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 THE 
 
 United Stmtes 
 
 ITS 
 
 j^istory, pi^ysical aqd Political G<-*<>iirapl\v, 
 
 ^latcrial Pcsoarces aqd Irjdlistrial 
 
 l")cVcIoi)iijerjt. 
 
 ACCOMPANIED BY 
 
 Statistical Tables, Maps, Etc. 
 
 t ^ 
 
 " BV 
 
 Sktu^uel F=HULOiniS. 7VT. K.. D. D., 
 
 LATE PROFESSOR OF I'lIVSrcS IN LAWKKNCK 
 UNIVERSITY. 
 
 CHICAGO: 
 
 R. S. PEALE & CO. 
 
 1«90. 
 
COPYRIGHT 
 
 % 
 
 • 1890. .•.•.•■•■•■•• 
 
 
U N 1 T i: 1 ) S T A T E S . 
 
 PAI;T I -HISTORY AM) COLONIZATION. 
 
 I. DISCOVEUY AND SKTTl.KMENT V)K AMEUICA. 
 
 i:nrly voy- 1. fT\IIE ilnte on ■which Aincricti wns first discovered 
 Ifscoverics -L l>y Europeaus is a mi.llur of uncerlainty. The 
 le.L'ciids R'SiK'Cliiif;; lliu early voyages liillier 
 are numerous, but llie most aneieiit of them arc doubt- 
 less tictions. No aeeouiil of the <li coveries, previous 
 to the lime of Coliimluis, can be relied upon, e.xoeptinj; 
 tlio.;e nmde by the Icelanders, who. about the year 
 1000, attemptcil to colonize the country, but willioul 
 L any pernmneni success. It was not until the coming 
 
 I of "Columl)Us. in 14!fJ. that any bemfit was derived by 
 
 ' the old world from the discovery of the great continent 
 
 of America. 
 
 The success of Columbus aroused the spirit of enter- 
 prise, and other voyages were made, notably those of 
 the Cabots in 1497 98. Ponce de Leon in 1512, and Ver- 
 razzano in 1.523. under the allspices of the English, 
 Spanish and French governments, respec'ively. The 
 Spaniards gave the name of "Florida" to North Amer- 
 ica, while the French called it "Canadaor New France," 
 and these two nations iu some way conceived the idea 
 that the whole country belonged to them. 
 Bffprt-^ 2. But the English had notforgotten that the Cabots, 
 
 ''1? with English ships, had first reached thu mainland of 
 North America, and from this fact they laid claim to 
 the northern part of that continent. Many unsuccess- 
 ful attempts were made by Englishmen to found colo- 
 nies. The fir>t of these was Sir Humphrey (iilbert who 
 mide two efforts, one in 1.578. and the other in 158;i, 
 without success, and lost his life in a storm while re- 
 turning home. Sir Waller Raleigh, Gilbert's half- 
 broiher, obtained a patent from Queen Elizabeth, and 
 in 1.584 sent out two sliips, commanded by Amidas and 
 Barlow, to fix upon a place for a settlement. They ex- 
 plor d the coast of what is now North Carolina. Struck 
 with the beauty and fertility of the co\intry, they gave 
 a most nattering account of it on their return home, 
 and Raleigh named it Virginia, in honor of the ''virgin 
 queen " Elizabeth. In the spring of 1.5S5 he sent out a 
 colony which settled on Roanoke Island, but it was 
 starvcil out in the same year. Again, in 1587, Raleigh 
 sent out another colony under White to the same place, 
 but it entirely disappeared, and no trace of it could be 
 found when While came back three years later. In 
 1002. Gosnola, with twenty colonists, took a short and 
 direct route, and came upon the coast of Massachu-setts. 
 He %vinl(rcd upon an island in the vicinity and then 
 went back, taking the colonists, who refused to stay 
 any longer, with him 
 
 3. In 1C06. .James I granted a charter to two com- 
 panies formed in England. This charter gave them 
 the whole continent of North America, from the thirty- 
 fourth to the forty-fifth parallel of latitude. The one 
 called the Plymouth Company was to take the northern 
 half, and the other, the London company, the southern 
 half, and their nearest settlements must be a hundred 
 miles apart. Moreover, each colony was to be governed 
 by a resident council appointed by the king, with power 
 to chooseoneof their own number for president. 
 
 4. The earliest attempts at colonization under the 
 : ^'"""'new English patent were made by the I'lymouth com- 
 pany, but the expeditions which tlu y sent out in KiOti, 
 1C"7 and 1608, were unsuccessful, and it was left for 
 the London company to found the first permanent Eng- 
 lish settlement in the new world. In KiOti this com 
 pany sent out about a hundred men, mostly aclvcntur- 
 ers. in a fleet of three vessels comman<ied by Christopher 
 Newport. Being driven by a storm into Chesapeake 
 Bay, he found there a fine river which he named the 
 
 James liver, after the ting, and choo>ing a low penin- 
 sula, he there plii"led the colony of Jamestown on May 
 13. I(ili7. But very soon the colonists became dissatis- 
 fied. Dissensions arose and Wingfleld, president of 
 the council, was deposed. They sutlered from starva- 
 tion, and had it n<it been for the indefatigable exertions 
 of Captain John Smiili, the settlement would have en- 
 tirely broken up. The colonists experienced many 
 vitMssitudes, but after a few years they became pros- 
 perous and the permanent settlement of Virginia was 
 established. In the meantime, the policy of the L(mdon 
 cora|)any toward the settlers became more liberal, and 
 a representative government was granted them in 1(J19, 
 which was the beginning in America of government by 
 the people. In the same year a Dutch vessel brought 
 in some negroes who were purchased by the planters, 
 and thus slavery was first introduced into the English 
 colonies. 
 
 5. The first settlers of Massachusetts were a band of 
 Purit.ms, or Separatists, as they were called, because 
 they had so(iarateil from the Church of England. Being 
 driven from England, they sought refuge in Llolland; 
 but wishing to iiud a home in the new world for them- 
 selves and their children, they returned to England 
 again, and from thence a baud of 103 set sail in the 
 MayHower, and landed at Plymouth, in America, De- 
 cember 21, lt)20. The lil tic colony survived the rigors 
 of a northern winter, the burden of poverty, and the 
 lack of food, and became permanently established. 
 
 G. In l(i28 John Endicott, with a companj". made a 
 settlement at Salem; other towns, also, sprang up 
 around it, and these were all united under a charter 
 obtained from Charles I, with the name of the Massa- 
 chuselts Hay colony. These two colonies, Plymouth 
 and Massachusetts Bay. were for many years independ- 
 ent of one another; but were al last united in 1G93, 
 under the n.inie of Massachusetts. 
 
 7. In Hi24, the London ccmipany surrendered its 
 charter to the king, who made a disposition of the ter- 
 riiory which they had controlled, as he thought fit. A 
 part of it was granted to Lord Baltimore in 1633. and 
 received the name of Maryland. All the country be- 
 tween the English settlements of Virginia and the 
 Spanish ]iosts in Florida was called Carolina. This ter- 
 ritory comprised the present states of North Carolina, 
 South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama and part of Florida. 
 In 172!) North and South Carolina were organized, and 
 in 1733 Georgia was colonized by James Oglethorpe, 
 and Savannah founded. Thus, out of the territory, 
 originally granteil to the London company, five colo- 
 nies had been formed. 
 
 8. To the territory granted to the Plymouth com- 
 pany, the nanu' New Ivngland had been given by Cap- 
 tain JdIui Smith in 11)14. The founding of the Ply- 
 mouth and Massachusetts Bay colonics has already 
 been mention<'d. The greater number of the people 
 who came from Englandin the great Puritan migra- 
 tion, sellle<l in the latter colony. At the same time 
 many found it expedient to seek other parts of New 
 England. Now only did new-comers thus try new 
 places, but the older settlements began to send out com- 
 panies. In 1023 New Hampshire was first colonized 
 under a grant to Captain John Mason and Sir Ferdi- 
 nand Gorges. Connecticut and Rhode Island also be- 
 caim colonies, and were afterward chartered by the 
 crown in 1002 and 1003. Thus, out of that part of the 
 country originally granted to the Plymouth company, 
 were formed the colonies of Massachusetts, Connecti- 
 cut, New Hampshire and Rhode Island. Maine was con- 
 sidered a part of Massachusetts and was not counted as 
 
 Plymoutli 
 
 coluuy. 
 
 Mii«hnrtia- 
 -ills H;iy 
 colony. 
 
 Maryland. 
 
 rarol'ina. 
 
 Georgia. 
 
 Ttic ollur 
 
 Eitirlniul 
 colouics 
 
 Xew 
 Uunipsbiri'. 
 
 Conin'cti- 
 cut and 
 Khodc 
 Ixland. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 a separate colony among those that finally combined to 
 form the original thirteen states. The territory now 
 occupied by Vermont was claimed in part by New 
 Yorls, in part by New Hampshire, and she did not be- 
 come a separate state until after the revolutionary war. 
 9. As has been said, the charter granted to the Lon- 
 don and Plymouth companies provided that theirnear- 
 est settlements should be one hundred miles apart, 
 thus leaving a strip of territory between the two main 
 grants which was really neutral ground, and was never 
 appropriated by either company. The Spaniards bad 
 confined their explorations to the south and made set- 
 tlements there, but they claimed the whole continent 
 north of them. The French had established themselves 
 in the north, and held Canada and part of the northern 
 states; they claimed everything south of them and 
 called the whole New France. The English settle- 
 ments were midway between the French and Spanish, 
 and the English claimed everything from New England 
 and Carolina westward to the Pacific, naming it all 
 Virginia. Thus, so far, North America was divided 
 between the three European powers, England, France 
 and Spain. 
 The rise of JO. A fourth power now appeared. In 1609, the 
 Dnw?r""^'' Dutch East India company sent out Henry Hudson, an 
 ■ Englishman in their employ, in the ship named the 
 "Half Moon" to make discoveries in America. He 
 reached the continent and explored the coast as far 
 south as Virginia, then turning to the north he entered 
 the mouth of the river which bears his name, and sailed 
 up the stream as far as the present city of Albany. 
 Having completed his discovery he returned home. 
 Upon the strength of Hudson's explorations, Holland 
 laid claim to all the land along the great river, and 
 called the whole territory New Netherlands. In 1631, 
 the Dutch West India company was formed, and im- 
 mediately received large grants of land on both sides 
 of the Hudson extending from the Connecticut river on 
 the north to the Delaware river on the south. Previous 
 to this, however, a Dutch settlement had been founded 
 in 1614, on Manhattan Island, the present site of New 
 York City, which was afterwards called New Amster- 
 dam. 
 
 The Dutch now began to establish settlements and 
 trading posts in their possessions, which included that 
 neutral territory lying between the original grants to 
 the London and Plymouth companies. In 1638, Dela- 
 The ^are was colonized by the Swedes, who founded a set- 
 
 co'ion'v tlement on Delaware Bay, which was called New Swe- 
 den. But disputes about a territory arose between the 
 Swedish and Dutch colonists, which led to a war be- 
 tween them, ending in the final surrender of New Swe- 
 den to the New Netherlands in 1655. 
 End or the n gut New Netherlands was soon destined to change 
 p "wer hands. The introduction of a foreign element between 
 the northern and southern portions of the English colo- 
 nies had always been recognized as a source of trouble 
 and danger, and in fact the Dutch settlers, occupying 
 territory claimed by the English on both sides of them, 
 were continually involved in disputes with their neigh- 
 bors, especially with those of Connecticut. War hav- 
 ing arisen between England & Holland, the English 
 king, Charles II, determined to seize the Dutch posses- 
 sions in North America; so in 1664 he granted the whole 
 of their territory to his brother, the Duke of York. In 
 the same year the duke sent out three vessels under the 
 command of Colonel Nichols.who, upon arriving in the 
 harbor of New Amsterdam, demanded a surrender of 
 the territory to his English majesty. Governor Stuyve- 
 sant, being unprepared for defense, complied with the 
 demand, and the whole country passed into the hands 
 of the English. In honor of the duke, the name New 
 New York. Amsterdam was changed to New York, and the whole 
 territory received the same name. 
 
 13. After the Duke of York had gained possession of 
 the Dutch territory, he in turn sold the southern part of 
 
 it to two English noblemen. Lord Berkely and Sir 
 George Carteret. This tract, in compliment to Sir 
 George, who had been governor of the island of Jersey, 
 was called New Jersey. A liberal constitution was New 
 formed by the proprietors, and Philip Carteret ap- "'"^'^y- 
 pointed governor. The Dutch had several small trad- 
 ing stations in this territory at an earlier date, and the 
 Quakers, having bought the rights of Lord Berkely, 
 came soon afterwards. In 1676 a division was made, 
 the Quakers taking West Jersey and Carteret retaining 
 East Jersey, which became Puritan. In 1702 the colony 
 was given up by the proprietors to Queen Anne in order 
 that a royal governor might be appointed, and the two 
 provinces were then made into one. 
 
 13. The territory comprised within the limits of the Pemisyl- 
 state of Pennsylvania was granted in 1681, by Charles ^■'""*- 
 II to William Penn. sou of Admiral Penn, in payment 
 
 of an old debt due from the crown to the Penn family. 
 In 1083, the present state of Delaware, then known as Delaware, 
 the "Territories," was added to his domain, and re- 
 garded as a part of Pennsylvania, but in 1703 it became 
 a separate colony. Thus, the formation of the original The 
 thirteen colonies has been described. The Loudon °^'||°e„ 
 Company's territory furnished five, viz: Virginia, colonies. 
 Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia. 
 The Plymouth Company's grant, comprising New Eng- 
 land, gave four, viz: Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode 
 Island and New Hampshire. The neutral territory in- 
 cluded between the original grants to the two companies 
 furnished four, viz: New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl- 
 vania and Delaware. 
 
 14. It is in vain to look for well balanced constitutions /^Jq™ „" " 
 in the earlier periods of colonial history. England jt,(. coiouiea 
 herself can scarcely boastof having a fixed constitution 
 previous to the revolution in the year 1688, a period sub- 
 sequent to the settlement of the colonies. The legal 
 
 and constitutional history of the colonies, therefore, af- 
 fords but little instruction. As has been shown, in less 
 than eighty years from the first permanent English set- 
 tlement in North America, the two original patents 
 granted to the Plymouth and London companies were di- 
 vided and subdivided into twelve distinct and uncon- 
 nected provinces; and in fifty years more a thirteenth, 
 Georgia, was added to the southern extreme of the 
 previous establishments. To each of these, after vari- 
 ous changes, there was ultimately granted a form of 
 government resembling in its most essential parts, as 
 far as local circumstances would permit, that which was 
 established in the parent state. Without entering into 
 details, it may be observed, in general, that agreeably 
 to the spirit of the British constitution, ample provision 
 was made for the liberty of the colonists. The colonial 
 forms of government were, in the main, unhampered 
 by the royal prerogatives. In some of the provinces 
 the inhabitants chose their own governors and all other 
 public officers, and their legislators were under little or 
 no outside control. In others, the crown delegated most 
 of its powers to particular persons, who were also in- 
 vested with the property of the soil. To those colonies 
 which were most immediately dependent upon the king 
 were granted the same rights and privileges as their 
 fellow subjects in the mother countiy. , ^ ,,„. „, 
 
 15. During the period of colonization, three forms of ^ormsof 
 government were observable— proprietary, cnarter and |^g^,_ 
 royal. The proprietors of land grants offered liberal 
 governmental privileges to those who were willing to 
 lettle on their lands, and thus several of t,he colonies 
 became proprietary. These were Maryland, Carolina, 
 Georgia New York, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania 
 (also including Delaware) and New Jersey. Some of 
 the proprietors becoming tired of their grants, surren- 
 dered them to the crown, and the colonies, established 
 in such territory, became royal provinces, over which 
 the king appointed governors with the power of abso- 
 lute veto on legislation. The colonies thus coming un- 
 der the royal authority were, North Carolina, South 
 
UNITED S T A T ]■: S 
 
 Colonies 
 Dudt-r a 
 cfaurl<T 
 govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Ktiulish 
 policy 
 lowurd the 
 colouiHts.i 
 
 Growih 
 and pros- 
 per: y of 
 Ih" colo- 
 dU'S. 
 
 Caases of 
 iiirrciisu 
 in popula- 
 tion. 
 
 Social life 
 and ons- 
 lonis oi 
 New 
 England. 
 
 Carolina, Georsia, New York, Now Ilumpshire and 
 Ni-w .KTsey. \ irginia became a roval provi<ice about 
 lout. Ihrec colonies, only, remained proprietary 
 down to the Revolution; these were Pennsylvania Del- 
 aware (now a separate colony) and New jersey. ' The 
 colonies ortrnnizcd under a charter !;overnmeut were 
 Mas-inehusells, Coiineclicut am'. Hhode Island. These 
 charters were granteil by royal authority, and irave the 
 colonists the right of choosin- their own ollicers and 
 makimr and enforcinir their own laws as they thouicht 
 best L pon the accession of James II to the throne 'he 
 held that all the colonial lands in New England be- 
 Ioni,'( a to I he crown. Accordingly he sent over Sit Ed- 
 mund Andros. who was to revok-! all the charters and 
 assume the governorship of the province of New Eng- 
 land iiml New York. The charier of Jlassacliuselts was 
 annulled in 1(!S4. but Connecticut and l{hode Island re- 
 tained Iheirs in spile of the royal aiilhorily In 1G92 a 
 new chart, r was granted to Massachusetts; but under'its 
 conditions s'e partly became a royal province 
 
 Ifi Forllie first cenlury and a half after the settle- 
 ment of I ho colonies. England, in the main, exercised 
 aw-^eaud .iberal policy toward them. .She allowed 
 them 10 govern themselves by such laws as their local 
 !efe'isU'ures ll.ought necessary, and left their trudeopen 
 to every individual in her dominions. She also gave 
 thetu lull permission topursue theirrespecliveintcrests 
 III such a manner as they thought proper, and reserved 
 little for herself but the benefit of their trade, and that 
 or a political union under the same bead. This indul- 
 gence had a very marked effect upon the growth and 
 prosperity of the col-.nies. They increased in wealth 
 numbers and resources with a rapidity never before 
 equalled in ancient or modern history. They extended 
 their settlements l.,500 miles along 'the sea^oast. and 
 300 miles to the westward. In the short space of 150 
 years their numbers increased to three millions, and 
 
 third of that of Great Britain, although much restricted 
 Dyliie navigation laws imposed upon them by the 
 mo. uT country. The rapid increase in the population 
 of the colonies was principally owing to internal causes. 
 Th .ugh somewhat accelerated by the inUux of stran- 
 gers previous to 1630. yet. after that time, immigration 
 
 Tin«rH".'-'*'T"/'''''y?J'> P^'-l^""." '^^ country 
 .Tnd.r tnn ^''" "{,'^"'''" "'' ''f*^' ^^^'^^^ cainc to be better 
 understood, and the constant struggles between the peo- 
 ple and the home government respecting riirhls and 
 privileges served as a check to the advent of new 
 coiners. Hence the population of the olonies aro-o 
 mainly from natural increase. In consequence of the 
 equality 01 fori une and simplicity of manners which 
 pr.-% ailed among them, their inhabitants multiplied far 
 beyond the proportion of old nations, corrupted and 
 weakeiied by the vices of wealth, above all, of vanity 
 than which, perhaps, there is no greater enemy to the 
 increase ot the human species. ^ 
 
 17. In the settlement of a new country, many hard- 
 ships and privations must of necessity be endurid and 
 the Americari colonists experienced theirshuie of them 
 more especially those of New England. In that section 
 the climate was more rigorous than in the other parts 
 
 fie, u T. 'T' f"'' ^.'"^ "^u'^i^"'!"" of the soil moredif- 
 ncult. The habitations outside of the remilar settle- 
 ments were often far apart, .so that intercommunication 
 
 the ruder sort, being com,,osed of logs, and so imper- 
 fect y constructed that they afforded a poor protection 
 against the cold of a New England winter VVh le he 
 col,,ni.st3 were poor there was necessarily great plainness 
 of living among them. Luxuries wert unknown to 
 them, but Uiere was an abundance of the coar " ki" 1 
 of food. Pork and beans, boiled corn meal and Jlk 
 or pork and ,.eas, formed the staple articles of , c ' 
 «eMomnf^r'™T°'y T'^t''^ ■Tyeandln.lian," and \ 
 seldomof flour. Tea andcoffeewerenot yet introduced 
 
 but home-made beer and cider were larnely uted Be 
 ing principally of Puritan stock, there were bu't few 
 secular amusements among them. Dancing, and the 
 theater or anything approaching it, were forbidden 
 musical instruments w<Te rare, and no one was allowed 
 to own a set of dice or a pack of cards. In their de- 
 sire to promote virtue, the Puritans, no doubt, were too 
 au.stere in their mode of living, yet tbe standard of 
 morality among them was certainly very high In the Ofho 
 southern colonies life was morcea.sy, as a general IhiuL' "'!'"■ 
 Ala.-e proportion of the settlers' therc^ were men ,^f ™"'""=''- 
 go<Hl family, allracled to the new world by a desire to 
 luake money and to enjoy personal freedom. Many of 
 them secured patents for plantations of their own in- 
 s.e.-K of attempting to improve the lands in common 
 and brought out laborers to work them at their privale 
 e.xpensn The sod was very productive, and thegrowtli 
 of tobacco, rice and indigo formed a great source of 
 weal h, so that luxury abounded in that part of the 
 country to a much greater extent than in any other 
 The exi.stenceol slavery among them caused a great 
 deal of Ignorance and ulleness, as tbe wisest of them 
 admitted; butthere grew up an aristocratic class,am,.ng 
 whom there were many men of high character and en 
 trgy I he settlers in the region which now forms the 
 middle s at,s principally followed the occupation o? 
 farming, the soil and climate being well adapted for the 
 growth oi cereals. 
 
 18. The religion of the colonists was chiefly Protest- Tbe 
 ? Vu . p^yority of them, especially in the north were ■■^•'^''"■'s 
 ot that class of men who, in England, were called ^lig:"'"^"'"''- 
 senters. In New England they were largely CoiV: n 'i 
 t.onal. All the other leading'^denominati.fns als^I ifa 
 their representatives in different parts of the country 
 In the royal colonies there was a stronir tend.'ncv 
 towards the Church of England, which bec.me the pr<^ 
 vailing rehgion among them. In Virginia it was es ab- 
 lished by law. In fact .nearly every colony at the out- 
 set attempted to establish some form of reli-ious b. lief 
 on a governmental fou,„lation, and on account of i his 
 as IS well known, per.secuiions at the first arose. But 
 the spirit of religious freedom predominated and in ?'""P'""» 
 general, men were left at liberty to worship God ac-' 
 ''"'Zl'^}" l^'' ^'.".■""'•« "f "'^-i^ own consciences 
 
 IJ. Ihe English c.lonists were, from their first set- '^r^''■,'P"'■' 
 cment in America, devoted to liberty, according to """'"'^• 
 English Kleas and English principles.' After a Ions 
 
 i, '."fn'th, r'r"/"" "',"•''■ "'"^ '''^ parliamen, culminat^ 
 
 i> g in the English revolution, the followingfundament- 
 
 a principles were settled; -That it was the undoulfted K'^^*^ "' 
 
 right of English subjects, being freemen or freebohlers ^'1'^"'^,'' 
 
 to ffive then- nrn,-„.rlTr ,^„1„ 1,..?,...: ^lu^'iutlB, BubjcClS. 
 
 . ' • ., .- J-"-" • ""-'"s "Kcnieu or ireeuou ers 
 
 o give their property only by their own con,sent. That 
 
 the House of Commons exerci.-edthesolerisrhtofgrant- 
 ng the money of the people of England, becausf hat 
 house alone represented them. That taxes were the 
 free git.s of the people to their rulers. That ?hc au 
 thori-y of sovereigns was to be exeroi.sed only for he 
 good of their subjects. That it was the riglit of he 
 people to meet together, and peaceaMy toco^sider their 
 grievances to petition for a redress <,f them, and finally 
 when intoliTable grievances were unredressed to seek 
 rehe . on the failure of petitions and remonslrances by 
 forcible means. ■ L pon these fundamental principles 
 thus established, the colonists took their stand an I all 
 encroachments on their rights were met with a more 
 determmed ..pint of opposition than would have been 
 possible, ha,l hey emigrated from the moth.-r country 
 in the prece. ing century, when tbe doctrines of the 
 divine right of kings an<l passive obedience to the°r wm 
 were generally accepted. 
 
 20. There were many causes favorable to liberlv <^''"'"« 
 among the cc.lonists. Their removal to so great a dis- f'";;,'""!" 
 anceirom the parent government greatly weakened '""• 
 their attachment to their sovereign, ami with each sue 
 wedmg generation that alT.-ciion became still less 
 marked, and at lergth was almost entirely lost Their 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 religion also fostered a love of liberty. Theywere chiefly 
 Protestants, and all Protestantism is founded on astrong 
 claim to natural lilierty and tbc rij^ht of private judg- 
 ment. The state of society in the colonies was favora- 
 ble to a spirit of liberty and independence. Theirinha- 
 bitants, unaccustomed to the distinctions of rank which 
 characterized European nations, were imbued with the 
 idea that all men are by nature equal. All their im- 
 pressions were calculated to inspire them with a belief 
 that democratic forms of government were by for the 
 best. With rank and titles they had nothing in com- 
 mon; kings, nobles and bishops were unknown to them. 
 They could not easily be persuaded that their grants of 
 land or their civil rights were the gifts of princes. 
 Many of them had never heard of Magna Charta, and 
 tho«e who knew the circumstances of the remarkable 
 period of English history when that great charter was 
 obtained, did not rest their claims to liberty and prop- 
 erty on the transactions of that important day. They 
 looked to the Parent of the universe as the source of all 
 their rights. Their political creed was short but sound. 
 They believed that God made all mankind originally 
 equal; that he endowed them with the rights of life, 
 property and as much liberty as was consistent with 
 the riglits of others. That all government was a poli- 
 tical institution between men naturally equal, not for 
 the aggrandizement of one or a few, but for the general 
 happiness of the whole community. Impressed with 
 seaiimcnts of this nature, they grew up, from the earli- 
 est infancy, with that confidence which is well cal- 
 culated to inspire a love for freedom and a preposses- 
 sion in favor of independence. 
 
 11. — THE CONTEST BETWEEN ENGLAND AND PRANCE. 
 
 France in 31. While the English were establishing their colo- 
 Amunca. jjjgg along the Atlantic coast, and .gradually working 
 their way into the interior, the French were penetrat- 
 ing the continent by the way of the St. Lawrence, tak- 
 ing advantage of the discoveries made by Cartier, 
 Champlain and others. The two great pioneers of 
 French occupation were the fur trader and the mission- 
 ary. It was about the time of the settlement of Mass- 
 achusetts Bay that the Jesuit Fathers, who bad already 
 been laboring for many years among the Algonquins 
 and Hiiri>ns of Canada and New York, began to push 
 their explnrations westward with renewed zeal and en- 
 terprise, accompanying, and often leading the Canadian 
 fur traders on their long journeys. Among the soldiers, 
 also, who came to New France, as the Freuch posses- 
 sions in America were called, were men who were in- 
 tent upon enlarging their king's domains. Several of 
 the Jesuits were niart3-red. AUouez made known the 
 copper mines of Lake Superior. Dablou and Marquette 
 founded Sault Ste. Marie, the first white settlement in 
 the northwestern states. Marquette, accompanied by 
 the trader JoHet. first reached the upper waters of the 
 Mississippi in 1673. 
 Robert de 23. One of the greatest of French explorers was 
 )» Salle. Robert de la Salle, who came out to Canada to seek his 
 fortune. A tract of land was granted him a few miles 
 beyond Montreal, but he was bent upon new discoveries. 
 He secured the aid of some rich men and of Count 
 Frontenac, governor of Canada, and having built some 
 vessels, he explored the upper lakes, made his way to 
 the Illinois river, and erected a fort on the present site 
 o^ Peoria. At last he made the great journey which he 
 had for some time been planning. He set out from 
 Fort ISiami. on Lake Michigan, with a party of French- 
 men and Indians. He dragged his canoes from stream 
 to stream until, after innumerable hardships and dan- 
 gers, from which he never flinched, he launched them 
 upon the waters of the Mississippi and floated down its 
 current. He explored the great river to its mouth, and 
 in 1682, took possession of the vast territory drained by 
 it and its tributaries in the name of Louis XIV. king 
 of France, and named it Louisiana after him. He then 
 
 retraced his course and hastened back to France. The 
 king titled out an expedition for La Salle that he might 
 establish a colony at tbe mouth of the Mississippi. The 
 naval commander, Beaujeu, landed La Salle and his 
 company at Matagorda bay, in Texas, which La Salle 
 supposed at first was the mouth of the Mississippi. 
 Then Beaujeu sailed back and left the colonists to their 
 fate. They built a fort, and La Salle set out to find the 
 Mississippi, but utterly failed. Dividing his men, he 
 left one party in possession of the fort, and with the 
 other endeavored to force his way to Canada, there to 
 obtain relief. He never reached the end of his journey. 
 After suffering terrible hardships, he was treacherously 
 murdered (1687) by some of his own party when on his 
 way. France sent out another expedition under D' Iber- 
 ville, who (1702) founded Mobile. In 1718 the city of 
 New Orleans was founded by the French Mississippi 
 Company. 
 
 23. The French planted military posts at intervals French 
 along the great river, and settlements rose up about "'gj^'"'^ 
 them. The French colonies and outposts also extended 
 
 from New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, up the valley 
 of the St. Lawrence, and through the region of the 
 great lakes. Thus the English settlements became en- 
 closed by a cordon of military posts, and at that time it 
 seemed as though the whole continent were d<\stined to 
 become French rather than English. The French also 
 had an advantage from the fact that they had secured 
 the good will of most of the Indian tribes through their 
 own prudent policy and the influence of their mission- 
 aries. The English settlers looked upon their French 
 neighbors with jealousy and alarm, for they interfered 
 with the extension of their settlements, especially in 
 the north. In the southern colonies the inconvenience 
 of the French occupancy was comparatively but little 
 felt. Their social characteristics and the nature of their 
 industry were not favorable to western migration, so, as 
 there was nothing to tempt them away from their plan- 
 tations into the wild interior they kept close to the sea- 
 coast. But in the north it was different. There the 
 constant increase of commerce was followed by the in- 
 creased wealth of tbe towns, and consequently the 
 lands about them became more valuable. The great 
 bulk of the emigrants who came over landed at the 
 northern ports since trade was more active in the north- 
 ern colonies. Many of these, being unable to purchase 
 homes near the great centers of trade and the many 
 flourishing settlements, or being impelled by a spirit of 
 enterprise, went in search of new lands farther from 
 the coast. Thus the northward and westward growth 
 of New England and the English conquest of New 
 Netherlands brought the two great rivals face to face. 
 
 24. The great struggle between France and England King 
 began in 1690. King James II had been detlironed ^^^Jl'*™'' 
 (1688), and William of Orange placed upon the Entilish 
 throne. The Frenrh king, Louis XIV, espoused ihe 
 
 cau.se of James, and a war followed, known as King 
 William's War, in which the colonies became involved. 
 Both the French and English colonists made use of In- 
 dian allies, and the warfare was marked by the most 
 barbarous excesses. The Indians of Maine anil New 
 Hampshire were incited by French traders to attack the 
 English towns. In 1689 Dover was burned. Cascowas 
 attacked, but the timely arrival of reinforcements from 
 Msssachusetts saved it. All the settlements further east 
 were broken up. In 1690 the war became more earnest. 
 Three war parties of French and Indians were sent out 
 by Count Frontenac from Montreal. Three Rivers and 
 Quebec. The first surrounded the settlement of Schen- 
 ectady in the night, and put it to the sword. The sec- 
 ond destroyed Salmon Falls, New Hampshire, and then 
 in conjunction with the third party, captured Casco. 
 
 The English colonies became aroused and determined 
 to punish the invaders. An expedition fitted out under 
 the united elforts of Massachusetts, Plymouth. Connec- 
 ticut and New York was sent out under Fitz John 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 Winthrop, against Montreal. An attack riuule on the 
 town was repulsed by Frontenac. In the meantime Sir 
 William Phipps, with a lleet, sent out from Massachu- 
 setts, plundered Port Royal and other French settle- 
 ments. Then, sailing up the St. Ijuwrence, he at- 
 tempted to surprise Quebec. But Frontenac, having 
 defeated the attack on Montreal, reached Quebec before 
 him. and the enterprise failed. The war continued un- 
 til lt)9T, when a treaty of peace was made between 
 France and England. Both parties had suffered severe- 
 ly, anil neither had gained any real advantage. 
 Amie" ~^- '^'^'^ truce between the two great rivals lasted 
 
 war. about live ycrs, when war again broke nut l)etween 
 
 them (1703). At once the French and English in Amer- 
 ica fell to lighting, and the war that followed is called 
 Queen Anne's War. During the five years of peace 
 the French had continued to make settlements in the 
 west. They never lost sight of the great idea which in- 
 flamed their ambition, which was to estalflish a great 
 French-American empire. They had founded Detroit, 
 Mobile and numerous villages on the Mississippi. In 
 the east they had recovered all the places taken from 
 them by tlie English in the last war, inaugurated new 
 missions, and increased their influence over the Indians. 
 At this time Spain was in alliance with France, anil the 
 English settlers found themselves opposed not only by 
 the French in the north and west, but by the Spanianl.s 
 of Florida in the south. The English colonistsdirected 
 their tirst operations against the Spaniards. St. Augus- 
 tine was captured (ITO:*). but had to be abandoned. 
 Three years later the Christian Inilian setllements of 
 middle Florida were destroyed by the English, and the 
 The war at missions entirely broken up. 
 
 the north. 2G. Xew England suffered greatly in this war. There 
 was an atrocious massacre at Deerfneld in 1704. Haver- 
 hill, which had not fully recovered from the massacre 
 of 16t)7, W!»s plundered and burned a second time, and 
 many of the colonists killed (1708), and the whole of 
 thai part of the country was harassed by barbarous 
 foes. Receiving but little help from England, the 
 colonists for several years were unable to undertake 
 any important expeditions. An attack on Charleston, 
 S. C. (1700), by the French and Spaniards, was repulsed. 
 Port Royal was again taken from the French (1710), 
 and with it the most of Acadia, which now became 
 known as Nova Scotia. 
 E^P*^'*'""* In 1711 an English fleet arrived in Boston to co- 
 Ca'nada. operate with the colonists in an attempt to confjuer 
 Canada, but all operations in that quarter proved a 
 failure. In 1713 a treaty of peace was signed at 
 Utrecht, by which the English acquired Newfound- 
 land and Acadia. The eastern Indians were also in- 
 duced to make peace about this time. 
 
 27. Many years of peace now followed, during 
 which the colonies increased rapidly in population 
 and advanced in material prosperity. Tlie French 
 still pursued their scheme of building up a great 
 empire in the west. They controlled the valuable 
 fur trade of the whole Mississippi valley. After 
 their expulsion from Acadia they had crossed to the 
 island of Cape Breton, and erected the strong fortress 
 of Louisburg. At Niagara they had a fort command- 
 ing the communication between Lakes Erie and Ontario. 
 Natchez was founded in 1710. In 1710 New Orleans 
 was built, and soon became the capital of Louisiana. 
 The French missionaries also continued their conquests 
 in the wilderness of the Mississippi. After several 
 years of peace. France again ch^clared war against 
 England (1744), and immediately Ijegan hostilities 
 against the settlements. The campaign which fol- 
 
 Cwrec's ^°"'^''' '** known as King George's war, because it oc- 
 w'ar. curred in the reign of George II. 
 
 28. The colonists determined to carry on the war by 
 their own means without waiting the uncertain aid 
 from England. An expedition was planned against 
 Louisburg which was successful, and that strong fort- 
 
 ress fell into the hands of the Americans (1743). This 
 achievement of untrained soldiers was received with 
 enthusiasm by the colonies, and with aston'^hment in 
 Europe. The treaty of Ai.\--la-Chappelle (1748) put an 
 en<i to the war: and greatly to the disgust of New 
 Enirland, Louisburg was restored to the French in 
 exchange for Madras, in Uindustan, which France 
 had taken from England. 
 
 39. The colonists had but a short time to reap the 
 benefits of peace, after the treaty already referred to, 
 when the sound of approaching war filled the land 
 with an.xiety and gloom. After an interval of about 
 eight years. Great Britain formally declared war against Declaration 
 France. The causes leading to this war, which was "' ""''■ 
 called the French and Indian war, were the alleged 
 encroachments of the French on the frontiers of the 
 colonies in America belongini; to England. The French 
 determined to connect their northern and southern pos- 
 sessions by a line of posts e.xteniliug along the frontiers 
 of the English possessions, from Lake Ontario to the 
 Ohio, and down the Ohio and Mississi|ipi to New Or- 
 leans. Up to the middle of the last century the English 
 had not atiemi^led to explore or settle the regions lying 
 beyond the Hlue Ridge and Allesihany mountains, but 
 in 1749 a company of traders from London and Vir- 
 ginia, called the Ohio co.njjany, obtained a grant from The Ohio 
 the crown of OOO.OOO acres of land on the cast bank of <-'<'mpa"y- 
 the Ohio river, in what is now West Virginia and Penn- 
 sylvania. In the years immediately following they 
 made surveys and established a few settlements. One 
 of the surveyors was George Washington. 
 
 30. The French, regarding these operations of the 
 Ohio Company as an encroachment upon their ter- 
 ritory, strengthened the fort at Niagara, built another 
 at Presque Isle (17.'j3), now Erie, established Posts at 
 La Bteuf and Venango (now Waterford and Franklin, 
 in the oil region of northwestern Penn.sylvania), seized 
 the English traders, and confiscated their goods. When 
 rumors eame of what the French had done. Governor 
 Umwiddie of Virginia sent Washington, then not yet ^'"f**'"?" 
 twenty-two years of age, to look into the matter, ands^ou!™'^" 
 expostulate with the French regarding tb(dr encroach- 
 ments. After an arduous and perilous winter journey 
 Wasliington brought back such a report of the deter- 
 mination and activity of the French, that the N'irginia 
 Assembly at once took measures to build a fort (1704) 
 
 at the junction of the Monongahela and Alleghany 
 rivers; bul%vhile the fort was being erected the French 
 suddenly appeared, drove the English away, and 
 finished for themselves the fort, which they called 
 Fort Du Qucsne. 
 
 31. In the meantime, a body of 400 men had been 
 raised in Virginia and North Carolina, and sent out 
 under Washington into the disputed territory. Meet- 
 ing at Grand Meadows a French force which had been^""l''''C- 
 sent out to intercept him, he attacked and defeated ^'^','^fj[;'' 
 them (17.54). Learning of the approach of a greatly 
 superior force of the enemy, he erected Fort Necessity. 
 
 ilere he was attacked by the French, and compelled to 
 surrender, but on honorable terms. During this time, 
 both the rival governments of France and England 
 were making preparations for the coming struggle, 
 though there was no formal declaration oif war until 
 
 n.-io. 
 
 33. In 1755 General Braddock, with a force of defMl"*"^' * 
 English and American troops, marched against Fort 
 Du (^uesne, but was defeated with great slaughter, 
 and but for the skill displayed by Washinirton the 
 whole army woidd have been annihilated. Braddock 
 himself was mortally wounded, and died shortly after- 
 wards. After Ids death. General Shirley took com- 
 mand, and made an attempt to reduce Fort Niagara, 
 but accomplished nothing. General William .Iohn.son 
 was ajipoiuted to attack Crown Point. He defeated 
 the French General Dieskau in the battle of Lake 
 George (Sept. 5, 17r)5), but was unable to reach Crowa 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 Point. In the same year all the French inhabitants of 
 Acadia were banished. 
 Trench and 33. In May, 1756, war was formally declared by 
 Indian War.Great Britain, and by France in the following month. 
 Lord Loudon was appointed commander-in-chief of all 
 the forces in America, but owing to necessary delay, 
 General Abercrombie preceded him and took the com- 
 mand. The Manpiis of Montcalm became the French 
 commander. Abercrombie awaited the arrival of Loudon 
 before attempting anything. Both officers proved in- 
 efflcient, and by their delays allowed the French not 
 only time to strengthen their posts, but also to attack 
 those of the English. 
 riimrai!;ns 34. In August, 1756, Montcalm captured Fort Ontario 
 "' rpv ^^^^ '^ large number of military stores, guns, prisoners 
 ^° ' '' and vessels. In June. 1757, Lord Loudon organized an 
 expedition against Louisburg, but abandoned the at- 
 tempt on learning that the garrisim at that place had 
 been strongly reinforced by a French fleet. In the 
 meantime, Montcalm, collecting his forces at Ticon- 
 dcroga, marched against Fort William Henry, and 
 compelled it to surrender. After the surrender, many 
 of the garrison were massacred by the French Indian 
 allies. Thus after four years' hostilities, the incom- 
 petency of the British commanders still gave the French 
 the advantage. But a change in the British home 
 policy changed the aspect of the war. The celebrated 
 William Pitt was called to the ministry, and immediately 
 began to act with vigor. Abler officers were appointed 
 to command, and expeditions organized against dif- 
 ferent points. Louisburg was captured July 27, 1758. 
 Fort Du Quesne also was taken, and its name changed 
 to Fort Pitt. General Abercrombie' s attack on Ticou- 
 deroga(July, 1758,) met with a bloody repulse, but Port 
 Frontenac was taken, with a large quantity of stores 
 and goods. 
 The 35. Pitt now determined to dispossess the French of 
 
 Conquest ofthe whole of their American territory. Their armies 
 Canada, -y^r^rg directed at the same time against three of their 
 strongest posts, Quebec, Ticcnderoga and Montreal. 
 General Amherst captured Ticonderoga July, 1759. 
 Fort Niagara surrendered to Sir William Johnson July 
 25, 1759. But the most importc-nt feature of the cam- 
 paign was the taking of the almost impregnable fort- 
 ress of Quebec by the gallant Wolfe, who lost his life 
 in the action. Soon after Montreal surrendered to Am- 
 herst. In this campaign the French were driven from 
 all the important posts in Canada, and their power in 
 America was broken forever. The war was virtually 
 at an end, though peace was not restored until the 
 The Treatysigning of the Treaty of Paris, February, 1763. By 
 of Paris. n^\^ agreement, to which Spain and Portugal were also 
 parties. Prance surrendered everything east of the Mis- 
 sissippi, except New Orleans, to England. New Or- 
 leans and that part of Louisiana beyond the Mississippi 
 were ceded to Spain In the French. In exchange for 
 Havana, which had been captured by the British, 
 Spain yielded Florida to England. In 1800 Spain re- 
 stored Louisiana to France, and Napoleon sold it to the 
 United states in 1803. 
 ■pontiac'B 36. When the treaty of peace was signed, it was 
 ^"- trusted that there would be an end to those horrid rav- 
 
 ages which had desolated the interior of the country. 
 But the month of May, 17G3, proved the fallacy of 
 such hopes. The Indians did not wish to see the coun- 
 try transferred by the French to the English. It was 
 one thing to have the French trading among them, 
 another to have the hated English occupying their 
 lands. It was about this time that the famous insur- 
 rection of the Indian tribes broke out. The Delawares 
 and Shawnees and other of the tribes of the Ohio were 
 foremost in this conspiracy. Pontiac, an Ottawa chief, 
 was the prime mover and master spirit in this affair, 
 and hence it is called Pontiac's war. Pontiac ex- 
 pected the French to join him, for they were secretly 
 encouraging him. Most of the western tribes were 
 
 drawn by him into the plot, bat Sir William Johnson 
 prevented a greater part of the Iroquois from joining 
 him. Pontiac's plans were deeply laid, and conducted 
 with Indian craft and secrecy. At a concerted time an 
 attack was made upon all the posts from Detroit to 
 Port Pitt (formerly Fort Du Quesne). The Indiana 
 captured and destroyed eight of the twelve forts, but 
 were unable to take the important posts of Detroit and 
 Fort Pitt, though Pontiac besieged the former place 
 for five months. The frontiers of Maryland, Virginia 
 and Pennsylvania were laid waste, and terrible havoc 
 wrought in the frontier settlements. The English, 
 surprised by the first attack, soon roused themselves 
 and met the danger promptly. The power of the tribes 
 became broken, and most of them sued for peace. 
 Pontiac retired to the Illinois country, and made a 
 stand there for some time longer, fiuallv submitting 
 in 1766. 
 
 III. CAUSES OP TILE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 37. The addition to the British empire of new prov- 
 inces, equal in extent to old kingdoms, not only ex- 
 cited the jealousy of European powers, but occasioned 
 doubts in the minds of enlightened British politicians 
 whether or not such immense acquisitions of territory 
 wouUI conduce to the '^nefit of the parent state. 
 They saw, or thought they saw, the seeds of disunion 
 I'lanU'd in the too widely extended empire. To com- 
 bine in one uniform system of government the exten- 
 sive territory then under British sway.appeared to men 
 of reflection a work of doubtful practicability; nor 
 were their conjectures at fault. The seeds of discord 
 wore soon planted, and speedily grew up to the rend- 
 ing of the empire. The high notions of liberty and in- 
 dependence which were nurtured in the colonies by 
 their local situation, and the state of society in the 
 new world, were increased by the removal of hostile 
 neighbors. The events of the war had also given them 
 some experience in military operations, and confidence 
 in their own ability. Foreseeing their future impor- 
 tance from the rapid increase of their numbers and 
 extension of their community, and beiug extremely 
 jealous of their rights, they readily admitted and in- 
 dulged in sentiments and ideas which were favorable 
 to independence. While combustible materials were 
 daily collecting in the new world, a spark to kindle 
 the whole was produced in the old. 
 
 38. In the first period of the settlement of English ^,'|!^'°.°'' 
 America, the mother country regarded the provinces as petes, 
 instruments of commerce. She contented herself with 
 
 a monopoly of their tr.ade without taking upon herself 
 the care of their internal policy, or seeking a revenue 
 from them. Previous to the close of the war in 1755, 
 the catalogue of grievances she imposed upon the 
 colonists was undoubtedly small. The following ap- 
 pear to have been the chief: An act of the British par- 
 liament forbidding the cutting down of pitch and tar 
 trees, not being within a fence orenclosure, and sundry 
 acts which operated against colonial manufactures. 
 By one of these, it was made illegal after the 24th of 
 June, 1750, to erect in the colonies any mill or olhtT 
 engine for slitting or rolling iron, or any plating forge, 
 to work with a tilt hammer, or any furnace for mak- 
 ing steel. By another, hatters were restrained from 
 taking more than two apprentices at a time, or any 
 for less than seven years. The colonists were also 
 prohibited from transporting hats and home manu- 
 factured woolens from one province to another. These 
 regulations were, for the most part, evaded; but if car- 
 ried into execution, would have been but slightly in- 
 convenient, and that only to a few. These restrictions, 
 though seemingly a species of affront, and calculated 
 to keep the colonists in a constant state of inferiority 
 and subjection, would have been overlooked and for- 
 gotten had not other grievances been superadded. 
 
 39. The sad story of colonial oppression began in the 
 
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 Colonial year 1764. Great Britiiin tlicii miopteil new resulaliims 
 opi)rufsion. jg^|,L.(.ti„g iier colonists, which, after (listurbiui? the 
 anciint harmony of the two countries for aliout twelve 
 years, terminated in the liismemberinent of the em- 
 pires. These consisted in restri<-'ins their formercom- 
 mercc. Imt more especially in suljjecting them to taxa- 
 tion by the British parliament. The imposition of 
 duties, for the purpose of raisiny a revenue in America, 
 •wa.s considered as a danijerous innovation, liut the 
 methods adopted for securiiii,' their collection were re- 
 sented as arbitrary and unconstitutional. It was emu-ted 
 by parlianiiMit, that whoever was cau^;ht violalin.i; the 
 acts, should be tried in the courts of admiralty. Thus 
 the defendant in such ii case was deprived of the rij{ht 
 of trial by jury, and subjected to the necessity of hav- 
 ini; his case decided upon by a sin^jle man. a creature 
 of the crown, whose salary was to be paid out of for- 
 feitures adjudged by himself. Moreover, the prose- 
 cutor wa'^ not called upon to prove his accusation, so 
 the defenilant was obliged, either to evince his iiuio- 
 cence or to suffer. Thus the guards which the British 
 constitution had placed around property and the bar- 
 riers whicli the ancestors of both c(mntries had erected 
 against arbitrary power, were thrown down, as far as 
 they concerned the colonists thus charged with violat- 
 ing the laws for raising a revenue in America. 
 
 40. After the peace of Paris. 1708. the national debt 
 of Great Britain amo.iuted to nearly 150. 0(10. 000 ster- 
 ling. To aid in diminishing this heavy debt, the British 
 minister conceived the idea of raising a substantial rev- 
 enue in the British colonies, from taxes imposed by the 
 parliament of the mother country. On the one hand it 
 was urged that the late war had originated on account 
 of the colonics — that it was reasonable, since it liad 
 terminated in a manner so favorable to their interests, 
 that they should help to defray the expenses arising 
 from it. Thus far both parties were agreed; but Eng- 
 
 Eiieli-h '>""' contended that her parliament, as the supreme 
 Tli.-..ry power, bad the constitutional right to impose them on 
 nf Colonial every part of the empire. This theory, nlausilile in 
 Tttxaiion. n^^if^ and in accordance with the letter of" the British 
 constitiilion, when all the dominions were represented 
 The Col- in one assembly, was denied by the colonies as con- 
 Tluoryof trary to the spirit of the same government, when, on 
 Taxation' account of the extension of the ernpire,it was necessary 
 to liave many distinct representative assemblies. The 
 colonists believed that the chief excellence of the 
 British constitution consisted in the rifht of the subject 
 to gram or withhold taxes, and in their having a share 
 in enacting the laws by which they were to be bound. 
 They conceived that the superiority of the British con- 
 stitution to other forms of government was. not be- 
 cause of the parliament's forming the supreme coimcil 
 of the nation, but because the people had a share in it 
 by appointing members who constituted one of its 
 constituent branches, and without whose concurrence 
 nil law, binding on them, could be enacted. In the 
 parent stale it was asserted to be essential to the unity 
 of the empire, that the British parliament should have 
 the right of taxation over every part of the royal 
 dominions. In the colonies it was believed that taxa- 
 tion and representation were inseparable, and that 
 they, as colonies, could neither be free nor happy if 
 their property could be taken from them without their 
 con.scnt. The American people reasoned thus; That if 
 the British parliament, in which they had no repre- 
 sentation, were able to take any part of their property 
 from them by direct taxation, then they might take 
 as much as they pleased, and there would be no 
 security for anything that remained from further 
 spoliation. 
 
 41. The colonists claimed that they had the exclusive 
 right of laying taxes on themselves, free from ex- 
 traneous influences, just as much as the British Par- 
 liament claimed the peculiar privilege of raising money 
 independent of the crown. The parent slate appeared 
 
 to the colonists to stand in the same relation to their 
 local legislators as the monarch of Ureal Britain to the 
 British Parliament. His perogative is limited by that 
 palladium of the people's liberty, the exclusive privi- 
 lege of /T-ranting their own money. In fact, they 
 claimeil that though subjects of the King, they were 
 not under the cimtrol of the British Parliament ; that 
 if the King recpiired money of the colonies, he must 
 obtain it through colonial legislation, just as in Eng- 
 land he would obtain it througti the British 
 Parliament. 
 
