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SPECIAL METHOD IN 
 LANGUAGE 
 
£&v& 
 
SPECIAL METHOD IN 
 LANGUAGE 
 
 IN THE EIGHT GRADES 
 
 BY 
 
 CHARLES A. McMURRY, Ph.D. 
 
 Nefo fork 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 
 1905 
 
 All rights re sewed 
 

 
 UBRAHY of aONQRtSS 
 Iwn Copies rfcusuuu 
 
 JUN 28 1 90S 
 
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 Copyright, 1905, 
 By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 
 
 Set up and electrotyped. Published June, 1905. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 This small volume is designed for elementary 
 teachers, and aims to give a broad and simple treat- 
 ment of the language problem below the high school. 
 Owing to the enrichment of the course of study with 
 literature, nature study, and history, the conditions 
 are now favorable in many schools for the steady 
 growth of accuracy and fulness of expression in the 
 mother tongue. 
 
 Language exercises should not stand apart, but 
 should be linked closely to all the other exercises of 
 the school. 
 
 Besides the general discussion of aim and method, 
 a complete course of study is laid out and a chapter 
 of illustrative lessons is given. 
 
 The last chapter contains also reference lists, for 
 the use of teachers, of verbs, homonyms, abbrevia- 
 tions, rules of spelling, etc. The correction of com- 
 mon errors of speech is also systematically carried 
 out. 
 
 This is the seventh volume of the series of Special 
 Methods, the whole series running as follows : Spe- 
 cial Method in the Reading of English Classics, in 
 Primary Reading, in Geography, in History, in Ele- 
 mentary Science, in Arithmetic, and in Language. 
 
 A further volume on the Manual Arts is in prepa- 
 ration. 
 
 CHARLES A. McMURRY. 
 Winter Park, Florida, 
 
 May 2, 1905. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. Value and Purpose of Language Study . i 
 
 II. Relation of Language to Other Studies . 10 
 
 III. Economy in Language Exercises ... 24 
 
 IV. Method in Language Lessons .... 34 
 V. Function of the Teacher in Language . 88 
 
 VI. Language Books and Grammars ... 93 
 
 VII. Illustrative Lessons 101 
 
 VIII. Course of Study 140 
 
 IX. Reference Materials 174 
 
 Vll 
 
SPECIAL METHOD IN 
 LANGUAGE 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 Value and Purpose of Language Study 
 
 There is an important sense in which all studies 
 centre in language. They all contribute to the 
 enrichment and mastery of language, and in turn 
 language study proper strengthens a child's power 
 in every study. There is no other subject which so 
 thoroughly permeates all studies and identifies itself 
 with them as language. 
 
 This is seen in the close connection between 
 thought and language. From early infancy words 
 and thoughts are so closely combined in a child's ' 
 mind that he does not discriminate at first between 
 an object and its name. Thus from the first, words 
 become so intimate with thoughts that throughout 
 life the two are inseparable companions. This omni- 
 presence of language in all studies, in vital relation 
 
2 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 to underlying thought, gives it a commanding posi- 
 tion in education. Even scientific logic finds in 
 language its forms and its instruments. 
 
 " One common fault in our present practice is due 
 to the failure to see that thought and language are 
 twin products, and that we must deal with both in 
 order to deal effectively with either. We speak, for 
 example, of working for a vocabulary, without recog- 
 nizing that the accumulation of a vocabulary implies 
 growth of thought, the development of cognition. 
 1 The growth of mind,' as Professor Laurie says, 
 1 and the growth of language in the mind go together. 
 There has to be organized in the boy the language 
 of his inner life, so that the language may grow with 
 the life, and the life with the language.' ' (Chubb.) 
 
 In the history of school courses we find language 
 usurping a supreme place and for centuries holding 
 the headship against all competition, and even at the 
 present time the classic languages have not given up 
 their leadership, and modern languages have gained 
 as much as the ancient tongues have lost. 
 
 So far as the common school is concerned the 
 mother-tongue has become the one universal medium 
 of thought and in that sense the foundation of the 
 school course. It has taken more than three cen- 
 
VALUE AND PURPOSE OF LANGUAGE STUDY 3 
 
 turies of steady progress to bring educators to this 
 point of view, but now the mother-tongue is substan- 
 tially received by all as the basis of communication 
 for all purposes. This result has brought us to the 
 point where our schools can well afford to make 
 the English language the most polished instrument 
 of culture we have. It is the creation of one of the 
 most vigorous and remarkable races, or mingling 
 of races, in the world's history. Thousands of years 
 of history and the fertile minds of generations of 
 master thinkers and writers have shaped it, and 
 loaded it with varied significance. There is a deep 
 sense in which our language is the achievement of 
 the race, and as a child appropriates it and reaches 
 back into its meanings he is digging into an inex- 
 haustible treasure whose veins grow richer as he 
 deepens them. 
 
 The significant place of language in education is 
 suggested by the fact that a man's speech betrayeth 
 him. The language which a man uses during five 
 minutes of conversation will open a deep insight 
 into his whole history and bringing up. His family, 
 school, and life associations are blazoned in his 
 speech, though he may be making no effort to be- 
 tray them, yea, even though he try to conceal them. 
 
4 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 There is probably no means by which an expe- 
 rienced person can so quickly take the measure of a 
 man as by his language. All the elements of educa- 
 tion have combined in this to give a sum-total which, 
 as a gauge of character, is near the truth. 
 
 It is also noteworthy that it is on the ground of our 
 common English speech that we cherish the hope 
 of unifying into one people the diverse populations 
 that have come to the United States from all parts of 
 Europe and of the world. The primary schools in 
 cities with many foreign populations are working 
 directly at this problem, and in spite of difficulties, 
 the assimilation of varied races to our American ideals 
 and standards is remarkable. When we consider that 
 it concerns not merely the forms of language, but the 
 ideas that lie so deeply embedded in our English 
 speech, and that the whole of English literature and 
 history and the best part of the world's thought lie in 
 the background, reentering the forms of speech, 
 we may attribute to our mother-tongue great power 
 to unify and consolidate our divergent races into one 
 people. 
 
 - The aim of language study in our schools can be 
 stated with transparent simplicity and clearness. It 
 is to make every child a master of good English for 
 
VALUE AND PURPOSE OF LANGUAGE STUDY 5 
 
 common uses. It is strictly utilitarian and in the 
 same breath points toward the highest idealism, for to 
 attain excellence in the use of the English language 
 according to one's needs reaches through every stage 
 from the power to ask for a piece of bread and butter 
 to the creation of a Hamlet or of an oration of 
 Webster. Our language has a breadth and flexibility 
 that fit it alike to a little child or to a poetic genius. 
 There need be not the slightest uncertainty as to the 
 fundamental purpose in teaching the English lan- 
 guage. Make the English language a first-class 
 instrument of thought communication according to 
 each child's ability. This suits every child, and it 
 suits all the other requirements of education. 
 
 We might, however, say a word about discipline as 
 that has long been a chief item in the creed. Is the 
 study of English sufficiently rigorous to provide first- 
 class discipline ? Two statements are commonly 
 made about our language work in schools, (i) Lan- 
 guage exercises are easy and feebly disciplinary. 
 (2) The results of our language lessons are miserably 
 poor. Boys and girls on getting through the grammar 
 school cannot write a good letter, cannot spell, cannot 
 express themselves effectively. This, in spite of the 
 fact that we have spent as much time and drill upon 
 
6 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 language as upon other studies. These two state- 
 ments are contradictory : one that language is too 
 easy, the other that it has been impossible to get 
 good results, too difficult. 
 
 Our conclusion is that we have had a hard problem, 
 and teachers have not been skilful enough to solve 
 it, to get children to work hard enough to gain a 
 simple mastery of English. 
 
 We may say candidly that it is very difficult to 
 bring a child to a ready use of good English in all his 
 lessons. It may be simple and tedious and easy to 
 teach him all the trivial items in a language book, 
 but to get him to use good English on all occasions 
 where good English is wanted, this is no small matter ; 
 indeed, it is a first-class problem, and one we can 
 apply all our skill to solve. 
 
 Having a clear and unmistakable aim in view and 
 knowing that the result to be achieved is difficult, we 
 have merely to make a careful choice of the means to 
 be used, and persistently and skilfully employ them 
 for the accomplishment of the result. In this way 
 we shall get all the discipline we can well require. 
 
 The mastery of the English language is the mas- 
 tery of a fine art. To gain this in any art is usually 
 regarded as difficult, and language is one that 
 
VALUE AND PURPOSE OF LANGUAGE STUDY 7 
 
 involves the greatest complications. It can rise to 
 meet the height of any capacity. 
 
 To acquire an art is more difficult than to acquire 
 knowledge, because the former involves the use or 
 application of knowledge. It is proverbial that the 
 application of knowledge is far more difficult than its 
 mere acquisition. Language, of all studies, is long 
 and strong on the side of application. It never 
 halts. It is absolutely persistent. One must be- 
 come either a master of speech or a bungler. Some 
 studies, like grammar or geometry, may be chiefly 
 theoretic, but language is for use, and for use in con- 
 stantly new and varying situations. At every step, 
 in every study, there must be a mental alertness and 
 tension to get correct utterance adequate to the 
 thought. This gives a practical turn to language 
 work that is unequalled among studies. All the 
 accumulations that a child has gathered before, 
 from many sources, are more or less in constant 
 requisition. The skill gained in other studies may 
 be lost and the facts forgotten without revealing 
 immediate damage, as in history or geography, but 
 power and efficiency in speech depend upon one's 
 ability to retain and to use what he has previously 
 gained. Among things having disciplinary value, 
 
8 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 this is chiefest ; namely, the study that ever and 
 inexorably demands mental alertness in using pre- 
 vious knowledge, and that, too, in the necessary and 
 continuous relations of daily life. 
 
 In conclusion we may notice that language is 
 peculiarly the instrument of the teacher. Masterly 
 use of it should be one of his distinguishing char- 
 acteristics, while the constant and varied employment 
 of it, to test and exercise the children, make it his 
 main reliance. As education has broadened into 
 new regions, other tests and modes of expression 
 have come into use, but language still holds, and 
 always will, the first place. 
 
 There has been in recent years a combination of 
 circumstances which now places language study 
 clearly before us in its proper aim and function. 
 The old classical languages, once so dominant, have 
 dropped out of sight so far as the common school is 
 concerned. Grammar, once so prized for discipline, 
 has been found wanting so far as the chief language 
 aim is concerned ; other studies, as science, literature, 
 and history, have come in to supply that vital content 
 which used to be lacking ; language itself is found to 
 be indispensable to all the other studies and to the 
 common uses of life. A whole body of excellent 
 
VALUE AND PURPOSE OF LANGUAGE STUDY 9 
 
 reinforcements of good habits and good training in 
 language have crowded into our school and are be- 
 ginning to contribute directly and constantly to 
 richness and elegance of speech. 
 
 Even the art sense, the sense of beauty and fit- 
 ness in speech, and the graces of style are beginning 
 to be felt as moulding influences from the earliest 
 years. 
 
 In our better schools there are more and stronger 
 influences at work to secure good language than ever 
 before. These influences also begin earlier and 
 thereby obtain a deeper and stronger hold. The 
 enrichment of our course of study with literature, 
 science, geography, and history provides everywhere 
 for a fuller and richer language. We have there- 
 fore the indispensable basis for a most fruitful treat- 
 ment of language ; namely, many and varied fields 
 of copious knowledge, where language must always 
 keep abreast of thought. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 Relation of Language to Other Studies 
 
 The attainment of the aim proposed above is 
 clearly not the work of any single study, but of all 
 studies and of all school and home life. In our 
 efforts to secure this result we must take a broad view 
 of all contributing studies and make a combination of 
 all favorable language influences. Every lesson in 
 any study that is well taught contributes directly to 
 our aim ; every poor lesson is a lowering of language 
 proficiency. This does not exclude language lessons 
 as a separate study, but it emphasizes the language 
 side of all studies. 
 
 It is often said by the critics that the language 
 results in our schools are sadly deficient. So far as 
 this is true it is a criticism of our work in all studies. 
 It implies a general feebleness of work, a low vital- 
 ity. Language is a somewhat delicate test of the 
 vital quality in all lessons. 
 
 Admitting that the results of language work in 
 our schools are not satisfactory, we must seek the 
 
 10 
 
RELATION OF LANGUAGE TO OTHER STUDIES II 
 
 remedy, not alone in a series of language lessons, for 
 the disease is too general to be cured by a local ap- 
 plication. It is by strengthening the language phase 
 of all subjects as well as by a more definite and 
 systematic handling of a few special topics in lan- 
 guage lessons proper. We may say in general that 
 the positive policy of building up correct habits of 
 speech should be begun as early as possible. The 
 procrastinating policy of rooting out bad habits after 
 they are formed is wasteful of time and disagreeable 
 in the operation. 
 
 We can afford to go back as far as possible in a 
 child's life, and to accumulate all available resources 
 and momentum, so as to carry him more surely to 
 eventual proficiency in language. 
 
 The great changes that have been going on in our 
 school course have prepared the way for a decided 
 improvement in language. The enrichment of all 
 our earlier grade studies with literature, with story, 
 with nature study, with poetry and song, with games 
 and social exercises, and with occupations, is like the 
 storage of large reservoirs out of which the fountains 
 of speech spring. And speech does spring spon- 
 taneously and abundantly out of these sources. Be- 
 yond question the deep sources of thought and 
 
12 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 language are now far more liberally supplied to 
 children than they were a few years ago. And in 
 schools where these thought-producing materials 
 abound the language results are far better. 
 
 If children are still found to.be careless and slip- 
 shod in speech, it is largely because these new studies 
 are still undeveloped, still in their crude beginnings, 
 and good language work cannot spring out of sub- 
 jects poorly taught. When literature is well taught 
 in primary grades, with lively reproduction of stories 
 by the children, when songs and poems are memo- 
 rized, when nature study leads to a constant spirited 
 and sympathetic life and conversation among na- 
 ture's objects and handiwork, when early history 
 and geography find an equally strong and stimu- 
 lating oral treatment, we shall find ,the foundations 
 well laid for proficiency in English. 
 
 Improvement, however, in these elementary arts of 
 instruction is slow. The deepest and most difficult 
 problems of education are involved. The newer meth- 
 ods of oral instruction are not only new, they are 
 more difficult than the old, formal ones. They re- 
 quire more knowledge, more spirit, more power and 
 tact in handling both the material and the children. 
 
 In discussing the relation of language work to 
 
RELATION OF LANGUAGE TO OTHER STUDIES 1 3 
 
 other studies we observe that there are two chief 
 ways in which they contribute to improvement in 
 language: first by supplying the original quarries 
 out of which language is derived, and second by con- 
 stantly reenforcing the specific teachings of the lan- 
 guage lessons proper, that is, by offering a constant 
 field for applying language lessons. History, geog- 
 raphy, literature, and science are constantly supply- 
 ing new words and sentence forms together with 
 the substance of thought which they express. In 
 increasing knowledge and in constantly widening the 
 horizon of information these studies perpetually work 
 at the building up of the structure of speech, and 
 they have the opportunity of giving correct forms 
 and habits from the start, of not only enriching, but 
 of fittingly expressing the new thought. Here is an 
 opportunity to mould speech and to impress correct 
 and appropriate form such as could not better be 
 devised. Every study has this special advantage in 
 shaping a child's language. It requires thoughtful- 
 ness and skill in every lesson to make proper use of 
 this opportunity. It is by controlling these original 
 sources of supply that one has the easiest and most 
 effective means of implanting fit language. Yet it is 
 not without conscious and painstaking care that the 
 
14 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 teacher can guard and cherish these early sources of 
 good language. 
 
 It is now generally admitted by teachers and 
 writers on language that language lessons proper 
 should derive many of their topics from valuable and 
 outstanding lessons in other studies. The advantage 
 is twofold, strengthening those studies themselves 
 and contributing strongly to language proper. If 
 language lessons elaborate the topics of other studies, 
 they relieve the teacher from the necessity of hunting 
 up and by class instruction preparing special topics 
 for language. It is a double economy. Topics of pro- 
 nounced value in other studies command respect in 
 language lessons and, if well chosen, are in them- 
 selves natural and easy centres of thought. The 
 language difficulties have already been partly over- 
 come ; the thought is clear, ideas flock to the child's 
 mind, and he does not sit fumbling his pencil in 
 search of something to write. There should be at 
 hand this accumulation of worthy thought material, 
 and the mind can then be centred upon the special 
 difficulties of expression. 
 
 The language lesson has its peculiar difficulties to 
 meet, and it is better to strip away any other unneces- 
 sary difficulties so as to let the mind struggle effec- 
 
RELATION OF LANGUAGE TO OTHER STUDIES 1 5 
 
 tively and triumphantly with these knotty points in 
 language. 
 
 Nor will there be any monotony or narrowness in 
 using the resources of other studies freely for lan- 
 guage purposes. History, nature study, geography, 
 and literature are such broad, deep, and many-sided 
 subjects that great freedom of choice among many 
 attractive topics is offered. Herein we suffer from 
 surplus riches rather than from poverty. All kinds 
 of subjects, all varieties of treatment, as description, 
 narrative, and argument, are given in profusion. 
 
 So far as history, science, and other studies are 
 concerned it would be to their decided advantage if 
 more of their topics could be handled in language 
 lessons. But the latter are closely limited. They 
 can only pick cut topics here and there. Objection 
 has been raised to the extensive use of these topics 
 supplied by the content studies, on the ground that 
 it does not leave room for originality and sponta- 
 neous self-expression. But we believe that it is better 
 in this case to take a middle ground, to avoid hurtful 
 extremes. 
 
 Children should find much opportunity and en- 
 couragement for original expression in self-chosen 
 topics. But it does not seem safe to make this the 
 
l6 SPECIAL METHOD IN' LANGUAGE 
 
 exclusive or even the chief mode of expression. 
 Again, even in subjects selected from history, science. 
 geography, and literature, there can be given great 
 latitude for choice in the mode of treatment, and in 
 the point of view. We are in full sympathy with the 
 idea of freedom and originality in composition. The 
 lack of it is one of the heaviest drags upon language 
 studies. 
 
 Great as are the senaccs of the other studies in 
 contributing first-class treasures to language for more 
 careful elaboration, they are equally valuable in their 
 subsequent service in applying the lessons first em- 
 phasized by language. The great difficulty is not in 
 teaching what correct usage is, but in bringing about 
 the incorporation of correct forms into daily uncon- 
 scious habit. 
 
 One may do excellent teaching in formal language. 
 bring out clearly and convincingly the correct usages 
 and rules, vet the force of previous bad habit, the 
 perpetual wrong usage in home and on the play- 
 ground are so influential that the school seems to 
 barely scratch the surface and to leave the roots of 
 old habits undisturbed. The weeds of language are 
 growing as lustily as ever. Their roots have never 
 been disturbed. Language is se deeply embedded in 
 
RELATION OF LANGUAGE TO OTHER STUDIES 1/ 
 
 a child's life, in his habits, Feelings, and companion- 
 ships, that nothing loss than a deeper cultivation and 
 a rigorous scientific method will bring a good harvest. 
 
 When the Language lesson has done its full duty by 
 a clear exposition of the correct usage in adverbs or 
 pronouns, when it has applied the lesson thoroughly 
 by oral and composition exercises, we have merely 
 made the first strong assault upon the breastworks 
 of the enemy. We have not dislodged the hosts 
 of error. They arc still in full possession. In other 
 words the war has only begun. Pronouns and ad- 
 verbs in hostile array arc lurking for us in history 
 ami geography and literature and in every conceiv- 
 able hiding-place in the school programme. Driven 
 out of one place they reappear in other places. Defeat 
 they do not know. Thev even take a pride in their 
 own ugliness, and shame the boys and girls into con- 
 formity to a usage that the school abhors. What a 
 feeble resistance mere language lessons can offer to 
 these omnipresent and redoubtable enemies ! 
 
 Language lessons proper are merely scouts sent 
 out to locate and determine the strength of the 
 enemy. The war itself must be carried on by the 
 great phalanx of studies that marches steadily and 
 with singleness of purpose to the complete capture 
 c 
 
1 8 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 of all important positions. The war must be car- 
 ried on over a large area, spreading out through the 
 whole course of study. In every study and in every 
 lesson there must be a quiet but determined hostility 
 to perversions of speech. The geography teacher, if 
 he is a downright enemy of bad English, is an invalu- 
 able ally of the language teacher ; the history in- 
 structor can do no less valuable service ; other 
 special subjects may be equally good champions of 
 a pure mother-tongue. 
 
 Indeed, if these are not friends and allies, they are 
 positive enemies. There can be no honorable truce 
 with bad English. ^All the studies are bound to- 
 gether in one league for the purpose of insuring the 
 purity of the fountain of English, or else there are 
 traitors in the camp, and the house is divided against 
 itself. 
 
 The unity, the absolute oneness of education, can- 
 not be better illustrated than by this mutual depend- 
 ence and brotherly support of all studies in working 
 out an effective control of good English. Some of 
 the primary weaknesses and inconsistencies of edu- 
 cational theory are well exemplified in language. 
 Vj If the lesson of correct English taught in a lan- 
 guage period is not to be carried into full effect in 
 
RELATION OF LANGUAGE TO OTHER STUDIES 19 
 
 all studies whenever it may reappear, it might better 
 not be taught at all. Or do we emphasize and insist 
 upon a correct usage of verbs in a language lesson 
 only to neglect and ignore it the next hour in arith- 
 metic ? What is this other than self-contradiction 
 and inconsistency taught by the best example ? 
 There is nothing in theory or practice that can 
 justify such suicidal teaching as this. The teacher 
 must make his studies support one another or con- 
 fess fundamental weakness in vital matters. Why 
 should teachers object to this close correlation of 
 studies ? Call it by some other name if the term 
 "correlation " is offensive. We must at all events sat- 
 isfy the indispensable conditions for securing good 
 English. 
 
 There is no subject in which the sin of isolating a 
 study so quickly and so lastingly revenges itself as 
 the subject of language. Language is so vitally close 
 to other studies that it feels the heart-beat of them 
 all. If now we are so ruthless as to tear it loose 
 from its proper associates, if we orphanize it from its 
 kindred during the period of childhood and growth, 
 why should we expect it to perform its duties in 
 later years in close relation to all experience ? 
 
 The suitableness of history, geography, and nature 
 
20 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 study to serve as a basis for language lessons is 
 further seen in the somewhat logical and systematic 
 working out of lessons in these branches. A history 
 lesson in intermediate grades is usually worked over 
 into a clear outline of leading topics or points. The 
 outline of these topics is placed upon the board or 
 copied into the outline book. No better basis could 
 be found for a composition, falling easily, according 
 to topics, into paragraphs. These being already 
 familiar to the children from the previous history 
 lesson are ready at hand and in logical connection. 
 The children are free, each in his own way, to mould 
 the thought into sentences, so that there is great 
 variety of construction according to ability and 
 individuality. 
 
 <This plan also provides that full oral* treatment of 
 the lessons precede the written or composition work. 
 This is the natural order. There should be in all 
 the early grades abundant oral treatment and repro- 
 duction of tales, ballads, historical stories, myths, and 
 nature descriptions. The thought material is rich and 
 varied, and its attendant language should partake of 
 its copiousness. The children are already in posses- 
 sion of a large fund of oral speech, and it is accumu- 
 lating. It should be put to this service and caused 
 
RELATION OF LANGUAGE TO OTHER STUDIES 21 
 
 to enlarge and complete itself upon the incoming 
 materials. The written work is naturally subsequent 
 to all this oral overflow. And yet it is so natural 
 that under proper conditions the children betake 
 themselves to pencil and paper without urgency or 
 even request. Their interests and activities naturally 
 flow along these lines, and it needs only the gentle 
 supervision of a tactful teacher to give this growth 
 steadiness and connectedness. 
 
 This adherence to the outlines of geography, his- 
 tory, and other oral lessons is by no means the whole 
 of language work, even in lower grades, but it is one r 
 of the chief means of seizing the most available and 
 interesting thought materials, and of bringing their 
 thought into connected, coherent form. It is like- 
 wise the best means of strengthening that brother- 
 hood and mutual helpfulness between studies which 
 is, so economical and so conducive to thorough 
 mastery. 
 
 This close interrelation between language and all 
 other studies is not exceptional. A like intimate 
 relation is found between reading and other studies, 
 between geography and others, etc. , v But language 
 is the omnipresent thing in all studies, and the neces- 
 sity for its immediate and constant use in school and 
 
22 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 out of school does not allow delay or carelessness 
 in its treatment. 
 
 In the " Method of the Recitation," we have de- 
 voted a whole chapter to show the imperative need 
 for applying knowledge even in school studies* 
 Language lessons bear directly and constantly upon 
 immediate needs. In language work we are not 
 simply preparing for the future, we are trying to 
 keep up with the present. " Sufficient unto the day 
 is the evil thereof." At present the evil is more 
 than sufficient, and we fall below a reasonably good 
 standard. >l Of all studies, language and reading 
 teach us the great and invaluable lesson of making 
 immediate use of what we are learning. 
 
 We repeat — language, because of its close, vital 
 connection with all other studies and because of its 
 hourly usefulness in every lesson, is the best illustra- 
 tion we have of the underlying unity of all studies 
 and of the complete practical dependence of studies 
 upon one another. 
 
 Two important conclusions may be drawn from 
 the foregoing discussion. First, the language teacher 
 must be well posted upon the content and character 
 of the other studies which supply well-developed 
 topics for use in the language lessons. If the 
 
RELATION OF LANGUAGE TO OTHER STUDIES 23 
 
 teacher of both subjects is the same person, there 
 need be no difficulty, but with special teachers in the 
 different branches there is danger that they may 
 know little of each other's work. But this difficulty 
 must be overcome if effective language work is to be 
 done. 
 
 Second, the teacher in geography, science, read- 
 ing, or history must know the special purposes of the 
 language teacher, must study closely the plan of 
 campaign laid out for the language class, and must 
 be prepared to reenforce this work, definitely, in 
 many ways. 
 
 Without this intelligent, mutual understanding be- 
 tween teachers in different studies, it is hard to see 
 how they can cooperate effectively to attain a result 
 so difficult and requiring such a concentration of 
 forces. 
 
 Herein lies the advantage of a well-developed 
 course of study, in which each special teacher can 
 become definitely acquainted with the work in other 
 studies. But in addition to this, by teachers' meet- 
 ings and by mutual conferences, teachers of the 
 same class require to be continually instructed as to 
 the plans and work of colleagues in other subjects. 
 
.' >* %*-••*■—•-: 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 Economy in Language Exercises 
 
 In the crowded condition of our course of study 
 every good means of economizing time and labor 
 should be used. 
 
