and the negligent deprive themselves of proper knowledge for the furniture of their memory, but such as appear to have active spirits, who are ever skimming over the surface of things with a volatile temper, will lix nothing in their minds. Vario will spend whole mornings in running over loose and unconnected pages, and with fresh curiosity is ever glancing over new words and ideas that strike his present fancy ; he is fluttering over a thousand objects of art and science, and yet treasures up but little knowledge. There must be the labor and the diligence of close attention to particular subjects of thought and inquiry, which only can impress what we read or think of upon the remembering faculty of man. 2. Clear and distinct apprehension of the things which ice commit to memory is necessary in order to make them stick and dwell there. If we w^ould remember words, or learn the names of persons or things, we should have them recommended to our memory by a clear and distinct pronunciation, spelling, or writing. If we would treasure up the ideas of things, notions, propositions, arguments, and sciences, these should be recommended also to our memory by a clear and distinct perception of them. Faint, glimmering, and confused ideas will vanish like images seen in twilight. Every thing wiiich we learn should be conveyed to the understanding in the plainest expressions, without any ambiguity, that we may not mis- take what we desire to remember. This is a general rule, whether we would employ the memory about words or 136 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. things, though it must be confessed that mere sounds and words are much harder to get by heart than the knowledge of things and real images. For this reason take heed (as I have often before warned) that you do not take up with words instead of things, nor mere sounds instead of real sentiments and ideas. Many a lad forgets what has been taught him, merely because he never well understood it; he never clearly and distinctly took in the meaning of those sounds and syllables which he was required to get by heart. 3. Method and regularity in the things we commit to memory, is necessary in order to make them take more effectual possession of the mind and abide there long. As much as systematical learning is decried by some vain and humorous triflers of the age, it is certainly the happiest way to furnish the mind with a variety of knowledge, Whatsoever you would trust to your memory, let it be disposed in a proper method, connected well together, and referred to distinct and particular heads or classes, both general and particular. An apothecary's boy will much sooner learn all the medicines in Ins masters'* shop, when they are ranged in boxes or on shelves according to their distinct natures, whether herbs, drugs, or minerals, whether leaves or roots, whether chemical or galenical preparations, whether simple or compound, etc., and when they are placed in some order according to their nature, their fluidity, or their consistence, etc., in phials, bottles, gallipots, casts, drawers, etc.; so the genealogy of a family is more easily learned when you begin at some great- grandfather as the root, and distinguish the stock, the large boughs, the lesser branches, the twigs, and the buds, till you come down to the present infants of the house. And, indeed, all sorts of arts and sciences taught in a method something of this kind are more happily committed to the mind or memory. 4. A frequent review, and careful repetition of the things we would learn, and an abridgment of them in a narrow compass for this end, has a great influence to fix them in the memory : therefore it is that the rules of grammar, and OF IMPROVING TTTi: MEMORY. 137 useful examples of the variation of words, and the peculiar forms of speech in any language, are so often appointed by the masters as lessons for the scholars to be frequently repeated; and they are contracted into tables for frequent review, that what is not fixed in the mind at first, may be stamped upon the memory by a perpetual survey and rehearsal. Repetition is so very useful a practice, that Mnemon, even from his youth to his old age, never read a book without making some small points, dashes, or hooks, in the margin, to mark what parts of the discourse were proper for review: and when he came to the end of a section or chapter ; he always shut his hook and recollected all the sentiments or expressions he had remarked, so that he could give a tolerable analysis and abstract of every treatise he had read, just after he had finished it. Thence he became so well furnished with a rich variety of knowledge. Even when a person is hearing a sermon or a lecture, he may give his thoughts leave now and then to step back so far as to recollect the several heads of it from the beginning, two or three times before the lecture or sermon is finished: the omission or the loss of a sentence or two among the amplifications is richly compensated by preserving in the mind the method and order of the whole discourse in the most important branches of it. If we would fix in the memory the discourses we hear, or what we design to speak, let us abstract them into brief compends, and review them often. Lawyers and divines have need of such assistances: they write down short notes or hints of the principal heads of what they desire to commit to their memory in order to preach or plead, for such abstracts or epitomes may be reviewed much sooner, and the several amplifying sentiments or sentences will be more easily invented or recollected in their proper places. The art of short-hand is of excellent use for this as well as other purposes. It must be acknowledged, that those who scarcely ever take a pen 138 OF IMPROVING TTTE MEBCOBY. in their hand to write short notes or hints of what they are to speak or learn, who never try to cast things into method or to contract the survey of them in order to com init them to their memory, had need have a double degree of that natural power of retaining and recollect- ing what they read, or hear, or intend to speak. Do not plunge yourself into oilier business or studies, amusements or recreations, immediately after yon have attended upon instruction, if you can well avoid it. Get time, if possible, to recollect the things you have heard, that they may not be washed all away from the mind by a torrent of other occurrences or engagements, nor lost in the crowd or clamor of other loud or importunate affairs. Talking over the things which you have read with your companions on the first proper opportunity you have for it, is a most useful manner of review or repeti- tion, in order to fix them upon the mind. Teach them your younger friends, in order to establish your own knowledge while you communicate it to them. The animal powers of your tongue and of your ear, as well as your intellectual faculties, will all join together to help the memory. Hermetas studied hard in a remote corner of the land, and in solitude, yet he became a very learned man. He seldom was so happy as to enjoy suitable society at home, and therefore he talked over to the fields and the woods in the evening what lie had been reading in the day, and found so considerable advantage by this practice that he recommended it to all his friends since he could set his probatum to it for seventeen years. 5. Pleasure and delight in the things we learn give great assistance towards the re membra nee of them. AAliatsoever therefore we desire that a child should commit to his memory, make it as pleasant to him as possible; endeavor to search his genius and his temper, and let him take in OF IMTTCOVTNG TTTE MEMORY. 139 the instructions you give him or the lessons yon appoint him, as far as may be, in a way suited to his natural inclination. Fabellus would never learn any moral lessons till they were moulded into the form of some fiction or fable like those of iEsop, or till they put on the appearance of a parable, like those wherein our blessed Saviour taught the ignorant world ; then he remembered well the emblematical instructions that were given him, and learned to practice the moral sense and meaning of them. Young Spectorius was taught virtue by set- ting before him a variety of examples of the various good qualities in human life ; and he was appointed daily to repeat some story of this kind out of Valerius Maximum. The same lad was early instructed to avoid the common vices and follies of youth in the same manner. This is akin to the method where- by t lie Lacedaemonians trained up their children to hate drunk- enness and intemperance, viz., by bringing a drunken man into their company and showing them what a beast he had made of himself. Such visible and sensible forms of instruc- tion will make long and useful impressions upon the memory. Children may be taught to remember many things in a way of sport and play. Some young creatures have learned their letters and syllables, and the pronouncing and spelling of words, by having them pasted or written upon many little flat tablets or dies. Some have been taught vocabularies of different languages, having a word in one tongue written on one side of these tablets, and the same word in another tongue on the other side of them. There might be also many entertaining contrivances for the instruction of children in several things relating to geometry, geography, and astronomy, in such alluring and illusory methods, which would make a most agree- able and lasting impression on their minds. G. The memory of useful things may receive considerable aid if they are thrown into verse; for the numbers and measures and rhyme, according to the poesy of different languages, have a considerable influence upon mankind, both to make them receive with more ease the things proposed 140 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. to their observation, and preserve them longer in their remembrance. How many arc there of the common affairs of hnman life which have been taught in early years by the help of rhyme, and have been like nails fastened in a sure place and riveted by daily use. So the number of the days of each month are engraven on the memory of thousands by these four lines : Thirty days hath September, June, and April, and November; February twenty-eight alone; All the rest have thirty-one. Ro have rules of health been proscribed in the book called Schola Salemitani, and many a person has preserved himself doubtless from evening gluttony, and the pains and diseases consequent upon it, by these two lines: Ex magna ecena stoniaeho fit maxima poena: Ut sis nocte levis, sit tibi ccena brevis. Englished : To be easy all night Let your supper be light; Or else you'll complain Of a stomach in pain. And a hundred proverbial sentences in various lan- guages are formed into rhyme or a verse, whereby they are made to stick upon the memory of old and young, It is from this principle that moral rules have been cast into a poetic mould from all antiquity. So the golden verses of the Pythagoreans in Greek; Cato's distiches De Moribm in Latin, Lilly's precepts to scholars, called Qui Jfi/u, with many others; and this has been done with very good success. A line or two of this kind, recurring on the memory, have often guarded youth from a temptation to vice and folly, as well as put them in mind of their present duty. 7. It is also by this association of ideas that we may better imprint any new ideas upon the memory, by join- ing with it some circumstance of the time, place, company, etc., OK IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 141 wherein we first observed, heard, or learned it. W we would recover an absent idea, it is useful to recollect those circumstances of time, place, etc. The substance will many times be recovered and brought to the thoughts by recollecting the shadow : a man recurs to our fancy by remembering his garment, his size or stature, his office or employment, etc. A beast, bird, or fish, by its color, figure or motion, by the cage, court-yard, or cistern wherein it was kept. To this head also w r e may refer that remembrance of names and things which may be derived from our recol- lection of their likeness to other things which w r e know ; either their resemblance in name, character, form, accident, or any thing that belongs to them. An idea or word which has been lost or forgotten, has been often recovered by hitting upon some other kindred word or idea which has the nearest resemblance to it, and that in letters, syllables, or sound of the name, as well as proper- ties of the thing. If we would remember Hippocrates, or Galen, or Paracelsus, think of a physician' s name beginning with H, G, or P. If we will remember Ovidius Naso, we may represent a man with a large nose; if Plato, we may think upon a person with large shoulders, if Crispus, w r e shall fancy another with curled hair, and so of other things. And some times a new or strange idea may be fixed in the memory by considering its contrary or opposite. So if we can not hit on the w r ord Goliath, the remembrance of David may recover it; or the name of a Trojan may be recovered by thinking of a Greek, etc. 8. In such cases wherein it may be done, seek after a local memory, or a remembrance of what you have read by the side or page where it is written or printed; whether the right or the left, Whether at the top, the middle, or the bottom, whether at the beginning of a chapter or a 142 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. paragraph or at the end of it. It has been some advan- tage, for this reason, to accustom oneself to books of the same edition; and it has been of constant and special use to divines and private Christians to be furnished with several Bibles of the same edition; that wheresoever they are, "whether in their chamber, parlor, or study, in the yotmger or elder years of lite, they may find the chapters and verses standing in the parts of the page. This is also a great convenience to be observed by printers in the new editions of grammars, psalms, Testa- ments, etc., to print every chapter, paragraph, or verse. in the same part of the page as the former, that so it may yield a happy assistance to those young learners who find, and even feel, the advantages of a local memory. 9. Let every thing we desire to remember be fairly and distinctly written and divided into period*, with large charac- ters in the beginning, for by this means we shall the more readily imprint the matter and words on our minds, and recollect them with a glance, the more remarkable the writing appears to the eye. This sense conveys the ideas to the fancy better than any other; and what we have seen is not so soon forgotten as what we have only heard. What Horace affirms of the mind or passions may be said also of the memory : Segnius irritant animos demissa per aurem, Quam quae sunt oculis subjecta fidelibus, et quae Ipse sibi tradit spectator. Applied thus in English : Sounds which address the ear are lost and die In one short hour; but that which strikes the eye Lives long upon the mind; the faithful sight Engraves the knowledge with a beam of light. For the assistance of weak memories the first letters or words of every period, in every page, may be written in distinct colors: yellow, green, red, black, etc. ; and if you OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 143 observe the same order of colors in the following sen- tences, it will be still the better. This will make a greater impression and may much aid the memory. Under this head we may take notice of the advantage which the memory gains by having the several objects of our learning drawn out into schemes and tables: matters of mathematical science and natural philosophy are not only let into the understanding, but preserved in the memory by figures and diagrams. The situation of the several parts of the earth are better learned by one day' s conversing with a map or a sea-chart, than by merely reading the description of their situation a hundred times over in books of geography. So the constellations in astronomy, and their position in the heavens, are more easily remembered by hemispheres of the stars well drawn. It is by having such sort of memorials, figures, and tables, hung round our studies or places of residence or resort, that our memory of these things will be greatly assisted and improved, as I have shown at large in the twentieth chapter. I might add here also, that once writing over what we design to remember, and giving due attention to what we write, will fix it more in the mind than reading it jive times. And in the same manner, if we had a plan of the naked lines of longitude and latitude projected on the meridian printed for this use, a learner might much more speedily advance himself in the knowledge of geography by his own drawing the figures of all the parts of the world upon it by imitation, than by many days' survey of a map of the world so printed. The same may be said also concerning the constellations of heaven, drawn by the learner on a naked projection of the circles of the sphere upon the plane of the equator. 10. It has sometimes been the practice of men to im- print names or sentences on their memory by taking the 144 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. first letters of every word of that sentence, or of those names, and making anew word of mem. Ho the name of the Maccabees is borrowed from the first letters of the Hebrew words, which make the sentence Mi Canioka Bealim Jehovah, i. e., Who is like thee among the gods? which was written on their banners. Jesus Christ our Saviour has been called a fish, in Greek ixoys by the fathers, because these are the first letters in those Greek words, Jesus Christ, God's Son, the Saviour. So the word Vibgyor teaches us to remember the order of the seven original colors, as they appear by the sunbeams cast through a prism on white paper, or formed by the sun in a rainbow, according to the different refrangi- bility of the rays, viz., violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red. Other artificial helps to memory may be just men- tioned here. Dr. Grey, in his book called Manor J a Technics has ex- changed the figures 1, 2, 8, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, for some consonants, &i t?j £»/i li &iP) &1 n ? and some vowels, a, e, /, o, w, and several diphthongs, and thereby formed words that denote numbers, which may be more easily remembered: and Mr. Lowe has improved his scheme in a small pamphlet called Mnemonics J)( lineated; whereby in seven leaves he has comprised almost an infinity of things, in science and in common life, and re- duced them to a sort of measure like Latin verse ; though the words may be supposed to be very barbarous, being such a mixture of vowels and consonants as are very unfit for harmony. But after all, the very writers on this subject have confessed that several of those artificial helps of memory are so cumbersome as not to be suitable to every temper or person; nor are they of any use for the delivery of a discourse by memory, nor of much service in learning the sciences: but they may be sometimes practiced for the assisting our remembrance of certain sentences, numbers, and nan CHAPTER XIV. OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. I. When a subject is proposed to your thoughts, con- sider whether it be knowable at all, or not ; and then whether it be not above the reach of your inquiry and knowledge in tho present state ; and remember, that it is great waste of time to busy yourselves too much amongst unsear enables ; the chief use of these studies is to keep the mind humble, by finding its own ignorance and weakness. II. Consider again whether the matter be worthy of your inquiry at all; and then how far it may be worthy of your present search and labor according to your age, your time of life, your station in the world, your capacity, your profession, your chief design and end. There are many things worth inquiry to one man, which are not so to another ; and there are things that may deserve the study of the same person in one part of life, which would be improper or impertinent at another. To read books of the art of preaching, or dis- putes about church discipline, are proper for a theolog- ical student in the end of his academical studies, but not at the beginning of them. To pursue mathematical studies very largely may be useful for a professor of philosophy, but not for a divine. III. Consider whether the subject of your inquiry be easy or difficult ; whether you have sufficient foun- dation or skill, furniture and advantage for the pursuit of it. It would be madness for a young statuary to at- tempt at first to carve a Venus or a Mercury, and espe- cially without proper tools. And it is equal folly for a 14G OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. man to pretend to make great improvements in natural philosophy without due experiments. IV. Consider whether the subject be any ways useful or not before you engage intlie study of it : often put this question to yourselves : Cui bono ? To what pur- pose? What end will it attain? Is it for the glory of God, for the good of men, for your own advantage, for the removal of any natural or moral evil, for the attain- ment of any natural or moral good? Will the profit be equal to the labor? There are many subtle imperti- nences learned in the- schools; many painful trifles, even among the mathematieal theorems and problems; many difficiles nngee, or laborious follies of*various kinds, which some ingenious men have been engaged in. A due reflec- tion upon these things will call the mind away from vain amusements, and save much time. V. Consider what tendency it has to make you wiser and better, as well as to make you more learned ; and those questions which tend to wisdom and prudence in our conduct among men, as well as piety toward God, are doubtless more important, and preferable beyond all those inquiries which only improve our knowledge in mere speculations. VI. If the question appear to be well worth your dili- gent application, and you are furnished with the neces- sary requisites to pursue it, then consider whether it be dressed up and entangled in more words than is needful, and contain or include more complicated ideas than is necessary ; and if so, endeavor to reduce it to a greater simplicity and plainness, which will make the inquiry and argument easier and plainer all the way. VII. If it be stated in an improper, obscure, or irreg- ular form, it may be meliorated by changing the phrase, or transposing the parts of it ; but be careful always to keep the grand and important point of inquiry the OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 147 same in your new staling the question. Little tricks and deceits of sophistry, by sliding in or leaving out such words as entirely change the question should be aban- doned and renounced by all fair disputants and honest searchers after truth. The stating a question with clearness and justice goes a great way many times towards the answering it. The greatest part of true knowledge lies in a distinct percep- tion of things which are in themselves distinct ; and some men give more light and knowledge by the bare stating of the question with perspicuity and justice, than others by talking of it in gross confusion for whole hours together. To state a question is but to separate and disentangle the parts of it from one another, as well as from every thing which does not concern the question, and then lay the disentangled parts of the question indue order and method ; oftentimes, without more ado, this fully resolves the doubt, and shows the mind where the truth lies, without argument or dispute. VIII. If the question relate to an axiom, or first principle of truth, remember that a long train of conse- quences may depend upon it ; therefore it should not be suddenly admitted or received. It is not enough to determine the truth of a proposi- tion, much less to raise it to the honor of an axiom or first principle, to say that it has been believed through many ages, that it has been received by many nations, that it is almost universally acknowledged, or nobody denies it, that it is established by human laws, or that temporal penalties or reproaches will attend the dis- belief of it. IX. Nor is it enough to forbid any proposition the title of axiom, because it has been denied by some per- sons and doubted of by others; for some persons have been unreasonably credulous, and others have been as 118 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. unreasonably skeptical. Then only should a proposi- tion be called an axiom, or a sell' evident truth, when, by a moderate attention to the subject and predicate, their connection appears in so plain a light, and so clear an evidence, as needs no third idea, or middle term, to prove them to be connected. X. While you are in search after truth in questions of ' a doubtful nature, or such as you have not yet thoroughly examined, keep up a just indifference to either side of the question, if you would be led honestly into the truth: for a desire or inclination leaning to either side biases the judgment strangely: whereas by this indifference for every thing but truth, you will be excited to examine fairly instead of presuming, and your assent will be secured from going beyond your evidence. XT. For the most part people are born to their opinions, and never question the truth of what their family, or country, or their party profess. They clothe their minds as they do their bodies, after the fashion in vogue, nor one of a hundred ever examined their prin- ciples. It is suspected of lukewarmness to suppose ex- amination necessary ; and it will be charged as a tendency to apostasy, if we go about to examine them. Persons are applauded for presuming they are in the right, and, as Mr. Locke saith, he that considers and inquires into the reason of things is counted a foe to orthodoxy, be- cause possibly he may deviate from some of the received doctrines. And thus men, without any industry or acquisition of their own (lazy and idle as they are) in- herit local truths, i. c, the truths of that place where they live, and are inured to assent without evidence. This hath a long and unhappy influence; for if a man can bring his mind once to be positive and fierce for propositions whose evidence he hath never examined, ami that in matters of the greatest concernment, he will OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 149 naturally follow this short and easy way of judging and believing in cases of less moment, and build all his opinions upon insufficient grounds. XII. In determining a question, especially when it is a matter of difficulty and importance, do not take up with partial examination, but turn your thoughts on all sides, to gather in all the light you can towards the solution of it. Take time and use all the helps that are to be attained, before you fully determine, except only where present necessity of action calls for speedy deter- mination. If you would know what may be called a partial exam- ination, take these instances, viz.: 1. When you examine an object of sense or inquire into some matter of sensation at too great a distance from the object, or in an inconvenient situation of it, or under any indisposition of the organs or any disguise whatsoever relating to the medium or the organ of the object itself, or when you examine it by one sense only, where others might be employed; or when you inquire into it by sense only, without the use of the understanding, and judgment, and reason. 2. If it be a question which is to be determined by reason and argument, then your examination is partial when yon turn the question only in one light and do not turn it on all sides: when you look upon it only in its relations and aspects to one sort of object, and not to another ; when you consider only the advantages of it, and the reasons for it, and neglect to think of the reasons against it, and never survey its inconveniences too; when you determine on a sudden, before you have given your- self a due time for weighing all circumstances, etc. 3. Again, if it be a question of fact, depending upon the report or testimony of men, your examination is but partial when you inquire only what one man or a few 150 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. say, and avoid the testimony of others j wlien you only ask what thorn report who were not eye or ear witnesses, and neglect those icho saw and heard it; when you content yourself with mere loose and general talk about it, and never enter into particulars ; or when there are many who deny the fact, and you never concern youself about their reasons for denying- it, but resolve to believe only those who affirm it. 4. There is yet a further fault in your partial examina- tion of any question, when you resolve to determine it by natural reason only, where you might be assisted by supernatural revelation ; or when you decide the point by some word or sentence, or by some part of revelation without comparing it with other parts, which might give further light and better help to determine the meaning. 5. It is also a culpable partiality, if you examine some doubtful or pretended vision, or revelation, without the use of reason, or without the use of that revelation which is undoubted and sufficiently proved to be divine. These are all instances of imperfect examination: and we should never determine a question by one or two lights, where we may have the advantage of three or four. XIII. Take heed lest some darling notion, some favorite hypothesis, some beloved doctrine, or some com- mon but unexamined opinion, be made a test of the truth or falsehood of all other propositions about the same subject. Dare not build much upon such a notion or doctrine till it be very fully examined, accu- rately adjusted, and sufficiently confirmed. Some per- sons, indulging such a practice, have been led into long ranks of errors ; they have found themselves involved in a train of mistakes, by taking up some petty hypothesis or principle, either in philosophy, politics, or religion, upon slight and insufficient grounds, and establishing that as a test and rule by which to judge of all other things. OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 151 XIV. For the same reason, have a care of suddenly determining any one question, on which the determi- nation oi* any kindred or parallel ease will easily or nat urally follow. Take heed of receiving any wrong turn in your early judgment of things ; be watchful as far as possible against any false bias, which may be given to the understanding, especially in younger years. The ■ indulgence of some one silly opinion, or the giving credit to one foolish, fable, lays the mind open to be imposed upon by many. The ancient Eomans were taught to believe that Eomulus and Remus, the founders of their state and empire, were ex- posed in the woods and nursed by a wolf : this story prepared their minds for the reception of any tales of the like nature re- lating to other countries. Trojus Pompeius would enforce the belief, that one of the ancient kings of Spain was also nursed and suckled by a hart, from the fable of Romulus and Remus. It was by the same influence they learned to give up their hopes and fears to omens and soothsaying, when they were once persuaded that the greatness of their empire and the glory of Romulus their founder, were predicted by the happy omen of twelve vultures appearing to him when he sought where to build the city. They readily received all the following legends, of prodigies, auguries, and prognostics, for many ages together, with which Livy has furnished his huge history. So the child who is once taught to believe any one occurrence to be a good or evil omen, or any day of the month or week to be lucky or unlucky, hath a wide inroad made on the soundness of his understanding in the following judgments of his life ; he lies ever open to all the silly impressions and idle tales of nurses, and imbibes many a foolish story with greediness, which he must unlearn again if he ever becomes acquainted with truth and w r isdom. XV. Have a care of interesting your warm and re- ligious zeal in those matters which are not sufficiently evident in themselves, or which are not fully and thor- oughly examined and proved ; for this zeal, whether 152 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. right or wrong, when it is once engaged "will have a powerful influence to establish your own minds in those doctrines which are really doubtful, and to stop up all the avenues of further light. This will bring upon the soul a sort of sacred awe and dread of heresy, with a divine concern to maintain whatever opinion you have espoused as divine, though perhaps you have espoused it without any just evidence, and ought to have re- nounced it as false and pernicious. We ought to be zealous for the most important points of our religion, and to contend earnestly for the faith once delivered to the saints ; but we ought not to employ this sacred fervor of spirit in the service of any article till we have geen it made out with plain and strong con- viction, that it is a necessary or important point of faith or practice, and is either an evident dictate of the light of nature, or an assured article of revelation. Zeal must not reign over the powers of our understanding, but obey them : God is the God of light and truth, a God of reason and order, and He never requires mankind to use their natural faculties amiss for the support of His cause. Even the most mysterious and sublime doctrines of revelation are not to be believed without a just reason for it ; nor should our pious affections be engaged in the defense of them till we have plain and convincing proof that they are certainly revealed, though perhaps we may never in this world attain to such clear and distinct ideas of them as Ave desire. XYT. As a warm zeal ought never to be employed in the defense of any revealed truth, till our reason be well convinced of the revelation ; so neither should wit and banter, jest and ridicule, ever be indulged to oppose or assault any doctrines of professed revelation, till reason has proved that they are not really revealed ; and even then these methods should be used very seldom, and OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 153 with the ul most caution and prudence. Raillery and wit were never made to answer our inquiries after truth, and to determine a question of rational controversy ; though they may sometimes be serviceable to expose to con- tempt those inconsistent follies which have been first abundantly refuted by argument ; they serve indeed only to cover nonsense with shame, when reason has first proved it to be mere nonsense. It is therefore a silly and most unreasonable test which some of our deists have introduced to judge of divine revelation, viz., to try if it will bear ridicule and laughter. They are effectually beaten in all their com- bats at the weapons of men, that is, reason and argu- ment ; and it would not be unjust (though it is a little uncourtly) to say that they would now attack our re- ligion with the talents of a vile animal, that is, grin and grimace. I can not think that a jester or a monkey, a droll or a puppet, can be proper judges or deciders of con- troversy. That which dresses up all things in disguise is not likely to lead us into any just sentiments about them. Plato or Socrates, Caesar or Alexander, might have a fool's coat clapped upon any of them, and per- haps, in this disguise, neither the wisdom of the one, nor the majesty of the other, would secure them from- a sneer ; this treatment, would never inform us whether they were kings or slaves, whether they were fools or philosophers. The strongest reasoning, the best sense, and the politest thoughts, may be set in a most ridicu- lous light by this grinning faculty : the most obvious axioms of eternal truth may be dressed in a very foolish form, and wrapped up in artful absurdities by this tal- ent ; but they are truth, and reason, and good sense still. Euclid, with all his demonstrations, might be so covered and overwhelmed with banter, that a beginner in the 154 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. mathematics might be tempted to doubt whether his theorems were true or not, and to imagine they could never be useful. So, weaker minds might be easily pre- judiced against the noblest principles of truth and good- ness ; and the younger part of mankind might be beat off from the belief of the most serious, the most rational and important points, even of natural religion, by the impudent jests of a profane wit. The moral duties of the civil life, as well as the articles of Christianity, may be painted over with the colors of folly, and exposed upon a stage, so as to ruin all social and personal virtue among the gay and thoughtless part of the world. XVII. It should be observed also, that these very men cry out loudly against the use of all severe railing and reproach in debates, and all penalties and perse- cutions of the state, in order to convince the minds and consciences of men, and determine points of truth and error* Now I renounce these penal and smarting methods of conviction as much as they do, and yet I think still these are every whit as wise, as just, and as good for this purpose as banter and ridicule. Why should rmblic mockery in print, or a merry joke upon a stage, be a better test of trut h than severe, railing sar- casm, and public persecutions and penalties'? Why should more light be derived to the understanding by a song of scurrilous mirth, or a witty ballad, than there is by a rude cudgel ? When a professor of any religion is set up to be laughed at, I can not see how this should help us to judge of the truth of his faith any better than if he were scourged. The jeers of a theater, the pil- lory, and the whipping-post are very near akin. When the person or his opinion is made the jest of the mob, or his back the shambles of the executioner, I think there is no more conviction in the one than in the other. XVIII. Besides, supposing it is but barely possible OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 155 thai the great God should reveal His mind and will to men by miracle, vision, or inspiration, it is a piece of contempt and profane insolence to treat any toler- able or rational appearance of such a revelation with jest and laughter, in order to find whether it be divine or not. And yet, if this be a proper test of revelation, it may be properly applied to the true as well as the false, in order to distinguish it. Suppose a royal procla- mation was sent to a distant part of the kingdom, and some of the subjects should doubt whether it came from the king or not ; is it possible that wit and ridicule should ever decide the point ? Or would the prince ever think himself treated with just honor to have his procla- mation canvassed in this manner on a public stage, and become the sport of buffoons, in order to determine the question, Whether it is the word of a king or not? Let such a sort of writers go on at their dearest peril, and sport themselves in their own deceivings ; let them at their peril make a jest at the Bible, and treat the sacred articles of Christianity with scoff and merri- ment: but then let them lay aside all their pretences to reason as well as religion. XIX. In reading philosophical, moral, or religious controversies, never raise your esteem of any opinion by the assurance and zeal wherewith the author asserts it, nor by the highest praises he bestows upon it ; nor, on the other hand, let your esteem of an opinion be abated, nor your aversion to it raised by the supercilious contempt cast upon it by a warm writer, nor by the sov- ereign airs with which he condemns it. Let the force of argument alone influence your assent or dissent. Take care that your soul be not warped or biased on one side or the other by any strains of flattering or abusive language ; for their is no question whatsoever but what hath some such sort of defenders and opposers. 