 4'i. The charters, which were supposed to contain the Tbcdispate 
 principles on which the colonies were founded, became about the 
 the subject of serious investigation on both sides. One Cbarters. 
 clause was found to run through the whole of them, 
 e.'^ccpt that which had been granted to William Penn. 
 This was a declaration, " that the emigrants to America 
 should enjoy llie same privileges as if they had re- 
 mained, or had been born, within the realm ;' but such 
 was the subtUiy of di.sputants that both parties con- 
 strued this general principle so as to favor their respec- 
 tive o(iiuion3. The American people cimtended, that as 
 English freeholders coidd not be taxed but by repres- 
 entatives, in choosing whom they had a vote, neither 
 could the colonists ; but it was answered that if the 
 colonists had remained in England they must have 
 been bound to pay the luxos imposed by Parliament. 
 It was therefore inferred that, though taxed by 
 that authority, they lost none of the rights of native 
 Englishmen residing at home. The advocates of the 
 British policy coidd see nothing in charters but security 
 against ta.ves by roj-al authority. Tlie colonists, ad- 
 hering to the spirit more than to the letter, looked 
 upon their charters as a protection against all taxes 
 not im[)o.sed by representatives of their own choice. 
 The nature and extent of the connection between „. 
 Great Britain and America was a great constitutional „eetion'ke- 
 queslion, involving many interests and the general twcen 
 prineii les of civil liberty. It was a vain attempt lo ij ''',"'■„ nnd 
 decide this by any other recourse to parchment autliori America, 
 ties, made at a time longjiast, wheumithcr the grantor 
 nor grantees forsaw anything like the present state 
 of the two countries. It needed great skill and tact to 
 so manage aU'airs, that everythingmighl redound to the 
 satisfaction and good of all concerned; to strike the 
 middle line which would have secured as much liberty 
 to the colonies, and as great a degree of supremacy to 
 the mother coinilry as their common good required. 
 But this skill was lacking in British statesmanship. 
 On the one hand, the spirit of the British consiituiion 
 was opposed to the idea that the British Parliamr-iit 
 shouhl exercise the same unlimited authority over the 
 unrepresented colonies which it exercised over the in- 
 habitants of Great Britain. The cohmists, on the othiT 
 hand, did not claim a tcilal exemption from its authority, 
 but allowed the mother country a certain uudelinid 
 prerogative over them; and accepted the idea that 
 Parliament had a right to make any acts binding them 
 in many stibjeets of internal policy and regul.itiug t lieir 
 trade. That nice point, which marked the end of par- 
 liamentary authority and the beginning of the colonial 
 independence, was not ascertained. llad the question 
 never been agitated, or had a satisfactory compromise 
 been effected, the American Revolution, tiiidoubtedlj', 
 would never have become a part of our history. 
 
 4:i. Thegreal French and Indian war, though crowned 
 with success, had aroused a spirit of discontent iu the „, _ „,_ 
 colonies. From the beginning, as has been shown, the ,.,rictivc 
 commercial policy of England toward the colonies had I'lilicyof 
 been wholly restricted. " It wasasysteniof monopoly." England. 
 Her navigation laws had clo.sed their ports against 
 foreign vessels ; obliged thera to export their produc- 
 tions only to eoiuitries belonging to the British crown ; 
 to import European goods solely from England, and in 
 English ships; and hid stibjected the trade between 
 the colonies to duties. All manufactures, too, in the 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 colonies, that might interfere with those of the mother 
 couiiiry had beeu either totally prohibited, or subjected 
 to intolerable restraints. The acts of Parliament, im- 
 posin,ir these restrictions and prohibitions, had at 
 varioiis times caused great discontent and opposition on 
 the part of the colonists, especially amoni; those of 
 New En.gland. But noihing so aroused the jealous 
 sensibilities of the colonists as any attempts on the 
 part of the parent stale to raise a revenue from them 
 by taxation. They had ever maintained, from the 
 earliest period of their establishment, that they could 
 only be taxeil by a legislature in which they were 
 represented. 
 
 44. While the Frtnch war was in progress, many 
 projects -were hatched in Euyland witli regard to the 
 colonies which were to be put hi force when peace 
 Tho At- -was declared. In 1700, an attempt was made in Boston 
 C™npct'° '" collect duties on foreign sugar and molasses im- 
 Daties. ported into the colonies. Writs of assistance were 
 a[)plied for by customhouse otiicers, empowering them 
 to break open stores, ships and private dwellings in 
 search of goods that had paid no duty, and to compel 
 others to assist them in carrying out their odious 
 measures. The merchants opposed the writ on con- 
 stituiioiial grounds. The question was brought into 
 the courts, where James Otis argued so eloquently in 
 favor of American rights, that all who heard him were 
 ready to oppose all writs of assistance. John Adams, 
 who was present, said, "Then and there was the first 
 scene of opposition to the arbitrary claims of Great 
 Britain. Then and there American Independence was 
 born." In his speech, Otis used the words, "Taxation 
 without representation is tyranny." This sentence 
 became a watchword in America during the exciting 
 limes whir-h folliiwed. 
 The Stamp 4,5. lu lT(i.5 Loril Grenville, having previously given 
 ^'^^- notice of his imeniious to the American agents in 
 
 London. introducc<l into Parliament a long cherished 
 scheme for the purpose of raising a revenue from the 
 American colonies by means of a stamp duty. Peti- 
 tions poured in against it from the Americans, and at 
 tirst it met with strong opposition in the House of 
 Commons. But the remonstrances of the colonies 
 could not change the avaricious feelings of Parliament, 
 and the bill passed by a large majority. Those short- 
 sighted legislators did not foresee that in the passage 
 of an act so odious to the colonies, they were awaken- 
 ing an opposition and spirit of independence among 
 thtm which would materially weaken their own 
 power. The night after the bill passed Benjamin 
 Franklin, who was then in London, wrote to Mr. 
 Charles Thomson, "The sun of liberty is set; you 
 must light up the candles of industry and economy." 
 Mr. TLiomson answered, "I was apprehensive that 
 othiT lights would be the consequence, and I foresee 
 the opposition that will be made." 
 file Pro- 4G. By this act, no written instrument, such as com- 
 the'stamp iDercial transactions, marriage licenses, deeds, suits at 
 Act. law, and the like, could be legal, unless stamped paper 
 
 was used, which the colonists were compelled to pur- 
 chase at an exorbitant price of the British agents. 
 Moreover, it contained another staHliug provision, and 
 that was, that the colonial legislatures were commanded 
 to grant permission to billet the royal troops in 
 America in inns, alehouses, barns, and vacant houses, 
 and to furnish them with bedding, potables, candles, 
 cooking utensils, etc. As soon as it became known 
 The oxcite- that the Stamp Act was passed, the colonies, from one 
 thi'cMl'hv' ®"'^' °^ ^^^ ''^"'^ ''" ^^^ other, were full of indignation, 
 ilie passageParliKment had turned adeaf ear to their petitions, and 
 of the Act. showed by the passage of the Act a determination to 
 treat them, not as English citizens, but as servants and 
 slaves. Parliament, they said, might make laws to 
 regulate the commerce of the empire, and so draw a 
 revenue from America, Init it had no right to levy a 
 direct tax like this. Only the colonirl government. 
 
 elected by the people, could do such a thing. They 
 must either surrender without a struggle their liberty, 
 or oppose strongly and firmly the grasping avarice of a ' 
 nation, the most powerful iu the world. 
 
 47. They were not long in making up their decision 
 and proclaiming it to the world. The legislature of 
 Virginia v/aa in session when the news arrived. Patrick patrj^t 
 Henry, then a young num. but possessed of brilliant u'enry. 
 talents, opposed it with all the energy of his great 
 mind. He brought before the house five resolutions 
 which were adopted, and which closed by declaring. 
 "That any person, who, by speaking or acting, should 
 assert or maintain that any class of men except the 
 general assembly of the province, had a right to im- 
 pose taxation, he should be considered an enemy to his 
 majesty's colony." In advocating tlie^e resolutions, 
 
 he boldly denounced the policy of the Crilish f;overn- 
 ment, and declared that the king had acted the [lart of 
 the tyrant. Warming up with his subject. anit..llud- 
 ing to the fate of other tyrants, he exclaimed tvilh 
 flashing eyes and in thunder tones, "Caesar h;iri Lis 
 Brutus, Charles I his Cromwell, and CTCorge III" — 
 "Treason! treason!" arose from every part of the 
 house. Pausing a moment until the tumult had sub- 
 sided, he added, "may profit by their example. If 
 this is treason make the most of it." Similar senti- 
 ments flew like lightning through the other coloides. 
 The tongues and pens of the citizens labored to kindle 
 the latent sparks of patriotism. The press strongly 
 opposed the innovation and called upon the citizens to 
 resist it. 
 
 48. The expediency of calling a continental congress, The Copti- 
 to he composed of deputies from each of the provinces, "ental Con- 
 had early occurred to Massachusetts. So the assembly Si'^^s- 
 
 of that province fixed on New York as the place, and 
 the second Tuesday of October, 176.5, as the time for 
 holding the congress, and invited all the other colonies 
 to send delegates to the same. Nine colonies took part 
 in it, and sent their most distinguished men. For the 
 first time the whole country had a common cause, and 
 there was need that the people should consult together. 
 This congress drew up a declaration of their rights and 
 a statement of their grievances. They asserted in 
 strong terms their exemption from all taxes not im- 
 posed by their own representatives. They also con- 
 curred in a petition to the king, a memorial to the 
 House of Lords, and a petition to the House of Com- 
 mons. The colonies that were prevented from sending 
 their delegates, forwarded petitions, similar to those 
 which were adopted by the deputies who attended. 
 
 49. On the 1st of November, the day on which the 
 Stamp Act was to go into operation, the bells were 
 tolled, and the flags hung at half mast, as if for the 
 "funeral of liberty." The courts were closed; busi- 
 ness was suspended. The houses of the British otBoials 
 were attacked by mobs, and the effigies of the planners 
 of the Act were carried about the streets in public 
 derision and then burned, or torn in pieces by the 
 enraged populace. In different parts of the country 
 the stamp-masters were compelled to resign their 
 offices to prevent being mobbed. The (Stamp Act was 
 so formed that the penalty of disobedience would be 
 no less than the suspension of the whole machinery of 
 the political and social order, and the creation of a 
 state of anarchy. Neither trade nor navigation could 
 proceed, no contract could be legall3' made, no process 
 against an offender could be instituted, no student 
 could receive a diploma, nor even could the estates of 
 the dead be legally settled, or the marriage ceremony 
 performed, until the stamp duty was paid. By degrees, 
 however, things began to assume their usual course, 
 and all kinds of business was transatited in open 
 defiance of the Ac!. 
 
 50. As-ociations, undtr the title of the "Sons of Sons ot 
 Liberty." were formed iu every part of the country, ^''"^"''y' 
 They denounced the Stamp Act as being an outrage on 
 
U N I T ]'] D ST A '1^ E S 
 
 Tlio ElTci-l 
 Id Ku^laud. 
 
 Rf]]«-Hl of 
 
 the Stamp 
 All. 
 
 How iho 
 
 KcWB Wits 
 
 Received. 
 
 Anew 
 
 Scheme of 
 TaxntloQ. 
 
 The Seiz- 
 ure of Uan 
 cock's 
 Sloop 
 
 the British constitution, and resolved that they would 
 defend those who fell into the hands of Briiish t\ r- 
 aniiv, on aecount of their clinsrins to their rights as 
 freemen. Jlerchants resolved to import no more goods 
 from Great Britain until the act was repealed, and the 
 people generally denied themselves the use of foreign 
 lii.\uries. No one would veniure to carry the htamp 
 Act in'o execution; in fact, no stamped paper was to 
 be seen; all had been either destroyed or concealed. 
 
 51. The information of the violent proceedings of the 
 colonies was received in England wilh consternation. 
 A small parly in Parliament upheld the colonies. In 
 the House of Commons William Fiit uttered the mem- 
 orable words: "We are told that America is ofinti/iale 
 — America is in open reliellion. Sir. I rfjoiee that 
 Ami rim /ins ri'sistfd .' Three millions of people so dead 
 to all the feelings of liberty as voluntarily to submit to 
 be slaves woidd have been tit instruments to make 
 slaves of all the rest." In the meantime Lonl Oren- 
 ville had been dismissed, and the .Manjuis of Kocking- 
 him, a friend of the Amerinins. appointed in h'\* place. 
 Under his administraiion llieobiio.\i<)u>) Stamp Act was 
 repealed March 18, ITdti. for the English government 
 saw that it was impossible to enforce it. At the same 
 time. Parliament took caro to say that it "had a right 
 to hind the eo/onics in r!l niafs whatever." 
 
 53. The news of the repeal was received with the 
 liveliest expressions of joy and gratitude. Public 
 thauksgivinL'8 were held. English goods imported and 
 a general calm succeeded the slorm which had raired 
 so violently. By the people of New England and New 
 York less joy was fell. They feared, from the passage 
 of the declaratory act. that this was only a truce in the 
 war against American rights. In the mirror of the 
 pa-l they saw reflected the future, and trembled at the 
 picture. Nor were their suspicions unfounded. 
 Scarcely had the excitement over the Stamp Act died 
 out, when other causes of complaint arose. In .lune. 
 1767, Charles Townsend, chancellor of the excheciuer, 
 brought into Parliament a bill imposing duties in the 
 British colonies on glass, paper, painters' colors and 
 tea, which became a law. Another law was also en- 
 acted, appointing officers of the navy as customhouse 
 officers, to enforce the act of trade and navigation. 
 Previous to this new act of tj-ranny, the legislative 
 power of New York had been suspended, until it 
 shou'd furnish the king's troops with certain supplies 
 at the expense of the colony. 
 
 53. Early in 17C8 the general court of Massachusetts 
 sent a petition to the king, and adtlrejsed circular let- 
 ters to the colonial assemblies, asking their coopera- 
 tion in obtaining (he redress of their grievances. The 
 British ministry were alarmed and (iemanded of the 
 court that they should rescind the vote directing circu- 
 lars to be sent. The assembly .'efused, and the gov- 
 ernor dissolved it. This attempt to intimidate only 
 served to strengthen the opposition. Shortly after 
 this Mr. Hancock's sloop Liberty was seized for not 
 having entered all the wines brought from Madeira. 
 This act of the custom-house officers was resented by 
 the people. The houses of the otlicials were attacked, 
 and they were compelled to seek safety in fiight. The 
 refractory spirit of the citizens of Boston had been dis- 
 played on so many occasions that General Gage was 
 directed to station one or more regiments there to over- 
 awe the citizens and protect the officers in the dis- 
 charge of their duties. Two regiments were accord- 
 ingly ordered from Halifax, who took possession of the 
 stale hoiise, and [ilanted two pieces of c!\nnon at the 
 principal entrance. All this only tended to increase 
 the general indignation. 
 
 .54. Early in the year 17G9 Parliament passed resolu- 
 tions censuring the conduct of the citizens of Massa- 
 chusetts, and directing the governor to make strict in- 
 quiries as to all trea'-ous committed in that province 
 since the year 1707, that the offenders might bC- sent to 
 
 England for trial. The legislature of Virginia, on the 
 receipt of tliut order. i)assed resolutions denying the 
 right of the king to remove an olfender out of the col- 
 on}' — away from his home an<t frien<ls — for trial. The 
 governor, on hearing of the resolutions, immediately 
 dismissed the assembly. The members met at a private 
 house, and entered into a written agreement not to im- 
 port any of the taxed articles. Their example was ex- 
 tensively followed. The assemby of Massachusetts 
 convened, but refused to proceed to business while 
 armed troops surrounded the state house. The gov- 
 ernor refus(>d to remove them, and the as.sembly ad- 
 journed to Cambridge. Toward the close of the sea- 
 son the governor re(|uested Ihera to provide funds to 
 pay for the quartering of the troops, but they refused, 
 declaring that they would never make any provisions 
 to support a sLanding army among them in times of 
 peace. The governor, therefore, prorogued the assem- 
 bly. 
 
 55. The presence of the soldiers in Boston was a T"''<^ Boston 
 constant cause of irritation, and the citizens had many ''»*''"'="'• 
 quarn'ls with them. At length on March 5. 1770. a 
 
 serious collision occurred between the troops and a 
 mob, and the soldiers lired, killing five of the crowd, 
 and mortally wounding two others. The reports of 
 this Boston massacre, as it was called, were greatly 
 exaggerated, and tilled the country with excitement. 
 The citizens assembled in crowds, and could only lie 
 dispersed by the governor promising lliem tloit justice 
 should be done. The troops were removed from the 
 city, aiul Captain I'reston, who ordered the Bring, and 
 his miMi tried for murder. Although the excitement 
 was intense, yet such was the love of justice that the 
 soldiers, who were defended by John Adams and Josiah 
 Quincy, were all acquitted except two, who were con- 
 victed of manslaughter. 
 
 56. In England, on the very day of the outrage in 
 Boston, Lord North was called to the British Ministry, 
 He introduced a bill into Parliament which passed Lofd 
 on A|iril \'i, removing the duties that had been laid 
 
 North's 
 IJill. 
 
 in I7()7, excepting that on tea, but still declaring their 
 right of taxing the colmiies. For a long time no lea 
 had been imported, and the effect had begun to be 
 severely felt by the British merchants. By an act of 
 Parliament, therefore, the East India company were 
 allowed to import their teas into America free of duty 
 in England. The naked question of the principle 
 regarding taxation was thus presented. The scheme 
 was an insidious one, but it failed most completely. 
 Lord North supposed that by reducing the tax on tea 
 to three pence a pound, the Americans would buy 
 largely, thus relieving the East India company, who 
 had large quantities f)f tea stored up in its English 
 warehouses. Tea was accordingly shipped from Eng- 
 land in great quantities to various jiarts of the colonies. 
 This brought matters to a crisis. One sentiment jire- 
 vailed throughout the whole continent. Taxation was 
 to receive its final blow. Whoever submitted to it was 
 an enemy to his country. From New York and Phila- 
 delphia the ships were sent back, wilh their cargoes, to 
 London. In Charleston the tea was landed, but not 
 permitted to be sold, and being stored in damp cellars, 
 finally perished. Still more decisive action was taken 
 in Boston. The ships anchored in the harbor. Some 
 small parcels of tea were brought on shore, but the sale 
 of them was prohibited. The captains of the vessels 
 would have made sail back to P^ngland, but they could 
 not obtain the consent of the consignees, a clearance at 
 the custom house, or a passport from the Governor to 
 clear the port. To settle the matter completely, a com- 
 pany of men disguised as Indians went on board the Dcstrnc- 
 ships during the night rnd threw the cargoes into the ''"11"''"*' 
 water. Three hundred and forty-two chests were thus 
 broken open and the contents thrown into the harbor 
 (December 10. 177H). 
 57. Wlien the tk ws of this affair reached England, 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 Agitation. 
 
 The BostonParliament, in order to punish the inhabitants of Bos- 
 Port BjU. j^jj^ passed the Boston Port Bill in 1774, which pre- 
 vented the lading and unlading of goods, wares and 
 merchandise in that town and harbor on and after June 
 1. 1774, and the seat of government was to be transferred 
 to Salem. But the people of Salem refused to build 
 their fortunes on the ruins of their countrymen, and 
 the inhabitants of Marblehead generously offered the 
 Boston people the use of their warehouses and harbor, 
 other Ty- In the following March, two other bills, equally tyran- 
 BUls"^ nical, passed both houses of Parliament. One subverted 
 the whole constitution and charter of Massachusetts, 
 taking all power out of the hands of the people and 
 ve>tiug it in the crown. The other authorized the gov- 
 ernor to send any person indicted for murder or other 
 capital offence committed in aiding the magistracy, to 
 England or some other ccjlimy for trial. 
 Popular 5§^ These laws, which were gross violations of the 
 
 rights and charters of the colonies, excited the deepest 
 inilignalion everywhere in America. The people of 
 Boston, reduced to distress by the stoppage of their trade, 
 were regarded as martyrs of liberty, and contributions 
 were made for their relief, not only in the thirteen col- 
 onies, but even in London and Quebec. In Boston 
 itself, although patriotic meetings were held almost 
 daily in Fam-uil Hall and the Old South Church, all 
 disoniiTly and uiiconslitutional proceedings were 
 av lided, so tliat nothing was done for which the British 
 authoriiies could punish the people. The friends of 
 the crown about this time became known as Tories, 
 auti the popular party as Whigs. The Quebec Act, 
 which was passed among the other acts just mentioned, 
 extended the boundaries of Canada over the whole ter- 
 ritory situated north of the Ohio, and east of the 
 Jf i^sissippi. This was done to prevent Canada from 
 joining ItiC rebellious colonies. The colonies warmly 
 protested against this concession to liberty of con- 
 science, for the Actsanctioned throughout the province 
 the free exercise of the Roman Catholic religion, and 
 conlirined to the clergy of that profession their accus- 
 tumeti dues and rights, thus practically establishing the 
 Roman t'aiholic system in the new territory. To such 
 freedom (be colonists were on princijile opposed at the 
 time, though somewhat later they found it e.xpedient to 
 adopt nearly the same policy, and to promote a closer 
 union among themselves by juster treatment of their 
 Roman Caiholic brethren. 
 
 59. Committees of correspondence had already been 
 formed at the sugtrestion of Patrick Henry. Thomas 
 Jefferson, Richard Henry Lee and other Virginians, and 
 by this mi aus the colonies took counsel together for 
 the common defense. In May, 1774, proposals were 
 made by the assemblies of several of the provinces for 
 a general congress of delegates. The scheme was 
 taken up with great enthusiasm, and on September 5, 
 1774, an assembly of tifty-tive delegates, representing 
 all the colonies except Georgia, met in Philadelphia, 
 under the presidency of Pt^ytou Randolph, of Virginia. 
 The old This was the first or, as it is often called, the "old" 
 ContlnentalcontiTieiiial congress. The action of this body was still 
 Congress, mj^i^iy deliberative. They passed a resolution highly 
 commending the conduct of Massachusetts in the con- 
 flict with the wicked ministers, and exhorted all to press 
 on in the cause of liberty. They drew up a bill of 
 rights, entered into an agreement for themselves and 
 for all their constituents to cease all importations from 
 Great Britain, and adopted measures for organizing 
 committees in every town and citj' to see that this 
 agreement was enforced by every species .if popular 
 nlluence. They also voted an address to the king, one 
 to the people of Great Britain and another to Canada. 
 Their petiiion to the king entreated him, in elotjuence 
 the most affectionate and respectful, to restore to them 
 their violated rights — their rights as English freemen. 
 Provision was tlien made for another congress to meet 
 in the following May, unless the grievances should 
 
 meanwhile be redressed. When the proceedings of 
 Congress were published in England, Pit' (now Lord 
 Chatham) said: "For solidity of reason, force of saga- Pitt's 
 city and wisdom of conclusion under a complication of Opinion, 
 difficult circumstances no nation or body of men can 
 stand in preference to the general congress at Phila- 
 delphia. The histories of Greece and Rome give us 
 nothing equal to it, and all attempts to impose servitude 
 upon such a mighty continental nation must be in 
 vain." 
 
 60. These resolutions of the Continental Congress 
 aroused the indignation of the British government. 
 America, they said, had long wished to become inde- 
 pendent, and to prevent this was the duty of every 
 Englishman, and that it must be done at every hazard. 
 
 In the meantime, the situation of affairs in Massachu- The Peapi.> 
 setts became alarming. The people collected arms, en- Take Anns, 
 rolled themselves into companies and prepared to turn 
 out at a moment's notice, from which circumstance they 
 were called "minute men.'' Public speakers and writ- 
 ers bolilly defended the ritrht of th" people to with- 1 
 stand oppression. Royal officers were forced to resign. 
 General Gage began to fortify Boston Neck, and the 
 powder and other military stores in Cambridge and 
 Charleston were, by his order, removed to Boston. He 
 had about 4.000 troops under him, and sent home a re- 
 quest for 20.000 more. An assembly was called in Mas- 
 sachusetts, but dissolved by the governor. The mem- 
 bers then met in Salem, appointed a committee of 
 safety and sent messengers to New Hampshire, Rhode 
 Island and Connecticut, asking for their assistance in 
 raising an army of 20,000 men to act in any emergency. 
 England, although she could distinctly see the upheav- 
 ing of the violence of colonial indignation, shut her 
 eyes to the sight. Chatham, Burke, Fox. Barri and 
 other enlightened statesmen in Parliament urged the 
 government to recede from its untenable position, but 
 the obstinacy of the King prevented any conciliation; 
 it was resolved that America was in rebellion and must 
 be subdued; and so the revolution began. 
 
 61. It was a fortunate circumstance for the colonies 
 that the royal army was jjosted in New England. 
 The people of that northern country have their ijassions 
 more under the command of reason and interest than 
 in a southern climate. One rash, offensive action 
 against the royal forces at this early period, though 
 successful, mi^ht have worked great mischief to the 
 American cause. It would have lost them European 
 friends and weakened the disposition of the other col- 
 onies to assist them. The patient and the politic New Conduct of 
 England men, fully sensible of their situation, snbtnit- the People, 
 ted to many insults and restrained their feelings of re- 
 sentment. In civil wars or revolutions it is a matter of 
 
 much consequence who strikes the first blow. The 
 compassion of the world is nearly always in favor of 
 the attacked. For the space of nine months after the 
 arrival of General Gage the behavior of the people of 
 Boston is particularly worthy of imitation by those who 
 wish to overturn established governmenis. They con- 
 ducted their opposition with exquisite address. They 
 avoideil every kind of outrage and violence, preserved 
 peace and good order among themselves, successfully 
 engaged the other colonies to make ccnnmon cause with 
 them and counteracted General Gage so effectually as 
 to prevent his doing anything for his royal master, 
 while by patience and moderation they protected them- 
 selves from j\ist censure. Though resolved to bear as 
 long as pruilence and policy diciaicd. they were all the 
 time preparing for the last extremity by furnishing 
 themselves with arms antl training their militia. 
 
 6'2. Provisions had also been collected and stored in The Begin- 
 dift'erent places, particularly at Concord, about twenty '.""" "^"''^ 
 miles from Boston. General Gage sent out a detach- "^ ' 
 ment of 800 men. under the command of Colonel 
 Smith anil Jltijor Pitcairn. to destroy these stores. 
 Notwithstanding the precautions taken to prevent the 
 
UNITE J) STATES 
 
 spread of the intelligence, the ninrch of the troops had 
 befii well niaile known by expresses an<l signal guns. 
 Thus, when the British troops, early in the morning of 
 the 14th of April, 1773, reached Lexington, two-thirds 
 of the way to Concord, they found a small body of 
 Americans, under Captain Parker, drawn up on the 
 common to dispute the way. Captain Parker had 
 given orders not to lire unless fired upon. The IJritish 
 troops ru.shed upon them, firing and calling upon thep.i 
 
 Lcxliiston to disperse. Eight of the Americans were killed and 
 "jli*""" ""'' several more woumied. The little band of patriots 
 
 '^" ' slowly retreaied. returning the tire as they went, and 
 
 the Hriiish kept on to Concord, where they destroyed 
 a few stores. At a bridge near the village they encoun- 
 tered 400 Americans, hastily collected from the neigh- 
 boring towns, and were so warmly received that they 
 began a liasiy retreat. The militia prcssi'il them on all 
 sides; the retreat became a rout, and when the British 
 were at liist rescued by the arrival of Lord Percy with 
 reinforcements, they had l(isl27;i men. They continued 
 their retreat under Percy, bearing their dead and 
 wounded with them. All the way, from behind stone 
 walls, fenci 9 and farmhouse.^, the angry farmers galled 
 them with shot. They did not desist until the troops 
 had crossed Charlestown Neck and were safe under the 
 guns of the British vessels. 
 
 C:i. As arms were to decide the controversy, it was 
 anoiher fortunate circumstance for the Americans that 
 the first blood was drawn in Kew England. The inhab- 
 itants of that country W'ere so connected with each 
 other by descent, manners, religion, politics and a gen- 
 eral c<iua!iiy, that the killing of a single individual in- 
 terested the whole people and made them consider it a 
 common cause. Theblood of thnse who were killeil at 
 Lexington and Concord proved to be the firm cement 
 of an extensive union. Intelligence of these ev<'nls 
 spread like wild lire throughout the country; the torch 
 of war had been lighted, blood had been oil", red on the 
 altar of liberty, fearfully was the death of tbo-e patri- 
 ots slain at Lexington and Concord to be avenged. 
 Couriers galloped in every direction, beating a drum, 
 anil shouting in tones that thrilled every listening ear, 
 "To arms, toarms! liberty or death." The streets of 
 Lexington and Concord had been soaked in blood, and 
 the whole country was in a blaze of wrath. But amidst 
 the intense excitement which prevailed, the still thor- 
 oughly English characteristics of the people mani- 
 fested themselves. The provincial congress of Massa- 
 chnssetis, which was in sessional the time of the tight, 
 dispatched an account of it to Great Britain, accom- 
 panied with many deposiiions to prove that the British 
 were the aggressors. They also made an addn^ss to the 
 people of Great Britain, in whii h, after complaining 
 of their sufferings, they said: '' Tli. so have not yet de- 
 tached us from our royal sovereign; we pMfess to be 
 dutiful and loyal subjects, and though hardly dealt 
 with as we have been, are still ready wiih our lives 
 and fortunes to defend his person, crown and dignity. 
 Nevertheless, to the persecution and tyranny of his 
 evil ministry, we will not tamely submit." from this 
 commencement of hostilities, the disjiute between 
 Great Britain and the colonists took a new direction. 
 
 C4. Up to this time no party in America hud thought 
 of a separation from the mother cmutry, hut now the 
 colonists were atlame with the spirit of independence. 
 
 The Gather-Mechanics left their shops, and farmers the plow, and 
 
 TrooDs hurried to the scene of conllict. In the course of one 
 or two days the king's army touud it-elf besieged in 
 Boston by an irregular and ill-furnished, but large and 
 determined body of men who maiched to the scene of 
 action from all parts of New England. The provincial 
 congress of Massachussetts came together under the 
 presidency of Ur. Joseph Warren, voted to raise 13.0(10 
 men. and inviied the other New England colonists to 
 make up the army lo 30,000. In a few days a line of 
 encampment stretched from Roxhury to the river Mys- 
 
 tic, and the British forces in Boston were environed by 
 an army of 20,000 soldiers. Benedict Arnold gath- 
 ered about him a hand of vol.inteers, and rushed to 
 Boston. Here he formed the bold ])lan of seizing 
 the important fortresses of Ticonderoga and Crown 
 Point. 
 
 U-J. Having received instructions from the committee 
 of safety to raise a sullicienl number of men for the 
 [lurpose, he marched to Bennington, where he found 
 that Colonel Ethan Allen had collected a large band 
 for the same object. They marched on together at the 
 head of three hundred men. and reached Ticonderoga 
 on the loth of May, 1775. Advancing to the gateway, 
 Arnold and Allen entering side by siile, Allen rushed Capture of 
 to the governor's room and demanded liis surrender. '''i''"'«'<-'''- 
 "In whose name'?" st-immered the terrilied governor. (yowIJ*' 
 " In the name," said Allen, "of the Great .Jehovah and I'oiut. 
 the Conlineiilal Congress." This was high authority, 
 and the governor immediately surrendered. They were 
 equally successful in ol)taining Crown Point. By this 
 fortunate expedition they gained possession of two 
 important fortresses, and gave the American troops 
 about Boston a much-needeil supply of arms and am- 
 munition. 
 
 G6. The second Continental Congress met at Phila- Tlie Second 
 delphia. May 10, the day of the capture of Ticonderoga. f;""^'n™tal 
 Peyton Kandolph w.is at llrsl the president, but ,lohn ' 
 Hancock soon succeeded him in that position. W ash- 
 ington, .IelTerson,Fraiiklin.the Adamses. Patrick Henry 
 and U. H. Lee, were members. The Congress was 
 moderate, an<l asked only for a redress of grievances, 
 not for independence; but it look active measures for 
 carrying on the war. It formed a fedend union, as- 
 sumed the general authority of government, issued 
 bills of credit to the amount of three millions of dollars 
 for defraying the milit;iry expen.ses, and i)ledged the 
 faith of the United Colonies for their redemption. 
 
 IV. — THR W.\R KOK IXDEPENDHNCE, 1775-83. 
 
 67. In May. 1775, the British army in Boston re- 
 ceiveii reinforcements from England, under Generals 
 Howe, Clinton and Burgoyne, which, togeiher with 
 the garrison, formed an army of more than twelve 
 thousand men. The Americans comprised a number 
 of independent commands under Generals Arlemus 
 AVard, of Massachusselts; Israel Putnam, of Connecti- 
 cut; Nathanael Green, of Rhode Island, and other 
 stales, General W.ird being recognized as chief. The 
 whole nunilier of m<n was about sixteen thousand. 
 Upon the arrival of the English reinforcements, G(^n- 
 eral Gage now proclaimed martial law throughout the 
 state, offering pardon, however, lo all rebels who 
 would return to their allegiances, excepting Samuel 
 Adams and John Hancock. The Americans, learning 
 thai General Gage was <letermined to penetrate into the 
 country by the way of (Miarlestown Neck, issued orders 
 to Colonel I'rescott, on Iheevening of the IGth of June, 
 to take one thousand men and form an intrenchmeut 
 on Bunker's Hill, an eminence which commanded the 
 neck of the (,'hiirlestown peninsula. By some mistake 
 they went further on. and occupied Breeds Hill. At 
 midnijihl those stern hearted men stood on the top 
 while I'utnam marked out the line of entrenchments. 
 By daylight they had thrown up a redouhl eight rods 
 square, in which they could shelter themselves. In the 
 morning thc^ English ollicers and the people of Boston 
 could hardly believe their eyes as they saw this ledoubt 
 almost over their heads. The patriots on the hill were 
 first seen from the ships, whiih immediately opened 
 fire. All the artillery of the city and the lloating bat- 
 tery were pointed against that single, silent structure. 
 Still those hardy heroes toiled on amid the storm of 
 shot and shell which fell among them, until by noon 
 they had run a trench nearly down to the Mystic river 
 on the north; then laying down their picks and shovels 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 they took up tbeir muskets, and prepared themselves 
 for the coming uttack. 
 Batiic of 68. The cannonading having failed to dislodge the 
 BunkerHill Americans, about noon Gage sent abody of about three 
 thousand men, under Howe and Pigot to carry the 
 height by assault. Having crossed tLe Charles river 
 from Boston in boati, they advanci-d up the hill under 
 cover of fire from the ships and balieries. The pro- 
 vincials stood firm. " Don't one of you fire," was the 
 command of Putnam, "till you see the whites of their 
 eyes." The Enulish' advanced, stopping every few 
 yards, to deliver their deep and regular volleys against 
 the intrenchment; but not a shot replied. That silence 
 was more awful thun the thunder of cannon. When 
 the hostile columns had almost reached the works, the 
 stern order ■■Fire!" rang wiih starling clearness on the 
 air. Suddenly a sheet of Uarae burst from that low. 
 dark wall, and down went the enemy rank by rank. 
 Their lines wavered, then broke, and the troops fell 
 back in disorder to the landing place. There they 
 rallied, and soon moved forward again to the charge, 
 and again were driven back by the steady fire of the 
 colonists. At this critical moment General Clinton 
 arrived with reinforcements. By his exertions the 
 troops were again rallied, and a third time advanced to 
 the charge. Throwing aside their knapsacks and 
 reserving their tire, the soldiers, with fixed baj'onets, 
 marche(f swiftly and steadily over the heaps of their 
 fallen comrailes. up to the intrenchments. Only one 
 volley struck them, for the Americans had fired their 
 last rounds of ammunition, and were without bayonets. 
 Clubbing their muskets, they still beat back the enemy, 
 until the order was given to retreat, when they retired 
 slowly and made good their way over Charlestown 
 Neck. At the beginning of the retreat the brave Gen- 
 eral Warreu was killed. The Americans lost 449 in 
 killed, wounded, and prisoners, while the British loss 
 was nearly 1,500. The result of the battle was encour- 
 aging to the provincials. It give them confidence in 
 themselves, and consequence in the eyes of their 
 enemies. They had proved to themselves and others 
 that they could measure weapons with the disciplined 
 troops of Europe, and inflict the most harm in the con- 
 flict. This dear bought victory, won only through the 
 exhaustion of the American's powder, was so little sat- 
 isfactory to the British Government that General Gage 
 was supeiseded by General Howe. This engagement, 
 known as the battle of Bunker Hill, was the first real 
 battle of the Kevolutionarv War. 
 Waehing- 69. In the meantime. Congress on the 15th of June, 
 ton ap- at Philadelphia, elected George Washington, by a 
 Command- Unanimous vote, to the high office of commander-in- 
 er"in"Mef. chief of the united colonies. Washington, who was 
 present, accepted the appointment, expressing a sense 
 of the high honor which he had received, and the vast 
 responsibity of the station. He refused to accept any 
 compensation for his services, merely asking Congress 
 to defray his expenses. Congress also adopted the 
 unorganized force before Boston, naming it the Con- 
 tinental Army. In subordination to the commander- 
 in-chief, Messrs. Ward, Charles Lee, Schuyler, and 
 Putnam were appointed major-generals; Horatio Gates, 
 adjutant-general, and Messrs. Pomeroy, Montgomery 
 and .Wooster, Heath, Thomas. Spencer, Sullivan and 
 Greene, brigadier generals. Soon after his election, 
 General Washington, accompanied by Lee, proceeded 
 to Cambridge to take command of the army, which 
 amounted to about 14,000 men. He found them a 
 crowd of brave, undisciplined soldiers, unprovided 
 with arms, ammunition, and provisions. Ilis first busi- 
 ness was to organize them into an army, while he kept 
 watch over the British in Boston. 
 Attack on 70. Meanwhile an expedition was organized for an 
 Canada, attack on Canada, under the command of General 
 Schuyler; but Schuyler, falling sick by the way, the 
 command devolved on Richard Montgomery. This 
 
 officer ca|itured St. Jobii's and Chambly, both on the 
 Sorel river, and then made himself master of Montreal; 
 but in making an assault on Quebec, December31,1775, 
 he was repulsed, losing his own life, while Benedict 
 Arnold, another leader, was wounded. Sometime 
 afterward the British army in Canada was reinforced, 
 and the Americans were obliged to abandon all designs 
 in that quarter. While these events were taking place 
 on the northern frontiers, English ships were laying 
 waste towns and cities upon the Atlantic coast Bris- 
 tol in Rhode Island, and Falmouth in Massachusetts, 
 were burned because they had taken part in the rebel- 
 lion. Congress thought it time to turn its attention to 
 the construction of armed vessels. Thirteen were ac- 
 cordingly fitted out, a navy established, and a large 
 number of privateers licensed, which scoured the seas Fri^atpero 
 and did great injury to the English commerce. Gen- "^™^^ • 
 eral Washington employed in the service several 
 cruisers to intercept the store ships of the enemy. 
 Regular courts of admiralty were established for the 
 adjudication of prizes, and by these timely measures 
 much good was accomplished. 
 
 71. In the summer of 1775, Dunmore, the royal in the 
 Governor of Virginia, was driven out of Williamsburg, Soath. 
 then the capital of the colony, and obliged to seek 
 safety on board a British man of -war. Collecting some 
 ships and a considerable number of men, partly slaves 
 and indented servants, to whom he promised freedom, 
 he burned Norfolk (.January, 1770), which was the largest 
 and richest town in Virginia, and made descents upon 
 various parts of the coast. In North Carolina there 
 was some sharp fighting between the Tory settlers and 
 the patriotic militia, in which the Tories were worsted. 
 In South Carolina, the gallant defense of Charleston 
 (•June, 1776,) where a British fleet, under Sir Peter 
 Parker, aided by a large land force, under General 
 Clinton, was beaten off with great loss by a small body 
 of men commanded by Colonel Moultrie, filled the 
 colonists with encouragement. 
 
 73. During the year 1775 the royal government was 
 generally tcrminateil throughout the country, the 
 King's governors abdicating their posts and taking 
 refuge on board the English shipping. An act was 
 passed by the English Government prohibiting all trade 
 and commerce with the rebellious provinces, and 
 authorizing the capture of all American and other 
 vessels found trading with the colonies, and the crews 
 of the captured vessels were to be treated, not as 
 prisoners, but as slaves. The colonists had sent over 
 their last petition, styled the Olire Branch, to the King, 
 but both houses of Parliament refused to hear it, 
 alleging that they could not receive any proposition 
 coming from an unlawful assembly. Until now they 
 hoped for reconciliation with the mother countr}', but 
 the rejection of this last petition determined the com- 
 plete separation of Great Britain and the colonies. 
 
 73. At the beginning of 1776 Washington, by the Events 
 help of Congress, had succeeded in getting into mill- of 1T76. 
 tary order the army, which now ceased to be a col- 
 lection of little colonial militia organizations. On the 
 2d of .January he hoisted the Union flag in compliment 
 of the United Colonies. This flag bore the strips which 
 are found in the flag of today, but the crosses of St. 
 George and St. Andrew were retained on a blue ground 
 in the corner, blending the ideas of a new nationality 
 and English supremacy. The present flag was adopted 
 June, 14, 1777. Early in March, Washington was 
 ready to drive the British out of Boston. On the 
 night of the 4th he occupied and fortified 
 Dorchester Heights, ovclooking the harbor. General 
 Howe, who succeeded George, saw that he must fight 
 at a great disadvantage, or abandon the town. Think- Evacnation 
 ing " discretion the better part of valor," he gathered of Boston, 
 together his forces, took to the fleet and sailed away. 
 With him went those families which had remained 
 loyal to the king. Thus Boston was relieved of the 
 
U K i T i'] 1) S T A T J<. S 
 
 presence of the British, to the grout joy of the inhabi- 
 tants. There was now oiien war between the two 
 countries. But after this New Enghmd scarcely knew 
 the presence of soldiers, as it became the policy of Eng- 
 land to strike at the heart of the colonics. Putting 
 Boston in a slate of defense, Wa-shington now hastened 
 to New York, where he was certain the next blow 
 would be struck, and Lee was ordered to lakecomraand 
 of the troops in the South. The fortiticatious which 
 Lee had begun were hastily completed. Greene was 
 placed in command of a division on Long Island. 
 Measures were taken to disarm the Tory inhabitants, 
 and the roysil governor, Tryon, was driven to seek 
 refuge on board a British man ofwar in the lower bay. 
 Tbc Prtiioct 74. Even after the war had fairly begun, the colonies 
 of Si-pt-m- gtiu looked forward to a reconeiliaiion with the mother 
 """• country and the lirst i)roposals of a separation were 
 
 received with general disapproval. But the contlict of 
 arms, and the obstinate refusals of all overtures on the 
 part of Parliament, gave impulse to a bolder i)oUcv. All 
 this time the Second Continental Congress was in 
 session at Philadelphia, and it agreed to consider 
 definitely the question of imlependence. Then it took 
 a recess of four weeks, to yive the delegates an oppor- 
 tunity to go back to the pei>iile and learn what was the 
 general judgment. When the members returned to 
 their seats tiiere was no longer any doubt what course 
 should be pursued. A committee had been appointed 
 to propose a full declaration. The committee was elected 
 by ballot, and consisied of Thomas Jefferson. John 
 Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and 
 Uobcrt R. Livingston. Mr. Jefferson and Mr. Adams 
 acted as a subcommittee to prepare the draft, and Mr. 
 Tbc Dcclar-Jetlerson drew up the paper. The chief merit of the 
 ^^'""d"'- I'ocument is his. Some changes were made in it, on 
 d"ncc!^° the suggestion of other members of the committee, and 
 by others in Congicss while it was under discussion. 
 On July 2, 17TC, Congress adopted the resolu- 
 tion, "That these United Colonies are, and of right 
 ought to be. free and independent states ; that they are 
 absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and 
 that all political connection between them and the 
 State of Great Britain is, and ought to be. totally dis- 
 solved." Two days latter Congress adopted the declar- 
 ation written by JefEerson. It declared what were the 
 natural rights of all men ; it recited the acts of George 
 III, King of Great Britain, by which he had abused 
 his authority over the colonies, and deprived them of 
 tbi ir rights and liberties. It reminded the world how 
 patiently the colonies had born their injuries ; of the 
 petitions they had addressed to the King, which had 
 been disregarded ; how the colonies had appealed, not 
 to the King only, but to their brethren, the people of 
 England, but that all had been in vain. Therefore, as 
 the representatives of the VniUd States of America, in 
 general Congress assembled, the delegates published 
 this declaration of the independence of the Slates. The 
 declaration was received by the people with demon- 
 TbeZlii-ct Blralions of joy. Washington caused it to be read to 
 ofthcDe- hig soldiers in New Yoik on the 0th of July. On the 
 
 r.XikTni lOil. ^ 'I'll' iill 
 
 same cvcnmg the e.xcited mbabitants pulled down a 
 leaden statue of George III on horseback, which stood 
 on the Bowling Green, and it was melted into bullets 
 for the tise of the patriot army. In all the other parts 
 of the country the joy was intense. 
 TbcElToct 7,5. The British ministr)- were confounded at what they 
 *° ^°Sl»' '^called the daringenormity of the colonists, in spurning the 
 royal power and authority. They were surprised that 
 rebels dared to show such temper and spirit. Forllvt- 
 with they determined by augmented forces to crush 
 them at a blow, and to coerce them into a sense of 
 duty and submission to their king. Doubling the com- 
 petency of their own power to subjugate the colonies, 
 the English Parliament, at an immense expense, re- 
 sorted to the aid of foreign mercenaries to carry on 
 their bloody work. 17,000 troops, hired from the 
 
 clurutioD. 
 
 German States, were conveyed hither to nid in the dub- 
 jugation of the colonies. 
 
 76. When the British had failed to get possession of J,!',,-'^""^'' 
 South Carolina in the early summer of 177(;, they vor'k!*'' 
 turned their attention to New York. The American 
 
 army was inlreiuhed on Long Nl'iiid and 'h'i heights 
 overlooking New Y'ork when the British llvel "jntered 
 the harborand huxled some of their troops on Sta'en 
 Island. Geiural Howe and bis bro'her, Admiral llowe, 
 had been appoiiiled coinmissimers te receive the sub- 
 mission of any rebels who might throw themselves on 
 the king's mercy. Tney had been instructed to pro- 
 pose con;lition3 of peace, but they had no authority to 
 grant independence, and Washington refusi'd any other 
 terms. On the 22d of Auijust lli'; British forces under 
 Generals Clinton, Cornwullis, Por'er and Grant, landed 
 on the southern shore of Long Island. The larger part of 
 the American army was posied in what is now the heart 
 of Brooklyn. General Pulnam was in command of 
 Long Island, but his army was greatly inferior in num- 
 bers and eiiuipments to the enemy. On the morning on 
 August 27, Putnam was allacked by ihe iritish and 
 compelled to retreat to Brooklyn. Had the British gen- 
 eral followed up his advantage, he might have slain or 
 captured all of Putnam's force. But at nightfall, under 
 cover of the fog. Washington skillfully withdrew all 
 the forces on the Brooklyn side and united them with 
 the rest of his army in New 'York. He had completely 
 foiled the enemy. 
 
 77. It was impossible to bold New Y'ork, bccau.se it Evacoation 
 could be shelled from Brooklyn Heights and attacked '.^.f^^^ew 
 on both sides bj" the English Heel, so Washington wnh 
 
 drew his forces to Harlem Heights, and fori itied him- 
 self there. The British then entered New York, audit 
 remained in their hands until the close of the war. 
 
 The condition of the patriots was now deplorable. 
 The trmy, greatly reduced by losses in battle, was still 
 further weakened by desertions and insubordination. 
 Thousands of disheartened soldiers went horn... But 
 Washington succeeded in parity establishing discipline, 
 and opposed so bold a front to the enemy that Howe 
 aid not venture to attack him directly. Lord Corn- 
 wallis, however, succeeded in gaining a position on the 
 opposite side of the Hudson. Washington was com- 
 pelled to withdraw across the river, knowing that the 
 enemy would aim for Philadelphia. The two armies 
 crossed New Jersey in hot haste, Washington maneu- Operations 
 vering so as to defeat the British design of cutting him m New 
 off from that city. The armies, while in motion. were''''''*<'y- 
 often in sight of each other. Washington continued 
 his retreat slowly, followed by the enemy, until early 
 in December he crossed the Delaware river near Tren- 
 ton. Howe now thought the campaign over, and went 
 into winter quarters. 
 
 78. The succession of disasters, beginning with th 
 battle of Long Island, greatly discouraged the Ameri- 
 cans. The legislatures of Now Jersey and Pennsyl- 
 vania adjourned and left the states almost without a 
 government. Congress, fearing for its safety in Phila- 
 delphia, removed to Baltimore, leaving W'ashington 
 with almost dictatorial powers. Apathy and disorder 
 prevailed among the troops, many of whom had to 
 march with bare, bleeding feet along the frozen roads. 
 A great number of prominent persons, believing that 
 the cause of independence was lost, hastened to make 
 their peace with the British .authorities. It was truly a 
 time which "tried men's souls." Amidst the prevail- 
 ing gloom, Washington stood firm. Strengthened by 
 the arrival of Lee's division, now under command of 
 Sullivan, since the capture of Lee by the British, 
 NVashington determined to strike a blow that would re- 
 vive the drooping courage of the people. He resolved 
 to fall upon a detachment of Hessian troops, stationed 
 at Trenton under Hhal, and chose Christmas night for 
 the attack. Rccrossing the Delaware with '.2.400 men, 
 
 he attacked the town while the Hessians were carons „fTr,.nint! 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 ing, and completely routed them, taking one thousand 
 prisoners. 
 
 79. This brilliant exploit had a wonderful effect 
 upon the people. The soldiers who were about to re- 
 turn home consented to serve si.N; months longer; Con- 
 gress, which had exhibited great firmness during these 
 times of trial, put forth fresh efforts to strengthen the 
 army, and Washington, invested for six months with 
 the authority of a dictator, crossed the Delaware again 
 and occupied Trenton. Cornwallis now advanced to- 
 ward that place with all his available forces, and Wash- 
 ington's danger was greater than before. But again 
 his masterly genius prevailed. Leaving his camp fires 
 bi'rning. he abandoned his position, passed silently 
 around the enemy, and at sunrise (.January 3, 1T77), 
 
 The Bo'tlefcii upou the British reserves at Princeton, just as they 
 toiT"^"'^'^" ""-"''^ starting out to take part in the expected battle at 
 Trenton, and routed them. Thus Howe, instead of oc- 
 cupying all New Jersey, was cooped up at Brunswick 
 and Amboy, and Philadelphia was relieved of further 
 danger from Cornwallis. After these splendid suc- 
 cesses Washington retired with his army toward Mor- 
 ristown, which he made his headquarters, and arranged 
 his troops in safe positions between that place and the 
 highlands of the Hudson. Here he passed the winter, 
 frequently making sudden and daring exploits, without 
 risking a general engagement. By this means the en- 
 emy was compelled to abandon every post in New Jer- 
 sey, except New Brunswick and Perth Amboy. Phila- 
 delphia being now in no danger from the British, Con- 
 gress returned to that place. 
 
 80. Aware of the importance of inducing the French 
 to espouse the American cause, and relying on the en- 
 mity of Prance against Great Br' tain. Congress ap- 
 
 Commis- pointed as commissioners to the court of France, Ben- 
 eionerssentjamin Franklin, Silas Deane and Arthur Lee. They 
 to ranee. ^g,.g instructed to procure arms and ammunition, and 
 to obtain permission to fit out American vessels in the 
 French ports, to annoy the commerce of England. They 
 also directed them to solicit a loan of 10,000,000 francs, 
 and to endeavor, by every means in their power to pre- 
 vail on the French government to recognize the inde- 
 pendence of the United States. The commissioners 
 were kindly received and obtained the aid they re- 
 quested, although the French government was not will- 
 ing, as yet, to recognize the United States as an inde- 
 pendent nation. 
 