 There are several important ways by which we 
 can avoid wasted effort in language lessons. 
 
 I. By fixing a simple fundamental aim and by 
 sticking closely to it we shall save much time for 
 better things. We know in a general way that an 
 indefinite aim means a scattered and incoherent 
 effort. But in language lessons there are just a few 
 things that need to be thoroughly done. A failure 
 to see these few things clearly means much time spent 
 on doing many things that need no attention and the 
 half-doing of the things that are essential. A clearly 
 defined, single aim requires the careful selection of 
 the few means that lead to it and the skilful em- 
 phasis of these ; for example, special lessons on 
 certain uses of pronouns and irregular verbs. 
 
 The course of study in language, which follows 
 
 24 
 
ECONOMY IN LANGUAGE EXERCISES 25 
 
 later, is designed to give a careful arrangement to 
 those few essentials that lead to a mastery of common 
 English. 
 
 2. The reduction of early bad habits to a mini- 
 mum is secured by the use of a choice fund of excel- 
 lent stories for oral work from the first day of school. 
 These stories are not only first class in thought, but 
 are presented in the simplest idiomatic English, 
 often conversational, and abounding in just those 
 terms of expression which are the right substitutes 
 for the common errors of speech. It is quite easy to 
 imagine that children under skilful teaching of this 
 sort would fall into such correct habits (laying aside 
 their own crudities) that language lessons proper 
 would scarcely be needed. For this early story 
 work is not primarily language, but introduction to 
 good literature, and is only incidentally a training 
 in correct speech. It is here that we take time by 
 the forelock and build into the child's mind, early, the 
 correct structure of words, which serves well for the 
 foundation of all that comes later. 
 
 This strong cultivation of oral language (through 
 stories from literature, and a little later through oral 
 work in geography, history, and natural science) is 
 the natural preliminary and introduction to reading 
 
26 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 and language lessons. Through a rich and varied 
 cultivation of oral speech the mind becomes satu- 
 rated with right phrases, words, and sentential forms. 
 Unconsciously, strong, vigorous, and correct forms of 
 speech become habitual. When the child has been 
 well equipped with this familiar fund of correct oral 
 speech, he passes over easily to correct written 
 forms. This early fixing of right habits through oral 
 practice is far more economical than the later cor- 
 rection of bad habits when once formed. 
 
 The surest method of quickly mastering language 
 is by the unconscious imitation of good examples. 
 A child strongly interested in good stories, poems, 
 biographies, and nature studies assimilates good lan- 
 guage with an amazing appetite. The choice and 
 appropriate language of a skilful teacher is almost 
 equally powerful in shaping a child's speech. " Chil- 
 dren learn their native tongue by imitation, and imita- 
 tion continues throughout the school course the chief 
 factor in language work." (Chubb, " The Teach- 
 ing of English," p. 374.) But all these good things 
 a child appropriates unconsciously while in pursuit 
 of larger game, — the interesting thought or story. 
 This is the very economy of teaching. 
 
 3. But in spite of the utmost care, blunders and 
 
ECONOMY IN LANGUAGE EXERCISES 2*J 
 
 bad habits creep into a child's conversation. At this 
 point we can practise strong economy by confining 
 our attention to those few blunders that really need 
 correction. The fact that a list of errors is given in a 
 language book is not a proof that this particular class 
 is making these errors and needs these corrections. 
 Before giving a class a lesson on certain faults find 
 out whether they are common to this class, i.e. 
 whether the medicine suits this particular case. It 
 is not very unusual to see a class drilled upon usages 
 for which there is no necessity and which are a bore 
 to them. One experienced teacher said that half the 
 mistakes made by children were committed in the 
 forms of the verb to be. By concentration upon 
 the few essential corrections, and by systematic at- 
 tention and review directed to these, we may teach so 
 effectively that bad habits are really converted into 
 the corresponding good ones. Whatever failure 
 there may be must be made up by systematic at- 
 tention to correct speech in the other studies. 
 
 4. An excellent economy may be practised wher- 
 ever we can enlist the genuine interest of the children 
 in correct and elegant speech. Children enjoy 
 strong, vigorous, and effective language ; they take 
 on a feeling of distaste and dislike for clumsy and 
 
28 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 uncouth errors. Popular errors heard out of school 
 they enjoy criticising and overhauling. The curi- 
 osities of language, as the meaning of homonyms and 
 antonyms, even the irregularities and freakish things, 
 they like to discover. 
 
 The rhythmic and musical phases of language 
 please children from the earliest years. Wherever 
 a real interest can be awakened for language, the 
 work will be done more quickly and effectively. A 
 certain amount of pure drill and drudgery is inevit- 
 able, but it should be reduced to a minimum, because 
 this kind of work attains the result with the larger 
 expenditure of friction, labor, and time. 
 
 5. We shall attain our desired end in language if 
 we do not demand a too great accuracy and careful- 
 ness in many little niceties and excellencies of speech. 
 Children are not perfect, and they will not be till 
 long after we get through with them. Overnicety 
 and punctiliousness defeat the end they seek to gain. 
 " The chief difficulty may be indicated by the word 
 tJwrougJiness ; to be thorough enough, and thorough 
 with the kind of thoroughness possible in such a 
 matter as language ; to avoid pedantic, literal, 
 murderous thoroughness — how difficult that is ! 
 
 " That would be an absurd thoroughness in draw- 
 
ECONOMY IN LANGUAGE EXERCISES 20, 
 
 ing which would keep a child drawing circles until it 
 could draw a perfect one. Similarly, it would be a 
 choking pedantry in English work that would confine 
 a child to the practice of certain words or forms of 
 speech until its usage was rigorously perfect. Clearly, 
 thoroughness in an art is a relative thing, — relative 
 to the general powers of the child ; it can only be 
 approximative." (Percival Chubb, " The Teaching of 
 English," p. 365.) 
 
 Children must do considerable blundering in order 
 to make progress. A person in learning German, 
 for example, blunders incessantly ; but gradually out 
 of these blunders emerges more accurate speech. 
 The same with a little child in learning English. 
 He gradually overcomes marked defects of speech. 
 We can afford to put up with many faulty and blun- 
 dering attempts of children if they are thinking hard, 
 trying strenuously, and keeping their minds on the 
 main issues, including language. The main things 
 they must keep constantly in mind. The teacher 
 should overlook nothing, but he should watch his 
 chances for making corrections and bring them in as 
 clandestinely as possible on some occasions and very 
 boldly on others. There is no telling what a teacher , 
 should or should not do on occasion, but ordinarily 
 
30 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 he should not pester and nag and badger children 
 with little things when big things are at stake. We 
 are simply stating a neglected truism when we say 
 that children are immature, that they do lew things 
 with perfection, that they are always on the verge of 
 new and difficult things, and these are proverbially 
 hard; in other words, that the standard of excellence, 
 as fixed by the growing and immature condition of 
 children, is not the standard of adults. In language, 
 as in everything else pertaining to children, we are 
 trying to encourage a healthy growth. 
 
 The pedantic schoolmaster will save time and vexa- 
 tion by a kindlier attention to these peculiarities of 
 human nature. 
 
 6. Another place tor economizing time in language 
 study is in reducing the time given to technical gram- 
 mar and in eliminating from grammar itself a large 
 share of the nicer classifications and subtle distinc- 
 tions which gave bulk to the older grammars. Nor 
 do we need much abstract philosophy or introspec- 
 tion to get at the essential classes and laws of 
 language structure. 
 
 It has long been acknowledged that these elaborate 
 grammatical technicalities do not much increase effi- 
 ciency or correctness of speech, and now that the doc- 
 
ECONOMY IN LANGUAGE EXERCISES 3f 
 
 trine of formal discipline is tottering, and in the minds 
 of many is already cast down, we may take courage 
 to look grammar squarely in the face and ask for 
 deliverance from useless technicality and formality. 
 
 7. Exercises in spelling which are here included 
 should be limited to words whose meanings arc 
 understood. In the olden day, when there was not 
 much breadth and variety to school work, a large 
 amount of time was devoted to curious and unheard-of 
 words, and to the curiosities and puzzle spellings 
 which added nothing to a child's real intelligence. 
 Now that there are so many vitally important studies 
 waiting for audience with a child, we can well afford 
 to banish the old-time trivialities. The spelling-match 
 may still be of value in arousing interest, and so far as 
 possible rules of spelling should be inductively devel- 
 oped and illustrated and the shortest cut found to 
 the spelling of classes of words. 
 
 8. In close connection with language exercises the 
 question of good penmanship must be met. Here 
 again we must find the line of moderation between 
 too painstaking and overcareful writing and the loose 
 carelessness and even slovenliness that arc so com- 
 mon. Clear, round, intelligible script, that is cor- 
 rect in general form, and can be easily read, is the 
 
32 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 standard. The strict schoolmaster often sets up too 
 high a standard, and this interferes, with other more 
 
 important results. Children's work is necessarily 
 somewhat crude and should not be forced up to any 
 
 unnatural, pedantic excellence. Gradual betterment 
 
 and progress are the desired things, so Long as the 
 child is working earnestly under the impulse of 
 thought, that must be made clearly Intelligible. 
 
 These are all important ways of economizing time 
 ami effort. 
 
 In conclusion we may notice that a close organi- 
 zation and sequence of topics throughout the grades 
 will give simplicity and strength to the whole. Mr. 
 Chubb says: " We must avoid waste in order to get 
 good results ; and this we shall do when (i) our pro- 
 grammes are more organic and unified than now, and 
 (2) when the work of each grade is done by the 
 teacher in the light of the course as a whole, and 
 according to the final ends aimed at. 
 
 "(1) Our English Course ought to show a definite, 
 organizing policy, animating and articulating the 
 work of each grade ; a network of connecting tissue 
 uniting it all. 
 
 "(2) The success of such a plan must depend 
 upon the teacher's ability to see the work of her 
 
ECONOMY IN LANGUAGE EXERCISES 33 
 
 grade in its organic relation, not only to the work oi 
 the grade below and the grade above her own, bul as 
 a stage in the progress toward certain final results, 
 and as a contribution to those results." 
 
 The same simplicity and unity of language aims 
 must pervade all the studies of the sehool course. 
 
 Jn the previous chapter on the relation of language 
 to other studies it is plain that only by concerted 
 aetion in pursuit of the same aims can wasteful 
 repetitions and time squandering be avoided. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 Method in Language Lessons 
 
 The personal motive with which both teachers 
 and pupils undertake language lessons has much 
 to do with their ultimate success. Language les- 
 sons from one point of view are a sort of formal 
 device for making good the language deficiencies 
 of other studies, where thought is uppermost. 
 Language lessons, therefore, have often been re- 
 garded as a routine drill. They are designed to 
 enforce and strengthen certain correct formal 
 usages of speech. These are naturally arbitrary 
 and mechanical and have been considered the 
 legitimate prey of the mechanical teacher. This 
 routine language plunder, collected from all the 
 studies, furnishes out a paradise for the drill 
 teacher. In themselves these exercises have but 
 little interest to children, and they therefore supply 
 the best illustration of strong discipline without 
 motive. 
 
 Many excellent teachers have felt that if they 
 
 34 
 
METHOD IN LANGUAGE LESSON'S 35 
 
 could carefully arrange these drill exercises in 
 connected series through the grades, and could 
 then bring to bear a steady pressure of drill upon 
 them, they could solve the language problem and 
 turn out children possessed of a reasonable mas- 
 tery of English. We cannot deny that when this 
 policy has been consistently followed, it has 
 achieved a certain degree of success. 
 
 Yet in education machine contrivances of this 
 sort never wholly fill the bill, and they are sooner 
 or later condemned as too costly. From a careful 
 paper upon this subject by Professor N. D. Gil- 
 bert, I wish to quote the following sentences: — 
 
 "Of the making of language books there is no 
 end, but for all that there comes an unremitting 
 cry that the children of our schools do not learn 
 to speak or to write Knglish. These books con- 
 tain numerous exercises at points where errors 
 most abound. Nevertheless the teaching based 
 upon them seems not to bring about effective re- 
 sults in the language of the children. The rea- 
 sons for this seem not far to seek. First, good 
 teaching is not a matter of absolute and precise 
 prescriptions. Second, such exercises can be 
 brought into touch with a child's experience and 
 
36 SPECIA] METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 enter Into the body of his spontaneous thinking 
 only in some more or Less forced way; hence his 
 tendency to cany these exercises over and put 
 them into the real things of his life is relatively 
 
 weak. Third, the ideals of these books are lin- 
 guistic forms. They induce the corresponding atti- 
 tude on the part of the teacher. Curiously, 
 
 perhaps, but inevitably, when wo reflect on the 
 scheme, this insistence on forms kills the teaching 
 of forms in any vital way. 
 
 " This all must mean that the forms of correct 
 speech are taken on lor use only in the course of 
 one's active thinking — thinking into which his 
 personal activity spontaneously and strongly goes." 
 
 Mr. Gilbert's conception of language work is thus 
 seen to be in marked contrast to the drill motive 
 which underlies many of our language lessons. In 
 the language books the formal side of language is 
 given a commanding place; he would make these 
 forms merely an outcome and expression of lively 
 experience with interesting thought. 
 
 It seems strange and even discouraging that 
 we cannot attack the language problem in this 
 direct, straightforward, and formal method of the lan- 
 guage books and thus master it. But language is too 
 
METHOD IN LANGUAGE LESSONS 37 
 
 vitally dependent upon a child's whole life activity to 
 be reconstructed by any independent series of mere 
 language drills. The teacher has a much more diffi- 
 cult problem than that of teaching, no matter how 
 well, any prescribed series of mere language les- 
 sons. Language is the outer clothing of thought, 
 and when you take away the animating spirit, 
 you have nothing left but a dummy. 
 
 "The development of appreciative power is the 
 best of aids in the development of expressional 
 power. In other words, expression is intimately 
 related to impression. The best class in composi- 
 tion is generally the best class in literature. 
 Those can give most and best who have received 
 most and best. Children learn to write as they 
 learn to swim by watching and imitating others; 
 by trying under the lead of a model. They de- 
 velop a feeling and instinct and knack for writing, 
 without which they will never be effective as 
 writers. Unless one can develop this craftsman- 
 like pride and interest one labors to small results. 
 The child or youth who writes well is he who 
 ieels that he has something to say, wants to say 
 it, and to say it well — to make his point. He 
 naturally falls back, consciously or unconsciously, 
 
38 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 upon examples known to him. A workmanlike 
 regard for his tools, a sense of responsibility 
 toward the medium in which he is working, — this 
 is what we want to develop ; and this is developed, 
 not by rule and injunction, but by catching the 
 spirit and developing the conscience of the craft 
 through the persistent effort to practise it." (Per- 
 cival Chubb, "The Teaching of English.") 
 
 It is the business of the language teacher to 
 carry over the lively interest, the thought impulse 
 of home life, of the history or geography lesson, or 
 the science excursion into the language period. The 
 language lesson is the completion of thought move- 
 ment that began in the literature or science lesson. 
 
 The teacher as well as the children should be 
 full of the thought engendered by these great 
 studies. Loaded with this kind of freight there 
 will be something to discharge into the channels 
 of language. It is in the shaping of this copious 
 thought material furnished by the other studies, 
 and by the rich experiences of child life that the 
 whole capacity and resourcefulness of the teacher 
 are fully tested. The spirit awakened by these 
 studies should be retained in the language, and 
 yet the emphasis should be placed on the diffi- 
 
METHOD IN LANGUAGE LESSONS 39 
 
 culties of expression. To keep up this life connec- 
 tion with fruitful studies in the very act of drilling 
 upon the forms of speech, — this will test alike the 
 teacher's power and the children's capacity to per- 
 form a double task. 
 
 Language teaching in this sense becomes a many- 
 sided and fruitful field of study and cannot be tied 
 down to exact prescriptions and drills. 
 
 One advantage of this binding connection between 
 thought studies and expression is that it gives the 
 child a compelling motive in his language work. 
 The transition from a history lesson to the language 
 treatment of the same topic is natural and legitimate 
 and carries the same weight of interest and serious- 
 ness as the original lesson. 
 
 This transfer of effort is seen in the use of 
 stories in primary grades, for board illustration and 
 description, also in the employment of American his- 
 tory stories for later compositions in intermediate 
 grades, and in the use of well-chosen topics of gram- 
 mar-grade history for written papers. It is assumed 
 that such derived topics are a reenforcement of the 
 language lessons on the thought side. Mr. Chubb 
 says, " We communicate knowledge in vain if we do 
 not evoke stable and growing enthusiasms." 
 
40 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 Even the more formal language lessons on irregu- 
 lar verbs, pronouns, and homonyms may supply a 
 motive to children in the form of a problem or diffi- 
 culty in the use of language which their regular 
 lessons have brought clearly into view. 
 
 Language itself is not destitute of interest and 
 motive for children when its problems are properly 
 set up before them. The bearings of these problems 
 upon the life interests of children should be kept 
 constantly open by watching for opportunities to fan 
 their zeal for letter-writing, for making rhymes, for 
 working up debates or stories, for copying quota- 
 tions from favorite authors, in fact for any form of 
 written expression which children from time to time 
 find entertaining. Even the mechanical execution of 
 lessons appeals to the physical activities. 
 
 Before taking up the specific work of primary 
 language lessons, a few topics of a more general, 
 comprehensive character, applying more or less to 
 all grades, require discussion. In other studies as 
 well as in language there is necessity for the correc- 
 tion of mistakes in oral speech. There can be no 
 excuse for the neglect of this in any study. A high 
 standard of correct and elegant speech should be 
 maintained in every study. To attain this result 
 
mi. I HOD in LANGUAGE LESSONS 41 
 
 1 
 
 there must be a steady and persistenl attention to It. 
 'i in- manner in which corrections are made will 
 differ greatly. In general there should not l><: an 
 abrupt and interfering way oi criticism and oi dis 
 turbing the child'i thought, Mosl corrections can be 
 made quietly and without serioui interruption, The 
 
 sensitiveness of children also makes it ne<< ,,;uy to 
 
 avoid harsh measures. A teacher can beovei punc 
 1 Minus and pedantic and pay too much regard to little 
 things. The main effort should be to secure a strong 
 and vigorous thought movement with a pronounced 
 attention to language. It will not do to pass by all 
 
 mistakes on the ground that a child | annol think and 
 
 speak correctly at the same time. Thai is precisely 
 
 iIm; thing he must learn to do, and he should care- 
 fully practise it in every study. Accuracy oi ipe 
 
 will even COndui C to precision ol thought. Thought 
 and language are ( on* ornitant. They should be 
 
 welded together as< losely as possible, and attention to 
 
 more than one thing at a time is the normal require- 
 ment in all sf udii 
 
 Closely bound up with this is the question ol the 
 
 dsgr«$ of excellence, the standard of perfe< tion in 
 language, which should he maintained. This topic 
 
 was discussed in a previous I haptor (also in the- 
 
42 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 " Special Method in Manual Training "), but a brief 
 treatment is here added from the class-room stand- 
 point. 
 
 As a general rule teachers are careless of speech 
 and put up with too low a standard of excellence. A 
 few, on the other hand, who make a strong point of 
 good language, may set up standards which are too 
 difficult. Language is a subject in which children 
 should steadily increase in proficiency and power. 
 It is with us from first to last and all the time, and 
 it offers the best of all chances for a continuous, 
 unremitting improvement. What is most needed is 
 steady pressure and constant attention. Spasmodic 
 efforts, special language drills, could be largely dis- 
 pensed with if we were steadily consistent in at- 
 tending to correct speech in all studies. There 
 are many proofs, however, that the adult standard 
 of excellence cannot be applied to children in the 
 class room. One who watches children at board work 
 or hears them in recitation must soon admit that 
 crude, imperfect efforts should be allowed and even 
 encouraged as the only possible avenues leading up to 
 subsequent better results. If children were capable 
 of immediate perfection, they would not need such 
 long-continued guidance. But they are in the crude, 
 
METHOD IN LANGUAGE LESSONS 43 
 
 awkward, developing state, and we cannot even find 
 time to correct all the mistakes they make. We 
 must emphasize special points, chief kinds of error. 
 Their improvement must be gradual and continuous 
 if successful, and at no stage should the adult stand- 
 point be applied to them. Common sense would 
 suggest that a child in a day cannot leap to the result 
 which an adult has taken years to reach. Gradual 
 growth toward perfection in such a complicated art 
 as language expression is the only reasonable stand- 
 ard. Our conclusion is that constant and unremitting 
 care and watchfulness in the kindly correction of 
 chief mistakes is far more effective than a standard of 
 adult perfection rigorously enforced by the drill master. 
 
 Written Language in Primary Grades 
 
 From observing the teacher, writing on the board 
 in frequent exercises, the children, impelled by 
 the natural desire for imitating and by the im- 
 pulse for action, turn to the blackboard as naturally 
 as to the games of the playground. Their first 
 efforts to write single words from copies by the 
 teacher are crude and shapeless, but they repre- 
 sent natural and genuine effort. 
 
 As the children try to imitate the teacher, so the 
 
44 SPECIAL METHOD IN. LANGUAGE 
 
 teacher should try to imitate the children and 
 accommodate herself to them by writing in a plain, 
 large figure. The full, easy swing of the teacher's 
 arm is just the thing to encourage those large mo- 
 tions which the children can best make, and thus 
 at the start they are switched away from those 
 little, gramped motions that are the bane of chil- 
 dren's early work. 
 
 Then the teacher moves back and forth promptly 
 among the children at the board, encouraging indi- 
 viduals, and suggesting a change here and there. 
 At times the attention of the whole class is called 
 to the making of a word or letter by the teacher, 
 and they try again. 
 
 It is not long before they will attempt short 
 sentences from the story of the " Old Woman and 
 the Pig," or from a nature-study lesson. 
 
 The primary teacher knows how to find excellent 
 promise in the crudest efforts. Even when a left- 
 handed boy writes words upside down and from 
 right to left, she may find that the work is " ex- 
 cellent " and deserving of repetition in a modified 
 form. When a boy or girl works carefully with a 
 genuine purpose, the result is excellent, no matter 
 what the critic may think. 
 
METHOD IN , LANGUAGE LESSONS 45 
 
 The board is a better place for the first efforts at 
 writing because of the large movements it allows, 
 and this kind of work may continue some weeks 
 before resort is had to pencil and paper. The diffi- 
 cult words occurring in reading lessons in first grade 
 may be used for a written spelling lesson at the 
 board. As soon as children have mastered the 
 earliest difficulties of copying and writing, they 
 may copy some of the verse couplets they have 
 memorized. 
 
 In their first seat-writing unruled paper should be 
 given them or paper with broad rulings, so as to 
 allow a large, free arm-movement, similar to that at 
 the board. 
 
 As far as the conditions of the school permit, the 
 board and seat work in language should be done 
 under the immediate supervision of the teacher, so 
 that rapid improvement can be made. There are 
 not many lessons in which little children can be 
 left wholly to themselves without wasting time 
 and forming bad habits. At any rate, when the 
 teacher is free to watch and guide their efforts, 
 there should be much activity in moving about 
 among the children, encouraging, revising, giving 
 copies, showing how to hold the pen, suggesting 
 
46 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 good position, and keeping up spirited and sus- 
 tained effort. 
 
 For seat work, when the teacher is hearing other 
 classes, there may be the copying of poems or prose 
 stories from the readers. The use of capitals, 
 periods, and other forms of punctuation can be thus 
 incidentally practised. They may also make copies 
 of verses or sentences written on the board by the 
 teacher, involving simple abbreviations, question 
 mark, proper names, etc. Even in the first grade 
 it is well to give some stress to the correct use of 
 the forms of the verb to be with singular and plural 
 subjects, to the right use of pronouns in common, 
 simple sentences, to the use of a and an, there is and 
 there are, and other corrected expressions which are 
 peculiar to the class or the locality. Such correc- 
 tions can usually be made in an easy manner inci- 
 dental to oral work and to board and seat exercises, 
 as described above. 
 
 In the second grade, after an oral introduction to 
 spirited stories, and after the first hardships of 
 writing have been overcome, the children are able 
 to attack the difficulties of sentence work with much 
 greater confidence and success. Their board work 
 begins to take on more regular and conventional 
 
METHOD IN LANGUAGE LESSONS 47 
 
 form. The Robinson Crusoe and Hiawatha stories 
 supply a spirited motive to free picture-and-sentence- 
 making. The large amount of oral conversation 
 and reproduction give ever recurring opportunities 
 to work in the correct phrases which take the 
 place of the crude and erroneous expressions first 
 supplied by the children. Out of this oral work, 
 also, the observant teacher will gather up those few 
 common blunders which need special attention in 
 oral and written language lessons. 
 
 In the second grade there is a special chance 
 to sec the advantage of the lively oral treatment 
 of stories and the oral discussion and reproduction 
 of nature study and literature lessons as a prelimi- 
 nary drill in apt and correct language. Out of 
 this rich fund of life and language material it 
 is possible for the teacher to arrange a series of 
 appropriate written language drills, and for the 
 time being round out and perfect the child's expres- 
 sion. By cultivating early this free and spontaneous 
 activity with the pencil, crayon, and pen, the habit 
 of writing becomes almost as easy and natural as 
 oral speech, and in later grades written language 
 will not appear so forced and unnatural. 
 
 It may seem premature in second grade to intro- 
 
48 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 duce the forms of irregular verbs, homonyms, pro- 
 nouns, and auxiliary verbs (as may and can), but all 
 these forms appear in the usual oral lessons and are 
 natural. To bring them together in the language 
 lesson and to illustrate their correct use may be 
 simply done. The copying of memorized passages 
 and familiar readings should be continued from first 
 grade through the second. Written exercises, if not 
 made burdensome by too rigid requirements, if the 
 writing is kept large and easy, give physical relief 
 and pleasure to the children. The natural desire to 
 imitate these conventional forms and activities is 
 really strong with the children as may be often 
 seen in the voluntary written efforts of little ones 
 in the home. 
 
 Intermediate Grades {Third, Fourth, and Fifth} 
 
 It is in these three intermediate grades that much 
 of the most effective work can be done both in oral 
 and written language. We are constantly building 
 up and revising the children's language store. 
 Each year brings on a new and most interesting- 
 batch of stories from literature, geography, history, 
 and nature study, with language as the natural 
 channel of thought. Every strong and interesting 
 
METHOD IN LANGUAGE LESSONS 49 
 
 lesson is a fountain of speech. It seems as if with 
 proper care we could not help making all children 
 linguists in the mother-tongue. The first thing is to 
 see that they are well grounded in this rich oral 
 speech, in the simple and many-sided pliancy of 
 words. All this wealth of thought and expression 
 lies implicit in the reading, history, science, and 
 geography, and just enough attention should be 
 given to language itself to guide the current of 
 speech into correct channels. All this is presup- 
 posed by the language lesson proper. The place 
 for a child first to learn the shaping up of the main 
 forms of sentence structure is not the language 
 lesson, but the great thought studies that precede. 
 The thoughts that must shape themselves into lan- 
 guage forms are what create the framework of 
 speech. This is the real moulding room. The 
 language lesson is the place where these rough 
 moulded forms (castings) are filed down and 
 polished, where they are tested and imperfections 
 cast aside, where the fittings and bearings are more 
 carefully adjusted. 
 