156 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. Leave those writers to their own follies who praetiee thus upon the weakness of their readers without argu- ment 5 leave them to triumph in their own fancied pos- sessions and victories : it is oftentimes found that their possessions are but a heap of errors, and their boasted victories are but overbearing noise and clamor to silence the voice of truth. In philosophy and religion the bigots of all parties are generally the most positive, and deal much in this sort of argument. Sometimes these are the weapons of pride, for a haughty man supposes all his opinions to be infallible, and imagines the contrary sentiments are ever ridiculous and not worthy of notice. Sometimes these ways of talking are the mere arms of ignorance: the men who use them know little of the opposite side of the question, and therefore they exult in their own vain pie- tenses to knowledge, as though no man of sense could oppose their opinions. They rail at an objection against their own sentiments, because they can find no other answer to it but railing. And men of learning, by their excessive vanity, have been sometimes tempted into the same insolent practice as Avell as the ignorant. Yet let it be remembered too, that there are some truths so plain and evident, that the opposition to them is strange, unaccountable, and almost monstrous ; and in vindication of such truths a writer of good sense may sometimes be allowed to use a degree of assurance, and pronounce them strongly with an air of confidence, while he defends them with reasons of convincing force. XX. Sometimes a question may be proposed which is of so large and extensive a nature, and refers to such a multitude of subjects, as ought not in justice to be determined at once by a single argument or answer : as if one should ask me, Are you a professed disciple of the Stoics or the Platonists? Do you receive an assent to OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 157 the principles of Gassendus, Descartes, or Sir Isaac Newton ? J lave you chosen the hypothesis of Tyclio or Copernicus? Have yen devoted yourself to the senti- ments of Axminius, or Calvin? Are your notions epis- copal, presbyterian, or independent, etc. % I think it may be very proper in such cases not to give an answer in the gross, but rather to enter into a detail of particu- lars and explain one's own sentiments. Perhaps there is no man, nor set of men upon earth, whose sentiments I entirely follow. God has given me reason to judge for myself ; and though I may see sufficient ground to agree to the greatest part of the opinions of one person or party, yet it does by no means follow that I should re- ceive them all. Truth does not always go by the lump, nor does error tincture and spoil all the articles of belief that some one party professes. Since there are difficulties attending every science of human knowledge, it is enough for me in the main to incline to that side which has the fewest difficulties ; and I would endeavor, as far as possible, to correct the mistakes or the harsh expressions of one party, by soft- ening and reconciling methods, by reducing the extremes, and by borrowing some of the best principles or phrases from another. Cicero was one of the greatest men of antiquity, and gives us an account of the various opinions of philosophers in his age ; but he himself was of the eclectic sect, and chose out of each of them such positions as in his wisest judgment came nearest to the truth. XXI. When you are called in the course of life or re- ligion to judge and determine concerning any question, and to affirm or deny it, take a full survey of the objec- tions against it, as Well as the arguments for it, as far as your time and circumstances admit, and see on which side the preponderation falls. If either the objections against any proposition, or the arguments for the defense 158 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. of it, carry in them most undoubted evidence, and are plainly unanswerable, they will and ought to constrain the assent, though there may be many seeming prob- abilities on the other side, which at iirst sight would flatter the judgment to favor it. But where the reasons on both sides are very near of equal weight, there sus- pension or doubt is our duty, unless in cases wherein present determination or practice is required, and there we must act according to the present appearing prepon- deration of reasons. XXII. In matters of moment and importance, it is our duty indeed to seek after certain and conclusive arguments (if they can be found) in order to determine a question ; but where the matter is of little consequence, it is not worth our labor to spend much time in seeking after certainties ; it is sufficient here, if probable reasons offer themselves. And even in matters of greater im- portance, especially where daily practice is necessary, and where we can not attain any sufficient or certain grounds to determine a question on either side, we must then take up with such probable arguments as we can arrive at. But this general rule should be observed, viz. to take heed that our assent be no stronger, or rise no higher in the degree of it, than the probable argument will support. XXIII. There are many things even in religion, as well as in philosophy and civil life, which Ave believe with very different degrees of assent; and this is, or should be, always regulated according to the different degrees of evidence which we enjoy: and perhaps there are a thousand gradations in our assent to the things we believe, because there are thousands of circumstances relating to different questions, which increase or diminish the evidence we have concerning them, and that in mat- ters both of reason and revelation. OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 159 This direction can not be too often repeated, that onr assent ought always to keep pace with our evidence ; and our belief of any proposition should never rise higher than the proof or evidence we have to support it, nor should our faith run faster than right reason can encourage it. XXIV. Perhaps it will be objected here, Why then does our Saviour, in the histories of the Gospel so much commend a strong faith, and lay out both His miraculous benefits and His praises upon some of those poor creatures of little reasoning who professed an as- sured belief of His commission and power to heal them f I answer the God of nature has given every man his own reason to be the judge of evidence to himself in particular, and to direct his assent in all things about which lie is called to judge ; and even the matters of revelation are to be believed by us because our reason pronounces the revelation to be true. Therefore, the great God will not, or can not, in any instance, require us to assent to any thing without reasonable or suffi- cient evidence; nor to believe any proposition more strongly than what our evidence for it will support. We have therefore abundant ground to believe, that those persons of whom our Saviour requires such strong faith, or whom He commends for their strong faith, had as strong and certain evidence of His power and commission from the credible and incontestable reports they had heard of His miracles, which were wrought on purpose to give evidence to His commission. Now in such a case, both this strong faith and the open profession of it were very worthy of public encouragement and praise from our Saviour, because of the great and public op- position which the magistrates, and the priests, and the doctors of the age made against Jesus, the man of Nazareth, when He appeared as the Messiah. 1G0 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. And besides this it may be reasonably supposed, with regard to some of those strong exercises of faith which are required and commended, that these believers had some further hints of inward evidence and immediate revelation from God Himself; as when St. Peter con- fesses Christ to be the Son of God, Matt. 16 : 16, 17, our blessed Saviour commends him saying, " Blessed art thou, Simon Barjona ; " but He adds, " Flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father who is in heaven." And the same may be said concerning the faith of miracles, the exercise whereof was sometimes required of the disciples and others, i. e., when by inward and divine influences God assured them such miracles should be wrought, their obedience to and compliance with these divine illuminations was expected and commended. Now this supernatural inspiration carried sufficient evi- dence with it to them, as well as to the ancient prophets, though we who never felt it are not so capable to judge and distinguish it. XXV. What is said before concerning truth or doc- trines, may be also confirmed concerning duties ; the reason of both is the same ; as the one are truths for our speculation, the others are truths for our practice. Duties which are expressly required in the plain lan- guage of Scripture or dictated by the most evident reasoning upon first principles, ought to bind our con- sciences more than those which are but dubiously in- ferred, and that only from occasional occurrences, in- cidents, and circumstances: as for instance, I am certain that I ought to pray to God; my conscience is bound to this, because there are most evident commands for it to be found in Scripture, as well as to be derived from rea- son. I believe also, that I may pray to God either by a written form or without one, because neither reason nor OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 161 revelation expressly requires either of these modes of prayer at ail times, or forbids the other. I can not, therefore, bind my conscience to practice the one so as utterly to renounce the other; but I would practice either of them as my reason and other circumstances direct me. XXYI. We may observe these three rules in judging of probabilities which are to be determined by reason, relating either to things past or things to come. 1. That which agrees most with the constitution of nature carries the greatest probability in it, where no other circumstance appears to counterpoise it: as if I let loose a greyhound within sight of a hare upon a large plain, there is great probability the greyhound will seize her ; a thousand sparrows will fly away at the sight of a hawk among them. 2. That which is most comformable to the constant observation of men, or to experiment frequently repeated, is most likely to be true: as that a winter will not pass away in England without some frost and snow; that if you deal out great quantities of strong liquor to the mob, there will be many drunk; that a large assembly of men will be of different opinions in any doubtful point ; that a thief will make his escape out of prison if the doors of it are unguarded at midnight. 3. In matters of fact, which are past or present, where neither nature, nor observation, nor custom, gives us any sufficient information on either side of the question, there we may derive a 'probability from the attestation of wise and honest men, by word or writing, or the concurring witnesses of multitudes who have seen and known what they relate, etc. This testimony in many cases will arise to the degree of moral certainty. So we believe that the tea-plant grows in China ; and that the Emperor of the Turks Lives at Constantinople; that Julius CYcsar eon- n 1G2 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. quered France ; that Jesus our Saviour lived and died in Judea ; that thousands were converted to the Chris- tian faith in a century after the death of Christ ; and that the books which contain the Christian religion are cer- tain histories and epistles which were written above a thousand years ago There is an infinite variety of such propositions which can admit of no reasonable doubt, though they arc not matters which are directly evident to our own senses or our mere reasoning powers. XXVII. AVhen a point hath been well examined, and our own judgment settled upon just arguments in our manly age, and after a large survey of the merits of the cause, it would be a weakness for us always to continue fluttering in suspense. We ought therefore to stand firm in such well-established principles, and not be tempted to change and alter for the sake of every diffi- culty, or every occasional objection. We are not to be carried about with every flying doctrine, like children tossed to and fro, and wavering with the wind. It is a good thing to have the heart established with grace, not with meats; that is, in the great doctrines of the Gospel of grace, and in Jesus Christ, who is the same yesterday, to-day, and for ever; but it is not so necessary in the more minute matters of religion, such as meats and drink, forms and ceremonies, which are of less importance, and for which Scripture has not given such express directions. This is the advice of the great apostle, Eph. 14; Heb. 13 : 8, 9. In short, those truths which are the springs of daily practice should be settled as soon as we can with the exercise of our best powers after the state of manhood : but those things wherein we may possibly mistake should never be so absolutely and finally established and deter- mined as though we were infallible. 3CXVIII. But let us remember also, that though the CAUSES AND EFFECTS. L63 Gospel be an infallible revelation, we are but fallible in- terpreters when we determine the sense even of some important propositions written there; and therefore, though we seem to be established in the belief of any particular sense of Scripture and though there may be just calls of Providence to profess and subscribe it, yet there is no need that we should resolve or promise, subscribe or swear, never to change our mind, since it is possible, in the nature and course of things, we may meet with such a solid and substantial objection as may give us a quite different view of things from what we once imagined, and we may lay before us sufficient evidence of the contrary. We may happen to find a fairer light cast over the same Scriptures and see reason to alter our sentiments even in some points of moment. Sic sentio, sic sentiam, i. e., so I believe, and so I will be- lieve, is the prison of the soul for life-time and a bar against all the improvements of the mind. To impose such a profession on other men in matters not absolutely necessary, and not absolutely certain, is a criminal usur- pation and tyranny over faith and conscience, and which none has power to require but an infallible dictator. CHAPTEE XV. OF INQUIRING! INTO CAUSES AND EFFECTS. Some effects are found out by their causes, and some causes by their effects. Let us consider both these. J. When we are inquiring into the cause of any particular effect or appearance, either in the world of nature, or in the civil or moral concerns of men, Ave may follow this method: 1. Consider what effects or appearances you have known of a kindred nature, and what have been the certain and 164 CAUSES AND EFFECTS. real causes of them ; for like effects have generally like causes, especially when they are found in the same sort of subjects. 2. Consider what are the several possible eauses which may produce such an effect, and find out by some circum- stances how many of those possible causes are excluded in this particular case : Thence proceed by degrees to the probable causes, till a more close attention and inspec- tion shall exclude some of them also, and lead you gradually to the real and certain cause. 3. Consider what things preceded such an event or appearance, which might have any influence upon it; and though we can not certainly determine the cause of any thing only from its going before the effect, yet among the many forerunners we may probably light upon the true cause by further and more particular inquiry. 4. Consider whether one cause be sufficient to produce the effect, or whether it does not require a concurrence of several causes; and then endeavor as far as possible to adjust the degrees of influence that each cause might have in producing the effect, and the proper agency and influence of each of them therein. So in natural philosophy, if I would find what are prin- ciples or causes of that sensation which we call heat when I stand near the fire; here I shall find it is necessary that there be an agency of the particles of fire on my flesh, either mediately by themselves, or at least by the intermediate air; there must be a particular sort of motion and vellication impressed upon my nerves ; there must be a derivation of that motion to the brain; and there must be an attention of my soul to this motion; if either of these are wanting, the sensation of heat will not be produced. So in the moral ivorld, if I inquire into the revolution of a state or kingdom, perhaps 1 find it brought about by CAUSES AND EFFECTS. L65 the tyranny and folly of a prince, or by the disaffection of his own subjects; and this disaffection and opposition may arise either upon the account of impositions in religion, or injuries relating to their civil rights; or the revolution may be effected by the invasion of a foreign army, or by the opposition of some person at home or abroad that lays claim to the government, etc., or a hero who would guard the liberties of the people; or by many of these concurring together: then we must adjust the influences of each as wisely as we can, and not ascribe the whole event to one of them alone. II. When we are inquiring into the effects of any particular cause or causes, we may follow this method: 1. Consider diligently the nature of every cause apart, and observe what effect every part or property of it will tend to produce. 2. Consider the causes united together in their several natures, and ways of operation: inquire how far the powers or properties of one will hinder or promote the effects of the other, and wisely balance the propositions of their influence. 3. Consider what the subject is, in or upon which the cause is to operate : for the same cause on different sub- jects will oftentimes produce different effects ; as the sun which softens wax will harden clay. 4. Be frequent and diligent in making all proper ex- periments, in setting such causes at work, ivhose effects you desire to know, and putting together in an orderly manner such things as are most likely to produce some useful effects, according to the best survey you can take of all the concurring causes and circumstances. 5. Observe carefully all the events which happen either by an occasional concurrence of various causes, or by the industrious applications of knowing men : and when you, see any happy effect certainly produced, and often re- 1GG CATJSES AND EFFECT^. peated, treasure it up, together with the known causes of it, amongst your improvements. 0. Take a just survey of all the circumstances which at- tend the operation of any cause or causes, whereby any special effect is produced : and find out as far as possible how far any of those circumstances had a tendency either to obstruct, promote or change those operations, and consequently how far the effect might be influenced by them. In this manner physicians practice and improve their skill. They consider the various known effects of par- ticular herbs or drugs, they meditate what will be the effects of their composition, and whether the virtues of the one will exalt or diminish the force of the other, or correct any of its nocent qualities. Then they observe the native constitution, and the present temper or cir- cumstances of the patient, and what is likely to be the effect of such a medicine on such a patient. And in all uncommon cases they make wise and cautious experi- ments, and nicely observe the effects of particular com- pound medicines on different constitutions and in differ- ent diseases, and by these treasures of just observations they grow up to an honorable degree of skill in the art of healing. Bo the preacher considers the doctrines and reasons, the precepts, the promises and threatenings of the word of God, and what are the natural effects of them upon the mind; he considers what is the natural ten- dency of such a virtue, or such a vice ; he is well ap- prised that the representation of some of these things may convince the understanding, some may terrify the conscience, some may allure the slothful, and some en- courage the desponding mind; he observes the temper of his hearers, or of any particular person that converses with him about things sacred, and he judges what will be the effects of each representation on such persons ; he METHODS OF TEACHING. 1(57 reviews and recollects what have been the effects of some special parts and methods of his ministry; and by a careful survey of all these he attains greater degrees of skill in his sacred employment. Note: In all these cases we must distinguish those causes and effects which are naturally and necessarily connected with each other, from those which have only an accidental or contingent connection. Even in those causes where the effect is but contingent, we may some- times arrive at a very high degree of probability ; yet we can not arrive at such certainty as where the causes operate by an evident and natural necessity, and the effects necessarily follow the operation. CHAPTER XVI. METHODS OF TEACHING AND READING LECTURES. I. He that has learned any thing thoroughly, in a clear and methodical manner, and has attained a distinct perception, and an ample survey of the whole subject, is generally best prepared to teach the same subject in a clear and easy method : for having acquired a large and distinct idea of it himself, and made it familiar to him by frequent meditation, reading, and occasional discourse, he is supposed to see on all sides, to grasp it, with all its appendices and relations, in one survey, and is better able to represent it to the learner in all its views, with all its properties, relations, and conse- quences. He knows which view or side of a subject to hold out first to his disciple, and how to propose to his understanding that part of it which is easiest to appre- hend ; and also knows how to set it in such a light as is most likely to allure and to assist his further inquiry. 168 METHODS OF TEACHING. II. But it is not every one who is a great scholar that always becomes the happiest teacher, even though he may have a clear conception, and a methodical as well as an extensive survey of the branches of any science. He must also be well acquainted with words, as well as ideas, in a proper variety, that when his disciple does not take in the ideas of one form of expression, he may change the phrase into several forms, till at last he hits the understanding of his scholar and enlightens it in the just idea of truth. III. Besides this, a tutor should be a person of a happy and condescending temper, who has patience to bear with a slowness of perception or want of sagacity in some learners. He should also have much candor of soul to pass a gentle censure on their impertinences, and to pity them in their mistakes, and use every mild and engaging method for insinuating knowledge into those who are willing and delight in seeking truth, as well as reclaiming those who are wandering in error. But of this I have spoken somewhat already in a former chapter, and shall have occasion to express some- what more of it shortly. IV. A very pretty and useful way .to lead a person into any particular truth is, by questions and answers, which is the Socratical method of disputation. On this account dialogues are used as a polite and pleasant mode of leading gentlemen and ladies into some of the sciences, who seek not the most accurate and methodical measure of learning. Now, the advantages of this method are very con- siderable. 1. It represents the form of a dialogue or common con versa! ion, which is a much more easy, more pleasant, and a more sprightly way of instruction, and more fit to excite the attention and sharpen the penetration of the METHODS OF TEACHING. 169 learner, than solitary reading or silent attention to a lecture. Man, being a sociable creature, delights more in conversation, and learns better this way, if it could always he wisely and happily practiced. 2. This method hath something very obliging in it, and carries a very humble and condescending air, when he that instructs seems to be the inquirer, and seeks infor- mation from him who learns. 3. It leads the learner into the knowledge of truth as it were by his own invention, which is a very pleasing thing to human' nature : and by questions pertinently and artificially proposed, it does as effectually draw him on to discover Ms own mistakes, which he is much more easily persuaded to relinquish when he seems to have discovered them himself. 4. It is managed in a great measure in the form of the most easy reasoning, always arising from something as- serted or known in the foregoing answer, and so pro- ceeding to inquire something unknown in the following question, which again makes way for the next answer. Now, such an exercise is very alluring and entertaining to the understanding, while its own reasoning powers are all along employed, and that without labor or diffi- culty, because, the querist finds out and proposes all the intermediate ideas or middle terms. V. But the most useful, and perhaps the most ex- cellent way of instructing students in any of the sciences, is by reading lectures, as tutors in the academy do to their pupils. The first work is to choose a book well written, which contains a short scheme or abstract of that science, or at least it should not be a very copious and diffusive treatise. Or if the tutor knows not any such book al- ready written, he should draw up an abstract of that science himself, containing the most substantial and im- 170 METTTODS OF TEACHING. portant parts of it, disposed in such a method as he best approves. Let a chapter or section of this be read daily by the learner, on which the tutor should paraphrase in this manner, namely : VI. He should explain both words and ideas more largely ; and especially what is dark and difficult should be opened and illustrated, partly by various forms of speech, and partly by apt similitudes and ex- amples. Where the sense of the author is dubious, it must also be fixed and determined. Where the arguments are strong and cogent, they should be enforced by some further paraphrase, and the truth of the inferences should be made plainly to appear. Where the arguments are weak and insufficient, they si 1 on Id be either confirmed or rejected as useless ; and new arguments, if need be, should bo added to support that doctrine. What is treated very concisely in the author should be amplified : and where several things are laid closely together, they must be taken to pieces and opened by parts. Where the tutor differs from the author which he reads, he should gently point out and confute his mis- takes. Where the method and order of the book is just and happy, it should be pursued and commended ; where it is defective and irregular, it should be corrected. The most necessary, the most remarkable and useful parts of that treatise, or of that science, should be pecu- liarly recommended to the learners and pressed upon them that they would retain it in memory ; and what is more necessary or superfluous should be distinguished, lest the learner should spend too much time in the more needless parts of a science. methods of teaching: 17 l The various cuds, uses, and services of that science, or <>l" any part of it, should also be declared and exem- plified, as far as the tutor hath opportunity and furni- ture to doit; particularly in mathematics and natural philosophy. And if there be any thing remarkably beautiful or defective in the style of the writer, it is proper for the tutor to make a just remark upon it. While he is reading and explaining any particular treatise to his pupils, he may compare the different edi- tions of the same book, or different writers upon the same subject ; he should inform them where that subject is treated by other authors which they may peruse, and lead his disciples thereby to a further elucidation, con- firmation, or improvement of that theme of discourse in which he is instructing them. VII. It is alluring and agreeable to the learner also, now and then, to be entertained with some historical re- marks on any occurrences or useful stories which the tutor has met with, relating to the several parts of such a science ; provided he does not put off his pupils merely with such stories, and neglect to give them a solid and rational information of the theme in hand. Teachers should endeavor, as far as possible, to join profit and pleasure together, and mingle delight with their in- structions, but at the same time they must take heed that they do not merely amuse the ears and gratify the fancy of their disciples without enriching their minds. In reading lectures of instruction, let the teacher be very solicitous that the learners take up his meaning ; and therefore he should frequently inquire whether he expresses himself intelligibly ? whether they understand his sense, and take in all his ideas as he endeavors to convey them in his own forms of speech? VIII. It is necessary that he who instructs others 172 METHODS of TEACHING. should use the most proper style for the conveyance of his ideas easily into the minds of those who hear him; and though in teaching the sciences, a person is not con- fined to the same rules by which we must govern our language in conversation, for he must necessarily make use of many terms of art and hard words, yet he should never use them merely to show his learning, nor affect sounding language without necessity, a caution which we shall further inculcate anon. I think it very convenient and proper, if not absolutely necessary, that when a tutor reads a following lecture to his pupils, he should run over the foregoing lecture in questions proposed to them, and by this menus acquaint himself with their daily i^roncieney. It is in vain for the learner to object, Surely we are not school- boys, to say our lessons again ; we came to be taught, not to be catechised and examined. But, alas! how is it possible for a teacher to proceed in his instructions, if he knows not how far the learner takes in and remembers what he has been taught 1 Besides, I must generally believe it is sloth or idleness, it is real ignorance, incapacity, or unreasonable pride, that makes a learner refuse to give his teacher an account how far he has profited by his last instructions. For want of this constant examination young gentlemen have spent some idle and useless years, even under daily labors and inspections of a learned teacher ; and they have re- turned from the academy without the gain of any one science, and even with the shameful loss of their classical learning, that is, the knowledge of Greek and Latin, which they had learned in the grammar school. IX. Let the teacher always accommodate himself to the genius, temper, and capacity of his disciples, and practice various methods of prudence to allure, persuade, and assist every one of them in their pursuit of knowledge. METHODS OF TEACHING. 173 Where the scholar has less capacity, let the teacher enlarge his illustrations; let him search and find out where the learner sticks, what is the difficulty, and thus let him help the laboring intellect. When the learner manifests a forward genius and a sprightly curiosity by frequent inquiries, let the teacher oblige such an inquisitive soul by satisfying those ques- tions as far as may be done with decency and con- venience ; and when these inquiries are unseasonable, let him not silence the young inquirer with a magisterial rebuff, but with much candor and gentleness postpone those questions, and refer them to a proper hour. X. Curiosity is a useful spring of knowledge : it should be encouraged in children, and awakened by frequent and familiar methods of talking with them. It should be indulged in youth, but not without a prudent moderation. In those who have too much, it should be limited by a wise and gentle restraint or delay, lest by wandering after every thing, they learn nothing to per- fection. In those who have too little, it should be excited, lest they grow stupid, narrow -spirited, self-satis- fied, and never attain a treasure of ideas, or an amplitude of understanding. Let not the teacher demand or expect things too sublime and difficult from the humble, modest, and fearful disciple : and where such a one gives a just and happy answer, even to plain and easy questions, let him have words of commendation and love ready for him. Let him encourage every spark of kindling light, till it grows up to bright evidence and confirmed knowledge. XL When he finds a lad pert, positive, and pre- suming, let the tutor take every just occasion to show him his error; let him set the absurdity in complete light before him, and convince him by a full demon - st ration of his mistake, till he sees and feels it, and learns to be modest and humble. 174 METHODS OF TEACHING. XTI. A teacher should not only observe the different spirit and humor among his scholars, but he should watch the various efforts of their reason and growth of their understanding. lie should practice in his young nursery of learning as a skillful gardener does in his vegetable dominions, and apply prudent methods of cultivation to every plant. Let him with a discreet and gentle hand nip or prune the irregular shoots ; let him guard and encourage the tender buddings of the understanding, till they be raised to a blossom, and let him kindly cherish the younger fruits. The tutor should take every occasion to instill knowl- edge into his disciples, and make use of every occurrence of life to raise some profitable conversation upon it ; he should frequently inquire something of his disciples that may set their young reason to work, and teach them how to form inferences and to draw one proposition out of another. XIII. Reason being that faculty of the mind which he has to deal with in his pupils, let him endeavor by all proper and familiar methods to call it into exercise, and to enlarge the powers of it. He should take frequent opportunities to show them when an idea is clear or con- fused, when the proposition is evident or doubtful, and when an argument is feeble or strong. And by this means their minds will be so formed, that whatsoever he proposes with evidence and strength of reason they will readily receive. When any uncommon appearance arise in the natural, moral, or political world, he should invite and instruct them to make their remarks on it, and give them the best reflections of his own for the improvement of their minds. XIV. He should by all means make it appear that he loves his pupils, and that he seeks nothing so <)K AN INSTRUCTIVE STYLE. L75 much as their increase of knowledge and their growth in all valuable acquirements; this will engage 1 heir affection to his person, and procure a just attention to his Lectures. X V. And indeed there is but little hope that a teacher should obtain any success in his instructions, unless those that hear him have some good degree of esteem and respect for his person and character. And here I can not but take notice by the way, that it is a matter of infinite and unspeakable injury to the people of any town or parish where the minister lies under con- tempt. If he has procured it by his own conduct he is doubly criminal, because of the injury he does to the souls of them that hear him : but if this contempt and reproach be cast upon him by the wicked, malicious, and unjust censures of men, they must bear all the ill conse- quences of receiving no good by his labors, and will be accountable hereafter to the great and divine Judge of all. It would be very necessary to add in this place (if tutors were not well apprised of it before) that since learners are obliged to seek a divine blessing on their studies by frequent prayer to the God of all wisdom, their tutors should go before them in this pious practice and make daily addresses to Heaven for the success of their instructions CHAPTER XVII. OF AN INSTRUCTIVE STYLE. I. The most necessary and useful character of a style fit for instruction is that it be plain, perspicuous and easy. And here I shall first point out all those errorsin a style which diminish or destroy the perspicuity 17G OF AN INSTRUCTIVE STYLE. of it, and then mention a few directions how to obtain a perspicuous and easy style. II. The errors of style, which must be avoided by teachers, are these that follow: 1. The use of many foreign tvords, which are not suf- ficiently naturalized and mingled with the language which we speak or write. It is true, that in teaching the sciences in English, we must sometimes use words bor- rowed from the Greek and Latin; for we have not in English, names for a variety of subjects which belong to learning; but when a man affects, upon all occasions, to bring in long-sounding words from the ancient languages, without necessity, and mingles French and other outlandish terms and phrases, where plain English would serve as well, he betrays a vain and foolish genius, unbecoming a teacher. 2. Avoid a fantastic learned style, borrowed from the various sciences, where the subject and matter do not require the use of them. Do not affect terms of art on every occasion, nor seek to show your learning by sound- ing words and dark phrases; this is properly called pedantry* It would be well if the quacks alone had a patent for this language. 3. There are some fine affected words tJiat are used only at court ; and some peculiar phrases that are sounding or gaudy, and belong only to the theater; these should not come into the lectures of instruction ; the language of poets has too much of metaphor in it to lead mankind into clear and distinct ideas of things: the business of poesy is to strike the soul with a glaring light, and to urge the passions into a flame by splendid shows, by strong images, and a pathetic vehemence of style: but it is another sort of speech that is best suited to lead tin' calm inquirer into just conceptions of things. 