 81. Commissions were offered to French and other 
 foreign officers who wished to serve in the American 
 army, and a large number of ambitious soldiers conse- 
 quently embarked for America. Washington was em- 
 barassed by the arrival of such a large number, not all 
 of whom were men of merit. Among the foreigners, 
 however, who thus gave their services to the American 
 cause were several distinguished officers; Baron de 
 Kalb, an Alsatian; Kosciusko and Pulaski, the famous 
 Polish patriots; Baron Steuben, an experienced and 
 accomplished Prussian soldier, and the young French 
 Marquis de La Fayette, who purchased a ship with 
 his own means and sailed for America to offer his 
 sword, without pay, to the cause of independence. 
 ' 83. Near the end of May, 1777, the American army, 
 numbering about 18,000 men, moved from its winter 
 quarters at Morristown and took a position at Middle- 
 brook, on which the British left theirencampment, and 
 General Howe endeavored to induce General Washing- 
 ton to meet him on equal ground. But Washington 
 chose to continue his defensive warfare, and not to 
 risk an open battle. Finding various feints and at- 
 tempts ineffectual, Howe ordered a hasty retreat to 
 Stalen Island. He then embarked IG.OOO troops, and 
 leaving Sir Henry Clinton in command at New York, 
 put to sea, keeping his destination secret. On the 20th 
 of August, the fleet entered Chesapeake Bay. intending 
 an attack on Philadelphia. Washington hurried to 
 Philadelphia by forced marches, and on September 11, 
 
 Fnrei2:il 
 Officers. 
 
 <?:inipnie:n 
 of 1T77. 
 
 engaged Howe at Brandywine creek. After a hard- 
 fought battle the Americans were forced to retreat. 
 After some days occupied in maneuvering and skir- 
 mishing, on themorningof Ootober4 Washington made 
 a sudden attack on Howe's position at Germantown. 
 For a while the victory seemed in favor of the Ameri- 
 cans, but. owing to a heavy fog, they became confused, 
 and the British troops rallied and drove them back with 
 heavy loss. After these battles ths British became 
 masters of Philadelphia, and Washington took up hi.s 
 winter quarters at Valley Forge, about twenty miles 
 distant from that city. 
 
 83. While these events were occurring in the middle 
 states, in July, 1777, Burgoyne, with an army of Brit- 
 ish, Hessians and Indians, entered the states from Can- 
 ada, intending to seize the whole line of the Hudson 
 river. While on his route he sen t out detachments on both 
 sides, one under St. Leger against Fort Schuyler, and 
 another under Colonel Baum, to seize the American 
 stores collected at Bennington. St. Leger's enterprise 
 failed, and Baum was completely routed by the Green 
 Mountaia boys at Bennington (August lii). October 
 7, Burgoyne was defeated by the Americans under 
 Gates, at Bemis Heights, and October 17 was com- 
 pelled to surrender at Saratoga. The surrender of Bur- 
 goyne proved to be the turning point of the war. It 
 gave artillery and arms to the American array, it en- 
 couraged the soldiers, and made a great impression in 
 Europe. 
 
 84. In the meantime the winter was passing and 
 bringing with it severe trials to the American armj' at 
 Valley Forge. The men were without shoes, and the 
 snow was stained with the marks of their bleeding 
 feet. There was no money to pay them. The bills 
 issued by Congress had become so depreciated as to be 
 almo t worthle.ss. Food was so scarce that Washing- 
 ton was authorized to seize provisions wherever he 
 could find them. About this time there was a plot to 
 compel Washington to resign, and to have Lee or 
 Gates put in his place. But the scheme failed, and 
 Washington became more popular than ever. In the 
 spring of 1778 the condition of affairs improved. 
 Robert Morris, of Philadelphia, afforded relief to the 
 treasury by raising large sums of money for the gov- 
 ernment, on his personal credit, and continued to serve 
 the country in this way until the end of the war. 
 When the news of Burgoyne's capture reached France, 
 she instantly made a treaty of alliance with America 
 (February 6, 1778), and sent out a fleet under Count 
 d'Estaing to aid the colonies. The news of the treaty 
 was received by the Americans with great joy. The 
 British Government now sent over commissioners to 
 offer terms of peace, giving the Americans all they 
 asked for, except independence, but all propositions 
 short of that were refused. 
 
 85. General Howe was now instructed to concentrate 
 all his forces in New Vork Consequently the British 
 suddenly left Philadelphia, and set out on their miirch. 
 Washington instantly left Valley Forge, and pursued 
 the enemy with 13,000 m.en. He came up wiih them 
 at Monmouth where a hotly contested, but indecisive, 
 battle was fought. The enemy continued their retreat, 
 and were enabled to gain New York. Having failed 
 in their designs against New England and the Middle 
 States, the British now transferred their operations to 
 the South. An expedition was sent by sea and Savan- 
 nah, Georgia, was taken at the end of the year 1778. 
 Augusta was then occupied, and Georgia was prac- 
 tically in the hands, of the British. Thus ended the 
 campaign of 1778. General Lincoln received orders 
 from Congress to take command of the southern forces, 
 and the army under WashingUm retired to winter 
 quarters near Middle Brook, New Jersey. 
 
 86. There were no great movements during 1779. 
 Washington resolved to make the campaign a defensive 
 one. General Clinton, who commanded at New York, 
 
 The Battle 
 of the 
 Brandy- 
 wine. 
 
 The Battle 
 of German- 
 town. 
 
 B urgoynfi'. 
 lnvae=- 
 
 ^-tirrenaer 
 of Bur- 
 goyne. 
 
 Operations 
 of 1T7S. 
 
 The Pros- 
 pect Fight- 
 
 Treaty of 
 Alliance 
 with 
 France. 
 
 Battle of 
 Monmouth. 
 
 The War in 
 
 the South. 
 
 Campaign 
 of 1779. 
 
U N r T E ]:> S T A T K S 
 
 ^Vnynt\ 
 
 Bent out an expedition which capturcil the half finished 
 fort at Stony Point, situated on the west bank of the 
 Iludson river. Washington determined upon its re- 
 Mad An- capture, and upon the night of .luly 10, it was carried 
 !;""y at the point of the bayonet by the troops under the 
 
 gallant General Wayne, or "Mad Anthony Wayne" as 
 he was called. In October, the Americans, aided by 
 the French, made an attack on Savannah in order to 
 wrest it from the Brilisb. At the end of live hours' 
 bard flKbtini;. in which the brave Pulaski was mortally 
 wounded, the French refused to continue the attack 
 longer, and sailed for the West Indies, whereupon the 
 Americans retired to Charleston. This brought the 
 southern campaign of 1779 to an end. This year was 
 signalized by the victories achieved by the infant navy 
 of America, under the command of the intrepid Paul 
 Jones, who fought with the " Serapis " one of the 
 most desperate naval battles on record (September 2;i). 
 OpiTatioDs 87. The seat of the war was now mainly in the 
 in ihi' South. The people there were nearly equally divided 
 ^°"' '■ in allegiance. Savannah, the chief town of Georgia, 
 was already in possession of the British, and in May 
 Charleston was captured by them. The enemy bad 
 now a large army in the field in that quarter. At first 
 it was opposed by no united American army. The 
 patriotic planters gathered in companies, and rode 
 here and there under the leadership of daring men like 
 Marion and Sumter. They harassed the British wher- 
 ever they could find convenient points of attack. 
 Clinton, having gained possession of South Carolina, 
 returned to New York, leaving Cornwallis in command. 
 Meantime an American force under Baron l)e Kalb, 
 had been sent by Washington to the South; but Con- 
 gress interfered and put Gates in De Ivalb's place. 
 Gates, whose military capacity was much overrated, 
 collected together about six thousand men, and 
 inarched hiistily toward Camden, in the interior of 
 Batilc of South Carolina. Here he was met by the British under 
 Canideu. Cornwallis, who inllicted a disgraceful and disastrous 
 defeat upon hitM(Augustl6. 1780). Duringthe fight the 
 heroic De Kalb lost his life. Gates fled to North 
 Carolina, leaving his fugitive soldiers to take care of 
 themselves. Soon afterward be was removed from 
 command, and Greene appointed in his place. In 
 September, 1780, Arnold's treachery against the gov- 
 ernment was discovered, and he was compelled to flee 
 to the British lines. Major Andre, who had been 
 arranging terms with Arnold, was captured on his 
 return, tried as a spy, condemned, and executed 
 October 2, 1780. Greene being now in command of 
 the American troops in the South, showed at once the 
 ^jualities of a good general, lie secured ailditions to 
 the weakened southern army, and began operations 
 against Cornwallis. In December, 17sO, Greene was 
 at Charlotte, North Carolina, and Cornwallis was in 
 South Carolina, moving northward. Greene divided 
 his forces in two bodies. Ills plan was to get on each 
 side of the British army, and while avoiding a general 
 battle, to annoy the enemy continually. Although 
 General Greene's men were scantily clad, half starved, 
 and dispirited, destitute of arms and ammunition, the 
 officers under his command were as brave men as ever 
 followed a leader. Morgan, Lee, Marion, Sumter and 
 Colonel Washington formed a group to which the 
 British army could furnish no parallel. In the course 
 of his movements, Cornwallis dispatched Tarleton 
 against Morgan, who commanded one of the divisions 
 Th« Battle °f Greene's army. They met at Cowpens (.lanuary 17), 
 ofCowpens.and after one of the severest confiicts of the war, 
 Tarleton was completely defeated, with the loss of 
 the greater part of his force, and all his artillery and 
 baggage. 
 
 88. Morgan now hastened his march eastward to 
 join Greene, and Cornwallis followed in hot pursuit. 
 In order to move faster the British burned their stores 
 and superfluous baggage, but Morgan succeeded in 
 
 effecting a junction with Greene. Now followed a 
 series of masterly movements by Greene, lasting 
 through the winter, the spring, and the following 
 summer. The hostile forces met at Guilford Court Ouiiford 
 House (March 15, 1781). The battle was fought des- \{'Jl^\\, 
 perately for two hours, and all the advantages of a " "" 
 victory were on the side of the Americans. Notwith- 
 standing Cornwallis claimed the victory, he retreated, 
 closely pursued by Greene. Cornwallis avoided a 
 battle and retreated to Wilmington, and from there 
 proceeded to Petersburg, Virginia. Greene moved to 
 South Carolina, where he had a fight at Hobkirk's 
 Hill (April 25). with a force under lord Uawdon, 
 whom Cornwallis had left in command. Here Greene 
 was compelled to retreat, but Kawdon's loss was so 
 great that he soon after evacuated his main position at 
 Camden. During April and May Greene swept 
 through the country, carrj-ing the British posts in suc- 
 cession, until the enemy were confined to three points, 
 Ninety-si.\:, Kutaw Springs and Charleston. 
 
 89. Having rested his army, Greene marched against 
 Eutaw Springs, where he found the British forces un- 
 der Colonel Stuart (Kawdon having resigned and sailed 
 for England) drawn up to receive him. A severe en- 
 gagement took place (September 8, 1781), both sides 
 claiming the victory. 'This was the last general action 
 in South Carolina; the British, abandoning the open 
 country, retired to Charleston. Cornwallis arrived in 
 Virginia in May, 1781. Having received reinforcements, 
 he fortified himself at Yorktown, on the south side of 
 York river. Tarleton occupied Glouster Point, opposite 
 Yorktown. The British force in Virginia at this time 
 was about 8,000 men. 
 
 90. Meanwhile Washington, having been reinforced 
 by a lately arrived body of 6,000 French troops, under 
 Kochambeau, was threatening New York. About this 
 time the French adpiiral, De Grassc, who had been en- 
 gaged against the English in the West Indies, came 
 north to cooperate a little while with Washington, and 
 it was resolved, instead of carrying out on an attack 
 upon New York, which had been planned, to strike a 
 hard blow at Cornwallis in Virginia. The army of 
 Kochambeau marc-hed from Newport to meet Washing- 
 ton in the highlands. Their destination was kept 
 secret, and the movements of both so artfully contrived 
 that Clinton supposed they were going to attack New 
 York. He did not discover their object until they had 
 reached the Delaware. Sir Henry then sent out an ex- 
 pedition under Benedict Arnold to ravage Connecticut, 
 hoping thereby to cause Washington to return, but this 
 mjineuver did not efl'ect its object. Washington and 
 Kochambeau pressed forward with the utmost alacrity. 
 They received the gratifying intelligence that De (irasse 
 had already arrived with his fleet and had blockaded 
 the Chesapeake, thus cutting olT the escape of the Brit- 
 ish by water. On Septemlier 30, 1781, the allies in- 
 vested Yorktown and Glouster. After a siege of nearly .^iec<! of 
 three weeks, Cornwallis, finding it no longer possible to "i^rktown. 
 hold Yorktown, surrendered his whole army of nearly 
 
 8,000 men to Washington (October 19, 1781). On that 
 day Clinton left New York to join (jornwallis. A week 
 later, when off the Virginia cajies, be heard of the news 
 of the surrender. It was too late for him to be of any 
 service, and he returned to New York. 
 
 91. The surrender of Cornwallis sent a thrill of joy 
 through the country, and was the most decisive event 
 of the war. The territory of the thirteen states was 
 now restored to the jurisdiction of Congress, and the 
 contest <lecided in favor of America. The surrenderor 
 Cornwallis was accepted both by the Americans and 
 the English in Amer'ca as the end of the war. Con- 
 gress recommended the states to observe a day of 
 thanksgiving to God for the signal success of the Amer- 
 ican arms. The people waited impatiently for the two 
 governments to agree upon terms of peace. There were 
 after this a few encounters between the two armies, but 
 
UNITED S T A T E ;S 
 
 there was no Reneral battle. The British still haii posses- 
 sion of New York harbor and the surroiiudiiig country. 
 General Washington went into camp with his army at 
 Newburgh, on the Hudson. There he could keep open 
 communication betweeen New England anil the rest of 
 the country. The French allies remiiined in Virginia. 
 Generals Wayne and Greene drove such portions of the 
 British forces as remained in the Carolinas and Georgia 
 down to the sea-coast, and shut them up in Savannah 
 and Charleston. There they were protected by their 
 vessels. The people of Great Britain became clamor- 
 ous for peace. The obstinate king was still rei:olvtd 
 "never to consent to a peace at the expense of a separa- 
 tion from America, but a resolution in favor of peace, 
 supported by the leading members, passed the House of 
 Commons February 27, "1782. The king was compelled 
 to dismiss Lord North and accept a ministry headed by 
 the Marquis of Rockingham, who was committed to the 
 policy of peace, and commissioners were appointed on 
 both sides to negotiate a treaty, hostilities being stopped 
 in the interval. 
 TbeTreiitT 92. Much firmness and wisdom were shown by Messrs. 
 of Pe.>icB. ' Jay. Franklin, Adams and Laurens, the American com- 
 missioners. Many questions were raised, an important 
 one of which was that of boundary, England wishing 
 to keep the Ohio valley and part of Maine. Tbe prop- 
 erty of the Tories had been confiscated; the English 
 wislied it restored. England tried to exclude New En- 
 gland from the right to fish off the banks of Newfound- 
 land. These and other questions caused delay. The 
 delay was increased by the efforts of France and Spain 
 to postpone the final settlement until they should get 
 all which they demanded as nations from Great Britain. 
 The preliminary articles of peace were settled at Paris 
 on the 30th of November, 1782, and in September, 1783, 
 a formal treaty was signed. By this treaty Great Brit- 
 ain acknowledged the independence and sovereignty of 
 the United States, and a new nation took its place 
 among the governments of the earth. 
 Ttie Army 93. The Amt-rican army was now disbanded. During 
 disbanUi-d. {jjj. progress of negotiations the temper of the officers 
 and soldiers was far from satisfactory. They had 
 received but a small portion of their pay, had often 
 Buffered from absolute hunger, and were becoming 
 restless under their wrongs and neglect. Some of them 
 so far forgot themselves as to desire the establishment 
 of a military despotism, and Washington received a 
 letter in which he was advised to declare himself king 
 — a proposition which he indignantlj' refused to enter- 
 tain for a single moment. Thcj anonymous letters 
 were circulated among the troops in March, 1783, tend- 
 ing to inflame their minds and advising them to organ- 
 ize for the purpose of enforcing Congress to grant their 
 demands. To counteract this movement Washington 
 called all the officers together, and in his subsequent 
 farewell address soothed them by kind words and 
 promises, and appealed to the nobler sentiments of the 
 heart. Thus the danger was dispelled, and on Novem- 
 ber 3, still glowing with patriotism, the soldiers separ- 
 ated, resolved to endure all necessary privations. The 
 army certainly had been treated badly by both Con- 
 gress and the States, but there was some excuse for their 
 conduct in that the country was very poor, and that, 
 after spending nearly $100,000,000 during the war, the 
 treasury found itself at the end about $40,000,000 in 
 debt. This was exclusive of the outlay of the separate 
 states, which amounted to $60,000,000 or $70,000,000 
 more. 
 Evacuation Qq November 25 the British evacuated New York, 
 Yor'k"' *°'^' Washington's troops marched in by the way of 
 King's Bridge. On November 2 Washington issued his 
 farewell address to the army ; on December 4, with a 
 heart full of love and gratitude, he bade his officers 
 adieu. It was a deeply affecting scene, and men, who 
 had braved the horrors of many a battle, now, as they 
 approached their beloved commander-in-chief, were 
 
 melted to tears and incapable of utterance. Washing- 
 ton then proceeded to Annapolis, at that time the seat 
 of Congress, and tendered his resignation as command- Washing- 
 er-in-chief of the armies of the United States, and <<"''•' Resig-! 
 immediately retired as a private citizen to his home at "^ ' 
 Mount Vernon, on the Potomac, in Virginia. 
 
 V. — THE FORMATION OP THE FEDEU.\L CONSTITtJTIOX. 
 
 94. The Slates were governed during the latter part 
 of the war by "Articles of Confederation," proposed 
 by Congress at the time of the Declaration of Independ- 
 ence, but not adopted until several years later. Nearly 
 all [lower was vested in the separate states ; Congress 
 had but little authority ; there was no president or other 
 executive chief. During the war for independence the 
 army, which was called the Conlineutal army, was 
 under the authority of the Continental Congress, and it 
 received its pay, when paid at all, in Continental cur- 
 rency. These two words "Continental Currency," 
 were placed at the head of the paper money which 
 Congress began to issue at the beginning of the war. 
 No other way of raising money to meet the military 
 expenses seemed clear to Congress than to issue this 
 currency, since there would be no revenue from duties, 
 as lesoluiions had been passed to have no trade with 
 Great Britain. All the colonies represented in Con- 
 gress agreed to redeem the bills which should be 
 issued, just as each colony had been accustomed to 
 redeem its own bills. At tirst the money was found to 
 be very useful, and its value was not questioned, as 
 nearly everyone thought that the war would soon be 
 over. But the war dragged along ; Congress bad been 
 obliged to issue bills to the amount of $20,000,000; 
 whether or not the colonies would be able to win inde- 
 pendence was a matter of doubt ; the country was poor, 
 and it was not certain that the Confederation would 
 last. Under these circumstances people began to 
 refuse to take the money at the value printed upon it. 
 
 95. Under the "Articles of Confederation," adopted ^°''"^°f 
 in .1777, the powers of Congress were but small. The o^srets. 
 colonies were jealous of each other, and especially the 
 smaller of the larger, and so they all wished to give the 
 
 " Confederation," as it was called, just as little power 
 as they could. The new government was to be "nerely 
 a "firm league of friendship" between sovereign states, 
 which were to retain every power not "expressly" 
 delegated to Congress. At this time Congress consisted 
 of but one house, in which each state had an equal 
 vote. There was no national executive head. Congress 
 retained the power to borrow money, but was not 
 authorized to raise money by taxes, or to fix the rate of 
 duties on foreign goods imported, or compel obedience* 
 to any law. In fact, the provincial spirit which mani- 
 fested itself in the several colonies, so prevailed over 
 the spirit of nationality, as to completely take from it 
 all power of action, even in the most violent emergen- 
 cies, without the express consent of the several prov- 
 inces. This was done by the celebrated "Articles of 
 Confederation," by which Congress was reduced from 
 a prompt and energetic exercise of power, assumed 
 and used for the general good, to a mere advisory 
 body, which, strictly speaking, had no authority at 
 all; for the very tirst article, after that giving title to 
 the instrument, made the following declaration: "Each 
 state retains its sovereignty, freedom and indepcn- 
 dance, and every power, jurisdiction, and right which 
 is not by this confederation express/!/ delegated to the 
 United States in Congress assembled." Thus Congress 
 was bound, hand and foot, by the narrow-minded 
 jealousy of the several states. Important measures 
 required the votes of nine of the 13 states, and amend- 
 ments the votes of all. Congress alone could decide 
 upon the needed amount of money, but tbe power 
 of collecting the taxes was vcste'i in the states, only. 
 Congress could decide disputes lietween the states, but 
 it had no power to compel respect or obedience to ita 
 
U ^' i T E D S T A T E S 
 
 decisions. It alone could maki' treaties wiih foreign 
 nations, but no iiulivi«iuiil stute was bound to respect 
 those treaties, so far as Congress was concerned. Every 
 stale had the power of re,i;ulatinj; its own commerce, 
 both foreign and domestic, in trutli. all the acts of 
 Congress were simplj- recommendations to the state 
 assemblies; and these recommendations were always 
 largely debated, oftentimes rejected, and never assented 
 to in season to have their best cfTect. Washington 
 and the army and the Hevoliilionary cause were thus 
 nearly sacrillced by a states-right prejudice, as bad in 
 princi|)le as it was .slow and injurious in fact. 
 
 90. When Congress tried to borrow money in Europe, 
 it succeded in gelling some at high rates of interest. 
 But in the present slate of the country foreigners were 
 slow to lend; they were not sure of getting their money 
 back again. They knew they would not if the slates 
 failed in establishing their independence. And even if 
 they did. the question was, would they pay if pc«ce 
 came? Under the then existing form of govenunent it 
 seemed doubtful. The several stales could raise money 
 to meet their obligations by ta.xing their citizens; they 
 could also impose duties on articles of trade. The 
 government, as vested in Congress, coulil do neither of 
 these things; it could only apportion to the several 
 states their share of the jiublic expenses. If the states 
 refused to pay. Congress had lu) [lower to comiiel them. 
 Foreign countries, also, did noi like to make treaties 
 with such a loose and feeble government. Washington 
 said: "We are one nation to-day. and 13 to-morrow: 
 who will treat with us on these terms?" Thus, both 
 Congress and the states struggled on, making more 
 paper money and borrowing at high rates of interest. 
 Laws were passed requiring the people to take the 
 paper monej' in payment of debts. But the currency 
 became more and more worthless, so that about the 
 middle of the war, 16 hundred dollars of it was asked 
 for a suit of clothes. After the alliance with France, 
 the prospect brightened. People had more confidence 
 in the success of the United States, and it became easier 
 to borrow money in Europe. About this time, also. 
 
 ^•jT' Robert Mt)rris, of Philadelphia, who thoroughly under- 
 stood the mistakes which had l)ecn made, was offered 
 the position of superintendent of finance. He accepted 
 the office only on condition that Congress should aban- 
 don the attempt to compel the people by law to take 
 the paper money in payment of debts. In 1781 Con- 
 gress passed a resolution that it would pay all its debts 
 in solid coin, and recommended the states to do the 
 same. It chartered the Bank of North America, and 
 this bank lent money both to the government and to 
 the people. At the close of the war the government 
 found itself deeply in debt. Part of this money was 
 due to foreigners, and part to the people of the country, 
 How this debt was to be paid, was the question to be 
 , settled by the Confederation. 
 
 Uni..Topicd ""• ^'"-' way was through the sale of unoccupied lands. 
 
 LaDdi>. When the Confederation was forming there was much 
 dispute and uncertainty about the western boundaries 
 of the difTerent colonies. Virginia, for example, claimed 
 the country now occupied by Kentucky, Indiana, Ohio 
 and Illinois. It was proposed that the states should 
 give up their western lands to the United States. Vir- 
 ginia was the first to do this, and other stales followed 
 her example (1T.S4). Congress us(^d this property to pay 
 the debts of the govc'rnment. It gave lands to officers 
 ami soldiers in payment of their claims. Many of 
 thi'se moved out on their lands, and companies were 
 formed for colonizing, especially in the Ohio valley. 
 Congress could not go much farther. It could say 
 what taxes ought to be laid, and could recommend a 
 uniforiM late of duties throughout the country; but it 
 was obliged to ask the state to lay the taxes, to levy the 
 duties, and then to pay the money raised into the 
 treasury of Congress. 
 98. It perceived that this would never do— that a 
 
 stronger form of government was necessary for the 
 welfare and [irosperity of the country. Disorders 
 aro.sc within the separate states, and a state of anarchy 
 in general prevailed. The western counties of North 
 Carolina undertook to form a state of their own, called 
 Frankland. The part of Virginia which afterward be- 
 came Kentucky, made asimilar attempt. An extensive 
 rebellion in Massachussetts, le<l by an ex-captain in the 
 Continental army, named Daniel Shays (December, SlinyK' 
 ITStiV and directed against the collection of taxes, etc., Kchcliion. 
 for six months resisted the ;uitliority of the slate. It 
 was Bually put down by a military force uiuler General 
 Lincoln. The one act of authority which Congress 
 could exercise was in providing for the government of 
 the country which had been ceded to it by the states. 
 This led to the passage of the important ordinance in Ordniance 
 1787. By this ordinance all the district northwest of ""''*"• 
 the Ohio was formed into one territory. Congress ap- 
 pointed a governiir, a council and judges. The people 
 of the terriloiy were allowed to choose their own as- 
 sembly and make their own laws, The most important 
 provision of the ordinance was that by which slavery 
 was forever excluded from the northwest territory. 
 
 99. It was impossible for the country to go on as it 
 
 was. The states were separating from one another. Diflicuities 
 and from Congress. Congress could with tli""'"'')' J^y^',','; 
 bring enough members together to form a quorum. 
 Scarcely any one outside paid attention to what it did. 
 Least of all was it respected by foreign governments. 
 John Adams.who had been sentas minister to England, 
 could hardly get a hearing there. M xny of the states 
 refused or neglected to pay even their allotted shares 
 of interest on the public debt, and Congress had not 
 the power to compel payment. The national credit be- 
 came worthless. Foreign nations refused to make 
 commercial treaties with the United States, pre- 
 ferring rather to tuke advantage of the impotency 
 of Congress, and lay any burden upon American 
 commerce that they thought fit. In 178,'), Algeria de- 
 clared war against the United States. Having no effi- 
 cient navy, Congress rccommendeil the building of five 
 ships of war, but as it had the power to recommend 
 only, the ships were not built, and American commerce 
 was left a prey to the Alg<'ritie pirates. Great Britain 
 still refused to carry out the treaty of 1783. or send a 
 minister to the United States. The federal government 
 was despised abroad, and disobeyed at home. 
 
 100. Amidst this discouraging and confused state of 
 affairs, the more thought fid of the people saw that 
 some change in the form of government was necessary 
 and so a convention of delegates was called to meet in 
 Independence hall, Philadelphia, May 14, 1787, in order J;',™;^:^,'^"™ 
 to decide upon a new constitution, and make, if possi- 
 ble, a stronger government, wilhotit doing harm to the 
 liberties of the people. The states sent their ablest 
 
 men to represent them. Many of the delegates hac 
 been members of the first Congress. Among others. 
 Virginia sent Washington, Edmund Randolph. Georg(' 
 Mason, Madison and George Wythe; New York, Ham- 
 ilton; Massachuselts, Kufus King, Strong and Gerry; 
 Pennsylvania, Franklin, Itobert Morris, Gouverneur 
 Morris and -lames Wilson; New .Jersey, Paterson; Con- 
 necticut, Sherman, William S. .Johnson and Ellsworth; 
 and South Carolina, Kulledge and the two Pinckneys. 
 Washington was appointed president of the convention. 
 
 101. There was great difference of opinion among the 
 delegates regarding the question at issue, but all agreed 
 that it was necessary to give the government greater 
 authority. After a long discussion, lasting man}' 
 weeks, the convention drew up a conslilui'on of the T'"' f™' 
 United States (September 17, 1787) which was to take ''^"°"°°- 
 the place of the articles of confederation. The con- 
 vention reported its work to Congress, and Congress 
 submitted it to the several states. By the terms of the 
 constitution, it must be ratified by nine states before it 
 
 could become the law of the land. Much opposition 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 was manifested toward its adoption. It was discussed 
 everywhere, and its every article was earnestly debated. 
 Hamilton, Madison and John Jay of New York pub- 
 lished a celebrated series of papers called The Feder- 
 alist, in which they went over all its features with great 
 thoroughness, showing the reasons for the action of 
 the convention. By this means they did much to con- 
 vince the people of the importance of the work done. 
 Delaware was the first to ratify the constitution, which 
 it did unanimously. Pennsylvania followed, ten days 
 afterward, with a two- thirds vote in favor. Eight 
 other states also ratified it, so that it went info effect in 
 1788. Of the three states which remained. New York 
 accepted the constitution in time to take part in the 
 first pres'dential election that same year. North Car- 
 olina accepted it during the year following; and Rhode 
 Island, last of all, in the year after that (1790). Thus 
 the old " Confederation" came to an end and the new 
 The Union. " Union " began. 
 
 103. The opening words of the constitution are as 
 follows: " We, the people of the United States, in order 
 to form a more perfect union, established justice, insure 
 domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, 
 promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings 
 of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and 
 establish this constitution for the United States of 
 
 The Pream- America." This first sentence of the constitution is 
 ''''■■ often called the preatnble, but no such term was applied 
 
 to it by the framers of the constitution, neither is it 
 found in the original manuscript. It is not a preamble 
 in any sense, but is the enacting clause — an integral 
 part of the constitution, staling that it was the people 
 of the whole United States who established it. A pre- 
 amble gives reasons why a resolution should be adopted 
 or enacted, but it is no pait of the resolution or enact- 
 ment. The enacting clause, on the contrary, is man- 
 datory. No other part of a statute is more important. 
 Thus, this introductory sentence gives the authority 
 and the ends for which the constitution was made. It 
 was ordained by the people of the United States as a 
 nation, and for the purposes so admirably set forth in 
 its opening clause; and wherever in the constitution the 
 words "United States" occur they signify the nation 
 as a whole; wherever the word "States" occurs, it 
 denotes the states considered separately, or as distin- 
 guished from tbs nation. 
 Articles 103. The constitution contains seven articles, which 
 
 of the Con- J^re subdivided into sections. Besides these seven ar- 
 6ti u ion. ijpjgg^ fifteen amendments have been made to the con- 
 stitution, which are as binding as the original articles. 
 By the first article all legislative power is vested in the 
 Congress of the United States, which consists of a senate 
 and house of representatives. Under the confederation 
 the whole governmental authority was vested in Con- 
 gress. There was no executive department and no judi- 
 ■ cial. The first resolution adopted in the constitutional 
 convention stated that a national government ought to 
 be formed, consisting of supreme legislative, executive 
 and judicial departments. Most legislative bodies have 
 two houses. This is true of all the existing state gov- 
 ernments, and was true of all the states at the time the 
 constitution was framed, except Pennsylvania and 
 (Jeorgia, which had but one each. The Continental 
 <Jongres3 had but one house. While there is a general 
 distribution of powers among the three great depart- 
 ments of government, the exercise of these powers is 
 not absolutely exclusive. 
 
 104. The federal house of representatives is descend- 
 ed, through the state houses of representatives, from 
 the colonial assemblies. It is an assembly represent- 
 ing the whole population of the country as if the peo- 
 
 The House pie were all in one great state. It is composed of roem- 
 
 of Repre- bers chosen every year by the people of the states. A 
 
 eentatives. candidate for election to the house must be at least 
 
 twenty-five years old. must have been seven years a 
 
 citizen of the United States, and must be an inhabitant 
 
 of the state in which he is chosen. As the federal 
 Congress is a taxing body, representatives and taxes are 
 apportioned among the several states according to the 
 same rule, that is, according to population. At this 
 point a difficulty arose in the convention as to whether 
 slaves should be counted as population. If they were 
 to be counted, the power of the slave states in all mat- 
 ters of national legislation would be greatly increased. 
 The difficulty was adjusted by a compromise measure -pi^^ .j-[j^j,^. 
 according to which five slaves were to be reckoned as Fifths 
 three persons. Since the abolition of slavery this pro- ("ompro- 
 vision has become obsolete, but until 1860 it was a very ""**■ 
 important factor in American history. 
 
 10.5. In the federal house of representatives the great 
 states, of course, have much more weight than the small- 
 er ones. In 1790 the four largest states had 33 repre- 
 sentatives, while the other nine had only 33. The larg- 
 est state, Virginia, had ten representatives, to one fror 
 Delaware. These disparities have increased. In 1880, 
 out of thirty-eight states, the nine largest had a majority 
 of the house, and the largest state, New York, had 34 
 representatives to one from Delaware. This feature in 
 the house of representatives caused the smaller states 
 in the convention to oppose the whole scheine of con- 
 structing a new government. They were determined 
 that all the states, both great and small, should have 
 equal representation in Congress. Their prolonged op- 
 position threatened to ruin the whole plan, when a 
 method of eonipromise was fortunately discovered. It 
 was intended that the national legislature, in imitation 
 of the state legislatures, should have an upper house or 
 senate, and at first the advocates of a strong national 
 government projiosed that the senate also should repre- 
 sent population. But it happened that iu the state of Con- The Con- 
 necticut a unique governmental method had been adopt- nt'^'t'cn' 
 ed. There it had always been the custom to elect the gov- nUsef"^" 
 ernor and upper house by a majority vote of the whole 
 people, while for each township there was an equality 
 of representation in the lower house. The Connecticut 
 delegates in the convention, therefore, being familiar 
 with a legislature in which the two houses were elected 
 on different principles, suggested a compronaise. Let 
 the house of representatives, they said, represent the 
 people, and let the senate represent the states; let all 
 the states, great and small, be equally represented in 
 the senate. Such was the famous "Connecticut Com- 
 promise." Had this not been adopted the convention 
 would doubtless have broken up without accomplish- 
 ing its purpose. After it was accepted, and the jealous 
 fears of the smaller states allayed, the work, yet to be 
 accomplished, was comparatively easy. 
 
 106. Thus it came about that the upper house of the The Senate, 
 national legislature is composed of two senators from 
 
 each state. As they represent the state, they are 
 chosen by its legislature and not by the people. They 
 are chosen for a term of six years, and one-third of the 
 number of terms expire every second year, so that, 
 while the whole senate may be renewed by the lapse of 
 six years, there is never a "new senate." The senate 
 has thus a continuous existence and a permanent or- 
 ganization, whereas each house of representatives ex- 
 pires at the end of a two-years' term, which is usually 
 known as a "congress," and is succeeded by a "new 
 house." A candidate for the senatorship must be at 
 least thirty years of age, must have been nine years a 
 citizen of the Unit.ed States and must be an inhabitant 
 of the state which he represents. 
 
 107. Congress must assemble at least once in every Time of 
 year, and the constitution appoints the first Monday in Assembling 
 December for the time of meeting; but Congress can, 
 
 if necessary, enact a law changing the time. The es- 
 tablished custom is to hold the election for representa- 
 tives upon the same day as the election for president — 
 the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. As 
 the period of the new administration does not begin 
 until the fourth day of the following March, the new 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 Prlvileees 
 or mem* 
 
 bers. 
 
 Presiding 
 offlcert>. 
 
 Power of 
 impeucb- 
 mcnt. 
 
 The presi- 
 dent's veto 
 power. 
 
 house of representatives docs not assemble until the 
 December following that date, unless the new president 
 should think it necessary to call an extra session of 
 Congress at an earlier date. Each house is judge of 
 the elections, qualifications and returns of its own 
 members, determines its own rides of procedure aiul 
 may punish its members for disorderly behavior, or by 
 a two thirds votee.\|>el a member. Absent members 
 may be compelled under penalties to attend. Each 
 house is rei|uired to keep a journal of its proceedings, 
 and at proper intervals to publish it, except such parts 
 as for reasons of public policy should bo kept secret, 
 
 108. Senators and representali\'cs receive a fi.xed sal- 
 ary by law, which is paid out of the public treasury. 
 In all ca.ses, except treason or felony or breach of the 
 peace, they arc privileged from arrest during their at- 
 tendance in Congress, as also while on their way to it 
 and while returning home; "and for any speech or de- 
 bate in either house they shall not be ciuestioncd in any 
 other place." During the session (»f Congress neither 
 house may, without the consent of the other, adjourn 
 for more than three days, or to any other place than 
 that in which Congress is sitting. No person can at 
 the same lime hold any civil olHce under the United 
 Stales government and be a member of either house of 
 Congress. 
 
 109. The vice-president is the presiding officer in the 
 senate, with power to vote only in case of a tie. The 
 house of representatives electa its presiding officer, 
 who is called the Speaker. In the early history of the 
 House of Commons, in England, its presiding officer 
 was naturally enough Uasjio/.-csmaii. He could speak 
 for it in addressing the crown. Instances of this kind 
 occurred during the fourteenth century, until in i:i76 
 the title of Speaker was definitely given to Sir Thomas 
 Uungerford, and from that date the title has always 
 held. The same title was given to the presiding officers 
 of the American colonial assemblies, and thence it 
 passed on to the state and federal legislatures. The 
 Speaker presides over the debates, puts the questions 
 and decides points of order. Ue also appoints the 
 committees of the house of representatives. 
 
 110. The house of representatives has the sole 
 power of impeachment, and the senate has the sole 
 power to try all impeachments. When the president 
 of the United States is tried, the chief justice of the 
 supreme court must preside. Ai' i precaution against 
 Ihe use of impeachment for party purposes, a two- 
 thiids vote is required for conviction. In case of con- 
 viction the judgment cannot extend further than "to 
 removal from office, and disqualification to hold or 
 enjoy any office of "honor, trust or profit under the 
 United Slates;" but the person convicted is liable af- 
 terward to be tried and punished by the ordinary pro- 
 cess of law, 
 
 111. The constitutional provisions for legislation are 
 admirably simple. All bills for raising revenue must 
 originate in the lower house, but the upper house may 
 propose or concur with amendments as in the case of 
 other bills. After a bill has passed both houses, it must 
 go to the president for his approval. If he approves 
 it, he signs it, and it becomes a law. If he disapproves 
 it, he returns it to the house in which it originated, 
 with a written statement of his objections, which must 
 be entered in full upon the journal of the house. The 
 bill is then reconsidered, and if it obtains a two thirds 
 vote it is sent, together with theohjections, to the other 
 house. If it passes there by a two-thirds vote, it 
 becomes a law. Otherwise it fails. If the president 
 keeps a bill longer than ten daj's (Sundays excepted) 
 without signing it, it becomes a law without his signa- 
 ture, unless Congress adjourns before the expiration 
 of the ten daj-s, in which case it fails to become a law, 
 just as if it had been vetoed. This method of vetoing 
 bills just before the expiration of Congress, by keeping 
 it in one's pocket, so to speak, was styled a " pocket 
 
 veto," and was first employed by President Jackson in 
 1829. 
 
 112. By the constitution. Congress has the power 
 " to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, 
 to pay the debts and provide for the common defense 
 and general welfare of the United States," but all 
 duties, etc., were to be uniform throughout the United 
 States. Other powers are naturally attached to this — 
 such as the power to borrow money on the credit of 
 the United States ; to regulate foreign and domestic 
 commerce ; to coin money and fix the standard of 
 weights and measures ; to provide for the punishment 
 of counterfeiters ; to establish post-offices and post- 
 roads ; to issue copyrights and patents ; to estalilish 
 courts inferior to the supreme court ; to punish 
 offenses committed on the high seas, or against the law 
 of nations ; to declare war, grant letters of marque and 
 reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land 
 and water ; to raise and support an army and navy (no 
 appropriation to be for more than two years), and to 
 make rules for the regulation of the land and naval 
 forces ; to provide for calling out the militia to suppress 
 insurrections and repel invasions, and to command the 
 militia while actually employed in the service of the 
 United States. The several states, however, were to 
 train their own militia and appoint the officers. Con- 
 gress may also establish a uniform rule of naturaliza- 
 tion, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies, 
 but it has not yet done so. It was also empowered to 
 establish a national capital or federal district (which is 
 the District of Columbia, containing the city of Wash- 
 ington), to exercise exclusive control over it, and over 
 forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards and other need- 
 ful buildings, which it erects within the several slates 
 upon lands purchased for such purposes with the con- 
 sent of the state legislature ; and finally. " to make all 
 laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying 
 into execution the foregoing powers and all other 
 powers vested by this coustitiition in the government 
 of the United Stales, or in any department or office 
 thereof." This last clause may be called the elastic 
 clause of the constitution. It has been the subject of 
 continued debate, and has undergone a great deal of 
 stretching for one purpose and another. It was a pro- 
 found disagreement in the interpretation of this clause 
 which, after 1789, divided the American people into two 
 great political parties. 
 
 113. The national authority of Congress is further 
 sharply defined by the express denial of sundry powers 
 to the several states. The states are expressly forbid- 
 den to impose any duties on imports or exports, except 
 for inspection charges, which must be passed over to 
 the treasury of the United States; to make treaties of 
 any kind ; to lay any duty on tonnage ; to keep troops 
 or ships of war in time of peace ; to engage in war 
 unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as 
 will admit of no delay ; to grant letters of marque and 
 reprisal ; to coin money ; to emit bills of credit ; to 
 make anything but silver a legal tender; to pass any 
 bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the 
 obligation of contracts, or to grant any title of nobility. 
 
 114. Some express prohibitions were laiii upon the 
 National Covcrnment. Duties may be laid upon im- 
 ports, but not upon exports. Duties and excises must 
 be uniform throughout the country, and no commercial 
 preference can be shown one state over another. The pri- 
 vilege of the writ of /iii/niis corpux cannot be suspended 
 except "when.incasesof rebellion or invasion, the public 
 safety may require it." A census must be taken every 
 10 years in order to adjust representation, and no direct 
 tax can be impo.sed except according to the census. 
 No bill of attainder, or ex po.tt facto law can be passed. 
 A bill of attainder is a special legislative act by which 
 a person maybe condemned to death, or to outlawry 
 and banishment, without the opportunity of defending 
 himself, to which he is entitled in a court of law. 
 
 POWI'-P 
 
 prauted to 
 Congrcee. 
 
 Tlie 
 
 "Elastic 
 
 Clau.se.'' 
 
 Powers 
 denied to 
 the States. 
 
 Prohibi- 
 lioni' laid 
 upon 
 Congress. 
 
 Bills or 
 attainder. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 C^niilifica- 
 tioiis for 
 the presi- 
 deucy. 
 
 Powerp 
 jind duties 
 of the 
 president. 
 
 The 
 
 Pr.-!jident 
 
 message. 
 
 Executive 
 depart- 
 
 lUI'DtS. 
 
 Tlic Secrc' 
 tary of 
 State. 
 
 Congresa can grant no title of nobility, and no federal 
 officer can accept a present, office, or title from a 
 foreign state without the cousenl of Congress. "No 
 religious test shall ever be required as a qtialitioation to 
 any office or public trust under the United States." 
 Money is to be taken from the treasury only in con- 
 sequence of appropriations made by law. 
 
 115. No one is eligible to the office of president un- 
 less be is a native born citizen. The candidate must 
 be at least 35 yeais old. and must have been 14 years a 
 resident of the United States. The president's term of 
 office is four years. The constitution says nothing 
 about his re-election, and there is no written law for- 
 bidding his being re-elected many times. Some of the 
 presidents have served two consecutive terms, and it 
 seems to have become the established custom not to go 
 beyond that. The president is solemnly ^worn to 
 execute his office faithfully, and "to preserve, protect, 
 and defend the Constitution of the United States " to 
 the best of his ability. In case of his death, resigna- 
 tion, or inability to perform the duties of his office, the 
 •vice-president takes his place; and, in the case of the 
 inability of both, the members of the cabinet succeed 
 in the order prescribed in the Presidential Succession 
 Act of 1886. The president is commander-in-chief of 
 the military and naval forces of the United States, and 
 of the militia in the several states actually engaged in 
 the service of the United States; and he has the pre- 
 rogative of granting reprieves and pardons for offences 
 against the United States, e.xcept in cases of impeach- 
 ment. He can make treaties with foreign powers; but 
 no treaty is valid unless confirmed by a two-thirds 
 vote of the senate. He appoints ministers to foreign 
 countries, consuls, and the greater officers, such as the 
 heads of e.xecutive departments and judges of the 
 supreme court, and all other officers whose appoint- 
 ment Congress has not vested in other officers; but 
 all presidental appointments are to be confirmed by 
 the Senate. When vacancies occur during the recess 
 of the senate, he may fill them by granting commis- 
 sions to expire at the end of the next session. He 
 commissions all federal officers. He receives all 
 foreign ministers. He may summon either or both 
 houses of Congress to an extra session, and if the two 
 houses disagree in regard to the time of adjournment, 
 he may adjourn them to such a time as he thinks best, 
 but of course, not beyond the time fixed for the begin- 
 ning of the next regular session. The president must 
 from time to time make a report to Congress ou the 
 state of affairs in the country, and suggest such a line 
 of policy or such special measures as may seem proper 
 to him. This report has taken the form of an annual 
 written message. He may also call upcni the heads of 
 departments for an opinion, in writing, on any subject 
 relating to such department. The president is paid by 
 the United States, and his salary is not to be increased 
 or diminished by Congress during his term of office. 
 The act authorizing any increase must apply only to 
 the successors of the president who signs the act. 
 
 116. The constitution made no express provision for 
 the crealiira of executive departments, but left the 
 matter to Congress. At th(' beginning of Washington's 
 administration three departments were created — those 
 of state, treasury and war, and an attorney general was 
 appointed. Since then the number of departments has 
 been increased, until now (1890) there are eight; those 
 of state, of the treasury, of war. of the navy, of the 
 post-office, of the interior, of justice, and of agriculture. 
 Tbe chief officer of eachdepartment is called its secretary. 
 The secretaries of these departments are the president's 
 advisers, and constitute his cabinet. They are selected 
 by the president and are confirmed by the senate, but 
 are responsible to no one but the president. 
 
 117. The secretary of state ranks first among the 
 cabinet officers. He is the minister of foreign affairs, 
 anil is the only officer who is authorized to communicate 
 
 with other governments in the name of the president. 
 He is at the head of the diplomatic and consular service, 
 issuing instructions to the United States ministers 
 abroad, and taking a leading part in the negotiation of 
 treaties. He keeps the national archives, and superin- 
 tends the publication of laws, treaties and proclama- 
 tions, and he is the keeper of the great seal of the 
 United States. The cabinet officer next in rank is the 
 secretary of the treasury. He conducts the financial Secretary 
 business of the country, superintends the collection of j^gagnpy^ 
 revenue, and gives warrants for the payment of moneys 
 out of the treasury. He also superintends the coinage, i 
 
 the national banks, the custom-houses, the coast-survey 
 and lighthouse system, the marine hospitals, and life- 
 saving service. He sends reports to Congress, and sug- 
 gests such measures as seem good to him. He is aided 
 by two assistant secretaries, six auilitors, a register, a 
 comptroller, a solicitor, a director of the mint, com- 
 missioner of internal revenue, chiefs of the bureau of 
 statistics and bureau of printing and engraving, etc. 
 
 118. The war and navy departments need no special '^^ar^nd 
 description here. The war department is divided into°*^*' 
 ten bureaus, among which is the weather bureau, pre- 
 
 siiled over by the chief signal officer. The navy de- 
 partment consists of eight bureaus, and among its many 
 duties it has charge of the naval observator) at Wash- 
 ington, and publishes the nautical almanac. The ile- 
 partment of the interior is divided into eight bureaus mem'^of 
 It deals with public lands, pensions, patents, Indian the Interior, 
 affairs, education, public documents, and the cei sus. 
 The postmaster-general's department has to do with postmaster 
 the postal affairs of the country. The attorney -gen General and 
 eral's department was organized in 1870 into the depart- Atiorney- 
 ment of justice. The attorney-general is the president's 
 legal adviser, and represents the United States in all 
 l;xw suits to which the United States is a party. The 
 agricultural department, which was created in 1889. Agricnlt- 
 superintends the agricultural interests of the country, ural De- 
 
 119. The best method of electing the president was P^"''™™'- 
 a question which perplexed the constitutional conven- 
 tion as nuich as any o'her. To submit the election of 
 
 an ofii'^'er so exalteil to the popular vote, was regarded 
 with general di-^trust. At one time the convention de- 
 cided to have the president elected by Congress, but 
 there was a grave objection to this; it would be likely 
 to destroy his independence and make him the mere 
 creature of Congress. At last the plan of an electoral The 
 college was devioed. Each state is eutiiled to a num- E^^[^t|jal 
 ber of electors equal to the number of its representa- 
 tives and senators together; and the electors choose the 
 president and vice-president, meeting at their state cap- 
 itals for that purpose, and sending separate certificates 
 of their choice of president and vice-president to the 
 presiding officer of the Senate at Washington. No fed- 
 eral senator or rei>resentative, or any person holding 
 civil office under the United States, can serve as an 
 elector. Each state may appoint or choose its electors 
 in such a manner as it sees fit; at first, they were more 
 often than otherwise chosen by the legislatures; now 
 tliey are always elected by the people. The day of 
 election must be the same in all the states. By act of 
 Congress the electors are to be chosen on the Tuesday 
 after the first Monday in November. 
 
 V20. It was the original intention that the electors Powers of 
 should be left free to make their own choice, and there electors, 
 are instances in early years of electors of one party 
 voting for personal friends of the opposite party. At 
 first the electoral votes did not state whether the candi- 
 dates named in them were candidates for the presi- 
 dency or vice presidency. Each elector simply wrote 
 down two names, only one of which could be the name 
 of a citizen of his own state. In the official count, the 
 candidate who had the hiyhest number of votes, pro- 
 vided they were a majority of the whole number, was 
 declared president, and the next highest became vice- 
 president. The natural result of this was seen in the 
 
TJ .\ 1. 'V K I ) S '[' A '[' !•: S 
 
 ■fh- 
 
 utnciid- 
 nit'ill. 
 
 first contested olt'Ction in ITOli, which jjiive the pre>i- 
 ileiif y to Jolin Adams, while his antagonist. Thomas 
 Jefferson, became vice-president. In I'^OO. Jellersou 
 an<l his colleague Burr received exactly the sam.; num- 
 ber of electoral votes. This threw the election into the 
 house of representatives, and such intrigues followed 
 for ihe purpose of defeating Jefferson that the country 
 wa^ ihreatined with civil war. This necessitated a 
 ch:in-i^ in the method of election. In IsiOl. llie twelfth 
 ameiulmeut was adopted.- The method by this amend- 
 ment was changed so that the electors make scpa- 
 ratu ballots for president and vice-president. In the 
 official count the votes for the president are lirst counted. 
 If no candidate has a majority then the house of rep- 
 resentatives mu-^t immediately choose the president 
 from the three names highest on the list. In this choice 
 the house votes by states, each state having one vole; 
 a ((iiiirum for this purjiose must consist of at least one 
 meml)er from two-thirds of the states, and a majority 
 of all the states is necessary for a choice. Then if no 
 candidate for the vice-presidency has a majority, the 
 senate makes its choice from the two names highest on 
 the list. A quorum for the purpose consists of two- 
 thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority 
 of the whole number is necessary to a choice. 
 