 In written lessons of third and fourth grade we 
 throw children more and more upon themselves in 
 the construction of sentences. At first they are very 
 
 V 
 
50 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 bungling. They run a whole page into one sen 
 tence, with growing- contusion and irrelevancy. 
 They multiply ands and thens % and seem to find 
 
 either no start or else no stopping-place when once 
 started. They indulge in sudden and wonderful 
 transitions within the limits of a single sentence. 
 At this stage the teacher should be very alert and 
 watchful. Before beginning the written work it is 
 well to have an oral statement of the main points 
 with caution and suggestions as to difficult words or 
 ideas. Some of the hard words may be placed on 
 the board and noticed. When the writing is on, 
 children just beginning this kind of work require 
 close supervision, with a proper distribution of en- 
 couragement, criticism, and control. Perhaps the 
 whole class is stopped to call attention to common 
 errors in spelling, construction, or meanings. Care- 
 less work may require sharp reproof ; careful, thought- 
 ful effort, though imperfect, commendation. The 
 teacher steps to the board, and with the attention of 
 the whole class shows how to combine two or three 
 statements into one clear and simple sentence. 
 Some children desire too much help and are con- 
 stantly asking for a spelling or an explanation. 
 They should receive a stimulus to self-help. Some 
 
METHOD IN LANGUAGE LESSONS 5 1 
 
 arc inclined to imitate or copy others, especially at 
 the board. This requires decisive checking. Some 
 are very slow, and others too hasty. A more con- 
 centrated effort should be required from both. 
 
 Teachers are often at a loss to know what to do 
 with these papers after they are written. The chil- 
 dren would be glad never to see them again, and the 
 teacher finds them a burden. And yet an examina- 
 tion of them is really instructive. They reveal un- 
 mistakably the thought and language power or 
 weakness of the children. We are not seldom sur- 
 prised at their poor papers, in view of their previous 
 oral work which seemed good. 
 
 A sufficient number of these papers at least should 
 be examined to discover their weak and strong points, 
 the common errors and the means of correction. 
 Beyond this the teacher should economize time and 
 labor and correct as few papers as may be. A great 
 deal of the work of correction can be done in the 
 class while the children are at work. Other papers 
 can be read and discussed before the class. In the 
 case of board work by the class much of it can be 
 examined and revised by the teacher and quicker 
 children during the class recitation. The teacher 
 should use the blackboard freely in revising and in 
 
5- SPECIAL METHOD in language 
 
 illustrating correct usage. In later spelling and 
 dictation exercises the revised tonus may be drilled 
 upon. It is not well to have corrected papers fre- 
 quently rewritten, especially if children have made 
 an honest effort to do their best. 
 The teacher may economize time and inculcate good 
 
 habits by having all materials in readiness when the 
 lesson begins. At recess, ov just before the lesson, 
 see that paper or blank-books, pens, ink, ami blot- 
 tors are in readiness. Have the children distrib- 
 ute and Collect the papers, pencils or pens, and 
 other materials promptly. These movements must 
 be carefully plan nod to be effective. 
 
 When working at the board, pupils often spend 
 
 much of their time in erasing repeatedly what they 
 have written. They are extremely active with chalk 
 
 and eraser, but little or nothing is accomplished. To 
 check this wasted effort let the erasers be used 
 sparingly or only by permission. Let children obey 
 
 orders promptly at the board. 
 
 In fourth and fifth grades children can use the 
 
 outline previously worked out in geography, history, 
 science, or manual constructions, as the basis of com- 
 positions. The previous careful logical outline of 
 these topics is a standing- illustration of the value oi 
 
METHOD IN LANGUAGE LESSONS 53 
 
 first-class oral work, that is, of abundant and logical 
 thought work, leading up to language lessons proper. 
 In a good outline of a history story each topic is a 
 unit of thought and the basis of a paragraph. In 
 using such outlines it is frequently needful to have 
 an oral statement of the leading idea under each 
 heading so as to freshen thought and interest. Such 
 efforts upon familiar topics should bring forth a 
 prompt and full written response from each child. 
 The members of a class will always differ greatly 
 in the fulness of their treatment, but they should at 
 least promptly concentrate their powers and give a 
 creditable result. , 
 
 By such devices as the teacher can bring to bear, 
 children should be induced to remember and avoid 
 the classes of error which they have been drilled 
 upon in previous efforts. This can be partly pro- 
 vided for by definite warnings preceding thu writing, 
 and partly by close, critical attention to their efforts 
 while in progress. 
 
 A language lesson is no time for a teacher to take 
 a needed repose. Few lessons are more difficult to 
 conduct efficiently. Constant alertness and watchful- 
 ness to secure the embodiment of previous teachings 
 in each lesson are necessary. If this is not done, 
 
54 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 children persist in the same old blunders and care- 
 less habits, and little real progress is made. This 
 accounts for the fact that so much of the language 
 work is poor. It is sometimes said that children 
 continue through all the grades repeating much the 
 same blunders. So far as this is true it is a standing 
 testimony to poor teaching, to weakness and ineffi- 
 ciency in instruction. 
 
 In third and fourth grades children should begin to 
 write letters, which may be sent to parents or friends. 
 The natural inclination of children of this age to do 
 this at home is proof that it is the fitting time to 
 begin. The date and address, the capitalization and 
 punctuation of a letter supply a happy means of 
 introducing such formal matters. The addressing of 
 letters, care in writing, in keeping margins, in spell- 
 ing and neatness, can be best taught in connection 
 with something which the children are anxious to do. 
 The excursions, home experiences, picnics, and travel 
 of children also afford good topics for them to work 
 up in letters or compositions. 
 
 During the fourth grade quite a variety of impor- 
 tant language topics requires careful attention, as 
 the common, irregular verbs, contractions, some of the 
 more frequently used homonyms and synonyms, the 
 
METHOD IN LANGUAGE LESSONS 55 
 
 often misused personal pronouns, the spelling of 
 many new words taken from the Other studies; 
 the introduction to the smaller dictionary so as to 
 develop self-help in rinding meanings and pronun- 
 ciations. These also need to be worked into the 
 composition exercises at board and seat and applied 
 to all manner of recitation and oral work in the other 
 studies. Steady, consistent attention to these things, 
 without pedantry and without scolding, must prove 
 very fruitful. Each lesson should give emphasis to 
 some special task. The controlling aim may be, lor 
 example, the use of capitals, or of certain pronouns 
 as / and me, or the address and introduction of a 
 letter. It might be the correction of a certain kind 
 of grammatical error, neatness and correctness in 
 spelling and writing, or the form and use of certain 
 abbreviations and marks of punctuation. It is by 
 concentration upon one thing at a time that abun- 
 dant illustrations can be given. The distribution of 
 attention over many forms of error in a single lesson 
 leaves no decided impression and does not lead to 
 correct usage. In the special emphasis upon one 
 aim, however, former lessons should not be for- 
 gotten. 
 
 In third and fourth grades also the habit should be 
 
56 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 fixed of reviewing, applying, and establishing the 
 correct usages taught in the primary grades. Each 
 instructor should take into view and assume responsi- 
 bility for all the language work of the preceding 
 grades as well as his own. Language is not a thing 
 to put off and on with the passage from room to 
 room, but a steady growth, a constant building upon 
 earlier foundations. Better still, it is a perpetual 
 revival and reinterprctation of old forms and usages. 
 Eternal vigilance is the sole motto, and the teacher 
 must have a mind broader than the grade work of 
 her own class. There is not only an interrelation 
 of studies, but a successive overlapping and splicing 
 of years, and the larger aims that stretch through 
 the whole of childhood into the years beyond should 
 be present in each teacher. 
 
 In the Tilth grade, while we carry on the main lines 
 already indicated, the broadening studies bring in a 
 few new topics. Business letters and social forms, 
 bills and receipts, letters and invitations, the para- 
 phrasing of poems and stories, and the correct and 
 incorrect usages of language in the street and mar- 
 ket are brought into the language exercises. The 
 children themselves can begin to use the dictionary, 
 and in this connection note the markings of letters, 
 
METHOD IN LANGUAGE LESSONS 57 
 
 the abbreviations and punctuation marks used in 
 their books and papers. 
 
 The geography, history, arithmetic, and nature 
 study require much use of proper names, abbrevia- 
 tions, pronunciation and accent, and the symbols 
 used in various operations. All these should be 
 thoughtfully incorporated into the language and dic- 
 tionary work. Every study can contribute to the 
 mastery of these various forms, and that teacher is 
 fortunate who sees clearly that all the studies must 
 work together to produce efficiency. 
 
 The motto should be learn in one subject and 
 apply in all subjects. 
 
 In the fourth and fifth grade there may be some 
 development, inductively of rules for capitals, punc- 
 tuation, and spelling. Where such rules grow out 
 of practice, and express conclusions that clearly 
 spring out of the cases observed, they cannot be 
 called premature. 
 
 In the fourth and fifth grades it seems well to 
 make a free and natural use of grammatical terms 
 such as subject, predicate, modifiers, noun, pronoun, 
 adverb, verb, preposition, etc., without definition, that 
 is, without more than ordinary explanation of un- 
 technical words. Definitions themselves are not 
 
58 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 such dangerous things, but where regular grammati- 
 cal definitions are learned, memorized, and recited, 
 teachers seem to settle easily into the conviction 
 that this is the main part of language work. Some- 
 times it is begun early and continued through all 
 the grades, and glides into a patient and passionless 
 routine, which is supposed to be a good preparation for 
 grammar, but grammar is thus killed before it is born. 
 Success in the work of intermediate grades 
 depends upon the mastery and steady application 
 of a few requirements, in constantly reviewing and 
 keeping in mind the examples and rules of work 
 previously given. As Mr. Chubb says : " The funda- 
 mental principle to be followed is that the mastery 
 of language is a matter of practice — practice ani- 
 mated by interest and enthusiasm, guided by good 
 models and by wise counsel and criticism. Children 
 learn their native tongue by imitation, and imita- 
 tion continues to be, throughout the school course, 
 the chief factor in language work." (" The Teach- 
 ing of English," pp. 373, 374.) 
 
 Grammar Grades (Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth) 
 
 The language lessons in sixth, seventh, and eighth 
 grades will continue the various lines of exercise 
 
METHOD IN LANGUAGE LESSONS 59 
 
 common to the earlier years. It has been customary 
 to give a strong grammatical character to the lan- 
 guage work of seventh and eighth grades and often 
 of the fifth and sixth. We are disposed to make 
 the grammar subordinate to valuable composition 
 and practical language uses. Our fundamental aim 
 continues undisturbed to dominate the lessons ; 
 namely, the ability to use good English. The 
 complete science of grammar is not for children in 
 the grades. Language as a science is the most 
 abstract of school studies. If language is to be 
 reduced to system and science by children, it is an 
 exception to all other studies. Even nature study, 
 with its objective material, does not eventuate in 
 science in the grammar school, and why should 
 language, which is a far more abstract and difficult 
 mode of thought ? 
 
 Passing over grammar for the present, we will 
 speak first of the continuation of the language 
 lessons. 
 
 In the sixth grade we have outlined in the 
 course of study a great variety of exercises in the 
 forms and symbols of oral and written speech, 
 such as the spelling of certain classes of words 
 according to rules, the roots of common words and 
 
60 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 derivatives, the forms of business papers, abbrevia- 
 tions, synonyms and homonyms, punctuation, cor- 
 rections of wrong usage, making of outlines, writing 
 letters and compositions. There is a danger that 
 these exercises will take on a too formal style and 
 lose their connection with thought-producing studies. 
 They should constantly spring out of these richer 
 studies and again find application in them. In none 
 of the grades is there a greater variety of interesting 
 and inspiring thought material than in the sixth. 
 Besides the colonial history, American geography, 
 American and European literature, and type studies 
 in nature, there are general lessons with their lively 
 treatment of current topics, and the biographies of 
 authors whose poems and stories we have studied. 
 The teacher should not fail to reenforce the drill 
 upon forms with these inspiring source materials. It 
 is possible to get up interesting and valuable exer- 
 cises upon homonyms, or spelling, or punctuation, 
 but every lesson will be strengthened by finding its 
 direct bearings upon some interesting phase of study 
 or experience. 
 
 In this grade children should receive definite 
 advice in outlining subjects, in paragraphing accord- 
 ing to leading topics, and in simple unity and con- 
 
METHOD IN LANGUAGE LESSONS 6 1 
 
 nectedness in thought. As the children grow older 
 their powers of expression and their comprehension 
 increase, and they should be given tasks which 
 command their full strength and therefore their 
 respect. 
 
 In the nature study of this grade children should 
 keep neat and orderly note-books, with careful draw- 
 ings, sketches, and descriptions. Their reports upon 
 excursions or descriptions of plants and animals 
 should incorporate the good habits and correct forms 
 taught in the language lessons. In history and geog- 
 raphy there should be the beginnings of reference 
 studies, and the reports of their readings may furnish 
 good language exercises. This gives genuineness to 
 both history and language. 
 
 In the seventh and eighth grades grammar in a 
 simple form is taken up, and the study of the history 
 and development of the English tongue from Saxon 
 times to the present may be treated, as to its chief 
 epochs, in a way to illustrate its forms and deepen 
 the meanings of its root words. In this connection 
 derivations, prefixes and suffixes, synonyms and the 
 diverse meanings, and even spellings, may be better 
 explained. Language studies, even on the formal 
 side, thus find their interesting correlations with 
 
62 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 the history of races, with literature and authors, 
 with geography and science. 
 
 Even children may begin to appreciate why we 
 study French, and German, and Latin, and perceive 
 the contributions which these languages have made 
 to our mother-tongue. 
 
 In the reading of these grades some of the longer 
 and more important masterpieces of our English 
 literature are seriously studied, and in close conjunc- 
 tion with these the biographies of authors are treated. 
 Such studies furnish an excellent basis for interesting 
 reports and compositions. 
 
 In the midst of the variety of necessary exercises 
 in grammar grades we should not lose sight of the 
 main aim, the ability to speak and write good English 
 with ease. To attain this end all the previous exer- 
 cises of the whole course of study should be brought 
 together and focussed in these last two years, so that 
 the correct habits arrived at in all the earlier grades 
 shall be confirmed. Thus, in spite of its wide-branch- 
 ing relations to all studies and experience, the whole 
 course in language is simple, direct, and consistent. 
 
 During the final years of the common school, 
 children should acquire the habit of an easy and in- 
 dependent use of larger dictionaries, cyclopaedias, and 
 
METHOD IN LANGUAGE LESSONS 63 
 
 reference books in science, history, and geography. 
 This involves a mastery of abbreviations and the use 
 of the various appendices and lists at the close of the 
 dictionary. It is possible to waste much time in the 
 unintelligent use of the dictionary, in hunting out 
 meanings that do not fit, in failing to interpret mark- 
 ings, in not applying the rules of spelling and deri- 
 vation to the brief suggestions in the dictionary. 
 Children in order to learn to help themselves in using 
 dictionaries and reference books need frequent sug- 
 gestion and positive instruction. It is an economy 
 of time to learn to do these things right. Teaching 
 children to be self-helpful does not mean that they 
 shall learn all these things awkwardly, slowly, and 
 often not at all, for lack of intelligent guidance. It 
 is well, occasionally, to spend a whole recitation 
 period in a well-planned introduction to the mysteries 
 of the dictionary. These things are used more or 
 less in all studies and to get over the early difficulties 
 and to establish the easy habit of using dictionaries 
 and reference maps, cyclopaedias, and compendiums, 
 so that a child is all the time teaching himself, revis- 
 ing his spellings and meanings, enlarging and con- 
 solidating his knowledge — all this is of the highest 
 importance both for the present and the future. The 
 
64 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 unsystematic and neglectful way in which these 
 things are done or overlooked is responsible for 
 much of the wasted or abortive work of children in 
 the schools. This is the place for inducting children 
 into habits of practical self-help. 
 
 In the seventh grade the analysis of sentences to 
 determine subject, predicate, and modifiers, and the 
 various sentential forms is an opportunity to inspect 
 carefully this centre of study which we call the 
 sentence, and which the children have been using 
 freely in all its forms for years. This furnishes an 
 opportunity to understand many things which have 
 heretofore been taken for granted, as the agreement 
 of subject and predicate, the interchangeableness of 
 words, phrases, and clauses as modifiers, the differ- 
 ence between adverbs and adjectives as modifiers, the 
 use of phrases and sentences as subjects or objects, 
 the peculiarity of pronouns as subjects and objects in 
 sentences, the reasons for punctuation, as marking 
 terminations or transitions in thought, and an insight 
 into the reasons against common, incorrect usages in 
 speech. Syntax and etymology, as worked out in 
 seventh and eighth grades, give a rational explanation 
 of the varied formal usages of language, oral and 
 written, which have been constantly and thoroughly 
 
METHOD IN LANGUAGE LESSONS 65 
 
 practised in all the earlier grades. This grammatical 
 study, therefore, if it gathers the fruit of earlier 
 usages, is a means of recalling, organizing, and ration- 
 alizing a large part of the strictly formal and conven- 
 tional work of earlier years. In other words it puts 
 a deeper meaning into familiar usages. This sug- 
 gests a complete inductive approach through neces- 
 sary practical exercises to the rules and principles of 
 language. 
 
 For many years it was customary to approach 
 grammar through orthography (letters and sounds) 
 and etymology (parts of speech and classes of 
 words) ; the principles of sentence construction and 
 unity of thought in sentence and paragraph coming 
 last. This was a gradual synthetic movement, begin- 
 ning with the simplest elements. 
 
 We are disposed to believe that a much wiser plan 
 is coming into vogue of beginning with the full sen- 
 tence as the primary unit of thought, of studying it 
 in its various familiar forms, and of working gradu- 
 ally into an interpretation of the lesser elements of 
 the sentence (clauses, phrases, and words), and 
 finally into the elementary letters and sounds with 
 their classification. 
 
 It will be seen that this plan in grammar corre- 
 
 F 
 
66 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 sponds almost exactly with the complete change that 
 has been wrought out and applied in learning to 
 read. Good teachers of primary reading no longer 
 begin with the letters and sounds, building these first 
 into syllables and later into words, phrases, and 
 finally into sentences. The sentence is the primary 
 unit of thought, and from this as a starting-point, 
 primary reading constantly analyzes into words and 
 sounds and builds up again into sentences, using in 
 succession all the well-known methods. 
 
 In grammar also the sentence is the starting-point 
 and goal. We analyze it into its related parts and 
 ultimate elements. We constantly build it up out of 
 these elements. Upon the sentence as the unit of 
 thought is focussed every lesson. To begin gram- 
 mar, therefore, with a study of the parts of speech is 
 like beginning reading with a study of elementary 
 sounds. We are too far from the centre of opera- 
 tions, from the true basis of thought and interest. 
 For a long time we are in the deep woods without 
 seeing any outlet into the open. 
 
 Now the sentence in all its varied and practical 
 forms is. by long use and habit, perfectly familiar to 
 children. They have long thought in sentences 
 almost as freely as they breathe the atmosphere and 
 
METHOD IN LANGUAGE LESSONS 67 
 
 as unconsciously. Most of the incorrect usages, 
 which they have been trying for years to lay aside 
 for better ones, are errors in sentence construction^ 
 not in the mere forms of words. The main things 
 which the children have been trying to take on, to 
 assimilate into habit out of a great variety of rich 
 language experience, are these sentence forms. 
 
 Being now familiar with a great fund of sentences 
 and words, and with their use, the chief question is 
 at what point to attack this whole structure of lan- 
 guage so as to systematize it, to reveal its principles. 
 Sentences are real units of thought. To study and 
 compare them as wholes and in their parts is to work 
 out a whole system of language or grammar. If 
 children understood only words and knew nothing of 
 sentences, we should be compelled to begin with 
 words. But school children generally express them- 
 selves in sentences rather than in single words. The 
 sentence as the expression of a thought is a centre of 
 intelligent interest. 
 
 Composition deals with still larger units of thought, 
 as the paragraph and essay, but grammar is the 
 science of the sentence as a whole, and of what 
 belongs thereto. 
 
 Applying the inductive method to the sentence as 
 
:^S S M- METHOD EN LANGUA 
 
 the primal I of thought, wo naturally work out 
 
 sses of sentences, ti ies 
 
 the sentence 
 - utax , and finalrj —..;• s Bind 
 
 then iflc 5 tc meel the .' email .' s ol st 
 cot id structure (etyi Spelling 
 
 .v / des g e us the ultimate anal - - oA 
 
 deal necess is iy made us 
 
 amiliar with these elements and their 
 
 This plan followed out ma us our syntax in 
 
 g] ade and oui ;• uh. 
 
 We v indicated thai g] 
 
 grades shoi Delimiter principles 
 
 of syntax - lould not run to seed 
 
 ined and attenuated grammatica] classificat 
 Oui s the pi k A 
 
 , n o: the chief principles oi cv.i:nnur c 
 e child] jenl i eaa i ect 
 
 usages, 1: is a great advantage, w 
 children are tough, to have a scienl 
 
 ard up - tges may bo tested; but the 
 
 in grammar, as in other Studies, endless fcXCI 
 and variations, and it is not the business of the 
 ;her to lose the child in this wilderness. 
 
METHOD in LANGUAGE LESSONS oo 
 
 It is Of Chici importance to make the main parts of 
 
 grammar dear, so as to serve as a strong reinforce- 
 ment of all the previous language work, and to 
 render more efficient those parts of Language which 
 
 the child has found necessary tor his uses. 
 
 in the seventh ami eighth grades, accordingly! 
 
 there is an opportunity for a Critical review, from the 
 
 standpoint o\ grammar, oi the erroneous expressions 
 
 which have been the burden of language lessons in 
 all the earlier grades. 
 
 The problem of getting good compositions in 
 
 grammar grades is almost as difficult to solve as that 
 oi grammar itself, and should receive as careful 
 
 attention. 
 
 There is, however, so wide a range of interesting 
 
 subjects, and such as would seem to appeal to chil- 
 dren, that the chief difficulties are found in selecting 
 and handling the topics. For composition work it 
 
 is very desirable to diseover topies which make a 
 direct appeal to children by virtue of their interest 
 and value. It is not wholly unusual for children to 
 take pleasure in composing. Expression is natural 
 to them if they have anything of importance and in- 
 terest to say. The ideal tiling, and the most practi- 
 cal thing, is to awaken in children such an interest 
 
70 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 and close acquaintance with a subject that they 
 desire to give expression to their thoughts. When 
 the opposite condition prevails and the whole matter 
 is irksome and distasteful, the results cannot be good. 
 If a child's interest is strongly awakened in any 
 special branch of study or topic, it is well to utilize 
 this preference to get him well started in composing. 
 With children, as with balky or stubborn horses, it is 
 better to let them forget that there is anything about 
 which to be balky or stubborn. A child that enjoys 
 books on history and biography will find that his pen 
 and his thoughts move much easier along that line 
 than in some uncongenial topic. The boy who is 
 building a boat would better give a description of the 
 materials, plans, process, and difficulties of boat-build- 
 ing. Another child would take much quicker to an 
 imaginary elephant-hunt, or to the spring vegetables 
 he was raising in his garden. One boy prefers 
 to write about Cooper's Leather Stocking, another 
 about his laboratory and electrical apparatus. If 
 a child can be got to do some vigorous and effective 
 writing upon any of these, or of scores of other 
 widely different subjects, the bugbear of composi- 
 tion has been laid to rest ; the child has discovered 
 that he has interests and powers in this direction. 
 
METHOD IN LANGUAGE LESSONS 71 
 
 The school studies are as many-sided in their at- 
 tractions as the children are different in their tastes 
 and enthusiasms. Child life itself is full of interest- 
 ing experiences and activities. It only requires a 
 teacher who is awake to these various interests and 
 proclivities of children, and who knows the rich 
 pasturage of the various school studies. 
 
 It may seem that this plan allows too much con- 
 sideration of children's whims and notions and too 
 little of what should be systematically done by all 
 children in a class. But it is worth while to remove 
 the cause of offence, to get at the reason for this 
 deep-seated and almost universal aversion of boys 
 and girls for compositions. Are the children at 
 fault or the teachers ? Certain it is that teachers 
 are sometimes blindly ignorant and unconscious of 
 the fact that children are composing freely and 
 enthusiastically in subjects of their liking. It is 
 important that we should strike out frequently from 
 the beaten track and give children great freedom in 
 choice and treatment, if we can once set their ener- 
 gies in motion and make them at home in this field 
 of effort. 
 
 Composition should be self-expression just as 
 manual training, drawing, and music are. 
 
SPECIAL IfSTHQD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 Much of the other language work is necessarily 
 formal and pres< bed for all alike; why not give 
 children greater freedom and license in i tsition ? 
 
 Why not at least turn them loose into sea-chosen 
 pastures? In tact composition in its very nature 
 demands freedom and originality, It does not thrive 
 in a cage. Fed on select books and authors, stimu- 
 lated by the example of strong-, favorite writers, 
 children having any impulses in a special study, or 
 in love of reading, or in any active work, should let 
 it impulses move them to express: To 
 
 guide these efforts wisely will give the teacher 
 plenty to do. 
 
 There ate various ways in which the teacher may 
 strengthen and guide these enterprising, self-impelled 
 writers. History and biography, for example, inter- 
 est main' children. But they do not know how to 
 
 select topics. Striking problems and characters are 
 
 all the while coming to light in history. Were the 
 Tories unjustly treated by the Americans at the close 
 of the Revolution ? Was it the people or a few like 
 Washington, Greene. Morris, and Franklin who 
 brought the war to a successful end ? Was it a 
 wise thing to adopt the slavery compromise in 1787 
 as a part of the Constitution? Why was civil service 
 
Minion in LANGUAGE LESSONS 73 
 
 reform bo long and bitterly opposed in this country? 
 In the Life Of Andrew Jackson do we find more good 
 points to praise or bad things to condemn? These 
 
 arc but random questions to illustrate the great 
 number of curious problems that spring up in history 
 study. Arouse the interest of a pupil in one of 
 these problems, and you have an excellent basis for 
 a vigorous composition. 
 