4. There is a mean vulgar style, borrowed from the lower OF AN INSTRUCTIVE STYLE. 177 nuilcs of mankind, the basest characters, and meanest affairs of life; this is also to be avoided; for it should be supposed, that persons of liberal education have not been bred up within the hearing of such language, and con- sequently they can not understand it; besides that it would create very offensive ideas, should we borrow even similes for illustration from the scullery, the dung- hill, and the jakes. 5. An obscure and mysterious manner of expression and cloudy language is to be avoided. Some persons have been led by education, or by some foolish prejudices, into a dark and unintelligible way of thinking and speaking; and this continues with them all their lives, and clouds and confounds their ideas. Perhaps some of these may have been blessed with a great and comprehensive genius, with sub- lime natural parts, and a torrent of ideas flowing in upon them; yet for want of clearness in the manner of their conception and language, they sometimes drown their own subject of discourse, and overwhelm their argument in darkness and perplexity: such preachers as have read much of the mystical divinity of the papists and imitated their manner of expression, have many times buried a fine understanding under the obscurity of such a style. 6. A long and tedious style is very improper for a teacher, for this also lessens the perspicuity of it. He that would gain a happy talent for the instruction of others must know how to disentangle and divide his thoughts, if too many of them are ready to crowd into one paragraph \ and let him rather speak three sentences distinctly and perspicuously, which the hearer receives at once with his ears and his soul, than crowd all the thoughts into one sentence, which the hearer has for- gotten before he can understand it. 12 178 OF AN INSTRUCTIVE STYLE. III. But this leads me to the next thing I proposed, whieh was to mention some methods whereby such a perspicuity of style may be obtained as is proper for instruction. 1. Accustom yourself to read those authors icho think and write with great clearness and evidence, such as convey their ideas into your understanding as fast as your eye or tongue can run over their sentences : this will imprint upon the mind a habit of imitation ; we shall learn the style with which we are very conversant, and practice it with ease and success. 2. Get a distinct and comprehensive knowledge of the subject which you treat of, survey it on all sides, and make yourself perfect master of it ; then you will have all the sentiments that relate to it in your view and under your command ; and your tongue will very easily clothe those ideas with words which your mind has first made so familiar and easy to itself. Scribendi recte sapere est et principium et fons : Verbaque provisani rem non in vita sequent ur. Hor. de Art Poetica. Good teaching from good knowledge springs; Words will make haste to follow things. 3. Be ivell skilled in the language which you speak, ac- quaint yourself with all the idioms and special phrases of it, which are necessary to convey the needful ideas on the subject of which you treat in the most various and most easy maimer to the understanding of the hearer : the variation of a phrase in several forms is of admirable use to instruct; it is like turning all sides of the subject to view ; and if the learner happen not to take in the ideas in one form of speech, probably another may be success- fill for that end. Upon this account I have always thought it a useful manner of instruction, which is used in some Latin schools, which they call variation. Take sonic plain sentence in the English OF AN INSTRUCTIVE STYLE. 170 tongue, and turn it into many forms in Latin ; as for instance, A wolf let into the sheepfold will devour the sheep ; If you let a wolf into the fold, the sheep will be devoured: The wolf will devour the sheep, if the sheepfold be left open : If the fold be not shut carefully, the wolf will devour the sheep. The sheep will be devoured by the wolf, if it find the way into the fold open : There is no defense of the sheep from the wolf, un- less it be kept out of the fold : A slaughter will be made among the sheep, if the wolf can get into the fold. Thus by turning the active voice of verbs into the passive, and the nomina- tive case of nouns into the accusative, and altering the connec- tion of short sentences by different adverbs or conjunctions, and by ablative cases with a preposition brought instead of the nominative, or by participles sometimes put instead of the verbs, the negation of the contrary instead of the assertion of the thing first proposed, a great variety of forms of speech w T ill be created which shall express the same sense. 4. Acquire a variety of words, a copia verborum. Let your memory be rich in synonymous terms, or words express- ing* the same thing : this w T ill not only attain the same happy effect with its varation of phrases in the foregoing direction, but it will add a beauty also to your style, by securing you from an appearance of tautology, or repeat- ing the same words too often, which sometimes may dis- gust the ear of the learner. 5. Learn the art of shortening your sentences by dividing a long complicated period into two or three small ones: When others connect and join two other sentences in one by relative pronouns, as, which, whereof, wherein, whereto, etc., and by parentheses frequently inserted, do you rather divide them into distinct periods ; or at least, if they must be united, let it be done rather by conjunc- tions and copulative, that they may appear like distinct sentences, and give less confusion to the hearer or reader. I know no method so effectual to learn what I mean as to take now and then some page of an author, w T ho is guilty of such a long involved parenthetical style, and translate it into plainer English, by dividing the ideas or the sentences asunder, and multiplying the periods, till 180 the language becomes smooth and easy, and intelligible at first reading. 0. Talk frequently to young and ignorant persons upon subjects which are new and unknown to them, and be diligent to inquire whether they understand you or not : this will put you upon changing your phrases and forms of speech in a variety, till you can hit their capacity, and convey your idea into their understanding. CHAPTER XVIII. OF CONVINCING OTHER PERSONS OF ANY TRITTII, OR DE- LIVERING THEM FROM ERRORS AND MISTAKES. I. When we are arrived at a jast and rational estab- lishment in an opinion, whether it relate to religion or common life, we are naturally desirous of bringing all the world into our sentiments ; and this proceeds from the affectation and pride of superior influence irpon the judgment of our fellow creatures, much more frequently than it does from a sense of duty, or a love of truth ; so vicious and corrupt is human nature. Yet there is such a thing to be found as an honest and sincere delight in propagating truth, arising from a dutiful re- gard to the honors of our Maker, and a hearty love to mankind. Now, if we would be successful in our at- tempts to convince men of their errors and promote the truth, let us divest ourselves, as far as possible, of that pride and affectation which I mentioned before ; and seek to acquire that disinterested love to men, and zeal for the truth, which will naturally lead us into the best methods to promote it. II. And here the following directions may be useful : OR OELrVTCRTNO FROM ERROR. 181 1. Tf you would convince a person of his mistake, choose a proper place, a happy hour., and the fittest concurrent circumstance for this purpose. Do not unseasonably set upon him when he is engaged in the midst of other affairs, but when his soul is at liberty and at leisure to hear and attend. Accost him not upon that subject when his spirit is ruffled or discomposed with any occur- rences of life, and especially when he has heated his passions in the defense of a contrary opinion ; but rather seize some golden opportunity, when some occurrences of life may cast a favorable aspect upon the truth of which you will convince him, or which may throw some dark and unhappy color or consequences upon that error from which you would fain deliver him. There are in life some mollissima tempora fandi, some very agreeable moments of addressing a person, which, if rightly man- aged, may render your attempts much more successful, and his conviction easy and pleasant. 2. Make it appear, by your whole conduct to the person you would teach, that you mean Mm well ; that your design is not to triumph over his opinion, nor expose his ignor- ance, or his incapacity of defending what he asserts. Let him see that it is not your aim to advance your own character as a disputant ; nor to set yourself up for an instructor of mankind ; but that you love him and seek his true interest ; and do not only assure him of this in words, when you are entering on an argument with him, but let the whole of your conduct to him at all times demonstrate your real friendship for him. Truth and argument come with particular force from the mouth of one whom we trust and love. 3. The softest and gentlest address to the erroneous is the best way to convince them of their mistake. Sometimes it is necessary to represent to your opponent that he is not far from the truth, and that you would fain draw him a 182 OF CONVINCING OF TRUTH, little nearer to it. Commend and establish whatever lie says that is just and true, as our blessed Saviour li- the young scribe, when he answered well concerning the two great commandments, " Thou art not far," says our Lord, "from the kingdom of heaven," Mark 12 : 34. Imitate the mildness and conduct of the blessed Jesus. Come as near your opponent as you can in all your propositions, and yield to him as much as you dare in a consistence with truth and justice. It is a very great and fatal mistake in persons who at- tempt to convince and reconcile others to their party, when they make the difference appear as wide as possible; this is shocking to any person who. is to be convinced ; ho will choose rather to keep and maintain his own opinions, if he can not come into yours without re- nouncing and abandoning every thing that he believed before. Human nature must be flattered a little as well as reasoned with, that so the argument may be able to come at his understanding, which otherwise will be thrust off at a distance. If you charge a man with nonsense and absurdities, with heresy and self-contradiction, you take a very wrong step toward convincing him. Always remember that error is not to be rooted out of the mind of man by reproaches and railing, by flashes of wit and biting jests, by loud exclamations of sharp ridi- cule : long declamations, and triumph over our neigh- bor's mistake, will not prove the way to convince him ; these are signs either of a bad cause, or a want of argu- ments or capacity for the defense of a good one. 4. Set therefore a constant watch over yourself, lest you grow warm in dispute before you are aware. The j)assions uever clear the understanding, but raise darkness, clouds, and confusion in the soul : human nature is like water which has mud at the bottom of it ; it may be clear when it is calm and undisturbed, and the ideas, like pebbles. OH DELIVERING FROM ERROR. 183 appear bright at the bottom ; but when once it is stirred and moved by passion, the mud rises uppermost, and spreads confusion and darkness over all the ideas : you can not set things in so just and so clear a light before the eyes of your neighbor, while your own conceptions are clouded with heat and passion. Besides, when your own spirits are a little disturbed, and your wrath is awakened, this naturally kindles the same fire in your correspondent and prevents him from taking in your ideas, were they ever so clear ; for his passions are engaged all on a sudden for the defense of his own mistakes, and they combat as fiercely as yours do, which perhaps may be awakened on the side of truth. To provoke a person whom you would convince, not only arouses his anger and sets it against your doctrine, but it directs its resentment against your person, as well as against all your instructions and arguments. You must treat an opponent like a friend, if you would persuade him to learn any thing from you ; and this is one great reason why there is so little success on either side between two disputants, or controversial writers, because they are so ready to interest their passions in the subject of contest, and thereby to prevent the mutual light that might be given and received on either side : ambition, indignation, and a professional zeal, reign on both sides ; victory is the point designed, while truth is pretended ; and truth oftentimes perishes in the fray, or retires from the field of battle ; the combatants end just where they began, their understandings hold fast the same opinions, perhaps with this disadvantage, that they are a little more obstinate and rooted in them, without fresh reason ; and they generally come off with the loss of temper and charity. 5. Neither attempt nor hope to convince a person of his mistake by any penal methods or severe usage. There is no 184 OF CONVINCING OF TRVTII, light brought into the mind by all the lire and sword, and bloody persecutions, that we're ever introduced into the world. One would think both the princes, the priests, and the people, the learned and the unlearned, the great and the mean, should have all by this time seen the folly and madness of seeking to propagate the truth by the laws of cruelty : we compel a beast to the yoke by blows, because the ox and the ass have no under- standing : but intellectual powers are not to be fettered and compelled at this rate. Men can not believe what they will, nor change their religion and their sentiments as they please : they may be made hypocrites by the forms of severity and constrained to profess what they do not believe ; they may be forced to comply with ex- ternal practices and ceremonies contrary to their own con- sciences ; but this can never please God, nor profit men. 6. In order to convince another, you should always make choice of those arguments that are best suited to his un- derstanding and capacity, his genius and temper, his state, station, and circumstances. If I were to persuade a ploughman of the truth of any form of church govern- ment, it should not be attempted by the use of Greek and Latin fathers ; but from the word of God, the light of nature, and the common reason of things. 7. Arguments should always be projiosed in such a manner as may lead the mind onward to perceive the truth in a clear and agreeable light, as well as to constrain the as- sent by the power of reasoning. Clear ideas, in many cases, are as useful towards conviction as a well-formed and unanswerable syllogism. S. Allow the person you desire to instruct a reasonal>lc time to enter into the force of yon r arguments. When you have declared your own sentiments in the brightest man- ner of illustration and enforced them with the most convincing arguments, you are not to suppose that your OR DELIVERING FROM ERROR. 185 friend should be immediately convinced and receive the truth : habit mU' in a particular way of thinking, as well as in most other things, obtains the force of nature ; and you can not expect to wean a man from his accustomed errors but by slow degrees and by his own assistance ; entreat him therefore not to judge on the sudden, nor determine against you at once ; but that he would please to review your scheme, reflect upon your arguments with all the impartiality he is capable of, and take time to think these over again at large; at least, that he would be disposed to hear you speak yet further on this subject without pain or aversion. Address him therefore in an obliging manner and say, I am not so fond as to think I have placed the subject in such lights as to throw you on a sudden into anew track of thinking, or to make you immediately lay aside your present opinions or designs ; all that I hope is, that some hint or other which I have given is capable of being improved by you to your own conviction, or possibly it may lead you to such a train of reasoning, as in time to effect a change in your thoughts. Which hint leads me to add : 9. Labor as much as possible to make the person you would teach his own instructor. Human nature may be allured, by a secret pleasure and pride in its own reason- ing, to seem to find out by itself the very thing that you would teach ; and there are some persons that have so much of this natural bias toward self rooted in them tliat they can never be convicned of a mistake by the plainest and strongest arguments to the contrary, though the demonstration glare in their faces ; but they may be tempted, by such gentle insinuations, to follow a track of thought which you propose, till they have wound themselves out of their own error and led themselves hereby into your own opinion, if you do but let it appear 18G OF CONVINCING OF TEUTH, that they are under their own guidance rather than yours. And perhaps there is nothing which shows more dexterity of address than this secret influence over the minds of others, which they do not discern even while they follow it. 10. If you can gain the main point in question, be not very solicitous about the nicety witJi which it shall be expressed. Mankind is so vain a thing, that it is not willing to derive from another; and though it can not have everything from itself, yet it would seem at least to mingle something of its own with what it derives elsewhere : therefore, when you have set your sentiment in the fullest light, and proved in the most effectual manner, an opponent will bring in some frivilous and useless distinction, on purpose to change the form of words in the question, and acknowledge that he receives your propositions in such a sense, and in such a manner of expression, though he can not receive it in your terms and phrases. Vanillus will confess he is now convinced, that a man who behaves well in the state ought not to be punished for his re- ligion, but yet he will not consent to allow a universal tolera- tion of all religions which do not injure the state, which is the proposition 1 had been proving. Well, let Vanillus, therefore, use his own language ; I am glad he is convinced of the truth ; he shall have leave to dress it in his ow T n way. 11. "When you have labored to instruct a person in some controverted truth, and yet he retains some preju- dice against it, so that he doth not yield to the convincing force of your arguments, you may sometimes have happy success in convincing him of that truth, by setting him to read a weak author who writes against it; a young reader will find such pleasure in being able to answer the argu- ments of the opposer, that he will drop his former pre- judices against the truth and yield to the power and evidence of your reason. I confess this looks like sett i ng up one prejudice to overthrow another; but where pre- OR DELIVERING FROM ERROR. 181 jndices can not be fairly removed by the dint of reason, th»' wisest and best of teachers will sometimes find it necessary to make a way for reason and truth to take place, by this contrast of prejudices. 12. When our design is to convince a whole family or community of persons of any mistake and to lead them into any truth, Ave may justly suppose there are various reigning prejudices among them ; and therefore it is not safe to attempt, nor so easy to effect it, by addressing the whole number at once. Such a method has been often found to raise a sudden alarm and has produced a violent opposition even to the most fair, pious, and use- ful proposal; so that he who made the motion could never carry his point. We must therefore first make as sure as we can of the most intelligent and learned, at least the most leading persons among them, by addressing them apart prudently and offering proper reasons, till they are convinced and engaged on the side of truth ; and these may with more success- apply themselves to others of tlie same community : yet the original proposer should not neglect to make a distinct application to all the rest, so far as circumstances admit. Where a thing is to be determined by a number of votes, he should labor to secure a good majority ; and then take care that the most proper persons should move and argue the matter in public, lest it be quashed in the very first proposal by some prejudice against the proposer. So unhappily are our circumstances situated in this world, that if truth, and justice, and goodness, could put on human forms, and descend from heaven to propose the most divine and useful doctrines, and bring with them the clearest evidence, and publish them at once to a multitude whose prejudices are engaged against them, 188 USE YND ABUSE OF AUTHORITY. the proposal would be vain and fruitless, and would neither convince nor persuade; so necessary it is to join art and dexterity, together with the force of reason, to convince mankind of truth, unless we came furnished with miracles or omnipotence to create a conviction. CHAPTEE XIX. OF AUTHORITY. OF THE ABUSE OF IT: AND OF ITS REAL AND PROPER USE AND SERVICE. I. The influence which other persons have upon our opinions is usually called authority. The power of it is so great and widely extensive, that there is scarce any person in the world entirely free from the impres- sions of it, even after their utmost watchfulness and care to avoid it. Our parents and tutors, yea, our very nurses, determine a multitude of our sentiments, our friends, our neighbors, the custom of the country where we dwell, and the established opinions of mankind, form our belief; the great, the wise, the pious, the learned, and the ancient; the king, the priest, and the philosopher, are characters of mighty efficacy to persuade us to re- ceive what they dictate. These may be ranked under different heads of prejudice, but they are all of a kin- dred nature, and may be reduced to this one spring or head of authority. Cicero was well acquainted with the unhappy influences of authority, and complains of it in his lirst book Dc Natard Dcorum: "In disputes and controversies (says he) it is not so much the authors or patrons of any opinion, as the weight and force of argument, which should influence the mind. The authority of those who teach is a frequent hindrance to those who learn, because they utterly neglect to exercise their own judgment, taking for granted whatsoever others whom they reverence have judged for them. T can by no means approve what we learn from the Pythagoreans, that if any thing as- USI-] AND A.BUSE OF AUTHORITY. 189 serted in disputation was questioned, (hoy were wont to answer, Ipse dixit, that is, He himself .said so, meaning Pythagoras! So far did prejudice prevail, (hat authority without reason was sufficient to determine disputes and to establish, truth." All human authority, though it be never so ancient, though it hath had universal sovereignty, and swayed all the learned and vulgar world for some thousands of years, yet has no certain and undoubted claim to truth : nor is it any violation of good manners to enter a caveat with due decency against its pretended dominion. II. Though it be necessary to guard against the evil inlluences of authority and the prejudices derived thence, because it has introduced thousands of errors and mischiefs into the world, yet there are three em- inent and remarkable cases wherein authority or the sentiments of other persons must or will determine the judgment and practice of mankind. 1. Parents are appointed to judge for their children in their younger years, and instruct them what they should practice in civil and religious life. This is a dictate of nature, and doubtless it would have been so in a state of innocence. It is impossible that children should be capable of judging for themselves before their minds are furnished with a competent number of ideas, before they are acquainted with any principles and rules of just judgment, and before their reason is grown up to any degrees of maturity and proper exercises upon such subjects. I will not say that a child ought to believe nonsense and impossibility because his father bids him ; for so far as the impossibillity appears he can not believe it : nor will I say he ought to assent to all the false opinions of his parents, or to practice idolatry and murder, or mischief, at their command ; yet a child knows not any better way to find out what he should believe, and what he should practice, before he can possibly judge for himself, than 190 USE AND ABUSE OF AUTHORITY. to run to his parents and receive their sentiments and their directions. You will say this is hard indeed, that the child of a heathen idolater, or a cruel cannibal, is laid under a sort of necessity by nature of sinning against the light of nature ; I grant it is hard indeed, but it is the law of nature, namely, That a parent should judge for his child ; but if the parent judges ill, the child is greatly exposed by it; and from the equity and goodness of God, we may reasonably infer, that the great Judge of all will do right : he will balance the ignorance and incapacity of the child with the criminal nature of the offense in those puerile instances, and will not punish beyond just demerit. Besides, what could God, as a Creator, do better for children in their minority, than to commit them to the care and instruction of parents % None are supposed to be so much concerned for the happiness of children as their parents are ; therefore it is the safest step to happiness, according to the original law of creation, to follow their directions, their parents' reason acting for them before they had reason of their own in proper ex- ercise; nor indeed is there any better general rule by which children are capable of being governed, though in many particular cases it may lead them far astray from virtue and happiness. If children by Providence be cast under some happier instructions, contrary to their parents' erroneous opinion, I can not say it is the duty of such children to follow error when they discern it to be error, because their father believes it : what I said before is to be interpreted only of those that are under the immediate care and edu- cation of their parents, and not yet arrived at years capable of examination. 1 know not how these can be freed from receiving the dictates of parental authority in their youngest years, except by immediate or divine inspiration. USI<; AND ABUSE OF AUTHORITY. 101 It is hard to say at wliat exact time of life the child is exempted from the sovereignty of parental dictates. Perhaps it is much, juster to suppose that this sovereignty diminishes by degrees, as the child grows in under- standing and capacity, and is more and more capable of exerting his own intellectual powers, than to limit this matter by months and years. When childhood and youth are so far expired that the reasoning faculties are grown up to any just measures of maturity, it is certain that persons ought to begin to in- quire into the reasons of their own faith and practice in all the affairs of life and religion : but as reason does not arrive at this power and self-sufficiency in any single moment of time, so there is no single moment when a child should at once cast off all his former beliefs and practices ; but by degrees, and in slow succession, he should examine them, as opportunity and advantage offer, and either con- firm, or doubt of, or change them, according to the leading of conscience and reason, with all its advantages of information. When we are arrived at manly age, there is no person on earth, no set or society of men whatsoever, that have power and authority given them by God, the Creator and Governor of the world, absolutely to dictate to others their opinions or practices in moral and religious life. God has given every man reason to judge for himself, in higher or lower degrees. Where less is given, less will be required. But we are justly chargeable with criminal sloth and improvement of the talents with which our Creator has instructed us, if we take all things for granted which others assert, and believe and practice all things which they dictate without due examination. 2. Another rase wherein authority must govern our assent is in many matters of fact. Here we may and ought to be determined by the declaration or narratives of other men; though I confess this is usually called testimony 192 USE AND ABUSE OF AUTHORITY. rather than authority. It is upon this foot that every sou or daughter among mankind are required to believe that such and such persons are their parents, for they can never be informed of it by the dictates of others. It is by testimony that we are to believe the laws of our country, and to pay all proper deference to the prince and to magistrates in subordinate degrees of authority, though we did not actually see them chosen, crowned, or invested with their title and character. It is by testi- mony that we are necessitated to believe there is such a city as Canterbury or York, though perhaps we have never been at either ; that there are such persons as papists at Paris and Eome, and that there are many sottish and cruel tenets in their religion. It is by testi- mony that we believe that Christianity and the books of the Bible, have been faithfully delivered down to us through many generations ,• that there was such a person as Christ our Saviour, that He wrought miracles and died on the cross, that He rose again and ascended to heaven. The authority or testimony of men, if they are wise and honest, if they had full opportunities and capacities of knowing the truth, and are free from all suspicion of deceit in relating it, might to sivay our assent ; especially ivhen multitudes concur in the same testimony, and when there are many other attending circumstances which raise the proposition which they dictate to the degree of moral certainty. But in this very case, even in matters of fact and affairs of history, we should not too easily give into all the dictates of tradition, and the pompous pretenses to the testimony of men till we have fairly examined the several things which are necessary to make up credible testimony, and to lay a just foundation for our belief. There are and have been so many falsehoods imposed upon USE AND ABUSE OF AUTHORITY. 193 inankind with specious pretenses of eye and ear wit- nesses, that should make us wisely cautious and justly sus- picious of reports ; where the concurrent signs of truth do not fairly appear, and especially where the matter is of considerable importance. And the less probable the fact testified is in itself, the greater evidence justly we may demand of the veracity of that testimony on which it claims to be admitted. 3. The last case wherein authority must govern us is when we are called to believe what persons under inspiration have dictated to us. This is not properly the authority of men, but of God Himself ; and we are obliged to believe what that authority asserts, though our reason at present may not be able, any other way, to discover the certainty or evidence of the proposition ; it is enough if our faculty of reason, in its best exercise, can discover the divine authority which has proposed it. Where doctrines of divine revelation are plainly published, together with sufficient proofs of their revelation, all mankind are bound to receive them, though they can not perfectly understand them, for we know that God is true and can not dictate falsehood. But if these pretended dictates are directly contrary to the natural faculties of understanding and reason which God has given us, we may be well assured these dictates were never revealed to us by God Himself. When persons are really influenced by authority to believe pretended mysteries in . plain opposition to reason, and yet pretend reason for what they believe, this is but a vain amusement. III. I have mentioned three classes wherein mankind must or will be determined in their sentiments, by authority; that is the case of children in their minority, in regard of the commands of their parents; the case of all men, with regard to universal, and complete, and 194 USE AND ABUSE OF AUTHORITY. sufficient testimony of matter of fact ; and the case of every person, with regard to the authority of divine revelation, and of men divinely inspired ; and under each of these I have given some such limitations and cautions as were necessary. I proceed now to mention some other cases wherein we ought to pay a great deference to the authority and sentiments of others, though we are not absolutely concluded and determined by their opinions. 1. When we begin to pass out of our minority, and to judge for ourselves in the matters of civil and religious life, ice ought to pay very great deference to the sentiments of our parents, who in time of our minority were our natural guides and directors in these matters. So in matters of science, an ignorant and unexperienced youth should pay great deference to the opinions of his instructors j and though he may justly suspend his judgment in mat- ters which his tutors dictate till he perceives sufficient evidence for them, yet neither parents nor tutors should be directly opposed without great and most evident rea- sons, such as constrain the understanding or conscience of those concerned. 2. Persons of years and Jong experience in human affairs, when they give advice in matters of prudence or civil conduct, ought to have a considerable deference paid to their authority by those that are young and have not seen the world, for it is more probable that the elder persons are in the right. 3. In the affairs of practical godliness there should be much deference paid to persons of Jong standing in virtue and piety. I confess, in the particular forms and cere- monies of religion, there may be as much bigotry and superstition among the old as the young; but in ques- tions of inward religion, and pure devotion or virtue, a man who has been long engaged in the sincere practice OF MANAGING PREJUDICES. 195 of these things, is justly presumed to know more thau a youth with all his ungoverned passions, appetites, and prejudices about him. 4. Men in their several prof essions and arts hi which they have been educated, and in which they have employed themselves all their days, must be supposed to have a greater knowledge and skill than others ; and therefore there is due respect to be paid to their judgments in those matters. 5. In matters of fact, where there is not sufficient tes- timony to constrain our assent, yet there ought to be due deference paid to the narratives of persons wise and sober, according to the degrees of their honesty, skill, and op- portunity, to acquaint themselves therewith. I confess, in many of these cases, where the proposi- tion is a mere matter of speculation, and doth not neces- sarily draw practice along with it, we may delay our assent till better evidence appear ; but where the matter is of a practical nature, and requires us to act one way or another, we ought to pay much deference to authority or testimony, and follow such probabilities where we have no certainty ; for this is the best light we have ; and surely it is better to follow such sort of guidance, where we can have no better, than to wander and fluctuate in absolute uncertainty. It is not reasonable to put out our candle and sit still in the dark, because we have not the light of sun -beams. CHAPTER XX. OF TREATING AND MANAGING THE PREJUDICES OF MEN. T. If we had nothing but the reason of men to deal with, and that reason were pure and uncorrupted, it would then be a matter of no great skill or labor to con- 10G OF MANAGING THE vince another person of common mistakes, or to persuade him to assent to plain and obvious truths. But alas! mankind stands wrapped round in errors, and en- trenched in prejudices; and every one of their opinions is supported and guarded by some thing else besides reason. A young bright genius, who has furnished himself with a variety of truths and strong arguments, but is yet unacquainted with the world, goes forth from the schools, like a knight-errant, presuming bravely to vanquish the follies of men, and to scatter light and truth through all their acquaintance : but he meets with huge giants and enchanted castles, strong preposses- sions of mind, habits, customs, education, authority, interest, together with all the various passions of men, armed and obstinate to defend their old opinions ; and he is strangely disappointed in his generous attempts. lie finds now that he must not trust to the sharpness of his steel and to the strength of his arm, but he must manage the weapons of his reason with much dex- terity and artifice, with skill and address, or he shall never be able to subdue errors and to convince mankind. II. Where prejudices are strong, there are these several methods to be practiced in order to convince persons of their mistakes and make a way for truth to enter into their mind. 1. By avoiding the power and influence of the prejudice with- out any direct attack upon it ; and this is done by choosing all the slow, soft, and distant methods of proposing your own sentiments and your arguments for them, and by degrees leading the person step by step into those truths which his prejudices would not bear if they were pro- posed at once. Perhaps your neighbor is under the influence of super- stition and bigotry in the simplicity of his soul : you PREJUDICES OF MEN. 197 must not immediately run upon him with violence and show him the absurdity or folly of his own opinions, though yon might be able to set them in a glaring light ; but you must rather begin at a distance and establish his assent to some familiar and easy propositions which have a tendency to refute his mistakes and to confirm the truth ; and then silently observe ivhat impression this makes upon, him, and proceed by slow degrees as he is able to bear ; and you must carry on the work, perhaps at dis- tant seasons of conversation : the tender or diseased eye can not bear a deluge of light at once. Therefore, we are not to consider our arguments merely according to our own notions of their force, and from thence expect the immediate conviction of others ; but we should regard how they are likely to be received by the persons we converse with ; and thus manage our reasoning, as the nurse gives a child drink by slow degrees, lest the infant should be choked, or return it all back again, if poured in too hastily. If your wine be ever so good, and you are ever so liberal in bestowing it on your neighbor, yet if his bottle,into which you pour it with freedom, has a narrow mouth, you will sooner overset the bottle than fill it with wine. 2. We may expressly allow and indulge those prejudices for a season which seem to stand against the truth, and endeavor to introduce the truth by degrees, while those prejudices are expressly allowed, till by degrees the advanced truth may of itself wear out the prejudice. When the prejudices of mankind can not be conquered at once, but they will rise up in arms against the evidence of truth, there we must make some allowances and yield to them for the present, as far as we can safely do it without real injury to truth : and if we would have any success in our endeavors to convince the world, we must practice this complaisance for the benefit of mankind. 