 121. In 1877 an unforeseen difficulty arose, and one 
 for which no provision had been made. During the 
 presidential contest between Tilden ami Hayes, South 
 Caroliiui. Florida and Louisiana had each set up rival 
 governments. Ballots for Tilden and ballots for Hayes 
 were sent in at the same time by the two hostile sets of 
 electors in each of these states, each list being certified 
 by one of the two rival governors in the same state. In 
 the absence of any recognized means of deciding which 
 ballots to count, the two parties in Congress submitted 
 the result to arbitration. An "electoral commission" 
 was created for the occasion, consisting of five sena- 
 tors, five representatives and five judges of the supreme 
 court. By this expedient, a clumsy one perhaps, the 
 difficulty was tided over. The question of conllicting 
 returns has at length been set at rest by the act of 1887. 
 which provides tliat no electoral votes can be rejected 
 in counting, except by the joint action of both houses 
 of Congress. 
 
 122. The judiciary is the third of the three great de- 
 partments of the general government. The constitu- 
 tion itself provides for one supreme court, but leaves to 
 Congress to determine how many inferior courts should 
 be established. The organization of the supreme court 
 is also left to Congress. Tne chief reason why a na- 
 
 Xcoil for a tional judiciary is necessary in ad<lition to the stale sys- 
 tems is that the state judges might be biased in favor 
 of their own state. Laws of Congress often bear with 
 greater hardship on some slates than others, and pub- 
 lic opini<m in those states upon whom the burden lay, 
 might be so strong in opposition, that no juilge elected 
 and supported by those Jieople would sustain it. But 
 if the jmlge belonged to a national system, and thus 
 represented and was supported by the wliole nation, he 
 would have nothing to fear, and thus his decision would 
 be more impartial. The e.vperience of the confedera- 
 tion tauglit this. The national jiidiciary consists of 
 three grades of courts: The supreme court, the circuit 
 courl.s and the district cimrts. The supreme court is 
 the highest in the land, ar.d was established by the 
 constitution itself. The others were established by 
 C' ingress. The supreme court consists at present of a 
 chief justice and eight associate justices, and its juris- 
 diction is almost wholly appellate; that is, cases are not 
 tried in it, but it only hears appeals from other cour's, 
 and that only in the most important cases. It has orig- 
 inal jurisdiction in a few cases. Of the circuit courts 
 there are nine in Ihe country. Kach of the nine judges 
 of the supreme court is also presiding judge of a cir- 
 cuit court. The area of the United States, not includ- 
 ing the territories, is divided into nine (-ircuils, and in 
 
 The 
 
 etei-torrt] 
 coTninitf- 
 sioii. 
 
 federal 
 
 jadiciury- 
 
 Courts 
 
 each circuit the presiding judge is assisted by special 
 circuit judges. The circuits are divided into fifty six 
 districts and in each of these there is a special district 
 iudge. The districts never cross state lines. They 
 cover each a state or a part of 'i «tate. 
 
 123. By the constitution, the judges hold office dur- 
 ing good behavior. In no other depr-rtmenl of the gen- 
 eral government are offices held for so long a term. 
 The purpose is to ipsure a correct and impartial admin- 
 istration of justice by making the judges independent 
 of ccniflicting parties. The object of the framers of the 
 constitution was to remove them as farais possible from 
 undue political infiuenccs. As with the president, so 
 in this case. Congress, though it fixes the salaries of 
 the judges, cannot diminish them while in ollit^e. The 
 jurisdiction of tlu^ federal courts does not extend to all 
 kinds of cases, but only to su-h as the constitution 
 specifies. The cases enumerated in the constitution in 
 which the national courts have jurisdiction may be di- 
 vided into three general classes, (1; those arising imder 
 the constitution, the laws of Congress and treaties, (2) 
 those affecting foreigners, and (8) those between differ- 
 ent states or the citizens of different states. Cases 
 which arise under the constitulinti, laws or treaties of 
 the United Slates may be those where a person ;s given 
 a right by the constitution, etc., which he does not have 
 by tile laws of his state, as for instance a right to sue 
 an infringer of a patent granted to him, or where he 
 violates a law of Coii.gress or treaty, as counterfeiting 
 coin, or doing anything forbidden by a treaty, or where 
 any question arises as to the meaning of the constitu- 
 tion, laws or treaties of the United States, Dr as to 
 whether a law of Congress is constitutional or not. In 
 these cases it makes no difference whether the jiarties 
 are citizens of the same state or not. The jurisdiction is 
 given to the national judiciary for two reasons: First, 
 in order that in the interpretation and enforcement of 
 its own laws, it may not be dependent on the states; 
 and second, in order that the interpretation may be 
 uniform throughout the country. 
 
 124. In cases affecting foreigners, the decision prop- 
 erly belongs to the federal courts, for the reason that if 
 a foreigner is injured here, the nation, and not the 
 state, is ri'sponsilile to the foreigner's government; 
 therefore the nation, and not the state, should make 
 redress for the injury And where the foreigner is an 
 ambassador, or other minister, the supreme court has 
 original jurisdiction in the case. Admiralty jurisdic- 
 tion is also given to the federal courts, for the reason 
 that many admiralty cases affect foreigners. Another 
 reason is, that ailiniralty is a part'of the regulation of 
 commerce, which is a subject taken away from the 
 states and given entirelj' to the United Slates. 
 
 125. The third class of cases in which the federal 
 courts have jurisdiction, is where the parties on the 
 two sides, plaintiff and defendant, are either two dif- 
 ferent states, orcitiz.'ns of dilTerenl states. The federal 
 courts are to decide coutroveri ics between two or more 
 states; because, domestic tranciuility requires that the 
 contention of states should be peacefully terminated by 
 a common judicatory and becaus(', in a free country, 
 just ice ought not to depend on the will of either of the lit- 
 igants, fl'hey ire to decide controversies betwei-n a state 
 and the citizensof another state; because,in case a state 
 (which comprehends all its citizens) has demand,^ 
 against some citizens of another state, it is better that 
 siic : liould prosecute their demands in a federal court 
 than in a court of the state to wliieli those citizens be- 
 long, the danger of irritation and criminations arising 
 from apprehensions and suspicions of partiality being 
 tiiereby obviated. They are to decide controversies 
 between citizensof the same state claiming lands under 
 grants of different stales; because, as the rights of the 
 two stales to grant the land are drawn into (piestion, 
 neither of the two slates ought to decide the contro- 
 vers}-. 
 
 T. nil re of 
 
 oltiei'. 
 
 Salnry. 
 
 liiliral 
 
 jiinsdic- 
 lioi). 
 
 (_'ii>^fs under 
 Initi'd 
 Sl»t«.-s laws. 
 
 utTeclinir 
 [oreij^iers* 
 
 CllSJB 
 
 nll<'cting 
 differi-nt 
 Slates or 
 iiK'ir 
 I'ilizens. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 126. The judicial power of the United States extends 
 to all cases of law and equity arising under the consti- 
 tution and laws thereof, and to treaties made under 
 their authority. But there are two kinds of jurisdic- 
 
 Original tion, original and appellate. Original jurisdiction is 
 "ru'^ims- jurisdiction of a cause from its beginning. If a party 
 ifii'tiu'rl.' can begin his suit in the circuit court, for instance, 
 then that court has original jurisdiction in the case. 
 If he cannot bring his case into the circuit court until 
 it has been tried in some lower court, then the circuit 
 court is said to have appellate jurisdiction. Appeal 
 lies from the district court to the circuit court when 
 the matter involved is of a value greater than $.500, and 
 from the circuit court to the supreme court when $5,000 
 or more is involved. 
 
 127. No direct suit can be brought against the United 
 States either by a citizen or a state, without the author- 
 ity of an act of Congress. But in 18.55 Congress estab- 
 
 Coartof lished a court, called the court of claims, in which 
 tiaims. jjj^j,g having claims against the United States, may 
 bring a suit in the ordinary way. The demand is pre- 
 sented to the court by petition. setting forth specifically 
 its origin and nature, and the party is allowed to prove 
 it by the same rules of evidence which are usually 
 adopted in a court of justice. If a claim is established 
 Congress makes provision for its payment. An attor- 
 ney, called the solicitor of the United States, appears 
 before this court in behalf of the government. 
 Treason. 138. In the constitution, treason is made to consist 
 only in levying war against the nation, or in adhering 
 to its enemies, giving them aid and comfort. The 
 purpose was to make the meaning as definite as possi 
 ble, so that all opportunity for constructive treason 
 might be removed. It has been decided by the court 
 that there must be an actual levying of war; that a con- 
 spiracy to subvert the government by force is not trea- 
 son. But if war be actually levied, that is, if a body of 
 men be actually assembled for the purpose of effecting 
 by force a treasonable purpose, all those who perform 
 any part, however minute, or however remote from the 
 scene of action, and who are actually leagued in the 
 general conspiracy, are to be considered as traitors. 
 Conviction of treason requires the testimony of two 
 witnesses to the same overt act of treason, or a confes- 
 sion in open court. A private confession passes for 
 nothing. To Congre-ss is given the power to declare 
 the punishment of treason, "but no attainder of trea- 
 son is to work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, ex- 
 cept during the life of the person attainted." The 
 attainder spoken of in this clause must be that con- 
 nected with the judgment pronounced by a court, and 
 not a legislative attainder, for we have already seen 
 that Congress is forbidden, as also the states, from 
 passing any bill of attainder. Congress might provide 
 for a judicial attainder in the case of treason, but the 
 the effects of this attainder must be limited to the life 
 of the offender. 
 
 As treason is a crime against sovereig'nty, a violation 
 of one's allegiance, there can be no treason against a 
 particular state. The states, however, have always as- 
 serted their power to punish for treason against them 
 individually. It has never been fully maiutained in 
 practice; but the theory had its effect iu the secession 
 period. If a state, by its courts, punishes treason, it 
 must not be as treason against itself, but as treason 
 against the union; and in this view, the propriety of 
 that state legislation which aflixes to it particular pen- 
 alties, is doubtful. 
 
 129. Article IV of the constitution contains a number 
 
 of important provisions, most of which affect the rela- 
 
 S"s°tateT '■'0°s o*" ^^'^ states to each other, and to the general 
 
 government. The first one is in regard to the effect 
 
 which the laws, records and judgments of our state 
 
 shall have in another, and the provision is that they 
 
 PriTileees ^'^^" ^^^'^ '^"'^ effect everywhere. No state can grant 
 
 of ciiizens. privileges to its own citizens.from which the citizens of 
 
 other states are excluded. There must be an equality 
 of citizenship every wljere. Without such a provision, 
 any state might deny to citizens of other states the 
 right to buy and hold real estate, or to become voters 
 after living in the state the prescribed time, or to enjoy 
 equal privileges in trade or business. The subject of Fngitive 
 delivering up fugitives from justice, is one which '■'■™'°"''- 
 among different nations, has involved some doubts. 
 The constitution of the United States, however, pro- 
 vides that they shall always be given up to those who. 
 in the stales, have a right to require it. By the com '''ugitive 
 mon law, a slave escaping into a non-slaveholdiug state "'' "' 
 became free. But the constitution provided that fugi- 
 tive slaves were to be surrendered to their owners. 
 Escaped slaves were, under this provision, returned to 
 the south up to 1861. The clause is of course obsolete 
 now. 
 
 130. The constitution provides for the admission of New 
 new states to the union, but it does not allow a st:ite States, 
 to be formed within another state. A state cannot "be 
 formed by the junction of two or more states, or parts 
 
 of states, without the consent of the legislatures of the 
 states concerned, as well as of the Congress." Shortly 
 before the making of the constitution, the United 
 States had been endowed for the first time with a pub- 
 lic domain. The territory northwest of the Ohio river The 
 had been claimed, on the strength of old grants and Northwest 
 charters, by Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York Territory, 
 and Virginia. In 1777 Maryland refused to sign the 
 Articles of Confederation until these states should 
 agree to cede their claims to the United States, and 
 thus, in 1784, the Federal government came into pos- 
 session of a magnificent territory, out of which five 
 great states — Ohio, Indiana, Illinois. Michigan and 
 Wisconsin — have since been made. While the Federal 
 convention was sitting at Philadelphia the Continental 
 Congress at New York was doing almost its last, and 
 one of its greatest pieces of, work in framing the ordi- 
 nance of 1787 for the organization and government of 
 this newly acquired territory. 
 
 131. Iu 1803 the vast territory of Louisiana, compris- 
 ing everything (except Texas) between the Mississippi 
 river and the crest of the Rocky Mountains, was pur- 
 chased from France. A claim upon the Oregon terri- O'^er terri- 
 tory was soon afterward made by discovery and ex- ^j^Jifgiy. 
 ploration, and finally settled in 1846 by treaty with erumei ts. 
 Great Britain. In 1848 by conquest, and in 1853 by 
 purchase, the remaining Pacific lands were acquired 
 
 from Mexico. All of this vast region has been at some 
 time under territorial government. As for Texas, on 
 the other hand, it has never been a territory. Texas 
 revolted from Mexico in 1836 and remained an inde- 
 pendent stale until 1845 when she was admitted to the 
 union. Territorial government has generally passed 
 through three stages: First, there are governors and 
 judges appointed by the president; then, as population 
 increases, there is added a legislature chosen by the 
 people, and empowered to make laws subject to con- 
 firmaticm by Congress; finally, entire legislative inde- 
 pendence is granted. The state is then ripe for admis- 
 sion to the union as a state. 
 
 133. The national government was to guarantee to Guarai --> 
 each of the states a republican form of government, '=''"'^« 
 and to protect each of them against invasion or, on ap- 
 plication of the legislature or governor, against domes- 
 tic violence. This clause makes a republican govern- 
 ment necessary in every state. It is equivalent to 
 saying that no other shall be permitted to be estab- 
 lished. This is the only instance in the constitution 
 where the government has a duty enjoined upon it, 
 while the particulai department is not mentioned. 
 Here the obligation is from the United States to'the 
 states; but whether to be exercised by the president or 
 by Congress is one of the questions that has grown out 
 of the reconstruction measures. In the case of Rhode 
 Island the supreme court held " It rests with Con- 
 
Gtrniwuh P 
 
 M:..L^i;a is 
 
U^^ITEI) STATES 
 
 gress to decuic what govfrnmciit is the establishod one 
 in a slate. For, as the United States f^uaranlec lo each 
 Btatea republican s<>vernnient. Congress must necessar- 
 ily decide what ,i;overniiient is c-talilished before it 
 ran determine whether it is republican or not. And 
 when the senators and representatives of a state are 
 ndmilled to the councils of the union, the authority of 
 the government under which they are appointed, as 
 well as its republican character, is recognized by the 
 proper authority." 
 nipnhlicnn V."3. The constitution <loes not define a reptibUcan 
 ^vui" government. The national government may be as- 
 sumed to be republican in form, and thus a model for 
 the stales. Mr. Mailison says: "We may define a re- 
 public to be ug<.vernment which derives all its powers 
 directly or iiidirectlj' fnim the great body of the peo- 
 ple, and is administered by persons holding their offices 
 during pleasure, for a limited period, or during good 
 behavior." Farrar says: "The principle of republi- 
 canism is the ecjual right of the people, the citizens, all 
 the members of the body politic. In theory it is the 
 government of public opinion. The fundamental prin- 
 ciples of right and justice for the government, the 
 representative character of the ^governors, and their 
 practical responsibility to the governed, are the essen- 
 tials of republicanism." 
 Stat.' gov- 13.1 T4ie constitution indirectly requires various 
 emmcD s. ],rovisioiis in the state governments by enjoining duties. 
 The senators of the United States are to be elected by 
 the state legislatures. Members of the house of 
 representatives are to be elected by the same electors 
 as vote for the members of the most numerous branches 
 I of the state legislature. The e.veculive of the states is 
 
 often referred to. The judges are to take oath to obey 
 the constitution of the United Slates. Thus the states 
 must have three great departments, the legislative. 
 executive and judicial. The lei.Mslature must be in two 
 branches, and the most numerous branch must be 
 elected by the peojile. The states are supposed to have 
 written constitutions. 
 
 iSr>. One of the strongest objections urged by its 
 opponents agauist the adoption of the constitution as 
 it came from the hands of the convention, was the 
 want of a recognition of certain rights of citizens. To 
 meet this objection, in September, 1TH9, the first ten 
 ^tTamend- '""^'"''"*'"'* were proposed by Congress, and in De- 
 ments, cember, 1791, they were declared in force. These ten 
 amendments, which are called a " Bill of Rights," 
 because they contain a list of the rights deemed most 
 important to the liberty of the people, do not change 
 any original provision of the constitution. They act 
 merely as restrictions and limitations upon the powers 
 of Congress, and were deemed unnecessary by those 
 who framed the constitution for the reason that these 
 rights were st generally acknowledged, and that the 
 powers of Congress were limited to those expressly 
 granted to it. But as several of the state conventions 
 had, at the lime of adopting the constitution, expressed 
 a desiie that declarations and guarantees of certain 
 rights shoidd be added in order lo prevent miscon- 
 struction and abuse, the first Congress, at its first 
 session, proposed twelves amendments, ten of which 
 were ratified by the recpiisite number of states. These 
 amendments forbade the establishment of any religion 
 by Congress, or any abridgment of freedom of worship, 
 Df speech, or of the press, or of the popular right to 
 assemble and petitilion the government for redress of 
 grievances, the billeting of soldiers, unreasonable 
 searches or seizures, or general warrants, trials for 
 infamous crfcnes except through the action of a grand 
 jury, subjecting a person for the same offence to be 
 twice put in jeopardy of life or limb, compelling him 
 to witness against himself in criminal cases, the taking 
 of life, liberty, or property without due process of law 
 or without compensation for property, and the demand 
 of excessive bail, or the impo-ition of excessive or of 
 
 cruel or unusual punishments. They confirmed the 
 right of the people to keep and bear arms, to a jury 
 trial from the vicinage in criminal cases or in cases 
 involving more than twenty dollars, to a copy of the 
 indictment, to the testimony against the prisoner, lo 
 compulsory process in his half, and to counsel for him. 
 Finally, it is declared that " the enumeration of certain 
 rights shall not be construed lo deny or disparage 
 others retained by the people," and that "the powers 
 not granted to the United States by the constitution, 
 nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the 
 states respectively, or to the people." 
 
 1.3(i. All the debts of the federation, and its engage- 
 ments, were made binding on the new government; 
 j and the constitution, and the laws and treaties to be 
 ! made under it were declared to be " the supreme law ^nprcnio 
 of the land;" the judges in every state were lo be bound 1""^°' ""' 
 thereby, "anything in the constitution or laws of any "" " 
 stale to the contrary notwithstanding." The language 
 of this clause is clear and explicit. The people of tiie 
 United Slates established this constitution for the 
 United States. It was the work of the nation itself, 
 and was binding in every part of the republic. This 
 clause was intended to allirm the supremacy of the 
 national government over the state governments. If 
 the constitution was not the supreme law of the land 
 it would not be a consitution, it would be a nullity. 
 Its supremacy is necessarily involved in the instninieiit 
 itself, yet it was necessary to declare it, in order that 
 all might understand it and no room be left for 
 controversy. 
 
 VI. tPE OOVaRNMENT UNDER THE CONSTITUTION. 
 
 137. As soon as the constitution had been ratified by 
 the retjuisite number of states. Congress named the 
 first Wednesday in .January. 1789, as the day for the 
 choice of electors, the first Wednesday in February lor 
 the choice of president and vice-president, and the 
 
 first Wednesday in March for the inauguration of the '"""Eura- 
 new government at New York city. The last date fell [,'r"^i"/,,„t. 
 on the 4th of March, and this has been the limit of each 
 president's term since that time. The electi<m took 
 place at the appointed time, and when the votes of the 
 electors were counted before Congress it was found 
 that George Washington had been unanimously elected Wa^liiug- 
 prcsident, and that .John Adams, standing next on the '""Jjjjl;*"' 
 list, was vice-president. Before the inauguration, the 
 old Confederate Congress had " given up the ghost." 
 On October, 1788. its record ceased, and for nearly six 
 months the United States were without any national 
 government. The contest fornationality had been suc- 
 cessful, and the old order of things passed away for 
 ever. 
 
 138. The nation over which George Washington wiis I'lic condl- 
 called lo preside in 17.'<9 was athird-rate power, inferior''"""'"'* 
 in population and wettlih to Holland, for example, and '^"'"'"'^^' 
 about on a level with Portugal or Uenmark. The first cen-Tho flret 
 sus was taken in 17',}0, and the population was then four "'asue. 
 millions. The people were thinly scattered through the 
 thirteen states between the Atlantic and the Alle- 
 ghanies, beyond which mountainous barrier a few hardy 
 pioneers were linking the begirininirs of Tennessee, 
 Kentucky, and Ohio, Roads were few and bad, ntnie 
 
 of the great rivers were bridged, mails were irregular. 
 There were few manufactures. There were many 
 traders and merchant seamen in the coast towns of the 
 north, but the great majority of the people were 
 farmers, who lived on the produce of their own lands, 
 and sclclom un<iertook long journeys. Hence the dif- 
 ferent parts of the country knew very little about each 
 other, and entertained absurd prejudices, and the 
 sentiment of union between the states was extremely 
 weak. Kast of the Alleghanics the red man had ceased 
 to be dangerous, but tales of Indian massacre still came 
 from regions no more remote than Ohio and tJeorgia. 
 Spain still held vast possessions west of the Mississippi. 
 
UNITED S T A T E S 
 
 The only other power which had possessions in North 
 America was Enghind. The feeling entertained toward 
 the states in England was one of mortification and 
 :hagrin, accompanied by the hope that the half formed 
 jnion would fall to pieces, and its separate states be 
 iriven by disaster to beg to be taken back into the 
 British empire. The rest of Europe knew little about 
 the United States, and cared less. 
 Ttie bcsin- 139. It was under these circumstances that the young 
 "ins of 'hi" government began its career, and it was fortunate for 
 ni'en™ it t'lat it began under the auspices of such an ad- 
 ministration as Washington's. Congress met in New 
 York, March 4, 1789. It adopted twelve amendments 
 to the constitution, ter of which, as has been shown, 
 were ratified by the states. But the most pressing 
 business before Congress was to obtain money to pay 
 the debt of the confederation. This dirticult work was 
 so successfully accomplished that little change has been 
 found necessary in financial methods from that day to 
 this. Washington's cabinet consisted of Thomas 
 Jefferson, as secretary of state ; Alexander Hamilton, 
 as secretary of the treasury ; and Henry Knox, as 
 secretary of war. John .Jay was appointed chief 
 justice, and Edmund Randolph attorney-general. 
 The financial success of the government was mainly 
 due to the organizing genius of Hamilton, assisted by 
 the skill and tact of Madison, as leading member of the 
 hoi;se of representatives. Hamilton saw in the pay- 
 ment of the national debt an opportunity to give 
 strength to the United States in the eyes of foreign 
 nations. He saw also that it gave an opportunity to 
 bind the states in a more perfect union. He proposed 
 Hamilton's three measures: First, that the government should 
 meaeares. assume the foreign debt of the Confederation, and pay 
 it in full • secondly, that the domestic debt, yvhich 
 seemed to have been virtually repudiated, should like- 
 wise be assumed and paid ; thirdly, that the debts of 
 the separate states should also be assumed and paid by 
 the federal government. The first proposition was 
 adopted unanimously. The second was opposed on the 
 ground that it would only benefit speculators, who had 
 bought up United States securities at a discount ; but 
 by dint of forcible reasoning the measure was carried. 
 The third measure caused great debate, and met with 
 violent opposition. There was a fierce and bitter 
 fight over it, which at last was only settled by great 
 political manipulation. 
 Federalists 140. There were already two parties in the country, 
 iiKianti- t]jg Federalists, who desired a strong general govern- 
 c em IS s jjjgjj).^ j^ml ^jjp jjjji-] urgpj the people to accept the con- 
 stitution, and the anti-Federalists, who wished to give 
 more power to the state government, and less to the 
 general government. Hamilton was the leader of the 
 Federal party, and the anti-Federalists united to defeat 
 his last measure. At this time the .site of a Federal 
 capital was to be selected. The northern people gen- 
 erally wished to have it not further south than the Del- 
 aware river, while the southerners were determined to 
 have it no further north than the Potomac. Hamilton 
 was bent on carrying his point, and took advantage of 
 this dispute. He persuaded two Virginia congressmen 
 to change their votes and support his measure. In re- 
 turn he promised to use his intiuence to have the capii al 
 located upon the banks of the Potomac, instead of at 
 some northern point. This change of votes gave him 
 the requisite majority. The assumption of state debts 
 was a master stroke of policy. All those persons to 
 whom any state owed money were at once won over to 
 the support of the Federal government. Many of these 
 persons were powerful and wealthy; and all now felt a 
 common interest in upholding the national credit, 
 which, through these wise and vigorous measures of 
 H.imilton, was soon completely restored. 
 Revenue. I'il- The next siep was to raise a revenue for the 
 currying on of the government, and this must be raised 
 by Federal taxation. There were two ways in which 
 
 tills could le djne — by imposing duties on goods im- 
 ported into the country, or by lev3'ing internal taxes. 
 By the first method, the United States would declare its 
 riijht to tax foreigners; by the second, to tax its own 
 citizens. The former method was mainly resorted to, 
 because it was more indirect, and because the people, 
 as yet, did not like the idea of being directly taxed to 
 support the general government, even though it had 
 been established by themselves. However, a tax was 
 laid upon the manufacture of spirituous liquors in 17'J4, 
 and this caused serious trouble. The settlers in the 
 mountains of ^Pennsylvania and Virginia had long since 
 found out that it cost more to carry their corn and 
 wheat to market than they could sell it for, and accord- 
 ingly they distilled it into whisky. When Cousiress 
 laid a tax on whisky, they bitterly opposed it, and when Whiskyin- 
 the revenue officers came to collect tbe tax, the settlers '^"■''■"-■'-'"o''- 
 refused to pay it, and threatened to take up arms. But 
 Washington instantly sent an army of sixteen thousand 
 men into the disaffected region, and the insurrection 
 was summarily suppressed. 
 
 143. The Indian tribes on the Ohio became very Indian war. 
 troublesome to the settlers who now began to pour into 
 the west. General Hartner, who was sent against the 
 savages in 1790, was defeated near the present site of 
 Fort Wayne, Indiana, and General St. Clair met with a 
 similar di-iaster tbe next year. General Waj ne ("Mad 
 Anthony") was then despatched to the Indian country. 
 He devastated their villages, sweeping everything be- 
 fore him. till he reached the Maumee river, in the north- 
 west corner of Ohio. There he won a great victory near 
 the site of Maumee City, August 20, 1794, and obliged 
 the Indians to sue for terms. By a treaty concluded in 
 the following year, the United States acquired from the 
 savages a large tract for settlement in the present states 
 of Ohio and Indiana. 
 
 143 About this time the divisions between political Origin of 
 parties become strongly marked. The occasional irrita- P|'litical 
 tion shown in the debates in Congress is an evidence '''''^ '^^" 
 that the first ill defined estimate of the new scheme of 
 government was giving way to positive and settled 
 opinions of its powers, and of the policy which should 
 be followed in manuging it. As we have seen, people 
 were first divided into two great national parlies in the 
 autumn of 1787, when the question at issue was whether 
 the Federal constitution should be ratified by the states. 
 It is probable that a majority of the American people 
 were anti-Federalists in 17S9. although the Federalists, 
 by the active assistance of mwny of their natural op- 
 ponents, had gained the executive, the house, the ju- 
 diciary and most of the state legislatures, and were able 
 to defeat the disagreeing factions known collectively as 
 anti-Federalists. Hamilton's measures as secretary of 
 the treasury embodied an entire system of puhlicpolicy, 
 and the opposition to them made the differences be- 
 tween the two parties still more prominent. Hamil- 
 ton's opponents, led by Jefferson, made the objection 
 to his principal measures that they assumed powers in 
 the national government which were not gr.anted to it 
 by the constitution. Hamilton then fell back upon the 
 elastic clause of the constitution, and maintained that 
 these powers were implied in it. Jefferson held that this 
 doctrine of "implied powers" stretched the elastic clause* 
 too far. He claimed that this clause ought to be construed 
 strictly and narrowly. Hamilton contended that it 
 ought to be construed loosely and liberally. Hence the 
 names "slrict-constructionist" and "loose- construction- 
 ist," which mark, perhaps, the most profound and abid- 
 ing antagonism in the history of American politics. 
 
 144. During the year 179'3, the various anti-Federalist 
 factions had become cemented into one party through 
 their efforts in resisting the Federalists, but the party 
 still lacked a name. That of anti-Federalist was no 
 longer applicable, for its opposition to the Federal 
 
 * Article I., Section VIIT., Clause IS. 
 
V j^ i'r !•: 1) 
 
 ST 
 
 A T 1-: .s 
 
 union bad enlirt-ly censed, siiiil the parlies b:icl become 
 divided in tbe only sound iind bealtliy wiiy possible in 
 a free country, namely, into lliose wbo wished to ex- 
 tend. and those who wished to limit, the powers of gov- 
 ernment. Neither parly had bei^n consistent in apply- 
 inji its principles, but in the main, llainilton can be 
 called the founder of the Federalist party, which bad 
 for its successors the National Kepulilicans of iy'.;H. the 
 Whigs of lf<;J3 to 1S.53, and the Kepublicans of 1S.')4 to 
 the present time; while .lelferson luay be ii'garded asthe 
 founder of the- party which, after discardini;- the old 
 name of anli Federalist, adopted that of Democratic- 
 Hepublican. This always w^as the offu-inl parly title. 
 They jireferred to be called Kepublicans. while their 
 enemies tried to call them Democrats, au epithet which 
 was tlien supposed to convey a stigma. However, the 
 correct name for this parly was Republican from about 
 171)2 to alxml isi8, and since then it has been known as 
 the Deinocr.ilic party. 
 
 14."). At the request of both Federalists and Republi- 
 cans. \Va>hiiii;lon cmisenled to serve as president a 
 second time, so tlnit the party contest was narrowed 
 down to th(! vice-presidency. For this otlice the anti- 
 Federalists, or Kepublicans. as they were now called, 
 supported George Clinton, of Nev? York, while the 
 Federalists presented the name of John Adams. .Jef- 
 ferson wi>ulddoublles9 bavebeen put fi>rward, but that 
 would have cost Virginia her vole, for her electors 
 could not have Toied for Washington and . lelferson, 
 both being from Virginia. The presidential election 
 took place November 6, 1702, and resuUed in a Fed- 
 eralist success and the re-election of .lohn Adams. 
 During Washington's first term, Vermont, by consent 
 of Congress, was admitted into the Union (February 
 IS, 1701.) and Kenlucky became a stale on the 1st of 
 June, 1792. In the year 17111 a bill for the establish- 
 ment of a national bank was inirodueed into Congress, 
 which passed after a strong debate. 
 
 140. During the first years of the American Republic, 
 the terrible scenes of the French Revolution were en- 
 acted. Jefferson and the anii-Federalists sympathized 
 strongly with the French Revolulionists. and wished to 
 aid them in their struggle against the Kuropean jiowers. 
 This parly specially alT<'cted the leveling principles 
 avowed by the French Kepublicans. an<l the opposite 
 party did not object to the>c principles to a limiled de- 
 gree. Karly in April, 170:!, news was received that the 
 French Republic had declared war against (ireat Hrit- 
 ain and Holland. It e.vcited the sympathies of the 
 American people for their sister republic, even thouiih 
 tlnit republic was the aggressor; and it needed a firm 
 hand ami indomitable will like Washington's at this 
 time to control public allairs. for the country was in a 
 position to drift easily into war as an ally of France. 
 VVashington consulted his cabinet, and by their unani- 
 mous ailvice delerinined to regard the former treaty as 
 nullified by the change of government in France, and to 
 issue his proclamation of neutrality between the French 
 Republic and ber enemies. The proclamation at once 
 called down a storm of rage and invective against the 
 president. He was assaile<l by the press and e.Ktreme 
 republicans, and accused of being an eliemy to France 
 and republican institutions, of disregarding a solemn 
 treaty, and of usurping the functions of Congress in re- 
 gird to the announcement of peace or war. 
 
 147. The French e.\pected the Americans to help 
 them Id their war with England; and in 170;i they sent 
 over a minister to the rnited States to induce them to 
 do so. This man was called Citizen Genet. He arrived 
 at Charleston, South Carolina, in April, and was re- 
 ceived wiih the most extravagant marks of public 
 attachment. Misled by the warmth of bis reception. 
 he entered on and persisted in a course which would 
 only have been pardonable if he had been still on 
 French soil. He fitted out privateers from American 
 ports to cruise against the enemies of France, and 
 
 sought to embark tbe American people in the cause of 
 his country whatever might be the determination of 
 the government. Many Keimblicans were disposed to 
 uphold him in all his acts, but his insolence presently 
 disgusted his own siipporiers. He violently assailed 
 President VVashington and the government, and other- 
 wise misbehaved himself, until VVashington sternly 
 checked his proceedings, and at length complained of 
 him to the French government, which thought best to 
 recall him. 
 
 148. About this time war was apprch^'nded between Tlircaiifiic' 
 the United Sia'es and England. England baa never "'"r"'''^ 
 accredited a minister resident to the United States, and ^'^ ' 
 had refused to carry out those articles of the Treaty of 
 178:i. which bound her to surrender her military posts 
 on United Stales soil, and to [lay for the slaves carried 
 away by her armies. She had also issued orders which 
 bore hard upnu American merihanls and sailors. She 
 claimed the ri;; lit to lay h<ild of any provision for the 
 enemy which she might tJnd in a neuiral vessel, to seize 
 the product of French colonies wherever found; and to 
 board any vessel to make search for seamen of Hritish 
 birth, and carry thiin olT for her own service. It 
 was also believed that her agents had interfered to 
 prevent treaties of peace with the savages of the north- 
 west, and had incited them to renewed attacks upon 
 the frnritier setllemeiits. Her refusal to evacuate the 
 western jiostswas grounded on the alleged unjustifiable 
 neglect of the United Stales to enforce that article of 
 the treaty of !78;i which provided for the jiayment of 
 debts due to British subjects. For her further offensive 
 measures no justiticalion was offered, except her sover- 
 eign will. Gut of these circumstances war might 
 easily have grown, and it re(|uired ail the wisdom of 
 Washington and his advisers to prevent it. So bitter 
 was the fotling against England held by men of both 
 parties, that Congress beijan at once to take measures 
 to raise au ami)', equip a navy and to slop all commerce 
 with her. War was imminent, and Washington deter- 
 mined to avert it. 
 
 140. He appointed John Jay. who was then chief Jay's 
 justice, to be envoy extraordinary to England, for the''''^*'y- 
 purpose of preserving peace by a new treaty, in whii h 
 the points in dispute between the two couniries should 
 be selllcd Jay concluded a treaty with England 
 which did not satisfy him. but which was the best he 
 could secure. It reached America March 7. 1700, and 
 was sent to the senate in special session. June 8. The 
 treaty provided that the wesicrn posts be surrendered 
 to the United Stales, that compensation be made for 
 illegal captures of American [iroperty, and British 
 'credilors be secured llic means of collecting debts, con- 
 tracted prior to the lievolution. But England still 
 retained the right of impressing American seamen of 
 English birth, and of diulling off American commerce 
 from the West Indian trade. When the conditions of 
 the treaty became known there was great excitement 
 in all portions of the country, and the wrath of the 
 Republicans rose to fever heal. Hamilton was stoned 
 on the street, end scurrilous newspapers raile<l against 
 Washitiglon, calling him the " step-father of his 
 country." But the .stnale ratitied the treaty, and 
 Washington signed it. because, imperfect tbotigh it 
 was, it was better than none, and would avert war. 
 It was the first substantial recognition which England 
 had made of the sovereign rights of the United Slates, 
 and the result proved Washington's wisdom, for peace 
 prevailed, commerce rc'Vived. and many who had at 
 first denounced the treaty, became its friends. 
 
 150. During Washington's second term, party con-^'"''''. 
 tests had become numerous in the sessions ol Congress. 
 After much opposition on the part of the Republicans, 
 the Federalists succeeded in passing a .system of in- 
 direct taxation to provide for the increased expenses of 
 the government. A Federalist bill to prevent such 
 practices as Genet's was opposed by the Republicans, 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 but was passed with some modifications. An attempt 
 was made by sumo of the Kepublicans to secure the 
 passage of resolutions censuring Hamilton's manage- 
 ment of the treasury, but it met with no success. The 
 supreme court had decided that an action brought by a 
 citizen of the United States would lie against a state, 
 just as against any other corporation. This alarmed 
 the Republicans. An amendment to the constitution 
 was therefore adopted by Congress, securing states 
 against suits in the United States courts. It was after- 
 ward ratified by the required number of states, and 
 The Xltb became the Xllh Amendment, which has enabled so 
 iMeii?. " many states to repudiate debt with impunity. In June, 
 1796, Tennessee, formerly a part of .North Carolina, 
 became a state of the union. 
 
 151. The time for a new election of president was 
 now at hand. Washington was importuned to accept 
 a third term of office. Klectors nominated by both 
 parties were called upon to promise that, if elected, 
 they would give their first votes to Washmgton, but he 
 refused to accept. When he retired from the presi- 
 « ashing- dency he made a farewell address to the people of the 
 wrlTad""" United States. In that address, which is weighty with 
 ji.ss. words of wisdom, he urged the people to prize the 
 Union which they had formed ; to remember that each 
 part of the country had free intercourse with all other 
 parts, and that each could help the other. He begged 
 them to suffer no parties to gain ascendancy in the 
 Union which should weaken its strength, and bade 
 them to glory in the name of America. He reminded 
 them that Europe had interests in which America had 
 little concern, warned them against the admission of 
 any European or other foreign influence into American 
 councils, and urged them to make religion, education 
 and pulilic good faith the basis of government. 
 
 153. As Washington refused to be a candidate for a 
 third term, the election of 1796 was warmly contested 
 by the two parties. No formal nominations were 
 made but it was understood that the Re[.niblican 
 electors would cast their votes for Thomas Jefferson, 
 af Virginia, and Aaron Burr, of New York, and the 
 Federalist electors for John Adams, of Massachusetts, 
 ind Thomas Pinckney, of Maryland. Hamilton, hav- 
 ing made so many enemies by his political zeal, was 
 The priiici- not considered a suitable candidate. The principles of 
 P'l'" "f ""' the two parties were distinctly understood. The 
 ^"'■''"■'"^"Republicans claimed to be the friends of lil)erty and 
 the rights of man, the advocates of economy and of 
 the rights of the states. The Federalists claimed sup 
 port as the authors of the Government, the friends of 
 netitralily, peace and prosperity, and the direct in- 
 heritors of Washington's policy. In February, 1797, 
 the electrical votes were counted, and John Adams, 
 the Federalist candidate, was found to be elected 
 president, and Jefferson, according to the rule at the 
 time, as second on the list, became vice president. 
 This was an unwise rule, since under it the death of 
 the president might reverse the result of the election. 
 
 103. On March 4, 1797, Adams and Jefferson were 
 sworn into office. Shortly after the commencement of 
 President Adams' administration the French Directory, 
 displeased with the strict neutrality which the United 
 States had observed during its war with England, and 
 also on account of the treaty of peace which had 
 been recently entered into between England and the 
 United States, adopted resolutions highly injurious to 
 Difflcnltics American commerce, and refused to receive Mr. 
 France. Pinckney, the American minister, until the United 
 States had complied with their demands. The first 
 act of Mr. Adams was to call an e.\tra session of Con- 
 gress, to determine how a war with France was to be 
 avoided. A special commi^sion of three envoys was 
 sent to France, John Marshall, afterward chief justice, 
 Charles Pickney and Ell)ridge Gerry, but the French 
 government refused to receive them. Prince Talley- 
 rand had the impudence lo send secret agents to deal 
 
 with the envoys. These agents demanded that a large 
 sum of money be paid the government before the 
 envoys could be received at all. After that the United 
 States must lend money to France to enable her to 
 carry on her war. When this was done France would 
 repeal some of the acts which injured American com- 
 merce. 
 
 154. The envoys indignantly refused to accept such 
 terms and sent home to America an account of this 
 infamous proposal, and Mr. Adams laid the dispatches 
 before Congress, substituting the letters X. Y. Z. for X. Y. Z. 
 Talleyrand's emissaries. Hence, these papers have '■'SP*''''^^- 
 ever since been known as the "X. Y. Z. dispatches." 
 
 April 8 the senate voted to publish the X. Y. Z. letters 
 and the dispatches of the envoys. To England they 
 seemed of such importance that they weresent to every 
 part of Europe to excite feeling against France. One 
 burst of indignation arose in America, and for the 
 moment the Republican party seemed overwhelmed. 
 Pinckney had declared, " Millions for defence, but not 
 one cent for tribute," and the words were taken up as 
 a popular cry. The United States prepared for war. 
 A few excellent frigates were built, an army was 
 raised, and Washington was placed in command with 
 the rank of lieutenant-general. It was during this 
 excitement that the song of "Hail Columbia" was 
 published. American men-of-war were ordered to 
 seize any French vessels which should coinmitdepreda- 
 tions on American commerce, and some naval engage- 
 ments took place with success on the American side. 
 Intercourse with France was suspended. The tre^ities 
 with France were no longer binding upon the United 
 States, and authority was given to the president to 
 issue letters of marque and reprisal. 
 
 155. The country was now on the side of the govern- 
 ment. The Federalists, who had been losing ground, 
 were now stronger than before. They attempted to 
 strengthen the government still further by passing in 
 Congress two acts called the alien and sedition laws. Alien and 
 The first of these acts, passed June 25, 1798, author- |'f^^''°° 
 ized the president to order out of the country any alien 
 whom he might regard as dangerous to the peace and 
 liberty of America, and made provisions for the fining 
 
 and imprisonment of such aliens as refused to obey the 
 president's order. July 14 the sedition law was passed. 
 By this act a heavy fine and imprisonment were im- 
 posed upon such as shoidd combiue or conspire to- 
 gether to oppose any measure of the government, and 
 upim such as should utter any false, scandalous or ma- 
 licious writing against the government. Congress or 
 president of tjae United States. This act was to re- 
 main in force until March 3, 1801. These )awj placed 
 a power in the hands of the government which alarmed 
 the Republicans. They claimed that the laws were 
 aimed against them. They opposed the action of C!on- 
 gre^s. not as friends of France but as Ame-icans. They 
 believed that less power should be given to the federal 
 government, and more to the separate states. This be- 
 lief, which so nearly prevented the adoption of the 
 constitution, had never disappeared. It showed itself 
 on every occasion, and helped to shape the course of 
 the Democratic-'Republican party. This party came to 
 be called the Statesright party, because it was jealous 
 lest the states should not have all their rights under the 
 constitution. 
 
 156. Thus, when the Federalists forced through Con- 
 gress the alien aud sedition laws, they called forth a 
 vigorous remonstrance from the southern Re|iublicans. 
 A series of resolutions, drawn up by Jeffer-ion, was 
 adopted by the legislature of Kentucky (1798\ and a 
 similar series, drawn up by Madison, was adopted in 
 
 the same year by the legialature of Virginia. These '^^'^S'^y 
 are known as the Kentucky and the Virginia Re:^"Iu- j,i„ia pp^n. 
 tions of 1798. The Virginia Resniuiions asserted that lutions of 
 in adopting the constitution the states had surrendered f^S**- 
 only a limited portion of their powers; that whenever 
 
U >[ 1 '1^ E 1 ) « '1^ A T E iS 
 
 the Federal (lovernraeivt should exceed its deleirateii 
 authority, it was the riifhl and duly of the states to in- 
 terpose and pronounce euch acts unconstitutional. Ac- 
 corilingl)', by these resolutions, Viriiinia declared the 
 alien and sedition laws to be n usurpation by the Fed- 
 eral government of powers uot granted to it, and were 
 thereby unconstitutional; and she appealed to the other 
 states to join in that declaration. The response from 
 other states beiiiff unfavorable. Virginia repealed those 
 resolutions the ne.\t year. 1799. 
 
 1.57. The attitude assumed by Virjrinia in these reso- 
 lutions was certainly uncalled for. either on her part 
 or that of any other state, inasmuch as the constitu- 
 tionality of the acts of Congress could be decided by 
 a competent Irilnuuil only — the federal supreme court. 
 Kentucky The Kentucky Uesolui ions were to the same general 
 resolutions gfi-pj,( „g )li(,j;(."of Virginia, but with the additional dec- 
 laration Ih^it the federal constitution was merely acom- 
 pact, to which the several states were the one party 
 and the feileral government the other, and that each 
 parly mu^l deciile for itself as to the infractions of the 
 compact, and as to the proper remedy to be adopted. 
 These rescfliitions received as little attention as those of 
 Virginia. In the following year (1799) Kentucky re- 
 pealed the resolutions, but with the additional clause 
 that a state mivht rightfully nullify and declare void 
 any act of Congnss wliicU it might consider unconsti- 
 tuiional. This was a dangerous assumption, for it 
 verged upon the right of secession, and these resolu- 
 tions were used by the south as a partial precedent for 
 nullification in 1^<33, and for secession in ISOO. 
 
 l.'jt*. Meanwhile, though there was open hostility be- 
 tween France and the United States, war was uot act- 
 ually declared. The French, seeing the warlike alti- 
 tmle of the United States, became more civil. Talley- 
 rand tried to disavow the X. V. Z. affair, and made 
 conciliatory proposals to Vans Murray, the American 
 minister at the Hague. The president had exitressed 
 his determination to send no more ministers to France 
 until assured of a friendly reception, but he suddenly 
 appointed three envoys to that C(mnlry against the pro- 
 test of two of his cabinet. Their protest was sus- 
 tained by the leading Federalists throughout the coim- 
 try, and by this act the president lost, in some degree, 
 the support of his party. For some time also there had 
 been intense jealousy and dislike between Adams and 
 Hamilton, the other great Feder.alist leader, and this 
 increased Iheditricultiesof the Federalist party. When 
 the new embassy reached Paris, they found the gov- 
 ernment in the hands of Napoleon Bonaparte, who 
 gave them a cordial welcome, and they soon succeeded 
 in settling the matters in dispute in an amicable man- 
 ner. The policy of John Adams in making peace with 
 France, contrary to the popular sentiment, demands 
 the highest commendation, but it lost him the presi- 
 dency for a second term. 
 Death oj 159. On the Mih of December. 1709. George Wash- 
 Waelriug- jngton died at Mount Vernon after only one day's ill 
 '*"'■ ness. The event was mourned all over the United 
 
 States with sincere sorrow, and was appropriately ob- 
 serveil by Congress and other public bodies. Bonaparte 
 ordered the standardsof the French army to be shrouded 
 in crape for ten days, and in England a fleet of sixty 
 British men-of war lowered their flags to half mast. In 
 Ifr^movnl of I'"' following year the national capital was removed 
 ihicapltiil. from Philadelphia to the site chosen on the banksof the 
 Potomac. The city there laid out received the name of 
 of Washington. 
 Tlie fourth ]on. By the spring of 1800 it became manifest that 
 I'iaU-lcc" *'"^ Fediralist parly was losing ground. In April the 
 lion. New York state election went against them. Soon 
 
 after this, the dismissal by the president of some of the 
 the cabinet officers who were too friendly with Hamil- 
 ton, caused an irreparable break in the party. Hamil- 
 ton printed a severe attack on the president, and en- 
 deavored to make arrangements for giving I'inckney a 
 
 majority of Federalist electors that he might be chosen 
 president and Adams vice-president, as these two were 
 the nominees of the Federalist party. The Hepublican 
 candidates were Thomas .leflerson, of Virginia, and 
 Aaron Burr, of New York. The fourth presidential 
 election took place in November, ISOO. The election 
 was very clo.se. In February. ISOl. the electoral votes 
 were counted, of which 73 were for Jefferson, 73 for 
 Burr. (!■"> for Adams, (i-1 for Pinckney, and 1 for Jay. 
 There was no highest name on the list, and it was left 
 for the house of representative s to choose between the 
 two highest candidates. The house was Federalist, but 
 was restricted to a choice between two Republicans. 
 Some of the Federalists wished to elect Burr instead of 
 their great opponent, Jefferson, but Hamilton used all 
 his inlluence against such a scheme, and at last, on 
 February 17. lyoi. Jefferson was elected by the house, 
 and Burr became vice-president. 
 
 101. The inauguration of Jefferson was the first that Fourth 
 took place in the city of Washington. The new presi- |';h^"'u8triv- 
 dent's first inaugural message announced the future 
 policy of the Hepublican party to be careful fostering 
 of the state governments, the restriction of the powers 
 of the Federal government to I heir lowest constitutional 
 limit, the immediate paynu'ul of the national debt and 
 the reduction of the army, the navy, the taxes, and the 
 duties on impoits. to the lowest available point. Many 
 of the Federalists believed that speedy ruin to the coun- 
 try would follow the advent of Jefferson to the presi- 
 dency. He was "an atheist in religion and a fanatic in 
 politics," and the vice president was only more tolerable 
 because less known. The parly which supported them, 
 it was claimed, was composed of revolutionists, disor- 
 gani/.ers and Jacobins. The Federalist party, which 
 contained the larger portion of the intellect, wealth and 
 culture of the country, honestly believed, no doubt, 
 that the government had fallen into bad hands. But 
 their fears were grovuidless. The president's first ad- 
 ministration was marked by national prosperity. The 
 principal oltices of government were transferred to the 
 Uepublican party, and executive pardons were issued 
 to those persons' who had been imprisoned under the 
 alien and sedition laws. The supreme court, under the 
 lead of CJhief Justice Marshall, remained Federalist in 
 complexion, and did a grand work for several years in 
 interpreting and strengthening the constitution. Presi- 
 dent Jefferson instituted the custom of sending a writ- 
 ten message to both houses of Congress as more befit- 
 ting Republican simplicity, instead of giving the ad- 
 dress in person, which had hitherto been the rule. 
 
 1G3. The population of Ihe United Slates was rapidly The 
 increasing, and was beginning to press forwardinio the I-ouisiana 
 Mississippi valley. In ISO'J Ohio was admitted into the I"'"'"'"'<'- 
 union; Mississippi and Indiana were already organized 
 as territories, and a growing interest was felt in the 
 western country. By a secret treaty with Spain in 
 1800. France had recovered the territory of Louisiana; 
 the Spanish civil ollicers, however, were left in com- 
 inaiul. and in 1803 the S|)anish intendant at New Or- 
 leans issued a proclamation closing the Mississippi to 
 American commerce. This action threatened to result 
 in war. Jefl'erson had opened negotiations with Napo- 
 leon for the purchase of the territory. The French em- 
 peror had at lirsl refused to treat on theeubject. He 
 had accpiired this territory with the vague intention of 
 regaining the French ascendancy in America, which 
 had been lost in the seven years' war. Knowing that 
 whoever controlled the month of the Mississippi nuist 
 become master of the whole valley. Jefferson proposed 
 to buy New Orleans. Napoleon had refused this, also, 
 but in ISO;i the prospect of a renewed war with Great 
 Britain made him change his mind. He knew that in 
 case of war an English fleet would be sent to take pos- 
 session of Louisiana, and that it would be impossible 
 for the French to hold the port of New Orleans. He 
 was determined that the place should uol fall into the 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 The 
 
 TripolUan 
 
 war. 
 
 bauds of liis powerful enemy, ro he offered to sell it to 
 the United States for fifteen million dollars. The presi- 
 dent at ouce agreed to the proposition, though he be- 
 lieved that the constitution gave the Federal govern- 
 ment no power to purchase foreign territory and make 
 it a part of the union. lu this instance, an article for 
 the ratification of the purchase was prepared as an 
 amendment to ihe consliiution. but was never offered, 
 as the president's action met with a general acquiescence 
 and has since been imitated in similar instances with- 
 out question. The Louisiana purcha.se included every- 
 thing west of the Jiississippi not already occupied by 
 Spain, and comprised the whole or part of the present 
 states of Arkansas, Colorado, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana. 
 Minnesota, Missouri. Nebraska, Oregon, the two Dako- 
 tas, Montana, Washington, Wyoming, Idaho, and 
 the Indian territory. The effect of this great acqui- 
 sition of territory, by such an active and prosper- 
 ous people as the Americans, was to insure theru the 
 ultimate control of the continent without incurring any 
 foreign warfare wortli historic mention. It set the na- 
 tion free for an indefinite length of time from European 
 complications, but, on the other hand, it was the means 
 of creating some new and formidable features in the 
 rivalry between the free states and slave states. 
 