 The lessons in history, nature study, geography, 
 and literary biographies should constantly throw into 
 not ice very promising and attractive subjects for 
 composition. These suggestions should serve as 
 baits and enticements, disclosing, as it were, the 
 meaty parts of these subjects, which there is not 
 time in regular studies to penetrate. But they are 
 just the suitable topics for collateral and home 
 reading. When once opened up by the pupils' 
 voluntary study, they prove far more rich and 
 fruitful than the text-book work or usual class study, 
 because, when treated by good authors, such books 
 are deep, rich, and comprehensive. Enthusiasm for 
 strong authors, for large and fresh topics, takes 
 hold. If this kind of study does not pave the way 
 to self-expression, it is difficult to see how anything 
 can. 
 
74 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 The teacher may also take an occasional period 
 to show children, by examples, how to outline a 
 paper. The selection of controlling points of view 
 in proper succession requires thoughtful discus- 
 sion. Even adults and experienced thinkers and 
 writers have much difficulty with this choice and 
 order of topics. We should not expect much of 
 children at first If properly suggested, every leading 
 head implies an aim or problem and may serve as an 
 awakener and an impulse to expression. Sometimes 
 a child's paper may be worked over in class to bring 
 out a controlling topical organization. Children do 
 not distinguish between important and secondary 
 or even trivial thoughts. They must learn how to 
 get facts into proper perspective and relation. 
 
 There should have been an extensive and varied 
 preparation for this outlining in the oral treatment 
 of many historical, geographical, and nature-study 
 topics in the middle grades. This is not the least 
 important result of strong oral treatment and dis- 
 cussion of subjects in primary and intermediate 
 grades. The teachers themselves must there culti- 
 vate a strong logical power for organizing and pre- 
 senting subjects. There is also no better way to 
 bring children into contact with this logical organiza- 
 
METHOD IN LANGUAGE LESSONS 75 
 
 tion than by setting it before their eyes while the 
 teacher is presenting a science or a history lesson. 
 No amount of theoretical discussion of the prin- 
 ciples of logical order can hold a candle to this direct 
 teaching by example and personality. Long before 
 children are called upon to organize different topics 
 for themselves, they should have witnessed and par- 
 ticipated in the working out of such plans, innu- 
 merable, in the oral studies of the grades preceding 
 the grammar school. Without this long preliminary 
 training, to expect children at one bound to reach 
 this difficult height may explain why in grammar 
 grades they are so completely discouraged by the 
 tasks set them. 
 
 Not only are the children, when properly taught, 
 familiar with many examples of such well-articulated 
 topics in lessons, but the outlines thus secured they 
 have often made the basis of their own efforts at 
 writing up, in good form, these lessons. It is a long 
 hill to climb from the crude efforts of beginners to 
 the clear and simple working out of logical outlines 
 such as should be attained even in grammar grades. 
 Steadily and quietly from grade to grade children 
 should grow in power to bring out a strong nexus 
 of leading topics in a story or composition. It is 
 
76 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 a power gradually acquired by following the example 
 of a strong and thoughtful teacher. 
 
 There is always more or less difficulty in gram- 
 mar schools in getting neat and presentable paper 
 work. Boys especially drop into thoughtless and 
 indifferent habits. It is necessary to set up a good 
 standard of careful, thoughtful work, neat papers, 
 good margins, with bold, clear headings, marked 
 indentations for paragraphs, and a general sightli- 
 ness that makes the papers easy to read and under- 
 stand. All tendencies to use poor or scrappy paper, 
 to offer slovenly manuscripts, to scribble and throw off 
 careless work, need to be firmly and quietly rebuked. 
 
 In these grades, as in the earlier ones, systematic 
 and tactful correction of errors is needful. Pro- 
 fessor Whitney says, " It is constant use and prac- 
 tice under never failing watch and correction that 
 make good writers and speakers." ("Essentials of 
 English Grammar.") 
 
 Mr. Chubb says in his " Teaching of English," 
 p. 201 : " Again let it be urged as the principle of 
 prime importance, that not every mistake is to be 
 corrected. We must first correct those mistakes 
 with which we are systematically coping in our 
 language work and those with which the children 
 
METHOD IN LANGUAGE LESSONS JJ 
 
 have systematically grappled in their earlier work, — 
 this on the supposition that the course of study 
 provides for a progressive treatment of specific diffi- 
 culties in each grade. . . . This puts them in the 
 proper attitude toward the work of correction, and 
 makes for that habit of self-correction which we 
 must foster by every means at our command. One 
 way of doing this is to take for class discussion 
 certain typical mistakes running through a batch of 
 papers ; to give a few special exercises on this 
 common error, and then hand round the papers of 
 the batch for class-correction, expecting that the 
 class will discuss the errors and correct them neatly 
 in the margin as the teacher would do." 
 
 By all the devices at the teacher's command chil- 
 dren should be encouraged to take pride in their 
 work, even in the formal and mechanical parts of it. 
 But criticism is not a more valuable means than 
 wise commendation. Anything that conduces to 
 self-help — the use of dictionaries and reference 
 books, originality in thought expression, the habit 
 of recalling and applying earlier rules and principles 
 — should be encouraged and rewarded. In all 
 respects a higher standard of excellence can be set 
 up in grammar schools than in lower grades. This 
 
y8 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 should be such, both in form and thought, as to 
 demand strong and serious effort and command the 
 entire respect of the children. 
 
 In order to establish common standards of good 
 language work in all the studies it would be a 
 wholesome thing if each teacher in geography, his- 
 tory, and science, at somewhat regular intervals, 
 perhaps once a month, should require a carefully 
 written paper in that branch, and should set up the 
 same requirements for neat and accurate language as 
 in the language lesson itself. This would require that 
 each teacher be an expert in language training and 
 well acquainted with the aims and standards set up 
 in the language work proper. Such a plan would 
 establish a more definite standard of achievement 
 for all studies. In addition to other advantages 
 such language tests would reveal to each teacher 
 the weak points of his previous teaching more 
 clearly than almost any other device. 
 
 REGULATIVES IN LANGUAGE 
 
 General 
 
 i. A vital experience based upon contact with 
 the world or upon a strong interest in important 
 
METHOD IN LANGUAGE LESSONS 79 
 
 studies is the only thing that can give a child a 
 compelling motive for language expression. 
 
 Even formal language exercises may find a mo- 
 tive in the spontaneous efforts of the children for 
 expression. 
 
 2. The class-room standard of excellence in lan- 
 guage must be high enough to require a strong 
 effort. Constant watchfulness in the kindly correc- 
 tion of chief mistakes is more reasonable and effec- 
 tive than a perfect standard of excellence rigorously 
 enforced. 
 
 4. The teachers in the grades of a school should 
 work together by gathering data and determining 
 the classes of common errors made, by holding con- 
 ferences to establish common aims and plans of 
 executing the whole course of study as laid out. 
 
 Primary Grades 
 
 1. Imitating the teacher's free movements in 
 writing at the board, children should be encouraged 
 to write simple words and sentences in a large, full 
 hand. 
 
 2. As far as possible, the first board and seat 
 work in language should be done under the imme- 
 diate supervision- of the teacher. 
 
80 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 3. Even in the first grade the correct forms of 
 pronouns, of simple verbs, and adjectives may be 
 inculcated by kindly suggestion and practice. 
 
 4. The oral story and reproduction work afford 
 numberless opportunities for assimilating into the 
 child's speech a rich variety of idiomatic phrases. 
 
 5. Written work in early grades should be made 
 the free outlet to natural expression and spon- 
 taneous activity and should lead up gradually to 
 great ease in the later use of written language. 
 
 Intermediate Grades 
 
 1. The framework of speech and all the varied 
 forms of sentence clause and phrase are most 
 forcibly inculcated in the great thought studies 
 that prepare for the language lessons proper. 
 
 2. Before writing, children should often be al- 
 lowed to give a brief oral reproduction of the 
 topics, with care as to correct language. 
 
 3. At recess or at some previous time, see that 
 paper, pads, pencils, or pens and ink, are in readi- 
 ness. Distribute these materials promptly accord- 
 ing to some definite plan. Often much time is 
 wasted. 
 
METHOD IN LANGUAGE LESSONS 8 1 
 
 4. Before writing, give a few plain directions 
 what points are for special notice ; remind the 
 children of one or two common errors in recent 
 lessons. Where necessary, call attention to diffi- 
 cult names or words involved in the lesson, writing 
 them on the board, and pointing out the special 
 difficulties. 
 
 5. While the children are writing, let the teacher 
 pass quietly arriong them, quickly noting and cor- 
 recting errors, and using the board to show correct 
 forms. Only an active and wide-awake teacher can 
 hold the pupils to a steady effort. Otherwise there 
 is much carelessness and waste. 
 
 Carelessness and slovenliness in writing, spell- 
 ing, and markings can be corrected in all cases 
 if the teacher is vigorous and persistent. 
 
 6. For written board work similar care is neces- 
 sary. Let the children use erasers sparingly, and 
 if necessary only by special permission. They 
 should obey orders promptly and together at board 
 work and in class movements. 
 
 7. In the correction of board work children 
 should be encouraged to acuteness in detecting 
 their own and each other's errors. But prevent 
 them from using time in trivial criticisms. 
 
82 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 8. Even when the teacher must be occupied 
 with instructing another class, it is often possible 
 to secure excellent board or seat work in language. 
 The language books are of much service in this 
 kind of lesson. 
 
 9. In third and fourth grades, when first learn- 
 ing to build sentences into connected discourse, 
 children are helped by blackboard exercises. Sen- 
 tences furnished by the children from some fa- 
 miliar story or description may be discussed, revised, 
 and written on the board ; the proper use of con- 
 necting words can be shown and the breaking up 
 of the thought into distinct sentences illustrated. 
 Three or four sentences may be thus worked out 
 and placed on the board by the teacher. After 
 erasure the children may try to reproduce the ideas 
 in writing. 
 
 10. A few at least of the papers handed in 
 should be carefully corrected, and should after- 
 ward be discussed in class. The chief kinds of 
 error should be plainly pointed out and the cor- 
 rected forms illustrated on the board. Children 
 pay little or no attention to corrected papers un- 
 less they are openly discussed in the class. Atten- 
 tion may be called to some of the best papers. 
 
METHOD IN LANGUAGE LESSONS 83 
 
 Occasionally careless papers should be rewritten 
 after definite criticism. 
 
 11. Written language exercises should be based 
 frequently upon lessons previously mastered in 
 literature, geography, history, and science. The 
 outline of such previous topics forms an excellent 
 ground plan for connected written work. 
 
 12. Have a special aim for children in each 
 lesson. It may be correct paragraphing, or capi- 
 talizing, or form and address of a letter, or correct 
 usage in certain irregular verbs, or neatness and 
 correctness in spelling and writing, or clear and 
 connected narrative and description, or the treat- 
 ment of homonyms, or quotations and their mark- 
 ings. But in emphasizing a special aim former 
 injunctions should not be forgotten. 
 
 13. Each teacher is responsible for maintaining 
 the standards set up in all the earlier grades and 
 for keeping in mind those larger aims which 
 stretch through the whole school course. 
 
 14. Success depends upon the mastery and 
 steady application of a few requirements, upon 
 constantly reviewing and keeping in mind the 
 rules of work previously given. 
 
84 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 Grammar Grades {Sixth y Seventh, and Eighth) 
 
 i. Formal grammar should not usurp the leader- 
 ship in language work in grammar grades. Mas- 
 tery and use of good English should remain the 
 controlling aim. 
 
 2. The language studies should spring out of 
 the rich thought of grammar school studies, and 
 again find application in them. 
 
 3. In these grades it is necessary to provide in 
 language lessons for a well-planned introduction of 
 the children to the uses of the dictionary, to its 
 system of markings, abbreviations, lists, and appen- 
 dices ; likewise the cyclopaedias and other refer- 
 ence materials. If children are taught to use the 
 dictionary and reference books with ease and in- 
 telligence, they acquire the power and the habit 
 of self-help, a thing of the greatest value both 
 now and for the future. 
 
 4. There should be worked out and illustrated 
 in language lessons the simple rules for spelling, 
 punctuation, capitalization, paragraphing, the use of 
 pronouns and irregular verbs, the agreement of 
 subject and predicate, and the definition of the 
 kinds of sentences. The results of these discus- 
 
METHOD IN LANGUAGE LESSONS 85 
 
 sions, in the form of simple rules, with attendant 
 illustrations, should be kept in some permanent 
 form by the children. 
 
 5. It is the custom in some schools to adopt some 
 plan of preserving specimens of each child's work 
 through the term or year. Composition books in 
 which some exercises are written may be carefully 
 used and preserved, or the teacher may file some of 
 the papers for reference by parents and teachers. 
 
 6. Throughout intermediate and grammar grades 
 the technical terms of grammar, as subject, predicate, 
 adjective, verb, modifier, clause, preposition, tense, 
 etc., should be used, when needed to explain the 
 thought like other words of language, but without 
 precise definition. In this manner the children 
 may become acquainted with the chief elements of 
 grammar before they are technically defined and 
 classified. 
 
 7. The study of grammar in seventh and eighth 
 grades, if it gathers up the fruitage of earlier lan- 
 guage studies and usages, is a means of recalling, 
 organizing, and rationalizing a large part of the 
 strictly formal and conventional work of earlier years. 
 
 8. In grammar the sentence is the starting-point 
 and goal. Applying the inductive method to the 
 
86 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 sentence as the primary unit of thought, we natu- 
 rally work out the chief classes of sentences, then 
 the chief modes of structure and modification. 
 
 9. For older children a knowledge of a few lead- 
 ing principles of grammar enables them to give an 
 intelligent reason for correct forms and usages. But 
 the endless classifications, exceptions, and variations 
 merely darken counsel with words, and are a source 
 of needless vexation. 
 
 10. One mode of appealing to a natural interest 
 in composition is found in encouraging children to 
 write upon topics in which they are individually 
 interested. 
 
 11. Composition should be self-expression, as man- 
 ual training, drawing, and music often are. In its 
 very nature composition demands freedom, origi- 
 nality, invention. 
 
 12. The teacher should be skilful in bringing to 
 light interesting problems in history, geography, etc., 
 which may stimulate children to fruitful reference 
 studies in preparation for compositions. 
 
 13. Steadily and quietly under the leadership of 
 a thoughtful teacher, children should acquire the 
 ability to work out a composition based upon a 
 strong and well-articulated series of leading topics. 
 
METHOD IN LANGUAGE LESSONS 8? 
 
 14. Grammar school pupils, especially boys, are 
 disposed to throw off careless and unsightly papers. 
 They should be quietly and firmly held to neat and 
 well-written paper work. 
 
 15. Systematic and tactful correction of errors is 
 needful as in earlier years. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 Function of the Teacher in Language 
 
 To be a good teacher o\ Language in the element- 
 arv schools is to satisfy a large variety oi difficult 
 
 standards of excellence. It suggests a wide range 
 of ripened scholarship and of social cultivation in 
 favorable surroundings. 
 
 A clear conception of the chief aim of language 
 studies and of the necessary means of working it out 
 
 must be assumed. This alone can save one from a 
 large amount of wasted effort and of misdirection of 
 
 children. 
 
 From the standpoint of the needs of children the 
 teacher should possess a decided literary training 
 and an active appreciation of main- forms oi good 
 reading. The teacher's own taste and enthusiasm 
 for writers cannot fail to awaken and stimulate 
 children. In the use of literature as a basis for 
 language work these qualities are of prime im- 
 portance. 
 
 It is necessary for an instructor to be very sensi- 
 
 88 
 
FUNCTION OF THE TEACHER IN LANGUAGE 89 
 
 tive to bad English so that he cannot overlook such 
 defects. Mis conscience should not become blunted 
 by bad schoolroom practice, but he should perpetu- 
 ally react against ill-usage in speech. Imt allied to 
 
 this should be an equal sensitiveness to the feelings 
 of the children so that ho will make corrections with 
 tact. To combine these two things, to be alert to all 
 mistakes, and not to allow them to pass unchal- 
 lenged, and yet to be charitable and considerate 
 toward the children, is a high ideal for the teacher's 
 attainment. 
 
 The teacher must needs be very careful and cor- 
 rect in his own Speech, clear and accurate in pro- 
 nunciation and in the choice use of words, that is, in 
 both full knowledge and in manifold, skilful execu- 
 tion. And yet he should be natural and easy, not 
 stiff and pedantic. Children are very sensitive and 
 stubborn about any show work. The teacher's treat- 
 ment must be easy, natural, and forcible to be effec- 
 tive and to inspire imitation.. 
 
 The breadth of equipment needful to a language 
 teacher is easily seen by surveying (1) the breadth 
 of the region from which he draws his language 
 topics, in literature, history, nature study, geog- 
 raphy, manual arts, etc. He must be able to carry 
 
90 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 over the interest and spirit of these varied lessons 
 into the Language exercises and thus vitalize them ; 
 (2) the great variety of exercises involved in lan- 
 guage lessons themselves, including composition, 
 letter-writing, paraphrases, language drills on in- 
 correct uses, grammar proper, spelling, writing, and 
 dictionary work. There may be added to these 
 the home life and experiences of the children, which 
 the teacher must counteract and modify. 
 
 The difficulty of this work is still further seen 
 in the fact that the teacher must be consistent, 
 must apply in all his own constant use of language 
 the rules and requirements set up, and what is still 
 more difficult must insist upon a similar application 
 in the work of pupils. This makes language one 
 of the most directly practical of all studies. In 
 every lesson we pass over from things learned to 
 things used, and that not merely in the language 
 lesson, but also in all other studies and exercises of 
 the programme. 
 
 A broad view of the entire course of study 
 through all the grades is a part of the teacher's 
 equipment and that not in a superficial or theoretic 
 way, but for the mastery and use of its resources 
 in daily lessons. A teacher needs in this work an 
 
FUNCTION OF THE TEACHER IN LANGUAliK 91 
 
 unusual endowment of the power to interest chil- 
 dren and to inspire them with confidence. Many 
 children are extremely diffident in public recitation, 
 others seem to be naturally defective on the language 
 side. Patience and kindliness combined with vigor 
 and firmness are in great demand. 
 
 During the language recitation an unusual alert- 
 ness and activity are required of the teacher, 
 especially in written language at the blackboard or 
 when children are working at their desks. 
 
 Much care should be taken in assigning the 
 written lessons, warning against persistent errors, 
 reviewing difficult words, calling to mind previous 
 rules of spelling, punctuation, and correct usage. 
 While the pupils are writing, they should be held 
 to a prompt and steady attention to their tasks, 
 trained to neatness and care in written work, cor- 
 rected in their defects, and held to a high standard 
 of performance. 
 
 The language studies require from the teacher 
 a large amount of originality and power of adapta- 
 tion, in properly correlating the chief studies with 
 the language lessons and in making such modifica- 
 tions of the course of language work as are needed 
 to suit the local needs. No course of study can 
 
or SPECIAL METHOD IX LANGUAGE 
 
 exactly se lessons, especially in such a 
 
 way bis to correlate with all the other studies. 
 
 Perhaps the si of all difficulties is found 
 
 in keeping up such a steady, consistent, and well- 
 planned ".. development through the grades 
 that old lessons are constantly reviewed and incor- 
 porated into practice. : rect usages 01 Lght 
 are persistently remembered and applied till firm 
 habits of correct speech are established. 
 
 In a graded school it is advisable thai teachers 
 from all the grades should meet together from time 
 to time to consult as to plans for a continuous 
 improvement in language throughout all the grades, 
 to make out lists of common errors, to hud ways 
 of mutual assistance, and to secure unity and 
 harmony of purpose in all the language exercises. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 Language Books and Grammars 
 
 LANGUAGE books in various scries are now 
 extensively used as a means of conducting Language 
 
 exercises. 
 
 While they do not fully answer the purposes of 
 a first-class plan of conducting language studies, they 
 seem to be a necessity. It is desirable, therefore, 
 that we should state the strong points and the weak 
 points of language books. To the credit of the 
 best of these series we may say: — 
 
 i. They make a liberal use of our best standard 
 literature as centres tor the grouping of language 
 lessons. For example, such are the myths, ''The 
 Odyssey," "King Arthur," -Hiawatha," " Barefoot 
 Boy," "The Children's Hour," "Rip Van Winkle," 
 and many other longer and shorter poems or stories. 
 These selections are such also as are regularly used 
 in many schools as reading material. Nature study 
 and history lessons, biographies of poets, artists, 
 and statesmen are likewise used. These are very 
 
 93 
 
94 5F U MET] ) □ a I LNGI ' 
 
 worthy materials ar c boon caretulh worked 
 
 up . .,: he .> 
 
 -. There arc - - rated through these 
 
 o cai - . . s upon the correct use 
 pronouns, irregulai verbs, and ot i arms c 
 misuse 
 
 3. Th< so sreises in lettei 
 writing, c j siness forms, abbreviations, 
 
 is and rule- . : ca and p 
 
 tual These art iis tsable in an] plan of 
 
 language work. 
 
 4. So far as - elhng, p 
 
 usage, - . be reduced 
 
 to rule, these are ck 
 
 ley have been liberally illustrated and worked 
 ductivery. 
 
 5. The .'. of treating these various topics 
 is partly s - tted 
 by notes designed for the teacher's bene 
 
 o. The ks are of g benefit to 
 
 inexperienced teachers (as voi are\ and 
 
 ble them to carry on such lessons on some 
 
 definite and consistent plan, which without a book 
 
 would be impossible, 
 
 7, The language book is used extensively bi the 
 
LANGUAGE BOOKS AND GRAMMARS o; 
 
 children for scat work, copying, filling blanks, study- 
 ing lists, working out indicated exercises, and pro 
 paring lessons (rules and definitions) for recital. 
 
 S. In the best of these series a somewhat con- 
 sistent and steady advance in language work with 
 constant review of earlier lessons is provided for. 
 
 Some of the weak points in the language books 
 may he stated as follows : — 
 
 I. Many lessons are included in these language 
 hooks which are wholly unnecessary. They often 
 deal with topics where there is no chance for a 
 child to make mistakes, as for instance in the com- 
 mon use of adjectives and prepositions. As Mr. 
 Chubb says, they "insult the child's intelligence by 
 trivial and uninteresting exercises." They should 
 not be mere busy work in writing words and phrases 
 and other exercises which have no pronounced 
 motive. It would not be an exaggeration to say that 
 half the lessons in some books are of this hackneyed 
 and colorless sort. In using such books they can be 
 best omitted. We have too many important and 
 urgent duties in a school to waste time upon trivial 
 exercises. 
 
 e. At the same time lessons drawn from the other 
 regular studies are lacking. History, geography, 
 
96 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 and nature study should be well represented in the 
 language work. To omit this vital connection be- 
 tween studies is to fall into dull routine and formal 
 exercises. When we have such an abundance of 
 these vital topics pressing for acceptance, it is foolish 
 to select other trivial and unrelated matters. This 
 difficulty can be overcome (i) by such a well- 
 planned arrangement of topics in all studies as will 
 encourage a proper correlation, and (2) by greater 
 attention and thoughtfulness in teachers in efforts to 
 correlate studies as at present arranged. 
 
 3. In a regular use of language books there is 
 danger of too much seat and mechanical work. It 
 is an easy way to keep children busy, and it has this 
 merit in a crowded school. But unless the tasks 
 require intelligence and care and are closely super- 
 vised, the results are poor and ineffective for improv- 
 ing language. 
 
 4. Many of the language books for the grades are 
 infected with the desire to teach grammar and to 
 develop grammatical principles. It would be wiser, 
 we think, to let grammar shift for itself, and to throw 
 the whole emphasis upon acquiring a fluent com- 
 mand of good English. In the seventh or eighth 
 grade, or in both, it may be well to work out the few 
 
LANGUAGE hooks a\p GRAMMARS o # ~ 
 
 Leading ideas and principles of grammar. But some 
 of the Language books give a complete and almost 
 exhaustive grammar for those grades, [n our 
 opinion this complete system is wholly uncalled for. 
 This whole grammatical routine Is an Inheritance 
 from Latin, it has no proper application to English, 
 
 which is the opposite of Latin in its intlootion.il 
 
 poverty, English cannot be mastered from the 
 inflectional standpoint as can Latin, and it is 
 questionable whether or not this is a good method 
 
 even in Latin. Hut to impose this foreign and un- 
 natural machinery upon modern English is irrational 
 and blind, 
 
 Ln : ;iish syntax can best be mastered for practical 
 purposes by absorbing the modes oi expression com- 
 mon in good writers and in conversation. As Mrs. 
 
 Cooley says in the preface to her " Language 
 
 Lessons," "Literature silently moulds the forms o( 
 
 thought." The mastery oi an uninfected, but flex- 
 ible language Like English can only be gained by 
 
 direct contact with its modes of utterance in litera- 
 ture and common speech. 
 
 5. The language books are sometimes not sup 
 plied with full lists of irregular verbs (with parts), of 
 wrong expressions to be corrected, of homonyms, oi 
 
98 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 abbreviated and contracted forms such as the teacher 
 may need for constant reference and review. The 
 older children also could use these for reference. If 
 the language book could be used more as a reference 
 book, and as merely suggestive of topics, and be well 
 supplied with compendia of correct forms for refer- 
 ence, it would serve better the purpose of many 
 thoughtful teachers. 
 
 6. The chief general criticism of language books 
 as a basis for the study of English is that they inevi- 
 tably set the language apart, upon an independent 
 footing. After all, language is vitalized only by its 
 contact with other studies and life interests. To 
 keep up this close connection with other studies and 
 yet not lose the emphasis of drills upon special 
 topics is the difficult thing. 
 
 Where schools are supplied with experienced 
 teachers who can use language books with discre- 
 tion, frequently substituting appropriate lessons from 
 other studies for those given in the book, it is pos- 
 sible to make an excellent use of language manuals. 
 
 As yet there does not seem to be a strong con- 
 sensus of opinion as to the place of grammar in the 
 elementary school (that is, below the High School). 
 We can only express a personal opinion. 
 
LANGUAGE BOOKS AND GRAMMARS 99 
 
 We can afford to exclude grammar as such from 
 the first six years of the common school. Such 
 rules for spelling, plural formation, abbreviations, 
 and correct usage as are worked out are merely 
 devices for quicker mastery of difficulties. 
 
 The use of technical grammatical terms in these 
 grades can be introduced, so far as teachers find it 
 useful, without formal definition, as in other common 
 words in reading, history, and geography. It is 
 necessary to insist upon this informality as teachers 
 drift so easily into a useless routine of definitions 
 and keep it up all through the grades. The em- 
 phasis in all these early years should be upon the 
 common and correct uses of language. 
 