198 OF MANAGING THE Take a student who has deeply imbibed the principles of the Peripatetics, and imagines certain immaterial beings called substantial forms to inhabit every herb, flower, mineral, metal, rire z water, etc., and to be the spring of all its properties and operations ; or take a Platonist, who believes an anima mundi, a universal soul of the world to pervade all bodies, to act in and by them according to their nature, and indeed to give them their nature and their special powers ; perhaps it may be very hard to convince these persons by argument, and con- strain them to yield up these fancies. Well then, let the one believe his universal soul, and the other go on with his notion of substantial forms, and at the same time teach them how by certain original laws of motion, and the various sizes, shapes, and situations of the parts of matter, allowing a con- tinued divine concourse in and with all, the several appear- ances in nature may be solved, and the variety of effects pro- duced, according to the corpuscular philosophy improved by Descartes, Mr. Boyle, and Sir Isaac Newton ; and when they have attained a degree of skill in this science,they will see these airy notions of theirs, these imaginary powers, to be so useless and unnecessary, that they will drop them of their own ac- cord : the Peripatetic forms will vanish from the mind like a dream, and the Platonic soul of the world will expire. I may give another instance of the same practice, where there is a prejudicate fondness of particular words and phrases. Suppose a man is educated in an unhappy form of speech, whereby lie explains some great doctrine of the Gospel, and by the means of this phrase he has imbibed a very false idea of that doctrine : yet he is so bigoted to his form of words, that he imagines if those words are omitted, the doctrine is lost. Noav if I can not possibly persuade him to part with his improper terms, I will indulge them a little, and try to explain them in a Scriptural sense, rather than let him go on in his mistaken ideas. I grant it is most proper there should be different words (as far as possible) applied to different ideas ; and this rule should never be dispensed with, if Ave had to do only with the reason of mankind ; but their various prejudices and zeal for some party phrases sometimes make it necessary that we should lead them into truth PREJUDICES OF MEN. 11)9 under the covert of their own beloved forms of speech, rather than permit them to live and die obstinate and uneonvincible in any dangerous mistake: whereas an attempt to deprive them of their old-established words would raise such a tumult within them, as to render their conviction hopeless. 3. Sometimes we may make use of the very prejudices under which a person labors in order to convince him of some particular truth, and argue with him upon his own professed principles as though they were true. This is called argwmentum ad hominem, and is another way of dealing with the prejudices of men. Suppose a Jew lies sick of a fever and is forbidden flesh by his physician ; but hearing that rabbits were provided for the dinner of the family, desired earnestly to eat of them ; and suppose he became impatient because his physician did not permit him, and he insisted upon it that it could do him no hurt. Surely rather than let hirn persist in that fancy and that desire, to the danger of his life, I would tell him that those animals were strangled, which sort of food was forbidden by the Jewish law, though I myself may believe that law is now abolished. In the same manner was Tenerilla persuaded to let Damon, her husband, prosecute a thief who broke open their house on a Sunday. At first she abhorred the thoughts of it, and re- fused it utterly, because, if the thief were condemned, ac- cording to the English law he must be hanged, whereas (said she) the law of God, in the writings of Moses, doth not appoint death to be the punishment of such criminals, but tells us that a thief should be sold for his theft. — Exod. 22: 3. But when Damon could not otherwise convince her that the thief ought to be prosecuted, he put her in mind that the theft was com- mitted on Sunday morning : now the same lav/ of Moses re- quires that the Sabbath-breaker shall surely be put to death. — Exod. 31 : 15 ; Numb. 15 : 35. This argument prevailed with Tenerilla, and she consented to the prosecution. Encrates used the same means of conviction when he saw a Muhommedan drink wine to excess, and heard him maintain the lawfulness and pleasure of drunkenness ; Encrates re- minded him that his own prophet Mahomet had utterly for- bidden all wine to his followers, and the good man restrained his vicious appetite by this superstition, when he could not otherwise convince him that drunkenness was unlawful, nor withhold him from excess. 200 OF MANAGING PREJUDICES. When we find any person obstinately persisting in a mistake in opposition to all reason, especially if the mis- take be very injurious or pernicious, and we knoAV this person will hearken to the sentiment or authority of some favorite name, it is needful sometimes to use the opinion and authority of that favorite person, since that is likely to be regarded much more than reason. I con- fess I am almost ashamed to speak of using any influence of authority while I would teach the art of reasoning. But in some cases it is better that poor, silly, perverse, obstinate creatures should be persuaded to judge and act aright, by a veneration for the sense of others, than to be left to wander in pernicious errors, and continue deaf to all argument and blind to all evidence. They are but children of a larger size, and since they persist all their lives in their minority and reject all true reasoning, surely we may try to i)crsuade them to practice what is for their own interest by such childish reasons as they will hearken to : we may overawe them from pursuing their own ruin by the terrors of a solemn shadow, or allure them by a sugar-plum to their own happiness. But after all, we must conclude that wheresoever it can be done, it is best to remove and root out those preju- dices which obstruct the entrance of truth into the mind, rather than to palliate, humor, or indulge them ; and sometimes this must necessarily be done before you can make a person part with some beloved error, and lead him into better sentiments. BULLETIN OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. Anatomy. "Wilder and Gage's Anatomical Technology. Astronomy. Steele's New Astronomy. Charts. Barnes's Popular Folding Charts. Dictionary. Jenkins's Vest -Pocket Lexi- con. French. Worman's Second French Book. Worman's Hand-Book. I Peck's Popular Astronomy. Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. "Worman's Grammaire Fran- caise. Worman's Questionnaire. Geography. Monteith's Boys' iitlas. and Girls' Monteith's New Physical Ge- ography. Johnson's Beginner's Grammar. Grammar. Hinds's Some Topics in Eng lish Grammar. Corbett's English Grammar History. 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Barnes's New- Reader. No. 2. 12mo. 170 pages. Barnes's New Reader. No. 3. 12mo. 240 pages. Barnes's New Reader. No. 4. 12mo. 384 pages. Barnes's New Reader. No. 5. 12mo. 502 pages. This new scries of School "Readers is prepared after a most careful and exhaustive exami- nation into Ihc actual wants of the. Public Schools of America, and the gathering together ol the best ideas of some of the most eminent educators of the, country. In point of mechanical execution, printing, binding, See., flic scries stands unexcelled. The illustrations are the most beautiful that were ever put into a school text-hook. They are the productions of the best artists in the country, and include examples from Church, Beard, Sol. Eytinge, Geo. White, J. G. Brown, Frenzeny, Cary, Lippincott, and others. The prominent ideas sought to be maintained in this Series are: Perfection of the ■word- method system; Easy gradation of lessons; Frequent reviews; Systematic drill in spell- ing; Judicious use of script exercises; the adoption of the conversational style; Brevity; Elucidation of subjects by outline drawings, to incite n taste for drawing on the part of fbc child; Beauty and fulness of illustration; Instrnetiveness of exercises and elevating interest of the stones; Adaptation to the wants of both graded and ungraded schools; Introduction of memory-selections from standard authors, &c. The Drawing Exercises and Language Lessons are a particularly valuable feature of the early numbers. THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. THE NATIONAL READERS, By PARKEll and WATSON. No. I. — National Primer .... No. 2. — National First Reader . . No. 3. — National Second Reader . No. 4.— National Third Reader No. 5. — National Fourth Reader . No. 6. — National Fifth Reader . . National Elementary Speller National Pronouncing Speller 64 pp. 16° 128 " 16° 224 " 16° 288 " 12° 432 t: 12° 600 12 160 pp. 16° 18S " 12° THE INDEPENDENT READERS- By J. MADISON WATSON. The Independent First (r^W) Reader The Independent Second Reader . . The Independent Third Reader . . The Independent Fourth Reader . . The Independent Fifth Reader . . . The Independent Sixth Reader . . . 80 pp. 16 160 240 264 An 16° 16° 12° 12° 12° The Independent Child's Speller (Script) SO pp. 10° The Independent Youth's Speller (Script) 168 " 12° The Independent Complete Speller . . 162 " 16° Watson's Graphic Speller 128 " 16° Snperiorin mechanical execution, comprehensive, progressive, practical, and interesl ing. The Introduction gives briefly the needful instruction and exercises in the elements of spelling, pronunciation, words, and lines and figures. Tim Exorcises in Drawing are not surpassed by any school manual or set of cards, and the Writing Exeroi 'es are as numerous and as progressive as those of any series of -writing-books. The Vocahularii contains aboul 6,000 of the most useful and desirable English words, strictly classified with regard to form, length, sound, and topic. Their meaning and use. is learned from the Language, Lessons and the Dictation Reviews, ami their correct pronunciation is given meryvJherc. The Appendix contains Rules in Spelling, Capital Letters, Punctu- ation Marks, and Abbreviations. G THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. WATSON'S INDEPENDENT READERS. This Series is designed to meet ;i general demand for smaller and cheaper books than the National Series proper, and to serve as well for intermediate volumes of the National Headers in large graded schools requiring more books than one ordinary series will supply. Beauty. — The most casual observer is at once impressed with the unpar- alleled mechanical beauty of the Independent Readers. The Publishers be- lieve that the aesthetic tastes of children may receive no small degree of cultivation from their very earliest school-books, to say nothing of the impor- tance of making study attractive by all such artificial aids that are legitimate. In accordance with this view, not less than $25,000 was expended in their preparation before publishing, with a result which entitles them to be con- sidered " the perfection of common-school books." Selections. — They contain, of course, none but entirely new selections. These are arranged according to a strictly progressive* and novel method of developing the, elementary sounds in order in the lower numbers, and in all, with a view to topics and general literary style. The mind is thus led in fixed channels to proficiency in every branch of good reading, and the evil results of ''scattering," as practised by most school-book authors, avoided. The Illustrations, as may be inferred from what has been said, are ele- gant beyond comparison. They are profuse in every number of the series, from the lowest to the highest. This is the only series published of which this is true. The Type is semi-phonetic, the invention of Professor Watson. By it every letter having more than one sound is clearly distinguished in all its variations without in any way mutilating or disguising the normal form of the letter. Elocution is taught by prefatory treatises of constantly advancing grade and completeness in each volume, which are illustrated by woodcuts in the lower hooks, and by blackboard diagrams in the higher. Professor Watson is the first to introduce practical illustrations and blackboard diagrams for teaching this branch. Foot-Notes on every page afford all the incidental instruction which the teacher is usually required to impart. Indices of words refer the pupil to the place of their first use and definition. The biographies of authors and others are in every sense excellent. Economy. — Although the number of pages in each volume is fixed at tho minimum, for the purpose recited above, the utmost amount of matter avail- able without overcrowding is obtained in the space. The pages are much wider and larger than those of any competitor and contain twenty per cut more matter than any other series of the same type and number of pa All the Great Features. — Besides the above all the popular features of the National Readers are retained except the word-building system. The latter gives place to an entirely new method of progressive development, based upon some of the best features of the word system, phonetics, and object lessons. THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. PARKER & WATSON'S NATIONAL READERS. The salient features of these works which have combined to render them so popular may be briefly recapitulated, as follows : — i. THE WORD-BUILDING SYSTEM. — This famous progressive method for young children originated and was copyrighted with these books. It constitutes a jinx-ess with which the beginner with worth oi one letter is gradually introduced to additional lists formed by prefixing or affixing single letters, and is thus led almost insensibly to the mastery of the more difficult constructions. This is one of the most striking modern improvements in methods of teaching. 2. TREATMENT OF PRONUNCIATION. — The wants of the youngest scholars in this department are not overlooked. It may be said that from the first lesson the student by this method need never be at a loss for a prompt and accurate rendering of every word encountered. 3. ARTICULATION AND ORTHOEPY are considered of primary importance. 4. PUNCTUATION is inculcated by a series of interesting reading lessons, the simple perusal of which suffices to fix its principles indelibly upon the mind. 5. ELOCUTION. —Each of the higher Readers (3d, 4th, and 5th) contains elabo- rate, scholarly, and thoroughly practical treatises on elocution. This feature alone has secured for the series many of its warmest friends. 6. THE SELECTIONS are the crowning glory of the series. Without excep- tion it may be said that no volumes of the same size and character contain a collection so diversified, judicious, and artistic as this. It embraces the choicest gems of Eng- lish literature, so arranged as to afford the reader ample exercise in every department of style. So acceptable has the taste of the authors in this department proved, not only to the educational public but to the reading community at large, that thousands of copies of the Fourth and Fifth Readers have found their way into public and private libraries throughout the country, where they are in constant use as manuals of litera- ture, for reference as well as perusal. 7. ARRANGEMENT. —The exercises are so arranged as to present constantly alternating practice in the different styles of composition, while observing a definite plan of progression or gradation throughout the whole. In the higher books the articles are placed in formal sections and classified topically, thus concentrating the interest and inculcating a principle of association likely to prove valuable in subse- quent general reading. 8. NOTES AND BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. - These are full and ade- quate to every want. The biographical sketches present in pleasing style the history of every author laid under contribution. 9. ILLUSTRATIONS. —These are plentiful, almost profuse, and of the highest character of art. They are found in every volume of the series as far as and including the Third Reader. 10. THE GRADATION is perfect. Each volume overlaps its companion pre- ceding or following in the series, so that the scholar, in passing from one to another, is only conscious, by the presence of the new book, of the transition. 11. THE PRICE is reasonable. The National Readers contain more matter than any other series in the same number of volumes published. Considering their com- pleteness and thoroughness, they are much the cheapest in the market. 12. BINDING. — By the use of a material and process known only to themselves, in common with all the publications of this house, the National Readers are warranted 1 itlasi any with which they may be compared, the ratio of relative durability being in their favor as two to one. THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. SUPPLEMENTARY READING. Monteith's Popular Science Reader. James Monteith, author of Monteith's Geographies, has here presented a Supple* tnentary Reading Book expressly for the work of instruction in reading and science at one and the same time. It presents a number of easy and interesting lessons on Natural Science and Natural History, interspersed with appropriate selections in prose and poetry from standard authors, with blackboard drawing and written exercises. It serves to instil the noblest, qualities of soul and mind, without rehearsing stories of moral and mental depravity, as is too often done in juvenile books. The book is elabo- rately illustrated with fine engravings, and brief notes at the foot of each page add to the value and teachableness of the volume. 12mo, half bound, 300 pages. The Standard Supplementary Readers. The Standard Supplementary Readers {formtrly Swi>iton' l s Supplementary Rewhrs), edited by William Swinton and George R. Cathrart. have been received with marked favor in representative quarters from Maine to California. They comprise a ^>ries of carefully graduated reading books, designed to connect with any series of school Readers. They are attractive in appearance, are bound in cloth, and the first four books are profusely illustrated by Fredericks, White, Dielman, Church, and others. The six books, which are closely co-ordinated with the several Headers of any regular series, are : — 1. Easy Steps for Little Feet. Supplementary to First Reader. In this book the attractive i3 the chief aim, and the pieces have been written and chosen with special reference to the feelings and fancies of early childhood. 128 pages, bound ii cloth aud profusely illustrated. 2. Golden Book of Choice Reading. Supplementary to Second Reader. This book represents a for reading in advanced grades, and aim to instil a taste for the higher literature, by the presentation of gems of British and American authorship. 220 pages each, cloth. THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. ORTHOGRAPHY. Smith's Series. Smith's Series supplies a Speller for every class in graded schools, and comprises the must complete and excellent treatise on English Orthography and its companion branches extant. 1. Smith's Little Speller. First round in the ladder of learning. 2. Smith's Juvenile Definer. Lessons composed of familiar words grouped with reference to similar significa- tion or use, and correctly spelled, accented, and defined. 3. Smith's Grammar-School Speller. Familiar words, grouped with reference, to the sameness of sound of syllables dif- ferently spelled. Also definitions, complete rules for spelling and formation of deriva- tives, and exercises in false orthography. 4. Smith's Speller and Definer's Manual. A complete School Dictionary, containing 14,000 wor***, with various other useful matter in the way of rules and exercises. 5. Smith's Etymology — Small and Complete Editions. The. first and only Etymology to recognize the Anglo-Saxon our mother tongue; containing also full lists of derivatives from the Latin, Greek, Gaelic, Swedish, Norman, &e. , &c. ; being, in fact, a complete etymology of the language for schools. Northend's Dictation Exercises. Embracing valuable information on a thousand topics, communicated in such a manner as at once to relieve the exercise of spelling of its usual tedium, and combine it with instruction of a general character calculated to profit and amuse. Phillip's Independent Writing Speller**- 1. Primary. 2. Intermediate. 3. Advanced. Unquestionably the best results can be attained in writing spelling exercises. This series combines with written exercise a thorough and practical instruction in penman- ship. Copies in capitals and small letters are set on every page. Spaces for twenty words and definitions and errors are given in each lesson. In the advanced book there is additional space for sentences. In practical life we spell only when we write. Brown's Pencil Tablet for Written Spelling. The cheapest prepared pad of ruled blanks, with stiff board back, sufficient foi 84 lessons of 25 words. Pooler's Test Speller. The best collection of " hard words " yet made. The more uncommon ones are fully defined, and the whole are arrmniiil nl jiliiihi'tioill // for convenient reference. The book is designed for Teachers' Institutes and "Spelling Schools," and is prepared by an experienced and well-known conductor of Institutes. Wright's Analytical Orthography. This standard work is popular, because it teaches the elementary sounds in a plain ami philosophical manner, and presents orthography and orthoepy in an easy, Uniform system of analysis or parsing. 10 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. ORTHOG R APIIY — Continue! Barber's Complete Writing Speller. "The Student's Own Hand-Book of Orthography, Definitions, ana Sentences, mn. sisting <:>f Written Exercises in the Proper Spelling, Meaning, and Use of Words." (Published 1873. ) This differs from Sherwood's and other writing spellers in its more comprehensive character, Its blanks are adapted to writing whole sentences instead of detached words, with the proper divisions for numbering, corrections, &c. Such aids as this, like Watson's Child's Speller and Phillip's Writing Siieller, find tln-ir raison d'etre in the postulate that the art of correct spelling is dependent upon written, and not upon spoken language, for its utility, if not for its very existence. Hence the indirectness of purely oral instruction. ETYMOLOGY. Smith's Complete Etymology. Smith's Condensed Etymology. Containing the Anglo-Saxon, French, Dutch, German, Welsh, Danish, Gothic, Swedish, Gaelic, Italian, Latin, and Greek roots, and the English words derived therefrom accurately spelled, accented, and defined From Hon. Jno. G. McMynn, late State Superintendent of Wisconsin. " 1 wisli every teacher in the country had a copy of this work." From Prof. C. II. Vekiull, Pa. State Normal School. "The Etymology (Smith's) which we procured of yon we like much. It is the best, work for the class-room we have seen." From Prin. Wm. F. Phelps, Minn. Slate Normal. "The book is superb— just what is needed in the department of etymology and spelling." From HON. EDWARD BALLARD, Supt. oj m Schools, State of Maine. '' The author Las furnished a manual of singular utility for its purpose." DICTIONARY. Williams's Dictionary of Synonymes ; Or, Topical Lexicon. This work is a School Dictionary, an Etymology, a compilation of Synonymes, and a manual of General Information. It differs from the ordinary lexicon in being arranged by topics, instead of the letters of the alphabet, thus realizing the apparent paradox of a " Readable Dictionary." An unusually valuable school-book. Kwong's Dictionary of English Phrases. With Illustrative Sentences, collections of English and Chinese Proverbs, transla- tions of Latin and French Phrases, historical sketch of the Chinese Empire, a chrono- logical list of the Chinese Dynasties, brief biographical sketches of Confucius and of° Jesus, and complete index. ' By Kwong Ki Chin, late Member of the Chinese Edu- cational Mission in the United states, ami formerly principal teacher of English in the Government School at Shanghai, China 9C0piges. 8vo. Cloth. From the Hat Vllt : " The volume is one of the most curious and interest- ing of Linguistic works." From the New York Nation : " It will amaze the sand-lot gentry to be informed ihat this remarkable work will supplement our English dictionaries eoenjor native Americans." 11 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. DICTIONARIES — Continued. Jenkins's Handy Lexicon. Jenkins's Vest-Pocket Lexicon. A dictionary of all except familiar words, including the principal scientific and tech- nical terms, and foreign moneys, weights, and measures. It omits grammatical and terminal variations, since words varying as narrate, narrative, narratively^ etc., would all be understood by becoming acquainted with any one of them. Obsolete and local words are generally omitted. Latin and French phrases of two or three words, and names of classical mythology can he I'ound in their alphabetical places. Also foreign moneys, weights, and measures. By omitting words which every one knows, there is room for nearly all that any one requires to know. Groschopp's Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. A handy Anglo-Saxon dictionary, adapted from Grein's Library of Anglo-Saxon poetry. By Dr. Fr. Groschopp. Translated into English, revised and corrected, with outline of Anglo-Saxon grammar and a list of irregular verbs, by William Malone Baskerville, Ph. D. (Lips.), Professor of English Language and Literature, Vanderbilt University, and James Albert Harrison, Professor of English and Modern Languages, ■Washington and Lee University. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Cobbett's English Grammar. With notes, by Robert Waters, Principal of West Hoboken High School. Author of " Life and Language of Cobbett." This book consists of a series of twenty-one letters, written by William Cobbett They are intended for schools and young persons, but more especially for sailors, apprentices, soldiers, and plough-boys. In addition to these letters there are six lessons intended to prevent statesmen from using false grammar and from writing in an awkward manner. This is the only grammar that can profitably be used without a teacher. The notes are written in an easy style, and are simple and plain. Some Topics in English Grammar. By Arthur Hinds. 142 pages. 16mo. Cloth. Teachers are almost unanimous in condemning grammars as untruthful, or inconsist- ent, or complicated, or as combining these faults. The distinctive features of this work, which is the J. G. Seott, or Westfield Normal School system, arc: the natural method of presenting the subjects, the cutting loose from what is mere tradition, the conciseness with which the matter is treated. The book should be read by every pupil and teacher of grammar. Johnson's Elements of English Grammar. Part I. 10:> pages. 12ino. Half-bound. To learn the rudiments of English Grammar, there is no little book more clear and simple than this beginner's book, by Mr. H. P. .Johnson, of Brookhaven, Miss. It is based upon the, plan of questions and answers, and is adapted to the comprehension of the youngest learners of language. R. G. White's Grammar of the " Grammarless Tongue." If English can be released from rigid formulas derived from its analogies with other tongues, and taught as a distinct science, subject only to the laws of reason, we shall have "Grammar," as taught by the Fathers, fully reconciled with the modern rage for " Language Lessons," ami the happy middle ground of the future established. To real- ize this, see Professor Sill's new book. 12 THE NATIONAL SERIES Or STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. SILL'S SYSTEM. Practical Lessons in English. A brief course in Grammar and Composition. I5y J. M. B. Sill. This beautiful book, by a distinguished and experienced teacher, at once adopted for exclusive use in the State of Oregon and the city of Detroit, simply releases Englisb Grammar from bondage to Latin and Greek formulas, our language is worthy of being taughl as a distinct and independent science. It is almost destitute of inflections and yet capable of being systematized, and its study may certainly be simplified if treated bj itself and for its(.-lf* alone. Superintendent Bill has cut the Gordlan knot and leads the van of a new school of grammarians. CLARK'S SYSTEM. Clark's Easy Lessons in Language Contains illustrated object-lessons of the most attractive character, and is couched in language freed as much as possible from the dry technicalities of the science. Clark's Brief English Grammar. Part Lis adapted to youngest learners, and the whole forms a Complete " brief course" in one volume, adequate to the wants of the common school. There is no- where published a superior text-bonk for learning tlu English tongue than this. Clark's Normal Grammar. Designed to occupy the same grade as the author's veteran "Practical" Grammar, though the latter is still furnished upon order. The Normal is an entirely new treatise. It is a full exposition of the system as des< ribed below, with all the most recent im- provements. Some of its peculiarities arc, — a happy blending of SYNTHESES with Analyses; thorough criticisms of common errors in the use of our language; and important improvements in the syntax of sentence's and of phrases. Clark's Key to the Diagrams. Clark's Analysis of the English Language. Clark's Grammatical Chart. The thco-y and practice of teaching grammar in American schools is meeting with a thorough revolution from the use of this system. While the old methods offer profi- ciency to the pupil only after much weary plodding and dull memorizing, this affords from the inception the advantage at practical Object Teaching, addressing the eye by means of illustrative figures; furnishes association to the memory, its most, powerful aid, and diverts the pupil by taxing his ingenuity. Teachers who arc using Clark's Grammar uniformly testify that they and their pupils find it the most interesting study of the school course. Like all great and radical improvements, the system naturally met at first with much inreasonable opposition. It has not only outlived the greater part of this opposition, ti it funis many of its warmest admirers among those who could not at first tolerate so radical an innovation. All it wants is an impartial trial to convince the most scep- tical of its merit. No one who has fairly and intelligently tested it in the school -room Ins ever been known to go back to the old method, A great success is already established, and it is easy to prophesythat the day is not far distant when it will be y stem of teaching English Grammar. As the System is copyrighted, no other text-books can appropriate this obvious and great improvement. Welch's Analysis of the English Sentence. Remarkable for its new and simple classification, its method of treating conn Us explanations of the idioms and constructive laws of the language, &C. 13 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. G EOGRAPHY. MONTEITH'S SYSTEM. TWO-BOOK SERIES. INDEPENDENT COURSE. Elementary Geography. Comprehensive Geography (with 103 maps). flE^" These volumes are not revisions of old works, not an addition to any series, but are entirely new productions, — eacih by itself complete, independent, compickeu- sive, yet simple, brief, cheap, and popular; or, taken together, the most admirable " series " ever offered for a common-school course. They present the following features, skilfully interwoven, the student learning all about one country at a time. Always revised to date of printing. LOCAL GEOGRAPHY. — Or, the Use of Maps. Important features of the maps are the coloring of States as objects, and the ingenious system for laying down a much larger number of names for reference than are lound on any other maps of same size, and without crowding. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. —Or, the Natural Features of the Earth; illus- trated by the original and striking relief maps, being bird's-eye views or photographic pictures of the earth's surface. DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. — Including the Physical; with some account of Governments and Races, Animals, &c. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. — Or, a brief summary of the salient points of history, explaining the present distribution of nations, origin of geographical MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. — Including Astronomical, which describes the Earth's position and character among planets ; also the Zones, Parallels, &c. COMPARATIVE GEOGRAPHY. —Or, a system of analogy, connecting new lessons with the previous ones. Comparative sizes and latitudes are shown on the margin of each map, and all countries are measured in the " frame of Kansas." TOPICAL GEOGRAPHY. — Consisting of questions for review, and testing the student's general and specific knowledge of the subject, with suggestions for geographical compositions. ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. — A section devoted to this subject, with maps, will be appreciated by teachers. It is seldom taught in our common schools, because it has heretofore required the purchase of a separate book. GRAPHIC GEOGRAPHY, or Map-Drawing by Allen's "Unit of Measure- nent" system (now almost universally recognized as without a rival), is introduced ;hroughont the lessons, and not as an appendix. CONSTRUCTIVE GEOGRAPHY. — Or, Globe-Making. With each book a set of map segments is furnished, with which each student may make his own globe by lollowing the directions given. RAILROAD GEOGRAPHY. — With a grand commercial map of the United States, illustrating steamer and railroad routes of travel in the United States, submarine telegraph lines, &c. Also a " Practical Tour in Europe." MONTEIYH AND McNALLY'S SYSTEM. THREE AND FIVE BOOKS. NATIONAL COURSE. Monteith's First Lessons in Geography. MonteitJYs New Manual of Geograprry. McNally's System of Geography. The new edition of McNally's Geography is now ready, rewritten throughout by James Monteitli and S. C. Frost. In its new dress, printed from new type, and illus- trated with IOC aewengravings.it is the latest, most attractive, as well as the most thoroughly practical book on geography extant. 15 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. GEOGRAPHY — Continjied, INTERMEDIATE OR ALTERNATE VOLUMES IN THE FIVE BOOK SERIES. Monteith's Introduction to Geography. Monteiths Physical and Political Geography. i. PRACTICAL OBJECT-TEACHING. —The infant scholar is first introduced to a picture whence he may derive notions of the shape of the earth, the phenomena of day and night, the distribution of land and water, and the great natural divisions, which mere words would fail entirely to convey to the untutored mind. Other pictures follow on Wie same plan, and the child's mind is called upon to grasp no idea without the aid of a pictorial illustration. Carried on to the higher books, this system culmi- nates in Physical Geography, where such matters as climates, ocean currents, the winds, peculiarities of the earth's crust, clouds and rain, arc pictorially explained and rendered apparent to the most obtuse. The illustrations used for this purpose belong to the highest grade of art. 2. CLEAR, BEAUTIFUL, AND CORRECT MAPS. — In the lower num- bers the maps avoid unnecessary detail, while respectively progressive and affording the pupil new matter for acquisition each time he approaches in the constantly en- larging circle the point of coincidence with previous lessons in the more elementary books. In the Physical and Political Geography the maps embrace many new and striking features. One of the most effective of these is the new plan for displaying on each map the relative sizes of countries not represented, thus obviating much confu- sion which has arisen from the necessity of presenting maps in the same atlas drawn on different scales. The maps of "McNally" have long been celebrated for then superior beauty and completeness. This is the only school-bonk in which the attempt to make a complete atlas also clear and distinct, has been successful. The map coloring throughout the series is also noticeable. Delicate and subdued tints take the place of the startling glare of inharmonious colors which too frequently in such treatises dazzle the eyes, distract the attention, and serve to overwhelm the names of towns and the natural matures of the landscape. 3. THE VARIETY OF MAP-EXERCISE. — Starting each time from a dif- ferent basis, the pupil in many instances approaches the same fact no less than SMI times, thus indelibly impressing it upon his memory. At the same time, this system is not allowed to become wearisome, the extent of exercise on each subject being grad- uated by its relative importance or difficulty of acquisition. 4. THE CHARACTER AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE DESCRIP- TIVE TEXT. — The cream of the science has been carefully culled, unimportant matter rejected, elaboration avoided, and a brief and concise manner of presentation cultivated. The orderly consideration of topics has contributed greatly to simplicity Due attention is paid to the facts in history and astronomy which are inseparably con- nected with and important to the proper understanding of geography, and such onty are admitted on any terms. In a .word, the National System teaches geography as a si ie ice, pure, simple, and exhaustive. 5. ALWAYS UP TO THE TIMES. — The authors of these books, editorially speaking, never sleep. No change occurs in the boundaries of countries or of counties, no new discovery is made, or railroad built, that is not at once noted and recorded, and the next edition of each volume carries to everv school-room the new order of things. 6. FORM OF THE VOLUMES AND MECHANICAL EXECUTION. — The maps and text are no longer unnaturally divorced in accordance with the time- honored practice of making text-books on this subject as inconvenient and expensive as possible. On the contrary, all map questions are to be found on the page opposite the map itself, and each book is complete in one volume. The mechanical execution is unrivalled. Paper, printing, and binding are everything that could be desired. 