 1G3. The Barbary states on the southern shores of 
 the Mediterranean were in the habit of sending out 
 piratical vessels to prey upon the commerce of other 
 nations and reduce their sailors to slavery. All the 
 great powers of Europe, as well as the United States, 
 had a(l(>pt(d the custom of paying tribute to these petty 
 governments, in order to secure immunity for their 
 trade. But these pirates grew increasingly insolent, so 
 that the [jatience of the American government became 
 entirely exhausted. A small fleet was sent out to the 
 Mediterranean, which bombarded Tripoli. After a 
 desultory warfare extending over two years, the Tri- 
 poliians sued for peace. The English government 
 then followed the example of the Unitea States, and in 
 a few years more this abominable nuisance was sup- 
 pres.^ed. 
 
 In the latter part of 1803, during the first session of 
 the VIII Congress, the manner of the presidential 
 election was amended to the form which it has at 
 present. The amendment having been ratified by the 
 necessary number of states, this became the XII 
 amendment to the constitution. Articles of impeach- 
 ment were voted by the house against a federalist 
 juritie. Chase of Maryland, for arbitrary and oppressive 
 conduct in trying cases under the alien and sedition 
 laws. At the next session of Congress in 1804, Chase 
 was tried and acquitted. 
 
 164. In 1804 Jefferson was re-elected president, with 
 George Clinton for vice-president, in place of Aaron 
 Burr, who had separated from his party. Tlie feder- 
 alists then made Burr a candidate for the governorship 
 of New York, but here, as in 1801, Hamilton used his 
 influence against him, and Burr was defeated. Resent- 
 ing this opposition. Burr contrived to force Hamilton 
 into the acceptance of a challenge. They met on July 
 11, 1804, and Hamilton was killed. The mourning of 
 the country over the loss of this distinguished man 
 was intense, and the wretched Burr foiin<l that his 
 public career was at an end. Bankrupt in fortune, and 
 a fugitive from home, he visited New Orleans and 
 other parts of the south and west (1805) for the pur- 
 Burr's con- pose of arranging an enterprise whose exact object has 
 never been positively discovered. He planned either 
 the seizure of Mexico, or the establishment of a mon- 
 archy west of the Alleghanies. He was arrested by 
 the federal government on a charge of treason, aud 
 was tried before Chief Justice Marshall in September, 
 1807, but after a long investigation he was acquitted 
 in consequence of a defect in the chain of evidence. 
 Afterward he became an outcast from society and died 
 in obscurity. 
 
 The XTfth 
 
 aiiK-nd- 
 
 infiit. 
 
 tfamilton 
 and Burr. 
 
 epiracy. 
 
 Ifi5. On the 1th of March, 1805, Jefferson and Clin- 
 ton were sworn into ofHce. Jefferson's second admin- 
 istration was the beginning of a stormy period which 
 ended in war. The wars of Napoleon still continued, 
 aud France and Great Britain were using every expedi- 
 ent to crii)ple eich other without regard to the rights 
 of neutral nations. In the beginning of these wars 
 the United States, being a neutral power, had acquired 
 a valuable foreign commerce, but this was speedily 
 destroyed by the arbitrary measures of the belligerents. 
 With his famous Berlin aud Milan decrees. Napoleon 
 sought to prevent neutral vessels from entering British 
 harbo's, and claimed the right to seize all vessels trad- 
 ing with England or her colonies (1806). England 
 replied with her orders of council issued by the king, 
 which forbade all commerce with the ports of Europe 
 that were within the French dominion or in countries 
 allied witk France. If an American vessel touched at 
 almost any port of continental Europe, the first British 
 cruiser that came along deemed her its lawful prey, if 
 she touched at a British port, she was liable to capture 
 by the first French craft that she should meet. Jeffer- 
 son had abandoned the policy which Adams had 
 adopted of building a strong navy. He imagined it 
 possible to defend American harbors by means of gun- 
 boats carrying each one gun, and had recommended 
 this plan, which Congress adopted. This "Gunboat 
 System" was always hateful to the navy, and was a 
 constant object of federalist ridicule and attack. 
 
 166. While the offensive measures of Enf.dand and 
 France made American merchantmen a prey lo both 
 parties, En_g!and, in another respect, possessed a pecu- 
 liar power of annoying the United States. She still 
 claimed and exercised the right of stopping American 
 vessels and seizing all sailors, even naturalized citizens, 
 who were supposed to be British subjects. In June, 
 
 1807. the insolence of thi.s claim was carried so far that 
 the British man-of-war. Leopard, stopped the United 
 States frigate, Chesapeake, off the entrance of Chesa- 
 peake Bay, fired into her, killing or wounding twenty- 
 one of the crew, and took off four men, three of whom 
 were Americans. President Jefferson demanded repar- 
 ation fur this outrage, and issued a proclamation order- 
 ing all British war vessels out of American waters. 
 The British government wa3 ready to disavow the act 
 of the Leopard, but there was no willimjness shown to 
 make reparation. Feeling unprepared for war, the 
 United States government had recourse to an exceed- 
 ingly stupid and dangerous measure. The president 
 recommended a bill by which American vessels should 
 be prohibited from leaving foreign ports, and foreign 
 vessels from taking cargoes from the United States, 
 and all coasting vessels should be required to give 
 bonds to land their cartfoes in the LInited States. This 
 was the celebrated Embargo Bill, which did more 
 harm to American commerce than all the cruisers of 
 France and England were able to do. It al?.o intensi- 
 fied party feeling and even threatened the existence of 
 the union. 
 
 167. As time went on the Embargo Act became so 
 unpopular that before the close of Jefferson's second 
 term many of his friends forsook him. A great pres- 
 sure was brought to bear upon Coniire-ss to repeal the 
 act. It passed in its place the Nnu-intercoiirse Act. 
 This act prohibited trade with England and France so 
 long as their obnoxious measures should be kept in 
 force, but if allowed free trade with other countries. 
 Among the other important events of Mr. Jefferson's 
 administration were the passing of an act of Congress 
 prohibiting the slave trade after January 1, 1808; the 
 beginning of the United States coast survey, a valuable 
 work which is still continued to the great credit of 
 American science, and the application of steam to 
 navigation by Robert Fulton. Jefferson refused to be 
 a candidate for a third term, and at the election in 
 
 1808, Jamea Madison, of Virginia, was chosen president 
 
 Jefferson's 
 second 
 administra- 
 tion. 
 
 The right 
 of searbh. 
 
 Embargo 
 bill. 
 
 Non-inter- 
 course act. 
 
 Other 
 ovcnlB. 
 
u .N 1 '1^ i: I) s '1^ A '1' i: s 
 
 Ijy tlic Hepublican, or, as it now began to lie called, 
 the Democratic party. Clinton was re elecletl vicc- 
 presiilent. The caniiidates of the Federalists were 
 C. C. Piuckuey and Uufiis King. 
 Madinnn's l(>8. The Nouintercoiirse Act went into force March 
 "im'"'"'*"* '*• *^'*'*' ^'^^'" ^''■- *I»'''>^<'" succeeded lo the presidency. 
 He belonged to Jefferson's party and eonunued his 
 policy. Party feeliiiif had grown very biltcr. New 
 Kugland, which suffered the greatest from the break- 
 ing up of trade, was the stronghold of the Federalists. 
 They complained loudly that if it were not for the 
 Embargo and Non intercourse Acts there wo>dd be no 
 trouble. The southern and western people, who were 
 principally Democratic Republicans, retorted that they 
 had evidence of negoliatious between Ac New England 
 Federalists and England; that the Federalists were 
 pianning for a separation of New England from the 
 union. This charge was indignantly denied, but it 
 helped increase political hostilities. In ISIO Congress 
 repealed the Non-intercourse Act, which had accom- 
 plished nothing in the way of intimidation. Congress 
 then informed England and France that if either 
 nation would repeal its obnoxious measures the Non- 
 intercourse Act would be revived against the other. 
 Napoleon was studyinsr how ho might get the advan- 
 tage of England, and he withdrew, or pretended to 
 withdraw, his decrei s prohibiting commerce with 
 England so far as the United States were concerned, 
 but at the same time gave secret orders by which the 
 decrees were to be practically enforced as harshly as 
 ever. Congress at once revived the Non-intercourse 
 Act against Great Britain alone. 
 Bi-'gionipg 169. England and the United States grew more 
 of^hoBtih- jrriiateil with each other, and in ISU hostilities actually 
 began on sea and land. In May the United States 
 frigate Prenidiiit hailed the British man-of-w.",r Little 
 Belt and was answered by a shot. The President then 
 replied with a shot in turn, and a sharp action ensued 
 in which the Little Belt was badly crippled, and lost 
 thirty-one killed and wounded. Tecumseh, the famous 
 Shawnee chief, had gathered a large number of war- 
 riors, and at the instigation of the British they were 
 attacking the northwestern settlements. General Har- 
 rison marched against them, and on November 7 he 
 defeated them at Tippecanoe. The English continued 
 to seize vessels and men. More than nine hundred 
 American vessels had been seized since 1808, and 
 several thousand American seamen had been impressed 
 into the British service. The people of the United 
 States were exasperated at their losses and their in- 
 ability to protect themselves. JIadison wished to 
 continue the general peace policy of Jefferson, but new 
 leaders had sprung up in the Keimblican party who 
 were in favor of war. Chief among these were Henry 
 Clay, of Kentucky, speaker of the house, William H. 
 Crawford, in the senate, and John C. Calhoun, of 
 South Carolina, in the house. These became the 
 recognized congressional leaders of the party. The 
 economical and retrenching policy of JelVerson was 
 abandoned, and preparations were begun for hostilities. 
 Bills were passed to enlist men, to organize the militia 
 and to enlarge and equip the army. 
 
 17(1. President Madison was given to understand that 
 his nomination for a second term of ollice depended 
 upon his adoption of the war policy, otherwise De Witt 
 Clinton, of New York, would be noniituUed in his 
 stead. The president accepted the eoiwlilions and on 
 June 18, 1S12, war against Great Britain was furmally 
 declared. It Wfis soon learned tiiat the British gov- 
 ernment had revoked the orders in council live days 
 after the declaration of war, but this concession came 
 too late. Even if it had come in time probably nothing 
 short of an abandoment of the right of search and 
 impressment on Great Britain's part would have proved 
 satisfactory. The war feeling was by no means unan- 
 imous. The New England Federalists bitterly op- 
 
 Dcclara- 
 tiou of war 
 
 posed it. The chief support came from the south and 
 west, which felt less keenly the effect upon their 
 prosperity, caused by the breaking up of commerce. 
 Immediately after the declaration of war the Federalist 
 mend)era of Congress had published their protest 
 against it in an address to their constituents. When 
 re(iiiisitious were made by the president upon the 
 governors of the dill'ercnt stales for their respective 
 <luotas of troops, according to the act passed by Con- 
 gress to embody the militia, the governors of Massa- 
 chusetts and Connecticut refused to allow their militia 
 to leave their slates on the ground that itwasuncon- 
 stitutioiud for the Federal government to call out the 
 militia except in case of an invasion or resistance lo 
 the laws of the United States, and neither of these had 
 taken place. April ;iO, 1813, Louisiana was admitted 
 into the union of states. 
 
 171. The war opened by the invasion of Canada by 
 General Hull, who was ordered to cross at Detroit and 
 attack Fort Maiden a few miles distant, but he was 
 compelled to fall back again to Detroit. Here he was 
 attacked by a large force of British and Indians und<T 
 General Brock and Tecumseh. Believing he was not 
 strong enough to defeiul the place he surrendered 
 (August 1(>, ISI'J). not only Detroit, with its garrison 
 and stores, but the whole territory of Michigan. Being 
 exchMnge<l, after some time he was tried by a coun- 
 martial on charges of treason and cowaidice. He was 
 aciiuiiedof treason and was sentenced to be shot for 
 cowarilice, but was pardoned by the president on 
 account of his past goo<l services. In October another 
 attempt was made upon Canada near Niagara. A 
 small force crossed the river and attacked the British 
 in a strong jiosition on (^ueenstown Heights. At first 
 the Americans were successful but were at last defeated 
 with heavy loss. 
 
 172. To compensate for these disasters on land the 
 little American navy won imjierishab'.e glory on the 
 ocean. The United States frigate Esscr, Captain 
 Porter, captured the British sloop-of-war Alert after a 
 fight of eight minutes, witlumt losing a man. The 
 Constitutian, Captain Hull commanding, fought a 
 famous action with the Ilritish frigate Oucrricre near 
 the Gulf of St. Lawrence; (.-Vugust 1!)). and in less than 
 an hour completely destroyed her. This victory dis- 
 pelled the belief that the British navy was invincible, 
 and the whole country was tilled with transports of 
 delight. On the ISlh of October the sloopof war 
 
 Wasp, commanded by Captain Jones, captured the 
 British brig of-war Frolic off the coast of North 
 Carolina, but the same day the British shiji /'inrtier-s 
 took both the captor and her prize. On October 25 
 the frigate I'niled St'it,/.-, under Commodore Deca- 
 tur, fought a memorable action with the British 
 ship Mariiloniini . 'which surrendered to Decatur after 
 being nearly cut lo pieces. This engagement took 
 place oft' the Island of Madeira, but Decatur succeeded 
 in carrying his prize to America. The Constitution, 
 commanded by Cajilain Bambridge, in a two hours' 
 fight off the coast of Brazil, knocked to pieces the 
 British frigate Jura (December 2!)). which lost 230 men 
 and had lo be l)urned, while the Constitution lost but 
 twelve men and not a single spar. 
 
 17;i. During the first six months of the war the de- 
 spised American navy, of which even the Americans 
 expected but little, became llie admiration of the world. 
 Privateers also were very active, and before the end of 
 the year the captures from the British numbered about 
 fifty vessels of war. two hun<lred and fifty merchant 
 vessels, and three thousand men. Under the impulse 
 of these successes the Federalists, who had been op- 
 posed lo the war, were beaten in the autumn elections, 
 and Madison was re elected president, with Eldridge 
 Gerry for vice-president. The American disasters on 
 land had led the government to collect o large army, 
 which was placed under the command of General Uar- 
 
 Tlio war 
 of 1811.'. 
 
 Surrender 
 <if Detroit. 
 
 Queene- 
 
 towii 
 
 IleightP. 
 
 Xiiviil 
 exploits. 
 
 Tlie re-elec- 
 tion of 
 Maditiou 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 Tbe war in 
 the* north- 
 west. 
 
 Battle of 
 Luke Erie. 
 
 The Creek 
 war. 
 
 Events on 
 the sea. 
 
 On the 
 
 Niagara 
 frontier. 
 
 rison. He first made an attempt (January, 1813, ) to re- 
 cover Detroit and tbe territory of MicLiigan, but vtas 
 driven back to Fort Meigs by Proctor, who besieged 
 him there, but unsuccessfully. So much of the frontier 
 was occupied by the great lakes that it was of the great- 
 est importance to get control of these, and for this pur- 
 pose, both British and Americans were busily engaged 
 during the summer of 1813 in building fleets. Captain 
 Oliver H. Perry directed the building of the fleet on 
 Lake Erie, and sailors were sent forward from the sea- 
 coast. He had just completed nine vessels, which were 
 at anchor in Put-In-Bay, when he saw the British ap- 
 proaching. He at once moved out to meet the enemy 
 (September 10) and in a little more than two hours was 
 able to send this dispatch to General Harrison, who was 
 in command on the Sandusky: "We have met the 
 enemy and they are ours; two ships, two brigs, one 
 schooner, and one sloop." This victory turned the 
 scale of war in the northwest. Harrison shipped his 
 army across the lake in Perry's fleet, and attacking 
 Proctor at the River Thames (October 5), inflicted a 
 crushing defeat upon him. This was a severe blow to 
 the Indians also, fur their great leader, Tecumseh, was 
 killed. The American success restored the northwest- 
 ern territory to the country. 
 
 174. In the spring of 1813 Tecumseh had visited and 
 roused the Creek Indians of the southwest, and in 
 August they took occasion to attack the frontier settle- 
 ments, beginuing with the terrible massacre at Fort 
 Mimms, near Mobile. General Andrew Jackson, with 
 the formidable Tennessee militia, marched into the 
 Creek country, and won a series of telling victories, by 
 which they were entirely subdued, and purchased peace 
 by the surrender of two-thirds of their hunting grounds. 
 In the meantime tL a British, after the defeat which 
 they had suft'ered from the American navy in 1812, 
 strengthened their Atlantic squadron. During the sum- 
 mer of 1813 they attempted to blockade the coast from 
 Maine to Georgia. Congress, in turn, hastened to build 
 new ships; and the courageous privateers continued to 
 fight pluckily, and to bring prizes into the United States 
 ports. In Feijruary, 1813, the American sloop Hornet, 
 Captain Lawrence commanding, destroyed the British 
 brig Peacock, which sank before all of her crew could 
 be removed. On his return to the United States, Law- 
 rence was promoted to the frigate Chesapeake, with 
 which, on June 1, he had a severe engagement with the 
 British frigate Shannon, near Boston. Lawrence was 
 mortally wounded at the beginning of the action. As 
 he was carried below, he e-xclaimed: "Don't give up 
 the ship!" The Cliesapeake, however, was captured by 
 boarding, after she had lost a large proportion of her 
 ofiicers and men. The Aryus, Captain Allen, was cap- 
 tured by the British man-of-war Pelican (August 14), 
 after a gallant tight in which Captain Allen received his 
 death wound. Lieutenant Burrows, in the brig Enter- 
 prise, captured the British brig Boxer (September 5), 
 after a short action. The frigate Essex, Captain P<irter, 
 made a brilliant and successful crui.''e during the year 
 1813, and did great damage to the British commerce. 
 At length, however, she was attacked in March, 1814, 
 by the British ships Phoebe and Cherub, and after the 
 bloodiest fight of the war, the Essex was compelled to 
 surrender. The sloop Peacock captured the British 
 brig Epervier off the coast of Florida (April, 1814). 
 The Wasp made a brilliant cruise, taking a number of 
 British vessels. The old Constitution, Captain Stewart, 
 engaged singly the British sloops-of-war Cyaue and 
 Levant off the coast of Portugal, and captured both in 
 a remarkable night engagement, February 20. The 
 Hornet capttired the British brig Penguin in March, off 
 the Cape of Good Hope, and in June, the Peacock closed 
 the long record of victories by taking the British ship 
 Nautilus. These last three actions took place after 
 peace had been concluded. 
 
 175. In the summer of 1814, the Americans made a 
 
 fresh attempt to invade Canada under General Brown, 
 with whom served Brigadier-General Winfield Scott. 
 They crossed the Niagara river and in four hard fought 
 battles defeated the British at Chippewa (July 5), Lun- 
 dy's Lane (July 35), and Fort Erie (August 15 and Sep- 
 tember 17), but in spite of these successes, they could 
 not establish themselves in Canada, and retired across 
 the line before cold weather came. In March, 1814, 
 Napoleon was dethroned and sent to Elba, and the 
 European war being over, England was enabled to spare 
 more men for the war in America. Her policy was to 
 march two armies into the United States. One was to 
 descend from Canada by the route which Carleton and 
 Burgoyne had followed, and the other was to land at 
 New Orleans and move northward. To divert atten- 
 tion a fleet under Admiral Cockburn sailed up the Poto- 
 mac and attacked the capital. There was scarcely any Capture of 
 resistance, and the British wantonly destroyed public ^^''"''''"»" 
 buildings, books and papers (August, 1814). Nothing ^°''' 
 was spared except the patent office and the jail. The 
 British them moved upon Baltimore. General Ross and 
 his troops were landed a few miles below the town, but 
 the Americans gallantly repulsed them. Then the fleets 
 bombarded the forts which protected Baltimore (Sep- 
 tember 12 and 13). Fort McHenry received the hottest 
 fire from the fleet. It was upon seeing the flag still fly- 
 ing from the fort, when the smoke cleared away, that 
 Francis S. Key wrote the national song, "The Star- 
 Spangled Banner." The fleet finally abandoned the at- 
 tempt and sailed away. 
 
 176. The British in Canada, having been reinforced 
 by the arrival of fresh troops from England, advanced 
 with an army of fourteen thousand men under Prevost, 
 to attack Plattsburg, on Lake Champlain, while a Brit- 
 ish squadron, under Captain Downie, sailed up the lake 
 to co-operate with him. The Americans, under General 
 Macomb, being only fifteen hundred strong, fell back 
 behind the Saranac, and there made a vigorous defense. 
 They had also a squadron of small vessels under Com- 
 modore Macdonough. and this was stationed at the en- 
 trance of Plattsburg bay. Captain Downie attacked 
 Macdonough (September 11, 1814), at the same time 
 that General Prevost attempted to force the passage of 
 
 the Saranac, but the British fleet was annihilated by Battle of 
 Macdonough and Prevost, beaten at every point by Ma- Plattsburg. 
 comb, retreated in disaster to Canada. But while this 
 attempt on New York proved a failure, the British suc- 
 ceeded in seizing the unoccupied wilds of Maine east of 
 the Penobscot river, and thus created a panic in New 
 England. 
 
 177. The expedition against Washington was de- The war in 
 signed chiefly as an insult; the expedition against New the south. 
 Orleans was for conquest. If the British could gain 
 
 this important position they would control the Missis- 
 sippi and the western country. In December, a British 
 army of 12,000 men under General Parkenham, landed 
 below New Orleans. General Jackson hastened to that 
 city with 6,000 militia to oppose him, and fortified the 
 town as best he could. After a fortnight's siege the 
 British determined to assault the American works. 
 Early on the morning of January 8, 1815, they made 
 the attack. Jackson's men, trained to rifle shooting 
 and aided by artillery, met them with great coolness, 
 and in less than half an hour the British were in full 
 retreat, leaving Pakenham and 2,600 men behind 
 them, killed or wounded, while the American loss was 
 but 8 killed and 13 wounded. This battle also occured 
 after peace was declared. 
 
 178. Negotiations for peace had been begun in Au- 
 gust, 1814. The American government was anxious 
 for almost any honorable peace in preference to con- 
 tinuing the war with England. The latter country had 
 revoked the orders in council long before, but still 
 England's demands were such that they could not be 
 accepted with honor by the Federal government. The 
 war feeling was thus continued among the republicans, 
 
U ^ 1 T EDS T A T E y 
 
 The 
 
 Ilarlford 
 
 couvi'iiiion 
 
 and some of their kiulers began to meditate measures 
 which the strict coustnictionist principles of the party 
 would not justify. Propositionb were made to intro- 
 duce the Eni;lit.h system of impressment of seamen, 
 and of allowing ollieers of the army to enlist minors 
 over eighteen j-eiirs of age without the consent of their 
 parents or guardians. The Connecticut legislature 
 ordered the yovernor to resist the execution of these 
 and similar measures if Ihey should become laws. In 
 view of these things, and provoked by the British in- 
 Viision of Maine, the legislature of Massachusetts had 
 invited the other New England states to send delegates 
 to Hartford. Connecticut, "to confer upon the subject 
 of tlieir public grievances. ' Delegates from Massa 
 chusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island, and from 
 parts of Vermont and New Hampshire, met at Hart- 
 ford in December, ISM, to discuss the .situation of af 
 fairs and decide upon the proper course to be pursued. 
 Among other measures tbey recommended the adoption 
 of several amendments to the constitution, chiellj' w.lh 
 intent to restrict the powers of Congress over com- 
 merce, and to prevent naturali'.ed ciii/ens from hold- 
 ing olliee. As there was much secrecy in its proceed- 
 ings a popular suspicion was aroused that a dis.xohition 
 of the union had been proposed, perhaps resolved 
 upon, in its meetings. This suspicion completed the 
 ruin of the Federalist party. Some years afterward 
 the journal of the convention was published in order 
 to justify its members, and to show that no treasonable 
 designs were otlieially proposed. It was then, how- 
 ever, too late to be of benetit to the party, for thef)op- 
 ular opinion had become li.xed. 
 
 17!). The final negotiations for peace took place at 
 Ghent, in Belgium, the commissioners on tbe[)arlof 
 the United States l)eing John Quincy Adams, .lames 
 A. Baj-ard, Henry Clay, Jonathan Russell ami Albert 
 Gallatin. The treaty was signed December 24, 1814, 
 and promptly ratified by both governments. It was 
 welcome to the administration, whose want of ex- 
 perience in the conduct of the war had involved the 
 country in great financial straits. The treaty left things 
 apparently just as tliey had been before the war. 
 Nothing was said about the right of search and im- 
 pressment of seamen, out of which the war aro.se. but 
 the United States had shown to the European nations 
 that she would not bo insulted with impunity. The 
 British ceased to enforce their claims, and hence the 
 United Stales may be said to have succeeded in the 
 object of the contest. England with<lrew her claims 
 to sovereignty. The nation was not only established 
 in its own domain, but it had equal rights with Eu- 
 rope on the broad seas. The last vestige of subjection 
 to the Old World disappeared when Decatur sailed 
 into the harbor of Algiers in June, 181.5. That country 
 had again declared war on the United States Decatur 
 compelled the Dey lo come on board Mis flag ship and 
 sign a treaty renouncing forever all demands against 
 Americans. The other Barbary Stales signed similar 
 treaties, and from that time on American commerce 
 became completely free. 
 
 180. The close of the war marks the final downfall 
 of the federal party. From this period the few remain- 
 ing Federalists ceased from any united party action. 
 There was but one party, whose principles consisted of 
 a combination of those which had characterized the 
 original i"'ederal ai d Republican parties. The leading 
 principle of the Federal party, the establishment and 
 continuance of tlie Federal government, had been ([uielly 
 adopted by the Re[iublicans, while the Republican prin- 
 ciple of limiting the' duties and powers of the govern- 
 ment had been as quietly accepted by the F'ederalisls 
 after the Republican party had come into power. In 
 the presidential election of 1816. the Federalist can- 
 didate, Riifus King, received only :i4 electoral votes 
 against lSi7 for the Republican candidale. James M(m- 
 roe. His administration lasted from 1817 to 1825, for 
 
 in 1820 the Federalists put no candidale in the field, 
 and Monroe, being nominated for a second term, his 
 election was practically unanimous. His administra- 
 tion has been called the " Era of good feeling." I'co- Tl\r craof 
 pie forgot the old t|iiarrels in their joy at the end of P""'' '"-'"^^ 
 the war and Ibe revival of business. For a time the ' 
 violent party feeling, which had (lamed so high during 
 the Kuropean strife, had quieted down. New occasions 
 for political contest had not yet come. Congress oc- 
 cupied itself cbietly in the regulation of internal affairs. 
 Taxes were reduced, and a slight increase was made in 
 the tarilT. The feeling was growing among the Re- 
 publicans that the tarilT ought to be so arranged as lo 
 afford protection to those manufactures which had 
 been developed in the I'niled States during the war, 
 but were now suffering from a competition with the 
 cheaper goods which w<'re im|K)rled from England. 
 But no action was taken on the subject. 
 
 181. As has been slated, the charter of the national T''cniUion- 
 bank which had been granted during Washington's first "' ''""''- 
 adminislration, had expired in 1811, and the Repub- 
 licans, then in power, had refused tore-charier il. The 
 attempt to carry on the war by loans had resulted in 
 
 almost a state of baiikrupitcy. In April, 1810, a bill 
 was passed; granting a charter for a national bank to 
 expire in 18;i(i, It was modeled upon the one which 
 the Republicans had formerly opposed. The Repub- 
 lican lu'wspapers warmly aiivocaled the scheme, and 
 republishecl Hamilton's argument in favor of such a 
 bank, thus showing how far loose const ructionist ideas 
 had spread in the Republican party. The bank was 
 organized with a capital of $3.">,()0(),000, four-liflhs of 
 which miglit be in government stock. It was to have 
 custody of the government revenues, but the secretary 
 of the treasury was empowered to divert the revenues 
 to other custodians, giving his reasons for such actions 
 to Congress. 
 
 182. In 1817 hostilities brok« out with the Seminole 'I>onWf in 
 and Creek Indians of Spanish Florida, Georgia, and '■'■""du. 
 Alabama; General Jackson, being sent to the scene of 
 disturbance, chastised the savages and destroyed their 
 villages. Jackson, with all his admirable qualities, was 
 
 not a cautious man. Satisfied that the Spaniards had 
 incited the Indians to make war, he invaded Florida 
 (April, 1818), and took possession of Spanish forts and 
 bui't a fort of his own. Then be seized Pensacola and 
 sent the Spanish troops and civil aulhorities to Havana. 
 Though Jackson's high-handed measures w ^re not fully 
 sustained by Congress, yet, so popular was he, that 
 instead of being reproved by Congress, he was regarded 
 as a great hero worthy of warmest praise, Spain vigor- 
 ously protested against these proceedings as a gross 
 violation of neutrality, but she was too weak to offer 
 any effectual resistance. The matter was finally ar- 
 ranged by the purchase of Florida by the United States 
 for $.5,000,000(1819). 
 
 18;i. The growth of the nation was so rapid tha' for "imwili of 
 six years afler the close of the war of 1812 a new state ""= "^"on- 
 was added each year. Indiana was added in 1816. 
 Mississippi in 1817. Illinois in 181S, Alabama in 1819, 
 Maine in 1820. and Missouri in 1821, The population 
 now numbered nearly ten millions ; the public revenue 
 had increased from live million dollars durin.,' the time 
 of Washington to twenty-Bve million dollars Since 
 1790 the government had granted patents to its inven- 
 tors, A few had been granted prior lo 1812. but after 
 that the number increased rapidly. In 18;W the patent 
 ofliee was made a distinct bureau under the secretary 
 of state, and a commissioner of patents was appointed 
 at its head. The great coal and iron regions lying in 
 the Appalachian range were now yielding their riches. 
 Charcoal was formerly used in sinelling iron, but in 
 1820 the ironworkers of Pennsylvania began to make 
 experiments in mixing anthracite coal with charcoal. 
 When it was found that anthracite coal could be used 
 alone, the manufacture of iron received a new impetus. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 ami increased rapidly. With a country so large, and 
 with a population spreading in every direction, the 
 urgent demand of western settlers for some quicker and 
 easier mode of inter-communication and transportation 
 led to a variety of plans to accomplish the end. Private 
 companies and sometimes the state built roads and 
 canals. The greatest of these public works was the 
 Eri„ canal. Erie canal, which owed its execution chiefly to the 
 energetic governor of New York, De Witt Clinton. It 
 was begun in 1817, and opened for traffic in 183,5 It 
 extended across the slate from Lake Erie to the Hud- 
 eon, and was the largest canal in the world. When the 
 enterprise was first undertaken, and until its com- 
 pletion, it was called "Clinton's big ditch," but it was 
 one of I he principal means by which the city of New 
 York became the chief commercial city of the new 
 world. This was before the locomotive had been per- 
 fected, so that steam railroads were not yet in 
 operation. 
 ^!Dam- 184. In 1807, Robert Fulton had invented the steam- 
 
 aoats. boat. In 1811 a steamboat was launched on the Ohio 
 river at Piiisburg, an<i presently many like craft were 
 traveling the western rivers, thus opening an easy 
 means of communication between distant points. Juft 
 after the Erie canal was begun, a steamboat was built, 
 which was tbe first to navigate Lake Erie. The next 
 year the steamer Savannah crossed the Atlantic, went 
 as far aa St. Petersburg tnd returned. Six years later, 
 when the Erie canal was finished, the steamer Enter- 
 pn'xii went from America to India,by way of the Cape 
 "^iiilroads. of Good Hope. In 1826 the first railroad in the United 
 States was opened from Milton to Quincy, in Mas- 
 sachusetts. It was only two miles long, and was used 
 for hauling granite, the cars being drawn by horses. In 
 183it the first passenger railroad in America was opened, 
 llie Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, which was fifteen 
 mile-t in length. The cars were at first drawn by horses, 
 but with next year a locomotive was used. The con- 
 struction of railroads now began in all directions, and 
 during the next twenty years nearly ten thousand of 
 miles were built. By the spplication of steam to in- 
 dustry, the di>covery of large tracts of coal and iron 
 ore, the inveution of labor saving machines, the com- 
 munication by steam and railroad, the means were 
 given to an energetic people for transforming the 
 wilderness of the southern half of North America into 
 a rich and prosperous country. 
 
 185. In its international relations the action of the 
 government had become strong, quiet, and self- 
 respecting. Mexico and the Spanish colonies of South 
 America had revolted against Spain and established 
 republics, and in 1822 President Monroe acknowledged 
 them as independent nations. During the revolt it 
 seemed likelv that the " Holy Alliance" of Austria, 
 Prussia, and Russia meant to assist Spain in bringing 
 her revolted colonies to obedience. Great Britain had 
 been gradually withdrawing her support from the 
 alliance, and Canning, the new British secretary, 
 determined to impress a check upon it by calling in 
 the weight of the American government. A hint was 
 given to the American minister, and in his annual 
 message to Congress, in 1823, Mr. Monroe declared 
 Mnnroe that "We could not view an interposition for op- 
 -JiM-uine. pressing them (the South American states), or in con- 
 trolling in any other manner their destiny by any 
 European power, in any other light than as a mani- 
 festation of au unfriendly disposition towards the 
 United States." This statement announced the great 
 fact that " the American continents are not to be con- 
 sidered as subjects for future colonization by any 
 European power." This principle, so boldly declared, 
 became known as the " Monroe doctrine," and, having 
 the full sympathy of England, it proved effectual. 
 The attitude of the national mind implied in such a 
 declaration showed that our period of national weak- 
 ness had come to an end. 
 
 186. Before the Revolution all the colonies held negro The slavery 
 slaves, but north of Maryland these slaves were few in "y^''^™- 
 number, and were soon emancipated in all the northern 
 states e.\cept Delaware. In the early years of the 
 Republic many of the wisest men in the south were 
 desirous of getting rid of slavery. All but three of the 
 United States which made the confederation forbade 
 the iiriportation of slaves. These three were North 
 Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia; and they insisted, 
 when the consitution was formed, that the right to 
 import slaves should continue until 1808. At the close 
 of the eighteenthcentury there was astrong auti-slavery 
 feeling even in Virginia and North Carolina, and the 
 supposition generally prevailed that the slavery system 
 would gra(Uially die out without causing any serious 
 polilical trouble. In two states only. South Ciroliiia 
 and Georgia, was slavery looked upon with any marked 
 degree of favor, and this was owing to the fact that 
 these two states were mostly given to the cultivation of 
 rice and indigo, which seemed to make slave labor 
 indispensable. lu 1783, the famous cotton-gin was The 
 invented by Eli Whitney, a Connecticut school master ^''^'S'"- 
 living in Georgia. The construction of this muctiine 
 was so simple tliat the slaves could use it, and cotton 
 could be cli'aned and prepared for market with great 
 rapidity. Hitherto very little cotton had been raised ia 
 South Carolina and Georgia, but with the advent of the 
 cotton-gin, cotton-growing became a profitable industry, 
 and in consequence there was an increasing demand for 
 slaves. As the importation of slaves had been prohib- 
 ited by the constitution after 1808, the colton-plsiuters 
 could henceforth obtain slaves only by purchasing tliem 
 in such border states as Kentucky and Virginia. To 
 the tobacco-planters of these states, this seemed to 
 promise a source of great profit, and many of them 
 gave their attention to the raising of slaves for the 
 southern markets. Hence anti slavery sen limeuts were 
 soon extingui>hed among them. There was no likeli- 
 hood now that slavery would die a natural death. The 
 interests of the south seemed to be' bound up in the 
 slavery system, and the way was prepared for uniting 
 all the slave states into a solid south, as opposid to 
 a solid north. The grea'est danger to slavery had been 
 the growing conviction that it v,-as wrong in principle 
 and that the nation ought not to permit it. But slavery 
 existed under the laws, ani.1 the states where it did not 
 exist were not at first disposed to interfere. They held 
 that slavery was purely an affair of tbe states in which 
 it was found. Besides, the northern States were now 
 engaged in a variety of enterprises, while the southern 
 States were still chiefly employed in the few agricultural 
 industries of tobacco, cotton, rice, an 1 sugar. The 
 south thus looked to the north for c othing, tools, 
 much of their food, and all the luxuries of life. The 
 merchants of the north found a great market for their 
 goods in the south; their manufaciurers, also, needed 
 cotton to keeptheirmillsin motion. For these reasons, 
 chieflj', the relations between the two great sections in 
 regard to slavery had not been disturbed; but the time 
 was at hand when this question of slavery was to be 
 the paramount one in the whole republic. 
 
 187. In the northwest territory slavery was prohib- The slavery 
 ited by law; in all territories south of that domain it struggle, 
 was permitted. There soon grew up a contest between 
 the free and the slave states for control of the govern- 
 ment, the south wishing to extend the area of slaverj' 
 by the admission of new slave states, the north seeking 
 to confine the institution to the localitie v here it 
 already existed, while the abolitionists of the North 
 wishe 1 to put a stop to it altogether. Thus began the 
 "irrepressible conflict" between free and slave labor 
 which ended, after more than forty years, in the great 
 civil war. It was not until the Mississippi was 
 crossed, and settlements began to be made in the great 
 territory originally called Louisiana, which Jefferson 
 had added to the national domain, that the question 
 
U .N L T El) tS T A 'V i: ti 
 
 arose whether the states iiiaiie from it were to be slave 
 elates or free. The tirsi discussion wai over the admis- 
 sion of the territory of Missouri as a state. A kind of 
 compromise had been kept up from the befjinnini; by 
 admiltinjf a shive state and a free stale by turns, so as 
 to eouiilerbalanee eaeli other in C'onirress. Tlius Ver- 
 mont had been eonntirbaUmced bv Keutuoky. Tennes- 
 see by Ohio. Loui>iana by Indiium, Mississippi by 
 Illinois. In the same manner, iho admission of Ala- 
 bama, in 1S1;». should have eouiiterbalanced lh<' admis- 
 , sion of Maine in the following year; but, as Missouri 
 was also knoekinii: at the door of C'ougress, the 
 southern members refused to admit Maine until it 
 should be agreed to admit Jlissouri as a slave stale. 
 Thi' Mi- 18S When Missouri applied for permission to enter 
 """■'""";"■ the sisterhood of states, and a bill was brought before 
 pniniisi. Congress to ihat effect (1819), an amendment was 
 offered to the bill, forbidding s.lavery or involuntary 
 servitude in Missouii. except as a punishment forcrime. 
 At once party lines were broken. The members from 
 the free stales voted for the amendment, and the mem- 
 boKs from the slave states against it. It was carried in 
 the house, but rejected by the senate, and the bill was 
 lost. At the next session of Congress, Missouri again 
 presented her plea for admission as a state, and Maine 
 made her first application for the same privilege. Tlic 
 Slaine bill passed without oppn^iiiou in the bouse, but 
 by a sectional vote of that body slavery was again pro- 
 hibited in Missouri. In the senate, the Maine bill and 
 a Missouri bill permitting slavery were united, and then 
 pasieil by a sectional vote. As the case now stood, 
 both bills 'were compelled to stand or fall together, 
 and Ihe responsibility of their acceptance or rejection 
 was thrown upon the house. The house held to its 
 first action, and rejected the combined bills as passed 
 by the senate. The ditiieulty was at length settled by 
 the famous Missouri Compromise of 18:20, in which 
 each section gave up some of its demamis, the house 
 by permitting slavery iu Missouri, and the senate by 
 permitting Maine and Missouri to be voted upon separ- 
 ately. Thus Maine and Missouri were admitted into the 
 union, the latter as a slave stale ; but it was agreed by 
 both branches of Congress that slavery should be pro- 
 bibiied forever in all other territories north of the par- 
 allel of 3G° 30\ which was the southern boundary of 
 Missouri. 
 Vipit c.f 189. In 1824, Congress requested President Monroe 
 
 L«K».v.t!o. to invite La Fayette to visit the United States as a guest 
 of the nation. The marfjuis, then sixty-seven years of 
 age, spent eleven months in a tour of the slates, re- 
 ceiving everywhere the highes honors. His great for- 
 tune had been lost during the French Revolution, and 
 C'onirress voted him a present of a township of land and 
 two bundled thousand dollars in money. Ou the ITlli 
 of June. lS2o. the (ifiieth anniversary of Ihe battle of 
 Bunker Hill. General LaFayelte laid the corner-stone of 
 the Bunker Hill monument. There were present on 
 the occasii.:< about forty of ihe survivors of the battle 
 and two hundred soldiers of the Kevolulion. A mem- 
 orable oration was delivered bj' Daniel Webster. 
 
 I'JO In the presidential election of 1824. there were no 
 recognized parties, and political issues were so obscure 
 Ihat the contest turned chiefly upon the personal merits 
 of Ihe candidates. The leading candidates were John 
 Quiocy Adams, of Massachu.selts, secretary of slate, 
 William U. Crawford, of Georgia, secretary of the 
 treasury, Henry Clay, of Kentucky, speaker of the 
 house, and Andrew Jackson, a private citizen of Tenn- 
 essee. On account of the number of the candidates 
 and the character of the contest, the presidental cam- 
 rhcprnii) paign of 1824 has been humorously styled ihe "Scrub 
 JJ,^,'jJ.y^''^? race for the Presidency". All the candidates claimed 
 ' to be Uepublicans. Crawford and Jackson were repre- 
 sentatives of the strict constructionist principles, but 
 Jackson was not in favor with the Crawford faction on 
 account of his leaning toward a protective tariff. Adams 
 
 and Clay were loose constructionists. The personal 
 nature of the canvass is shown in the tendency of the 
 supporters of Ihe different contestants to designate 
 themselves as "Jackson men" or "Adams men" 
 rather than by any real parly title. John B. Calhoun, 
 of South Carolina, was generally supported for the 
 vice presidency by the friends of all the other candi- 
 dates. In February, 1825, the electoral votes were 
 counted, and were found to be, for president. 09 for 
 Andrew .Taekson, 84 for John Quincy Adams, 41 for 
 William II. Crawford, and 37 for Henry Claj', and for 
 vice-president, 182 for John C. Calhoun, and 78 for 
 various other per.-ons. Calhoun was therefore declared 
 elected vice-president. Jackson had received the 
 greatest number of electoral votes for president, but no 
 one had a majority; and so the election went to the 
 houseof representatives. As Clay stood fourth on the 
 list he was not eligible, and only three names were 
 open to choice in tiie house. The friends of Clay 
 therefore — unable to vote for him — united with the 
 j friends of Adams and thus secured the election of the 
 latter. The feeling excited by this result had a ten- 
 dency to widen the breach between the two divisions of 
 the Uepublican party, and before long they became 
 openly opposing parlies. 
 
 191. From tlie beginning of Mr. Adam's adininistra- Tli'' .Vlams 
 lion, bolh faetiinis of llu; defeated party united iu an "jy™"""'™' 
 oppositicn to the president, which continued tlirough 
 
 his whole term of ollicc. Adams appointed Clay to the 
 leading position in his cabinet, and at once the charge 
 was made that Adams and Clay had formed a corrupt 
 bargain, in which the latter had agreed to cast his in- 
 fluence in favor of- Adams, in return for which Clay 
 should receive tije position of secretary of stale, which 
 was then usually considered as the stepping-stone to 
 the presidency. This imputation was indignantly de- 
 nied by Clay, but the cry of "bargain and intrigue" 
 was kept up until Adams ri:tired from the pr<'~idency 
 at the end of his four years of office. In the lirst year 
 of his administration, the South American states, 
 which had now become independent, proposed to nold 'l''"' 
 a congress at Panama, to consult upon matters of in- j.y"''°|^^ 
 teresl common to the whole of America. They invited 
 the United Slates to send delegates. I'resident Adams 
 accepted the invitation in behalf of the union. Con- 
 gress, however, after a stormy debate, refused to send 
 rleiegates. It was claimed that these South American 
 stales had abolished slavery, that they were near 
 neighbors to the south, that they might include Cuba, 
 ] which was still a part of Spain, make the island inde- 
 pendent, and free the slaves there. The whole scheme 
 was fraught therefore with danger to the slave states, 
 and was rejected. The slave states were strong sup- 
 porters of Ihe doctrine of slate sovereignly. They 
 held that the states were independent of one another 
 and of the federal government, a doctrine which had 
 been held from the beginning of the union. The inde- 
 pendent power of the state was a safeguard against too 
 great a power in the central eovernment. 
 
 192. The tirst tariff act of 1789 involved the idea of '"''"toctive 
 protection to hom(^ manufactures. The duties, however, '''^''''' 
 ranged only from 7 J to 10 per cent., averaging about 8J 
 
 per cent. The system, too, which was introduced by 
 Hamilton, seemed to be rather for political than 
 economic purposes. Up to the passage of the tariff 
 act, Ihe laying of duties had been controlled by Ihe 
 states. The possibility of secession among the states 
 in which the slate-rights feeling was strong, was a 
 feature that every statesman had to take into account. 
 Hamilton wished to establish the new p^ederal govern- 
 ment as tirmly as possible, and his object in the tariff 
 system seems lo have been to create a class of manu- 
 facturers, runningthrough all the states, liul dependent 
 for prosperity on the Federal government and its tariff. 
 This would be a strong factor in support of the govern- 
 ment against any attempt at secession, or any tendency 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 anil increased rapidly. With a country so large, and 
 with a population spreading in every direction, the 
 urgent demand of western settlers forsome quicker and 
 easier mode of inter-communication and transportation 
 led to a variety of plans to accomplish the end. Private 
 companies and sometimes the slate built roads and 
 canals. The greatest of these public works was the 
 Erio canaa. Erie canal, which owcil its e.xecution chiefly to the 
 energetic governor of New York. De Witt Clinlon. It 
 was begun in 1817, and opened for traffic in 183.5- It 
 extended across the stale from Lake Erie to the Hud- 
 son, and was the largest canal in the world. When the 
 enterprise was first undertaken, and until its com- 
 pletion, it was called "Clinton's big ditch," but it was 
 one of ihe principal means by which the city of New 
 York became the chief commercial city of the new 
 world. This was before the locomotive had been per- 
 fected, so that steam railroads were not yet in 
 operation. 
 Steam- 184. In 1807, Robert Fulton had invented the steam- 
 
 apate. boat. In 1811 a steamboat was launched on the Ohio 
 river at Piiisburg, and presently many like craft were 
 traveling the western rivers, thus opening an easy 
 means of communication between distant points. Juft 
 after the Erie canal was begun, a steamboat was built, 
 which was tbe first to navigate Lake Erie. The next 
 year the steamer Saeaiuiah crossed the Atlantic, went 
 as far as St. Petersburg i;nd returned. Six years later, 
 when the Erie canal was finished, the steamer Enter- 
 prise went from America to India,by way of the -Cape 
 *<ailT0Bd8. of Good Hope. In 1836 the first railroad in the United 
 States was opened from Wilton to Quincy, in Mas- 
 sachusetts. It was only two miles long, and was used 
 for hauling granite, the cars being drawn by horses. In 
 18311 the first passenger railroad in America was opened, 
 the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, which was fifteen 
 mile-i in length. The cars were at first drawn by horses, 
 but with next year a locomotive was used. The con- 
 struction of railroads now began in all directions, and 
 during the next twenty years nearly ten thousand of 
 miles were built. By the spplication of steam to in- 
 dustry, the discovery of large tracts of coal and iron 
 ore, the invention of labor saving machines, the com- 
 munication by steam and railroad, the means were 
 given to an energetic people for transforming the 
 wilderness of the southern half of North America into 
 a rich and prosperous country. 
 
 18.5. In its international relations the action of the 
 government had become strong, quiet, and self- 
 respecting. Mexico and the Spanish colonies of South 
 America had revolted against Spain and established i 
 republics, and in 1822 President Monroe acknowledged 
 them as independent nations. During the revolt it 
 seemed likelv that the " Holy Alliance" of Austria, 
 Prussia, and Russia meant to assist Spain in bringing 
 her revolted colonies to obedience. Great Britain had 
 been gradually withdrawing her support from the 
 alliance, and Canning, the new British secretary, 
 determined to impress a check upon it by calling in 
 the weight of the American government. A hint was 
 given to the American minister, and in his annual 
 message to Congress, in 1823, Mr. Monroe declared 
 Mnnroe that "We could not view an interposition for op- 
 *J..iirine. pressing them (the South American states), or in con- 
 trolling in any other manner their destiny by any 
 European power, in any other light than as a mani- 
 festation of an unfriendly disposition towards the 
 United States." This statement announced the great 
 fact that " the American continents are not to be con- 
 sidered as subjects for future colonization by any 
 European power." This principle, so boldly declared, 
 became known as the " Monroe doctrine," and, having 
 the full sympathy of England, it proved effectual. 
 The attitude of the national mind implied in such a 
 declaration showed that our period of national weak- 
 ness had come to an end. 
 
 186. Before the Revolution all the colonies held negro The slaverj 
 slaves, but north of Maryland these slaves were few in ^y'''<=™- 
 number, and were soon emancipated in all the northern 
 states except Delaware. In the early years of the 
 Republic many of the wisest men in the south were 
 desirous of getting rid of slavery. All but three of the 
 United States which made the confederation forbade 
 the importation of slaves. These three were North 
 Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia; and they insisted, 
 when the consitution was formed, that the right to 
 import slaves should continue until 1808. At the close 
 of the eighteenthcentury there was astrong anti-slavery 
 feeling even in Virginia and North Carolina, and the 
 supposition generally prevailed that the slavery system 
 would gradually die out without causing any serious 
 political trouble. In two states only. South C.irolina 
 and Georgia, was slavery looked upon with any marked 
 degree of favor, and this was owing to the fact that 
 these two stales were mostly given to the cullivaiion of 
 rice ami indigo, which seemed to make slave labor 
 indispensable. In 1783, the famous cotton-gin was The 
 invented by Eli Whitney, a Connecticut schoolmaster ™"™'g'°- 
 living in Georgia. The construction of this machine 
 was so simple that the slaves could use it. and cotton 
 could be cleaned and [irepared for market with great 
 rapidity. Hitherto very little cotton had been raised in 
 South Carolina and Georgia, but with the advent of the 
 cotton-gin, cotton-growing became a profitable industry, 
 and in consequence there was an increasing demand for 
 slaves. As the importation of slaves had been pmhib- 
 ited by the constitution after 1808, the cotton-phiuters 
 could henceforth obtain slaves only by purchasing them 
 in such border states as Kentucky and Virginia. To 
 the tobacco-planters of these states, this seemed to 
 promise a source of great profit, and many of them 
 gave their attention to the raising of slaves for ihe 
 southern markets. Hence an ti slavery sentiments were 
 soon extinguished among them. There was no likeli- 
 hood now that slavery would die a natural death. The 
 interests of the south seemed to be bound up in the 
 slavery system, and the way was prepared for uniting 
 all the slave states into a solid south, as opposid to 
 a solid north. The grea'est danger to slavery had been 
 the growing conviction that it was wrong in principle 
 anil that tbe nation ought not to permit it. But slavery 
 existed under the laws, and the states where it did not 
 exist were not at first disposed to interfere. They held 
 that slavery was purely an affair of tbe slates in which 
 it was found. Besides, the northern States were now 
 engaged in a variety of enterprises, while the southern 
 States were still chiefly employed in the few agricultural 
 industries of tobacco, cotton, rice, an 1 sugar. The 
 south thus looked to the north for c othing. tools, 
 much of their food, and all the luxuries of life. The 
 merchants of the north found a great market for their 
 goods in the south; their manufacturers, also, needed 
 cotton to keeptheirmillsin motion. For these reasons, 
 chiefl3', the relations between the two great sections in 
 regard to slavery had not been disturbed; but the time 
 was at hand when this question of slavery was to be 
 the paramount one in the whole republic. 
 