 When in the seventh and eighth grades we begin to 
 study grammar, it should be a very simple, broad sur- 
 vey of its leading classes and principles. We believe 
 that in the seventh and eighth grades also the main 
 emphasis should be not upon grammar, but upon 
 composition, upon the study and application of spe- 
 cial cases of correct usage, upon drills and exercises 
 closely allied to the other studies. There will be a 
 persistent review of all previous language lessons for 
 the purpose of establishing right habits. Grammar, 
 however, is able to throw considerable light upon 
 
 L. of % 
 
IOO SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 these usages, and the children in the eighth grade 
 are old enough, we think, to begin to discover these 
 rational relations between common practice and the 
 laws of language. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 Illustrative Lessons 
 
 The use of singulars and plurals with is and are and 
 with other verbs 
 
 There are two very common words which give 
 boys and girls much trouble to use correctly. They 
 are is and are. Even grown folks often fail to use 
 these words properly. 
 
 In sentences they are used with other words and 
 the difficulty is in knowing with which words to use 
 them. 
 
 We will therefore make a study of the words with 
 which is and are may be properly used. 
 
 i. In the story of the " Lion and the Fox" I cor- 
 rected several mistakes as follows : — 
 
 I know a farm-yard where there are two young 
 lambs. 
 
 The wolf and the fox are running. 
 
 The dishes are broken. 
 
 Point out in these sentences where you made the 
 mistake. 
 
 IOI 
 
102 
 
 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 In a previous lesson we learned that a word may 
 mean one or more than one, as book, books, horse, 
 horses. Give other examples. Flower, flowers. 
 
 2. In the following sentences notice where is and 
 are are used : — 
 
 The tree is small. 
 The flower is sweet. 
 The bird is singing. 
 The girl is quiet. 
 
 The trees are small. 
 The flowers are sweet. 
 The birds are singing. 
 The girls are quiet. 
 
 In our first reader you may hunt out on page 26 
 where is and are can be found. 
 
 The cap is pretty. My papa is here. 
 
 The boy is running. There are our men. 
 
 He is not in the house. Where are the men ? 
 There is the horse. 
 
 Let us change is to are in the following sen- 
 tences : — 
 
 The cap is pretty. 
 The cart is here. 
 He is not in. 
 There is the house. 
 My papa is here. 
 There is our man. 
 Where is the boy ? 
 
 The caps 
 The carts 
 
 They 
 
 There 
 
 pretty, 
 here. 
 
 - not in. 
 
 — the houses. 
 
 Our papas here. 
 
 There our men. 
 
 Where 
 
 the boys ? 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 103 
 
 At this point give a number of the simplest 
 examples in which the children supply the corre- 
 sponding form, e.g. — 
 
 The flower is sweet. ? 
 
 The bird is singing. 
 
 ? 
 
 ? The horses are drinking. 
 
 The man is resting. ? 
 
 The tree is growing. ? 
 
 ? The leaves are growing. 
 
 The star is shining. ? 
 
 ? The girls are reading. 
 
 The river is flowing. ? 
 
 (The temptation for the teacher at this juncture is 
 to push the children prematurely to a rule to the 
 effect that is is used with words that mean one, and 
 are with words where more than one is meant. But 
 in first or second grade, children will hardly discover 
 this rule for themselves, and there is no advantage in 
 forcing it upon them. The main thing is that the 
 instinct for the correct form be established, because, 
 as the children say, "It sounds better.") 
 
 In the third or fourth grade with more language ex- 
 perience and maturity the subject can be taken up again, 
 the previous work reviewed, examples multiplied, and 
 
104 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 a simple statement worked out that are is used with 
 plurals and is with the singular, as follows: — 
 
 The field is green. The fields are green. 
 
 The robin is hopping. The robins are hopping. 
 The lady is singing. The ladies are singing. 
 
 Give other examples, and let the children supply still 
 others. 
 
 3. Examine these sentences and notice the words 
 used with is, as field, robin, lady, and then those used 
 with are> fields, robins, ladies, etc. What is the 
 difference in these two lists ? 
 
 4. This comparison leads to a conclusion, which 
 may be simply stated by the children, and any 
 reasonably accurate statement should be accepted, or 
 modified where necessary. 
 
 " Is is used where one is meant and are where two 
 or more are meant." 
 
 5. There are several ways by which the truth of 
 this conclusion can be tested and further applied till 
 the various difficulties in use are overcome. 
 
 (a) 
 
 The cow grazing. The cows . 
 
 The fly crawling. The flies ■ . 
 
 The horses drinking. The horse . 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 105 
 
 (b) Let the children make up examples giving both 
 forms; e.g. The tree is growing. The trees are 
 growing. 
 
 (c) There is and there are in sentences. 
 
 There is danger near. 
 There are lions in the way. 
 
 id) Hunting out the uses of is and are in the 
 readers and other books. 
 
 (e) The correct use of these forms in compositions 
 and all written work. 
 
 (/) The detection of violations of usage in oral 
 work and out of school. 
 
 The use of was and were with singular and plural 
 subjects can be illustrated and applied in a similar 
 manner. Mistakes in the use of these are quite as 
 common as with is and are ; as, Mary and Anne was 
 in the garden. You was told to return. 
 
 Has been and have been often give rise to a similar 
 error ; as, John and James has been to school. 
 
 Irregular Verbs 
 
 I have noticed that in your last written lesson 
 several in the class made a wrong use of the words 
 broke and spoke. 
 
IC>6 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 The corrected form of the sentences is as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 The girl has spoken the truth. 
 The window-pane was not broken. 
 
 These are called irregular verbs, and we will 
 consider their proper use. 
 
 i. You may first make sentences with the words 
 broke and spoke. 
 
 " My father spoke to me." "What has your father 
 done ? " " He has spoke to me." " That sounds 
 wrong. Can you correct it ? " " My father has 
 spoken to me." (Yes.) 
 
 2. We will now observe more closely how these 
 two words are used. 
 
 Here are two sticks; tell me what I do to them. 
 "You break them." (After breaking them.) "What 
 did I do to them ?" " You broke the sticks." (Yes.) 
 
 " Tell us now what I have done." " You have 
 broken the sticks." " We have now used the word 
 break in three different forms. What are they ? " 
 
 Break broke broken 
 
 I break the sticks. 
 I broke the sticks. 
 I have broken the sticks. 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 107 
 
 In the same way give sentences with the three 
 forms of speak. 
 
 The king speaks, The king spoke, and The king 
 has spoken. 
 
 3. You will notice that while these are called 
 irregular verbs, they are very much alike. 
 
 Speak spoke spoken 
 
 Break broke broken 
 
 You may recall also that the mistakes in their 
 use were alike ; namely, the use of spoke for spoken, 
 and broke for broken, and it will be easier to 
 remember them together. 
 
 4. By an examination of the mistakes you made in 
 the use of these words you may tell which form you 
 used incorrectly. You wrote " The stick was broke " 
 and " The boy has spoke." What error do you need 
 to avoid ? 
 
 Do not use spoke for spoken or broke for broken. 
 Especially is this the case with the third form, 
 with has and have. 
 
 5. The power to use these forms correctly may 
 be tested by further examples. 
 
 (a) Fill the blanks. The horse was well by 
 
 his master. The boy said he had the truth. 
 
I08 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 (b) Make sentences containing broke, has spoken, 
 break, had broken. 
 
 {e) Further observation in the use of these words 
 in the class room. 
 
 It will be of interest in the future not only to 
 notice the correct use of these two words, but to be 
 on the lookout to see if there are other words, of 
 the same class, in which a similar error occurs ; e.g. 
 steal. Make three sentences. 
 
 The robber steals the watch. 
 The robber stole the watch. 
 The robber has stolen the watch. 
 
 Steal stole stolen 
 
 By observing words in the readers and in other 
 books, and in oral speech, you may notice other 
 irregular verbs of this class. A short list is here 
 given for the benefit of the teacher : — 
 
 choose 
 
 chose 
 
 chosen 
 
 drive 
 
 drove 
 
 driven 
 
 forget 
 
 forgot 
 
 forgotten 
 
 freeze 
 
 froze 
 
 frozen 
 
 ride 
 
 rode 
 
 ridden 
 
 write 
 
 wrote 
 
 written 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 
 
 IO9 
 
 shake 
 
 shook 
 
 shaken 
 
 rise 
 
 rose 
 
 risen 
 
 forsake 
 
 forsook 
 
 forsaken 
 
 smite 
 
 smote 
 
 smitten 
 
 tread 
 
 trod 
 
 trodden 
 
 While these forms are not exactly alike, they 
 are almost uniform, and the error made in their 
 use is the same in all. 
 
 By keeping the children on the track of this group 
 of words during a term or more till the correct usage 
 becomes established, a frequent source of error is 
 shut off. 
 
 Another group of irregular verbs that may be briefly 
 studied in the same manner is the following : — 
 
 bring 
 
 brought 
 
 brought 
 
 buy 
 
 bought 
 
 bought 
 
 catch 
 
 caught 
 
 caught 
 
 think 
 
 thought 
 
 thought 
 
 teach 
 
 taught 
 
 taught 
 
 beseech 
 
 besought 
 
 besought 
 
 fight 
 
 fought 
 
 fought 
 
 seek 
 
 sought 
 
 sought 
 
 Not much time need be spent on this group as 
 there is not much chance for error in its use. 
 
110 
 
 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 Another group of words which is a common 
 source of error and which requires careful atten- 
 tion can well be worked out on the above plan. 
 The group is as follows : — 
 
 blow 
 
 blew 
 
 blown 
 
 know 
 
 knew 
 
 known 
 
 throw 
 
 threw 
 
 thrown 
 
 grow 
 
 grew 
 
 grown 
 
 slay 
 
 slew 
 
 slain 
 
 fly 
 
 flew 
 
 flown 
 
 bear 
 
 bore 
 
 borne 
 
 tear 
 
 tore 
 
 torn 
 
 swear 
 
 swore 
 
 sworn 
 
 Still another group that may be gradually worked 
 out as a group is as follows : — 
 
 drink 
 
 drank 
 
 drunk 
 
 sink 
 
 sank 
 
 sunk 
 
 sing 
 
 sang 
 
 sung 
 
 shrink 
 
 shrank 
 
 shrunk 
 
 cling 
 
 clung 
 
 clung 
 
 fling 
 
 flung 
 
 flung 
 
 hang 
 
 hung 
 
 hung or hanged 
 
 sling 
 
 slung 
 
 slung 
 
 swing 
 
 swung 
 
 swung 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS III 
 
 There are also a few of the most common irregu- 
 lar verbs which are so irregular that they must be 
 treated separately ; as the verbs, 
 
 am was been 
 
 come came come 
 
 do did done 
 
 eat ate eaten 
 
 go went g one 
 
 but wherever groups of similar mistakes can be 
 detected, there will be a decided economy of effort, 
 and the searching out of the words belonging to a 
 group is a stimulative exercise for children. 
 
 One caution, however, is necessary. Any one of 
 these groups should be worked out in connection 
 with common mistakes which are arising in various 
 studies from day to day. It is not our intention 
 that such groups should be worked out wholly inde- 
 pendent of what is going on in the regular lessons, 
 but in close relation to them and in fact built up 
 out of the immediate language needs of the children. 
 
 It is a curious thing that these natural and simple 
 groupings of the irregularities in our language have 
 been so little regarded in our teaching. It has 
 been quite usual to treat each irregular verb as a 
 
\\2 SPECIAL METHOD IX LANGUAGE 
 
 i 
 whollv isolated lesson, and if there was any connec- 
 tion with other similar forms, the children were 
 often left to find it out for themselves, without 
 guidance. 
 
 A plan similar to that worked out above has been 
 applied to the irregularities of plural formations, to 
 adjectives and adverbs alarly formed, and in 
 
 some degree to pronouns, as will bo illustrated 
 later. 
 
 It is b) taking' advantage of these short-cuts and 
 economical groupings of difficulties that we may 
 deliver the children to a considerable extent from 
 that multitude of single items of knowledge, which 
 threatens to overwhelm them. 
 
 Pi . ns 
 
 In the use oi personal pronouns there arc a few 
 very common errors that should be corrected early 
 
 in a child's life and the corrected phraseology worked 
 into habit. 
 
 The early stories told by the teacher and repro- 
 duced by the children can do most to establish these 
 habits in little children. 
 
 With primary and intermediate children rules are 
 of no value, and the correct forms must be estab- 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 113 
 
 lished by attention to errors and frequent speeial 
 exercises, somewhat as follows : — 
 
 Some of the most common words like /, me, he, 
 we, us, kim, and our, called pronouns, are often used 
 wrongly. For example, one of the girls wished to 
 say, " Mary and I were at the party," using me in- 
 stead of /. One of the boys yesterday used him for 
 he in this sentence, " He and John were fishing." 
 
 We will notice the correct usage of such words 
 in sentences. 
 
 1. Give me some sentences using / or me. Edith 
 says, " John and Mary and me were late at school." 
 Instead of me use / and repeat the sentence. Other 
 sentences are offered and approved or corrected 
 by the teacher. The correct word emphasized by 
 underlining. 
 
 2. I will now give a few examples. 
 John and / were studying. 
 
 It was Lizzie and / who took the fruit. 
 
 In such sentences me is often wrongly used 
 instead of /. 
 
 The word me, however, is a correct word when 
 used in the right place. 
 
 Father told John and vie to bring in the wood. 
 The books were bought for Elizabeth and me. 
 
114 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 In these cases / is often wrongly used for me. 
 
 3. It will be interesting to see whether by compar- 
 ing these sentences and by giving others, the 
 children will discover that in the first case the error 
 lies in using me for / and in the second case in using 
 / for me. With younger children we cannot work 
 out a rule for the use of / and me that will be of 
 service to them. 
 
 As in the case of irregular verbs a feeling in favor 
 of the correct form can be established by repetitions 
 and usage. The grammatical explanation is of no 
 use before the grammar grades. 
 
 4. Various applications in sentences should follow. 
 (a) The use of / as part of the subject in sen- 
 tences ; as, Henry and I are ready. 
 
 {b) In predicates. It was Mary and I. 
 
 (c) Sentences in the readers are pointed out 
 where / and mc are correctly used ; perhaps copied. 
 
 (d) Sentences with blanks for / and mc are given ; 
 as, The candy was for Jane and . 
 
 In addition to the use of / and me a lesson should 
 be given in similar wise upon the use of Jic and him ; 
 another upon we and us. 
 
 The correct use of who and wJiom is worked out 
 by a similar series of illustrations. 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 115 
 
 An interesting and useful lesson for children is 
 found also in changing pronouns from singular to 
 plural forms, as follows : — 
 
 My desk is filled with my books. 
 Our desks are filled with our books. 
 The robin was feeding its young. 
 The robins were feeding their young. 
 I send my money to him. 
 We send our money to them. 
 
 No time should be wasted in drilling upon forms 
 of expression in the use of pronouns or other words 
 where mistakes are not likely to be made. No child 
 will say " He told we," or " He told I to do it." 
 Language lessons should be strictly limited to 
 those words and expressions which demand drills 
 so as to overcome positive faults, or what may easily 
 become such. 
 
 Homonyms 
 
 Homonyms are regularly met with in all the 
 grades, and frequent lessons are required to master 
 them. 
 
 They naturally interest the children both for their 
 spellings and meanings and for the funny mistakes 
 sometimes made by using the wrong word. 
 
Il6 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 The method of treatment is very simple. 
 
 In the first year we must meet such words as eye 
 and I ; son and sun ; to, two, and too ; meet and 
 meat; fore and four. They may be treated some- 
 what as follows : — 
 
 In your reading lessons you found two words that 
 were pronounced alike but had different meanings, and 
 often a different spelling. What were they ? Sun 
 and son. We will notice how to use them correctly. 
 
 i. Put the following sentences on the board for 
 the children to read : — 
 
 The sun rose clear this morning. 
 The clouds hid the sun. 
 The king's son was lost. 
 My son is coming home. 
 
 2. Let the children give the meaning of each 
 word with its spelling. 
 
 3. Drills upon the use of the words may be made 
 by having them printed on opposite sides of a card 
 and by calling for sentences to illustrate the two 
 forms. A word may be pronounced and the chil- 
 dren asked to make sentences illustrating one or 
 both uses. Written exercises based upon sentence- 
 making are also helpful in fixing the forms. 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 117 
 
 In this way homonyms, as they are met with in 
 the regular studies, can be handled two or three in 
 a lesson, and occasionally a review drill upon the 
 spellings and meanings of all such words previously 
 studied may be appropriate. 
 
 It is not well to anticipate the use of these words 
 by drills upon them before one or both of them 
 appear in regular lessons. 
 
 A full list of the homonyms is given in the last 
 chapter for the use of teachers. 
 
 The gradual mastery and use of abbreviations may 
 be worked out in a similar way, and applied in 
 written work. 
 
 With older children, exercises upon synonyms and 
 antonyms furnish very interesting studies for a 
 similar treatment, and the dictionary can be used to 
 good advantage in tracing out words of similar or 
 contrasted meanings. 
 
 For example, 
 
 1. Sullen, sour, ill-natured. 
 
 2. Happy, joyful, glad. 
 
 Introduction to a Composition 
 
 What story or book have you heard or read lately 
 which seemed specially interesting ? 
 
Il8 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 If it is a book or printed story, recall the title. 
 
 Explain more fully what the whole story or book 
 is about. 
 
 It may be The King of the Golden River, Sindbad 
 the Sailor, King Alfred and the Cakes, King Bruce 
 and the Spider, or some newspaper or magazine 
 story or anecdote. 
 
 If you were rewriting the story from memory, 
 could you note down first the chief parts or events. 
 
 Call for an oral statement from one of the 
 pupils giving a few main headings for his book or 
 story.. 
 
 Work out on the board three or four headings as 
 an example of an outline for the writing which is to 
 follow, for example : The Story of Siegfried. 
 
 i. His childhood at home. 
 
 2. His apprenticeship with the smith and the 
 forging of the sword. 
 
 3. His fight with the dragon. 
 
 Are there any names in your story which you may 
 not know how to spell ? 
 
 Would you like to read the story again before try- 
 ing to write upon it ? 
 
 Each of you may now make a brief outline of two 
 or three main topics in his story which he can then 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 119 
 
 write about. As soon as your outline is ready I will 
 examine it. 
 
 Pass about the class examining and revising these 
 outlines and as soon as the outline is satisfactory, set 
 each one at work upon his own written statement. 
 A complete outline of a long story is not needed, but 
 enough points for a short paper, perhaps only intro- 
 ducing the story. 
 
 It is usually advisable to warn the children against 
 two or three prevailing faults which you have 
 noticed in their recent written work, as careless- 
 ness in margins, broken and disconnected sen- 
 tences, or grammatical errors, as in the use of 
 adverbs. 
 
 The whole purpose of this preparatory work is to 
 revive an interest in some familiar subject, and to 
 point out the way so clearly that the children may 
 enter upon their writing with zeal and confidence. 
 
 A Written Lesson from an Outline in History 
 
 If the story of the trip to California from Chicago 
 in 1849 has been worked out in oral lessons in 
 history and in oral reproductions, an outline of the 
 whole should be at hand, about as follows : — 
 
 1. The discovery of gold in California. Map. 
 
120 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 2. Preparations for the journey by the young men 
 who start from Chicago in the spring of 1849. 
 
 3. Incidents on the trip from Chicago to Council 
 Bluffs on the Missouri River. 
 
 4. The march across the plains. Hunting the 
 buffalo, and affair with the Indians. 
 
 5. Crossing the Rocky Mountains at South Pass. 
 
 6. From the Green River to Salt Lake. 
 
 7. Journey across the desert and surprise by the 
 Indians. 
 
 8. Journey on foot to California and crossing the 
 Sierras. 
 
 9. Reaching the gold mines. 
 
 10. Great immigration to California in 1849 both 
 overland and by sea. 
 
 11. Results of this influx of people into Cali- 
 fornia. 
 
 In using this story and outline as the basis of com- 
 position only a part of it can be taken for a single 
 lesson, as the first three topics, or the last three, or 
 some other connected parts. 
 
 If it is required to write out the whole story as a 
 complete unit of thought, several lessons should be 
 given to its execution. If the first three topics are 
 chosen, it is helpful to have the children give a short 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 121 
 
 oral statement of the chief parts in each topic so as 
 to call them to mind preparatory to writing. 
 
 Any geographical names which may bother them 
 may be called up and written on the board ; as, Cali- 
 fornia, Mississippi, Missouri, Council Bluffs. Any 
 difficult and unusual words necessary to the story 
 may also be placed on the board and the spelling 
 noted; as, ammunition, medicine, ferry, navigable, 
 preparation, baggage, etc. 
 
 Before setting the children at the task of writing, 
 suggest some motive for excellence of work as a 
 stimulus to effort ; as, that you wish to have some of 
 the papers read at the Friday afternoon exercises, or 
 to compare with their previous papers on file, or that 
 you wish to send some of the compositions home to 
 the parents as a sample of the school work. 
 
 Having thus tried to set up a good standard and 
 to awaken an impulse to reach it, a few cautions may 
 be given how to avoid some of their recent errors in 
 composition ; e.g. : — 
 
 (a) Let each of the three topics form a distinct 
 paragraph, thus breaking up the lesson into main 
 parts. 
 
 (b) Do not make long and difficult sentences, but 
 let each one be simple and clear. This point may be 
 
122 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 illustrated from their last preceding papers, from 
 which a long and somewhat confused sentence is put 
 on the board and broken up into two or more simple 
 statements. 
 
 (c) After one full writing the geographical names 
 may be abbreviated, as, Cal., Miss., etc. 
 
 (d) Be careful of spelling and use the dictionary 
 in doubtful cases, or ask the teacher, if he is not 
 otherwise busy. 
 
 It is not well to give many cautions in a lesson 
 as they cannot be remembered. 
 
 Wherever it is possible, it is desirable that the 
 teacher give attention to the pupils while they are 
 engaged in writing these papers. In most cases 
 it is not possible because the teacher is engaged 
 with another class. But occasionally the teacher 
 may find time to supervise the writing itself. Where 
 this is possible he can encourage helpless pupils, 
 check up careless scribblers, and enforce the special 
 points to which he has just called attention. In the 
 midst of the production of compositions there are 
 excellent opportunities for showing children how to 
 use the dictionary and thus learn to help themselves. 
 
 When the papers are handed in, a good share if 
 not all should be carefully examined and judged by 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 123 
 
 the teacher. If this is too much work for the 
 teacher, the compositions might be shortened or 
 reduced in number and frequency. It is not pos- 
 sible to get good composition work without careful 
 correction and timely discussion and revision of 
 the work criticised. It is difficult to see how a 
 mere repetition of careless exercises can lead to 
 improvement. 
 
 The chief points to be enforced in criticising 
 papers are those which were emphasized as cautions 
 just before the writing began ; e.g. the paragraphing, 
 the confused sentence construction, the spelling, 
 and abbreviations. Other corrections are made, but 
 they are incidental. The blackboard should be used 
 freely both by teacher and pupils in amending the 
 sentences, words, or paragraphs which are under 
 discussion. 
 
 On the whole it seems better not to rewrite a com- 
 position, though cases doubtless arise where that 
 is necessary, as with extremely negligent children. 
 Wherever motive can be put behind the work which 
 causes the children themselves to be anxious to 
 rewrite and secure a better form, complete revision 
 is the best thing. If children are writing a letter, 
 for instance, which they are anxious to get into 
 
124 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 better form before sending, or if the essay is one 
 that the pupils wish to improve for a public reading, 
 their own impulse will lead them to the labor of 
 revision. To stimulate this kind of motive is one 
 of the great things in teaching. 
 
 Introduction to the Use of the Dictionary 
 
 In fifth and sixth grades the dictionary should 
 come into easy use by the children. A few lan- 
 guage lessons carefully devoted to teaching its use 
 are necessary. 
 
 A good opening for this sort of training is offered 
 in introducing children to a new piece of literature in 
 the reading lessons. 
 
 In the fifth grade, for example, we frequently use 
 Macaulay's " Horatius at the Bridge " for reading 
 lessons. But in the first part of the ballad the great 
 number of unfamiliar names and words interferes 
 with the reading. At this point the language lesson 
 might step in and relieve the reading by giving a 
 few exercises in dictionary work upon these diffi- 
 culties. 
 
 As a basis for such an exercise the following list 
 of words from the first ten or twelve stanzas is 
 given : — 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 
 
 125 
 
 Lars Porsena 
 
 trysting 
 
 Clusium 
 
 array 
 
 Tarquin 
 
 amain 
 
 Etruscan 
 
 hamlet 
 
 Apennine 
 
 sentinels 
 
 Volaterrae 
 
 descry ■ 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 mart 
 
 Pisae 
 
 triremes 
 
 Clitumnus 
 
 diadem 
 
 Arretium 
 
 stags 
 
 Luna 
 
 champ 
 
 Umbro 
 
 fowler 
 
 Volsinian 
 
 must 
 
 Populonia 
 
 sires 
 
 Massilia 
 
 mere 
 
 In teaching the use of the dictionary specific and 
 well-planned exercises are necessary. 
 
 Many children do not know the letters of the 
 alphabet in order, nor how to use them, when 
 learned, in tracing out words in the dictionary. 
 
 Where is the word trysting (placed on the board 
 by the teacher) found in the dictionary ? Why at 
 the last end of the book? 
 
 When t is found in the dictionary, is trysting at 
 
126 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 the beginning or toward the end of words beginning 
 with tf Not being familiar with dictionaries chil- 
 dren know little or nothing of these things. When 
 they find the word trysting, it has no marks of 
 pronunciation. It stands — try sting. Just above it 
 is the word tryst, and just after this {trist) in paren- 
 thesis. What does this mean? But the boy cannot 
 interpret trist. It is necessary to explain the dia- 
 critical marking. (It is often necessary to give a 
 series of lessons on the phonetic sounds — vowels, 
 consonants, and diphthongs — and their markings in 
 the dictionary. This should come early and in 
 connection with dictionary exercises.) 
 
 The definition in this case is " an appointment 
 or tryst." (Not very intelligible.) But below is 
 "trysting day," an arranged day of meeting. So 
 at last we have the pronunciation and the meaning. 
 
 Every step of this process of looking for the 
 meaning and pronunciation is difficult and confus- 
 ing to beginners. But under careful guidance the 
 children will soon learn to work independently. 
 
 In looking for proper names it is necessary to 
 show the children how to use the list of classical 
 and historical names in the appendix to the dic- 
 tionary. 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 12 J 
 
 Other words should be traced out in a similar 
 way, the children working under the direction of 
 the teacher. 
 
 If each child has a small dictionary, the work 
 can progress more rapidly. 
 
 The blackboard must be used freely to illustrate 
 markings, syllables, and accent. In the phonetic 
 exercises single and concert drills are valuable in 
 establishing correct pronunciations. 
 