7. MAP-DRAWING. - In 1869 the system of map-drawing devised by I Jerome Allen was secured exclusively for this series, it. derives its claim to \.y and usefulness from the introduction of a fixed unit of measurement applicable to every map. The principles being so few, simple, and comprehensive, the subject of map-drawing is relieved oi all practical difficulty, (in Nos. 2, 2* and ;>, and published separately.) 8. ANALOGOUS OUTLINES. —At the same time with map-drawing was also introduced (in No. il) a new and ingenious variety of Object Lessons, consisting of a tomparison of the outlines of countries with familiar objects piclorially represented. 1G THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. GEOGRAPHY — Continued. 9. SUPERIOR GRADATION. This is the only series which furnishes an avail- able volume for every possible class in graded schools, li is not contemplated that a pupil must necessarily go through every volume in succession to attain proficiency. On the contrary, two will suffice, imt three are advised ; and, if the course will admit, the whole series should be pursued. At all events, the hooks are at hand for selection, and every teacher, of every grade, can find among them one exactly suited to his class. the best combination for those who wish to abridge the course consists of Nos. 1, 2, and :l ; or, where children are somewhat advanced in other studies when they com- mence geography, N'os. 1*, -J, and '■>. Where but two books are admissible, Nos. 1* and V' , or Nos. 2 and ;;, are recommended. ,.*"- -f '^JSfi? A Sheep Ranch in Montana. [Specimen Illustration from McNally's New Geography. 17 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. GEOGRAPHY — Contmyed. Monteith's Boys' and Girls' Atlas of the World. Showing all the political divisions of the world, with map-drawing and written exer- cises, or imaginary voyages, commercial routes, principal products, comparative areas and populations, height of mountains, lengtli of rivers, highlands, and lowlands. 1G full-page, finely colored maps. 4 : » pages. Small quarto. maps show all that is needful for the study i F geography, besides the courses of rivers and oceanic currents, comparative time l >y clock faces, standard time, profile maps, comparative latitude and extent, comparative area, comparative temperature, highlands and lowlands, principal products, rate of speed on rail or steamship. Partic- ularly valuable as a text-book where oral teaching is attempted, Monteith's Old Physical Geography. The cry of" Too much of Text-Books," so frequently heard, is most happily answered by this exceedingly valuable little work, entitled "Monteith's Physical Geography." Within a convenient-sized volume (54 pp. quartoj the author here presents all of Physi- cal Geography that the majority of classes can possibly lind time to pursue. The kindled sciences hitherto unnecessarily combined with this branch of study — adding far more to the size and price of the text-books than to their value- are, in this work either Very materially cut down or wholly eliminated. The book is admirably illustrated, containing over sixty very practical cuts, and a sufficient number of finely colored Maps, its arrangement is excellent, paper, type, binding, etc., fully in keeping with its other advantages, and its price so moderate that it is brought within the reach of all grades of schools. Monteith's New Physical Geography. Owing to the great progress made in physical science during the past few years, the publishers of Monteith's Physical Geography have deemed it necessary to prepare a new volume which shall embrace the more recent results of modern research in this held. The great popularity enjoyed by Monteitb s Physical Geography duringthe past twenty- live years warrants the assertion that the volume now presented will prove a most valuable addition to the geographical works of Professor Monteith, which have since their publication been recognized as standards. In presenting Monteith's New Physical Geography, the publishers desire to coll the attention of educators and school boards to the following points : — It embraces all of the recent discoveries in Physiography. Hydrography, Meteorology, Terrestrial Magnetism, and Vnlcanology. In the mechanical execution of its pages it is unsurpassed by any text-book of the bind ever published. The maps and charts bare been compiled from original sources, and therefore com- prise the latest discoveries pertaining to geographical science. While the easy stjde, graphic description, and the topical arrangement of subjects adapt, if especially for use in grammar schools, it will be found equally adapted for use. in high and normal schools. Concluding each chapter is a brief resume of the main facts presented therein, a feature that will commend itself to every live teacher and pupil. Many ol the chapters contain much new matter that has never before appeared in any text-book. As examples of this may be mentioned the subject of Terrestt 'ml Mat/uefism, in the preparation of which the author has had access to the records of the I 8 Mi - nctic observatory, through the courtesy of Professor Marcus Baker.U.S C. & G.S The subject of Volcanoes has been compiled from the observations of Professor Judd, who is the recognized leading authority on this subject. The chapters on River and Ocean Hydrography embrace many new and interesting facts brought to light by the new surveys of ike U.S. Engineer Corps, and by Commander Bartlett, U.S.N. 'Those pertaining to 'Ocean Currentsave especially important. The subject of Meteorology contains much new information. The Law of Storms is the most' complete exposition of the subject that has ever been rublished in ;i text-book. Not. the least instructive feature of the volume is the Record of Recent Geographical Discoveries, which contains a brief account of the explorations of De Long, Nordenskjnld, Srhwafka, Greely, and Shufeldt. It. contains lit pages, 12S illustrations, and 15 colored maps. 18 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. GEOGRAPB From Supt. J. C. Gilson, Oakland, Cat. " I ;iin pleased, delighted, charmed wit h il. li is ,iu ideal work." From Prof. J. W. Ferrel, Bloomsburg, l'i lill. " It is a cliarming work. Beautifully illustrated and embracing all the depart- Uients that ought to be treated." From C B. M istcalf, Worce, U t , Mass. " Beautiful outside and inside. Typog- raphy unsurpassed. The text the be t feature. Synopsis at the end of each chapter a striking point of excellence." MAP-DRAWING. Monteith's Map-Drawing Made Easy. A neat little hook of outlines and instructions, giving the "corners of States" in suitable blanks, so thac maps can be drawn by unskilful hands from any atlas ; with instructions for written exercises or compositions on geographical subjects, and com- parative geography. Monteith's Manual of Map-Drawing (Allen's System). The only consistent plan, by which all maps are drawn on one scale. Iiy its use much time may be saved, and much interest and accurate knowledge gained. Monteith's Map- Drawing and Object Lessons. The last-named treatise, bound with Mr. Monteith's ingenious system for commit- ting outlines to memory by means of pictures of living creatures and familiar objects. Thus, South America resembles a dog's head; Cuba, a lizard; Italy, a boot; France, a coffee-pot ; Turkey, a turkey, &c, &e. Monteith's Colored Blanks for Map-Drawing. A new aid in teaching geography, which will be found especially useful in recitations, reviews, and examinations* The series comprises any section of the world required. Monteith's Map-Drawing Scale. A ruler of wood, graduated to the "Allen fixed unit of measurement." WALL MAPS. Monteith's Pictorial Chart of Geography. The original drawing for this beautiful and instructive chart was greatly admired in the publisher's " exhibit" at the Centennial Exhibition of 1S7G. It is a picture of the earth's surface with every natural feature displayed, teaching also physical geography, and especially the mutations of water. The uses to which man puts the earth and its treasures and forces, as Agriculture, Mining, Manufacturing, Commerce, and Transpor- tation, are also graphically portayed, so that the young learner gets a realistic idea of " the world we live in," which weeks of book study might fail to convey. Monteith's School Maps, 8 Numbers. The "School Series" includes the Hemispheres (2 maps), United States, North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa. Price, §2.50 each. Each map is 28 x 34 inches, beautifully colored, has the names all laid down, and is substantially mounted on canvas with rollers. Monteith's Grand Maps, 8 Numbers. The "Grand Series" includes the Hemispheres (1 map). North America, United States, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, the World on Mercator's Projection, and Physical Map of the World. Price, £5.00 cadi. Size, 42 x 52 inches, names laid down, colored, mounted, &c. Monteith's Sunday-School Maps. Including a map of Paul's Travels ($5.00), one of Ancient Canaan ($3. 00), and Mod- cm Palestine (§3.00), or Palestine and Canaan togethei ($5.00) 19 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHCOL-BOOKS. MATHEMATICS, DAVIES'S COMPLETE SERIES, ARITHMETIC. Davies' Primary Arithmetic. Davies' Intellectual Arithmetic. Davies' Elements of Written Arithmetic. Davies' Practical Arithmetic. Davies' University Arithmetic. TWO-BOOK SERIES. First Book in Arithmetic, Primary and Mental. Complete Arithmetic. ALGEBRA. Davies' New Elementary Algebra. Davies' University Algebra. Davies' New Bourdon's Algebra. GEOMETRY. Davies' Elementary Geometry and Trigonometryc Davies' Legendre's Geometry. Davies' Analytical Geometry and Calculus. Davies' Descriptive Geometry. Davies' New Calculus. MENSURATION. Davies' Practical Mathematics and Mensuration. Davies' Elements of Surveying. Davies' Shades, Shadows, and Perspective. MATHEMATICAL SCIENCE. Davies' Grammar of Arithmetic. Davies' Outlines of Mathematical Science. Davies' Nature and Utility of Mathematics. Davies' Metric System. Davies & Peck's Dictionary of Mathematics. 20 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. NATURAL SCIENCE — Continued. THE NEW SURVEYING- Van Amringe's Davies' Surveying. By Charles Davies, LL;D., author of a Full Course of Mathematics. Revised by J. Howard Van Amringe, A.M., Ph.D., Professor of Mathematics in Columbia College. 56(5 pages. Svo. Full sheep. Davies' Surveying originally appeared as a text-book for the use of the United States Military Academy at West Point. It proved acceptable to a much wider held, and underwent changes and improvements, until tbe author's linal revision, and has remained the standard work on the subject for many years. In the present edition, 1SS3, while the admirable features which have hitherto com- mended the work so highly to institutions of learning and to practical surveyors have been retained, some of the topics have been abridged in treatment, and some enlarged. Others have been added, and the whole has been arranged in the order of progressive development. A change which must prove particularly acceptable is the transformation of the article on mining-surveying into a complete treatise, in which the location of claims on the surface, the latest and best methods of underground traversing, &c, the calculation of ore-reserves, and all that pertains to the work of the mining-surveyor, are fully explained and illustrated by practical examples. Immediately on the publica- tion of this edition it was loudly welcomed in all quarters. A letter received as we write, from Prof. R. C. Carpenter, of the Michigan State Agricultural College, says : " I am delighted with it. I do not know of a mure complete work on the subject, and I am pleased to state that it is tilled with examples of the best methods of modern practice. We shall introduce it as a text-book in the college course." This is a iair specimen of the general reception. Van Nostrand's Eclectic Engineering Maga- zine says : — "We find in this new work all that can be asked for in a text-book. If there is a better work than tins on Surveying, cither for students or surveyors, our attention has not been called to it." Mathematical Almanac and Annual sags :— "Davies is a deservedly popular author, and his mathematical works are text- books in many of the leading schools and colleges." THE NEW LEGENDRE. Van Amringe's Davies' Legendre. Elements of Geometry and Trigonometry. By Charles Davies, LL.D. Revised (188a) by Prof. J. H. Van Amringe of Columbia College. New pages. Svo. Full leather. The present edition of the Legendre is the resrp, of a careful re-examination of the work, into which have been incorporated such emendations in the way of greater clear- ness of expression or of proof as could be made without altering it in form or substance. Practical exercises are placed at the end of the several books, and comprise additional theorems, problems, and numerical exercises upon the principles of the Book or Books preceding. They will be found of great service in accustoming students, early in and throughout their course, to make for themselves practical application of geometric principles, and constitute, in addition, a large and excellent body of review and test questions for the convenience of teachers. The Trigonometry and mensuration have been carefully revised throughout ; the deduction of principles and rules has been sim- plified ; the discussion of the several cases which arise in the solution of triangles, plane and spherical, has been made more full and clear ■ and the whole has, in definition, demonstration, illustration, &c, been made to conform to the latest and best methods. It is believed that in clearness and precision of definition, in general simplicity and rigor of demonstration, in the judicious arrangement of practical exercises, in orderly and logical development of the subject, and in compactness of form, Davies' Legendre is superior to any work of its grade for the general training of the logical powers of pupils, and for their instruction in the great body of elementary geometric truth. The work has been printed from cntire.lv new plates, and no care has been spared to make it a model of typographical excellence. THE .VATIOttAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. DAVIES'S NATIONAL COURSE OF MATHEMATICS. ITS RECORD. In claiming for this series tlie first place among American text-books, of whatever class, the publishers appeal to the magnificent record which its volumes have earned during the thirty-jive years of Dr. Charles Davies's mathematical labors. The unremit- ting exertions of a life-time have placed the modern series on the same proud eminence among competitors that each of its predecessors had successively enjoyed in a course of constantly improved editions, now rounded to their perfect fruition, — for it seems almost that this science is susceptible of no further demonstration. During the period alluded to, many authors and editors in this department hpve started into public notice, and, by borrowing ideas and processes original with Dr. Davies, have enjoyed a brief popularity, but are now almost, unknown. .Many of the series of to-day, built upon a similar basis, and described as " modern books," are destined to a similar fate; while the most far-seeing eye wdl find it difficult to li x the time, on the basis of any data afforded bytheir past history, when these books will cease to increase and prosper, and fix a still firmer hold on the affection of every educated American. One cause of this unparalleled popularity is found in the fact that the enterprise of the author did not cease with the original completion of his books. Always a practical teacher, he has incorporated in his text-books from time to time the advantages of every improvement in methods of teaching, and every advance in science. During all the years in which he has been laboring he constantly submitted his own theories and those of others to the practical test of the class-room, approving, rejecting, or modifying them as the experience thus obtained might suggest. In this way he has been aide to produce an almost perfect series of class-books, in which every department of mathematics has received minute and exhaustive attention. Upon the death of Dr. Davies, which took place in 1S7U, his work was immediately taken up by his former pupil and mathematical associate of many year?, Prof. W. G Peck, L.L.D., of Columbia College. By him, with Prof. J. R. Van Anuuige, of Columbia College, the original series is kept carefully revised and up to the times. DAvrr.s's Systfm is ttif acknowledged National Standard for the United States, tor (he following reasons: — 1st. It is the basis of instruction in the great national schools at West Point and Annapolis. •2d. It has received the quasi indorsement of the National Congress. 3d. It is exclusively used in the public schools of the National Capital. 4th. The officials of the Government uso it as authority in all cases involving mathe- matical questions. 5th. Our great soldiers and sailors commanding the national armies ami navies were educated in this system. So have been a majority of eminent scientists in this country All these refer to "Davies" as authority. 6th. A larger number of American citizens have received their education from Lhis than from any other series. 7th. 'flic series has a larger circulation throughout the whole country than any other, being extensively used in every State in the Union. OO THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOjL-BOOKS. DAVIES AND PECK'S ARITHMETICS. OPTIONAL OK CONSECUTIVE. Tlie best thoughts of these two illustrious mathematicians are combiued in the following beautiful works, which are the natural successors of Daviess Arithmetics, sumptuously printed, and bound in crimson, green, and gold: — Davies and Peck's Brief Arithmetic. Also called the " Elementary Arithmetic. " It is the shortest presentation of the sub- ject, and is adequate for all grades in common schools, being a thorough introduction to practical life, except Cor the specialist. At first the authors play with the little learner for a few lessons, by object-teaching ami kindred allurements; but he soon begins to realize that study is earnest, as he becomes familiar with the simpler operations, and is delighted to find himself master of important results. The second part reviews the Fundamental Operations on a scale proportioned tu the enlarged intelligence of the learner. It establishes the General Principles and Properties of Numbers, and then proceeds to Fractions. Currency and the Metric System are fully treated in connection with Decimals. Compound Numbers and .Re- duction follow, and finally Percentage with all its varied applications. An Index of words and principles concludes the book, for which every scholar and most teachers will be grateful. How much time has been spent in searching for a hall- forgotten definition or principle in a former lesson ! Davies and Peck's Complete Arithmetic. This work certainly deserves its name in the best sense. Though complete, it is not, like most others which bear the same title, cumbersome. These authors excel in clear, lucid demonstrations, teaching the science pure and simple, yet not ignoring convenient methods and practical applications. For turning out a thorough business man no other work is so well adapted. He will have a clear comprehension of the science as a whole, and a working acquaintance with details which must serve him well in all emergencies. Distinguishing features of the. book are the logical progression of the subjects and the great variety of practical problems, not puzzles, which are beneath the dignity of educational science. A clear- minded critic has said of Dr. Peck's work that it is free from that juggling with numbers which some authors falsely call " Analysis." A series of Tables for converting ordinary weights and measures into the Metric System appear in the later editions. PECK'S ARITHMETICS. Peck's First Lessons in Numbers. This book begins with pictorial illustrations, and unfolds gradually the science of numbers. It noticeably simplifies the subject by developing the principles of addition and subtraction simultaneously ; as it does, also, those of multiplication and division. Peck's Manual of Arithmetic. This book is designed especially or those who seek sufficient instruction to carry them successfully through practical life, but have not time for extended study. Peck's Complete Arithmetic. This completes the series but is a much briefer book than most of the complete arithmetics, and is recommended not only for what it contains, but also for what is omitted. It maybe said of Dr. Peck's books more truly than of any other series published, that they are clear and simple in definition and rule, and that superfluous matter of every kind has been faithfully eliminated, thus magnifying the. working value, of the book and Raving unnecessary expense of time and labor. 23 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. BARNES'S NEW MATHEMATICS. In this series Joseph Ficklin, Ph. ])., Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy in the University of Missouri, lias combined all the best and latest results of practical and experimental teaching of arithmetic with the assistance of many distinguished mathematical authors. Barnes's Elementary Arithmetic. Barnes's National Arithmetic. These two works constituti arithmetical course in two hooks. They meet the demand for text-books that will help students to acquire the greatest amount of useful and practical knowledge of Arithmetic by the smallest expenditure of time, tabor, and money. Nearly every topic in Written Arithmetic is introduced, and its principles illustrated, by exercises in Oral Arithmetic. The free use of Equations ; the concise method of combining and treating Properties of Numbers; the treatment of Multiplication and Division of Fractions in two cases, and then reduced to one; Can- cellation by the use of the vertical line, especially in Fractions, Interest, and Proportion ; the brief, simple, and greatly superior method of working Partial Payments by the "Time Table " and Cancellation ; the substitution of formulas to a great extent for rules; the full and practical treatment of the Metric System, &c, indicate their com- pleteness. A variety of methods and processes for the same topic, which deprive 'lie pupil of the great benetit of doing a part of the thinking and labor for himself, have been discarded The statement of principles, definitions, rules, &c, is brief and simple. The illustrations and methods are explicit, direct, and practical. The great number and variety of Examples embody the actual business of the day. The very large amount of matter condensed in so small a eomi>ass has been accomplished by econo- mizing every line of space, by rejecting superfluous matter and obsolete terms, and bv avoiding the repetition of analyses, explanations, and operations in the advanced topics which have been used in the more elementary parts of these books. AUXILIARIES. For use in district schools, and for supplying a text-book in advanced work for classes having finished the course as given in the ordinary Practical Arithmetics, ihu National Arithmetic has been divided and bound separately, as follows : — Barnes's Practical Arithmetic. Barnes's Advanced Arithmetic. In many schools there are classes that for various reasons never reach beyond Percentage. It is just such eases where Barnes's Practical Arithmetic will answer a good purpose, ataprice to thepwpU much less than to buy the complete book. On the other hand, classes having linidied the ordinary Practical Arithmetic can proceed with the higher course by using Barnes's Advanced Arithmetic. For primary schools requiring simply a table book, and the earliest rudiments forcibly presented through object-teaching and copious illustiations, we have prepared Barnes's First Lessons in Arithmetic, which begins with the most elementary notions of mini hers, and proceeds, by simple steps, to develop all the fundamental principles of Arithmetic. Barnes's Elements of Algebra. This work, as its title indicates, is elementary in its character ami suitable for use, (1) in such public schools as give instruction in the Elements Of Algebra :(•->) in institu- tions 01 learning whose courses of study do not include Higher Algebra ; (3) in schools whose object is to prepare students tor entrance into our colleges and universities. Ibis book will also meet the wants of students of Physics who require some knowlodge ot 21- THE NATfOJVAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. Algebra. The student's progress in Algebra depends very largely upon the proper treat- ment of th< Four Fundamental Operations. The terms Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Dicisiuti in Algebra have a wider meaning than in Arithmetic, and these operations have been so defined as to include their arithmetical meaning ; so that the beginner is sinryly called upon to enlarge his views of those fundamental operations. Much attention lias been given to the explanation of the negative sign, in order to remove the well-known difficulties in the use and interpretation of that sign. Special attention is heir called to " a Short Method of Removing Symbols of Aggregation," Art. 70. On account of their importance, the subjects of Factoring, Greatest Common Divisor, and Least Common Multiple have been treated at greater length than is usual in elementary works. In the treatment of Fractious, a method is used which is quite simple, and", it the same time, more general than that usually employed. In connection with Radical Quantities the roots are expressed by fractional exponents, for the principles and rules applicable to integral exponents may then be used without modification. The Equation is made the chief subject of thought in this work. It is defined near the beginning, and used extensively in every chapter. In addition to this, four chapters are devoted exclusively to the subject of Eiiuatious. All Proportions are equations, and in their treatment as such all the difficulty commonly connected with the subject of Proportion disappears. The chapter on Logarithms will doubtless be acceptable to many teachers who do not require the student to master Higher Algebra before entering upon the study of Trigonometry. HIGHER MATHEMATICS. Peck's Manual of Algebra. Bringing the methods of Bourdon within the range of the Academic Course. Peck's Manual of Geometry. By a method purely practical, and unembarrassed by the details which rather confuse than simplify science. Peck's Practical Calculus. Peck's Analytical Geometry. Peck's Elementary Mechanics. Peck's Mechanics, with Calculus. The briefest treatises on these subjects now published. Adopted by the great Univer- sities : Yale, Harvard, Columbia, Princeton, Cornell, &c. Macnie's Algebraical Equations. Serving as a complement to the more advanced treatises on Algebra, giving special attention to the analysis and solution of equations with numerical coefficients. Church's Elements of Calculus. Church's Analytical Geometry. Church's Descriptive Geometry. With plates. 2 vols. These volumes constitute the "West Point Course " in their several departments Trof. Church was long the eminent professor of mathematics at West Point Military Academy, and his works are standard in all the leading colleges. Courtenay's Elements of Calculus. A .standard work of the very highest grade, prese*ting the most elaborate attainable survey of the subject. Hackley's Trigonometry. With applications to Navigation and Surveying, Nautical and Practical Geometry, and Geodesy. 25 THi NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARO SCHOOL-BOOKS. BARNES'S ONE-TERM SERIES. HISTORY AllfBffiSS A Brief History of the United States. This is probably the most original school-book pub lished for many years, in any department. A few of its- claims are the following : — 1. Brevity. —The text is complete for grammar school or intermediate classes, in 290 12mo pages, large type, It may readily be completed, if desired, in one term of study. 2. Comprehensiveness. — Though so brief, this hook contains the pith of all the wearying contents of the larger manuals, and a great deal more than the memory usually retains rom the latter. 3. Interest has been a prime consideration. Small hooks have heretofore been hare, full of dry statistics, unattractive. This one is charmingly written, replete with anecdote, and brilliant with illustration. 4. Proportion of Events. — It is remarkable for the discrimination with which the different portions of our history are presented accordingto their importance. Thus the older works, being already large books when the Civil War took place, give it less space than that accorded to the Revolution. 5. Arrangement. — In six epochs, entitled respectively, Discovery and Settlement, the Colonies, the Revolution, Growth of States, the Civil War. and Current Events. 6. Catch Words. — Bach paragraph is preceded by its leading thought in promi- nent type, standing in the student's mind for the whole paragraph. 7. Key Notes. — Analogous with this is the idea of grouping battles, &c, about some central event, which relieves the sameness so common in such descriptions, and renders each distinct by some striking peculiarity of its own. 8. Foot-Notes.— these are crowded with interesting matter that is not strictly a part of history proper. They may be learned or not, at pleasure. They are certain in any event to be read. 9. Biographies of all the leading characters are given in full in foot-notes. 10. Maps. — Elegant and distinct maps from engravings on copper-plate, and beauti- fully • dorcd, precede each epoch, and contain all the places named. 11. Questions are at the back of the book, to compel a more independent use of the text. .Both text and questions are so worded that the pupil must give intelligeut answers in his own WORDS. " Yes" and " No " will not do. 27 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. niSTORY — Continued. 12. Historical Recreations. — These are additional questions to test the student's knowledge, in review, as: " What trees are celebrated in our history?" "When tlid a fog save our army?" "What Presidents died in office?" ''When was the Mississippi our western boundary?" "Who said, 'I would rather be right than President'?" &e. 13. The Illustrations, about seventy in number, are the work of our best artists and en-ravers, produced at great expense. They arc vivid and interesting, and mostly upon subjects never before illustrated in a school-book. 14. Dates. — Only the leading dates are given in the text, and these are so associated as to assist the memory, but at the head of each page is the date of the event first mentioned, and at the close of each epoch a summary of events and dates. 15. The Philosophy of History is studiously exhibited, the causes and effects of events being distinctly traced and their inter-connection shown. 16. Impartiality. — All sectional, partisan, or denominational views are avoided. Facts are stated after a careful comparison of all authorities without the least prejudice or favor. 17. Index. — A verbal index at the close of the book perfects it as a work of reference. It will be observed that the above are all particulars in which School Histories have been signally defective, or altogether wanting. Many other claims to favor it shares in common with its predecessors. TESTIMONIALS. From Prof. Wm. F. Allen, State Uni- versity of Wisconsin. "Two features that I like very much are the anecdotes at the foot of the page and the ' Historical Recreations' in the Appendix. The latter, I think, is quite a new feature, and the other is very well executed." From Hon. Newton Bateman, Superin- tendent Public Instruction, Illinois. " Barnes's One-Term History of the United States is an exceedingly attrac- tive and spirited little book. Its claim to several new and valuable features seems well founded. Under the form of six well- defined epochs, the history of the United States is traced tersely, yet pithily, from the earliest times to the present day. A good map precedes each epoch, whereby the history and geography of the period may be studied together, as they always shoul I be. The syllabus of each paragraph is made to stand in such bold relief, by the use of large, heavy type, as to be of much mnemonic value to the student. The book is written in a sprightly and pi- quant style, the interest never Bagging from beginning to end,— a rare and dilii- cult achievement in works of this kind.'' From Hon. Abner J. Phipps, Superin- tendent S-h wis, L wiston, Maine. 11 Barnes's History of the United States has been used for several years in the Lewiston schools, and has proved a very satisfactory work. I have examined the new edition of it." From Hon. R. K. Buciiell, City Superin- tendent Schools, Lancaster, Pa. " It is the best history of the kind I have ever seen." From T. J. Charlton, Superintendent Public Schools, Vhicennes, Ind. "We have used it here for six years, and it has given almost perfect satisfac- tion. . . . The notes in fine print at the bottom of the pages are of especial value." From Prof. Wm. A. Mowrv, E. .]• C. School, Providence, R. I. " Permit me to express my high appre- ciation of your book. I wish all text- books for the young had equal merit." From Hon. A. M. Keiley, City Attorney, Late Mayor, and President, of the School Board, City of Richmond, Fa. " I do not hesitate to volunteer to you the opinion that r.arnes's History is en- titled to the preference in almost every respect that distinguishes a good school- book. . . . The narrative generally exhibits the temper of the judge; rarely, if ever - , of the advocate.'' THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. %»W.l ^«K£l AtfilHMfFBlBB'B 'I lyyuyus ^Ia( Jw ■mmm A Brief History of An- cient Peoples. With an account of their monuments, literature, and manners. 340 pages. 12mo. Profusely illustrated. In this work the political history, which occupies nearly, if not all, the ordinary school text, is condensed to the salient and essential facts, in order to give room for a clear outline of the literature, religion, architect lire, character, habits, &c, of each nation. Surely it is as important to know some- thing about Plato as all about Caesar, and to learn how the ancients wrote their books as how they fought their battles. The chapters on Manners and Cus- toms and the Scenes in Real Life repre- sent the people of history as men and women subject to the same wants, hopes and fears as ourselves, and so brfag the distant past near to us. The Scenes, which are intended only for reading, are the result of a careful study of Hie unequalled collections of monuments in the London and Berlin Museums, of the ruins in Rome and Pompeii, and of the latest authorities on the domestic life of ancient peoples. Though intentionally written in a semi-romantic style, they are accurate pictures of what might have occurred, and some of them are simple transcriptions of the details sculptured in Assyrian cdabaster or painted uu Egyptian walls. 29 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. HISTORY — Continued. The extracts made from the sacred hooks of the East are not specimens of their style and teachings, but only gems selected often from a massof matter, much of which would he absurd, meaningless, and even revolting. It has not seemed best to cumber a book like (his with selections conveying no moral lesson. Ihe numerous cross-references, the abundant dates in parenthesis, the pronunciation of the names in the Index, the choice reading references at the close of each general subject, and the novel Historical Recreations in the Appendix, will be of service to teacher and pupil alike. Though designed primarily for a text-hook, a large class of persons — general readers, who desire to know something about the progress of historic criticism and iiie recent discoveries made among the resurrected monuments of the East, hut have no leisure to read the ponderous volumes of Brugsch, Layard, (..rote, Momnisen, and lime — will lind this volume just what they need. From Homer 13. Spragub, Head Master Girls' High School, West Newton St., Bos- t')i, Mass. "1 beg to recommend in strong terms the adoption of Barnes's 'History of Ancient Peoples' as a text-hook. It is about as nearly perfect as could be hoped for. The adoption would give great relish to the study of Ancient History." HE Brief History of France, By the author of the " Brhf United States, with all the attractive features of that popu- lar work (which see) and new ones of its own. It is believed that the History of France has never before been presented in such brief compass, and this is effected without sacrificing one particle of interest. The book reads like a romance, and, while drawing the student by an irresistible fascination to his task, impresses the great outlines indelibly ui>on the memory. 30 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. HISTORY — Continued. Barnes's Brief History of Mediaeval and Modern Peoples. The success of the History of Ancient Peoples was immediate and great. A History Of Mediaeval and Modern History, upon the same plan, was the natural sequence. Those teachers who used the former will be glad to know that the latter book is now ready, and classes can go right on without changing authors. The New York School Journal say; " The fine-print notes. . . work a Ueld not widely developed until Green's His- tory of English People appeared, relating to the description of real, every-day life uf the people." This work distinguishes between the period of the world's history from the Fall of Koine (a.d. 470) to the Capture of Constantinople (a.d. 1453), — about one thousand years, called "Middle Ages," — and the period from the end of the fifteenDh century to the present time. It covers the entire time chronologically and by the order of events, giving one hundred and twenty-two tine illustrations and sixteen elaborate maps. from Barnes's Brief - History Series.] The subject has never before been so in- terestingly treated in ln-ief compass. The Po- litical Historj of each nation is firsl given, then the Manners and Customs of th< People. A better idea of the growth of civilization and the changes in the condition of mankind can- not be found elsewhere. The honk is lifted for private reading, as well as schools. 