 187. In the northwest territory slavery was prohib- The slavery 
 ited by law; in all territories south of that domain it ^^'raggle. 
 was permitted. There soon grew up a contest between 
 the free and the slave states for control of the govern- 
 ment, the south wishing to extend the area of slaverj' 
 by the admission of new slave states, the north seeking 
 to confine the institution to the localitie v here it 
 already existed, while the abolitionists of the North 
 wishe I to put a stop to it altogether. Thus began the 
 "irrepressible conflict" between free and slave labor 
 which ended, after more than forty years, in the great 
 civil war. It was not until the Mississippi was 
 crossed, and settlements began to be made in the great 
 territory originally called Louisiana, which Jefferson 
 had added to the national domain, that the question 
 
U iN 1 ^1^ !•: 1 ) f^ T A T !•: « 
 
 arose whether the stiites nuule from it were to be slave 
 sttlte^^ or free. The first disoussion wan over the admis- 
 sion of the territory of Missouri as a state. A kind of 
 compromise Lad been kept up from the bej^inning by 
 adniitlini; a slave state and a free stale by turns, so as 
 to eour.terbalance each other in Conirress. Thus Ver- 
 mont had been counterbalaiued by Kentucky. Tennes- 
 see by Ohio, Loui>iana by liidinnn, Mississippi by 
 Illinois, In the same manner, ilie ailniissi<in of Ala- 
 bama, in 1819, should have counterbalanced the admis- 
 , sion of Maine in the following year; but, as Missouri 
 was also knockinc: at the door of Congress, the 
 southern members refused to a<lmil Maine until it 
 should be a_u:reed to admit Jlissouri as a slave state, 
 Thi- Mi- IJjS When jMissouri applied for permission to enter 
 Bouri rii;[i- ifjj. tj^ierhood of states, and a bill was brought before 
 Congress to that effect (1819). an amendment was 
 otlered to the bill, forbidding s.lavcry or involuntary 
 servitude in Missoui., except as a punishment forcrime. 
 At once party lines were broken. The members from 
 the free slates voted for the amendmenl, and the mem- 
 bocs from the slave states against it. It was carried in 
 the house, but rejected by the senate, and tiie bill was 
 lost. At the De.xl session of Congress, Mi.'-bouri again 
 presented her plea for admission as a state, and JIaine 
 made her first application for the same privilege. The 
 Maine bill passed without oppiwition in the house, but 
 by a sectional vote of that body .slavery was again pro- 
 hibited in Missouri. In the senate, the Maine bill and 
 a Missouri bill permitting slavery were united, and then 
 passed by a sectional vote. As the case now stood, 
 both bills 'were compelled to stand or fall together, 
 ami the responsibility of their acceptance or rejection 
 was thrown upon the house. The house held to its 
 first action, and rejected the combined bills as passed 
 by the senate. The difliculty was at length settled by 
 the famous Missouri Compromise of 1820, in which 
 each section gave up some of its demands, the house 
 by permitting slavery in Mis.souri, and the senate by 
 pennilting Maine and Missouri to be voted upon separ- 
 ately. Thus Maine and Missouri were admitted into the 
 union, the latter as a slave slate ; but it was agreed by 
 both branches of Congress that slavery should be pro- 
 hibiied forever in all other territories north of the par- 
 allel of ,3G° 30\ which was the southern boundary of 
 Missouri. 
 Vlfit nf 189. In 1834, Congress requested President Monroe 
 
 LaFavfitc. to Invite LaFayette to visit the United States as a guest 
 of the nation. The marquis, then si.My-seveu years of 
 age. spent eleven months in a tour of the slates, re- 
 ceiving everywhere the highes honors, ills great for- 
 tune had been lost during the French Revolution, and 
 Congress voted him a present of a township of land and 
 two bundled thousand dollars in money. On the 17th 
 of June. 182.1. the fiftieth anniversary of the battle of 
 Bunker Uill. General LaFayette laid the corner-stone of 
 the Bunker Hill monument. There were present on 
 the occasic,:i about forty of the survivors of the battle 
 and two hundred soldiers of the Kevolution. A mem- 
 orable oration was delivered by Daniel Webster. 
 
 190 In the presidential election of 1824, there were no 
 recognized parlies, and political issues were so obscure 
 that the contest turned chielly up<m the personal merits 
 of the candidates. The leading candidates were John 
 Qnincy Adams, of Massachusetts, secretary of slate, 
 William H. Crawford, of Georgia, secretary of the 
 treasury. Henry Clay, of Kentucky, speaker of the 
 house, and Andrew Jackson, a private citizen of Tenn- 
 essee. On account of the number of the candidates 
 and the character of the contest, the prcsidental cam- 
 Thr srniii paign of 1824 has been humorously styled the "Scrub 
 SI!'(iid™c'v ^^'^^ ^°^ '^"^ Presidency". All the candidates claimed 
 "to be Republicans. Crawford and Jackson were repre- 
 sentatives of the strict constructionist principles, but 
 Jackson wsxs not in favor with the (Jrawford faction on 
 account of his leaning toward a protective tariff. Adams 
 
 and Clay were loose constructionists. The personal 
 nature of the canvass is shown in the tendency of the 
 supporters of the different contestants to designate 
 themselves as "Jackson men" or "Adams men" 
 rather than by any real party title. John H. Calhoun, 
 of South Carolina, was generally supported for the 
 vice presidency by the friends of all the other candi- 
 dates. In February. 1825. the electoral votes were 
 counted, and were found to be, for president, 99 for 
 Aiidn w Jackson. 84 for John Quincy Adams. 41 for 
 William II. Crawford, and 87 for Henry Clay, and for 
 vice-president, 182 for John C. Calhoun, and 78 for 
 various other persons. Calhotui was therefore declared 
 elected vice-president. Jackson had received the 
 greatest number of electoral voles for president, but no 
 one had a majority; and so the election went to the 
 house of representatives. As Clay stood fourth on the 
 list he was not eligible, and only three names were ■ 
 open to choice in the house. The friends of Clay 
 therefore — unable to vote for him — united with the 
 friends of Adiims and thus secured the election of the 
 latter. The feeling e.xcilcd by this result had a ten- 
 dency to widen the breach between the two divisions of 
 the Republican party, and before long they became 
 opeidy opposing parties. 
 
 191. From the beginning of Mr. Adam's adininistra- Tji" .Vdams 
 lion, bolh factions of the defeated parly united in an "j'J,™""'"''*' 
 op|)osilicn to the president, which continued tlirough 
 
 his whoLj term of ollice. Adams appointed Clay to the 
 leading position in his cabinet, and at once the charge 
 was made that Ailams and Cla}' had formed a corrupt 
 bargain, in which the latter had agreed to cast his in- 
 fluence in fav.ir of Adams, in return for which Clay 
 should receive tlie position of secretary of state, which 
 was then usually considered as the stepping-stone to 
 the presidency. This imputation was indignantly de- 
 nied by Clay, but the cry of "bargain and intrigue" 
 was kept up until Adams rctiretl from the pre-idency 
 at the end of his four years of otlice. In the first year 
 of his administration, the South American states, 
 which had now become independent, proposed to Hold Tlic 
 a congress at Panama, to considl upon matters of in- ''^"''"f^^ 
 leresl common to the whole of America. They invited 
 the United States to send delegates. President Adams 
 accepted the invitation in behalf of the uidon. Con- 
 gress, however, after a stormy debate, refused to send 
 delegates. It was claimed that these South American 
 states had abolished slavery, that they were near 
 neighbors to the south, that they might include Cuba, 
 which was still a part of Spain, make the island inde- 
 pendent, and free the slaves there. The whole scheme 
 was fraught therefore with danger to the slave states, 
 and was rejected. The slave states were strong sup- 
 porters of the doctrine of stale sovereignty. They 
 held that the states were independent of one another 
 and of the federal government, a doctrine which had 
 been held from the beginning of the union. The inde- 
 pendent power of the state was a safeguard against too 
 great a power in the central irovernment. 
 
 192. The first tariff act of 1789 involved the idea of Prnicctive 
 protection to home manufactures. The duties, however, ""■''^''• 
 ranged only from 7 J to 10 per cent., averaging about 8^ 
 percent. The .system, too, which was introduced by 
 Hamilton, seemed to be rather for political than 
 economic purposes. Up to the passage of the tariff 
 
 act, the laying of duties had been controlled by the 
 stales. The possibility of secession among the states 
 in which the state-rights feeling was strong, was a 
 feature that every statesman had to take into account. 
 Hamilton wished to establish the new Federal govern- 
 ment as firmly as possible, and his object in the tariff 
 system seems to have been to create a class of manu- 
 facturers, runningthrough all theslates, but dependent 
 for prosperity on tlu; Federal government and its tariff. 
 This would be astrong factor in support of the govern- 
 ment against any attempt at secession, or any tendency 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 Tariff 
 of 1816. 
 
 Tariff 
 of 1824. 
 
 to return to the old system of control by State legisla- 
 ture. The war of 1812 had made it dilflcult to obtain 
 manufactured goods from abroad, and many needed 
 articles had begun to be made in the United States. 
 After the war was over, American manufacturers wished 
 to continue their business, but as they could not com- 
 pete successfully with English manufactured goods, a 
 higher protective tariff was thought necessary. In 
 1816 a tariff was instituted which imposed a duty of 
 about twenty-five per cent, on imported cotton and 
 woolen goods, and specific duties on iron imports. The 
 English manufacturers made far more cloth than could 
 could be used in England alone, and they sold it to 
 other countries. They could make the cloth better and 
 more cheaply than itcould be madeintheUniledStates. 
 The people of the United States, therefore, would 
 prefer to buy it of England rather thanof theAmerican 
 manufacturers. Now England had established herself 
 in India, and received at first most of her cotton from 
 that country. She wished to favor her own merchants, 
 who brought the cotton from India, and therefore she 
 laid a tax upon the cotton from the southern states. 
 Then the south began to send her cotton to the north, 
 where they could sell it without paying duties, and 
 favored a heavy duty on all cotton goods brought from 
 England. By this means they thought, that Northern 
 manufacturers could make up their cotton into goods 
 which would cost the buyers less than English goods of 
 the same kind. They reasoned thus; If the cotton haa 
 to travel across the Atlantic, pay a tax there, be made 
 into cloth, cross the Atlantic again, and then pay a 
 heavy duty at the customhouse, it will cost the mer- 
 chant who buys it so much that he when he sells it he 
 must ask a higher price than for the cloth made perhaps 
 in the next town to him. So the customer will buy the 
 native cloth. This tariff on European goods, therefore, 
 was called a protective tariff, because it was intended 
 to protect the American planter and manufacturer. At 
 first the northern people <'id not favor it. Their 
 business was much more in ships than in mills; 
 and if the tariff prevented the importation of Euro- 
 pean goods, their vessels would not be of much 
 use. 
 
 193. There was nothing new in the principle of the 
 protective tariff. As has been shown, Hamilton had 
 urged it at the beginning of the government, and it 
 was the method used by many countries for the protec- 
 tion of their own industries. But the tariff of 1816 in 
 the United States came at a time when it had a marked 
 effect in the history of the people. If the United States 
 could manufacture itsown goods from its own products, 
 and sell them to its own citizens, then one part of the 
 country would help another, and the whole union 
 would prosper together. Thus the tariff fell into its 
 place as one of the plans adopted by the country when 
 it settled down to the work of possessing the land and 
 improving it. But as time went on, the south, which 
 had at first favored a protected tariff to ensure the sale 
 of her cotton, now began to oppose any further increase 
 of duties on foreign goods. Thus in 1822. a proposition 
 for making the tariff more protective was defeated by 
 the southern section in Congress. The tariff of 1824 
 was adopted by very small majorities. It was an 
 advance on all preceding tariffs in its consistent design 
 of excluding foreign competing goods from American 
 markets. It was passed" by the northern members, 
 except those from the northeast, against the almost 
 unanimous vote of the southern members, who consid- 
 ered it unconstitutional, sectional, and unjust. In 
 1828, the Protectionists, as those who favored a high 
 protective tariff were now called, succeeded, after a 
 debate of six weeks, in passing another tariff bill 
 which was so protective as to be satisfactory to manu- 
 facturers but very objectional to the southern states, 
 where it was pronounced a legalized robbery. From 
 this time, the nullification doctrines of the Kentucky 
 
 resolutions of 1799 began to gain strength rapidly in 
 the south. 
 
 194. In the presidential canvass of 1828, the two fac- 
 tions of the great Republican party now assumed the 
 character of two distinct and opposite parties. The 
 supporters of Jackson assumed the name of Democrats, 
 while the opposition, which favored the re-election of 
 Adams, were known at first as National Republicans. 
 But in the course of Jackson's administration, as they 
 saw fit to represent him as a kind of a tyrant like 
 George III, they assumed the name of Whigs; and 
 henceforth, until 1854, Whig and Democrat were the 
 names of the two great political parties in the United 
 States. Without entering into a detailed history of 
 these parties and their principles, it may be said in 
 general that the questions which have divided them 
 have been concerned with the powers of the national 
 government. The WJiigs wished to give the Federal 
 government the power to use the public money in the 
 making of roads, improving rivers and harbors, etc., 
 under the general head of Internal Improvements; the 
 Democrats claimed that these things ought to be done 
 by the states or by private enterprise. The Whigs es- 
 poused the policy of laying duties on imports as hiijh 
 as revenue results would approve; within this limit the 
 duties were to be defined for purposes of protection ; 
 and the superabundant revenues were to be expended 
 on internal improvements. This was known as the 
 "American system." This policy was opposed by the 
 Democrats, but not always intelligently. The Whigs 
 also favored the continuance of the national bank 
 which had been chartered in 1816. The Democrats 
 strongly opposed it, and on the question they achieved 
 a complete and decisive victory under President Tyler. 
 On the question of internal improvements, however, 
 the opposite still holds the ground, but most of its de- 
 tails have been settled by the great development of the 
 powers of private enterprise during the past sixty 
 years, and it is not at present a leading question. The 
 question of the tariff, however, remains to-day as a 
 "burning question," but it is no longer argued on 
 grounds of constitutional law, but on grounds of polit- 
 ical economy. 
 
 195. In the presidential canvass of 1828 Jackson was 
 elected president, with John C. Calhoun as vice-presi- 
 dent, and on March 4 they were sworn into office. 
 The eight following years have been called "the reign 
 of Andrew Jackson," from the arbitrar}' methods which 
 he seemed to assume in regard to money affairs in his 
 administration. One of the greatest mistakes of the 
 president was the use of government offices as rewards 
 for his friends and adherents. As early as the begin- 
 ning of the present century a vicious system was 
 growing up in New York and Pennsylvania. In those 
 states the appointive offices came to be used as bribes 
 or as rewards for partisan services. By securing votes 
 for a successful candidate, a man with little in his 
 pocket and nothing particular to do, could obtain some 
 ofHce with a comfortable salary. It would be given 
 him as a reward for political services, and some other 
 man, more competent than himself, would have to be 
 turned out in order to make room for him. A more 
 effective method of driving "good citizens" out of 
 politics could hardly have been devised. The result 
 was that the civil service of those states was seriously 
 damaged in quality, politics degenerated into a wild 
 scramble for office, salaries were paid to men who did 
 little orno public service in return, and thus the line 
 which separates taxation from robbery was often 
 crossed. About the same time the idea obtained that 
 there is something especially democratic, and therefore 
 meritorious, about "rotation in office." Government 
 offices were regarded as plums at which everyone 
 ought to be allowed a chance to bite. The way was 
 prepared in 1820 by W. II. Crawford, of Georgia, who 
 succeeded in getting the law enacted which limits the 
 
 Wliigs and 
 Democrats, 
 
 The 
 
 "Americai 
 
 System." 
 
 Andrew 
 Jackson 
 president. 
 
 Origin of 
 the "spoils 
 system." 
 
 "Rotation 
 in office." 
 
U ^' i T K I) S T A '1' K S 
 
 terms of oflico for postmasters, revenue collectors a;ul 
 olher servants of tlie Feileral goverumeiil to four 
 years. The importaiue of this measure was not under- 
 stooil, anil it excited very Utile discussion at the time. 
 After Jackson oljlained the presidency the methods of 
 New York and Pennsylvania were applied on a national 
 scale. Jackson cherished the absuril belief that the 
 administration of his predecessor Adams had been 
 corrupt, and he accordingly turned men out of otliee 
 with a keen zest. During the forty years between 
 Wa.shington's tirst inauguration and Jackson's the total 
 number of removals from otliee was seventy fc^ur, and 
 out of this number live were defaulters. During the 
 first year of Jackson's administration the number of 
 changes made in the civil service was said to be 3.000. 
 The Such was the abrupt inauguration upon the broadest 
 
 t"«'n°' nuid' ''"■'•'^''^ "^ ''"' so-called "spoils system." Tlu' phrase 
 naUonal. "originated with W. L. Marey, of New York, who in a 
 speech in the senate in ISiil declared that "to the 
 victors belong the spoils." The author of the phrase 
 did not of course realize that he was making one of 
 the most infamous remarks recorded in history, and 
 Jackson doubtless would have been greatly surprised 
 could he have foreseen that he was introducing a 
 gigantic system of political knavery and corruption, 
 wiiich would help sustain all manner of abominations, 
 from grasping monopolies and civic jobbery down to 
 political rum shops. 
 Thcl'nitcd 196. Jackson made another mistake which, however. 
 Siaii-a ^^jj trivial compared with the adoption of the spoils 
 ■ sy-tem. He was bitterly opposed to the United States 
 bank because he believed that it was unauthorized by 
 the constitution and a means of political corruption. 
 As the charter was about to expire in 18:i0 he urged 
 Congress not to renew it. An angry controversy fol- 
 lowed. A bill renewing the charter passed in 1SS2. but 
 Jackson vetoed it. Subsequently he recommended 
 that the pidjlic money should be removed from the 
 bank, and when Congress refused to consent to this 
 measure he took the responsibility of ordering the 
 secretary of the treasury to remove it (18;i;i). a measure 
 which, at first, was followed by great distress among 
 merchants. It was in this quarrel that the supporters 
 of the bank became known as Whigs, while the 
 partisans of the president kept the old name of Demo- 
 crats. The bank was finally closed in 1830 when its 
 charter expired. 
 Indian 107. In 1832 hostilities with the Sac and Fox tribes 
 
 troubles, of Indians broke out in what is now Wisconsin. Their 
 c!iief. Hlack Hawk, was captured, ana the Indians were 
 removed beyond the Mississippi. Georgia wished to 
 get rid of the Creeks and Cherokecs remaining within 
 the state; but they refused to go. The United States 
 had made treaties with them and these treaties ac- 
 knowledged the right of the Indians to the land which 
 they held. They were more civilized than the Indians 
 in general and had furms which they cultivated. A few 
 of their chiefs were persuaded to sign a new treaty 
 with Georgia, giving up their lands. The other In- 
 dians at once put them to death; they declared that 
 these chiefs had no authority to sign for the tribes, and 
 that in consequence there was no treaty. (4eorgia 
 would not wait for the Indians to yield but ordered a 
 survey of their lands to be made for settlement by the 
 whites. It must be remembered that although the ter- 
 ritory was within the boundaries of Georgia it was yet 
 distinctly under the control of the Indians by agree- 
 ment with the United States. The federal government 
 was very desirous of getting the Indians out of Georgia. 
 and tried every means to persuade them to leave, and 
 accordingly in a tacit manner suffered the slate to 
 crowd tiie Indians out. It was no less true that the 
 state was taking to itself a power which belonged to 
 the union. The wrangle over the Indians began in the 
 administration of John (Juincy Adams, and continued 
 after Andrew Jackson was chos n president. Jackson 
 
 had no love for the Indians, having fought them all his 
 life, and he did not now interfere. Georgia had her own 
 way, and the doctrine of state sovereignty was more 
 firmly held than ever. 
 
 198. At this time the southern people felt themselves Nallifica- 
 to be Virginians, Carolinians, Georgians, rather than "°°' 
 American citizens. They were brought up through 
 
 this feeling of undue loyalty to their native states to 
 have a secondary regard for the national union, and be- 
 cause possessed of an institution which they were anx- 
 ious to maintain, they were necessarily fearful of the in- 
 tluence of an entirely free government. Since slavery 
 could be sustained only by state law, in opposiliim to 
 the spirit of the age, the state must be made so sover- 
 eign as to be able to withstand all national interl'erence. 
 To make sure of this result at the time now before us, 
 some of thi^ prominent soutlierners met on a certain oc- 
 casion to try tile temper of President Jackson by an 
 attempted dcliaiuu^ of ilie national authorily. Hut the 
 indignant and determined response of the president 
 checked for a moment their designs, few men daring 
 any longer to follow to their ultimate conclusions the 
 teachings of the great southern leader, John C. Cal- 
 houn; and so, for nearly two years, but little opposition 
 was openly undertaken. Calhoun, however, never 
 ceased his plotting; and in 18;iii, such had been the 
 progress of his plans, that he deemed him-elf strong 
 enough to carrj' his state-rights doctrine triumphantly 
 through, in spite of the known hostility of the patriotic 
 Jackson. Congress, as will be remembered, had en- 
 acted a tarifl' of a -nixed character, mainly for revenue, 
 but incident -i'ly pi'otecting some of the manufacturing 
 interests of thi; northern states; and among the articles 
 thus protec'dd were coarse woolen goods, which were 
 used in the south as clothing for its slaves. The price 
 of those articles was thus made a trille higher than it 
 would have been without thisiirotection; and the slave 
 holders, always a unit for the state-rights doctrine, had 
 to pay this higher price. The north was all the while 
 under the same tarill, paying an increased price for cot- 
 ton on every yard of imported cloth. This was not 
 considered by the south, and so in \H.i'i, a state conven- 
 tion in South Carolina declared the tariff acts unconsti- 
 tutional, and therefore null and void, and resolved that 
 any attempt to collect the <luties at any port in that 
 state should be resisted by force of arms. Preparations 
 were also made to take South (jarolinaout of the union. 
 "Nullification" was the name given to this act by which 
 the state declared certain laws of the general govern- 
 ment to have no force in her territory 
 
 199. The Ist of F(^bruary, IS.'i'i, in case Congress did 
 not repeal its protective system prior to that date, was 
 fixed upon as the limit of the state's forbearance; for 
 after that day. South Carolina, in the event of the non- 
 compliance of the United States with her sovereign 
 pleasure, was to consider herself as forming no part of 
 the Federal union. All she desired, she said, if her 
 demands were refused, was "to be let alone," when 
 she would proceed to govern herself, according to the 
 alleged Jeflersonian doctrine, as an independent state. 
 The excitement was intense all over the union. 'Web- 
 ster was in the senate and General Jackson in the presi- 
 dential chair, and they worked together, though op- 
 posite in their party connections, like twin brothers, for 
 the salvation of their common country. Webster 
 pleaded for the union, claiming that the constitution 
 was not a "compactof states," but a "nation," created 
 by the whole people for their collective government 
 
 and benefit. In the course of controversy in the sen- Webster 
 ate, he held his famousdebate with Mr Ilayne. lasting and Hayno. 
 for several days, and presented the arguments against 
 the right of secession with an eloquence and force 
 never equalled in any discussion on that question. 
 President Jackson firmly believed that the states should 
 manage their own alTairs but he also held that when 
 laws were passed in Congress for the whole country. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 Specie 
 circular. 
 
 Martin 
 Van Buren 
 president. 
 
 The panic 
 of 1837. 
 
 The sub- 
 treasury 
 eystem. 
 
 no one state had a liglit to refuse obedience to such 
 iaws. He dechired that "the Federal union must and 
 shall be preserved," and sent an armed fleet to Charles- 
 ton harbor, warning South Carolina at once that, if t>he 
 resisted, the whole force of the union would be used 
 against her. For a while it looked as if there would 
 be a resort to arms, but Claj', who was the leader of 
 the Protectionists, came forward and proposed a com- 
 promise by which the tariff was modified. South 
 Carolina had won her point. The doctrine of nullifica- 
 tion had not been put to the test of arms; but the doc- 
 trine of state .-sovereignty had established itself more 
 firmly at the south. 
 
 'MO. After the fall of the United States bank many 
 state banks had been formed, often with little capital, 
 to supply the expected need of paper money. These 
 banks issued notes which were largely used in the pur- 
 chase of public lands from the United States, and the 
 treasury was accumulating paper currency of doubtful 
 value- Soon after Congress had adjourned, the presi- 
 dent directed the secretary of the treasury to issue the 
 so-called specie circular, ordering tbe United States 
 agents to receive in future only gold and silver in pay- 
 ment for lands. The demand for specie at once became 
 pressing, and could only be met by the banks in which 
 the revenue was deposited. Other banks fell into dif- 
 ficulties which culminated ill the great "panic of 1837.'' 
 which took place under Martin Van Buren's admin- 
 istration. General Jackson having served two terms, 
 was succeeded by Mr. Van Buren, who became presji- 
 dent on March 4, 1837. The administration of Mr. 
 Van Buren (1837-41) was occupied chiefly with efforts 
 to remedj' the commercial disasters of the nation. The 
 new presiderkt had taken Jackson's cabinet, and had 
 declared his purpose "to follow in the footsteps of his 
 illustrious preciecessor." He, therefore, caught the 
 first full effects of the storm produced by Jackson's 
 financial polic}', from which even Jackson's popularity 
 and admitted honesty would hardly Lave saved him. 
 A spirit of reckless spcculali(m had been excited by 
 the e.xcessive amount of paper money in circulation, 
 and property had acquired a fictitious value. Most of 
 the banks which were not lucky enough to have gov- 
 ernment deposits at command went down under the 
 specie circular of 1836. The "pet banks" which had 
 received the deposits of the public money, had used 
 them as loans to business men, and now, when a 
 sudden demand for those deposits was made, many of 
 these banks also were involved in tbe general ruin. 
 The sudden calling in of these loans was the beginning 
 of this famous panic of 1837, the counterpart of which 
 had never before been seen in the United States. Early 
 in May the banks of New Yor!j city refused to pay 
 gold or silver for their notes, and the Kew York legisla- 
 ture authorized a suspension of specie payments 
 throughout the state for one year. This was followed 
 at once by the suspension of banks in other cities. 
 The president by proclamation (May 15) called an extra 
 session of Congress, to met September 4, and consider 
 and secure the financial interests of the government. 
 Meanwhile the panic continued during the summer of 
 1837, causing widespread ruin among banks, corpora- 
 tions and business men, and violently reducing nominal 
 fortunes to far less than their real value. 
 
 201. Finally, after some vicissitudes, the financial 
 difficulties of the nation were satisfactorily adjusted by 
 the adoption of one phase of the National Bank ques- 
 tion, that of the so-called sub-treasury system which 
 was ultimately established in 1846 and has been in force 
 ever since. By this system the public revcnus are not 
 deposited in any bank, but are paid over on demand to 
 the treasury department by the collectors, who are re- 
 quired to give bonds for the proper discharge of their 
 duty. The establishment of this system was creditable 
 to Van Buren's administration, but the country was 
 not prosperous during his term of office, and he was 
 
 defeated as a candidate for re-e.ection (1840) after a re- 
 markably exciting canvas. The Whigs relying upon 
 the same kind of popular feeling which had elected 
 Jackson, again put in nomination the plain soldier, 
 Harrison, who had been Van Buren's opponent in the 
 preceding canvas, and who had lived in a log cabin and 
 had hard cider on bistable. In the famous "hard The 'hard 
 cider campaign" of 1840, Harrison won a sweeping ^'^.^ '^'"°' 
 victory, obtaining 234 electoral votes to Van Buren's 
 60. John Tyler, of Virginia, a Democrat in politics, 
 was elected vice-president. The election of Tyler was 
 a political mistake on the part of the Whigs, for in one 
 month after bis inauguration. President Harrison died, 
 and Tj'ler succeded to the presidency. Thus the 
 government had a Democratic head, and the Whigs 
 lost, in the main, the fruits of their victory. 
 
 202. Mr Tyler retained Harrison's cabinet, and prom- Tyler's 
 ised to carry out his policy. In an extra session of "j'^j™'""'''*" 
 Congress beginning May 31, a bill to abolish the sub- 
 treasury of the previous administration was passed by 
 
 both houses, which now had a Whig majority, and 
 was signed by the president. Both houses then passed 
 a bill to incorporate the fiscal bank of the United 
 States. Many of the objectionable features of the old 
 United States bank had been discarded; but the measure 
 still met with great disfavor among the Democrats. 
 The bill was vetoed by the president. He stated as his 
 objection, that the powers given to the bank were such 
 as he and the majority of the people believed to be un- 
 wise and unconstitutional to grant. An effort was 
 made to pass the bill over the veto by a two-thirds 
 vote, but it failed. The Whig leaders then requested 
 the president to present them with an outline of a bill 
 which he would be willing to sign. After consultation 
 with the cabinet it was given, and passed by both 
 houses. The president vetoed this bill also. A two- 
 thirds vote could not be obtained to p iss it over the 
 veto. This action of the president in vetoing a bill 
 which had been drawn according to his own sugges- 
 tions, roused the indignation of of the Whigs who had 
 elected him, and all his cabinet resigned. Daniel 
 Webster, however, the secretary of state, retained 
 office long enough to finish a negotiation with Great 
 Britain for the settlement of a dispute regarding the 
 northwestern boundarj'. 
 
 203. The northwestern corner of North America down Oregon. 
 to the parallel of 54° 40', now known as the territory of 
 Alaska, then behmged to Russia. The region known 
 
 as Oregon, which lay between Russian America and 
 California, was claimed by the United States on the 
 ground of the discoveries of Lewis and Clarke. After 
 the second war witli England, when both countries 
 claimed this region, it was agreed in 1818 that they 
 should hold it jointly for ten years. The Hudson Bay 
 Company, which was fully equipped for the fur trade, 
 increased its stations. At the end of ten years it seemed 
 to have almost entire possession. In 1828 it was agreed 
 to continue the joint occupation until notice of its 
 termination should be given by one nation or the other. 
 When this agreement was renewed St. Louis was the 
 great center of the fur trade of the west. Expeditions 
 from that point into tbe disputed territory soon 
 became common. The hunters brought back word of 
 the fine farming and grazing lauds which they had 
 seen, and parties of emigrants began to make settle- 
 ments in that direction. The Hudson Bay Company 
 put every possible obstacle in the way of immigration, 
 as they had wished to keep the country for hunting and 
 trapping. They managed to create the impTession in 
 the United States that the Rocky Mountains could not 
 be crossed by wagons, antl that the country on the other 
 side was a barren wilderness. In 1836. Dr. Marcus 
 Whitman was sent out with a company of missionaries 
 to the Oregon Indians. He was a man of energy and fore- 
 sight. He saw that it was practicable for emigrant 
 trains to cross the mountains by good passes, ard he 
 
TJX 1 T El) S ^1' A T K S 
 
 "Fifty-four 
 forty or 
 tight." 
 
 Dorr's 
 rebellion. 
 
 Opposition 
 to slttvery. 
 
 The aboli- 
 tionists. 
 
 Mob 
 N.olencc. 
 
 knew that if he couki make this j^cneniUy Itnown the 
 people of the United States would soon occupy the 
 country. 
 
 204. When Lord Ashburton came in 1842 to settle 
 ■with Mr. Webiiter the boundry line between the British 
 pos9cssion.s and the United States, the Hudson Bay 
 Company had .succeeded in keepinjj out almost all 
 Aiiierieaii emigranta. They had laid llu-ir plans also 
 to l)ring in Eufrlish settlers from the Ked river country, 
 80 as to strenjithen the Uritish claim to all Oregon. As 
 Boon as Dr. Whitman learned this, he set out in October 
 of that year, and made his way across tlie entire con- 
 tinent to Washington. There he found that a treaty 
 had been signe<l, but tiiat Oregon had been left out of 
 consideration alloijether. l)i\ Wliilruau's errand was 
 to make known to the adininistratiim at Washingl<m 
 the value of Oregon, and then to organize comiianies 
 of emigrants to settle within its bounds. He diii both. 
 In the following summer he had a great body of set- 
 tlers over the mmmtaius, and at the close of 1844 there 
 were three thousand Americans in Oregon. The 
 people were fast deciding the question of ownership. 
 Congress now took up the nnitter in earnest. The 
 American people claimed the whole western territory, 
 and (he Democrats went into the ne.xt presidential cam- 
 paign with the alternative war-cry "Fifty-four, forty, 
 or tight," meaning that the parallel of 54° 40' must be 
 made the northern boundary. But the wiser men were 
 ready to compromise, and a treaty was made with 
 Great Britain in 1840. by which the forty ninth parallel 
 was made the tlividing line west of the Hocky 
 MounIaii:8. 
 
 20."). In 1842 an affair known as "Dorr's Rebellion" 
 oecurred in Rhode Island. Thestate was still governed 
 under the old colonial charter, and a party led by 
 Thomas Dorr was anxious to exchange it for a new 
 constilutiim giving greater power to the people. Dorr 
 assumed to be governor by the voles of his partisans; 
 the lawful governor, imder the charter, called for the 
 assistance of the United States, and civil war was im- 
 minent, when President Tyler sent troops into the 
 state to uphold the old government. Dorr was con- 
 victed of treason and sentenced to imiirisonment for 
 life, but he was soon pardoned, and a more liberal con- 
 stitution was afterward adopted. 
 
 200. Calhoun was steadily teaching the southern 
 states that their safety lay in the doctrine of state sov- 
 ereignty, and the slaveholders were beginning to think 
 that the union was not worth much to tliem unless it 
 protected the slave system. Meanwhile, a very dlirer- 
 eiit belief was becoming common in the north, which 
 was largely due to the influence of William IJoyd Gar- 
 rison, of Massachusetts. He had established a weekly 
 paper in 1831, called The lAheratur, which was dirvoted 
 to the entire and immediate abolition of African slavery 
 in America. Many others, men and women, came for- 
 ward to support him, and in KSii;! the National Anti- 
 Slavery Society had been formed, and its branches had 
 multiplied rapidly. The renewal of the slavery ques- 
 tion alarmed the southern people and also many of the 
 northern people, who considered an)' attack upon slav- 
 crj' dangerous to the peice of the union. From this 
 timedates Iheexistence of the party opposed to slavery 
 in the United Slates, at first known as abolitionists. 
 They did not, however, constitute a political party, but 
 as individuals kept up an incessant attack upon the 
 evil of slavery. They were persecuted in every way 
 possible, but every attempt to intimidate them only 
 g:\ve a new opportunity for the discussion of the rights 
 and wrongs of the slave. The slaveholders and tlieir 
 friends at the north declared that the aboliiionists were 
 destroying the peace of the country, and charged them 
 with inciting the slaves to insurrc'ction. Hence they 
 called upon all friends of the union to put them down. 
 Finally mob violence was reported to it Boston and 
 other northern cities to destroy aholili-in "rinting 
 
 presses, break up abolition meetings and silence aboli 
 lion orators. 
 
 207. These lawless outrages only served to fire the P"'^"''"""'*' 
 zeal of the abolitionists, anil they began to oiler peli- ^^""ercs.-*- 
 tions to Congress to aoolish slavery in the District of 
 Columbia, while the disseminalion of abolitionist books 
 
 and papers was greatly increased in every part of the 
 country. Congress in l.sii,") had resolved to lay all fut- 
 ure petitions on the subject of slavery up<m the table. 
 In 18;i6 the presidents message to Congress made indig- 
 nant reference to the practice of sending abolition doc- 
 uments through the United States mail. He recom- 
 mended a bill to i)rohibit the practice in futuie. Ac- 
 cor<lingly, a bill was introduced in Congress, jiroliibit- 
 ing any postmaster from knowingly imtling any aboli- 
 tion docuuienls or newspapers into the mails. TIh' bill 
 was rejected. The right of petition ims been a right 
 always held sacri'd by the people, and a champion for 
 this right appeared in .lolin (iuiney Adams, who had 
 been sent back to Washington as a representative from 
 his district in M:-.ssachusetls. He presented these jieti- 
 tions again and again. The slavery party refused to 
 admit them, and in consec|uence multitudes of [leople 
 at llie north were gaii"'d over to the anli slavery side. 
 
 208. The political parties had not yet openly divided 
 o'l the (|Uestion of slavery, but the opposition to the 
 Democratic party had become firmer, which resulted, 
 as has been shown, in the formation of the Whig party 
 (1830). Since Missouri had been admitted into the 
 union two other states had been formeil, Arkansas in ^'■'f^?"' 
 183(5 and Michigan in 1837. Half of the states were g|;;;. ""^ 
 now free states and half slave. But in population the 
 
 free states were rapidly gaining on the slave slates. 
 In 1830 they exceeded them by over a million; in 1840 
 the excess was nearly two and a half millions. More- 
 over, after the admission of Arkansas, Florida was the 
 only territory which could be admitted as a slave state, 
 whereas the north had still a vast space westward at 
 its command. To S(mlhern statesmen it seemed likely 
 that the north would prcsentlj' far exceed the south in 
 territory, population, wealth and political power and 
 would steadily gain a majority in the senate and the 
 house. It was, thi^efore, [irobable that before long the 
 norlh would come to control the action of Congress, 
 and might then try to abolish slavery. This the south 
 naturally dreaded, and this feeling of dread was inten- 
 sified and exasperated by the abolitionist agitation. 
 The only safeguard for the south seemed to be the ac- 
 quisition of fresh territory, and southern statesmen 
 looked for this to the great country of Texas, which 
 lay south of 3()° 30', was suited to the iustiiution of 
 slavery and was already occupied by many southerners. 
 
 209. Texas was originally a part of \he Spanish Am ■xMiiom 
 province of Mexico. In 1^21 M<'xico revolted from "'^ ''''"'■ 
 Spain, and formed a rejiublic moulded after the Unitetl 
 
 Stales. Like other Spanish stales in America it abol- 
 ished slavery. The south thus had for its neighbor a 
 free country hemming it in on the south and south- 
 west. Presidents John (^uincy Adams and .laekson 
 each bad made the attempt to buy Texas from Mexico, 
 but slie had refused to sell. Meanwhile emigration 
 h.id set in from the southwestern states, and many 
 Americans had made their home in Texas. The most 
 noted of these was General Sam Houston, the leader 
 of an adventurous set of men. At his instigation 
 Texas rebelled against Mexican rule, and, in the de- 
 cisive battle of San Jacinto (183()i, won her independ- 
 ence an<l set tip a government of her own wilh Hous- 
 ton at the head. Texas tlu-n applied for admission to 
 the union. The importance of such an addition was 
 seen at once. Out of this vast territory five states 
 could be formed. If slave states they would greatly 
 strenghen the slavery party. The whigs, under Web- 
 ster anil Clay, opposeil annexalitm on the ground that 
 it would bring on a war wilh Mexico, which had not 
 acknowledged the independence of Texas. The ques- 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 tion of annexation was hotly discussed in the presiden- 
 tial election of 1844. Van Buren, who had opposed 
 annexation, was rejected by the democratic party, and 
 James K. Polls, of Tennessee, who favored annexation, 
 was nominated. The whig candidate was Henry Clay; 
 and there was a third candidate, which decided the re- 
 sult of the election. The abolitionists had put forward 
 James Birney as a presidential candidate in 1840, who 
 had received very few votes. They now nominated 
 him again. A close and bitter contest followed. The 
 democratic party was committed to the annexation of 
 Texas, although the demand for the tariff of 1842, and 
 for "the whole of Oregtm or none, with or without 
 war with England" helped to gain votes. Nevertheless 
 the success of the Whigs seemed probable, until the 
 weakness of Clay's moral fibre ruined it. He wrote a 
 letter in which he tried to conciliate southern Demo 
 crats by saying that he would be "glad to see" the an- 
 nexation take place at some future time. By this 
 device he won no democratic votes, for Polk was a 
 warm advocate of annexation, but angered a great 
 many anti-slavery Whigs, who purposely threw away 
 on Birney their votes, by which means New York was 
 carried for Polk, and he was elected president. It was 
 the most closely contested election in the history of the 
 United States, except those of 1800, 1876 and 1884. The 
 result in fourteen of the twenty-six states was doubtful 
 for some days, and most of these chose Polk electors 
 by very slender majorities. In several of them the 
 small abolition vote would have turned the scale and 
 chosen Clay electors. Thus Polk was elected, and, in 
 December, 184.5, Texas was annexed by resolution of 
 Congress, and admitted into the imion (December, 
 1845) with the understanding that it might be hereafter 
 divided, so as to make several slave states. Florida 
 had already been admitted as a state in March of the 
 same year. In spite of the strong opposition to the 
 annexation by the anti-slavery party there was a gen- 
 eral feeling of pride that the country had acquired so 
 large an addition to its domain. Politicians in favor 
 of annexation did their best to draw the popular mind 
 away from the question of slavery, and to hold out 
 splendid prospects of the rapidly increasing United 
 States. Tbey began to aver that it was the "manifest 
 destiny" of the nation to possess the whole continent. 
 But the slavery question could not be held in abey- 
 ance. Wiih the election of Polk the north and south 
 were finally arrayed in opposition to each other. The 
 policy of the Democratic party now began to be shaped 
 chiefly by the adherents of Calhoun, the representa- 
 tives of slavery and nullification, though the latter 
 political heresy was not likely to be pushed to the 
 front so long as the control of the federal government 
 was in their hands; but the slavery question became 
 the "burning question" from that time on until it was 
 decided by the civil war. 
 Tie Mrxi- 210. When Texas was annexed to the United States, 
 CUM war. Mexico was so occupied with intestine dissensions and 
 revolution that her exhibition of resentment was atfirst 
 confined to a formal protest, and the withdrawal of her 
 minister from Washington. No aggressive movement 
 was made by her even when the United States troops 
 under General Taylor occupied the east bank of the 
 Nueces river, a part of the slate which Mexico insisted 
 had never belonged to Texas. In the meantime, in an- 
 ticipation of trouble, a naval expedition had been sent 
 by the American government to the gulf, DecemberSl, 
 
 1845, and an act passed extending the Uhited States 
 revenue system over the doubtful territory beyond the 
 Nueces river, to carry out which a revenue officer was 
 appointed to reside in the new district. Even then 
 Mexico did not institute hostilities, but expressed her 
 willingness to negotiate concerning the disputed terri- 
 tory between the Nueces and the Rio Grande. In March, 
 
 1846, General Taylor was ordered by the president to 
 advance from the J^"«^es to the Rio Grande, and oc- 
 
 cupy the debatable district. These measures, adopted 
 by the president, by which our troops crossed the 
 boundary claimed by Mexico, were considered by a 
 large portion of the people of the United States as im- 
 politic, if not unjust, and the occupation of a territory 
 by our troops, which at least was a subject of dispute, 
 was deemed by many a belligerent act. General 
 Ampudia so considered it, and notified the American 
 general to retire beyond the Nueces within twenty-four 
 hours. In April General Arista superseded Ampudia in 
 command, and communicated to Taylor that he con- 
 sidered hostilities commenced. Early in May Arista, 
 with 6 000 Mexicans, crossed the Rio "Grande, attacked. 
 General Taylor with his force of 2,300 at Palo Alto, and 
 was badly defeated. The next day Taylor assunied the 
 offensive, attacked Arista at Resaca de la Palma, and 
 compelli'd him to retreat in haste across the Rio Giande. 
 
 811. The United States government, bef^ •re it could War 
 hear of these actions, declared war again? t Mexico '''^'^''"'^''• 
 (May 13, 1846), and called for 50,000 vokinii-ei-s. Mex- 
 ico likewise declared war against the United Slates for 
 interfering in her affairs with Texas. Soon after the 
 declaration of war. Colonel Stephen W. Kearnej' was 
 ordered to lead an expedition into New Mexico for the E.tpcditioi 
 purpose of separating that province from Mexico. jjj.jip™ 
 Leaving Bent's Fort, he followed what was known as 
 the Santa Fe trail, along the Arkansas river, across the 
 Colorado mountains to the Rio Grande, and down that 
 river to Santa Fe. Here he took possession of tlie coun- 
 try in the name of the United States, declaring New 
 Mexico a territory of the Union, and left a governor 
 and some troops. Then he set off for California, to 
 carry out the same design of separating a Mexican 
 province from t"e Republic of Mexico and attaching it 
 to the United States. Before war was declared Captain 
 
 John C. Fremont was sent on an exploring expedition J^''^'?""''" 
 . ^ ,.,, . ,-, 1 i, ^1 1 ,. California, 
 
 to California. Some vessels of the navy also were sent 
 
 to the Pacific coast to be in readiness. The United 
 
 States had reason to think that England would make an 
 
 excuse of the Mexican troubles to set up a claim to 
 
 California. Fremont and his men. aided by oflicers of 
 
 the navy with marines, made no delay when they 
 
 learned that war was in progress. They easily took 
 
 possession of one village after another. They expelled 
 
 the Mexican soldiers, and finally seized Monterey, the 
 
 capital of the province. There were a number of 
 
 American settlers there, who pioceeded to declare the 
 
 independence of California and organize a government. 
 
 212. When Colonel Kearney left Santa Fe, he ordered J'^'j^ftf^',',* 
 Colonel Doniphan, with about a thousand volunteers, 
 
 to chastise the Navajo Indians. Having performed 
 this duty and compelled the savages to make a treaty 
 of peace, Doniphan marched a thousand miles to join 
 the army in Mexico. At B.'-acito, December 25, 1846, 
 he defeated a large force of Mexicans, and near Chihua- 
 hua, Fcburary 28, gained a decided victory over an 
 army four times as lartre as his own. Finally he reached 
 General Wool, at Saltillo. May 22, after a march which 
 is considered as one of the most brilliant exploits of the 
 war. 
 
 213. In the meantime Taylor had conquered the 
 northern portion of Mexico; while Scott, landing at 
 Vera Cru?;, advanced and captured the City of Mexico. 
 The United States soldiers were victorious over the 
 Mexicans wherever they came into conflict, and what- 
 soever the disparity of numbers, as instanced in 
 Doniphan's victory; while at Buena Vista, February 
 23, 1847, Taylor routed a Mexican army more than four 
 times greater than his own. To the student of history 
 the Mexican war will have great interest, as having 
 been the school in which most of our great generals, 
 who made their mark in the civil war, received their 
 practical training. The capture of the City of Mexico 
 (September 14, 1847), put an end to the war. A treaty 
 was entered into with Mexico, by which the Rio Grande 
 was made the southwestern boundary of the United 
 
UNIT E D S ^r A T E S 
 
 States, ami the Gila river llie northern bouiuliuv of 
 Mexico. The United States paid Mexico $1.5.0UO",000 
 for the territory which was thus added to its domain, 
 e.xchisiveiif Texas. Five years later, the United States 
 houfili*. the Mesilla valley, s 'iilh of the (ilia river, for 
 $10.000,1100. General .lames Gadsden was the agent in 
 this purchase. liy thevc two cessions Mexico trans- 
 ferred lo the United States the country now comprised 
 in California, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and parts of 
 Wyomitiir, Colorado, Kansas, and New Mexico. 
 
 214. Tills immense aciiuisiition of territory, though 
 a fortun.ite one in many respects, had an immediate ef- 
 fect upon American politics far more disturl)ing than 
 anything; which had occurred since l!^-0. The general 
 sentiments of the anti>lavcry party had been opposed 
 to the war, and these sentiments had been fully set 
 forth in a series of remarkable political poems entitled, 
 Tho Hiu- "The JJiglow Papers, " by James Hussell Lowell. The 
 '<>"' f''P'^'* sectional strife which hud been allayed for the time 
 being by the Missouri Compromise, now began to be 
 renewed. In the new territory accpiired from Mi^xico, 
 slavery had been forbidden by the Mexican law, and 
 the north desired this prohibition kept in force, but the 
 south opposed the idea. It was pro|)osed by some, as 
 the simplest johition or the difliculty. to prolong the 
 Missouri Compromise line from the Hocky mountains to 
 the Pacliic. b\i* neither party was willing to give up so 
 much to theother. The increased opposition to slavery 
 in the north had created an increased obstinacy in the 
 south, so it was rapidly becoming a dilflcult thing to 
 effect compromises between the two sections. In 1846, 
 David Wilmot, a Democratic member of the house, 
 from Pennsylvania, offered an additiim to abill, making 
 appropriations for the purchase of the Mexican terri- 
 Tlie tory. This addition W!is the celebrated " Wilmot Pro- 
 
 Proviso '"SO," applying to any newly acipiired territory the 
 provision of the ordinance of 1787, ' that neither sla- 
 very nor involuntary servitude shall ever exist in any 
 part of said territory, except for crime, whereof the 
 parly shall be first duly convicted." The Whigs and 
 northern Democrats united in favor of the proviso, and 
 it passed the house, but was sent to the senate too late to 
 be acted upon. 
 
 2' 5. in the same j'ear that peace was made with 
 Mexico (1848) came the presidential election. Several 
 efforts had been made to pass the Wilmot Proviso, but 
 without success, bui it called into existence the Free 
 Soil party, formed by the union of anti-slavery Dem- 
 ocrats and Whigs with the Abolitionists. As a com- 
 promise between the advocates and opi)onents of the 
 extension of slavery, a bill had been passed by the 
 senate establishing territorial government;: in Oregon, 
 New Me.\ico and California, with a provision that 
 all questions concerning slavery in those territories 
 should be referred to the United States supreme court 
 for decision. It was voted for by members from the 
 slave states, but lost in the house. A bill was then 
 passed in the house, by a sectional vote, to organize 
 the territory of Oregon, without slavery. This was 
 passed by the senate with an amendment declaring that 
 the Missouri Compromise Line extended to the Pacific 
 ocean. The amendment was rejected by the house, 
 again by p sectional vote, and, the senate withdrawing, 
 the bill passed. 
 
 216. The Whig National Convention met at Phila- 
 delphia, June 7, 1848, and nominated Zachary Taylor, 
 of Louisiana, and Millard Fillmore, of New York. No 
 platform was adopted, and resolutions affirming the 
 Wilmot Proviso as a party princi|)le were repeatedly 
 voted down. The Democratic National Convention 
 met at Baltimore. May 22. It reviveil the strie' con- 
 structionist platform of 1840 and 1S44, and nominated 
 Lewis Cass, of Michigan, and William O Huiler. of 
 KeJtucky. The National Convention of Frie Soilers 
 met at Buffalo, August 9. It adopted a platform de- 
 claring that Congress had no more power to make a 
 
 slave than to make a king, and that there should be no 
 more slave states and no more slave territories. It 
 nominated Martin Van Buren, of New York, and 
 Charles Francis Adams, of JIassachusetts. The Free 
 Soilers decided the election by drawing the Democratic 
 vote from New Y'ork. and so Tuylor became president. 
 He was brave, honest and shrewd, and by far the ablest 
 president betwe<;n Jackson and Lincoln. Though a 
 Louisiana slaveholder, he was unflinching in his devo- 
 tion to the union. 
 