 As in the study of Horatius so in other literary 
 products used in reading, there will be ample 
 opportunity to use the dictionary. In Irving's 
 "Rip Van Winkle" and "Sleepy Hollow," for 
 example, the style is at first difficult because of 
 unusual words and somewhat stilted phraseology. 
 Here the dictionary must be resorted to and the 
 children should be systematically trained to its use. 
 
 In composition work generally, children should 
 be steadily encouraged in the use of the dictionary, 
 as it is the best means of training them to self- 
 help and to correct habits in spelling and pronun- 
 ciation, i As much can be done in this way for 
 spelling as in spelling exercises. 
 
128 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 Derivatives 
 
 In connection with the history of language and 
 closely related to the uses of the dictionary a series 
 of lessons on the derivation of words should be 
 distributed through the grammar grades. They 
 are easily interesting to children because they offer 
 such rich and not difficult avenues of investiga- 
 tion. Prefixes and suffixes and the various turns 
 and modifications of a root-word give a whole 
 family of curious meanings. 
 
 Fortunately the simplest common Anglo-Saxon 
 and Latin root-words are those most attractive for 
 study, as head, headship, behead, headless, heady, 
 headway, headstrong, headache, headlight, head- 
 quarters, headstone, headsman, headgear. 
 
 In introducing such lessons, one or two exam- 
 ples can first be worked out by way of illustration, 
 and later the class members can be set to work on 
 different root-words to gather up the varied derivations. 
 
 For example, let us gather up the derivatives 
 of port. 
 
 i. What can you mention? Port, portable, por- 
 ter, import, importation, exportation, report, deport, 
 deportment, portal (given by class). 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 120, 
 
 How are these words formed from the original 
 port? By prefixing and adding syllables (pre- 
 fixes and suffixes). Do you know the root-word 
 and from what language it comes ? 
 
 2. The word is of Latin origin. By examining 
 the dictionary you will find the Latin porta, a 
 gate, and the Latin portarc, meaning, to carry. In 
 a Latin dictionary you will find that the original 
 root is por ; porta is an entrance way through which 
 goods are borne. 
 
 In addition to the words given above you may 
 find by further thought or by consulting the dic- 
 tionary such words as the following : portage, 
 port-hole, portly, portliness, reimport, reexport, be- 
 sides certain geographical names, as the Porte 
 (Constantinople), Oporto, Porto Rico, Port Said, 
 Portland, Newport. 
 
 3. Examine the above words to see how many 
 parts of speech are found among them ; as, port 
 (a noun), import (a verb), portly (an adjective), the 
 Porte (a proper noun), port-hole (a compound 
 noun). 
 
 Notice also the different kinds of prefixes and 
 suffixes ; as, im, reim, de, ex (both simple and com- 
 pound); -ness, -ly, -age, -ation, -able, etc. (suffixes). 
 
 K 
 
150 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 4. Similar root-words can be taken up bv the 
 different children, and the derivative words gathered 
 and classified. 
 
 For example, such words as scribe, fit, horse, 
 man, force, see, fact, habit, make, work, run, light, 
 trust, iron, talk, etc. 
 
 Such study as the above illustrates and works 
 out clearly the sources and historv of language ; 
 it teaches children to discriminate shades and 
 variations in meaning, every word is an interest- 
 ing field of investigation ; the dictionary and other 
 reference books are used and made familiar ; and 
 many important facts of grammar and correct 
 usage are suggested. 
 
 Analysis of Sentences 
 
 We have often spoken of sentences, and it is 
 worth while to find out what we mean by a sen- 
 tence and what goes to the make-up of a sen- 
 tence. 
 
 1. You may give me some examples of sen- 
 tences. (As the children furnish such expressions 
 as the following, let the teacher write them on the 
 board.) Our rose-bush is growing fast. The sun 
 is clouded. The type-writer is broken. The dan- 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS I 3 I 
 
 delions in the meadow. The horses drinking at 
 the trough. The robin sings in the maple. 
 
 Are these sentences ? Why ? How can you tell a 
 sentence ? 
 
 2. Two of the above expressions are not sentences. 
 Can you pick them out ? A sentence must express 
 a complete thought, but two of the above are incom- 
 plete. They do not make any positive statement 
 about anything. Some child may answer, " I 
 think it is ' The dandelions in the meadow.' ' Why 
 do you object to this ? It does not tell anything 
 about dandelions. Docs it not describe them as 
 "in the meadow"? Yes. But you are right, this is 
 no statement. We could as well say, " The meadow 
 dandelions," which is merely the name of something. 
 How can you change "The dandelions in the 
 meadow " into a sentence ? Tell something about 
 the dandelions. " The dandelions grow in the 
 meadow." Yes, that makes the sentence complete. 
 What other expression given above is not a complete 
 sentence ? 
 
 If the class fails to detect it, let them examine the 
 following, "The horses drinking at the well." 
 
 This is not a sentence. Make it into one. A 
 child says, " The horses are drinking at the well." 
 
[32 SPECIAL METHOD IX LANGUAGE 
 
 That is right. Why is it a sentence now ? Because 
 it tells something about the horses. 
 
 Now in the five sentences we will pick out the 
 main ideas or elements. In the first, " Our 
 rose-bush is growing fast," what are the two chief 
 ideas ? 
 
 The first is expressed by rose-bush, the second by 
 is growing. Yes, and the words our and fast are 
 merely explanatory of the main ideas. 
 
 In the sentence, " The horses are drinking at the 
 trough," there seem to be three important things, 
 (i) The horses, (2) are drinking, (3) at the trough. 
 Leave off the third part — " The horses are drinking." 
 Is this a complete sentence ? Yes. The third part, 
 at the trough, merely explains the rest of the 
 sentence. 
 
 Analyze the last sentence, "The robin sings in 
 the maple," in the same way. 
 
 Examine the following sentences from " Grand- 
 father's Chair " : — 
 
 The boat's crew proceeded to the reef of rocks. 
 
 They gazed down into the water. 
 
 Captain Phipps was troubled. 
 
 A stream of silver dollars gushed out upon the 
 deck of the vessel. 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 1 33 
 
 See if each of the above is a complete sentence 
 and tell why. 
 
 3. By comparing all the sentences given above we 
 may find that they are all alike in certain respects. 
 Each sentence has two principal parts, and without 
 one of these chief parts we fail to have a complete 
 sentence. 
 
 4. You may remember that we have sometimes 
 called these two chief parts of a sentence by a 
 familiar name. What are they ? (Subject and predi- 
 cate.) By an examination of the sentences again 
 we may detect just what we mean by a subject and 
 predicate. 
 
 Go through the sentences again and show which is 
 the subject and which the predicate in each case. 
 
 What is the relation of the subject to the predicate 
 in each case ? You notice at least that together 
 they make a complete thought, but separately they 
 do not. 
 
 What is the business of the predicate in each case 
 as related to the subject ? It tells something about 
 the subject. 
 
 The subject, on the other hand, as rose-bush, sun, 
 type-writer, dandelions, horses, and robin, is that 
 about which the predicate tells something. 
 
134 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 On the basis of these examples we may form some 
 sort of definition of a sentence ; namely, " The 
 sentence consists of a subject and predicate." And 
 joined together for what purpose ? " To express 
 a complete thought." Or we may state it thus. A 
 sentence is the expression of a complete thought by 
 means of a subject and predicate. In these sen- 
 tences we found other words besides subject and 
 predicate, and these we will discuss at a future time. 
 
 5. In the following sentences you may pick out 
 the subjects and predicates : — 
 
 Longfellow wrote " 1 liawatha." The civil war was 
 long and destructive. The early explorers were 
 hardy men. 
 
 Under a spreading chestnut tree, 
 The village smithy stands. 
 
 In the beginning God created the heavens and the 
 earth. 
 
 To give further application to this simple idea of 
 the sentence choose some simple story and pick out 
 the subjects and predicates of the simpler state- 
 ments, not at first the complex and compound 
 sentences. 
 
 With growing experience inverted sentences can 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 1 35 
 
 be more easily untangled. Complex and compound 
 sentences should be given a separate treatment. 
 Complete lessons on the modifiers of subject and 
 predicate may also be worked out on a plan similar 
 to that above. 
 
 / \ rsonal Pronouns 
 
 We have had occasion to speak of the use of pro- 
 nouns for the sake of convenience, and have noticed 
 that pronouns are commonly substituted for nouns. 
 There is one group of pronouns which we will now 
 examine more closely ; namely, the personal pronouns. 
 
 1. In the following sentences pick out the pro- 
 nouns so far as you can : But the prince would not 
 go home to his father without his brothers, and 
 said, " Dear dwarf, can you tell me where my two 
 brothers are that we may find them ? They went 
 out before I did in search of the water of life, and 
 have not come back to our hut." 
 
 " They are in prison between the mountains," 
 said the dwarf ; " I have made them stay there be- 
 cause they were so proud." Then the prince 
 begged till the dwarf set them free ; but he said 
 to the prince, " Beware of your brothers, for they 
 have bad hearts." 
 
SPECIAL I ) :\ I ANGUAGE 
 
 (The above sentences can be placed opoi 
 
 the class.) Each of you 
 e on -- slip such pronouns as 
 
 you find. 
 
 2. These lists .ire then .: in, and the 
 
 teacher says, " I will read you, now, one of 
 lists, .is follows — his. where, they, I are, 
 
 I. back. he. Several of these are oed 
 
 pronouns, but three I them .. c Dot ans. 
 
 Which three?" (Where, before^ and back.) 
 
 All the pi s In the . are then 
 
 brought together after some questioning and ar- 
 ranged by the teacher, in three groups, as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 I he (she) (it) 
 
 my you (thou) his (her) (its) 
 
 me your (thine) him 
 
 we (our) (thee) they (their) 
 
 (us) (ye) them 
 
 (Those in parenthesis are worked in later, as 
 indicated below.") 
 
 By an examination of these words we may be 
 able to say why they are called pronouns. 
 
 By examining the three lists do you detect the 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 1 37 
 
 reason ? They are personal because they usually 
 refer to persons. In the passage given what persons 
 are referred to by the pronouns? The prince and 
 his brothers and the dwarf. 
 
 3. You will see by the grouping that is made 
 above that these pronouns fall into three groups. 
 Examine these groups and find out what to call 
 each group. They are sometimes called pronouns 
 of the first, second, and third person. Why so ? 
 
 4. Can you define each group ? The first group 
 evidently refers to persons who are speaking of 
 themselves (I and me), the second, those to whom 
 we are speaking, and the others, to a third party 
 mentioned. 
 
 The grammars usually say that pronouns of the 
 first person represent the speaker, of the second 
 person, the one spoken to, and the third person 
 the one spoken of. 
 
 You may notice perhaps that none of these 
 groups is complete. What pronoun of the first 
 person can you add to the list ? (Us.) There are 
 two other pronouns of the second person, not, 
 however, used often, as in the sentences, " Thou 
 art welcome," and " Blessed are ye when men 
 shall revile you." (Thou and thine and ye.) 
 
I38 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 In the third group, there are several to be 
 added, as in the sentence, " She told her mother 
 that the moon had lost its brightness and the 
 stars their beauty." (She, her, its, their.) 
 
 By adding him and thee we have the list of 
 personal pronouns complete. 
 
 5. To form a full acquaintance with personal 
 pronouns, a variety of applications is necessary. 
 Take, for example, any good piece of dialogue, 
 in the fairy stories, in "Cricket on the Hearth," or in 
 "The Wonder Book," and pronouns are numerous. 
 
 The following short passage from " Pilgrim's 
 Progress " will serve as illustration : — 
 
 World. — How now, good fellow, whither away 
 after this burdened manner? 
 
 Christian. — A burdened manner indeed, as ever 
 I think poor creature had. And whereas you ask 
 me Whither away, I tell you, Sir, I am going to 
 yonder wicket gate before me; for there, as I am 
 informed, I shall be put into a way to be rid of 
 my heavy burden. 
 
 World. — Hast thou a wife and children ? 
 
 Christian. — Yes, but I am so laden with this 
 burden, that I cannot take that pleasure in them 
 as formerly. Methinks I am as if I had none. 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS I 39 
 
 World. — Wilt thou hearken unto me, if I give 
 thee counsel ? 
 
 Christian. — If it be good, I will ; for I stand 
 in need of good counsel. 
 
 A somewhat similar mode of treatment can be 
 applied to other groups of pronouns, also to 
 groups of nouns, verbs, adjectives, prepositions, etc. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 Course of Study 
 
 First Grade 
 
 i. Exercises preliminary to the formal language 
 work. 
 
 {a) Stories from good literature, presented orally 
 and reproduced by the children ; e.g. such stories 
 as The Three Bears, The Ugly Duckling, The 
 Discontented Pine Tree. 
 
 (b) Nature-study observations of plants and 
 flowers, squirrels, butterflies, bumblebees. Work in 
 the garden or excursions to the fields and woods. 
 All these, after they have become familiar in nature 
 study, may be used for short language lessons. 
 
 2. Drawing pictures and writing words and short 
 sentences to illustrate stories such as The Old 
 Woman and the Pig, Cinderella, Hiawatha, The 
 Apple Tree Branch. 
 
 3. Descriptions of good pictures by the children. 
 A picture often suggests a story, or a scene in a 
 story. By suggestion the teacher may get good 
 
 140 
 
COURSE OF STUDY I4I 
 
 responses. In De Garmo's " Language Lessons," 
 Book I, are many illustrations. 
 
 4. Copying of words and very simple sentences 
 chosen by the teacher from the reading or other 
 lessons. Let the children's writing at the board be 
 large and free. Very simple sentences current in 
 the other lessons may be dictated by the teacher. 
 
 5. Exercises in the use of a and an with nouns : 
 an apple, an orange, an eagle, a tree, a man, etc. 
 (Not much time needed.) 
 
 6. Use of common verbs to agree with singular 
 and plural nouns as subjects ; as, is and are, was and 
 were ; e.g. The four musicians were singing. Note 
 also the correct use of there is and there are in 
 sentences ; as, There are dangers by the way. In 
 this kind of work very brief exercises are needed, 
 but constant watchfulness to secure correct usage in 
 all lessons. (See chapter of Illustrative Lessons.) 
 
 7. The use of correct forms of personal pronouns 
 as subjects and objects in sentences; e.g. Mary 
 and I were playing. Philip and I sat together. 
 Tell John and me the story. No reasons are 
 assigned, but the correct form given and required 
 till use is settled. (See chapter of Illustrative 
 Lessons.) 
 
142 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 8. Correct and avoid the use of aiiit, have got, and 
 had ought. In correcting, use the proper forms 
 and keep them before the children ; e.g. The fir tree 
 isn't large. You ought not to go. Ought they not 
 to speak quietly? 
 
 9. Teach the proper use and spelling of the 
 following homonyms : — 
 
 hear — here to — too — two 
 
 write — right know — no 
 
 eye — I there — their 
 
 hour — our be — bee 
 son — sun 
 
 Various devices may be used in drilling upon 
 these words. Use cards with the words and call for 
 meanings or sentences. (See chapter of Illustrative 
 Lessons.) 
 
 10. Abbreviations. 
 
 Use Mr., Mrs., Dr., and St. Write on the board 
 short phrases and sentences with these abbrevia- 
 tions ; as, Mr. and Mrs. Ball. 
 
 11. Use of the period in sentences and abbrevia- 
 tions ; also the question mark, the possessive form 
 with apostrophe, and capitals. 
 
 Notice frequently the use of these marks in 
 
COURSE OF STUDY I43 
 
 the book and in board work as a preparation for 
 use. 
 
 12. Spelling. 
 
 Have frequent exercises in the written spelling 
 of words occurring in the reading, nature study, and 
 other lessons. Select at first the most common 
 words. For seat work copy such lists. 
 
 13. Writing. 
 
 (a) Observation of teacher's written work at the 
 board and frequent exercises in this free-hand board 
 work largely in imitation of the teacher. 
 
 {b) Copying of words and sentences placed on 
 the board by the teacher. 
 
 (c) Copying short exercises from the first reader. 
 
 (d) Copying memorized selections and short 
 passages from memory. 
 
 Apply spelling and punctuation to all these 
 written exercises. 
 
 While these are called formal language lessons, 
 they should be as informal as may be. 
 
 Children should be encouraged to freedom and 
 confidence in speaking and writing. The necessary 
 corrections and drills should be kept within the 
 channels of spontaneous activity. As Mr. O. T. Bright 
 says : " Children in the first grade cannot study. 
 
144 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 They want something to do." The blackboard and 
 the seat work should be the outlet for this natural 
 impulse. 
 
 Second Grade 
 
 i. Use of this and that, these and those; as, this 
 kind of apples, that sort of men ; these kinds of 
 cloth, those sorts of people. 
 
 Correct and avoid such expressions as, these kind, 
 those sort, them kind, and them boys. 
 
 2. Correct Use of Adverbs. 
 
 Slowly, quickly, well ; e.g. He is working slowly. 
 John acts quickly. The boys are writing well. 
 
 Show the proper use of corresponding adjectives : 
 slow work, good writing, quick action. 
 
 Correct such expressions 'as, He is running slow. 
 Mary wrote good. John speaks rapid. 
 
 3. The use of correct forms of pronouns after is 
 and was ; also after verbs and prepositions ; e.g. It is 
 /. The candy is for Mary and vie. It was she that 
 rode past. It was they who laughed. It is we that 
 are to blame. 
 
 Correct such errors as the following : He told John 
 and I to return. It was Mary and me. It was you 
 who was talking. 
 
COURSE OF STUDY 145 
 
 4. Practise upon the following homonyms : — 
 
 meat — meet aunt — ant ate — eight 
 
 buy — by flower — flour grate — great 
 
 knew — new sea — see sent — cent 
 
 steal — steel tail — tale 
 
 Bring into these exercises any other homonyms 
 that appear in the regular studies of the grade. 
 
 Notice the widely different meanings and make 
 simple sentences showing their proper use ; as, The 
 grate was broken. Great trouble came to him. 
 
 5. Use of Comparatives and Superlatives in adjec- 
 tives; as, taller and tallest. I have the larger book (of 
 the two). Edith is the tallest girl in school. Avoid 
 the use of the superlative in comparison of two 
 persons or things. 
 
 6. Correct use of 
 
 Learn and teach ; as, Teach me the lesson. 
 
 Dont and doesn't ; as, John doesn't know his 
 lesson. 
 
 Off and of; as, Clear off the top of the table. 
 
 Shall and will in simple cases ; as, Shall I come ? 
 not, Will I come ? 
 
 Avoid also the wrong use of can ; as, Can I do it ? 
 Can we play with the dolls ? 
 
I46 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 7. A bbrcvia tions. 
 
 Review those of first grade and add the following : 
 ct., doz. Abbreviations of names of days of the 
 week and months of the year. Apply these abbre- 
 viations to other studies and add to the list others 
 used in any school work of this grade. 
 
 8. Use of Capital Letters. 
 
 In beginning sentences and in proper names. 
 
 The first word in lines of poetry and in direct 
 quotations. 
 
 In dates, days of the week, months, and in ad- 
 dresses and titles. 
 
 Let each child learn to write his own name and 
 address. 
 
 In all the written work of the school apply the 
 correct usage of capitals and abbreviations. 
 
 9. Copy carefully memorized verses and proverbs 
 with attention to capitals, punctuation, and spelling. 
 
 10. Use of Quotation Marks. 
 
 Give examples of quotations and their markings, 
 using familiar passages in literature, poems, etc. 
 
 Use of the comma in series and in addresses. 
 
 Notice in the readers used the different marks of 
 punctuation ; as, question mark, period, comma, and 
 quotation marks. 
 
COURSE OF STUDY I47 
 
 Apply 
 
 these 
 
 to written 
 
 work at board and on 
 
 paper. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11. 
 
 Make a 
 
 study of 
 
 the 
 
 following irregular 
 
 verbs : 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 break 
 
 
 
 broke 
 
 
 broken 
 
 begin 
 
 
 
 began 
 
 
 begun 
 
 come 
 
 
 
 came 
 
 
 come 
 
 drink 
 
 
 
 drank 
 
 
 drunk or drunken 
 
 do 
 
 
 
 did 
 
 
 done 
 
 sing 
 
 
 
 sang, sung 
 
 sung 
 
 eat 
 go 
 
 
 
 ate 
 went 
 
 
 eaten 
 gone 
 
 see 
 
 
 
 saw 
 
 
 seen 
 
 sit 
 
 
 
 sat 
 
 
 sat 
 
 tear 
 
 
 
 tore 
 
 
 torn 
 
 teach 
 
 
 
 taught 
 
 
 taught 
 
 write 
 
 
 
 wrote 
 
 
 written 
 
 speak 
 
 
 
 spoke 
 
 
 spoken 
 
 lie 
 
 
 
 lay 
 
 
 lain 
 
 The above are given as some of the most com- 
 mon and involve many of the more frequent errors. 
 
 In practising the correct use of irregular verbs we 
 may aim directly at these errors. 
 
 One of the most common faults is in confusing 
 
I48 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 and interchanging the past tense and past parti- 
 ciple. 
 
 Interesting and lively exercises may be devised for 
 illustrating the uses of such verbs. First ask the 
 question. What did you drink ? I drank a glass of 
 water. What have you done with the milk? I 
 have drunk it. 
 
 Devise various questions for bringing out the dif- 
 ferent forms ; thus : Use have or had with the 
 verb break. Use the word break with yesterday or 
 to-morrow. (See chapter of Illustrative Lessons.) 
 
 12. Written Language. 
 
 Parts of the Robinson Crusoe or Hiawatha stories 
 or nature-study lessons furnish good thought- 
 material for sentence work at the board. 
 
 New and difficult words from any of the lessons 
 may be placed on the board and made the basis of 
 written sentence work. 
 
 In written language work there are many devices 
 for reviewing previous lessons. 
 
 (a) Sentences are asked for containing the forms of 
 irregular verbs or pronouns, adjectives and adverbs. 
 
 (b) Such sentences as the following may be 
 changed throughout to the plural form : The boy 
 that is riding his wheel has lost his way. 
 
COURSE OF STUDY I49 
 
 (c) Sentences with blanks are to be filled out and 
 
 copied ; as, The boy is than his sister and 
 
 than his brother. 
 
 (d) Short stories may be written from memory 
 after a series of sentences containing the story has 
 been placed on the board, examined, and erased. 
 
 (e) Dictation exercises given by the teacher may 
 , test many forms of words, punctuation, spelling, and 
 
 abbreviations. 
 
 In all the work of second grade the sentences used 
 should be short and simple, the exercises brief and 
 varied. Let the children use the crayon or pencil 
 freely with a large movement. 
 
 
 Third Grade 
 
 
 1. Irregular 
 
 Verbs. 
 
 
 choose 
 
 chose 
 
 chosen 
 
 fly 
 
 flew 
 
 flown 
 
 freeze 
 
 froze 
 
 frozen 
 
 give 
 
 gave 
 
 given 
 
 get 
 
 got 
 
 gotten or got 
 
 ride 
 
 rode 
 
 ridden 
 
 rise 
 
 rose 
 
 risen 
 
 ring 
 
 rang, rung 
 
 rung 
 
 steal 
 
 stole 
 
 stolen 
 
I50 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 take 
 
 took 
 
 taken 
 
 wear 
 
 wore 
 
 worn 
 
 throw 
 
 threw 
 
 thrown 
 
 burst 
 
 burst (bursted) 
 
 burst (bursted) 
 
 dig 
 
 dug (digged) 
 
 dug (digged) 
 
 sing 
 
 sang, sung 
 
 sung 
 
 stay 
 
 staid, stayed 
 
 staid, stayed 
 
 win won won 
 
 Make sentences to .illustrate the different forms. 
 Use these verbs also with adverbs. 
 
 2. Illustrate the use of the apostrophe with the 
 possessive singular and plural ; e.g. boys' hats. 
 Examine the readers for examples of the use of the 
 apostrophe with possessives. 
 
 Dictate written phrases and sentences in the use 
 of the possessive ; as, John's knife, Mary's doll, 
 Charles' books. 
 
 3. Abbreviations. 
 
 Capt, Col., P.M., A.M., Rev., P.O., P.S., isn't, 
 hasn't, don't, and other contractions. 
 
 Use these abbreviations and contractions in sen- 
 tences and apply them to written work. 
 
 Review the abbreviations of first and second 
 grade. 
 
COURSE OF STUDY I 5 I 
 
 4. Writing Letters. 
 
 Introduce the children to letter-writing to friends. 
 
 Direct them to the preparation of letters to be sent 
 by mail. 
 
 Short, but neat, and accurate in punctuation, 
 capitals, etc. 
 
 Work out a full letter at the board, selecting topics 
 that interest children. 
 
 5. Short Written Exercises (on the blackboard) 
 drawn 
 
 (a) from nature-study lessons and excursions; 
 
 {b) from home geography descriptions ; 
 
 (c) from stories in literature; as, the Greek and 
 Norse myths. 
 
 Apply previous lessons on capitals, punctuation, 
 and spelling. 
 
 6. Study the following homonyms : — 
 
 rode — road — rowed pair — pear — pare 
 
 sail — sale pail — pale weak — week 
 
 berry — bury whole — hole won — one 
 
 hair — hare bough — bow forth — fourth 
 
 idle — idol heal — heel him — hymn 
 
 A few of the drills in working with homonyms 
 may be suggested as follows : — 
 
152 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 (a) Give out the words orally and call for sen- 
 tences illustrating the different uses. 
 
 (b) Pronounce the words and call for spelling 
 and explanation of meanings. 
 
 (c) Write the words upon cards and let the chil- 
 dren interpret them at sight. 
 
 (d) Recall curious mistakes in the use of homo- 
 nyms. 
 
 7. Short Written Papers. 
 
 First work out with the children a series of 
 simple sentences from a familiar story or nature 
 lesson. Place these sentences on the board and 
 examine the spelling, capitals, and punctuation. 
 
 In the first efforts of children such sentences 
 may be copied from the board. Later they may 
 be reproduced in substance from memory. 
 
 8. Correct the following common errors in 
 speech : — 
 
 {a) The relative and interrogative pronouns who 
 and whom ; as, Whom did you meet ? instead of, 
 Who did you meet ? Whom did you call for ? etc. 
 
 (b) Each and every one, either and neither. These 
 words are often wrongly used with a plural verb ; 
 as, every one of the boys are present. Neither of 
 those flowers are beautiful. 
 
COURSE OF STUDY 1 53 
 
 (c) Review the use of may and can, shall and 
 wilL 
 
 id) Review the personal pronouns / and me, 
 we and us with verbs. 
 
 9. The correct use of predicate adjectives in- 
 stead of adverbs after seem, appear, smell, taste, 
 and feel ; as, The apple tastes good (not well). 
 I feel bad (not badly). The fruit smells sweet 
 (not sweetly). 
 