31 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS, HISTORY — Continued. Barnes's Brief General History. Comprising Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern Peoples. The special features of this book are as follows: — The General History contains GOO pages. Of this amount, 350 pages are devoted to the political history, and 250 pages to the civilization, manners, and customs, etc. The latter are in separate chapters, and if thetimeof the teacher is limited, may be omitted. The class can thus take only the political portion when desired, 'the teacher will have, however, the satisfaction of knowing that, such is the fascinating treatment of the civilization, literature, etc., those chapters will be carefully read by the pupils ; and, ou the principle that knowledge acquired from love alone is the most vivid, will probably be the best-remembered part of the book. This portion of the book is therefore ail clear gain. The Black-board Analysis. See p. 314 as an example of this marked feature. The exquisite Illustrations, unrivalled by any text-book. Bee pp. 9, 457, and 5S2, as samples of the 240 cuts contained in this beautiful work. The peculiar Summaries, and valuable, lists of Reading References. See p. 417. The numerous and excellent colored Maps. These are so lull as to answer tor an extensive course of collateral reading, and are consequently useful for reference outside of class-work. See pp. 299 and 317. The Scenes in Real Life, which are the result of a careful study of the collections and monuments in the London, Paris, and Berlin museums, and the latest authorities n pon the domestic, life of the people of former times. See pp. 38-39. This scene — a Lord of the IVth Dynasty — is mainly a transcription of details to be found painted on the walls of Egyptian tombs. The chapters on Civilization that attempt to give some idea of the Monuments, Arts, Literature, Education, and Manners and Customs of the different nations. See pp 171, 180, 270, 279, 472, and 514. The admirable Genealogical Tables interspersed throughout the text. See pp. 340 and 494. The Foot-Notes that are packed full of anecdotes, biographies, pleasant information, and suggestive comments. As an illustration of these, take the description of the famous sieges of Haarlem and Leyden, during the Dutch War of Independence, pp. 440 and 448. The peculiar method of treating Early Roman History, by putting in the text the facts as accepted by critics, and, in the notes below, the legends. See pp. 205-6. The exceedingly useful plan of running collateral history in parallel columns, as Tor example on p. 361, taken from the Hundred Years' War. The Historical Recreations, so valuable in arousing the interest of a class. Sec p. xi from the Appendix. The striking opening of Modern History on pp. 423-4. The interesting Style, that sweeps the reader along as by the fascination of a novel. The pupil insensibly acquires a taste for historical reading,' and forgets the tediousness of the ordinary lesson in perusing the thrilling story of the past See pn 2V-1 Special attention is called to the chapter entitled Rise of Modern Nations, — England, France, and Germany. The characteristic feature in the medieval historv of each of these nations is made prominent, (a.) After the Four Conquests of England, the central idea in the growth of that people was the Development of Constitutional Liberty. (!>.) The feature of French historv was the conquest of the ptreat vassals l>y the king, the triumph of royalty over feudalism, and the final consolidation of the scattered fiefs into one grand monarchy, (c.) The characteristic, of German history was disunion, emphasized by the lack of a central capital citv. and by an elective rather than an hereditary monarchy. The struggle of the Crown with its powerful vassals was the same as in France, but developed no national sentiment, and ended in the establishment of semi-independent dukedoms. These three thonghts furnish the beginner with as many threads on which to string the otherwise isolated facts of this bewildering period. 32 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. HISTORY — Conti Barnes's Brief History of Greece. 204 pages. 12nio. Cloth. Illustrated. This book was primarily prepared for the Cliatauqua Course in History, but is well adapted to the wants of all students. It consists of tlie chapters on the Political History and Civilization of Greece, in Barnes's "Brief History of Ancient Peoples," and a number of appropriate selections from the works of such historians as Curtius, Grotc, Thirlwall. Smith, Fyffe, Cox, Schnritz, Rawlinson, and others. By the study of this little book the reader will gain a very substantial idea of the history of' Greece, in whose career the rest of Hie world is so largely concerned. imeu Illustration from Barnes's Jjiiei'-liisiory series, j Kummer's Epitome of English History. With Questions for Examination. By S. Agnes Kmnmer, revised by A. M. Chandler of the Edgcworth School, Baltimore, Md. 150 pages. l2mo. Cloth. the success of the first edition of this book in several schools leads to its reproduction willi additions. It is not designed to supersede the study of more comprehensive text-books of history, but merely to act as a handmaiden to them, by presenting in a condensed form the principal facts and dates. SHEPARD'S SYSTEMATIC MINERAL RECORD. With a synopsis of terms and chemical reactions used in describing minerals. Pre- pared for instructors and atudents in mineralogy. Adapted to any text-book. 22 pages of descriptive and explanatory text, and 7a blank pages for record. u THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. mm. ililifi mmm M mm IIP WWWM //M ijjlli! y^jiT, tfwJ GENERAL HISTORY. Monteith's Youth's History of the United States. A History of the United States for beginners. It is arranged upon the catechetical plan, with illustrative maps and engravings, review questions, dates in parentheses (that their study may be optional with the younger class of learners), and interesting biographical sketches of all persons who have been prominently identified with the history of our country. Willard's United States. School and University Editions. The plan of this standard wor.< is chronologically exhibited in front of the titlepage. The maps and sketches are found useful assistants to the memory ; and dates, usually so difficult to remember, are so systematically arranged as in a great degree to obviate the difficulty. Candor, impartiality, and accuracy are the distinguishing features of the narrative portion. Willard's Universal History. New Edition. The most valuable features of the " United States " are reproduced in this. The peculiarities of the work are its great conciseness and the prominence given to the chronological order of events. The margin marks each successive era with great dis- tinctness, so that the pupil retains not only the event but its time, and thus lixes the order of history firmly and usefully in his mind. Mrs. Willard's books are constantly revised, and at all times written up to embrace important historical events of recent date. Professor Arthur Gibnan has edited the last twenty-live years to 1SS2. Lancaster's English History. By the Master of the Stoughton Grammar School, Boston. The most practical of the "brief books." Though short, it is not a bare and uninteresting outline, but contains enough of explanation and detail to make intelligible the canst and effect of evenis. Their relations to the history and development of the American people is made specially prominent. Willis's Historical Reader. Being Collier's Great Events of History adapted to American schools. This rare epitome of general history, remarkable for its charming style and judicious selection of events on which the destinies of nations have tinned, has been skilfully manipulated by Professor Willis, with as few changes as would bring the United States into its proper position in the historical perspective. As reader or text-book it has lew equals and no superior. Berard's History of England. By an authoress well known for the success of her History of the United Stales The social life of the English people is felicitously interwoven, as in fact, with the civil d military transac of th Ricord's History of Rome. Possesses the charm of an attractive romance. The fables with which this history abounds are introduced in such a way as not to deceive the inexperienced, while adding materially to the value of the work as a reliable index, to the character and institutions, as well as the. histoiv of the Roman people. 35 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. HISTORY — Continued, Hanna's Bible History. The only compendium of Bible narrative which affords a connected and chronological view of the important events there recorded, divested of all superfluous detail. Summary of History ; American, French, and English. A well-proportioned outline of leading events, condensing the substance of the more sxtensive texb-books in common use into a series dt statements so brief, that every word may be committed to memory, and yel so comprehensive that it presents an accurate though general view of the whole continuous life of nations. Marsh's Ecclesiastical History. Affording the History of the Church in all ages, with accounts of the pagan world during the biblical periods, an I the character, rise, and progress of all religions, as well as the various sects of the worshippers of Christ The work is entirely non-sectarian, though strictlv catholic. A. separate volume contains carefully prepared questions for class use. Mill's History of the Ancient Hebrews. With valuable Chronological Charts, prepared by Professor Edwards of NY. This is a succinct account of the chosen people of God to the time of the destruction of Jerusalem. Complete in one volume. Topical History Chart Book. By Miss Ida P. Whitcomb. To be used in connection with any History, Ancient or Modern, instead of the ordinary blank book for summary. It embodies the names of contemporary rulers from the earliest to the present time, with blanks under each, in which the pupil may write the summary of the life of the ruler. Gilman's First Steps in General History. A "suggestive outline" of rare compactness. Each country is treated by itself, and the United states receive special attention. Frequent maps, contemporary events in tables, references to standard works for fuller details, and a minute Index constitute the " Illustrative Apparatus." From no other work that we know of can so succinct a view of the world's history be obtained. Considering the necessary limitation of space, the style is surprisingly vivid, and at times even ornate. In all respects a charming, though not the less practical, text-book. Baker's Brief History of Texas. Dimitry's History of Louisana. Alison's Napoleon First. The history of Europe from 17S8 to 1S15. By Archibald Alison. Abridged by Edward S Gould tine vol., Svo, with appendix, questions, and maps. 050 pages. Lord's Points of History. The salient points in the history of the world arranged cateehetically for class use m for review and examination of teacher or pupil. By John Lord, LL.D. 12mo, 300 page*. Carrington's Battle Maps and Charts of the American Revolution. Topographical Maps and Chronological Charts of every battle, with 3 steel portraits of Washington. Svo, cloth. Condit's History of the English Bible. For theological and historical students this book has an intrinsic value. It gives the history of all the English translations down to the present time, together with a careful revi.w of their inlluenee upon English literature and language. 3G THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. DRAWING. BARNES'S POPULAR DRAWING SERIES. Based upon the experience of the most successful teachers of drawing in the United Rtates. The Primary Course, consisting of a manual, ten cards, and three primary hawing hooks, A, 15, and U. Intermediate Course. Pour numbers and a manual. Advanced Course, b'our numbers and a manual. Instrumental Course. Pour numbers and a manual. 'i lie Intermediate, Advanced, and Instrumental Courses are furnished either in hook or card form at the same prices. The hooks contain the usual blanks, with the unusual advantage of opening from the pupil, — placing the copy directly in front and above the blank, thus occupying but little desk-room. The cards are. in the end more, econom- ical than the books, if used in connection with the patent blank folios that accompany this scries. The cards are arranged to be bound (or tied) in the folios and removed at pleasure. The pupil at the end of each number has a complete book, containing only his own work, while the copies are preserved and inserted in another fol.o ready for use in the next class. Patent Blank Folios. No. 1. Adapted to Intermediate Course. No. 2. Adapted to Advanced and instrumental Courses. ADVANTAGES OF THIS SERIES. The Plan and Arrangement. — The examples are so arranged that teachers and pupils can see, at a glance, how they are to be treated and where they are to be copied. In this system, copying and designing do not receive all the attention. The plan is broader in its aims, dealing with drawing as a branch of common-school instruction, ok4 giving it a wide educational value. Correct Methods. — In this system the pupil is led to rely upon himself, and not upon delusive mechanical aids, as printed guide-marks, &c. One of the principal objects of any good course, in freehand drawing is to educate the eye to estimate location, form, and size. A system which weakens the motive or re- moves the necessity of thinking is false in theory and ruinous in practice. The object should be to educate, not crani ; to develop the intelligence, not teach tricks. Artistic Effect— The beauty of the examples is not destroyed by crowding the pages with useless and badly printed text. The Manuals contain all necessary instruction. Stages of Development. —Many of the examples are accompanied by diagrams, showing the different stages of development. Lithographed Examples. — The examples are printed in imitation of pencil drawing (not in hard, black lines) that the pupil's work may resemble them. One Term's Work. — Each book contains what can be accomplished in an average term, and no more. Thus a pupil finishes one book before beginning another. Quality — not Quantity. — Success in drawing depends upon the amount of thought exercised hy the pupil, and not upon the large number of examples drawn. Designing.— Elementary design is more skilfully taught in this system than by any other, in addition to the instruction given in the books, the pupil will find printed on the insides of the covers a variety of beautiful patterns. Enlargement and Reduction. — The practice of enlarging and reducing from copies is not commenced until the pupil is wc41 advanced in the course and therefore better able to cope with this difficult feature in drawing. Natural Forms. —This is the only course that gives at convenient internals easy and progressive exercises in the drawing of natural forms. Economy. —By the patent binding described above, the copies need not Vie thrown aside when a 1 k is tilled out, but are preserved in perfect condition for future use. 'the blank books, only, will have to De purchased afterthc first introduction, thus effect- ing a saving of more than half in the usual cost of drawing-books. Manuals for Teachers. —The Manuals accompanying this series contain practical ins, ructions tor conducting drawing in the class-room, with definite directions for draw- ing fiith of the examples in the books, instructions for designing, model and object drawing, drawing from natural forms, &c. THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. DRAWING —Com Chapman's American Drawing-Book. The standard American text-book and authority in all branches of art A compilation of art principles. A manual for the amateur, and basis of study fur the professional artist. Adapted for schools and private instruction. Contents. — " Any one who can Learn toWritecan Learn to Draw." — Primary In- struction in Drawing.— Rudiments of Drawing the Human' Head.- Rudiments in Drawing the Human Figure.— Rudiments of Drawing. — The Elements of Geometry. Perspective. — Of Studying and Sketching from Nature.— Of Painting.— Etching and Engraving. — Of Modelling. —Of Composition. — Ad vice to the American Art-Student. The work is ofcourse magnificently illustrated with all the original designs. Chapman's Elementary Drawing-Book. A progressive course of practical exercises, or a text-book for the training of the eye and hand. It contains the elements from the larger work, and a copy should be in the hands of every pupil ; while a copy of the " American Drawing-Book," named above. should be at hand for reference by the class. Clark's Elements of Drawing. A complete course in this graceful art, from the first rudiments of outline to the finished sketches of landscape and scenery. Allen's Map-Drawing and Scale. This method introduces a new era in map-drawing, for the following reasons : 1. It is a system. This is its greatest merit. — 2 It is easily understood and taught.— 3. The eye is trained to exact measurement by the use of a scale —4. By no special effort of the memory, distance and comparative size are fixed in the mind. — 5. Itdis- cards useless construction of lines.— 6. It can be taught by any teacher, even though there may have been no previous practice in map-drawing. — 7. Any pnpil old enough to study geography can learn by this system, in a short time, to draw accurate maps. — s. The system is not the result of theory, but comes direotly from the sohool-room. II has been'thoroughly and successfully tested there, with all grades of pupils.— 9. It is economical, as it requires no mapping plates. It gives the pupil the ability of rapidly drawing accurate maps. FINE ARTS. Hamerton's Art Essays (Atlas Series) : — No. 1. The Practical Work of Painting. With portrait of Rubens. 8vo. Taper covers. No. 2. Modern Schools of Art.. Including American, English, and Continental Painting. 8vo. Paper covers. Huntington's Manual of the Fine Arts. A careful manual of instruction in the history of art, up to the present time. Boyd's Karnes' Elements of Criticism. The best edition of the best work sm art and literary criticism ever produced in English. * Benedict's Tour Through Europe. A valuable companion for anyone wishing to visit the galleries and sights of the continent of Europe, as well as a charming book of travels. Dwight's Mythology. A knowledge of mythology is necessary to an appreciation of ancient art. Walker's World's Fair. The industrial and artistic display at the Centennial Exhibition. 40 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. BOOK-KEEPING TEXT. Powers's Practical Book-keeping. Powers's Blanks to Practical Book-keeping. A Treatise on Book-keeping, for Public Schools and Academies. By Millard R. Powers, M. A. This work is designed to impart instruction upon the science of accounts, as applied to mercantile business, and it is believed that more knowledge, and tli.it, too, of a more practical nature, can be gained by the plan introduced in this work, than by any other published. Folsom's Logical Book-keeping. Folsom's Blanks to Book-keeping. This treatise embraces the interesting and important discoveries of Professor Folsom (of the Albany " Bryant & Stratton College"), the partial enunciation of which in lectures and otherwise has attracted so much attention in circles interested in commercial education. Alter studying business phenomena for many years, he has arrived at the positive laws and principles that underlie the whole subject of accounts ; finds that the science is based in value as a generic term ; that value divides into two classes with varied species ; that all the exchanges of values are reducible to nine equations ; and that all the results of all these exchanges are limited to thirteen in number. As accounts have been universally taught hitherto, without setting out from a radical analysis or definition of values, the science has been kept in great obscurity, and been made as difficult to impart as to acquire. On the new theory, However, these obstacles are chiefly removed. In reading over the first part of it, in which the governing laws and principles are discussed, a person with ordinary intelligence will obtain a lair con-. ception of the double-entry process of accounts. But when he comes to study thoroughly these laws and principles as there enunciated, and works out the examples and memo- randa which elucidate the thirteen results of business, the student will neither fail in readily acquiring the science as it is, nor in becoming able intelligently to apply it in the interpretation of business. Smith and Martin's Book-keeping. Smith and Martin's Blanks. This work is by a practical teacher and a practical book-keeper. It is of a thoroughly popular class, and will be welcomed by every one who loves to see theory and practice combined in an easy, concise, and methodical form. The single-entry portion is well adapted to supply a want felt in nearly all other treatises, which seem to be prepared mainly for the use of wholesale merchants ; leaving retailers, mechanics, farmers, &c. ,-who transact the greater portion of the business of the country, without a guide. The work is also commended, on this account, for general use in young ladies' seminaries, where a thorough grounding in the simpler form of accounts will be invaluable to the future housekeepers of the nation. The treatise on double-entry book-keeping combines all the advantages of the most recent methods with the utmost simplicity of application, thus affording the pupil all the advantages of actual experience in the counting-house, and giving a clear comprehension of the entire subject through a judicious course of mercantile transactions. PRACTICAL BOOK-KEEPING. Stone's Post-Office Account Book. ByMicah E. Stone. For record of Box Rents and Postages. Three sizes always in stock. 04, 10S, and 204 pages. INTEREST TABLES. Brooks's Circular Interest Tables. To calculate simple and compound interest for any amount, from 1 cent to $1,000, at current rates from 1 day to 7 years. 41 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. DR. STEELE'S ONE-TERM SERIES IN ALL THE SCIENCES. Steele's 14-Weeks Course in Chemistry. Steele's 14-Weeks Course in Astronomy. Steele's 14-Weeks Course in Physics. Steele's 14-Weeks Course in Geology. Steele's 14-Weeks Course in Physiology. Steele's 14-Weeks Course in Zoology. Steele's 14-Weeks Course in Botany. Our text-books in these studios are, ns a general thing, dull and uninteresting. They contain from 400 to(S00 pages of dry tacts and unconnected details. They abound in that which the student cannot learn, much less remember. The pupil commenced the study, is confused by the line print and coarse print, and neither knowing exactly what to learn nor what to hasten over, is crowded through the single term gem rally assigned to each branch, and frequently comes to the close without a definite and exact idea of a single scientific principle. ■ Steele's " Fourteen- Weeks Courses " contain only that which every well-informed per- son should know, while all that which concerns only the professional-scientist is omitted. The language is clear, simple, and interesting, and the illustrations bring the subject within the range of home life and daily experience. They give such of the general principles and the prominent facts as a pupil can make familiar as household words within a single term. The type is large and open; there is no line print to annoy ; the cuts are copies of genuine experiments or natural phenomena, and are of fine execution. In fine by a system of condensation peculiarly his own, the author reduces each branch to tlie limits of a single term of study, while sacrificing nothing that is essential, and nothing that is usually retained from the study of the larger manuals in common use. Thus the student has rare opportunity to economize his lime, or rather to employ that which he has to the best advantage. A notable feature is the author's charming "style," fortified by an enthusiasm over his subject, in which the student will not fail to partake. Believing that Natural Hcicnce'is full of fascination, lie has moulded it into a form that attracts the attention and kindles the enthusiasm of the pupil. The recent editions contain the author's "Practical Questions" on a plan never before attempted in scientific text-books. These arc questions as to the nature and cause of common phenomena, and are not directly answei^ed m the text, the design being to test and promote an intelligent use of the student's knowledge of the foregoing principles. Steele's Key to all His Works. This work is mainly composed of answers to the Practical Questions, and solutions of the problems, in the author's celebrated "Fourteen -Weeks Courses" in the several sciences, with many hints to teachers, minor tables, &c. Should be on every teacher's desk. Prof. J. Dorman Steele is an indefatigable student, as well as author, and his books have reached a fabulous circulation. It is safe to say of his books that they have accomplished more tangible and better results in the class-room than any other ever offered to American schools, and have been translated into more languages for foreign schools. They axe even produced in raised type for the blind. 42 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. NATURAL SCIENCE — Continued. TEMPERANCE PHYSIOLOGY. Steele's Abridged Physiology, for Common Schools. Steele's Hygienic Physiology, for High Schools. With especial reference to alcoholic drinks and narcotics. Adapted from " Fourteen Weeks' Course in Human Physiology." By J. Dorman Steele, Ph.D. Edited and endorsed lor the use of schools (in accordance with the recent legislation upon tins subject) by the Department of Temperance Instruction of the W. C. T. U. of the United States, under the direction of Mrs. Mary H. Hunt, superintendent. Tins new work contains all the excellent and popular features that have given Dr. Steele's Physiology so wide a circulation. Among these, are the following: 1. Colored Lithographs to illustrate the general facts in Physiology. 2. Black-board Analysis at the beginning of each chapter. These have been found of great service in class-work, especially in review and examination. 3. The Practical Questions at the close of each chapter. These are now too well known to require any explanation. 4. The carefully prepared sections upon the Physiological Action of Alcohol, Tobacco, Opium, etc. These are scattered through the book as each organ is treated. This subject is examined from a purely scientific stand-point, and represents the latest teachings at home and abroad. While there is no attempt to incorporate a temperance lecture in a school-book, yet the terrible effects of these " Stimulants and Narcotics,'' especially upon the young, are set forth all the more impressively, since the lesson is taught merely by the presentation of facts that lean toward no one's prejudices, and admit of no answer or escape. 5. Throughout the book, there are given, in text and foot-note, experiments that can be performed by teacher and pupil, and winch, it is hoped, will induce some easy dis- sections to be made in every class, and lead to that constant reference of all subjects to Nature herself, which is so invaluable in scientific study. (i. The collection of recent discoveries, interesting facts, etc., in numerous foot- notes. 7. The unusual space given to the subject of Ventilation, which is now attracting so much attention throughout the country. 8. The text is brought up to the level of the new Physiological views. The division into short, pithy paragraphs ; the bold paragraph headings ; the clear, large type ; the simple presentation of each subject ; the interesting style that begets in every child a love of the study, and the beautiful cuts, each having a full scientific description and nomenclature, so as to present the thing before the. pupil without cumbering the text with the dry details, — all these indicate the work of the practical teacher, and will be appreciated in every school-room. Mrs. Hunt's Child's Health Primer. For the youngest scholars. 12mo, cloth, illustrated. Mrs. Hunt's Hygiene, for Young People. Prepared under the supervision of Mrs. Mary H. Hunt, Superintendent of the Department of Scientific Instruction of the " Women's National Christian Temperance Union." Examined and approved by A. B. Palmer, M.D., University of Michigan. Jarvis's Elements of Physiology. Jarvis's Physiology and Laws of Health. The only hooks extant which approach this subject with a proper view of the. true object of teaching Physiology in schools, viz., that scholars may know how to take care of' their own health." In bold contrast with the abstract A natomies, which children learn as they would Greek or Latin (and forget as soon), to discipline the mitid.are these text-hooks, using the science as a secondary consideration, and only so far as is neces- sary for the comprehension of the laws of health. 44 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. THE NEW GANOT. Introductory Course of Natural Philosophy. This book was originally edited from Ganot's " Popular Physics," by William G. Peek, LL.D., Professor of Mathematics and Astron y, Columbia College, and of Mechanics in the School of Mines. It has recently been revised by Levi S. I'ur- bank, A. M., late Principal of Warren Academy, YVoburn, Mass., and James 1. Hanson, A.M., Principal of the High School, Woburn, Mass. Of elementary works those of M. Ganot stand pre-eminent, not only as popnlar treatises, but as thoroughly scientific expositions of the principles <>f Physics. 11 is " Traitc do Physique " has not only met witli unprecedented success in Prance, but has been extensively used in the preparation of the best works on Physics that have been issued from the American press. In addition to the"Traite de Physique," which is intended for the use of colleges and higher institutions of learning, M. Ganot published this more elementary work, adapted to the use of schools and academies, in which he faithfully preserved the prominent features and all the scientific accuracy of the larger work. It is charcter- ized by a well-balanced distribution of subjects, a logical development of scientific principles, and a remarkable clearness of definition ami explanation In addition, it is profusely illustrated with beautifully executed engravings, admirably calculated to convey to the mind of the student a clew conception of the principles unfolded Their completeness and accuracy are such as to enable the teacher to dispense with much of the apparatus usually employed in teaching the elements of Physical Science. After several years of great popularity the American publishers have brought this important book thoroughly up to the times. The death of the accomplished educator, Professor Burbank, took place before he had completed his work, and it was then taken in hand by his friend, Professor Hanson, who was familiar with his plans, and lias ably and satisfactorily brought the work to completion. The essential characteristics and general plan of the book have, so far as possible, been retained, but at the same time many parts have been entirely rewritten, much new matter added, a large number of new cuts introduced, and the whole treatise thoroughly revised and brought into harmony with the present advanced stage of sci- entific discovery. Among the new features designed to aid in teaching the subject-matter are the summaries of topics, which, it is thought, will be found very convenient in short reviews. As many teachers prefer to prepare their own questions on the text, and many do no* have time to spend in the solution of problems, it has been deemed expedient \<> insert both the review questions and problems at the end of tire volume, to be used or not at the discretion of the instructor. From the Churchman. " No department of science has under- gone so many improvements and changes in the last quarter of a century as that of natural philosophy. So many and so im- portant have been the discoveries and inventions in every branch of it that everything seems changed but its funda- mental principles. Ganot has chapter upon chapter upon subjects that wire not so much as known by name to Olmsted ; and here we have Ganot, first edited by Professor Peek, and afterward revised by the late Mr. Burbank and Mr. Hanson. No elementary works upon philosophy have been superior to those of Ganot, either as popular treatises or as scientific exposi- tions of the principles of physics, and his ' Traite dc Physique ' has not only had a great success in France, but has been freely used in this country in the prepa- ration of American books upon the sub- jects of which it treats. That work was intended for higher institutions of learn- ing, and Mr. Ganot preparer* a more elementary work for schools «tnd acade- mies. It is as scientifically accurate as the larger work, and is characterized by a logical development of scientific princi- ples, by clearness of definition and expla- nation, by a proper distribution of sub- jects, ami by its admirable engravings. We here have Ganot's work enhanced in value by tin; labors of Professor Peck and of Messrs." Burbank and Hanson, and brought up to our own times. The essential char- acteristics of Ganot's work have been re- tained, but much of the book has been rewritten, and many new cuts have been introduced, made necessary by the prog- ress of scientific discovery. The short reviews, the questions on the text, and the problems given for solution are desir- able, additions to a work of this kind, and will give the book increased popularity." 45 ■HE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. FAMILIAR SCIENCE. Norton & Porter's First Book of Science. Sets firtli the principles of Natural Philosophy, Astronomy, Chemistry, Physiology, and Geology, on the catechetical plan for primary classes an I beginners. Chambers's Treasury of Knowledge. Progressive lessons upon — first, common things which lie most immediately around ns, and first attract the attention of the young mind ; second, common objects from the mineral, animal, and vegetable kingdoms, manufactured articles, and miscellaneous substances ; third, a systematic view of nature under the various sciences. May be used as a reader or text-book. Monteittfs Easy Lessons in Popular Science. This hook combines within its covers more attractive features for the study of science by children than any other book published. It is a reading book, spelling book, com- position book, drawing book, geography, history, book on botany, zoology, agricul- ture, manufactures, commerce, and natural philosophy. All these subjects are presented in a simple and effective style, such as would be adopted by a good teacher on ;ui excursion with a class. The class are supposed to be taking excursions, with the help of a large pictorial chart of geography, which can be suspended before them in the school-room. A key of the chart is inserted in every copy of the book. With this book the science of common or familiar things can be taught to beginners. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. Norton's First Book in Natural Philosophy. Peck's Elements of Mechanics. A suitable introduction to Bartlett's higher treatises on Mechanical Philosophy, and adequate in itself for a complete academical course. Bartlett's Analytical Mechanics. Bartlett's Acoustics and Optics. A complete system of Collegiate Philosophy, by Prof. W. II. C Bartlett, of West Point Military Academy. Steele's Physics. Peck's Ganot. GEOLOGY. Page's Elements of Geology. A volume of Chambers's Educational Course. Practical, simple, and eminently calculated to make the study interesting. Steele's Geology. CHEMISTRY. Porter's First Book of Chemistry. Porter's Principles of Chemistry. The above are widely known as the productions of one of the most eminent scientific men of America. The' extreme simplicity in the method of presenting the science, while exhaustively treated, has excited universal commendation. Gregory's Chemistry (Organic and Inorganic). 2 vols. The science exhaustively treated. For colleges and medical students. Steele's Chemistry. 47 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. NATURAL SCIENCE — Continued. BOTANY. Wood's Object-Lessons in Botany. Wood's American Botanist and Florist. Wood's New Class-Book of Botany. The standard text-hooka of the United .States in this department. In style they are simple, popular, and lively ; in arrangement, easy and natural ; in description, graphic ami scientific. The Tallies for Analysis are reduced to a perfect system. They include the flora of the whole UuiUwl States cast of the Rocky Mountains, and are well adapted to the regions west. Wood's Descriptive Botany. A complete flora of all plants growing east of the Mississippi River. Wood's Illustrated Plant Record. A simple form of blanks tor recording observations in the field. Wood's Botanical Apparatus. A portable trunk, containing drying preiS, knife, trowel, microscope, and tweezers, and a copy of Wood's " Plant Record," — the collector's complete outlit. Willis's Flora of New Jersey. The most useful book of reference e«er published for collectors in all parts of the country. It contains also a Uotanica) Directory, with addresses of living American botanists. Young's Familiar Lessons in Botany. Combining simplicity of diction with some degree of technical and scientific knowl- edge, lor intermediate classes. Specially adapted lor the Southwest. Wood & Steele's Botany. See page 'Si. AGRICULTURE. Pendleton's Scientific Agriculture. A text-book for colleges and schools; treats of the following topics: Anatomy and Physiology of Plants ; Agricultural Meteorology ; Soils as related to Physics ; Chemistry of the Atmosphere ; of Plants; of Soils ; Fertilizers and Natural Manures; Animal Nu- trition, &c. By E. M. Pendleton, M. D., Professor of Agriculture in the University of Georgia. From President A. D. White, Cornell University. "Dear Sir: I have examined your ' Text- book of Agricultural Science,' and it seems to me excellent in view of the pur- pose it is intended to serve. Many of your chapters interested me especially, and all parts of the work seem tocombine scientific instruction with practical infor- mation in proportions dictated by sound common sense." From President Robinson, of Brown University. "It is scientific in method as well as in matter, comprehensive in plan, natural and logical in order, compact and lucid in its statements, and must be Useful both as a text-book in agricultural colleges, and as a hand-book for intelligent planters and fanners." 48 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. NATURAL SCIENCE — Continued. ASTRONOMY. Peck's Popular Astronomy. By Win. G. Trek, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics, Mechanics, and Astron- omy in Columbia College. 12mo. Cloth. 