 217. The leading political struggle during Taylor's Califoral*. 
 adiiiinistration related chietly to the admission of Cal- 
 ifornia as a state in the union. Texas was the last 
 
 slave state. The tide of emigration was moving 
 steadily westward and northwestward. In 1840 Iowa 
 was admitted into the union, and in 1848 Wisconsin. 
 While the representatives of the people in Congress 
 were strnggling with the question of free or slave ter- 
 ritory, the people themselves were rapidly increasing 
 the influence of the free states. In the yenr that Cal- 
 ifornia became the properly of the United States (1848) 
 golil was discovered in the valley of the S tcramento, 
 and a very hasty exploration showed that there was an 
 immense deposit of the precious metal in the newly 
 acquired territory. The news spread all over the 
 world and immediately there followed a great rush to 
 the gold region. In a little over a year the iiopulpiion 
 had become large enough to entitle it to admission to 
 the union, and there was need of a strong government 
 to keep in check the numerous hordes of rullians who 
 had Hocked in along with honest people. President 
 Taylor was eager to bring California into the union 
 before the question of slavery in that territory sluuild 
 be discussed in Congress. He urged the peojile to call 
 a convention and organize a state. Tliey did this 
 (1849), and since they were almost wholly from the 
 north, they framed a constituticm |irohibiting slavery, 
 andapplied foradmission. Thesouth earnestly opposed 
 the admission of California as a free state, and the 
 extreme southern party even took soine steps toward 
 secession. The debates were conducted on both sides 
 with great bitterness. 
 
 218. The controversy went on for a year, until it was 
 settled by a group of compromise measures devioed by 
 Clay, who thirty years before had succeeded so well 
 
 with his Missouri Compromise. He proposed that clay'B corn- 
 California should be admitted as a free slate ; that any i'rciiiiscB. 
 new slates properly formed from Texas should also be 
 admitted; that the territories of New Mexico and Utah 
 should be organized without the Wilmot I'roviso (/. e., 
 with squatter sovereignty, by which the people of 
 each leiritory were left free to settle the (juestion of 
 ihe existence of slavery for themselves); that the slave 
 trade should be abolished in the District of Cohunbia, 
 and especially that a more rigid fugitive slave law tiic 
 should be enacted. The constitution expressly gave to fugitive 
 slave-holders the right to' recover their slaves if they "'""^ '*"• 
 escaped into another state, but the increasing hostility 
 of the people in Ihe free states to the slavery system 
 made it extremely difficult for slaveholders to find and 
 recover runaway slaves when they had escaped into 
 the northern states. This matter was one of great 
 irritation to the southerners. They complained that they 
 were deprived of their rights in direct opposition to 
 the constitution. The new fugitive slave law was 
 therefore so drawn as lo require the arrest, by United 
 States officers, of fugitive slaves in the northern slates, 
 and it also gave the officers the rii,'bt to call upon any 
 citizen to help them in their seiircb and capture. The 
 law also impossed penalties on all rescuers and denied 
 them a jury trial. 
 
 219. W<'hster gave his support to the Compromise of '^5'!^!',°' 
 1850. Like many others, he viewed with alarm the [ " '^""'" 
 growing dinsensions between the two sections of the 
 country. He worked with all his might to preserve 
 the Union against the attacks of th" extreme pro- 
 
 , tlic- coni- 
 I)rorai8e. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 Personal 
 
 liberty 
 
 laws. 
 
 Fillmore 
 preeident. 
 
 Develop- 
 ment of the 
 country. 
 
 The 
 telegraph. 
 
 Onvern- 
 ment ex- 
 peditions. 
 
 slavery men on the one hand and of the Abolitionists 
 on the other. California was admitted to the union, 
 and the fugitive slave law was passed. Instead of 
 bringing quiet, as the Missouri Compromise hau done, 
 the Cornpromise of 1850 was the beginning of a more 
 bitter and deadly strife. Perhaps the most important 
 feature of the Compromi.se, in its bearing upon future 
 events, was the fugitive slave law. The cruelties 
 attending its execution aroused the fierce indignation 
 of the north. The disgust and horror felt toward it 
 caused the passage, by some northern legislatures, of 
 "personal liberty laws," intended to protect free 
 negroes falsely alleged to be fugitive slaves. During 
 the discussion of Clay's Compromise Bill of 1850, 
 President Taylor died after a very short illness (July 9, 
 1850), and- Vice-President Fillrauie succeeded to the 
 vacaut office. He enforced the Compromise Act im- 
 partially, but the fugitive slave law was often evaded 
 and sometimes forcibly resisted. It strenglhened 
 the anti-slavery party in the free states, while the 
 agitation of the question of the morality and wisdom 
 of slavery was hotly resented at the south. 
 
 220. It was now the middle of the century, and the 
 unioti seem':d fidl of prosperity. So various had the 
 interests of the people become that a new department 
 in the administration had been created (1849) called the 
 department of the interior, and comprised a number of 
 ofBces bke the census office, patent othce, land office, 
 and bureau of Indian affairs, all of which had for- 
 merly been scattered among the other departments. The 
 secretary of this department was made a member of 
 the cabinet. During Mr. Fillmore's administration 
 postage was reduced, so that an ordmary letter could 
 be sent to any jilace in the country for three cents. 
 Before that it h;id cost ten cents to send a letter from 
 Phd.idelphia to Boston. At once the number of letters 
 transmitted through the mails was wonderfully in- 
 creased. The extinction of Indian titles in northern 
 Michigan brought about the discovery of the great 
 copper mines of that region, whose existence had long 
 been suspected before "it could be proved. Railroads 
 in the e.ist were beginning to show something of a 
 connected system, and the increase of railways in the 
 west made it possible for the great farms to send grain 
 and other provisions to the city very cheaply. Rail- 
 roads in the south had hardly changed since 1840. In 
 1840 Samuel F. B. Morse, an American artist, had re- 
 ceived a patent for an electric telegraph apparatus, and 
 four years later he sent his first dispatch over the wires 
 from Baltimore to Washington. This practical proof 
 of the power of the telegraph was followed by a rapid 
 extension of lines in every direction. 
 
 221. Several expeditions were ordered by government 
 to gain a better knowledge of the national domain. In 
 18-18, and again in 18.52 and 1853, Captain John C. 
 Fremont was sent out with exploring parlies to the 
 Rocky Mountains. The discoveries which he made, 
 and the new importance of California since the dis- 
 covery of gold there, induced the government to make 
 more can-ful surveys. The war department undertook 
 one to determine the most practicable and economical 
 route for a railroad from the Mississippi ri"er to the 
 Pacific ocean. Captain Wilkes was sent to the Pacific 
 Ocean, where he explored the Antarctic continent; an 
 expedition under Lieutenant Lynch explored the valley 
 of "the Jordan and the Dead Sea; and Commodore Perry 
 was sent with a fleet to Japan, a country which had 
 heretofore been almost unknown to Europe and to 
 America. 
 
 222. Between the east and the west railroads were 
 growing busier. Towns and cities sprang up along their 
 routes, and where a new and fertile district was found 
 the settlers did not rest until they had a railway for the 
 transportation of their produce; and very often the 
 railroad itself was the pioneer of a new territory, 
 being followed by the people who made claims along 
 
 its route. Ships and steamers were constantly crossing 
 the Atlantic. Improvements were made by American 
 shipbuilders in the construction of sailing vessels and 
 the clippers, as they were called, were built, which were 
 able to sail with a good wind almost as swiftly as 
 steamers. The increased development of wealth in the 
 country gave a fresh impetus to the spirit of invention. Inventions. 
 McCormick invented his reaping machine, and obtained 
 a patent for it in 1834. Its results have been hardly 
 less in importance to the United States than the inven- 
 tion of the locomotive. Since then agricultural machines 
 and implements have rapidly increased. It was agri- 
 cultural machines that made the western farms profit- 
 able, and enabled the railroads to fill the west so 
 rapidly with popul, ion. Friction matches had come 
 into use, and anthracite coal was now exten«'ve)y used 
 both in raanufaclures and locomotion. In 1839 Good- 
 year had devised his method of vulcanizint; india- 
 rubber. In 1840 came the sewing machine, the power- 
 loom, and the use of anresthetics in surgical practice. 
 The rotary printing press was invented in 1847. 
 
 223. During this rapid change in all the conditions of 
 life, it was not strange that there should be a cor- 
 responding change in the minds of men, and that their 
 ideas should become somewhat unsettled. Hence 
 transcendentalism in religion, literature and poliiics 
 began to flourish; visionary proposals of every kind 
 were made; new communities were established, and 
 new sects sprang up. In 1830 Joseph Smith had 
 declared that he had received a revelation fnim God 
 which was contained in a book called The Book of 'J'j'jj^jjjQjjg 
 Mormon. He formed a society of men and women ' 
 
 who were his disciples, and called themselves Mormons, 
 and they made a settlement in Missouri. In 1838, 
 Smith, with his followers, was driven away to Nauvoo, 
 in Illinois. Ten years later. Smith was killed, and the 
 Mormons, under Brigham Young, removed beyond the 
 western frontier, and settled on the broad plain about 
 Great Salt Lake, in the new Territory of Utah. Their 
 missionaries traveled in the older slates and in Europe, 
 making converts, and bringing them to the new Mor- 
 mon home. They offered to people who were dison- 
 tented, and to the hard-worked poor, a land of promise 
 and plenty. They appealed to religious people, and 
 declared that God was with them, as He had been with 
 the Jews of old. Salt Lake City was founded, and 
 became their capital. Sincethen, having rapidly increased 
 in wealth and population, they have now beo<-ime a dan- 
 gerous factor in the American system. Their peculiar 
 tenets, which consist mainly in their polygamy and 
 submission to their sacred hierarchy, have rendered it 
 impossible to admit them as a State into the Union, 
 while their numbers are so great that it is contrary to 
 American instincts to deprive them of the right of self- 
 government, and keep them under the power of Con- 
 gress. A solution of the vexing question may soon be 
 reached by the increasing enforcement of the United 
 States laws against polygamy. 
 
 224. About the middle of the century, the American Education 
 methods of education were greatly improved, and j^j'^'^^.^j^j^.^ 
 American literature began to attract the world's atten- 
 tion. There were publication societies formed by the 
 churches, which multiplied books, papers and tracts 
 without ntunber, and these found their way to remote 
 villages and homes. Educational societies helped 
 establish schools and colleges in the thinly settled 
 
 parts of the country. There was a Colonization Society, 
 which tried to answer some of the difficult questions of 
 slavery by sending free blacks to Liberia, in Africa. 
 This was the time when the lyceum system became 
 popidar. In the cities and towns courses of lectures 
 were instituted, and the la'est thoughts in science, art, 
 literature, politics and philosophy, were given to the 
 people. The newspaper had become a national insti- News- 
 tulion, and was a familiar visiter to the great majority P"?^"- 
 of f amili-s of the republic. There were daily papers 
 
U N 11^ E I) S ^1^ A T E S 
 
 in all the cities and towns, and in many papers the con- 
 tents of books were published, aside from the general 
 news and topics which interested the country. Amer- 
 ican authors were taking their place among the great 
 
 Aimrirun men of the ages in the realm of letters. Before 1830, 
 
 anihore. ;, Bryant, Irving and Cooper, had become distinguished. 
 In 1S47, Edgar Allan Poe, the most imaginative of Amer- 
 ican poets, had died. In l!Sr)(), Wasliitiglon Irving had 
 written idl his works except his Life of Washington. 
 The poems bj' which William Culleu Bryant is best 
 known had been wrillea and given to the world. 
 James Fenimore Cooper died the iie.\t year, leaving 
 behind him a long list of novels, the best of which 
 were descripiive of American life. Then came Long- 
 fellow. Whittier. XJawthurne. Holmes. Bancroft, I'res- 
 cott and Emerson. The Scarlet Letter had been given 
 to the public, which made ilawlhorne famous. lx)ng- 
 felluw had published Evangeline, and many of his 
 most popular poems. Whittier had become celebrated 
 as a poei; Oliver Wendell Holmes, as a poet and wit, 
 William Gilmorc Simms. as a novelist; Ralph Waldo 
 Emerson had become known by his essays as one of 
 the great masters of English prose; .James Russell 
 Lowell, poet and satirist, h.id issued his Biglow Papers, 
 which helped people to understand the meaning of the 
 Mexican war, while they laughed over the verses. 
 And besides these, there were many others who 
 assisted in raising the standard of American literature, 
 and niakmg it a distinct voice of the nation. 
 
 225. All these things — churches, lyceums, public 
 meetings, societies, newspapers and books, hau their 
 inlluence in shaping public opinion ; and as they 
 increased, more earnest grew the discussicra of the 
 slavery question. About this time, when the adminis- 
 tration of Fillmore was coming to an end, a book was 
 brought out which had an enormous sale, and was 
 translated into all the literary languages of the world. 
 
 Cnclo This book was "Uncle Tom's Cabin." written by Mrs. 
 
 rab"' Harriet Beecher Stowe, and it was for the time more 
 widely read throughout the world than any other book. 
 It was a story claiming to show what negro slavery 
 really was, and what it meant in the lives of 
 men and women, white and black, in the Southern 
 Stales of the Union. The book was candidly written, 
 and in a wonderful spiiit of fairness, rather understat- 
 ing than exaggerating the evils of slavery, and its truths 
 were all the more convincing for that reason. Its 
 influence was doubtless very great in strengthening the 
 anti-slavery feelini; at the north, and in llually extin- 
 guishing the disturbing evil of the country. 
 
 VII. — THE APPROACHING CONFLICT. 
 
 Conven 220. June 1, K't'2. the Democratic National Conven- 
 
 tinnH of tional met at Baltimore. Its platform included the 
 "*^- strict constructionist platforms of former conventions, 
 
 endorsed the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions of 
 1798, and pledged the Democratic party to a faithful 
 observance of the compromise of 1.S50, including the 
 Fugitive Slave Law, and denounced all agitatation of 
 the slavery question. It nominated Franklin Pierce, of 
 New Hampshire, and William R. King, of Alabama. 
 The Whig National Convention met June 16 at Balti- 
 more. In its platform it adopted its usual loose con- 
 structionist principles, though somewhat more cau- 
 tiously ■ worded than formerly, and endorsed the 
 compromise of 18.")l) and the J''ugitive t^lave Law. It 
 nominated Wintield Scott, of Virginia, and William A. 
 Graham, of North Carolina. The Free Soil Democratic 
 Convention convened at Pittsburgh August II. In its 
 platform it declared slavery to be a s'n against God and 
 a crime against man, and denounced the compromise of 
 1850, and the two parties who supported it. It nomin- 
 ated John P. Hale, of New Hampshire, and George W. 
 Julian, of Indiana. Some of the Whigs, dissatisfied 
 with General Scott, wished to bring forward Daniel 
 Webster a.s an independent candidate, but Mr. V\^'bster 
 
 died in October of that year. Henry Clay had also 
 died in June of the same year. The.se two great 
 leaders of the Whig parly were succeeded by such men 
 as Sumuer, Seward and Chase, avowed enemies of 
 slavery. John (;. Calhoun was also dead, and Jefferson 
 Davis, afterwards to play such an important jiart in 
 the nation's Instory, acquired the leadership of the 
 slave-holders of the south. 
 
 227. The slavery question was the principal issue in 
 the presidential election in Novemlier, 1852, and in the 
 contest the AVliigs met with a crushing defeat, which 
 put an eiul to their parly. Wlien the electoral votej 
 were counted in February, 18.");), it was found that 
 Pierce and King had received 254, and Scott and Gra- 
 ham only 42. Mr. Pierces administration (185;i-57) was PiiTre's 
 chiefly occupied with the slavery dispute, in which he uii'niuistra- 
 repre.seuted the policy of the southern party. He chose """' 
 William L. Marcy for secretary of state, James Guihrie 
 for secretary of the treasury, Jefferson Davis for secre- 
 tary of War, and Caleb Gushing for attorney-general. 
 
 2iS. The slave power was now at a loss what to do The plave 
 for new tirritory in which to extend itself. The north pi'wer. 
 had already a preponderance in the senate, coiiseijuent 
 upon the admission of California, and, from the rapid 
 growth of the northwestern states, in whieli New Eng- 
 land ideas and sentiments were becoming jiredominant, 
 the southern leaders recognized the fact tliat crc long 
 the north would hold the power in the house. W(-b- 
 ster had shown, in his memorable speech of March 7, 
 1850, that there was no more territory forslavcry within 
 the limits of the union. What, then, were the south- 
 ern stales to do? It seemed absolutely necessary at 
 once to get a new slave state to balance California, but 
 the available land south of 36° 30^ was already occu- 
 pied. New Mexico and the Indian Territory south of Ar- 
 kansas presented themselves, but the westward move- 
 ment of population along these lines would be far too 
 slow for their purpose. 
 
 229. Seeing no legitimate method to acquire terri- 
 tory, their former plan was repeated, if not by the 
 southern states themselves, certainly under the in.sliga- 
 tion of many of their citizens, and by members of the 
 state rights party of the south, and for their advantage; 
 for it was precisely at this period that William Walker, 
 of Tennessee, the notorio'ua filibuster, undertook to Filiijuster- 
 snatch Sonora for the south from Mexico, exactly as '"'"'■ 
 his predecessors had douc with Texas. But he failed. 
 In 1855, he and his baud made the same experiment in 
 Nicaragua. Here, for a time, he was successful. He 
 overturned the lawful government, made himself pres- 
 ident, and almost made the state in readiness for slav- 
 ery and annexation to the federal government. But he 
 was subsequently driven out, after which he returned 
 home greatly disappointed and mortified. After two 
 more unsuccessful attempts on Nicaragua, he planned 
 his fifth and last expedition against Honduras. He 
 was encouraged and assi-led by his southern friends; 
 mass meetings of his supporters were held even in New 
 York, and in many other northern cities; and the stale 
 sovereignty party everywhere ap;)lauded his efforts to 
 revolutionize and wrong a state. But Walker failed 
 more fatally this time. He was defeated, captured and 
 shot. 
 
 230 Having been foiled in the attempt to gain aftiba. 
 foothold in Central America, the slave power now 
 turned to another state as offering a solution of their 
 difficulties. The soiuhern stales wished to annex Cuba. 
 Mr. Pierce proposed to buy it, and at his suggestion a 
 conference was held at Ostend, in Belgium (1854) be- 
 tween the American ministers to Spain. England and 
 France, Messrs. Pierre Souli, James Buchanan and 
 John V. Mason to consider the question. A memoran- 
 dum drawn up by these gentlemen and submitted to 
 the president, is known as the Ostend Manifesto. It <i^'<'n<l 
 declared that Cuba was necessary to the United States; """'1™*°- 
 that it was the duty of this country to prevent the 
 
UITITED STATES 
 
 emancipation of slaves in the island; and that if Spain 
 refused to sell Cuba, the United .States would be justi- 
 fied in taking it from her by force. This declaration 
 caused great indignation in the north. Nothing, how- 
 ever, came of it. 
 Teiideiirii's 331 Meanwhile, the tendencies to disunion were be- 
 to '^QDiou^pjj^jijg gjj.^_ijjggj.^ Texas, the last slave State ever ad- 
 mitted, had refused to be divided, hence the South 
 could hope for no further increase of numbers. After 
 1850, the political power had passed out of the hands 
 of the south. The free states now, by uniting, could 
 control both houses of Congress, elect the president 
 and vice president, dictate the appoiulment of judges 
 and other federal officers, and make what laws they 
 pleasid. Thus the interests of the south depended 
 upon the one question whether the frte states would 
 thus unite or not. Under circumstances so critical it 
 were belter for the slave power that all questions call- 
 ing inihlic attention to the question of slavery should 
 be avoided ; this, however, was simply impossible. The 
 numbiTs interested in its solution had become too great 
 to be silenceii. It was the question of the hour, dis- 
 cussed in all ranks of society, breaking up party lines, 
 and even disorganizing ecclesiastical institutions. The 
 Protestant church organizations of the United States 
 had been greatly agitated by the irrepressible question, 
 and some of them became divided. In 1845, the Bap- 
 tist church separated into a northern and southern 
 branch, and the Methodist church shared the same fate 
 the following j'ear. The Presbyterian church man- 
 aged to maintain its integrity until 1861, when it also 
 yielded to the pressure ; and the only churches retain- 
 ing their national character were the Episcepal and 
 Romnn Catholic. 
 Kan?aa- 232. The southern leaders, strongly desirous of 
 
 ^_r^)raska ac(]uiiing more territory in which to extend slavery, 
 now concocted a seemingly practicable scheme to get 
 control of that part of the country lying west of Mis- 
 souri and Iowa. This land lay to the north of 86° 80\ 
 and according to the terms of the Missouri compromise, 
 was f<irever to be free soil. A plan was devised to 
 obtain if possible, the repeal of that celebrated com- 
 pact. With the aid of some of the northern members 
 of (Congress this might be done. The scheme proved 
 puccessful so far as legislation could go. In December, 
 1853. a bill was introduced in the senate to organize 
 the territory of Nebraska. A southern senator at once 
 arose and demanded that the Missouri compromise 
 should not be so construed as to prohibit slavery within 
 the new territory. The bill was at once dropped. But 
 a sufHeient number of free state Democrats soon ac- 
 quiesced in the southern demand to make it a success. 
 One week later a new bill was brought in, known as 
 the Kansas-Nebraska bill. It divided the region 
 covered by the previous Nebraska bill into two terri- 
 tories, one directly west of Missouri, and between the 
 parallels of 37° and 40°, to be called Kansas, and the 
 other north of this and between the parallels 40° and 
 43°, to be called Nebraska. Thus two slates were 
 opened to the southern institution, instead of one, for 
 this new bill distinctly declared that the Missouri 
 Compromise had been swept away by the later com- 
 promise of 18.50. Presiilent Pierce had pledged him- 
 self to the south, in his letter accepting his nominatinn, 
 to acknowledge and execute this latest bargain with 
 slavery, in case he should be elected. 
 SquaiiiT 233. The bill was enacted, but the position was now 
 KovtT- assumed, that Congress hail no authority to vote slavery 
 iit, or lo vote it out of either of these territories, since it 
 belonged of natural right to their respective populations 
 to decide for themselves the character of their own in- 
 stitutions. This idea was known as that of squatter 
 sovereignty, and it was proclaimed iu order to open 
 Kansas to an iminediate slave immigration from Mis- 
 souri, while Nebraska might afterward be captured in 
 the same way from slaveholding Kansas. It was a 
 
 elgnty. 
 
 plausible doctrine, because it appealed to that strong 
 love of local self-government which has always been 
 one of the soundest political instincts of the American 
 people. The plan was an astute one. It originated 
 with Stephen A. Douglass, a northern Democrat, and 
 laid bare the finest region of country which opened up for 
 settlement, as a battle-irround between the slave-labor 
 and the free-labor systems. 
 
 234. This act was the most palpable blunder ever 
 known in the history of American politics. Its practi- 
 cal result was to create a furious rivalry between north 
 and south, as to which should first get settlers enough 
 in Kansas to secure a majority of the popular vote. The 
 issue, thus clearly defined, wrought a new division be- 
 tween political parties. The southern Democrats and 
 southern Whigs united infavorof the Kansas-Nebraska 
 bill, while the northern Whigs and Free-Soilers united 
 against it. The division between the northern and 
 southern Whigs was final. The northern section at once 
 repudiated their old party name, and combining with all 
 the northern men who were opposed to the extension of 
 slavery took the name of anti-Nebraska men, and sue- Anti-Ne- 
 ceeded in electing a majority of the hous ; of represen- "'*'"' "'' 
 tatives. A new party had arisen in 1852, which was 
 
 now an important factor in American politics. It as- 
 sumed the form of a secret oath-bound organization, of 
 whose name, nature and objects, nothing was told, even 
 to its members until they had reached its higher de- 
 grees. Their consequent declaration that they knew 
 nothing about it gave the society its pojHilar name of 
 "Know-Nothings," but it assumed the name of the 
 "American party." Its design was to oppose the intln- The Anicri- 
 ence of the Roman Catholic church, the easy naturali- ^''" ''" 
 zation of foreigners, and to aid the election of native- 
 born citizens to office. Its nominations were made by 
 secret conventions of delegates from the various lodges, 
 and its nominees were to be voted for by all its members 
 under penalty of expulsion in case of refusal. For a 
 time it was quite successful in state elections, and was 
 now aiming at a greater extension of its influence. At 
 first it had intended to ignore the slavery question, but 
 after a few years of existence the complications arising 
 from the discussion of this subject affected its organi- 
 zation and resulted in its division. 
 
 235. The old Whig party disappeared about this 
 time. Some of its members joined the American 
 party, and the majority, including the old anti- 
 slavery men and Free Soikrs, with matiy others, 
 
 united under the name of the Kepublican party. Tlie Rt-pub- 
 The natne was at once recognized by the Democrats, ^''^'"' P'"''^- 
 who, in contempt, called them " Black Republicans," 
 because of their alleged fondness for negroes. The 
 Democratic party, which had been practically the only 
 party since 1852, had now to contend with a political 
 organization which adopted broad C'inslructionist prin- 
 ciples, declared itself in favor of protective tariff, in- 
 ternal improvements and a national systemof baukcur- 
 rency, and addi d to them the further priiicijile that the 
 Federal government has the power 10 control slavery in 
 the territories. It affirmed, at tJr^t, tliat it had no de- 
 sign to interfere with the institution of slavery in the 
 slates where it belonged, but siinplyinlended toexeUide 
 it from the territories. But with the eiuineiation of its 
 fundamental principles it was at once recognized tiS an 
 anti-slavery piirly. and theonlj' one to which tUe south- 
 ern slave could look with the faintest hope of aid In 
 throwing off the chains of bondage. The Democratic 
 party had cpiile thrown aside its original title — that of 
 Republican — but the name was still popular, and the 
 new party, by a skillful stroke of policy, took advantage 
 of this feelinij and assumed the old name. Thus, in 
 1856, the two great parties, which were to figure so 
 largely for the next thirty years iu the history of the 
 country, were arrayed against each other. 
 
 236. "The attention of the whole country had now |^,7ff ™t 
 been turned to the struggle provoked by the Kansas- Kansas. 
 
UNI T E D S T A T E S 
 
 Nebraska Mil. and llio repeal of the Missouri Com- 
 promise. Kansas had been offered as a prize to be 
 contended for by free and slave slates, and both had 
 accepted the coni'st. As in the case of California, it 
 ■was found a slow work to colonize the new territory, 
 even from Mi>souri, by permanent settlers, for the 
 people of that slate had land enough of their own, 
 still unoccupied, to absorb for years their surplus 
 population. The only recourse, therefore, was to send 
 their worst inhabitants across the border, not to settle, 
 but to vote and tiijbt for slavery. Consecjuently gaujrs 
 of "border ruffians" poured into Kansas from Missouri 
 and Arkansas. But the free slates were not behind in 
 a struggle. Anti-slavery societies subscribed money to 
 hasten iinraigralion into the contested territory, and 
 people from the free states migrated thiiher in such 
 numbers that in a few months they consiilutcd a de- 
 cided and biwful majority of the actual settlers. The 
 admiuislraiion took alarm at the ill success of its own 
 plans. Jlany of the inhabitants of Missouri undertook 
 to impede the passage of northern emigranls through 
 their state, but the immigrants circumvented them by 
 winding their way around through the free state of 
 lowii. In the nieanlime the govirnment sent an army 
 to Kansas, professedly to keep the peace, but it would 
 seem in realitj' to compel the acci'ptance and (stablisli- 
 ment of slavery. The first election of a delegate to 
 Congress took place November 2!), liS.54. and was carried 
 by organized bands from Missouri, who crossed the 
 border on election day, voted, and returned at once. 
 In the spring of 185.5, the ruHians in tliis way voted to 
 organize a territorial legislature, and this measure was 
 carried in the same lawless manner. In July, 1855, 
 this le.'islature, all pro-slavery, met at Pawnee, and 
 adopted a stale constitution. To save tnmble, as well 
 as to secure at once the establishment of slavery, they 
 took a summary vote, adopting in their entirety the 
 laws of slaveholding Missouri. At the same lime they 
 enacted a set of original statutes, which denounced 
 the penalty of death for nearly 50 ditTerent offences 
 against the institution of human bondage. 
 Free-state 237. To defend themselves against these illegal pro- 
 govern- ceedings, the actual settlers held a free-slate conven- 
 ""'"'■ lion at Topeka, September 5, 1855. rei>udialitig the 
 
 work of the pro-slavery parly; and on January 15, 185G, 
 they elected state officers under the lawful constitution. 
 Nine days afterwards, the state-rights president, in a 
 special message to Congress, endorsed the pro-slavery 
 legislature, and pronounced the attemiit to form a free- 
 state government, without the approval of the Federal 
 authorities in the territory, to be an act of rebellion. 
 He then issued a proclamation warning all persons 
 against such acts of resistance to the lawfid govern- 
 ment, and despatched another body of troops to enforce 
 the constitution of the border rulfians. The struggle 
 continued unabated. In the senate-chamlier Charles 
 Sninnei Sumner had been stricken to the floor with a bludgeon 
 and Brooks and nearly murdered by Brooks, in the presence of 
 several southern and unresisting senators, for daring to 
 criticise these unjust and one-siiled proceedings. Brooks 
 was expelled by northern votes, but was immediately 
 returned by his southern constituents. In Kansas, the 
 free-state settlers refuse to recognize the territorial 
 government of the slave party, and as the pro-slavery 
 settlers and their allies would not render obedience to 
 the other government, the contest passed into a real 
 civil war, the two sides mustering consideralile armies, 
 lighting battles, capturing towns, and paroling prison- 
 ers. Two free-state towns, Lawrence and (Jssawat- 
 tomie. were sacked. The free-state legislature peace- 
 ably a.ssembled at Topeka, and was dispersed by order 
 of the president. Many of its members were arrested 
 and imprisoned. Every free-state citizen's dwelling 
 had to be guarded and defended by armed force, and 
 no free-state man could plow or plant or gather in his 
 crops without lighting for his life. 
 
 238. The free settlers still continued to maintain Ihcir 
 position, in spite of the persistence of slave party, with 
 the wliole force of the administration at its back. Sev- 
 eral iiro-slavery governors — Shannon, Geary and 
 Walker — were sent to rcjtresent the southern party,- 
 and .subdue the ciiizcns to its purpose and control. A 
 
 second slave constitution, made at Ijcconiplon, was of- Leconipton 
 fered to the people in a tricky and nefarious manner, j"'!'"'"' 
 It was to be voted for "with" or "without " .slavery, but 
 in either case there would be an allirmation of the doc- 
 trine of stales-rights. The free settlers accordingly re- 
 fused to vote. The constitution of necessity was adopted 
 and the new document sent to Washington, was ac- 
 cepted by the president and State-rights party. Hut 
 the measure failed to carry through the house. Another 
 terriiorial legislature was elected, and this body sent the 
 Lecomplon constitution to the polls to be voted for. or 
 again.st.as a whole. It was defeated by a majority of six 
 thousand. In spite of this, however, the president, in a 
 special message, urged upon Congress the Lecompton con- 
 stitution with its slavery features,declaringtbat the new 
 legislature had no right to submit it to a second vote. But 
 he was not sustained. In July, 1859, the citizens of 
 Kansas met again in convention at Wyandotte, and 
 adopted a resolution forever excluding slavery. It re- 
 ceived a majority of four thousand at the i)olls. 
 
 239. In the heat of the Kansas struggle came the Presidential 
 presidential election of 1850. The Democrats nomi- ot'l's'^'"'" 
 nated James Buchanan and John C. Breckenridge, 
 adopted the strict constructionist platform of former 
 conventions, and added to it an endorsement of the 
 Kansas-Nebraska bill and the principle of squatter 
 sovereignty. The Kepublicans nominated the western 
 explorer. John C. Fremont, and declared the right and 
 
 duty of Congress to prohibit slavery in the territories, 
 thus planting themselves upon the ground of the Wil- 
 raot Ptoviso. The small remnant of Whigs, including 
 the Know-Kothings of the north and those southern 
 men who wished no further discussion of slavery, nomi 
 nated Fillmore, and tried to turn attention away from 
 the great r|uestion at issue by protesting against the loo 
 hasty naturalization of foreign-boru citizens. Buchanan 
 reel ived 17-1 electoral voles, Fremont 114 and Fillmore 
 8. The large Republican vote showed that the northern 
 people were at length awakened to the situation, and 
 the south in conscijuence was both astonished and 
 alarmed. For the first time in the history of the coun- 
 try a distinctively anti-slavery candidate had obtained 
 an electoral vole, and had nearly gained the presidency. 
 Though tlio Democratic [larty had been successful in 
 this election. its triumph was seen to be far less complete 
 than when it come init of the election of 1852. It no 
 longer controlled twenty-seven of the thirty-one states; 
 all the free stales but five had cast their voles against 
 it, and its candidate no longer had a majority of the 
 popular vote, but was simply chosen by a majority of 
 the electoral vole. 
 
 The strongest section of the Union was in the hands 
 of its ])c>Utical opponent, through who.se ranks a spirit 
 of earnest enlhusiasm was being increasingly diffused. 
 
 240. The strength of the opposition manifested against 
 the Democratic party in this election, more than ever 
 convinced the south that the lime was fast approach- 
 ing when political power would pa.ss from those who 
 defended slavery to those who opposed it. Hence the 
 slave power gathered up its forces for the great struggle 
 which must inevitably ensue. It became more aggress- 
 ive than ever. It demanded a renewal of the African .\frican 
 slave trade, which had been forbidden since 1808, and slave-trade, 
 without wailing for the question to be settled, the ne- 
 farious traflic was opened on an extensive scale, with 
 
 but little attempt at concealment. During the year 
 1857, twenty-two vessels engaged in this business were 
 captured by the British fleet watching the African coast 
 and every vessel but one of these was American. By 
 1860 the trade had assumed large proportions, and was 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 openly advertised in the southern newspapers. But 
 this was not deemed sulticient. To insure the perpetua- 
 tion (if the "peculiar institution," it was necessary to 
 enlist the active protection of the Federal government 
 i-n its f.ivor. Squatter sovereignty had not served the 
 purpose, for in the Kansas struggle, despite all the ef- 
 forts made, slavery had been worsted. Squatter sover- 
 eignty was accordingly thrown aside, and a demand 
 made that the Federal government should protect slav- 
 ery in all the territories. 
 TheDTPd 341 jjp to this time the constitutionality of the 
 cision. ^ Missouri Compromise had never been considered in the 
 supreme court. The question was brought to test in 
 a case which was decided in 1857, two days after 
 Buchanan's inauguration. One Dred Scott, a slave 
 who had been taken by his owner from Missouri into 
 free territory, and had therefore sued for his freedom, 
 was sold to a citizen of another state. Scott then 
 transferred his suit to the Federal courts, under the 
 power given them to try suits between citizens of dif- 
 ferent states, and the case came by appeal to the 
 supreme court. The decision was startling to the 
 north. It declared, in suhslauee, that according to the 
 consiiiution. no slave, or the descendant of slaves, 
 could be a citizen of the United States; that slaves were 
 not persons, but property, and that slave-owners could 
 migrate from one part of the union to another and take 
 their negroes with them, just as they could take their 
 horses or an> other property. It, moreover, pro- 
 nounced the Missouri Compromise Act unconstitutional 
 and void, slaves being private property, with which 
 Congress had no right to interfere. And it further 
 declared that it was the duty of Congress, not to pro- 
 hibit, but to protect, slavery in the territories. The 
 mass of the northern people held the opposite of 
 Chief Justice Taney's decision. They claimed that 
 slaves were regarded by the constitution, not as prop- 
 ert}', but as " persons held to service or labor" by 
 State laws; that Congress was constitutionally bound 
 to protect liberty as well as property; and that its duty- 
 was to prohibit, not to protect, slavery in the terri- 
 tories. It was plain that the decision of the supreme 
 court would never be received as the law by the free 
 states. A storm of angry dissent arose, of which the 
 slave-holders hastened to take advantage. They main- 
 tained that the duty of Congress to protect slavery in 
 the territories had been confirmed by the highest 
 judicial authority in the land, and that the Republicans 
 had refused to accept its rulings; therefore, whatever 
 the result might be, the Republican party must accept 
 the responsibility. At this time, as will be seen, the 
 northern, or Douglass Democrats as they were called, 
 who had heretofore supported the south, now refused 
 to follow the southern lead any further, but chose 
 rather to divide the part3'. 
 Slave states 243. In 1860 the slave states were fifteen in number, 
 and free namely, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, 
 states. South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Kentucky, Tennes- 
 see, Louisiana, Mississippi, Arkansas (admitted 1836), 
 Floriila (1845), and Te.xas (1845). The free states 
 were eighteen, namely, Maine, New Hampshire, Ver- 
 mont, Massachusetts, Ijbode Island, Connecticut, New 
 York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illi- 
 nois. Michigan (admitted 1887), Iowa (1840), Wisconsin 
 (1848), California, Minnesota (1858), and Oregon (18.59). 
 Kansas had adopted a free state constittition, but was 
 not admitted until 1861. At this period the population 
 of the United States was more than Jil, 000,000, an 
 increase of over 8,000,000 in ten years. The population 
 of the slave states was 12,000,000, including 4,000,000 
 slaves and 250,000 free blacks; but the colored element 
 in the southern population could hardly be regarded as 
 a factor of strength, but rather as a possible source of 
 danger. No serious slave uprising had ever threatened 
 Brl'iwn'B '^^ south, but John Brown's raid and the alarm which 
 raid. it pro Juced in the southern states betokened a danger 
 
 which added a new terror to the chances of a civil war. 
 Brown, a Connecticut man of the old Puritan type, 
 had been an anti-slavery leader in the Kansas fights. 
 His plan was to rai-e an insurrection among the slaves 
 of Virginia, and arm them to liberate their people by 
 force. In October, 1859. he and his men surprisetl and 
 seized Harper's Ferry, where there was a large .'-lore of 
 muskets and ammunition; but the negroes did not rise, 
 and Brown was overpowered by national and state 
 troops, and hanged (December 2) by the authorities of 
 Virginia. 
 
 243. The next election for the presidency was looked 
 forward to as a critical time. Many persons of in- 
 fluence in the south declared that if the election should 
 strengthen the preponderance of the north, the slave 
 states would break up the union and form a confeder- 
 acy of their own. The Democratic national conven- 
 tion, which met at Charleston, S. C, April 23, 1860, 
 was characterized by its stormy session. The demands 
 of the southern e.xtremists produced a political schism, 
 
 and the convention with the party was split into two The pplit in 
 distinct portions. The Douglas Democrats refused to ">'^' P™''^" 
 yield to the wishes of the slave power, and still main- "^"^""^ '""^ ^ 
 taineil the principle that the question of slavery in 
 each territory should be decided by its settlers; but they 
 made a concession by offering a resolution'that the party 
 would abide by the decisions of the supreme court. 
 The southern delegates offered resolutions affirming the 
 doctrine of the Dred Scott decision, that neither con- 
 gress nor the tc;ritoriai legislatures had a rigiit to pro- 
 hibit slavery ia the territories. The convention adopted 
 the Douglas platform, whereupon the delegates from 
 many southern states, successively protested and with- 
 drew, and at once organized a new convention in 
 Charleston, adopted their platform, and adjourned to 
 meet again in Richmond. June 11. The original con- 
 vention, after balloting flftyseven times for candidates 
 without a choice, adjourned to meet again at Baltimore, 
 June 18. Upon reassembling at the appointed time, it 
 seated some new delegates friendly to Douglas, where- 
 upon the remaiuing southern delegates, who chiefly be^ 
 longed to tbe border states, also withdrew, and joined 
 their brethren at Richmond. Here they nominated 
 John C. Breckenridge and Joseph Lane for president 
 and vice-president. The remainder of the Ba' imore 
 convention nominated Stephen A. Douglas and Herschel 
 V. Johnson. The Republican convention assembled at 71,0 Repuh- 
 Chicago, May 16. It adopted a somewhat broad con- in-an cnn- 
 structtonist platform; advocated the exclusion of slav- ^■''""°"- 
 ery from the territories by congj'essional measure; de- 
 clared in favor of a protective tariff, the homestead 
 bill, internal improvements, and a Pacific railway. It 
 nominated Abraham Lincoln and Hannibal Hamlin. 
 There was a fourih organization called "The Constitu- Consii- 
 tional Union Party." composed of the fragments of L'n!„I"l[(,r,y 
 the old Whig and Know-Nothing parties. It declared 
 as its political principles, "The constitution of the 
 country, tbe union of the states, and the enforcement 
 of the "laws." Its candidates were John Bell and Ed- 
 ward Everett. Four parties were now in the field, and 
 only two had the courage of their convictions, the 
 southern Democrats and Reputilicans. The Bell party 
 had adopted a "take it as you please" platform; it sim- 
 ply evaded the slavery question altogether; while the 
 Douglas platform sought to throw the responsibility of 
 a decision concerning the question upon any shoulders 
 except those of the Douglas Democrats. 
 
 244. An exciting canvass now followed. The Re- Election 
 publican party had been gaining confidence and en- ui ma. 
 thusiasm, and the discordant efforts of the three par- 
 ties opposed to it, only made Lincoln's election more 
 certain. In the electoral college Lincoln obtained 180 
 votes, Breckinridge 73, Bell 39, and Douglas 13. No 
 candidate received a majority of the popular vote. Lin- 
 coln standing first and Douglas second. The popular 
 
 vote for Douglas, though large, was not so distributed 
 
UNITED ST A ^J^ E S 
 
 as to gain a majority in any state cxci-pt Missouri; lie- 
 side the nine electoral votes in that ^tate, he obtained 
 three in New Jersey. Thus the eleclioii resulted in a 
 decisive victory for the Ke|iublicans. Its significance 
 was far reaching. The interesls of the south and even 
 of slaverv lliere would In- sife enoufih under Lincoln, 
 but the overthrow of the Dred Sro't and sciualter sov- 
 creijinly doctrines was ceriain. au(i an inunediatc stop 
 would be put to the extension of slaverj' iu the terri 
 tories. In such circumstances the cour^^e of events was 
 evident. Nullilieation was no longer feared by the na- 
 tion. Secession on the part of a sinitle siale even, was 
 noix almost out of the (lueslion. No one of the south- 
 ern states would agree tosece<lc unless assured of sup- 
 port by the others; a combined action was necessary to 
 assure the success of any secession plans. 
 
 Si-icuelon. 245. Durini; the discussion which preceded the elec- 
 tion, the north heard repealed tin I'ats from the south, 
 that if the Republican parly were successful, the slave 
 holiling states would leave theuidoii; but these threats 
 were looked upon as merely- the angry declarations of a few 
 heated poliiicians. Yit these disunion expressions were 
 sincere. The southern people had learned to look upon 
 the north as thoroushly hostile to the south. Tliey 
 made little distinction between the Hepubliciiii party 
 and the Abolitionists, and they felt instinctively that a 
 government elected in asjirit of opposition lo slavery 
 would find many ways to injure it. The political Irib- 
 its. and the w;\y of life at I he south, made it easy for 
 southern voters to believe in disunion as a cure for the 
 evils with which they felt they were threatened. The 
 doctrine of state independence bad become familiar to 
 them; it had been laid down in the Kentucky and Vir 
 ginia resolutions of 17S)8. and had been maintaiiud by 
 Georgia in the difficulty with the Indians, and by South 
 Carolina in her Nullification Act. They had remained 
 " Planting States;" they still had their own social life; 
 the same families lived upon the same estates. There 
 was no such constant movement from one state to an- 
 other as at the north, nor any such introduction of im- 
 migrants from Europe. They were, as they have al- 
 ways had been, Carolinians or Virginians, rather than 
 Americans. South Carolina took the lead iu fulfilling 
 the promise of secession. As soon as it was announced 
 that Mr. Lincoln was elected, her legislature order-d 
 (November 10, 1S(!0. ) the assembling of a convention in 
 December following. The senators from the state, and 
 all office holders in South Carolina under the Federal 
 government at once resigned. The convention met at 
 the appointed time, and on December 20, unanimously 
 passed an ordinance of secession declaring " that the 
 union now subsisting between South Carolina and the oth- 
 er states uniler the nameof the United Statesof America 
 is hereby dissolved." As reasons for this course, the 
 convention referred to the nullification of the Fugitive 
 Slave Law by the personal-liberty bills, and the election 
 of a president, "whose opinions and purposes were 
 hostile lo slavery." The convention then took all the 
 necessary steps to put the state in readiness for war, 
 and a<ljourncd. A copy of the ordinance was sen! to 
 each of the slave states, and several of them now rap- 
 idly followed this liold lead. Similar ordinances were 
 passed by Mississippi, .January fl. 1861; Florida, Janu- 
 ary 10; Alabama, January II; Georgia, January 19; 
 Louisiana, January 26, and T^xas. February 1. Ten- 
 nessee, North Carolina, Arkansas and the border states 
 
 ' still refused to join their more southern neighbors. One 
 
 force, however, might be exerted which would compel 
 them to a decision. Should the Federal government 
 attempt to coerce the seceding states, a state which did 
 not wish lo secede, but maintained the doctrine of state 
 sovereiirnty and the right of secession, would be inclined 
 to take up arms in its defence. Thus, in the following 
 spring.four more f>f the slavestales reinforced the origi- 
 nal seven seceding states, making their final number 
 eleven. 
 
 24'>. The act of secession, at first, met with oppositi.m 
 in the south, not Irom any sentiment that the act was 
 wrong, bit from the expedieucy of its exercise. Dele- 
 gates hud been electeil to the state conventions who 
 were to vote agiiinst secession, but they were defeated 
 through the i<lea which had obtained that thesiute 
 "could niiike beller lernis out of the tuiion than in ii." 
 Ii was held that it would be: more advantageous to Iheir 
 rights and interests to withdraw temporarily from the 
 Federal government until proper guaranties for the ob- 
 servance of these should be given; and if all conditions 
 were satisfactory, then they might deem it best to re- 
 turn. Iu planning secession, the southern leaders rcc- 
 omiizeil many tilings in favor of independence on which ^'""^"f ""^ 
 tue\ supposi d they might reasonably count. °" ' 
 
 To gain success, it was not necessary for them to con- 
 (picr the north, or any jiart of it. but only to hold their own 
 fronlier; whereas, slmulil the norih attempt coercion, it 
 would necessitate the military occupali.m.by its armies, 
 of the whoK vast area of the southern country, which 
 would be a tremenduous undertaking never attempted 
 before on a corresponding scale by any civilized govern- 
 ment. They did not believe the Uniied Stati-s authori- 
 ties would really attempt such a measure. In this they 
 fatally erred. Tl;ey believed that all the slave stales 
 would join in thesecession movement. Thi-. however, 
 was not done. Then tiicy hoped that the action of the 
 UepubUcan administration would be So paralyzed by 
 Democratic opposition in the north, that its efforts at 
 coercion would bi! rendered futile. In this they were 
 lioonied to di~ap|)oiMtment; for when war came, the 
 great majority of the northern Democrats loyally sup- 
 ]iorted the government; while those, nicknamed "Cop- 
 perhe.-ids." who endeavored to impede its elforts, were 
 too small in number to do an)' serious harm. Finally, 
 ihey thought they might look for aid from England and 
 France. "Cotton is king," was the cry, aiid while the 
 English manufacturers were de|iendent for their c<itton 
 from the south, it would scarcely be possible that the 
 EnL'Iish government would allow the sinitbern coasts to 
 be liloekadeil. But the sentiment of the great majorily 
 of England's working people was found lo be in fav.rr 
 of the north. The great mass of the English people, in 
 spite of many aristocratic synioafhiziTs with Ihe south, 
 felt ihatthe action of Great Britain in the African slave 
 trade question, would not [lermit her, without the most 
 glaring iucon'^isteney, to give support to the principal 
 slave power in the world. With respect to France the 
 case was just as hopeless. Napoleon III. it is true, was 
 desirous (>f recognizing the independence of the south, 
 for he had designs upon Mexico incompatilile with the 
 Monroe doctrine, but he was unwilling to make the 
 move without the concurrence of England, and this he 
 could not obtain. Thus the soiiiheru leaders failed in 
 their expectations, and were thrown upon their own 
 resources. 
 
 247. In February. 1861, a convention of delegates Orsauizs- 
 from the seceding states met at Montgomery, the cap- tion of the 
 ital of Alabama, and formed a government under the V""'''''' 
 name of the Confederate States of America. Thetitle^ 
 thus declared that the slates formed a confederacy and 
 not a union. The government was a provisional one 
 fot a year, since only seven of the southern states were 
 represented. Jefferson Davis, of Mississipju, was 
 chosen president and Alexander H. Stevens, of Georgia, 
 vice president. A provisional constitution was funned, 
 and an army, treasury, and other executive departmenls 
 estiblished. The permanent constitution, adopted in 
 March, was copied from th.at of the Uniied States, ex- 
 cept that it made careful iirovi-ion for slavery, and for- 
 bade a protective tarill or the maintenance of internal 
 improvements at general expense. The seceding states 
 at once took measures to take possession of I he arsenals, 
 forts and other properly of the United States wiihin 
 their borders. Mr. P.ueli'inan's secretary of war was 
 John B. Floyd, of Virginia, a zealous secessionist, and 
 
UNITED « T A T E S 
 
 by his orders an immense quantity of muskets, cannon, 
 ammunition, and other warlilje stores had been trans- 
 ferred from northern to southern arsenals. All this fell 
 into the hands of the secession parly. The army was 
 scattered at remote posts where it could be of no use, 
 and most of the navy was at foreign stations. General 
 Scott urged President Buchanan to strengthen the gar- 
 risons of the southern forts, but Mr. Floyd protested, 
 and nothing in that direction was done. 
 
 348. The forts throughout the south were mainly in 
 the hands of southern men, who delivered them to the 
 new authorities. The commanders of Fort Pickens, at 
 Pensacola, and of the forts at Key West and Tortugas 
 refused to give them up. The greatest interest, how- 
 ever, attached to the forts within the borders of South 
 Carolina. The harbor of Charleston was commanded 
 by Forts Sumter and Moultrie and Castle Pinckney. 
 Fort Sumter was not yet finished, and the garrison, 
 under Major Anderson, was occupying Fort Moultrie, a 
 weaker work. This officer secretly transferred his men 
 and supplies to Fort Sumter during the night of De- 
 cember 26, 1860. South Carolina demanded the evacu- 
 ation of the fort. President Buchanan refused the de- 
 
 Starofthe niaud, and sent the steamer Staroftlie West Vi\Va fwp- 
 West. plies an<i reinforcements for the fort. He intended the 
 
 expedition to be a secret one, but it was known at once 
 in Charleston, and when the steamer appeared it was 
 fired upon and' driven back (January 9, 1S61). The 
 South Carolinians had taken possession of the other 
 forts in Charleston harbor, and now erected additional 
 works. General P. G. T. Beauregard was placed in 
 command of the harbor defences. President Buchanan 
 was filled with perplexity. In his message to Congress 
 he stated his inability to execute the laws in the seced- 
 ing states, but Congress gave him no help. He con- 
 demned the doctrine of secession, and deuied the right 
 of the states to secede; he also denied the right of the 
 government to coerce them when they did secede. His 
 cabinet was divided. The southern members dropped 
 out as their states seceded, and General Cass, of Michi- 
 gan, secretary of state, resigned in displeasure at Mr. 
 Buchanan's inaction. 
 