 In correcting all these common errors of speech 
 it is advantageous to keep a list of the correct 
 phrases and sentences on the blackboard before 
 the eyes of the children for a period of time, with 
 occasional drills or references to them for the sake 
 of emphasis. 
 
 10. Spelling. 
 
 Make out lists of new or difficult words for 
 spelling exercises taken from the stories, reading, 
 nature study, and geography. 
 
 (a) Such lists, placed on the board, may be 
 used for pronunciation and copying till they are 
 familiar. 
 
 (b) Pronounce such words for oral spelling. 
 
 (c) Dictate such words singly or in sentences for 
 written work. 
 
154 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 ii. Write familiar poems from memory. Apply 
 the previous lessons on punctuation. Before writ- 
 ing study the punctuation, capitals, and spelling of 
 such passages in the original. 
 
 12. Simple Contractions. 
 
 I'll, I'm, isn't, aren't, hasn't, can't, you'll, it's, 
 I've, there's, and others. 
 
 E.g. I'll go if it isn't too late. 
 
 Give many illustrations till the forms are known. 
 
 Dictate sentences for writing, involving these forms. 
 
 Examine in dialogue and dramatic stories the 
 frequent use of these abbreviated forms. 
 
 Fourth Grade 
 
 I. Composition. 
 
 Careful work in simple composing can be under- 
 taken in this grade. 
 
 (a) The outlines previously made out in the oral 
 treatment of history stories and geography topics 
 and nature study supply a good basis for short 
 compositions. Two or three topics of an outline 
 may be worked out in distinct paragraphs with 
 proper attention to margins, indentation, capitals, 
 and punctuation. (See chapter of Illustrative 
 Lessons.) 
 
COURSE OF STUDY 1 55 
 
 {b) Greater freedom in making outlines and in 
 composing can be allowed in writing descriptions 
 of personal experiences of children upon excur- 
 sions and picnics. 
 
 After looking over such papers the teacher 
 should use the blackboard freely in revising errors 
 of sentence construction, choice of words, para- 
 graphing, spelling, and markings. 
 
 For further suggestions of method see chapter 
 of Illustrative Lessons. 
 
 2. (a) The correct uses of who, which, and that 
 as relative pronouns. 
 
 E.g. The lady whom we met is sick. The boy 
 that (or who) was here is very bright. The sheep 
 that (or which) was in the pasture is lost. 
 
 (&) The proper use of in and into in sentences ; 
 e.g. Tom fell into the pond. The boat was in the 
 water. 
 
 (c) Illustrate the use of the possessive singular 
 and plural of nouns ; as, The dog's ears, Charles' hat. 
 
 3. Homonyms. 
 
 ball — bawl choir — quire gait — gate 
 
 hall — haul peace — piece seen — scene 
 
 false — faults flea — flee heard — herd 
 
 oar — o'er — ore waist — waste 
 
I56 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 Study the meanings of these words and illustrate 
 their use in sentences. 
 
 Give a series of lessons in the spelling and mean- 
 ings of homonyms, including those studied in the 
 earlier grades. 
 
 4. Develop from numerous examples the chief 
 rules for forming the plurals of nouns. 
 
 (a) Cases in which s is added; as, horse — horses; 
 cat — cats ; bonnet — bonnets. 
 
 (b) Adding es\ as, box — boxes; grass — grasses; 
 church — churches. 
 
 {c) Changing f to v and adding es\ as, leaf — 
 leaves ; half — halves. 
 
 As a basis for deriving these rules make long lists 
 of illustrations of each group from familiar words. 
 
 In applying the rules, (a) dictate words and call 
 for both forms ; {b) change all the words in a given 
 sentence or paragraph to the corresponding singular 
 or plural. 
 
 5. Abbreviations as follows : etc., sec, min., hr., in., 
 ft., qt., pt, gal, bbl., U.S., D.C., R.R., Dr., Amt. 
 
 Add to this list the abbreviations that spring 
 up in any of the studies and a review of those in 
 previous grades. 
 
 6. Avoid the following incorrect usages, like for 
 
COURSE OF STUDY 
 
 157 
 
 as; e.g., He plays as Henry does. Without for 
 unless ; e.g., Do not go unless your father permits 
 (not, without your father permits). Good ways 
 or long ways for long way ; e.g. George is a long way 
 from home (not, long ways). Some for somewhat ; 
 e.g. He is somewhat deaf (not, some deaf). 
 7. Irregular Verbs. 
 
 see 
 
 saw 
 
 seen 
 
 come 
 
 came 
 
 come 
 
 dp 
 
 did 
 
 done 
 
 go 
 
 went 
 
 gone 
 
 take 
 
 took 
 
 taken 
 
 sit 
 
 sat 
 
 sat 
 
 set 
 
 set 
 
 set 
 
 lay 
 
 laid 
 
 laid 
 
 shake 
 
 shook 
 
 shaken 
 
 Review the uses of there is and there are, there was 
 and there were. 
 
 8. Punctuation. 
 
 Observe the use of various punctuation marks in 
 the readers, arithmetics, and other books. 
 
 Notice the uses of the exclamation point, quotation 
 marks, the comma in series, addresses, and in setting 
 off clauses and phrases. 
 
158 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 Apply these punctuation marks in written work. 
 
 9. Contractions. 
 
 O'clock, 'tis, it's, I've, ne'er, he's, shouldn't, 
 couldn't, shan't, won't, wouldn't, can't, what's, 
 that's. 
 
 10. Introduction to the use of the Dictionary. 
 Mastery of the alphabet in order. 
 
 How to trace up words in the dictionary. 
 
 The markings of vowels, diphthongs, and conso- 
 nants in the dictionary. 
 
 Syllabification and accent. 
 
 The interpretation of definitions to fit the con- 
 text. 
 
 Systematic lessons are needed, 
 
 (a) in the correct pronunciation of vowel sounds ; 
 
 (J?) on the diacritical markings in the dictionary ; 
 
 (c) upon well-selected words for dictionary study. 
 
 (See chapter of Illustrative Lessons.) 
 
 11. Synonyms and Antonyms ; e.g. large — big — 
 great; little — small — diminutive; angry — vexed — 
 indignant ; liberty — slavery or bondage ; proud — 
 humble ; strong — weak. 
 
 Frame sentences showing these similar and con- 
 trasted meanings. 
 
 12. Correction of common errors heard outside of 
 
COURSE OF STUDY 1 59 
 
 the school ; e.g. ain't, seen for saw, done for did, yon 
 was for you were, she don't for she doesn't, as lives 
 for as lief. 
 
 Keep the correct forms before the eyes and in the 
 hearing of pupils as much as possible. 
 
 13. Spelling of new and difficult words gathered 
 from the lessons in history, geography, reading, 
 nature study, and arithmetic. 
 
 Use the lists of words derived from these studies 
 for dictionary work and for spelling. 
 
 14. Make a free but informal use of the terms 
 verb, noun, and names of other parts of speech in 
 etymology; also subject, predicate, and modifier 
 without formal definition, as occasion naturally arises 
 in all studies. 
 
 Fifth Grade 
 Preliminaries to Language in Fifth Grade 
 
 Efficient use of language depends chiefly upon the 
 constant attention given to correct speech and 
 written work in the other studies. 
 
 In fifth grade there should be special care to apply 
 all the forms of correct language taught in the previ- 
 ous grades. 
 
 So important is this application that advanced 
 
l60 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 language work could better be neglected than this 
 faithful review overlooked. 
 
 As a means of directing attention to this review 
 and application of previous lessons, the first two or 
 three months of fifth grade might well be given to 
 such review drills. 
 
 This insistence upon correct usage applies also to 
 the varied forms of oral work in fifth grade, such 
 as the oral narratives in history, the reproductions of 
 geography, the reports on nature study, and to all 
 other forms of recitation work as well as to any 
 written papers and examinations. In all these, 
 perpetual attention to correct forms is necessary. 
 
 I . Composition. 
 
 At this age the compositions should begin to show 
 some degree of skill in the full, accurate, and apt 
 expression of thought. The topics upon which 
 children are asked to write should be selected with 
 a view to the knowledge and preferences of the 
 children. Biography, travel, and lively story appeal 
 to many, while nature study, machines, and inven- 
 tions may interest others. 
 
 The full outlines furnished by the history stories 
 and geographical types furnish an excellent basis for 
 a part of the compositions. 
 
COURSE OF STUDY l6l 
 
 For example of this see chapter of Illustrative 
 Lessons. 
 
 Exercise care in spelling, capitals, and punctua- 
 tion. 
 
 2. Spelling exercises may be derived from 
 (a) mistakes in the composition papers ; 
 
 (fr) difficult and new words in reading and other 
 lessons ; 
 
 (c) reviews of earlier lessons on homonyms, con- 
 tractions, abbreviations, and rules for plurals. 
 
 3. The paraphrasing of familiar stories and poems 
 from memory provides a lively kind of board or seat 
 work in which faults in language and composition 
 can be quickly corrected. Give freedom of expres- 
 sion. Criticise the work in class and compare with 
 the original in thought and language. 
 
 4. Business Letters and Social Forms. 
 Standard forms of letters should be mastered. 
 Letters of invitation and declination as usually 
 
 given in the language books. 
 
 Bills and receipts, inspection of customary bills 
 and business papers. Write out the forms. 
 
 In all these forms require accuracy and neatness. 
 
 5. Inspection of punctuation as found in the 
 readers and other text-books. 
 
 M 
 
1 62 
 
 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 Develop and illustrate the chief rules for the 
 use of capitals, commas, apostrophes, and quotation 
 marks. 
 
 Give dictation exercises to test the use of these 
 markings. 
 
 Punctuate poems and prose passages taken from 
 authors and then compare with the original. 
 
 6. Irregular Verbs. 
 
 Review the full table of irregular verbs and their 
 parts. 
 
 Make a special study of the harder verbs ; as, lie 
 and lay, sit and set,; to be, do, fly, get ; and the 
 auxiliaries, shall and will, may and can. 
 
 Make many sentences to illustrate and confirm 
 these various uses. 
 
 7. Homonyms and Synonyms. 
 
 cellar — seller 
 creak — creek 
 lesson — lessen 
 
 chews — choose 
 hose — hoes 
 mail — male 
 
 pedal — peddle plain — plane 
 
 colonel — kernel 
 in — inn 
 night — knight 
 alter — altar 
 
 all — awl 
 fir — fur 
 
 aloud — allowed been — bin 
 
 soul — sole 
 
 tacks — tax 
 
 Give various dictation and drill exercises for the 
 spelling, meaning, and use of these words. 
 
COURSE OF STUDY 1 63 
 
 8. Abbreviates. 
 
 Acct., Hon., Gov., Pres., Co., Jr., Sr., M.D., Prof., 
 Supt, Maj., Sen., Rep., Messrs. 
 
 Review earlier abbreviations. 
 
 Review contractions and illustrate their use in 
 sentences and in conversation. 
 
 9. Correction of errors heard out of school. 
 These to be reported and discussed in class. 
 Opportunity to review earlier lessons. 
 
 10. Use of the Dictionary. 
 
 Regular exercises in dictionary interpretations. 
 
 Words for these lessons derived from other studies ; 
 as, reading, geography, history, and science. 
 
 Review of dictionary markings for pronunciation 
 and accent. 
 
 Drills upon vowel and consonant sounds. 
 
 Lists of prefixes and suffixes and their meaning. 
 
 Root-words and derived words illustrated. 
 
 Children, after a few of these lessons, should begin 
 to use small dictionaries as reference for self-help in 
 reading and other studies. 
 
 Sixth Grade 
 
 1 . Independent Use of the Dictionary. 
 
 Regular use of the dictionary with assignments 
 
164 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 for dictionary study in reading and language lessons. 
 How to use the dictionary appendix. 
 
 Careful review of phonics and drill in the correct 
 use of sounds. Diacritical marks. 
 
 Syllabification and accent of words. 
 
 Teach the use of cyclopaedias and other reference 
 books. Introducing children to an easy and intelli- 
 gent use of reference books is one of the most im- 
 portant points in cultivating proper habits of study. 
 Even the supplementary readers in history, geog- 
 raphy, and nature study will be used more wisely after 
 thoughtful and suggestive pointers by the teacher. 
 
 Even a small library of reference books may be 
 made of great value to children, if they are taught 
 to use them properly. * 
 
 2. Spelling. 
 
 The problem of spelling should be attacked from 
 several sides and systematically. 
 
 (a) Lists of new and difficult words should be care- 
 fully selected from the usual lessons in other studies 
 and used for oral and written drills. 
 
 (b) In composition work of all kinds the dic- 
 tionary should be used for doubtful words. 
 
 (c) The simple rules for spelling classes of words 
 should be developed from full lists of examples. 
 
COURSE OF STUDY 1 65 
 
 Formation of the plurals of nouns. 
 Words ending in/, /, and s. 
 
 Monosyllables and words accented on the last 
 syllable. 
 
 Words ending in e. 
 
 3. Derivatives of words used in reading, arithmetic, 
 and other studies. 
 
 Common root-words and their derivatives grouped ; 
 as, come, become, income, coming, comely ; thought, 
 thoughtful, thoughtless, bethought; see, seeing, un- 
 seen, foresee, seer, see-saw. 
 
 Notice prefixes and suffixes in forming derivatives. 
 
 4. Composition. 
 
 Instruction in outlining subjects. 
 
 Illustrate with new topics from general lessons 
 and subjects of special interest, which are outlined 
 before the class. 
 
 Criticise also in class outlines made by the chil- 
 dren. 
 
 Base compositions on 
 
 (a) reference topics in geography and history; 
 
 (b) reports on the lives of authors whose works 
 are studied in the reading lessons ; 
 
 (c) debates in which arguments are presented on 
 both sides; 
 
1 66 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 (d) topics in which individuals show a strong 
 interest ; as in science, music, mechanics, etc. 
 
 5. Letters and Correspondence based upon 
 
 (a) descriptions of travel and historical scenes ; 
 
 (b) visits to places of interest ; as, museums, parks, 
 churches, public buildings ; 
 
 (c) home letters to parents and others ; 
 
 id) business letters, telegrams, advertisements, etc. 
 
 6. Correction of prevailing incorrect speech. 
 Avoid common absurdities and extravagances; as, 
 how for zvhat, if for whether, and the frequent 
 use of awful, dreadful, perfectly charming, immense. 
 
 Discuss freely the use of slang. Like swearing 
 it shows overemphasis and weak thought. 
 
 7. Use of abbreviations. 
 
 C.O.D., D.D., Atty., N.B., via, vol., inst, Cr., viz. 
 Review earlier abbreviations. 
 
 Study list of abbreviations in the appendix of 
 the dictionary. 
 
 8. Homonyms, synonyms, and antonyms. Make 
 lists from the regular studies as they arise. 
 
 Use the dictionary freely in tracing up synonyms 
 and antonyms. 
 
 9. Drill exercises in punctuation. 
 
 (a) Gather up the chief rules for punctuation. 
 
COURSE OF STUDY 167 
 
 (b) Copying from memory of songs, poems, hymns, 
 and proverbs with proper punctuation. 
 
 (c) Dictation exercises as tests of spelling, capitals, 
 and markings. 
 
 Seventh Grade 
 
 1. Analysis of Sentences. 
 
 The sentence as the unit of thought. 
 
 Chief elements of thought in the sentence. 
 
 Subject, predicate, and modifiers. 
 
 Many illustrations examined. 
 
 Adjective and adverbial modifiers. 
 
 Extension of adjectives and adverbs into phrases 
 and clauses, modifying nouns or verbs. 
 
 The chief kinds of simple sentence. 
 
 The complex sentence and its elements. 
 
 The compound sentence and its parts. 
 
 Free use of the parts of speech without formal 
 definition. 
 
 2. History of the English language in its chief 
 periods of development ; the different sources of its 
 words. Chief peoples who have contributed to it, 
 with illustrations of their share in forming it ; as, 
 Celts, Anglo-Saxons, Danes, Normans, Latins. 
 
 Difference between English and Latin or Ger- 
 man in the inflections. 
 
1 68 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 3. Peculiarities of English spelling. 
 Spelling of Latin words ; Greek words. 
 Silent letters in English. 
 
 Classes of peculiar spellings in English. Drills 
 on special lists ; as in ei and z>, and ough. 
 
 The reform of English spelling and reasons for 
 it ; as in programme, thorough, through. 
 
 4. Compositions based on 
 
 {a) lives of authors; as, Irving, Whittier, Lowell, 
 Macaulay, Bryant, Scott, Hawthorne ; the stories 
 of the origin of important prose works and poems ; 
 as, " Hiawatha," " Evangeline," " Snow-Bound," 
 the "Iliad" and " Odyssey," "Siegfried," "King 
 Arthur " ; 
 
 (J?) topics on the history of English ; 
 
 (c) general lessons discussed for the whole 
 school ; 
 
 (d) imaginative stories in imitation of stories 
 read; 
 
 (e) side-lights on history and geography; 
 (/) special science reports. 
 
 5. Spelling reviews. 
 
 Review and extension of the rules of spelling. 
 Review tables of homonyms. 
 Peculiar groups of English spellings. 
 
COURSE OF STUDY 1 69 
 
 Words derived from other studies and readings. 
 
 6. Phonics. 
 
 A careful drill in phonic sounds is needed in 
 the grammar school, {a) single and concert drill on 
 vowels, diphthongs, and consonants with many 
 illustrations; (b) drills on lists of words often mis- 
 pronounced. 
 
 7. Use of larger dictionaries and reference books. 
 The unabridged dictionary should be employed for 
 
 reference in grammar grades, including the appen- 
 dix. The cyclopaedias also of biography and of 
 general reference should be made familiar by use. 
 Children should learn how to cull important points 
 from longer articles. 
 
 Supplementary reference books in science, geog- 
 raphy, literature and history, biography and travel, 
 should be used, discussed, and referred to by the 
 teacher for supplementary and home reading. The 
 language lessons should make children intelligent 
 and interested in the use of reference materials. 
 Much of this must be done also in the other 
 studies. 
 
 8. Review of common errors in spoken English. 
 Discussion of classes of errors in earlier lessons. 
 Illustration of the various ways in which gram- 
 
170 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 mar aids correct speech; as in the use of irregular 
 verbs, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs. 
 
 Common errors heard out of school discussed in 
 class. 
 
 The meaning of vulgarisms and slang and their 
 origin. Reasonable discussion of slang and why 
 it should be avoided. While some slang is expres- 
 sive, the ordinary use of it shows weakness in 
 thought and deficient power of expression. 
 
 9. Continue drill upon the pronunciation of lists of 
 words commonly mispronounced ; as, apparatus, data. 
 
 10. Rhetorical figures and terms. 
 
 Incidental attention to the rhetorical figures used 
 by good writers; as, simile and metaphor. 
 Continuation of memory quotations. 
 
 Eighth Grade 
 
 1. Etymology. 
 
 The parts of speech are familiar by name and 
 use as explained in the discussion and illustration 
 of the parts of the sentence — subject, predicate, 
 modifiers, and connective words. 
 
 (a) The eight parts of speech are now taken up 
 as objects of study, illustrated, defined, and grouped 
 in their chief classes. 
 
COURSE OF STUDY I/I 
 
 The inflections and conjugations are also worked 
 out in their chief forms. 
 
 Many of the lesser traditional classifications and 
 inflections are of little value and should be 
 omitted. 
 
 (b) The service of the chief classes, rules, and 
 inflections for determining correct usage should be 
 fully exploited in this fuller discussion of pro- 
 nouns, verbs, and other parts of speech. 
 
 2. Composition. 
 
 A complete treatment of composition in the last 
 year of the grammar school should make letter-writ- 
 ing and written expression of thought in all subjects 
 fluent and correct. 
 
 (a) Study of examples of the chief forms of 
 composition by good writers ; as, narration, descrip- 
 tion, and argument, illustrated by the writings of 
 Scott, Hawthorne, Webster, Dickens, and others. 
 
 (&) Paraphrasing of poems and stories from 
 memory. 
 
 {c) Review of earlier studies in outlining the chief 
 units of thought in an essay. 
 
 (d) Simplicity and clearness in writing. 
 
 (e) Figures of speech and their value as illustrated 
 by good authors. 
 
172 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 (/) The use of sources and reference books in 
 preparing compositions. 
 
 (g) Errors to be avoided in composition, confusion 
 of topics, ambiguity, stilted language, extravagance, 
 foreign phrases. 
 
 (Ji) Original compositions upon self-chosen topics. 
 
 3. Reviews and summaries. 
 
 {a) Study of synomyms and homonyms. 
 
 Review previous lists and add, such as : bail — 
 bale ; barren — baron ; breach — breech ; cannon — 
 canon; canvas — canvass; cede — seed; chaste — 
 chased; chord — cord; claws — clause; cousin — 
 cozen; kill — kiln; maze — maize; martial — marshal; 
 mean — mien. 
 
 Review the complete list of homonyms with mean- 
 ings and spellings. 
 
 (U) Irregular verbs. 
 
 Review the list of irregular verbs and the viola- 
 tions of correct usage. 
 
 {c) Pronouns and their use. 
 
 (d) Review rules for spelling and punctuation. 
 
 4. Study and analysis of English classics to dis- 
 cover the plan, outline of thought, choice of words, 
 peculiar points of style, use of figures, and sentence 
 construction. 
 
COURSE OF STUDY 1 73 
 
 5. Fuller study of the biographies of leading 
 English and American writers and reports upon 
 them. Acquaintance with the best books dealing 
 with authors. The leading periods of American 
 literature with their groups of authors. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 Reference Materials 
 
 LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS 
 
 Words in the list 
 
 which are marked with 
 
 an r have also the 
 
 regular forms. 
 
 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 PAST 
 
 PAST PARTICIPLE 
 
 abide 
 
 abode 
 
 abode 
 
 am or be 
 
 was 
 
 been 
 
 awake, r 
 
 awoke 
 
 awaked 
 
 bear 
 
 bore 
 
 borne or born 
 
 beat 
 
 beat 
 
 beaten, beat 
 
 begin 
 
 began 
 
 begun 
 
 bend, r 
 
 bent 
 
 bent 
 
 beseech 
 
 besought 
 
 besought 
 
 bet 
 
 bet 
 
 bet 
 
 bid 
 
 bid, bade 
 
 bidden, bid 
 
 bind 
 
 bound 
 
 bound 
 
 bite 
 
 bit 
 
 bitten, bit 
 
 bleed 
 
 bled 
 
 bled 
 
 blow 
 
 blew 
 
 blown 
 
 break 
 
 broke 
 
 broken 
 
 breed 
 
 bred 
 
 i74 
 
 bred 
 
REFERENCE MATERIALS 
 
 175 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 PAST 
 
 PAST PARTICIPLE 
 
 bring 
 
 brought 
 
 brought 
 
 build, r 
 
 built 
 
 built 
 
 burn, r 
 
 burnt 
 
 burnt 
 
 burst 
 
 burst 
 
 burst 
 
 buy- 
 
 bought 
 
 bought 
 
 cast 
 
 cast 
 
 cast 
 
 catch 
 
 caught 
 
 caught 
 
 chide 
 
 chid 
 
 chidden, chid 
 
 choose 
 
 chose 
 
 chosen 
 
 cleave (adhere), 
 
 r clave 
 
 cleaved 
 
 cleave (split) 
 
 clove, cleft 
 
 cloven, cleft 
 
 cling 
 
 clung 
 
 clung 
 
 clothe, r 
 
 clad 
 
 clad 
 
 come 
 
 came 
 
 come 
 
 cost 
 
 cost 
 
 cost 
 
 creep 
 
 crept 
 
 crept 
 
 crow, r 
 
 crew 
 
 crowed 
 
 cut 
 
 cut 
 
 cut 
 
 dare * (venture), 
 
 r durst 
 
 dared 
 
 deal 
 
 dealt 
 
 dealt 
 
 dig, r 
 
 dug 
 
 dug 
 
 do 
 
 did 
 
 done 
 
 draw 
 
 drew 
 
 drawn 
 
 dream, r 
 
 dreamt 
 
 dreamt 
 
 * 
 
 Dare, to challenge, 
 
 is regular. 
 