330 pages. Professor Peck lias here produced a scientific, work in brief form for colleges, acade- mies, and liigli schools. Teachers who do not want, an elementary work — like Steele's Astronomy, fbrinstance -will find what they want in this book. Its discussion of the stars, Solar System, Earth, Moon, Sun and Planets, Eclipses, Tides, Calendars, Planets and Satellites." Cornels and Meteors. &c, is full and satisfactory. The illustrations are numerous and very carefully engraved, so the student can gain an accurate comprehen- sion of the things represented. Professor Peek is wonderfully (dear and concise in his style of writing, and there is nothing redundant or obscure in this work. It is intended for popular as well as class use, and accordingly avoids too great attention to mathe- matical processes, which are introduced in smaller tvpe than the regular text. For higher schools this astronomy is undoubtedly the best text-book yet published. Willard's School Astronomy. By means of (dear and attractive illustrations, addressing the eye; in many cases by analogies, careful definitions of all necessary technical terms, a careful avoidance of verbiage and unimportant matter, particular attention to analysis, and a general adop- tion of the simplest methods, Mrs. Willard has made the best and most attractive elementary Astronomy extant. Mclntyre's Astronomy and the Globes. A complete treatise for intermediate classes. Highly approved. Bartlett's Spherical Astronomy. The West, Point Course, for advanced classes, with applications to the current wants of Navigation, Geography, and Chronology. NATURAL HISTORY. Carll's Child's Book of Natural History. Illustrating the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, with application to the aits. For beginners. Beautifully and copiously illustrated. Anatomical Technology. Wilder & Gage. As applied to the domestic cat. For the use of students of medicine. ZOOLOGY. Chambers's Elements of Zoology. A complete and comprehensive system of .Zoology, adapted for academic instruction, presenting a systematic view of the animal kingdom as a. portion of external nature. ROADS AND RAILROADS. Gillespie's Roads and Railroads. Tenth Edition. Edited by Cad y Staley, A.M.. C B. 464 papes. 12mo. Cloth This book has long been and still is the standard manual of the principles and prac- tice of Road-making, comprising the location, construction, and improvement of roans [common, macadam, paved, plank, &c) and railroads. It was compiled by Win. Gillespie, LL.D., C. E. , of Union College. 49 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. PHONOGRAPHY. Eames's Light-Line Short-Hand. By Roscoe L. Eames. 248 pages. 12mo. Cloth. This bonk presents a practical phonetic system, without shading. It is prepared to meet the requirements of business, corfesp ling, and verbatim reporting. It is especially adapted to the use of schools and colleges. It gives a vocabulary <>r more than 4,. : >'im> words and phrases. The illustrations arc very numerous, and both in variety and quantity are unprecedented. There are 58 pages of engraved short-hand matter for praCtice-copies. The book is highly endorsed, and the system is the bast and shortest known. COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Brookfield's First Book in Composition. Making the cultivation of this important art feasible for the smallest child. By a new method, to induce and stimulate thought. Boyd's Composition and Rhetoric. This work furnishes all the aid that is needful or can be desired in the various departments and styles of composition, both in prose ami verse. Day's Art of Rhetoric. Noted for exactness of definition, clear limitation, and philosophical development of subject; the large share of attention given to invention, as a brunch of rhetoric, ami the unequalled analysis of style. Bardeen's Sentence-Making. Bardeen's Complete Rhetoric. The plan of this treatise is wholly novel, and is its most characteristic feature. The author begins with Sentence-Making, which is to rhetoric what carpentry or masonry is to architecture, — not properly a part of it, but to be absolutely mastered, so that the architect's ideas may be carried out with promptness and precision. This " handicraft," so to speak, having been acquired, the student is ready to apply it according to the rides of tin; art. Where first? He is required to converse, almost constantly, and he has already learned that it is sometimes difficult to converse well. Let him see that the rules of rhetoric, apply primarily to the everyday talk in which he is engaged, and rhetoric becomes a real thing. Accordingly, the author follows with a, full and familiar treatment of Conversation. As all must talk, so nearly all must write letters of one kind or another; and the second part of the hook rs devote 1 to Letter-Writing. In itself this subject is treated with incisive directness and practical force, business letters receiving special attention. With the Essay arises a new necessity, — of formal invention. The author clearly shows that a distinct part of what i s often called " inspiration " in writing comes from hard labor under fixed rules hero laid down; that this labor is indispensable even to respectable writing, and that without this labor no production is worthy to be called an essay. The Oration introduces anew feature, — the oral delivery to an audience, with all the principles of articulation, emphasis, gesture, and other principles usually referred to elocution as a distinct subject. The discussion of extempore speaking is remarkably terse and helpful. Finally comes the Poem, more briefly treated, with the most important directions as to Rhyl hm and Rhyme. Here we have then six distinct parts, — Sentence-Making, Conversation, Letter- Writing, the Essay, the Oration, and the Poem. Wlien all this is taken into consideration, the book seems small instead of large, and we. must wonder how so much was got into so little Space. 50 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. LITERATURE. Gilman's First Steps in English Literature. The character and plan of this exquisite little text-book may be best understood irom an analysis of its contents: Introduction. Historical Period of Immature English, with Chart ; Definition of Terms ; Languages of Europe, with Chart; Period of Mature English, with Chart ; a Chart of Bible Translations, a Bibliography or Guide to General Reading, and other aids to the student. Cleveland's Compendiums. 3 vols. 12mo. English Literature. ^ American Literature. English Literature of the XIXth Century. In these volumes are gathered the cream of the literature of the English-speaking people for the school-room and the general reader. Their reputation is national. More than 125,000 copies have been sold. Boyd's English Classics. 6 vols. Cloth. 12mo. Milton's Paradise Lost. Thomson's Seasons. Young's Night Thoughts. Follok's Course of Time. Cowpers Task, Table Talk, &c. Lord Bacon's Essays. This series of annotated editions of great English writers in prose and poetry is designed for critical reading and parsing in schools. Prof. J. R. Boyd proves himself an editor of high capacity, and the works themselves need no encomium. As auxiliary to the study of belles-lettres, &c, these works have no equal. Pope's Essay on Man. 16mo. Paper. Pope's Homer's Iliad. 32mo. Roan. The metrical translation of the great poet of antiquity, and the matchless "Essay on the Nature and State of Man," by Alexander Pope, afford superior exercise in literature and parsing. POLITICAL ECONOMY. Champlin's Lessons on Political Economy. An improvement on previous treatises, being shorter, yei containing everything essential, with a view of recent questions in finance, &c ., which is not elsewhere found. 51 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. ^ESTHETICS. Huntington's Manual of the Fine Arts A view of the rise and progress of art in different countries, r> brief account of the mos1 eminent masters of art, and an analysis of the principles 01 art. 11 is complete in itself, or may precede to advantage the critical work of Lord Ivanics. Boyd's Karnes's Elements of Criticism. The best edition <>f this standard work ; without the study of which none may bo considered proficient in the seience of the perceptions. No other study can be pursued with so marked an eil'ect upon the taste and refinement of the pupil. ELOCUTION. Watson's Practical Elocution. A scientific presentment of accepted principles of elocutionary drill, with black- board diagrams ami lull collection of examples for class drill. Cloth. 90 pages, 12mo. Taverner Graham's Reasonable Elocution. Based upon the belief that true elocution is the right interpretation of thought, ami guiding the student to an intelligent appreciation, instead of a merely mechanical knowledge, of its rules. Zachos's Analytic Elocution. All departments of elocution— such as the analysis of the voice and the sentence, phonology, rhythm, expression, gesture, &c. — are here arranged for instruction in classes, illustrated by copious examples. SPEAKERS. Northend's Little Orator. Northend's Child's Speaker. Two little works of the same .made but different selections, containing simple and attractive pieces for children under twelve years of age. Northend's Young Declaimer. Northend's National Orator. Two volumes of prose, poetry, and dialogue, adapted to intermediate and grammar rlasses respectively. Northend's Entertaining Dialogues. Extracts eminently adapted to cultivate the dramatic faculties, as well as entertain. Oakey's Dialogues and Conversations. Por school exercises and exhibitions, combining useful instruction. James's Southern Selections, for Reading and Oratory. Embracing exclusively Southern literature. Swett's Common School Speaker. Raymond's Patriotic Speaker. A superb compilation of modern eloquence and poetry, with original dramatic exercises. Nearly every eminent modern orator is repjesented. 52 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOhS. MIND. Mahan's Intellectual Philosophy. The subject exhaustively considered. The author has evinced learning, candor, and independent thinking. Mahan's Science of Logic. A profound analysis of the laws of thought. The system possesses the merit of being intelligible and self-consistent. In addition to the author's carefully elaborated views, it embraces results attained by the ablest minds of Great Britain, Germany, and France, in this department. Boyd's Elements of Logic. A systematic and philosophic condensation of the subject, fortified with additions from Watts, Abcrcrombie, Whately, &c. Watts on the Mind. The "Improvement of the Mind," by Isaac Watts, is designed as a guide for Hie attainment of useful knowledge. As a text-book it is unparalleled ; and the discipline it affords cannot be too highly esteemed by the educator. MORALS. Peabody's Moral Philosophy. A short course, by the Professor of Christian Morals, Harvard University, for the Freshman class and for high schools. Butler's Analogy. Hobart's Analysis. Edited by Prof. Charles £. West, of Brooklyn Heights Seminary. 228 pages. lGmo. Cloth. Alden's Text-Book of Ethics. For young pupils. To aid in systematizing the ethical teachings of the Bible, and point out the coincidences between the instructions of the sacred volume and the sound conclusions of reason. Smith's Elements of Moral Philosophy. 140 pages. 12mo. Cloth. By Wm. Austin Smith, A.M., Ph.D., Professor of Moral Philosophy in the Columbia (Tenn ) Athenaium. This is an excellent book for the use of academics and schools. It is prepared to meet the wants of a much larger public than has heretofore been reached by works of this class. The subject is presented in clear and simple language, and will he found adapted to the comprehension of young pupils, at a time when they particularly need an insight into the laws which govern the moral world. Janet's Elements of Morals. By Paul Janet. Translated by Mrs. Prof. Corson, of Cornell University. The Elements of Morals is one of a series of works chiefly devoted to Ethics, and treats of practical, rather than theoretical morality. Mr. Janet is too well known that it be necessary to call attention to his excellence as a moral writer, and it will be sufficient to say that what particularly recommends thi! Elements of Morals to educators and students in general is the admirable adap- tation of the book to college and school purposes. Besides the systematic and scholarly arrangement of its parts, it contains series of examples and illustrations — anecdotic, historical — gathered with rare impartiality from both ancient and modern writers, and which impart a peculiar life ami interest to the, subject. Another feature of the work is its sound religious basis. Mr. Janet is above all a religious moralist, 53 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. GOVERNMENT. Howe's Young Citizen's Catechism. K\| laming the duties of district, town, city, county, State, and United States officers, with rules for parliamentary and commercial business. Young's Lessons in Civil Government. A conip.-ehensive view of Government, and abstract ol the laws showing the lights, duties, and responsibilities of citizens. Mansfield's Political Manual. This is a complete view of the theory and practice of the General and Itate Govern- ments, designed as a text-book. The author is an esteemed and able professor of con- stitutional law, widely known for his sagacious utterances in the public press. Martin's Civil Government. Emanating from Massachusetts State Normal School. Historical and statistical. Each chapter summarized by a succinct statement of underlying principles on which good government is based. Gallaudet's International Law. Published in 1871», and the only work, bringing the subject within the compass of a convenient text-book. Antebellum Constitutions. A complete collection of state and Federal Constitutions as they stood before the Civil War of 1861. With au essay ou changes made during the reconstruction period, by Wilmot L. Warren. PUNCTUATION. Cocker's Handbook of Punctuation. With instructions for capitalization, letter-writing, and proof-reading. Most works on this subjectare so abstruse and technical that the unprofessional reader Qnds them difficult of comprehension ; but this little treatise is so simple and comprehensive that persons of very ordinary intelligence can readily understand and apply its principles. ANATOMY. Anatomical Technology as Applied to theDomestic Cat. An introduction to human, veterinary, and comparative anatomy. A practical work for studeuts and teachers. 600 pages. 130 Bgures, and four lithograph plates. By Burl G. Wilder and Simon II. Cage, Professors in Cornell University. " Instructions in the best method of dissection and Study of each organ and region." — American Veterinary /■ " A valuable manual, at once author- itative in statement and admirable in method." — .American Journal of Medical Science. " Well adapted to the purpose for whicn it has been written." — Natun "The student who will carefully dissect a few eats according to the rules given in this book will have a gn at advantage over the one who begins bis work with the human body : and if lie will master the in- structions for the various methods of preparation, he will know more than most graduates in medicine." — The Boston Medical ".ml Surgical Journal 54 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. MODERN LAN GUAGES, A COMPLETE COURSE IN THE GERMAN. By Jaines II. Worman, A.M., Professor of Modem Languages in the Adelphi Acad- emy, Brooklyn, L, I. Worman's First German Book. Woman's Second German Book. Worman's Elementary German Grammar. Worman's Complete German Grammar. These volumes are designed for intermediate and advanced (.-lasses respectively. Though following the same general method with " Otto " (that of "Gaspey'') our author differs essentially in its application. He is more practical, more systematic more accurate, and besides introduces a number of invaluable features which have never before been combined in a German grammar. Among other things, it may be claimed for Professor Worman that he has been (he first to introduce, in an American text-book tor learning German, a system of analogy and comparison with other languages. Our best teachers are also en Jnisiastic about his methods of inculcating the art of speaking, of understanding the spoken lan the public, enabling the teacher to teach the primary and secondary colors from nature. Many review lessons are given in order that the children may learn 1<> read by reading. No easel or framework of any kind is re- quired with the chart. The publishers have secured tin- exclusive right to use Shepard's Patent Chart Binding, the use of which gives it a decided advantage over any other reading chart yet made. It is in this respect unapproachable. G3 girl. Here is alittlc girl, /CI/ /{/& /C{/ THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. APPARATUS. Bock's Physiological Apparatus. A collection of twenty-seven anatomical models. Harrington's Fractional Blocks. Harrington's Geometrical Blocks. These patent blocks are hinged, so that each form can be dissected. Kendall's Lunar Telluric Globe. Moon, globe, and tellurian combined. Steele's Chemical Apparatus. Steele's Geological Cabinet. Steele's Philosophical Apparatus. Wood's Botanical Apparatus. RECORDS. Cole's Self-Reporting Class Book. For saving the teacher's labor in averaging. At each opening are a full set of tables showing any scholar's standing at a glance, and entirely obviating the necessity of computation. Tracy's School Record. {JS&fggn.} For keeping a simple but exact record of attendance, deportment, and scholarship. The larger edition contains also a calendar, an extensive list of topics for compositions and colloquies, themes for short lectures, suggestions to young teachers, &c. Benet's Individual Records. Brooks's Teacher's Register. Presents at one view a record of attendance, recitations, and deportment for the whole term. Carter's Record and Roll-Book. This is the most complete and convenient record offered to the public. Besides the usual spaces for general scholarship, deportment, attendance, &c, for each name and day, there is a space in red lines enclosing six minor spaces in blue for recording recitations. National School Diary. A little book of blank forms for weekly report of the standing of each scholar, from teacher to parent. A great convenience. REWARDS. National School Currency. A little box containing certificates in the form of money. The most entertaining and Stimulating system of school rewards. The scholar is paid for his merits and fined for his short-comings, of course the most faithful are the most successful in business. In this way the use and value of money and the method of keeping accounts arc also taught. One. box of currency will supply a school of fifty pupils. 64 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. PENMANSHIP, PENS, &c. Progressive Penmanship. Beers's System of Per dozen . . . This " round hand" system of Penmanship, in twelve numbers, commends itself by its simplicity and thoroughness. The first four numbers are primary books. Nos 5 to 7, advanced books for boys. Nos. 8 to 10, advanced books for girls. Nos. 11 and 12, ornamental penmanship. These books arc printed from steel plates (engraved by McLees), and are unexcelled in mechanical execution. Large quantities are annually sold. Beers's Slated Copy Slips. Per set All beginners should practise, for a few weeks, slate exercises, familiarizing them with the form of the letters, the motions of the hand and arm, &e., &c. These copy slips, 3-2 in number, supply all the copies found in a complete series of writing-books, at a trifling eost. Payson, Dunton, Per dozen . . & Scribner's Copy-Books. The National System of Penmanship, in three distinct series: (1) Common School Series, comprising the first six numbers ; (2) Business Series, Nos. 8, 11, and 12 ; (3) Ladies' Series, Nos. 7, 0, and 10. Fulton & Eastman's Chirographic Charts . . To embellish the school-room walls, and furnish class exercise in the elements of Penmanship. Payson's Copy-Book Cover. Per hundred . . Protects every page except the one in use, and furnishes " lines" with proper slope for the penman, under. Patented. National Steel Pens. Card with all kinds JNationai steel fens, uara witn an Kinas . . . Pronounced by competent judges the perfection of American-made pens, and rior to any foreign article. SCHOOL SERIES. School Pen, per gross SO. GO Academic Pen do 63 Fine Pointed Pen, per gross ... .70 POPULAR SERIES. Capitol Pen, per gross §1 00 do. do. per box of2doz. . . .25 Bullion Pen (imit. gold) per gross .75 Ladies' Pen do. . . .03 Index Pen, per gross . . . . BUSINESS SERIES. Albata Ten, per gross .... Bank Pen, do. .... Empire Pen do. .... Commercial Pen, per gross . . Express Pen, do. . . Falcon Pen, do. . . Elastic Pen, do. . . supe- $0.75 $0.-10 .70 .00 .75 .70 .75 Stimpson's Scientific Steel Pen. Per gross . . $1.50 One forward and two backward arches, ensuring great strength, well-balanced elas- ticity, evenness of point, and smoothness of execution. One gross in twelve contains a Scientilic Gold Pen. Stimpson's Ink-Retaining Holder. Per dozen . $1.50 A simple apparatus, which does not get out of order, Withholds at a single dip as much ink as the pen would otherwise realize from a dozen trips to the inkstand, which it supplies with moderate and easy flow. Stimpson's Gold Pen, $3.00 ; with Ink Retainer . Stimpson's Penman's Card One dozen Steel Pens (assorted points) and Patent Ink-retaining Pen-holder. $4.50 .25 G5 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY. LIBRARY AND MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS. TEACHERS' WORKING LIBRARY. Object Lessons. Welch. This is a complete exposition of the popular modern system of "object-teaching," for teachers of primary classes. Theory and Practice of Teaching. Page. This volume has, without doubt, been read by two hundred thousand teachers, and its popularity remains undiminished, large editions Being exhausted yearly. It was the pioneer, as it is now the patriarch, of professional works for teachers. The Graded School. Wells. The proper way to organize graded schools is here illustrated. The author has availed himself of the best elements of the several systems prevalent in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Cincinnati, St. Louis, and other cities. The Normal. Holbrook. Carries a working school on its visit to teachers, showing the most approved methods of teaching all the common branches, including the technicalities, explanations, demon- strations, and definitions introductory and peculiar to each branch. School Management. Holbrook. Treating of the teacher's qualifications ; how to overcome difficulties in self and others ; organization ; discipline ; methods of inciting diligence and order ; strategy in management ; object-teaching. The Teachers' Institute. Fowle. This is a volume of suggestions inspired by the author's experience at institutes, in the instruction of young teachers. A thousand points of interest to this class are most satisfactorily dealt with. Schools and Schoolmasters. Dickens. Appropriate selections from the writings of the great novelist. The Metric System. Davies. Considered with reference to its general introduction, and embracing the views of John Quincy Adams and Sir John Ilerschel. The Student ; The Educator. Phelps. 2 vols. The Discipline of Life. Phelps. The authoress of these works is one of the most distinguished writers on education, and they cannot fail to prove a valuable addition to the School and Teachers' Libraries, being iii a high degree both interesting and instructive. Law of Public Schools. Burke. By Pinley Burke, Counsellor-at-Law. A new volume in " Barnes's Teachers' Library Series." 12mo, cloth. Law of Fublic Schools.' by Pinley Burke, Esq., of Council Bluffs. In my opinion, the work will be of great value to school teachers and school officers, and to law- yers. The subjects treated of are thought- fully considered and thoroughly examined, and correctly ami systematically arranged. The style is perspicuous. The legal doc- trines of the work, so far as 1 have been "Mr. Burke has given us the latest expositions of the law on this highly im- portant subject. I shall cordially com- mend his treatise." — Theodore Dwight, LL.D. From the JJon. Joseph M. Beck, Judge of Supreme Court, Town. " I have examined with considerable Jare the manuscript of « A Treatise on the m THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY. MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS - Continued. able to consider them, are sound. I have examined quite a number of the authori- ties cited ; they sustain the rules an- nounced in the text. Mr. Burke is an able and industrious member of the bar of the Supreme Court of this State, and has a high standing in the profession of the law." " I fully concur in the opinion of Judge Beck, above expressed." — John F. Dil- lon. New York, May, 1880. Sioux City, Iowa, May, 18S0. I have examined the manuscript of Finley Burke, Esq., and find a full citation of all the cases and decisions pertaining to the school law, occurring in the courts of the United States. This volume contains valuable and important information con- cerning school law, which has never before Inch accessible to either teacher or school officer. A. Armstrong, SujjI. Schouls, Sioux City, Iowa. Des Moines, May 15, 1SS0. The examination of " A Treatise on the Law of Public Schools," prepared by Kin- ley Burke, Esq. , of Council Bluffs, has given me much pleasure. So far as J know, there is no work of similar charac- ter now in existence. I think such a work will be exceedingly useful to lawyers, school officers, and teachers, and I hope that it may find its way into their hands. G. W. von Coellv, Sitpt. Public Just, for Iowa. Teachers' Handbook. Phelps. By William F. Phelps, Principal of Minnesota State Normal School. Embracing the objects, history, organization, and management of teachers' institutes, followed by methods of teaching, in detail, for all the fundamental branches. Every young teacher, every practical teacher, every experienced teacher even, needs this book. This is the key-note of the present excel- lent volume. In view of the supreme importance of the teacher's calling, Mr. Phelps has presented an elaborate of instruction in the elements of learning, with a complete detail of methods and processes, illustrated with an abundance of practical examples and enforced I>y judicious councils." From the New York Tribune. "The discipline of the school should Prepare the child for the discipline of life, he country schoolmaster, accordingly, holds a position of vital interest to the destiny of the republic, and should neg- lect no means for the wise and efficient discharge of his significant functions. Topical Course of Study. Stone. This volume is a compilation from the courses of study of our most successful public schools, and the best thought of leading educators. The pupil is enabled to make full use of any and all text-hooks bearing on the given topics, and is incited to use all other information within his reach. American Education. Mansfield. A treatise on the principles and elements of education, as practised in this country, with ideas towards distinctive republican and Christian education. American Institutions. De Tocqueville. A valuable index to the genius of our Government. Universal Education. Mayhew. The subject is approached with the clear, keen perception of one who has observed its necessity, and realized its feasibility and expediency alike. The redeeming and elevating power of improved common schools constitutes the inspiration of the volume. Oral Training Lessons. Barnard. The object of this very useful work is to furnish material for instructors to impart orally to their classes, in branches not usually tanght in common schools, embracing a'" departments of natural science and much general knowledge. Lectures on Natural History. Chadbourne. Affording many themes for oral instruction in this interesting science, especially to schools where it is not pursued as a class exercise. G7 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY. MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS— Contimwi. Outlines of Mathematical Science. Davies. A manual suggesting the best methods <>r presenting mathematical instruction on the part <>t the teacher, with that comprehensive view of the whole which is necessary to thr intelligent treatment of apart, in scieuce. Nature and Utility of Mathematics. Davies. An elaborate and lucid exposition of the principles which lie at the foundation of pure mathematics, with a highly ingenious application of their results to the develop- ment of the essential idea of the different branches of the science. Mathematical Dictionary. Davies and Peck. This cyclopaedia of mathematical science defines, with completeness, precision, and accuracy, every technical term; thus constituting a popular treatise on each branch, and a general view of the whole subject. The Popular Educator. Barnes. In seven volumes, containing interesting and profitable educational miscellany. Liberal Education of Women. Orton. Treats of " the demand and the method ; " being a compilation of the best and most advanced thought on this subject, by the leading writers and educators in England and America. Edited by a professor in Vassar College. Education Abroad. Northrop. A thorough discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of sending American children to Europe to be educated ; also, papers on legal prevention of illiteracy, study, and health, labor as an educator, and other kindred subjects. The Teacher and the Parent. Northend. A treatise upon common-school education, designed to lead teachers to view their calling in its true light, and to stimulate them to fidelity. The Teachers' Assistant. Northend. A natural continuation of the author's previous work, more directly calculated for daily use in the administration of school discipline and instruction. School Government. Jewell. Full of advanced ideas on the subject which its title indicates. The criticisms upon current theories of punishment and schemes of administration have excited general attention and comment. Grammatical Diagrams. Jewell. The diagram system of teaching grammar explained, defended, and improved. The. curious in literature, the searcher for truth, those interested in new mventions as well as the disciples of Professor Clark, who would see their favorite theoi > faiil> ti cated, all want this book. There are many who would like to be made familiar with tins system before risking its use in a class. The opportunity is here afforded. The Complete Examiner. Stone. Consists of a series of questions on every English branch of school and academic instruction, with reference to a given page or article of leading text-books where the answer may be found in full. Prepared to aid teachers in securing certificates, pupils in preparing for promotion, and teachers in selecting review questions. How Not to Teach. Griffin. This book meets a want universally felt among young teachers who have their expe- rience in teaching to learn. If undertakes to point out the many natural mistakes into which teachers, unconsciously or otherwise, fall, and warns the reader *Sg™^ °SS that beset the path of every conscientious teacher. It tells the reader, also, the propel and acceptable way to teach, illustrating the author's ideas by some practice lessons in arithmetic {after Griibe). 68 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY, MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS — Cowti« \u d. School Amusements. Root. To assist teachers in making the school interesting, with hints upon the manage- ment of the school-room. Bulea for military and gymnastic exercises are included- Illustrated by diagrams. Institute Lectures. Bates. These lectures, originally delivered before institutes, are based upon various topics in the departments of mental and mural culture. The volume is calculated tu prepare tin- will, awaken the inquiry, and stimulate the thought of the zealous teacher. Method of Teachers' Institutes. Bates. Bets forth the best method of conducting institutes, with a detailed account of the object, organization, plan of instruction, ami true theory of education on which such instruction should be based. History and Progress of Education. The systems of education prevailing in all nations and ages, the gradual advance ti- the present time, and the bearing of the. past upon the present, in this regard, are worthy of the careful investigation of all concerned in education. Higher Education. Atlas Series. A collection of valuable essays. Contents. International Communication by Lan- guage, by Philip Gilbert Hamerton ; Reform in Higher Education; Upper Schools, by President James McCosh ; Study of Creek and Latin Classics, by Prof. Charles Elliott ; The University System in Italy, by Prof. Angelo de Gubernatis, of the University of Florence; Universal Education, by liay Palmer ; Industrial Art Educa- tion, by Eaton ti. Drone. LIBRARY OF LITERATURE. Milton's Paradise Lost. (Boyd's Illustrated Edition.) Young's Night Thoughts. do. Cowper's Task, Table Talk, &c. do. Thomson's Seasons. do. Pollok's Course of Time. do. These works, models of the best and purest literature, are beautifully illustrated, and notes explain all doubtful meanings. Lord Bacon's Essays. (Boyd's Edition.) Another grand English classic, affording the highesl example of purity in language and style. The Iliad of Homer. (Translated by Pope.) Those who are unable to read this greatest of ancient writers in the original should not lad to avail themselves of this standard metrical version. Pope's Essay on Man. This is a model of pure classical English, which should be read, also, by every teacher and scholar for the sound thought it contains. Improvement of the Mind. Isaac Watts. Xo mental philosophy was ever written which is so comprehensive and practically useful to the unlearned as well as learned reader as this well-known book of Watts. Milton's Political Works. Cleveland. This is the Aery best edition of the great poet. It includes a life of the author, notes, dissertations on each poem, a faultless text, and is the only edition of Milton with a complete verbal index. 69 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY, MISCELLANEOUS PUBLKUTIONS — Continued. Compendium of English Literature. Cleveland. English Literature of XlXth Century. Cleveland. Compendium of American Literature. Cleveland. Nearly one hundred and fifty thousand volumes of Professor Cleveland's inimitable eompendiuins have been sold. Taken together they present a complete view of litera- ture. To the man who can afford but a few bonks these will supply the place of an extensive library- From commendations of the very highest authorities the following extracts will give some idea of the enthusiasm with which the works are regarded by scholars : — "With the Bible and your volumes one might leave libraries without very painful regret. " " The work cannot be found from which in the same limits so much interesting ami valuable information may be obtained." "Good taste, fine scholarship, familiar acquaintance with literature, unwearied industry, tact acquired by practice, an interest in the culture of the young, and regard for truth, purity, philanthropy, and religion are united in Mr. Cleveland." " A judgment clear and impartial, a taste at once deli- cate and severe." "The biographies are just and discriminating." "An admirable bird's-eye view." "Acquaints the reader with the characteristic method, tone, and quality of eaeh writer." " Succinct, carefully written, and wonderfully comprehensive in detail," &c, &c. Old New York Plate. [From Mrs. Martha J. Lamb's " History of the City of New York."] 70 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY, MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS — Continued. LIBRARY OF HISTORY. Ancient and Mediaeval Republics. Mann. A review of their institutions, and of the causes of their decline and fall. f>* Henry .Maim. 8vo. 584 pages, cloth. Outlines of General History. Gilman. The number of facts which the author has compressed into these outline sketches is really surprising^ the chapters on the Middle Ages and feudalism afford striking ex- amples of his power nf succinct but comprehensive statement. In his choice of representative periods and events in the histories of nations he shows very sound judg- ment, and liis characterization of conspicuous historical figures is accurate and impartial. Great Events of History. Collier. This celebrated work, edited for American reader; by Prof. O. R. Willis, gives, in a 6eries of pictures, a pleasantly readable and easily remembered view of the Christian era Each chapter is headed by its central point of interest to afford association for the mind. Delineations of life and manners at different periods are interwoven. A geo- graphical appendix of great value is added. History of England. Lancaster. An arrangement of the essential facts of English history in the briefest manner consistent with clearness. With a tine map. A Critical History of the Civil War. Mahan. By Asa Mahan, LL.D., author of "Intellectual Philosophy," "Elements of Logic," &c. First president of OberUn College, Ohio. With an introductory letter by Lieut- Gen. M. W. Smith of the British army. 8vo. 4.00 pages. Cloth. The plan of this work is to present, not the causes and details of facts which led to the war, but the conduct and management of the war on the pari of those concerned. It is a matter of present and future importance to Americans to know not only how the war was conducted, but also how it might have been more successfully carried on. The author has made the science of war a subject of careful and protracted study, and his views arc pronounced and scientific. He takes strong ground, writes with vigor, and the interest of the reader is fully sustained from the beginning to the close of the book. His conclusions have already passed into history, and this work will be regarded as one of the most important contributions to the literature of the subject. Europe under Napoleon First. Alison. A history of Europe from 17S9 to 1815. By Archibald Alison. Abridged by Edward S. Gould. 1 vol. Svo, with appendix, questions, and maps. 550 pages. It seems to me an excellent abridg- ment • . . Written in clear and chaste style, presenting the narrative in exact form for the. general reader. . . . "— Judok Joseph Story. "(me of the best abridgments lever saw. The material facts are all retained, and Mr. Gould has displayed great indus- try and skill in preserving the substance of so great a history. " — Chancellor James Kent. History of Rome. Ricord. An entertaining narrative for the young. Illustrated. Embracing successively, The Kings, The Republic, The Empire. History of the Ancient Hebrews. Mills. The record of "God's people" from the call of Abraham to the destruction of Jeru- salem ; gathered from sources sacred and profane. The Mexican War. Mansfield. A history of its origin, and a detailed account of its victories ; with official despatches, the treaty of peace, and valuable tables. Illustrated. 