176 
 
 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 PAST 
 
 PAST PARTICIPLE 
 
 drink 
 
 drank 
 
 drank, drunk 
 
 drive 
 
 drove 
 
 driven 
 
 dwell, r 
 
 dwelt 
 
 dwelt 
 
 eat 
 
 ate, eat 
 
 eaten 
 
 fall 
 
 fell 
 
 fallen 
 
 feed 
 
 fed 
 
 fed 
 
 feel 
 
 felt 
 
 felt 
 
 fight 
 
 fought 
 
 fought 
 
 find 
 
 found 
 
 found 
 
 flee 
 
 fled 
 
 fled 
 
 fling 
 
 flung 
 
 flung 
 
 fly 
 
 flew 
 
 flown 
 
 forsake 
 
 forsook 
 
 forsaken 
 
 freeze 
 
 froze 
 
 frozen 
 
 freight, r 
 
 freighted 
 
 fraught 
 
 get 
 
 got 
 
 got, gotten 
 
 gild, r 
 
 gilt 
 
 gilt 
 
 gird, r 
 
 girt 
 
 girt 
 
 give 
 
 gave 
 
 given 
 
 go 
 
 went 
 
 gone 
 
 grave, r 
 
 graved 
 
 graven 
 
 grind 
 
 ground 
 
 ground 
 
 grow 
 
 grew 
 
 grown 
 
 hang, r 
 
 hung 
 
 hung 
 
REFERENCE MATERIALS 
 
 177 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 PAST 
 
 PAST PARTICIPLE 
 
 have 
 
 had 
 
 had 
 
 hear 
 
 heard 
 
 heard 
 
 heave 
 
 heaved, hove 
 
 heaved 
 
 hew, r 
 
 hewed 
 
 hewn 
 
 hide 
 
 hid 
 
 hidden, hid 
 
 hit 
 
 hit 
 
 hit 
 
 hold 
 
 held 
 
 held 
 
 hurt 
 
 hurt 
 
 hurt 
 
 keep 
 
 kept 
 
 kept 
 
 kneel, r 
 
 knelt 
 
 knelt 
 
 knit, r 
 
 knit 
 
 knit 
 
 know 
 
 knew 
 
 known 
 
 lade, r 
 
 laded 
 
 laden 
 
 lay 
 
 laid 
 
 laid 
 
 lead 
 
 led 
 
 led 
 
 lean 
 
 leaned (leant) 
 
 leaned (leant) 
 
 leap, r 
 
 leapt 
 
 leapt 
 
 learn, r 
 
 learnt 
 
 learnt 
 
 leave 
 
 left 
 
 left 
 
 lend 
 
 lent 
 
 lent 
 
 let 
 
 let 
 
 let 
 
 lie (incline) 
 
 lay 
 
 lain 
 
 light (shine, illu- 
 
 lit 
 
 lit 
 
 minate), r 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 
 
1 7 8 
 
 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 PAST 
 
 PAST PARTICIPLE 
 
 light (descend), r 
 
 lit 
 
 lit 
 
 lose 
 
 lost 
 
 lost 
 
 make 
 
 made 
 
 made 
 
 mean 
 
 meant 
 
 meant 
 
 meet 
 
 met 
 
 met 
 
 mow, r 
 
 mowed 
 
 mown 
 
 need 
 
 needed, need 
 
 needed 
 
 pay 
 
 paid 
 
 paid 
 
 pen (enclose) 
 
 penned (pent) 
 
 penned (pent) 
 
 plead, r 
 
 plead (pro- 
 nounced pled) 
 
 plead 
 
 put 
 
 put 
 
 put 
 
 quit, r 
 
 quit 
 
 quit 
 
 read 
 
 read 
 
 read 
 
 reave, r 
 
 reft 
 
 reft 
 
 rend 
 
 rent 
 
 rent 
 
 rid 
 
 rid 
 
 rid 
 
 ride 
 
 rode 
 
 ridden 
 
 ring 
 
 rang, rung 
 
 rung 
 
 rise 
 
 rose 
 
 risen 
 
 rive, r 
 
 rived 
 
 riven 
 
 run 
 
 ran 
 
 run 
 
 say- 
 
 said 
 
 said 
 
 see 
 
 saw 
 
 seen 
 
REFERENCE MATERIALS 
 
 179 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 PAST 
 
 PAST PARTICIPLE 
 
 seek 
 
 sought 
 
 sought 
 
 seethe 
 
 seethed (sod) 
 
 seethed (sodden) 
 
 sell 
 
 sold 
 
 sold 
 
 send 
 
 sent 
 
 sent 
 
 set 
 
 set 
 
 set 
 
 sew, r 
 
 sewed 
 
 sewn 
 
 shape 
 
 shaped 
 
 shaped (shapen) 
 
 shave 
 
 shaved 
 
 shaved (shaven) 
 
 shear, r 
 
 shore 
 
 shorn 
 
 shed 
 
 shed 
 
 shed 
 
 shine 
 
 shone (shined) 
 
 shone (shined) 
 
 shoe 
 
 shod 
 
 shod 
 
 shoot 
 
 shot 
 
 shot 
 
 show- 
 
 showed 
 
 shown, showed 
 
 shrink 
 
 shrunk, shrank 
 
 shrunk, shrunken 
 
 shut 
 
 shut 
 
 shut 
 
 sing 
 
 sang, sung 
 
 sung 
 
 sink 
 
 sunk, sank 
 
 sunk 
 
 sit 
 
 sat 
 
 sat 
 
 slay- 
 
 slew 
 
 slain 
 
 sleep 
 
 slept 
 
 slept 
 
 slide, r 
 
 slid 
 
 slidden, slid 
 
 sling 
 
 slung 
 
 slung 
 
 slink 
 
 slunk 
 
 slunk 
 
i8o 
 
 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 PAST 
 
 PAST PARTICIPLE 
 
 slit, r 
 
 slit 
 
 slit 
 
 smell, r 
 
 smelt 
 
 smelt 
 
 smite 
 
 smote 
 
 smitten 
 
 sow (scatter), r 
 
 sowed 
 
 sown 
 
 speak 
 
 spoke 
 
 spoken 
 
 speed 
 
 sped 
 
 sped 
 
 spell, r 
 
 spelt 
 
 spelt 
 
 spend 
 
 spent 
 
 spent 
 
 spill, r 
 
 spilt 
 
 spilt 
 
 spin 
 
 spun 
 
 spun 
 
 spit 
 
 spit 
 
 spit 
 
 split 
 
 split 
 
 split 
 
 spread 
 
 spread 
 
 spread 
 
 spring 
 
 sprang, sprung 
 
 sprung 
 
 stand, 
 
 stood 
 
 stood 
 
 stave, r 
 
 stove 
 
 stove 
 
 steal 
 
 stole 
 
 stolen 
 
 stick 
 
 stuck 
 
 stuck 
 
 sting 
 
 stung 
 
 stung 
 
 stride 
 
 strode, strid 
 
 stridden, strid 
 
 strike 
 
 struck 
 
 struck, stricken 
 
 string 
 
 strung 
 
 strung 
 
 strive 
 
 strove 
 
 striven 
 
 strow, r 
 
 strowed 
 
 strown 
 
REFERENCE MATERIALS 
 
 181 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 PAST 
 
 PAST PARTICIPLE 
 
 swear 
 
 swore 
 
 sworn 
 
 sweat, r 
 
 sweat 
 
 sweat 
 
 sweep 
 
 swept 
 
 swept 
 
 swell, r 
 
 swelled 
 
 swollen 
 
 swim 
 
 swam, swum 
 
 swum 
 
 swing 
 
 swung 
 
 swung 
 
 take 
 
 took 
 
 taken 
 
 teach 
 
 taught 
 
 taught 
 
 tear 
 
 tore 
 
 torn 
 
 tell 
 
 told 
 
 told 
 
 think 
 
 thought 
 
 thought 
 
 thrive, r 
 
 throve 
 
 thriven 
 
 throw 
 
 threw 
 
 thrown 
 
 thrust 
 
 thrust 
 
 thrust 
 
 tread 
 
 trod 
 
 trodden, trod 
 
 wear 
 
 wore 
 
 worn 
 
 weave 
 
 wove 
 
 woven, wove 
 
 weep 
 
 wept 
 
 wept 
 
 wet, r 
 
 wet 
 
 wet 
 
 whet, r 
 
 whet 
 
 whetted 
 
 win 
 
 won 
 
 won 
 
 wind 
 
 wound 
 
 wound 
 
 work, r 
 
 wrought 
 
 wrought 
 
 wring 
 
 wrung 
 
 wrung 
 
 write 
 
 wrote 
 
 written, writ 
 
182 
 
 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 HOMONYMS 
 
 The following lists of homonyms and abbreviations are taken 
 from Chancellor's Graded City Speller (The Macmillan Co.). 
 
 Exactly pronounced, these associated words are not in every 
 instance true homonyms. 
 
 air 
 
 ere 
 
 bough 
 
 bow 
 
 e'er 
 
 heir 
 
 brake 
 
 break 
 
 aisle 
 
 isle 
 
 buy- 
 
 by 
 
 all 
 
 awl 
 
 caster 
 
 castor 
 
 altar 
 
 alter 
 
 cause 
 
 caws 
 
 arc 
 
 ark 
 
 ceiling 
 
 sealing 
 
 ate 
 
 eight 
 
 cell 
 
 sell 
 
 bail 
 
 bale 
 
 cellar 
 
 seller 
 
 ball 
 
 bawl 
 
 cite 
 
 site 
 
 bare 
 
 bear 
 
 sight 
 
 
 base 
 
 bass 
 
 scent 
 
 sent 
 
 be 
 
 bee 
 
 cent 
 
 
 beach 
 
 beech 
 
 choir 
 
 quire 
 
 beat 
 
 beet 
 
 climb 
 
 clime 
 
 beau 
 
 bow 
 
 coarse 
 
 course 
 
 been 
 
 bin 
 
 creak 
 
 creek 
 
 bell 
 
 belle 
 
 currant 
 
 current 
 
 berth 
 
 birth 
 
 dear 
 
 deer 
 
 blew 
 
 blue 
 
 dew 
 
 due 
 
 boar 
 
 bore 
 
 dye 
 
 die 
 
 board 
 
 bored 
 
 earn 
 
 urn 
 
REFERENCE MATERIALS 
 
 183 
 
 eye 
 
 
 him 
 
 hymn 
 
 ay 
 
 aye 
 
 hoes 
 
 hose 
 
 eyelet 
 
 islet 
 
 hole 
 
 whole 
 
 fair 
 
 fare 
 
 hour 
 
 our 
 
 false 
 
 faults 
 
 in 
 
 inn 
 
 feat 
 
 feet 
 
 jam 
 
 jamb 
 
 fir 
 
 fur 
 
 knead 
 
 need 
 
 flea 
 
 flee 
 
 knew 
 
 new 
 
 flew 
 
 flue 
 
 know 
 
 no 
 
 flour 
 
 flower 
 
 lain 
 
 lane 
 
 fore 
 
 four 
 
 lead 
 
 led 
 
 foul 
 
 fowl 
 
 lessen 
 
 lesson 
 
 gait 
 
 gate 
 
 loan 
 
 lone 
 
 grate 
 
 great 
 
 lute 
 
 loot 
 
 grease 
 
 Greece 
 
 made 
 
 maid 
 
 groan 
 
 grown 
 
 mail 
 
 male 
 
 guessed 
 
 guest 
 
 main 
 
 mane 
 
 hair 
 
 hare 
 
 mantel 
 
 mantle 
 
 hall 
 
 haul 
 
 meat 
 
 mete 
 
 hart 
 
 heart 
 
 meet 
 
 
 heal 
 
 heel 
 
 medal 
 
 meddle 
 
 hear 
 
 here 
 
 might 
 
 mite 
 
 heard 
 
 herd 
 
 missed 
 
 mist 
 
 hew 
 
 hue 
 
 moan 
 
 mown 
 
 higher 
 
 hire 
 
 mourn 
 
 morn 
 
1 84 
 
 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 muscle 
 
 mussel 
 
 rite 
 
 write 
 
 knot 
 
 not 
 
 rain 
 
 rein 
 
 nay 
 
 neigh 
 
 reign 
 
 
 none 
 
 nun 
 
 rice 
 
 rise 
 
 oar 
 
 ore 
 
 ring 
 
 wring 
 
 o'er 
 
 
 reck 
 
 wreck 
 
 ode 
 
 owed 
 
 rye 
 
 wry 
 
 one 
 
 won 
 
 road 
 
 rowed 
 
 pail 
 
 pale 
 
 rode 
 
 
 pain 
 
 pane 
 
 rough 
 
 ruff 
 
 pause 
 
 paws 
 
 rose 
 
 rows 
 
 pair 
 
 pear 
 
 sail 
 
 sale 
 
 pare 
 
 
 scene 
 
 seen 
 
 peace 
 
 piece 
 
 sea 
 
 see 
 
 peal 
 
 peel 
 
 seam 
 
 seem 
 
 plain 
 
 plane 
 
 sew 
 
 sow 
 
 plait 
 
 plate 
 
 so 
 
 
 pore 
 
 pour 
 
 shone 
 
 shown 
 
 pray 
 
 prey 
 
 sighs 
 
 size 
 
 pride 
 
 pried 
 
 scull 
 
 skull 
 
 profit 
 
 prophet 
 
 slay 
 
 sleigh 
 
 quarts 
 
 quartz 
 
 soar 
 
 sore 
 
 read 
 
 reed 
 
 sole 
 
 soul 
 
 read 
 
 red 
 
 some 
 
 sum 
 
 right 
 
 wrig 
 
 son 
 
 sun 
 
REFERENCE MATERIALS 
 
 185 
 
 stare 
 
 steak 
 
 steel 
 
 straight 
 
 tail 
 
 the 
 
 their 
 
 throne 
 
 threw 
 
 to 
 
 too 
 
 Ai. 
 
 abbr. 
 acct. 
 A.D. 
 
 agt. 
 A.B. 
 
 A.M. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 amt. 
 
 anon. 
 
 stair 
 
 stake 
 
 steal 
 
 strait 
 
 tale 
 
 thee 
 
 there 
 
 thrown 
 
 through 
 
 two 
 
 vail 
 
 vale 
 
 vain 
 
 vane 
 
 wade 
 
 waist 
 
 wait 
 
 way 
 
 weak 
 
 wood 
 
 wooed 
 
 veil 
 
 vein 
 
 weighed 
 
 waste 
 
 weight 
 
 weigh 
 
 week 
 
 would 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS 
 
 first class asso. 
 
 abbreviation asst. 
 account bal. 
 
 In the year of B.C. 
 our Lord B.L. 
 
 agent chap., ch 
 
 Bachelor of Arts coll. 
 Master of Arts, Co. 
 before noon C.O.D 
 
 America Col. 
 
 amount Cr. 
 
 anonymous do. 
 
 association 
 
 assistant 
 
 balance 
 
 before Christ 
 
 bill of lading 
 
 . chapter 
 collect 
 
 company, county 
 cash on delivery 
 Colonel 
 credit, creditor 
 ditto, the same 
 
1 86 
 
 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 D.C. 
 
 District of Co- 
 
 inv. 
 
 invoice 
 
 
 lumbia 
 
 Jr. 
 
 Junior 
 
 D.D. 
 
 Doctor of Divin- 
 
 lat. 
 
 latitude 
 
 
 ity 
 
 Lt., Lieut. Lieutenant 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Doctor, debt, 
 
 LL.D. 
 
 Doctor of Laws 
 
 
 debtor 
 
 long. 
 
 longitude 
 
 Ed. 
 
 Editor, edition 
 
 M. 
 
 noon, thousand 
 
 e.g. 
 
 for example 
 
 Maj. 
 
 Major 
 
 Esq. 
 
 Esquire 
 
 M.C. 
 
 Member of Con- 
 
 et. al. 
 
 and others 
 
 
 gress 
 
 etc., &c. 
 
 and so forth 
 
 M.D. 
 
 Doctor of Medi- 
 
 F. Fahr. 
 
 Fahrenheit 
 
 
 cine 
 
 f.o.b. 
 
 free on board 
 
 mdse. 
 
 merchandise 
 
 G.A.R. 
 
 Grand Army of 
 
 mem. 
 
 memorandum 
 
 
 the Republic 
 
 Messrs. 
 
 gentlemen 
 
 Gen. 
 
 General 
 
 mfg. 
 
 manufacturing 
 
 Gov. 
 
 Governor 
 
 Nat. 
 
 National 
 
 hdkf. 
 
 handkerchief 
 
 N.B. 
 
 take notice 
 
 hist. 
 
 history 
 
 N.E. 
 
 northeast, 
 
 Hon. 
 
 Honorable 
 
 
 New England 
 
 i.e. 
 
 that is 
 
 N.W. 
 
 northwest 
 
 ins. 
 
 insurance 
 
 O.K. 
 
 all right 
 
 in st. 
 
 instant, present 
 
 payt. 
 
 payment 
 
 
 month 
 
 Ph.D. 
 
 Doctor of Phi- 
 
 int. 
 
 interest 
 
 V 
 
 losophy 
 
REFERENCE MATERIALS 
 
 I8 7 
 
 pi. 
 
 P.M. 
 
 P.O. 
 
 pop. 
 
 pr. ct. 
 
 Pres. 
 
 Prin. 
 
 Prof. 
 
 prox. 
 
 P.S. 
 
 ques. 
 
 reed. 
 
 recpt. 
 
 Rep. 
 
 R.R. 
 
 Rev. 
 
 Rt. Rev 
 
 plural 
 
 afternoon, 
 
 Postmaster 
 
 Post-Office 
 
 population 
 
 per cent 
 
 President 
 
 Principal 
 
 Professor 
 
 next month 
 
 postscript 
 
 question 
 
 received 
 
 receipt 
 
 Representative 
 
 Railroad 
 
 Reverend 
 
 Right Reverend 
 
 Ry. Railway 
 
 Sec. Secretary 
 
 Sen. Senator 
 
 sing. singular 
 
 Soc. Society 
 
 Sr. Senior 
 
 S.S. Sunday School 
 
 Supt. Superintendent 
 
 S.W. southwest 
 
 Treas. Treasurer 
 
 ult. last month 
 
 V.P. Vice-President 
 
 vol. volume 
 
 W.C.T.U. Women's Chris- 
 tian Temperance Union 
 
 wt. weight 
 
 Y.M.C.A.Young Men's 
 Christian Association 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Apr. 
 
 May 
 
 Jan'u a ry 
 Feb'ru a ry 
 March 
 A'pril 
 May 
 
 June June 
 
 July Ju ly' 
 
 Aug. Au'gust 
 
 Sept. Sep tem'ber 
 
 Oct. Oc to'ber 
 
 Nov. No vem'ber 
 
 Dec. De cem'ber 
 
i88 
 
 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Sun' day 
 
 gi- 
 
 gill 
 
 ans. 
 
 an'swer 
 
 Mon. 
 
 Mon'day 
 
 pt. 
 
 pint 
 
 fig- 
 
 fig'ure 
 
 Tues. 
 
 Tues' day 
 
 qt. 
 
 quart 
 
 A.M. 
 
 morn'ing 
 
 Wed. 
 
 Wednesday gal. 
 
 gal' Ion 
 
 P.M. 
 
 aft'er noon 
 
 Thurs.Thurs'day 
 
 pk. 
 
 peck 
 
 St. 
 
 street 
 
 Fri. 
 
 Fri' day 
 
 bu. 
 
 bush' el 
 
 Ave. 
 
 av'e nue 
 
 Sat. 
 
 Sat'ur day 
 
 bbl. 
 
 barrel 
 
 No. 
 
 num'ber 
 
 sec. 
 
 sec'ond 
 
 lb. 
 
 pound 
 
 Mr. 
 
 Mis'ter 
 
 min. 
 
 min'ute 
 
 oz. 
 
 ounce 
 
 Mrs. 
 
 Mis' tress 
 
 hr. 
 
 hour 
 
 doz. 
 
 doz' en 
 
 (" 
 
 Missis ") 
 
 da. 
 
 day 
 
 in. 
 
 inch 
 
 
 SIGNS 
 
 wk. 
 
 week 
 
 ft. 
 
 feet 
 
 $ 
 
 dol'lar 
 
 mo. 
 
 month 
 
 yd. 
 
 yard 
 
 t 
 
 cent 
 
 yr. 
 
 year 
 
 mi. 
 
 mile 
 
 # 
 
 num'ber 
 
 eer, 
 
 ever 
 
 ne'er, 
 
 never 
 
 I'm, 
 
 I am 
 
 I've, 
 
 I have 
 
 I'll, 
 
 I will 
 
 I'd, 
 
 I would 
 
 I'd, 
 
 I had 
 
 isn't, 
 
 is not 
 
 CONTRACTIONS 
 
 aren't, are not 
 
 wasn't, was not 
 
 weren't, were not 
 
 hasn't, has not 
 
 haven't, have not 
 
 hadn't, had not 
 
 don't, do not 
 
 doesn't, does not 
 
REFERENCE MATERIALS 
 
 189 
 
 didn't, 
 
 we're, 
 
 he's, 
 
 there's, 
 
 what's, 
 
 won't, 
 
 did not 
 we are 
 he is 
 there is 
 what is 
 will not 
 
 wouldn't, would not 
 
 shouldn't, should not 
 
 sha'n't, shall not 
 
 I'll, I shall 
 
 can't, 
 
 'tis, 
 
 he's, 
 
 you're, 
 
 you'll, 
 
 it's, 
 
 e'en, 
 
 let's, 
 
 that's, 
 
 daren't, 
 
 cannot 
 it is 
 he is 
 you are 
 you will 
 it is 
 even 
 let us 
 that is 
 dare not 
 
 USE OF CAPITALS 
 
 Begin with a capital : — 
 
 1. The first word of a sentence and of a line of 
 
 poetry. 
 
 2. Every proper noun and proper adjective; as, 
 
 Boston, English. 
 
 3. Every name or title of the Deity. 
 
 4. Names of the months of the year and days of 
 the week, but not the seasons unless personified. 
 
 5. The chief words in the title of a book, poem, or 
 essay; as, The King of the Golden River. 
 
 6. Titles of respect; as, His Excellency the Gov- 
 ernor of Illinois. 
 
I90 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 7. The first word in a direct quotation, except 
 when it is only a part of a sentence. 
 
 8. The pronoun / and the interjections O and Oh. 
 
 RULES FOR SPELLING 
 
 1. Final silent c is omitted before a suffix begin- 
 ning with a vowel; as, ride> riding. But in the 
 endings ce and ge, the e is retained before suffixes 
 beginning with a, o, and u\ as, service, serviceable. 
 
 There are a few exceptions; as, dyeing, shoeing, 
 singei?ig. 
 
 2. Final e is usually retained before a suffix begin- 
 ning with a consonant; as, white, whiteness. There 
 are a few exceptions ; as, wholly, truly, and judgment. 
 
 3. Monosyllables and words accented on the last 
 syllable ending in a single consonant preceded by a 
 single vowel double the final consonant before a suffix 
 beginning with a vowel ; as, running, forgetting. 
 
 4. Words ending in a double consonant usually 
 retain it on adding a suffix ; as, fell, felling. 
 
 5. Words ending in a double consonant usually 
 retain it in adding a prefix ; as, farewell. 
 
 6. Final y preceded by a consonant is usually 
 changed to i before all suffixes except those begin- 
 ning with i; as, happy, happiness, carry, carrying. 
 
REFERENCE MATERIALS 191 
 
 7. Final y preceded by a vowel is usually retained 
 before a suffix; as, journey, journeying. 
 
 PUNCTUATION MARKS 
 
 i. The period is used after declarative and impera- 
 tive sentences, and after abbreviations. 
 
 2. The comma is used : — 
 
 (a) After an address. 
 
 (b) Before and after a direct quotation. 
 
 (e) To separate parts of a series of words or 
 phrases. 
 
 (d) To set off appositives and some other modi- 
 
 fiers. 
 
 (e) To break up a sentence into parts. 
 
 3. The semicolon is used to separate the parts of 
 compound sentences where conjunctions are omitted, 
 and to separate coordinate clauses which are them- 
 selves broken up by commas. 
 
 4. The colon is used where a list or enumeration 
 is to follow, and in long compound and complex sen- 
 tences whose lesser parts are separated by semi- 
 colons. 
 
 5. Quotation marks are used to enclose every 
 direct quotation. 
 
 6. The apostrophe is to show the omission of 
 
192 SPECIAL METHOD IN LANGUAGE 
 
 letters in contractions, to mark the possessive of 
 nouns and the plurals of letters and figures. 
 
 BOOKS FOR TEACHERS 
 
 A few of the best books for teachers who wish to 
 study the problem of language teaching are given as 
 follows : — 
 
 The Teaching of English (Chubb). The Macmillan 
 Company. 
 
 A very excellent and comprehensive treatment of 
 the whole subject of teaching English. 
 
 The Teaching of English (Carpenter, Baker, and 
 Scott). Longmans. 
 
 A recent and valuable treatise on the teaching of 
 English in elementary and secondary schools. 
 
 The Teaching of the Language Arts (Hinsdale). 
 D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 Paragraph Writing (Scott and Denny). Allyn and 
 Bacon. 
 
 Talks on Writing English (Arlo Bates). Houghton, 
 Mifflin & Co. First and second series. 
 
 Elementary Composition (Webster). Houghton, 
 Mifflin & Co. 
 
 A First Book in Writing English (Lewis). The 
 Macmillan Company. 
 
Methods in Elementary Education 
 
 A SERIES OF EDUCATIONAL BOOKS IN TWO GROUPS COVERING THE 
 
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF METHOD AND ITS SPECIAL 
 
 APPLICATIONS TO THE COMMON SCHOOL 
 
 By CHARLES A. McMURRY, Ph.D. 
 
 Northern Illinois State Normal School, De Kalb, III. 
 
 The Elements of General Method 
 
 Based on the ideas of Herbart. New edition, revised and enlarged. Cloth. i2mo. 
 331 pp. 90 cents net. (Postage 10 cents.) 
 
 The Method of the Recitation 
 
 New edition, revised and enlarged. Cloth. i2mo. 339 pp. 90 cents net. (Postage 10 
 cents.) 
 
 Special Method in the Reading of Complete English 
 Classics in the Common Schools 
 
 Cloth. i2mo. 254 pp. 75 cents net. (Postage 9 cents.) 
 
 Special Method in Primary Reading and Oral Work with 
 Stories 
 
 Cloth. i2mo. 198 pp. 75 cents net. (Postage 8 cents.) 
 
 Special Method in Geography 
 
 New edition, revised and enlarged. Cloth. i2mo. 228 pp. 70 cents net. (Postage 
 9 cents.) 
 
 Special Method in History 
 
 A complete outline of a course of study in history, for the grades below the high school. 
 New edition, revised and enlarged. Cloth. i2mo. 291 pp. 75 cents net. (Postage 
 9 cents.) 
 
 Special Method in Elementary Science for the Common 
 School 
 
 Cloth. i2mo. 285 pp. 75 cents net. (Postage 10 cents.) 
 
 Special Method in Arithmetic 
 
 Cloth. i2mo. 200 pp. 
 
 Type Studies from the Geography of the United States 
 
 First Series 
 
 Cloth. i2mo. 382 pp. 50 cents net. 
 
 Excursions and Lessons in Home Geography 
 
 Cloth. i2mo. 184 pp. 50 cents net. 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 64-66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK 
 
PIONEER HISTORY SERIES 
 
 By CHARLES A. McMURRY 
 
 Designed as a complete series of early history stories of the Eastern, 
 Middle, and Western States, suitable as an introduction for 
 children to American History. Illustrated and equipped with 
 maps. 
 
 Cloth i2mo 40 cents each 
 
 Pioneers on Land and Sea 
 
 The first of the three volumes deals with the chief ocean explorers, 
 Columbus and Magellan, and with the pioneers of the Eastern States, 
 Canada, and Mexico, such as Champlain, Smith, Hudson, De Leon, Cortes. 
 These stories furnish the gateway through which the children of our Atlantic 
 States should enter the fields of History. The attempt is to render these 
 complete and interesting stories, making the experiences of pioneer life as 
 graphic and real as possible. 
 
 Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley 
 
 Such men as La Salle, Boone, Robertson, George Rogers Clark, Lincoln, 
 and Sevier supply a group of simple biographical stories which give the 
 children a remarkably good introduction to History. Teachers are begin- 
 ning to believe that children should begin with tales of their own home and 
 of neighboring states, and then move outward from this centre. For eastern 
 children these stories form a very suitable continuation to " Pioneers on 
 Land and Sea," and vice versa. 
 
 Pioneers of the Rocky Mountains and the West 
 
 In some respects these western stories are more interesting and striking 
 than those of the states farther east, because of their physical surroundings. 
 Children of the Western or Mountain States should enjoy these stories first. 
 The various exploring expeditions which opened up the routes across the 
 plains and mountains are full of interesting and instructive incidents and 
 of heroic enterprise. The chief figures in these stories are men of the most 
 striking and admirable qualities, and the difficulties and dangers which they 
 overcame place them among the heroes who will always attract and instruct 
 American children. Incidentally, these narratives give the best of all intro- 
 ductions to western geography. They are largely made up from source 
 materials furnished by the explorers themselves. 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 64-66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK 
 
 BOSTON CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO ATLANTA 
 
JUN