72 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY, MISCELLANE01 8 PUBLICATIONS— Continued. Early History of Michigan. Sheldon. A work of value and deep interesi to the people of the West. Compiled uncW the supervision of Hon. Lewis Cass. Portraits. History of Texas. Baker. A pithy and interesting resume. Copiously illustrated. The State constitution and extracts from the speeches and writings of eminent Texans are appended. Magazine of American History. 8 volumes. Illustrated. A collection of valuable data relating to American History. Points of History. For schools and colleges. By John Lord, LL.D. , author of "Old Roman World," " Modern History," &c. Barnes's Popular History of the United States. 1 vol. This superbly illustrated work is by the author of "Barnes's Brief Histories " (for schools). The leading idea is to make American history popular for the masses, and especially with the young. The style is therefore lite-like and vivid, carrying the reader along by the sweep of the story as in a novel, so that when he begins an account of an important event he cannot very well lay down the book until he linishes. It is complete from the earliest times to date. " Barnes's Popular History of the United States " was undertaken at the close of the first hundred years of American Independence. The author pi-oposed to give to the whole people of the United States and the world a thoroughly impartial history of America, from the mound-builders to the present time. As such it was necessary to steer free from whatever in recent history would arouse sectional animosity or party bitterness. He determined to meet all questions of burning moment in the judicial rather than controversial spirit, aud while giving to every event its due importance, he would seek to avoid controversy by the gentle word "that turneth away wrath." The work is now finished down to President Arthur's administration. • In it the truth of American history is impartially given in true historic form, without fear or favor. It is a work that all sections of the country can read and enjoy. Although the author is a Northern man and soldier, his work is popular and widely used as a text-book Mast, West, North, and South. An Alabama teacher lately wrote as follows : " We are using your history and like it, though it does n't favor us rebels. " And so it is liked throughout the country, because it doesn't favor any side at the expense of truth and justice. Instead of being spread out in many volumes, more or less didactic, statistical, or dry, the book is complete in one royal Svo volume of 850 pages, with 14 full-page steel engravings and 320 text illustrations on wood, engraved by eminent artists. It is fully urj to the times and includes an account of President Garfield's brief administration and tragic death. Mrs. Martha J. Lamb's History of New York City. 2 vols., cloth. This is a complete survey of the history of New York from early settlement to the present time. It opens with a brief outline of the condition of the Old World prior to the settlement of the New, and proceeds to give a careful analysis of the two great Dutch Commercial Corporations to which New York owes its origin. It sketches the rise and growth of the little colony on Manhattan Island: describes the Indian wars with which it was afflicted ; gives color and life to its Dutch rulers ; paints its subju- gation by the English, its after vicissitudes, the Revolution of 1GS9 ; in short, it leads the reader through one continuous chain of events down to the American Revolution. Then, gathering up the threads, the author gives an artistic and comprehensive account of the progress of the city, in extent, education, culture, literature, art, and political and commercial importance during the last century. Prominent persons arc introduced in all the different periods, with choice bits of family history, and glimpses of social life. The work contains maps of the city in the different decades, and several rare 73 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY, MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS— Continued. portraits from original paintings, which have never before been engraved. The illus- trations, about 320 in number, are all of an interesting and highly artistic character. "Widely welcomed both for its abun- "There is warmth and color and life in dant stores of information and the attrac- every passage." — New York turns of the narrative."— New York "The work has been done faithfully Tribune. and picturesquely." — The Nation. Carrington's Battles of the Revolution. A careful description and analysis of every engagement of the War for Independence, with topographical charts prepared from personal surveys by the author, a veteran Officer Of the United States army, and Professor of .Military Science in Wabash College. Baker's Texas Scrap-Book. Comprising the history, biography, literature, and miscellany of Texas and its people. A valuable collection of material, anecdotical and statistical, which is not to be found in any other form. The work is handsomely illustrated. DICTIONARIES AND ENCYCLOPAEDIAS. Home Cyclopaedia of Literature and Fine Arts. Index to terms employed in belles-lettres, philosophy, theology, law, mythology, painting, music, sculpture, architecture, and all kindred arts, iiy Geo. Ripley and ('has. A. Dana. The Rhyming Dictionary. Walker. A serviceable manual to composers, being a complete index of allowable rhymes. Dictionary of Synonymes ; or, The Topical Lexicon. Williams. Terms of the English language classified by subjects and arranged according to their affinities of meaning, with etymologies, definitions, and illustrations. A very enter- taining and instructive work. Hawaiian Dictionary. Mathematical Dictionary. Davies and Peck. A thorough compendium of the science, with illustrations and definitions. Kwong's Dictionary. A dictionary of English phrases. With illustrative sentences. With collections of English and Chinese proverbs, translations of Latin and French phrases, historical sketch of the Chinese Empire, a chronological list of the Chinese dynasties, brief biographical sketches of Confucius and of Jesus, and complete index. By Kwong Ki Chiu, late member of the Chinese Educational Mission in the United States, and for- merly principal teacher of English in the Government School at Shanghai, China. 900 pages, 8vo, cloth. From the Hartford Cowrant. "The volume shows great industry and apprehensjon of our language, and is otic of the most curious and interesting of linguistic works." From the New York Nation. " It will amaze the sand-lot gentry to be informed that, this remarkable work will supplement our English dictionaries even for native Americans.'' BARNES'S LIBRARY OF BIOGRAPHY. The Life of President Garfield, Prom Birth to Presidency, by Major J. M. Bundy, editor New York "Evening Mail' Express." From Mentor to Elberon, by CoL A. P. BockwelL Oration and Eulogy, by lion. James C. Blaine. This life of our martyred President, by Major Bundy, Mr. Blaine, and Colonel Rockwell, 74 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY. MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS Continued who was with the President before and after the assassination, is tl n rrect and authentic. Major Bundy visited General Garfield at Mentor, by invitation, and received all the facts relating to Uia life to the day of his nomination, from the General's lips. This history of his life was completed by Colonel A. !•'. Rockwell and Hon. Jaine* G. Blaine. The Autobiography of Rev. Chas. G. Finney, The revivalist preacher and first president of Oberlin College. With steel portrait. Edited by Pres. J. 11. Fairchi Id, of Oberlin. Dr. Finney was the greatest and most successful evangelist of modern times. His labors extended not only throughout a large territory in the United States, but in Great Britain and Ireland, and he produced a most powerful impression. This memoir describes the .scenes lie passed through in the must, vivid language, and covers the entire period of his life, from the time of his conversion to the close of his career. Memoirs of P. P. Bliss. With sleel portrait of Mr. and Mrs. Bliss and two children. By Major D. W. Whittle. With a complete collection of Mr. Bliss's times and hymns, many of which arc here published for the first time. Containing also contributions by Mr. Moody, Mr. San key, Dr. Goodwin, and others. The Life and Speeches of Henry Clay. New edition. Complete in one volume. Compiled and edited by Daniel Mallory. 1,:j-Jj liases, svo, (doth, steel plates, portraits, and other illustrations. This is the best life of Henry Clay. It contains a full sketch of his life and all Irs speeches, — his most important speeches in full and his less important ones in part. It also contains an epitome of the Compromise Measures, the Obituary Addresses and Eulogies by Senators Underwood, Cass, Hunter, Hall, Clemens, Cooper, Jones, of Iowa, and Brooke ; and Representatives Breckenridge, Ewing, Caskie, Chandler, of Pennsyl- vania, Barley, Venable, Haven, Brooks, of New York, Faulkner, of Virginia, Parker, (Gentry, Bowie, and Walsh. Also the funeral sermon, by the Rev. C. M. Butler, Chap- lain of the Senate, and various important correspondence not elsewhere published. Henry Clay's Last Years. Colton. Garibaldi's Autobiography. From his birth to his retirement at Caprera ; including the most eventful period of bis life. Translated from manuscript by Theodore Dwight, author of '*A Tour in Italy," and " The Roman Republic." Embellished with portrait engraved on steel. The Life and Services of Lieut-Gen. Winfield Scott, Including his brilliant achievements in the. War of 1S12 and in the Mexican War, and the part played by him at the opening of the Civil War of 1S62. By Edward D. Mans- field, LL.U. 12mo, cloth, illustrated. 550 pages. Lives of the Signers. Dwight. The memory of the noble men who declared our country free, at the peril of their own "lives, fortunes, and sacred honor," should be embalmed in every American's heart. Life of Sir Joshua Reynolds. Cunningham. A candid, truthful, and appreciative memoir of the great painter, with a compilation of his discourses. The volume is a text-book for artists, as well as those who would acquire the rudiments of art. With a portrait. Biography of Ezra Cornell, Founder of Cornell University. A filial tribute. By his son, Hon. A. B. Cornell, late Governor of the State of New York. From the Nation. I and t,l( T e ™ s ™th\pg to be apologized ..,,.„„ „ ,, , • , tor or glossed over." "Mr. A. B. Cornell, as the biographer ,, . „ ,. , .,.. of his father, has had opportunities such "■'-"" ""' - v '" * ork 1 mas. as are given to few sons who undertake " Ezra Cornell, the man, was a person similar "tasks. The material of a singu- more to be esteemed and remembered than l.irt v noble, useful life was before him, Ezra Cornell, the millionaire." THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY. MISCELLANEI >US PUBLICATIONS - Continued. Prison Life. Interesting Biograpliies of celebrated prisoners and martyrs, designed especially for the instruction and cultivation of youth. Men of Mark. Bryant, Longfellow, Poe, Charles Tennyson Turner, Macaulay, Freeman, Cnrtius, George Tioknor, Sumner, John Stuart Mill. By Edwin P. Whipple, Edward A. Free- man, and others. 275 pages, 8vo, paper covers. The Hero of Cowpens. This book presents a complete history of the lives of heroic Daniel Morgan and of Benedict Arnold. These Revolutionary characters are viewed in varied lights, and the author has produced a most captivating historical sketch, as interesting as a romance. Autobiography of Havilah Mowry, Jr. A City missionary. BARNES'S LIBRARY OF TRAVEL. Silliman's Gallop among American Scenery ; Or, Sketches of American Scenes and Military Adventure. By Augustus E. Silliman. 838 pages, 8vo, illustrated. It is a most agreeable volume, and we commend it to the lovers of the " sparkling" style of literature. It carries the reader through and past many of the sjmts, North and South, made memorable by events of the Revolution and the War of 1812. Texas : the Coming Empire. McDaniel and Taylor. Narrative of a two-thousand-mile trip on horseback through the Lone Star State ; with lively descriptions of people, scenery, and resources. Life in the Sandwich Islands. Cheever. The "heart of the Pacific, as it was and is," shows most vividly the contrast between the depth of degradation and barbarism and the light and liberty of civilization, so rapidly realized in these islands under the humanizing influence of the Christian religion. Illustrated. The Republic of Liberia. Stockwell. This volume treats of the geography, climate, soil, and productions of this interesting country on the coast of Africa, with a history of its early settlement. Our colored citizens especially, from whom the founders of the new State went forth, should read Mr. Stockwell's account of it. It is so arranged as to be available for a school reader, and in colored schc >ls is peculiarly appropriate as an instrument of education for the young. Liberia is likely to bear an important part in the future of their race. Discoveries among the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon. With 20 illustrations and a complete index. By Austen II. Layard, M. P. Abridged edition. 550 pages, 12mo, cloth. Monasteries of the East. Embracing descriptions from personal observation of Egypt in 1833; the Natron Lakes, the Convent <>f the Pulley, the Ruined Monastery at Thebes, the White Monas- tery, the island of Philoe, be., Jerusalem, the Monastery of St. Sabba, and the Monas- teries of Metesra, Saint Athos. By Robert Curzon, Jr. 4U0 pages, 12mo, elotb. A Run through Europe. By Hon. Erastus C. Benedict, late Chancellor of the University of New York. A SIX months' tourthrough the galleries and capitals of Europe, bya most intelligent observer, in the year 1867. 12mo, (loth. 7<; THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY. M 1SCZLLANE0US PUBLICATIONS - Continued. Eighteen Months on a Greenland Whaler. By Joseph 1'. Faulkner,an "ex-assistant whale-catcher in an American schooner," and author of other recollections of the sea. S18 pages, iCmo, cloth. The Polar Regions ; Or The First Search After Sir John Franklin's Expedition. By Lieut, Sherard Osborn, commanding II. M. S. Pioneer (the first steam vessel that ever penetrated the Northern sea). 212 pages, L2mo, cloth. St. Petersburg. Jermann. Americans are less familiar with the history and social customs of the Russian peo- ple than those of any other modem civilized nation. Opportunities such as tins book affords are not. therefore, to be neglected. Thirteen Months in the Confederate Army. The author, a Northern man conscripted into the Confederate service, and rising from the ranks by soldierly conduct to positions of responsibility, had remarkable oppor- tunities for the acquisition of facts respecting the conduct of the Southern armies, and the policy and deeds of their leaders. He participated in many engagements, and his book is one of the most exciting narratives of adventure ever published. Mr. Steven- son takes no ground as a partisan, but views the whole subject as with the eye of a neutral, only interested in subserving the ends of history by the contribution of impartial facts. Illustrated. The Isthmus of Tehauntepec. Anderson. Svo, cloth. A history of the Isthmus from earliest times to the present, vri'-h an account of railroad enterprises and valuable maps and charts. BARNES'S RELIGIOUS LIBRARY. Ray Palmer's Poetical Works. An" exquisite edition of the complete hymns and other poeticai writings of the most eminent of American sacred poets, author of " My Faith Looks up to Thee." Formation of Religious Opinions. Palmer. Hints for the benefit of young people who have found themselves disturbed by inward questionings or doubts concerning the Christian faith. Nine Lectures on Preaching. Dale. By Rev. R. W. Dale, of England. Delivered at Yale College. Contents : Perils of Young Preachers ; The Intellect in" Relation to Preaching ; Reading ; Preparation of Sermons ; Extemporaneous Preaching ; Evangelistic Preaching ; Pastoral Preaching ; Conduct of Public Worship. Dale on the Atonement. The theory and fact of Christ's atonement profoundly considered. The Service of Song. Stacy. A treatise on singing, in public anil private devotion. Its history, office, and impor- tance considered. " Remember Me." Palmer. Preparation for the Holy Communion. Bible Lands Illustrated. A pictorial hand-book of the antiquities and modem life of all the sacred countries. P,y Henry C. Fish, D.D. With six hundred engravings and maps, one thousand eluci- dated Scripture texts, and two thousand indexed subjects. Svo, cloth, 900 pages. 77 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY. MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS — Continued-. Lyman Abbott's Commentary on the Gospels. Handy edition, 3 vols., 8vo, cloth, illustrated. Household edition, ou large paper, in 2 vols. This is altogether, and all points considered, the best commentary for Christian worker;. It is handy, prac- tical, finely illustrated and printed, clear, concise, plain, spiritual, and scholarly. It is cordially and earnestly indorsed by the most emi- nent divines and laymen of all denominations, and also by the whole religious press. " Ellicott and Alvord are too costly and too learned; Barnes, Jacobus, and Owen are too flat and thin ; Lange is a huge wilderness ; Abbott is simple, attractive, correct, and judicious in the use of learning." — Chancellor Howard Crosby, LLD. " We are strongly con- vinced that this is one of the ablest commentaries which this century of commenta- ries has produced." — Rev. J. II. Vincent, U.D. Eastern City Wall. [From Abbott's Commentary.] Lady Willoughby. The diary of a wile anl mother. An historical romance of the seventeenth century. At once beautiful and pathetic, entertaining and instructive. Favorite Hymns Restored. Gage. Mosi of the standard hymni but this volume contains thei have, undergone modification or abridgment by compiler! i exactly as written by the authors. Poets' Gift of Consolation. A beautiful selection of poems referring to the death of children. Sixty Years in the Harvest Field. Mowry. Dr. Theo. L. Cuyler says: "For more than twenty years I have known Mr. Mowry well. This volume is the plain, truthful narrative of a lung life- work in guiding souls to the Saviour. It will be helpful to all who labor at ihe best trade in the world, — the trade of making Christians." 78 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCZLLANY. MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS — Continued. Froude's Theological Unrest. (Atlas Series.) The History of the English Bible, Extending fr the earliest. Saxon translations to the present Anglo-American Revision. With special reference to the Protestant religion and the English language. By Black- ford Condit. With steel portrait of Wyelitt'e. 400 pages. l2mo, cloth. This is a consecutive history of all the English versions of the Scriptures and their translators, including also the history of Protestantism in England and the growth and changes of the English language. BARNES'S YOUTH'S LIBRARY. Earnest Words on True Success in Life. Addressed to young men and women. By Ray Palmer. 2% pages, 12mo, clow! Ida Norman. Two vols, in one. A novel. With illustrations. By Mrs. Lincoln Phelps. 432 pages, 12mo, cloth. The Educator ; or, Hours with my Pupils. A series of practical hints to young ladies on questions of behavior and education. By Mrs. Lincoln Phelps. 364 pages, 12mo, cloth. The Student ; or, the Fireside Friend. A series of lectures to young ladies, in which the author gives a course of practical instruction for home study, including physical, intellectual, social, domestic, and relig- ious training. Intended to awaken in the minds of the young an idea of the impor- tance and value of education, and to provide the means of self-instruction. With an index. 3S0 pages, 12mo, cloth. Monasteries of the East. Embracing visits to monasteries in the Levant. By the Hon. Robert Curzon, Jr. 410 pages, 12mo, cloth. Life in the Sandwich Islands. By Rev. Henry T. Cheever. 356 pages, 12mo, cloth. Lives of the Signers. Carefully prepared sketches of the lives and careers of the signers of the document declaring the independence of the States of America. By N. Dwight. 374 pages, 12mo, cloth. Discoveries among the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon. With travels in Armenia, Kurdistan, and the Desert. Being the result of the second expedition undertaken for the trustees of the British Museum. An abridgment By Austen H. Layard, M.P. 550 pages, 12mo, cloth. The History of the Jews. From the flood to their dispcrsement. From sources sacred and profane. A most excellent work in connection with the study of the Scriptures. Giving a connected account of the history and acts of this chosen people. By Abraham Mills, with colored charts, maps, and illustrations. 444 pages, 12mo. Johnny Morrow, the Newsboy. An autobiography written by the hero when sixteen years of a.u'e. 16mo, cloth. A plain storv of one who represents a class. The writer, although a newsboy and pedler of trinkets, is well remembered in New Haven, Cum. ., and possesses a power and maturity of expression quite remarkable. 79 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY. MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS — Continued. Stories of Prison Life. Cloth, lOmo. Biographies of noted political prisoners, as l'icciola, the heroine of Siberia ; Silvio Pellico, and Baron Trenck. The Son of a Genius. A tale. By Mrs. Hofland. Cloth, l6mo. St. Chrysostom ; or, the Mouth of Gold. By Bev. Edwin Johnson. Cloth, lOmo. An original dramatic poem, in six cantos. With explanatory notes. VALUABLE SPECIAL BOOKS. Opium Habit and Drunkenness. The extent, terrible effects, and radical cure. Read Dr. Hubbard's " Opiomania and Dipsomania." "To many victims and their friends, this book will come like a prophet of God." — Christum Union. Grecian and Roman Mythology. Dwight. The presentation i" • systematic form of the fables of antiquity afTords most enter- taining reading, and . valuable to all as an index to the mythological allusions so frequent in literature, as well as to students of the classics who would peruse intelli- gently the classical authors. Illustrated. General View of the Fine Arts. Huntington. The preparation of this work was suggested by the interested inquiries of a group of young people concerning the productions and styles of the great masters of art, whose names only were familiar. This statement is sufficient index of its character. The Poets of Connecticut. Everest. With the biographical sketches, this volume forms a complete history of the poetical literature of the State. BARNES'S CHOICE STANDARD ENGLISH LIBRARY. Fifty-Nine Essays. By Lord Bacon. With notes, critical and biographical, by Hallam, Macaulay, and others. Edited by James R. Boyd. 420 pages, 12mo, cloth. Paradise Lost. By John Milton. With five full-page engravings, explanatory and critical notes, in. lex, &c, &c. Edited by James It. Boyd. 500 pages, 12mo, cloth. The Task, Table Talk, and other Poems. By William Cowper. With notes, critical and explanatory, complete index, and five full-page engravings. Edited by James II. Boyd. 4:;o pages, 12mo, cloth. Night Thoughts. By Edward Young. With sketch of life and works of the author, and explanatory notes. By James R. Boyd. With steel-plate illustrations. 510 pages, 12mo, cloth. The Course of Time. By Robert Pollok. With two steel-plate engravings : portrait at age of 28, and early home ; critical observations of various authors, with notes by i)r. Boyd. 80 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY. MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS — Continued. The Seasons. By James Thomson. With four steel-plate illustrations, opinions of distinguished critics on the genius and character of the work, explanatory notes by the editor, and a complete index. Edited by .James R. Boyd. 836 pages, I2in0, cloth. The Poetical Works of John Milton. With a life of the author, preliminary dissertation on each poem, notes, critical and explanatory, an index to the subjects of 1'aradise Lost, and an extra index to all the poems. Complete in one volume. By Charles Dexter Cleveland. G'./O pages, 12mo, half roan. Elements of Criticism. By Henry Home, of Karnes, one of the Lords Commissioners of Judiciary in Scot- land. Edited, with explanatory notes, by James R. Boyd. 486 pages, 12mo, cloth. The Plays of Philip Massinger. With an introduction and notes, critical and explanatory. By William Gilford. Com- plete in one volume. 540 pages, large Svo, cloth. The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D. By James Boswell. With copious notes and biographical illustrations. By Ed. Malone. Complete in one volume. 600 pages, Svo, cloth. An Essay on Man. By Alexander Pope. With notes. Edited by a teacher. 44 pages, 12mo. The Iliad of Homer. Translated in verse. By Alexander Pope. 568 pages, 32mo, roan. Improvement of the Mind. By Isaac Watts, D.D. With Denman's Questions. 304 pages, 12mo, half bound. BARNES'S LIBRARY OF POLITICS. The Young Citizen's Catechism. 192 pages, 16mo, cloth. A most comprehensive little work for beginners ; explaining the duties of district, town, city, county, State, and United States officers, and Riving practical rules for Parliamentary practice, legal and commercial business. By Elisha P. Howe. First Lessons in Civil Government. 280 pages, 12mo, cloth. Based upon the laws of New York State but adapted to the requirements of the student in any State. Revised in 1877. By Andrew W. Young. Civil Government in the United States. 330 pages, 12mo, cloth. Containing a full statement of general principles on a compre- hensive plan, embracing State, county, city, town, and federal organizations. This work traces the development of free institutions from germs in the early English constitu- tion, through colonial and revolutionary history, down to date. It is arranged topi- cally to assist in fixing details in the student's mind. It omits unnecessary statistics and fulfils the highest requirements of a citizen's manual. By George H. Martin, Teacher of History and Civil Politics in the Mass. State Normal College. The Political Manual. 350 pages, 12mo, cloth. A complete record of the theory ami practice of die general and state governments or the United States. By Edwin IV Mansfield, LL.D., Profes- sor of Constitutional Law. 81 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY. MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS — Continued. Lessons on Political Economy. ^20 paged) 12ino, clu h. Treating the science familiarly so as to bring it to tbc prac- tical knowledge of all classes of society. If the principles herein presented are thor- oughly mastered, the student will have a competent knowledge of the science for all ordinary purposes. By J. T. Champlin, LL.D., President of Colby University. A Manual of International Law. M22 pages, l:'iii(i, cloth. This work presents within moderate compass the principles of international law as recognized in the world at the present time. It is the first notable attempt to popularize tiiis important branch of political knowledge, ami gives an in- teresting view of the influence of the United States on the diplomacy of the world. By l.duard M. Gallaudet, Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Moral and Political Science, and Presi- dent of the College of Deaf Mutes, Washington, D. C. De Tocqueville's Democracy in America. American Institutions and their Influence. (Abridged.) By Alexis de Tocqueville. 4(X) pages, 12mo, cloth. Being part second of the "Democracy in America," by the same writer. Arranged, with notes, introduction, and appendix, by Hon. John C. Spencer. The Republic of the United States of America, and its Political Institutions Reviewed and Ex- amined. (Complete.) By Alexis de Tocqueville, Member of the Institute of France ami of the Cnamber of Deputies. .S7b' pages, 8vo, cloth. Translated by Henry Beeves, Esq., with preface and notes by Hon. John C. Spencer. Two volumes in one. Principles and Acts of the Revolution in America. By I lezekiah Niles, editor of the " Weekly Register." CJ2 pages, 12mo,cloth A grand Storehouse of the patriotic and soul-stirring speeches and orations delivered during the Revolution, ai:d emhodying the opinions and immortalizing the conduct of the leaders and actors in the events of that period. The collection embraces nearly if not all the important impassioned addresses that contributed to lire the public sentiment and sustain the enthusiasm which ended in victory. While the chief object of the volume is to stir the fa-linqs of the period, it is also an historical volume. In a word, this vol- ume contains all the great speeches and orations, extracts from the proceedings of the greatest meetings and from important writings of all the States at the time of the Revolution. Constitutions of the American States and of the United States in 1861 ; or, Prior to the War of tuk Rebellion. With an essay on the character of the changes in these constitutions prior to the year 1879. By Wilmot L. Warren. 002 pages, Svo, cloth. Political Essays. Paper ; cloth. Labor, Granger, Indian, Chinese, and constitutional questions. (Atlas scries, No. 8.) By Thomas Hughes, Thomas Brassey, Judge Cooley, E. A. Freeman, LL.D., Francis A. Walker, and others. The Commonwealth Reconstiucted. By Charles C. P. Clark, M.D. 216 pages, Svo, cloth. A sketch of the condition of political affairs, town, State, and federal, in 1878. With a new plan for the complete reconstruction of the body politic. 82 WE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY. MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS - Continued. THE ATLAS SERIES OF ESSAYS. PAPER BINDING. No. i. The Currency Question. The nature of the discussion prior to resumption ; with a view of the future and permanent financial wants of the t nited .states. By lion. Araasa Walker, LL.D. Uonteuts : Our National Currency ; The Money Problem. No. 2. Men of Mark. Biographical and Critical Essays. Contents: Lord Maea.ulay, by Edward A. Free- man, D.C.L. ; George Ticknor, by Edwin P. Whipple ; Ernst Curtius, by R. I'. Keep, Ph.D. ; Philip Gilbert Hamerton ; Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, by Kay Palmer; To John Lothrop Motley, a poem, by William Cullen Bryant; Edgar Allan Poe, by Jobn II. Ingram; Charles Tennyson Turner, by A. J. Symington, M.A. ; Edward A. Free- man, by Henry Coppee, LL.D. ; Charles Sumner, by President Magouu, of Iowa ; John Stuart Mill, Nos. 1 and 2, by President Porter, of Yale College. No. 3. The Labor Question. Political Essays. Contents : Co-operative Stores in England, by Thomas Hughes, M.P. ; Wages in England, by Thomas Brassey, M.P. ; The Sea-Shell and the Sonneteer, a poem, by Charles Tennyson Turner ; Grangerism, by Dr. Francis Wharton ; The Grange and the Potter Law, by a Granger; The American Republic, by Gen. Franz Sigel; Indian Citizenship, by Gen. Francis A. Walker; The Chinese Question, by Dr. E. D. Mansfield ; The Guarantee of Order and Republican Government in the States, by Judge T. M. Cooley ; Some Checks and Balances in Government, by Judge T. M. L'ooley ; The Difficulties of Republicanism in Europe, by Edward A. Freeman, D.C.L. No. 4. The Centennial Exhibition, Philadelphia, 187G. A critical account. By Gen. Francis A. Walker, Chief of the Bureau of Awards. No. 5. European International Exhibitions. Paris, 1878, and Vienna, 1873. Contents : The Paris Exhibition, by Charles Gindriez, a Paris architect ; Vienna and the Centennial, by Prof. James Morgan Hart. No. 6. A Shocking Story. By Wilkie Collins. No. 7. Buried Treasures. Where the Precious Metals Go, by Hon. J. V. C. Smith, ex-mayor of Boston. No. 8. The Gold Room. By Kinahau Cornwallis. Contents : The New York Gold-Room ; The New York Stock Exchange ; The New York Clearing-House. No. 9. Higher Education. No. 1. Contents : International Communication by Language, by Philip Gilbert Hamerton ; Reform in Higher Education; Upper Schools, by Pres. James McCook ; Study of Greek and Latin Classics, by Prof. Charles Elliott ; The University System in Italy, by Prof. Angelo de Gubernatis, of tin: University of Florence; Universal Education, by Ray Palmer; Industrial Art Education, by Eaton S. Drone. No. 10. England and the Government. By the IU, Hon. W. E. Gladstone, Premier. Contents : A Caustic Review of Beacons- lid, i's Policy; A Model Political Document. No. 11. Theological Unrest. Contents: Science and Theology, Ancieni and Modern, hy James Anthony Fronde; The Conflict < bring the groat facts set forth in the ordinance of the Holy Sup- per into immediate contact with the religious sensibilities. In the book, poetry and prose are intermingled, many of the poetical pieces having been written for this bunk Contents: Invocation; Texts; Design of Ordinance; Questions for Self-exam- ination; Hymn; Meditations: Monday, "Anticipation," with sonnet and stanzas; Tuesday," Passover," with sonnet and stanzas ; Wednesday, " Unmasking," with sonnet and stanzas ; Thursday, "Holy Supper," with sonnet and' sacramental hymn : Friday, "Parting Words,'' &c. ; Saturday, " Gethsemane ; " Sabbath morn, ** Calvary ; " Sab- bath eve, "After tho Sacrament" SABBATH-SCHOOL. Sabbath-School Hymnal. By Rev. Edwin P. Parker, D.l>. A novel feature is here presented for the first time, namely, the beautiful melodies of Beethoven, Schubert, Mozart, .Mendelssohn, Alit, and others, heretofore known only as compositions for the piano-forte or orchestra, are now appropriately adapted to hymns of deep religious thoughl and pure devotion. No sensational hymns nor trashy melodies. The author, being a man of rare musical attainments, has enjoyed an unusual opportunity of testing the value of his ideas in connection with his ministerial duties, and, as a result, this hymnal has been prepared. In the schools now using it the singing has invariably improved, and the children have been educated to a purer and loftier appreciation of the divine art, 165 pages in board covers. m " A sign of reaction from the hitherto I "Among recent collections it deserves prevalent trash." — New York Indepen- the first examination^** — Sitnilay-Schn<4 dent. I Times. Coronation Hymns and Songs. By Rev. C. F. Dooms, D.D., and T. E Perkins. Hoards. Sabbath Carols. By T. E. Perkins. Boards. Songs of Delight. By Z. M. Parvin, Boards and cloth. Boards. TEMPERANCE. Francis Murphy's Gospel Temperance Hymnal. Edited by Rev. J. F. Rankin, D.D., and E. S. Lorenz. Boards This Hymnal is especially arranged, by Mr. Murphy's request, from old and original matter, much of which is especially fitted for distinctive gospel temperance work, and no less fitted for Sunday-schools and homes. " Incomparably the best temperance song book published. " — Chicago Advance, 88 BARNES'S POPULAR HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. By the author of Barnes's " Brief Histories for Schools." Complete in i traperb royal octavo volume of 800 pages. Illustrated with 820 wood engravings and 11 steel plates, covering the period from the Discovery of America to the Accession of Pi Arthur. Parti. Colonial Settlement; Exploration ; Conflict ; Manners ; Customs; Educa- tion ; Religion, &c, &c., until political differences with (licit Britain threatened open rupture. Part II. Resistance to the Acts of Parliament ; Resentment of British Policy, and the Succeeding War for American Independence. Part III. From the Election of President Washington to that of President Lincoln, with the expansion and growth of the Republic ; its Domestic Issues and its Foreign Policv. Part IV. The Civil War and the End of Slavery. Part V. The New Era of the Restored Union ; with Measures of Reconstruction ; the Decade of Centennial Jubilation, and the Accession of President Arthur to Office. Appendix. Declaration of Independence ; The Constitution of the United Stales and its Amendments; Chronological Table and Index; Illustrated History of the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia. The wood and steel engravings have been expressly chosen to illustrate the customs of the periods reviewed in the text. Ancient houses of historic note, and many portraits of early colonists, are thus preserved, while the elaborate plans of the Exposition of 1870 are fully given. The political characteristics of great leaders and great parties, which had been shaped very largely by the issues which belonged to slavery and slave labor, have been dealt with in so candid and impartial a manner as to meet the approval of all sections of the American people. The progress of science, invention, literature, and art is carefully noted, as well as that of the national physical growth, thus condensing into one volume material which is distributed through several volumes in larger works. Outline maps give the successive stages of national expansion, and special attention has been given to those battles, by land and sea, which have marked the military growth of the republic, Agp^ Specially valuable for reference in schools and households. From Prof. F. F. Barrows, Brown School, Hartford, Conn. " Barnes's Popular History has been in our reference library for two years. Its concise and interesting presentation of historical facts causes it to be so eagerly read by our pupils, that we are obliged to duplicate it to supply the demand for its use." From Hon. John R. Buck. " I concur in the above." From Hon. J. C. Stockwell. "I heartily concur with Mr. Barrows in the within commendation of ' Barnes's Popular History,' as a very interesting and instructive book of reference." From A. Morse, Esq. " I cordially concur in the above." From Rev. Wm. T. Gage. " I heartily agree with the opinions above expressed." From David Crary, Jr. "The best work for the purpose pub- lished." Prices. Cloth, plain edge, 85.00 ; cloth, richly embossed, gill edge, S6.00; sheep marble edge, $7.00 ; half calf, $S.OO ; half morocco, SM.00 ; full morocco, gilt, $10.00. From Prof. S. T. Dutton, SuperiiUendt t of Schools, New Haven, Conn. " It seems to me to be one of the best and most attractive works of the kind I have ever seen, and it will be a decided addition to the little libraries which we have already started in our larger schools." From Prof. Wm. Martin, of Beattystown, N. J. "This volume is well adapted to the wants of the teacher. A concise, well- arranged summary of events, and just the supplement needed by every educator who teaches American history." From Prof. C. T. R. Smith, Prvncipal oj the Lonslnijbuvgh, N. Y., Academy. "In the spring I procured a copy of ' Barnes's Popular History of (he United States,' and have used it daily since, in preparing my work with my class in Ameri- can history, with constantly increasing admiration at the clearness, fairness, and vividness of its style and judicious tion of matter." S<)