 349. The resignation of the southern senators and 
 representatives gave the Republicans a majority iu 
 
 Kansas Congress. That body now proceeded to admit Kansas 
 admitted, as a state, and passed a protective tariff designed to 
 encourage manufactures. Otherwise Congress did 
 nothing but pass resolutions intended to pacify the 
 south. Time which should have been spent in concen- 
 trating the energies of the Federal government, and pre- 
 paring it to assert its supremacy, was friitered away in 
 vain discussions about measures proposed to avert the 
 disaster. Mr. Seward, senator from New York, and 
 one of the most conspicuous of the Republicans, was 
 willing to give up congressional pruhiliition of slavery 
 in the territories, to enforce the fugitive slave law, 
 and to perpetuate slavery by a constitutional amend- 
 The popn- ment. The people throughout the country were in a 
 lar feeling, gjg^ig pf bewilderment. The government authorities 
 seemed to have no power to diiect affairs. Great 
 meetings were held in the principal cities of the north 
 denouncing abolitionism and urging extreme conces- 
 sions. Prominent journals of both parties declared 
 that armed coercion was madness and never would be 
 permitted. At the suggestion of the Virginia legisla- 
 Peacf ture, a peace congress, composed of delegates from 
 
 Congress, thirteen free states and seven border states, met at 
 Washington (February 4, 1861), and tried to bring 
 about harmony between the sections, by proposing a 
 number of amendments to the constitution. Nothing 
 came, however, of any of these schemes. Disunion 
 was now an assured fact, and was soon to pass into 
 open hostility. It was during this state of affairs that 
 the new administration of Abraham Lincoln entered 
 upon its perplexing duties. 
 
 VIII. — THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 250. Mr. Lincoln was inaugurated March 4, 1861. In Lincoln's 
 his address he declared that he had neither the right inaugura- 
 nor the desire to interfere with slavery where it already "°"' 
 existed; that no state could lawfully go out of the union; 
 and that he should maintain the laws and constitution 
 of the United States to the best of his ability. The new 
 administration was beset with difficulties on every 
 side, and the condition of affairs seemed almost des- 
 perate. Many of those who for years had guided the 
 "ship of state," and who understood its workings, 
 were now foremost in advocating secession. Mr. Lin- 
 coln's officers were new to the business of the FcdJ;ral 
 government. The treasury, by defalcation, was nearly 
 bankrupt. Few troops were within call;. and the army 
 had been almost broken up by the surrender of 
 detached forces in the Confederate states, and the cap- 
 ture of munitions of war. The vessels of the navy were 
 sailing or at anchor in distant waters, and numerous 
 officers of both the army end the navy were resigning 
 their commissions on the ground that they owed 
 allegiance first to the states from which they came. 
 Seven states had already revolted, and others were 
 ready to swell the number upon the first attempt to 
 enft>rce the Federal authority. The public officers 
 were largely occupied by persons in sympathy with 
 the secession movement, and every step taken by the 
 new government was known at once to the leaders of 
 the Confederacy, und to crown all, Mr. Lincoln was 
 beset by a vast horde of office-seekers eager to take 
 advantage of the change of administration. 
 
 2.51. The president wailed a month and then notified Fort 
 Governor Pickens, of South Carolina, that he should '*""""• 
 send supplies to Fort Sumter at all hazards. This 
 announcement precipitaied an attack upon the fort. 
 Major Anderson was first summoned to surrender, but 
 he refused. At daj'break on the morning of April 12, 
 1861, the Confederacy began its open conflict with the 
 United States. All the batteries around the fort opened 
 fire upon it; the fort replied, and the bombardment 
 continued for thirty six hours without loss of life on 
 either side. The ammunition in the fort was then 
 exhausted, and the works inside were on fire. There- 
 upon the United States flag, for the first time in its 
 history, was lowered to insurgent citizens, and the 
 garrison capitulated. This event aroused the north as Effect in 
 if from a trance. Until now, the mass of the people "'^' ""''"'• 
 had refused to believe in real danger; but the first 
 shock of arms thoroughly convinced them that the 
 south was ready to fight, and could not be curbed 
 without war. It did more than this. In the northern 
 states party distinctions were for a time swept aside; 
 there was but one party worth the name — the party for 
 the union. The southern states were no longer 
 "erring sisters" to be coaxed by concessions. The 
 whole north called loudly for the full exercise of the 
 Federal power to compel the south to obedience at the 
 point of the bayonet. 
 
 2.53. The day after the evacuation of Fort Sumter First call 
 President Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers for three [p'^r8°'°°" 
 months (April 15). The response was so promptly 
 made that the first Massachusetts troops began their 
 march on the same day, and in a surprisingly short 
 time the quota was full; nay, it could have been filled 
 three or four times over, and the many who were 
 refused felt a keen disappointment at not being allowed 
 to bear arms in defense of the union. In the south, The feeling 
 also, the effect of the first conflict was correspondingly gumh. 
 great. To the ignorant masses it did not seem possible 
 that any other power could be superior to that of 
 their own state; while the more intelligent classes had, 
 from their childhood, imbibed the doctrine that state 
 sovereignty was the foundation of civil liberty. Hence 
 all felt bound to follow the lead of their state; and when 
 
UNITED ST A T E S 
 
 the president of the new Confederacy issued his call 
 for men, it was answered, as in the north, by overflow- 
 \'il^ luinilicrs. 
 Thj' bonier o-,3 Those southern states which had wavered were 
 now coiiipelled to make their choice. When Mr. Lincoln 
 called for troops the Governors of Arkansas. Virginia, 
 North Carolina ami Tennessee refused to obey. North 
 Carolina and Arkansas then seceded, and joined the 
 Confederacy. In Tennessee and Virginia "military 
 leagues" were formed with the Confederate states, by 
 which Confederate troops were allowed to take pos- 
 session of their territory, and by their aid the ques- 
 tion of secession was submitted to popular vote. 
 Thus the secession of these two states was accom- 
 plished in part, but not wholly. The people of the 
 Alleghany mountains were loyal to the union; in east- 
 ern Tennessee they aided the Federals as much as 
 possible; the opposition to secession was sostiong in 
 the western counties of Virginia that the inhabitants 
 refused to obey the convention which passed the ordi- 
 nance; they chose a legislature which claimed to be the 
 true government, and at last formed a new state which 
 was admitted into the union in 18(i3 under the name of 
 West Virginia. I^ven thus curtailed, Virginia was a 
 most important accession to the confederacy; it in- 
 creased its military strength greatly, and at once 
 became the chief battleground of the war. The con- 
 federate government was moved from Montgomery to 
 Richmond; and since Washington was separated only 
 by the Potomac from the confederacy, it was clear that 
 the great contest would be fought in the country which 
 lay between the two capitals. Moreover, Virginia was 
 the richest and greatest of the slave states, and fur- 
 nished the southern army with its ablest leaders, many 
 of whom — such as Lee, Jackson, Johnston, and Ewell — 
 were opposed to secession, but thought it right to shape 
 their own course by that of their state. 
 
 254. There was a strong anti-union element in Mis- 
 souri. Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware, and the 
 most momentous results — involving, doubtless, the suc- 
 cess of the tmion cause — were involved in the action 
 they would now take. Aside from Virginia, Missouri 
 was the most powerful slave state, and her geograph- 
 ical position, with that of Kentucky and Maryland, was 
 of incalculable military importance. Had these three 
 states united with the confederacy it might have won 
 the prize for which it was contending — independence. 
 Missouri, however, did not break away, though the 
 issue was for some time doubtful with her. Delaware 
 cast her lot with the union. In Maryland and Ken- 
 tucky efforts were made to maintain neutrality, but 
 they were soon induced to declare in favor of the 
 Federal government. Kentucky, however, had some 
 of her sons in the southern ranks, among whom was 
 John C. Breckinridge, a former vice-president of the 
 United states, who became an officer in the confeder- 
 ate army. 
 Militury 25.5. The Federal government was in no want of 
 ot'thc'^''" men, but the action of Secretary Floyd hi>d almost 
 nortli. stripped it of arms to equip them. Agents were sent 
 abroad to purchase guns, private manufactories were 
 worked day and night to produce them, and in a short 
 time the administration was able to call more men into 
 the field. The northern people were unrnilitary in 
 their habits and thoughts. They had a militia, but it 
 was poorly organized. The Mexican war had drawn 
 few volunteers from this section, and the United States 
 army was very small and imperifectly equipped. The 
 early action of the Confederates also had weakened it. 
 There was, however, a greater population to draw from 
 than at the south. There was also a wider range of 
 industry to supply the necessary funds to carry on the 
 war. The agricultural products of the United States 
 far exceeded in volume those of any other country, and 
 in merchant shipping it was only second to <!reat 
 Britain. Between 1830 and 1860 American civilization 
 
 had shown a wonderful growth in all directions — in 
 facilities of travel and exchange, in home comforts, in 
 inanufaclures, in literature and art, and especially in 
 the developtnent and building up of that moral sense 
 which enabled the country to pass so successfully 
 through the trying times of the next four years. 
 
 2.56. Hut this material and moral progress was mostly Of the 
 confined to the north. The south was far from possess- '"""'^ 
 ing an equal share in it. Uer case was one of arrested 
 developement, not from any natural inferiority in the 
 people, but simply because "their moral sense and spirit 
 of enterprise had been blighted by the curse of slavery. 
 Labor was held to be degrading, and those who carried 
 on the few branches of industry were considered an 
 inferior caste; railroads, commerce and manufactures 
 could not thrive, and hence there was but little immigra- 
 tion; the progressive ideas from the modern world 
 outside were opposed from the fear that they might 
 prove injurious to the pet institution of slavery. Thus 
 the advance of civilization was checked, and whatever 
 might have conduced to the material welfare of the 
 south was kept away as far as possible. In the north 
 the rising man was marked by the extent of his business 
 relations; in the south by his ability to buy slaves, 
 which assured him nearly always an entrance into the 
 the ranks of the dominant class. This class funnshed 
 the representatives and senators in Congress, the 
 governors, and all the officeholders over which theslave 
 power had control. Thus its ablest and best men com- 
 bined to defend certain tendencies which were foreign 
 and hostile to those of the rest of the country, and of the 
 world in general. With such odds against it, the struggle 
 of the south during the four years of war showed of 
 what heroic stuff its people were made. 
 
 257. The first blood of the war was shed in the streets First blood* 
 of Baltimore. Massachusetts and Pennsylvania troops "' """ ""■• 
 on their way to Washington were attacked by a Balti- 
 more mob (April 19, 1861,) and some of the soldiers 
 killed. The popidacc, which sympathized with the 
 south, declared that no northern troops should pass 
 through the city. The railroad was blocked up, bridges 
 were burned, telegraph wires were cut, and all direct 
 coinnuinication with the north was stopped, until the 
 presiilent sent a military force from Annapolis to occupy 
 Baltimore and keep the mail open. In a short time the 
 active hostility of the people was overcome, and the 
 national capitol made secure. By July 4 the confeder- 
 ates had pushed their forces as far as Manassas Junction, 
 about thirty miles from Washington. Their line of 
 defence was already marked out, and its length has 
 been estimated at eleven thousand miles, including the 
 Atlantic and gulf coasts. It comprised the left bank of 
 the Potomac from Fortress Monroe nearly to Washing- 
 ington; from thence it extended to Harper's Ferry, on 
 through the mountains of western Virginia and the 
 southern part of Kcniuck^-, crossing the Mississippi a 
 short distance below Cairo. From this point its direc- 
 tion was through southern Missouri to the eastern 
 bordor of Kansas; then southwest, through the Indian 
 territory, and along the northern boundary of Texas 
 to the Rio Grande. The area contained within this 
 interior line and the sea-coast was about 800,000 square 
 miles, with a population of over !),Ot)0.0(lO. It com- 
 prised, also, the territory devoted totheraisingof cotton, 
 an article necessary to the manufacturing inlcrests of 
 the world. It was upon this production tb,at tin; south 
 relied largely for aid; all the munitions of war could be 
 procured in exchange for it; and she believed it would 
 be a powerful factor in preventing the blockading of 
 her ports. 
 
 25S. In consideration of this fact, and also that the tih' 
 confe<lerate line of sea-coast was over three thousand l)li"k«<ie. 
 miles in length, with but one port of refuge for a 
 blockading lleet about the middle of the line, it scarcely 
 seemed possible that a blockade could be maintained 
 with any marked degree of success. Nevertheless, 
 
UNITED tiT A 1^ E S 
 
 But! if. f 
 
 Bull l;;i:i. 
 
 Ihe president issued a proclamatinn (April 19, 18til) 
 declaring a blocliade of all the southern ports, anil the 
 Federal government proceeded to purchase and arm a 
 large number of merchant vessels. But it could not at 
 once bring together a navy powerful enough to keep 
 vessels from entering or leaving the blockaded por:s. 
 The south not only sent out vessels laden with colton 
 to the West Indies and to Eumjie, Imt receivi d in 
 return military supplies of all kinds. Upon the ai i ear- 
 ance of Mr. Lincoln's blockade proclamation, Mr. 
 Davis issued one also, granting letters of marque and 
 reprisal to private ves-^els, against the commerce of the 
 United States. The governments of Great Britain and 
 France now issued proclamations of neutrality, thus 
 making the contest between the north and the south a 
 civil -war, according to subseqeni decisions of the 
 su|ircuie court. 
 Congress. 3,^,9. At the meeting of Congress (July 4, 1861) the 
 Keimblicans had a majority in both branches, the free 
 states and border stales only, being represented. The 
 house voted to devote its time solely to the business 
 connected with the war. It supported the president's 
 proclamation closing the southern ports against com- 
 merce. Bills were passed to define and punish con- 
 spiracy against the United States, and to confiscate 
 all private property, including slaves, employed against 
 the Federal government; to authorize a loan; to call out 
 5U0.000 volunteers, and to appropriate money for the 
 army and navy. During this session occurred the first 
 battle of Bull Run (.luly 21, 1861). General Scott had 
 been appointed commander-in-chief of the union forces. 
 The first military movements were in the mountains of 
 western Virginia, and the s\icceS3 of the union army 
 there led many people to suppose that in a short time 
 the rebellious states would be compelled to obedience. 
 Mr. Seward, who was secretary of state, was especially 
 cheerful, and promised that the war should be over in 
 ninety days. The newspapers and people generally 
 urged an immediate movement upon Richmond. Very 
 few had any knowledge of the difticulties before 
 them, and General Scott, pressed by public opinion, 
 gave the order to advance. This resulted in the first 
 Berious battle of the war. The union forces were 
 defeated, and retreated in a panic upon Washington. 
 Both armies were yet so new in military training that 
 the confederates gained ncthing from their success. 
 Effpct of 260. This disaster opened the eyes of the north, and 
 the difiat. jjjg country settled down into a more serious temper. 
 Congress was, more than ever, stimulated to increased 
 energy, and pledged itself to vote any amount of money 
 and any number of men necessary to maintain the 
 union. Propositions to consider negotiations for peace 
 were constantly offered by extreme Democrats, and as 
 constantly rejected by large majorities, on the ground 
 that negotiation with armed rebellion was <inconstitu- 
 tional. General Scott, having resigned the command 
 of the northern armies on account of his age and infir- 
 mity, was succeeded by General George B. McClellan, 
 whose successful campaign in western Virginia had 
 given him a high reputation throughout the army. 
 He had a genius for organization, and possessed the 
 unbounded confidence of the people. He immediately 
 set about forming the first great army of the war — 
 the Army of the Potomac — at Alexandria, in prepara- 
 tion for a second advance. But the advance was 
 delayed much too long to suit the impatience of the 
 people and the administration; and as the winter of 
 1861 63 passed away without any forward movement, 
 the expressions of dissatisfaction became louder and 
 CViiifcd- more general. The confederacy also spent the summer 
 eratearmy. and autumn of 1861 in organizing its northern Army 
 
 of Virginia, under General Beauregard. 
 
 Ball's 361. In the autumn of 1861 a portion of General 
 
 Hinff. Stone's command on the Upper Potomac was sent on a 
 
 reconnoissance into Virginia, under Colonel Baker, 
 
 and, being attacked by the confederate general, Evans, 
 
 The neatral 
 
 states. 
 
 McOl.'l 
 in corn 
 muiid. 
 
 Wilson's 
 C'rci'k. 
 
 Lexington. 
 
 Kentucky. 
 
 at Ball's Bluff, was disastrously defeated. Colonel 
 Baker was among the killed. Although Missouri had 
 not seceded, a strong party, with which the governor 
 was acting, wished to carry it over to the confederacy. 
 A confederate camp near St. Louis was broken up 
 by Captain Lyon, of the regulars, and the St. Louis 
 arsenal was saved to the government. The state was 
 afterward invaded by confederates from Arkansas, 
 who Were di feated by Lyon (now a general) at Boone- 
 ville, June 17, and by Sigel at Carthage, July 5. A 
 large force of confederates under McCullough and 
 Price attacked Lyon at Wilson's Creek (August 10) 
 Lyon was killed, and his command fell back toward 
 the center of the state. Price with 20.000 men then 
 attacked Lexington, which was garrisoned by 3.000 
 federal troops under Colonel Midligan. After an heroic 
 defense of three days the little garrison was compelled 
 to surrender (September 20) after their water supply 
 had been cut off for forty-eight hours. General Fre- 
 mont was now a])pointed to the ci'mmand of the 
 western department. He drove Price into the south- 
 west corner of the state, and was about to give battle 
 when he was superseded by General Hunter (Novem- 
 ber 2). Hunter retreated to St. Louis, with Price in 
 pursuit; but in a fortnight Hunter was replaced by 
 Halleck, and Price was driven into Arkansas. Ken- 
 tucky, like Missouri, was distracted by dissensions 
 among its own people, and by armies on both sides. 
 General Polk of the confederate army occupied Hick- 
 man and Columbus, towns on the Mississippi. There 
 was also a confederate force at Belmont, Missouri, 
 opposite Columbus. Ulysses S. Grant, recently 
 iippoinled a brigadier-general of volunteers, now first 
 came into notice. He drove the confederates out of 
 Belmont (November 7), but was unable to hold the 
 town because it was commanded by the fortifications 
 of Columbus. 
 
 262. From the beginning of the war, the federal 
 government was embarrassed by the question of fugi- 
 tive slaves. Congress had passed the act confiscating 
 slaves employed in service hostile to the United States. 
 While General Fremont was in command of the f<irces 
 of the west, he had issued a proclamation declaring 
 the slaves of Missouri confederates free men, but this 
 was counterman<ied by President Lincoln, who did not 
 wish to estrange those slave-holders, especially in 
 Kentucky, who were still loyal to the union. In Vir- 
 ginia, General Benjamin F. Butler had declared that 
 slaves were " contraband of war," and therefore liable 
 to confiscation by military law. But as yet the dispo- 
 sition of t'ue north was to subdue the south without 
 interfering with slavery; and some union commanders 
 restored to their masters the slaves who had escaped 
 into the federal lines. 
 
 363. Formidable expeditions were fitted out to 
 recapture southern harbors. A combined land and 
 naval force, under General Butler and Commodore 
 Stringham reduced and occupied two forts at Hatteras 
 Inlet, North Carolina, at the entrance to Albemarle and 
 Pamlico Sounds (August 39), and Port Iloyal harbor, 
 near Beaufort, South Carolina, was secured through 
 the reduction of Forts Walker and Beauregard by the 
 fieet under Commodore Dupont (November 7), and a 
 land force under General Thomas W. Sherman. These 
 successes were of great value to the Federal govern- 
 ment. They not only closed important southern ports, 
 but they furnished convenient stations for the 
 blockading fieet. The "paper blockade," as it had 
 been called, was soon made a very effective one along 
 the whole length of the southern coast from the Poto- 
 mac to the Rio Grande, an achievement which by 
 many had been deemed impossible. Still, in spite of 
 the watchfulness of the federal navy, several confed- 
 erate men-of-war and privateers sailed out of port, and 
 did much damage to merchant ships. The practice of Blockade 
 "running the blockade" became a very profitable running. 
 
 Fugitive 
 slaves. 
 
 Operations 
 on the 
 coast. 
 
u .N i '1^ J>: i) >s 'r A T ]■: s 
 
 business; auJ notwilhslaiuliu^' tliu dun^'er tif c;iptuiT, 
 wliicb was the case iu uuuiy instances, Itie profits on a 
 single successful voviis<^' were so jjreal that adventurers 
 found tbcy could allord to take the risk. 
 Fnrwvii 2(J4 As has been staled, the soulb depended largely 
 
 relations. „p„„ msisiniiQc from abroad, aid the southern leaders 
 still chniff to the hope tlial they could prevail upon 
 Great Britain and France to recoijuizc the independence 
 of the confederacy. Two commitsioners, therefore. 
 Messrs. Ma.son anil Slidell. were sent by the confeder- 
 ate fiovernuient to London' and Paris. They ran the 
 blockaile, made their way to Havana, and tlun em- 
 barked for England in the British niailsleamer Trent. 
 Some distance out, the Trent was overhauled by an 
 American tnnn of-wnr under Captain Wilkes, the two 
 comrnissioiHts were taken off tNovember, llSGl), and 
 carried lo Bo-ion harbor, where the}' were imprisoned 
 in Fori Warren. This action, which was ilUi.:Hl and 
 unauthorized, caused great excitement in Kngland, and 
 came very near causing a collision between the two 
 countries. Ij<:)rd Palmerslon made a perenipto-y de- 
 mand for the surrender of the prisoners. The American 
 government had already disa%'0wed the act of Captain 
 Wilkes, which, though it was justified by tlii^ British 
 claim of the ■"right of search," was contrary to Ameri- 
 can principles. The confederate envoys were there- 
 fore promptly released and sent to England. Just 
 before this occurrence President Lincoln reipiested two 
 confidential agents to visit Prance and England in 
 • order to help the federal cause and avert the danger 
 of foreign war by their influence with the governments 
 and with persons of distinction. The persons selected 
 for this delicate and important trust were Archbishop 
 Hugh's, of New York, and jNlr. Thurlow W\'ed. They 
 sailed in November and retuiered very valuable service, 
 I Mr. Weed in England, and the archbishop in France. 
 
 . St-couu 2C5. At the beginning of 18(J3 the war had a.ssnmed 
 
 , y'jarff till- yj^gj pfQp,jP^iy,-,g_ rpjjy number of men under arms on 
 both sides was nearly a million. The confederates 
 held possession of the Mississippi river from the gulf 
 of Mexico to the southern boundary of Kentucky, and 
 occujied a chain of strong positions extending thence 
 til rough Tennessee and Kentucky to the southwestern 
 corner of Virginia. Between the Alleghanies and the 
 Blue I{idge v.-as il:e fertile Shenandoah valley, often dis- 
 puted l)y both armies. At the east the confederates 
 v.ere posted in great force between the Potomac and 
 the Rappahannock. Now that Delaware, Maryland, 
 Kentucky and Missouri had been saved to the union, 
 it was certain that the battle would be fought out in 
 the territory to the south of them. The plan of the 
 Federal authorities was to open the Mississippi and 
 penetrate the confederate line at the west, while at the 
 same time McClellan attacked Richmond, and a land 
 and naval force continued the process of capturing the 
 southern ports on the Atlantic coast. Simon Cameron, 
 who had been secretary of war, resigned January 20, 
 18G2. and was succeeded by Edwin M. Stanton. All 
 the Federal armies were lo move simultaneously on 
 the 22d of February, Washington's birthday, but this 
 order could not be strictly carried out. 
 Thcwiiriii 2CG. The lirst advance was made in the west, Gen- 
 ibe wc^l. eral Grant hud entered Kentucky from Illinois, and 
 succeeded in securing the mouths of the Tennessee and 
 (.'umberland rivers, two streams which were to serve 
 as military highways by which the Federal armies 
 were to iienelrale into the heart of the confederacy. 
 The chief confederate positions between the Mississippi 
 river and the Alleghany mountains were Fort lli'nry 
 on the Tennessee, Fort Donelson on the Cumhi-rlaMd 
 (both in Tennessee), and Bowling Green and Mill Spring 
 in southern Kentucky. This line of defense was in 
 command of General Sidney Johnston, with headquar- 
 ters at Bowling Green. Here he was confronted by 
 General Buell's army, the middle one of the three great ! 
 Federal armies, which came to be known as the Army 
 
 of the Cumberland. Forts Henry and Donelson formed 
 the center of the confi dera'e line, and was confronte<l 
 by Grant, whose troojis afterwards formed the army of 
 the Tennessee. In Jaiuiary, 18G2, General Thomas 
 with the left of Buell's force thoroughly defeated the 
 confederate right at Mill Spring. General Grant, 
 aided liy the river fleet under Commodore Foote, now 
 assailed the center. Fort Henry was first attacked Fi>rtsli. 
 and reduced by the gunboats before Grant had time to '^"'' ''"' 
 invest it. The combined forces then assaulted Fort ^' "' 
 Donelson, which after a brave resistance was captured 
 (February Hi) with l.'i.OOO prisoners. The center of the 
 confederate line was now pierced, and Johnston and 
 Polk were compelled to retreat for fear of being cut off. 
 Columbus, Bowling Gre<'n and Nashville were evacu- 
 ated, and the whole of Kentucky and most of Tennes- 
 see was in the hands of the Federals. General Buell 
 occupied Nashville; a strong union party showed itself 
 in Tennessee, and Senator Andrew Johnson was ap- 
 pointed military governor of the state. 
 
 2(i7. The confederates formed their second line of 
 defense along the railroad from Memphis to Chatta- 
 nooga, and began massing their forces at Corinth. The 
 armies of Grant and liuell were to unite and attack the 
 enemy in his new jKisilion. Grant moved up the Ten- 
 nessee river and halted at Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh. 
 about twenty miles i'nnn Corinth, there to await the 
 arrival of Biiell. Here Johnston made abrilliant attack pittsburg 
 upon him with the intention of crushing him before Laudiug. 
 Buell could come up. A terrible battle was fought 
 (April G and 7.) in which the confederate leader, who 
 was one of the slain, came very near effecting his pur- 
 pose. But the federal forces, though driven l)ack at 
 nearly every iioint, stubbornly resisted, and at the close 
 of the first day, Buell's advance guard came upon the 
 scene. The ne.xt morning. Grant, now reinforced, as- 
 sumed theofl'ensive; and after a fight of several hours, 
 the confederates were driven back to Corinth. 
 
 2G8. While these operations were taking place in "n tin.- Mn 
 Tennessee, Commodore Foote with his gun-boats '*'*''''''''• 
 entered the Mississippi with a small army under Pope, 
 and captured Lsland Number Ten on the ihiy of Grant's 
 victory at Shiloh. Two months later Fort Pillow was 
 abandoned by the confederates, and Memphis at once 
 fell into the hands of the union army. The victory at 
 Shiloh decided the fate of Corinth, an important rail- 
 road center, though it was not captured for several 
 weeks afterward on account of the slow advances of 
 General Halleck, who had assumed command of the 
 federal forces at that point. Meanwhile a th et under 
 Farragut and Porter, with a land force und. r Butler, 
 had been sent to attack New Orleans. Farragut, ran past 
 the batteries and forts at the entrance oi' the river, 
 attacked and destroyed the ironclads which met him, 
 and captured New Orleans, which was occupied by the New Or- 
 army under Butler. Farragut with a part of his fleet ''""is'i'l'^ja 
 then pushed up the river, clearing away all obstacles, 
 passed the batteries at Vicksburg, and met the federal 
 gunboats under Captain Davis, above. Thus the war 
 in the west had been, so far, marked by an almost 
 unbroken series of victories for the federal armies. At 
 the northern boundary of the state of Mississippi the 
 union advance stopped for a time, but all was held that 
 had been won. To gain control of the great river, it 
 was necessrry totake Vicksburg, with its outpost. Port 
 Hudson, which, between them, commanded the entrance 
 lo the Red river, and thus kept open the communica- 
 tions of the eastern pari of the confederacy with its 
 slates of Texas, Louisiana and Arkan-;as. To capture 
 Vicksburg wouldcul off these states, andgreally cripple 
 the fighting powi'r of the confederate government. 
 The occupation of Chattanooga was also necessary to 
 the success of the union arms. It would open the way 
 into Georgia, and prevent the confederates from recov 
 ering any of the lost ground in Tennessee. NiMimrMi 
 
 2011. While the south hadmit with defeat in U-e v.'est, ii'.rnm«i'. 
 
UI^ITED STATES 
 
 it was encouraged by a success in Hampton Roads. 
 The confederates bad taken the Merrimac, a former 
 frigate of the United Slates navy, and transformed her 
 into an ironclad ram, -with sloping sides and huge iron 
 beak. On March 8, 1863, this strange-looking craft 
 entered Hampton Roads and attacked the federal 
 fleet lying there, which consisted of live wooden ships 
 of war. The Merrimac destroyed the Cumberland, and 
 also compelled the frigate Congress to surrender. At 
 night she went back to Norfolk. The next morning she 
 was seen coming out again to complete the work of 
 destruction. Suddenly the Monitor, a turreted ironclad 
 vessel, advanced to meet her, and after an obstinate 
 engagement of several hours the Merrimac was com- 
 pelled to retire. These encounters were remarkable as 
 the first engagements between ironclads and wooden 
 vessels and between two ironclads. The result caused a 
 revolution in the navies of the world; the day of wooden 
 war- vessels was seen to be over, and all the great pow- 
 ers began at once the construction of iron and steel 
 vessels. 
 <f rL'iiiia 270. The military operations in Virginia during the 
 campaign, y^^j. jggg offered a strong contrast to the course of 
 events in the west. This was owing partly, no doubt, 
 to the superior ability of the confederate commanders, 
 as compared with their antagonists, partly becau.se on 
 the union side military affairs were too much inter- 
 mingled with politics. While General McClellan was 
 organizing a splendid army of 200.000 men near Wash- 
 ington, General Banks was ordered to occupy the 
 andoail™ Shenandoah valley. He began his advance in Feb- 
 valiey. ruary, and having, as he supposed, cleared the valley 
 of the enemy, set out with hi.'! own corps proper to 
 join McClellan. As soon as he was gone. General 
 Jackson, popularly known as "Stonewall Jackson,'' 
 hastened to attack the division of Shields which re- 
 mained in the valley. After a desperate battle at 
 Kearnstown (March 23), Jackson was compelled to 
 retire. Banks returned to the valley and Shields was 
 sent to join McDowell at Fredericksburg. General 
 Fremont now approached from the west, in order to 
 unite with Banks near Stanton. To prevent this Jack- 
 son formed the plan of attacking the Federal forces in 
 detail. He nearly succeeded in getting into the rear of 
 the main body with a much larger army than Banks 
 could muster. By a hurried retreat Banks reached and 
 crossed the Potomac, with the confederate cavalry in 
 close pursuit. Shields hastened back to the valley, but 
 his advance guard was defeated at Port Republic 
 (June 8) by Jackson, who, the same day, had checked 
 Fremont at Cross Keys. Having thus saved the valley 
 to the confederates, and obliged the government at 
 Washington to detain for the defense of the capital a 
 large body of troops which McClellan greatly needed 
 for other duty, Jackson joined the confederate army in 
 front of Richmond. 
 -r'jc.\rmy 37i. General McClellan concentrated the Army of the 
 Pot*TOac Potomac between Washington and Manasses, as if 
 intending to advance against Richmond by that route. 
 He then withdrew his forces and went by water to 
 Fortress Monroe in order to advance up the peuiusula 
 between the James and York rivers. Here he was held 
 in check for a month by Johnston at Yorktown, and 
 when McClellan was ready to take the place, the con- 
 federates retreated toward Richmond. The union 
 forces followed, and both armies concentrated around 
 Richmond. McClellan gained the battles of Williams- 
 burg (May 5), and West Point (May 9), and advanced 
 within seven miles of the city. A panic broke out in 
 the southern capital, and the confederate Congress ad- 
 journed in haste. It wag just at this time that Stone- 
 wall Jackson, by his brilliant and daring exploits in the 
 Shenandoah valley, obliged the federal government to 
 keep in front of Washington a corps under McDowell 
 which was about to co-operate with McClellan by way 
 of Fredericksburg. The movements of McClellan in- 
 
 volved the separation of the two wings of his army by 
 the little river Chickahominy, which by a sudden rise 
 was changed into a wide stream. The confederates 
 under Johnston at once attacked the union left wing at 
 Fair Oaks and Seven Pines. A tierce battle ensued. Fair Oaks 
 lasting two days; the result, however, was a union vie- p"'' Seven 
 tory. Johnston was wounded, and was succeeded by '""^^^ 
 Robert E. Lee, who retained command of the army of 
 Virginia during the rest of the war. 
 
 273. The absence of McDowell, who was expected to 
 support McClellan's right, compelled a change in the 
 whole plan of operations. Although Lee had been 
 repulsed in an attack on the Federal lines at Mechanics- 
 ville (June 2G), he fell upon them again at Gaines Mill, 
 the day following, in overwhelming force, and drove 
 them across the Chickahominy witli severe loss. Jack- 
 son had now reinforced Lee, and McClellan was cut off 
 from his base of supplies on York river. Unable to 
 reunite his wings and regain his base, the union general 
 decided upon the difHcult maneuver of establishing 
 another base on the James river. While effecting this 
 change, the union troops were hard pressed by Lee and 
 and Jackson, who, during the period from June 26 to 
 July 1, attacked them at Golding's Farm, S.ivnge's Th'' "Seven 
 Station, White Oak Swamp, Glendale, etc., and finally Baftipj, .. 
 at Malvern Hill, where the confederates were signally 
 repulsed. This was the last of a series of engagements 
 known as the "Seven Days' Battles," in the course of 
 which McClellan lost over 15,000 men. Lee suffered 
 almost as much. The union army had now reached ' 
 the James river, and established itself in a position 
 from which it could not be driven. 
 
 273. Lee and Jackson then turned their attention 
 toward Washington, which was defended by an army 
 under General Pope. Pope's forces stretched along 
 the Rappahannock and Rapidan to the Shenandoah 
 valley. General Banks held a position at the western 
 end of the line, and was attacked by Jackson at Cedar 
 Mountain. Lee followed close behind, and the two 
 generals forced Banks back and then attacked Pope. 
 McClellan received orders from Washington to join 
 Pope, and a portion of his forces came up in time to 
 
 take part in the second battle of Bull Run, August 29. The eecoud 
 Pope's army was put to rout, Washington was threat- su'i'i'^u^, 
 ened and the whole country was wild with excitement. 
 Lee now led his victorious army across the upper 
 Potomac and entered Maryland. McClellan, gathering 
 up the remantg of the two defeated armies, followed 
 and confronted the confederates at Antietam creek. A 
 desperate struggle took place (September 17). It left Amietam 
 each army exhausted, but the victory remained with 
 the union forces. The confederates recrossed the 
 Potomac and retired up the Shenandoah valley. The 
 administration was dissatisfied with McClellan's course, 
 and his command was given to General Burnside. The 
 new commander at once moved toward Richmond, 
 proposing to cross the Rappahannock at Fn dericks- 
 burg. Here he found Lee posted upon the hills behind 
 the town. Burnside crossed the river, and, forming 
 his army in three divisions, attempted to storm the 
 heights (December 13). It was a day of terrible 
 slaughter for the federal troops. They were repulsed Fredericks- 
 with the loss of twelve thousand men, the army was "°'^S- 
 demoralized and retreated to the north side of the 
 river. Burnside was then superseded by General 
 Hooker. The close of 1803 thus found the opposing 
 armies in nearly the same positions as at the beginning 
 of the war. At the north gloom and discouragement 
 prevailed. At the state elections held in the autumn 
 there was a majority against the administration in 
 several of the northern states, and the result of the 
 campaigns on the Potomac gave great strength to the 
 peace party, which believed that the attempt to sub- 
 jugate the south ought to be abandoned. 
 
 274. In June 1862 the great union force at Corinth Campaigns 
 was divided, Buell's army marching eastward to seize'"' ewcst. 
 
UNITE i) S T A T E S 
 
 Chiitlanooga, while Grant's remniiuii at Ciiriiilli till it 
 should be ready to start for Vickslmri;. The (-iitDimign 
 was so badly managed by llalleik that the eonfed- 
 eratcs, under Bragg, seized Chattanooga before IJuell's 
 arrival. They were thus enabled to press him so 
 vigorously that he had to be largely reinforced from 
 Grant's army. Thus weakened. Grant was unable to 
 advance for several months. During the summer of 
 lH(i2 the confederates made a great elfort to repair the 
 disasters they had suffered on the Tennessee and Mis- 
 Opcraiious sissippi rivers by an invasion of Kentucky. An army 
 in Kin- under Kirby Smith moved from Kno.wille, East Ten- 
 incKy. Dcssee, while another, under Bragg, marched from 
 Chattanooga. The confederate general, Smith, de- 
 feated General Nelson near Ri,-hmond, Kentucky, 
 Atigust .'iO, and advanced toward the Ohio, threatening 
 Cincinnati. General Lew Walliice. however, com- 
 pelled him to fall back to Frankfort, Bragg in the 
 meantime hastened loward the city of LouisvilU-. 
 Buell, leaving Nashville, by forced marches reached 
 the place one day ahead of Braiig. Being reinforced 
 he slowly pushed the confederates back. Bragg 
 formed a junction with Smith at Frankfort, and four 
 days later a severe but indecisive battle was fought at 
 Perryville (October 8). The confederates then re- 
 treated through Cumberland Gap. 
 
 27-"). Daring Bragg's campaign, the confederate army 
 in Mississippi under General Van Dorn made an attempt 
 to turn Grant's left wing at Corinth, and thus force liim' 
 back down the Tennessee river. This wing was coni- 
 maili d by General liosecrans, who defeated Price at 
 luka and luk.i, a few miles from Corinth, September 19. On 
 Corinih. October 4, Van Dorn and Price together attacked Cor- 
 inth, but were repulsed by liosecrans with a loss of 
 five thousand men, and pursued forty miles. Soon after 
 this Kosecrans supersedt^d Buell in command of the 
 army of the Cumbcrlaud. Bragg had advanced to 
 Murfreesborough, in central Tennessee. There Kose- 
 crans attacked him (December 31), and a bloody battle 
 was fought, in which 40,(100 men were engaged on each 
 side, and each lost more than 10,000. This engagement 
 Stone river, is generally known as the battle of Stone river. It was 
 inde(■l^ive. On .lanuary 2, lMti3 Bragg renewed the 
 atiack with great vigor, but this time he was signally 
 defeated and compelled to retire to Chattanooga. 
 
 27G. While these battles were being fought. Grant 
 had begun his first movement against the strong and 
 important post of Vicksburg, on the Mississippi. His 
 plan was to march from tjuckson. Mississippi, while 
 Sherman, with his 40,000 men, and Porter with a lleet 
 of gunboats, descended the river from Memphis The 
 movements were made according to this arrangement, 
 but Van Dorn's cavalry succeeded in gettingin Grant's 
 rear and cutting off his supplies. This compelled 
 Grant to aband(m his march to Jackson. Sherman 
 and Porter allacked the bluffs north of Vicksburg, but 
 were repulsed with heavy loss (December 2i(). Hearing 
 of (Grant's misfortune they returned to Memphis. 
 Affair-' on 277. After Hatteras Inlet to Pamlico Sound had been 
 the coosi. captured, it was next resolved toattack the confederate 
 posilion on lioanoake Island, which commands the 
 pa.ssage between Pamlico and Albemarle Sounds. A 
 land and naval expedition under (ieneral Burnside 
 and Commodore Goldsborough took the forts and bat- 
 teries of the island (February 8, 1.S62), ciiplurcd a con- 
 federate Hotilla. occupied jsewbern. North Carolina 
 (March 14). and reduced Fort Macon, at Beaufort. April 
 25. Kxpeditions from Port Koyal under Commodore 
 Dupont took possession of Darien and Brimswick, 
 Georgia, and of .lacksonville, Fernandina. and Saint 
 Augustine, Florida. April 11. 1«02. General Gilrnnre 
 captured Fort Pulaski on the Savannah river. Thus 
 the port of Savannah was completely closed, although 
 no effort was made for some time to occupy the cilv- 
 Congress. 278. During the movements of the armies in 1862, 
 Congress had not been idle. It was chielly occupied in 
 
 measures connected with the prosecution of the war- 
 Its most far-reaching acticm was in the provision for a 
 uniform national currency. At the beginning of the 
 war the government had borrowed large sums of money 
 to defray expenses, and it continued to borrow, as new 
 demands arose. The result was similar to that which 
 occurred in the Revolutionary war. The promi-es to 
 pay became less valuable as compared with gold, which 
 was the standard of value throughout the civilized 
 world. The banks in the several states could no 
 longer obtain gold without paying a high price for it; 
 and at the end of IStil they suspended specie payments. 
 In order to provide a currency for the people, a bill 1 Tt 
 was passed by congress, early in 180;!. authorizing the <^"''^™'^>'- 
 issue of notes by the United Stales treasury. These 
 notes received the popular name of "greenbacks," from 
 the color of the paper on which tliiy were printed; and 
 to insure their success they were declared by Congress 
 to be "legal tender" (February 2."), 1862). Earl}' in 
 1863. Congress passed an act establishing national banks. National 
 Heretofore the states had incorporated all banks, and ''*°''*- 
 the bills of each bank were seldom current excc|)t in 
 its own neighborhood. By the national banking .system, 
 the banks were to be organized, and United States 
 bonds deposited at Washington. The banks were then 
 permitted to issue notes up to ninety per cent, of the 
 value of the bonds deposited, and the notes, Ijeingthus 
 secured, became current in every part of the country. 
 The national banks are still in operation. A homestead 
 bill was passed, which assigned public lands to actual 
 settlers at reduced rates. Congress also prohibited 
 slavery in the District of Columbia; slaves of insurgent 
 were ordered to be confiscated; and the army was for- 
 bidden to surrender fugitive slaves to their masters. It 
 provided for the construction of a Pacific railroad and 
 telegraph, and began a further development of the 
 system of granting public lands to railway corporations. 
 
 279. Since the soulh had brought on the war in de- Kmancipa- 
 fense of slavery, the abolition sentiment bad spread"""- 
 very rapidly in the north, and it had now become sup- 
 ported by the mililary needs of the hour. At the 
 beginning of the conllict the union leaders and people 
 generally had not favored any interference with slavery, 
 but circumstances had proved their position to be unten- 
 able. President Lincoln, who watched anxiously every 
 movement, was convinced that tlie time had come when 
 the federal government could no longer attempt to carry 
 on the war successfully and spare the system of slavery, 
 which was perceived by every discerning man to be at 
 the foundation of the confederacy. He therefore 
 announced (.September. 1862.) that unless the revolling 
 states should return to their allegiance by January 1, 
 1863, he should declare the slaves in these states to bo 
 free. It was a formnl notice given out of resjiect to 
 law; no one seriously expected that it would be regarded 
 by the confederate stales. And it was not. They only 
 grew more firm in consequence of the action taken. 
 On the first day of January, 1863, in accordance with 
 his notice, the president issued his celebrated Proclania- Pmclama- ^ 
 tion of Emanciiiation. This act caused nuich discussion. '"""• 
 Mr. Lincoln could not, legallj'. issue such a declaration, 
 for the constitution g.ave him no aulhorily to abolish 
 slavery. But he acted on the principle of military 
 necessity, advocated by John Quincy Adams in his 
 S|)eech of April 14. 1842, in which he said: " Whether 
 the war be civil, servile, or foreign. I hiy this down as 
 the law of nations: I say that the military authority 
 takes for the time the place of all municipal institutions, 
 slavery among the rest. Under that slate of things, so 
 far from its being true that the states where slavery 
 exists h:ive the exclusive management of the subject, 
 not only the president of the United States, but the 
 commaiuler of the army, has power to order the univer- 
 sal emancipation of slaves." However the case may 
 be, the president's course was dictated bj' clear common 
 sense and wise statesmanship. The events of the pre- 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 Negro 
 soldiers. 
 
 Third year 
 of tbe war. 
 
 Battle of 
 Chancel- 
 lorsville. 
 
 Invasion of 
 Pennsyl- 
 
 Battle of 
 Gettysburt; 
 
 The 
 
 Vickwhurg 
 
 campaign. 
 
 ceding summer had shown that the war was far from 
 being at an end. The cutting off of the cotton supply 
 had been a general calamity, and the distress produced 
 in consequence created a fear lest England and France 
 should unite in an attempt to put an end to the contest. 
 But the proclamation changed all this. By it the strug- 
 gle was converted into a crusade against slavery, and 
 in this light foreign intervention was now simply im- 
 possible, owing to Great Britain's attitude toward 
 slavery. Moreover, should the federal government 
 be successful, the question of slavery would practically 
 be settled forever, for its abolition would be certain 
 when the union was re-established. One of the first 
 results of the act was the formation of regiments of 
 negro soldiers. An attack made by one of these regi- 
 ments, under Colonel Shaw, upon Fort Wagner, in 
 Charleston harbor, though unsuccessful, showed so 
 much bravery that the prejudice against negro soldiers 
 disappeared, and great numbers were enrolled. 
 
 280. General Hooker spent three months in reorganiz- 
 ing and strengthening the Army of the Potomac. At 
 the end of April. 1S63, he began his march toward 
 Kichmond with 130,000 men. Sending the sixih corps, 
 under Sedgwick, to cross the Rappahannock below 
 Fredericksburg, he threw his main body across the 
 river a few miles higher up, and before Lee xmderstood 
 his purpose he had advanced toChancellor-sville. Here 
 Lee won one of the most marked of his victories (May 
 1 to 4), with only one-half as many men as Hooker com- 
 manded. Jackson made a magnificent attack upon the 
 union right, taking it by surprise, and drove it back in 
 confusion. Sedgwick, on the left, had carried the 
 heights of Fredericksburg and was pushing on toward 
 Chancellorsville, when the disaster on the right enabled 
 Lee to face him with the main confederate force. Sedg- 
 wick was compelled to retire during the night which 
 followed the 4th of May, and Hooker recrossed the 
 Rappahannock the next night. Hooker's loss was 
 16,000; Lee's was 12,000; but the confederates fur- 
 ther sustained a severe disaster in the death of Stone- 
 wall Jackson. 
 
 281. Lee now repeated the maneuver he had prac- 
 ticed after defeating General Pope. Turning Hooker's 
 right flank, he pushed on through the western part of 
 Maryland into Pennsylvania, so as to threaten Phila- 
 delphia, Baltimore, and Washington. There was 
 intense alarm at the. north, and reinforcements were 
 hurried into Pennsylvania from all quarters. In con- 
 sequence of a disagreement with General HalUck, 
 Hooker resigned the command of the Army of the 
 Potomac, and it was given to General George G. 
 Meade. The two hostile armies, each 100,000 strong, 
 were now moving in parallel lines, with the Blue Ridge 
 and South Moimtain range between them. On the 1st 
 of July they came into collision at Gettysburg. A tre- 
 mendous battle was fought, lasting until the close of 
 July 3. It residted in the defeat of Lee, with a loss of 
 nearly 40,000 men; Meade's loss was 24,000. This 
 battle was one of the greatest of modern times, the loss 
 on both sides being more than one-third of the whole 
 number engaged. It was also the turning point of the 
 civil war. The south was never able to collect so fine 
 an army again, and never recovered from the exhaus- 
 tion of the Gettysburg campaign. Lee moved slowly 
 back to his old position on the Rapidan, where he and 
 Meade held each other in check until the following 
 spring. Many in the north were inclined to believe 
 that Lee's former successes had been due to Stonewall 
 Jackson's ability, and that he had lost his prestige upon 
 the death of that brave commander. But the campaigu 
 of 1864 was to prove the contrary. 
 
 282. On the next day after the battle of Gettysburg, 
 General Grant gained a decisive victory on the Missis- 
 sippi. Having failed in several attempts to take 
 Vicksburg from the north, he now determined to 
 transfer his army to the south side of this strongly 
 
 fortified place To do this it was necessary to cross 
 the river, march down its west bank, cross again below 
 Vicksburg, and march up the east bank, while the fleet, 
 which had run past the batteries of Vicksburg after 
 the capture of New Orleans, would have to pass them 
 again iu order to transport the army over the river and 
 protect the crossing. This plan was carried out in 
 April. Commodore Porter performed his task success- 
 fully under a heavy fire, and on the 29th of April 
 opened a cannonade upon Grand Gulf, at the mouth 
 of the Big Black river, where it had been determined 
 to attempt a crossing. The confederate batteries here 
 proving too strong, the fleet ran past them, also, and 
 the crossing was made at Bruinsburg, a few miles 
 below. Grant now pushed rapidly forward. The con- 
 federates were beaten at Port Gibson, and compelled 
 to evacuate Grand Gulf. McPherson and Sherman 
 captured Jackson, the capital of Misissippi, and a place 
 of great military importance on account of its railway 
 connections. The union army then turned, fell upon 
 the confederate general, Pemberton, who had marched 
 out of Vicksburg to unite with Johnston, defeated him 
 at Champion Hills (May 10), and at the crossing of the 
 Black river (May 17), and at last shut him up in Vicks- 
 burg. Afier a siege of forty-five days Pemberton sur- 
 rendered, and the great confederate stronghold of the 
 west, with 27,000 prisoners, fell into the hands of the 
 victorious Federals. Port Hudson, under siege at the 
 same time, could no longer hold out, and the Misissippi, 
 as President Lincoln said, "lan unvexed to the sea." 
 This was t je heaviest blow that the confederacy had 
 as yet received; its whole western zone was now 
 virtually conquered, and it became possible to concen- 
 trate greater union forces against its middle and eastern 
 zones. The news of Gettysburg and Vicksburg made 
 the Fourth of July, 1863, a day of rejoicing in the 
 north, and of mourning in thousands of bereaved 
 homes. 
 
 283. The "Vicksburg campaign marked the decline of 
 the confederate fortunes in the west, as the Gettysburg 
 campaign did in the east. In the meantime the people 
 had learned to give a more careful attention to the 
 welfare of the soldiers who were bearing the brunt of 
 the conflict. The Sanitary Commission, the Christian 
 Commission, and other voluntary associations, had been 
 organized, and were doing a grand work for the moral 
 and physical needs of the men in the field; and this 
 care was not confined solely to northern troops, but 
 was often extended to the confederates as well. The 
 expenses of the National government for prosecuting 
 the war now amounted to $2,000,000 per day on an 
 average, and notwithsitauding the heavy taxation 
 imposed upon the country the debt had increased to 
 $.500,000,000 by June, 18(;2; during 1863 it was double 
 that amount; by June, 1864, it had grown to $1,700,000,- 
 000; and at the end of August, 186.5, it attained its 
 maximum, $2.845,'J(I7,626. But the best of care and 
 judgment was exercised in the use of these vast 
 expenditures. The army was constantly supplied with 
 improved weapons and munitions of war; the block- 
 ading fleets were kept in perfect order, and everything 
 was done to insure the success of the union arms. 
 
 284. As early as April, 1862, the confederate Con- 
 gress had p.assed a conscription act, enrolling iu the 
 army all adult white males below a certain age, but as 
 the war went on the demand for men became con- 
 tinually greater and the conscriptiou was made more 
 sweeping. Toward the end of the war every white 
 man between the ages of seventeen and fifty five was 
 held liable to military service, and in practice the only 
 limit was physical incapacity. The federal govern- 
 ment also was compelled to take almost a similar 
 course. In March. 1803, Congress passed an act for 
 the enrollment of all able-bodied male citizens between 
 tbe ages of eighteen and forty-five, and the president 
 was authorized to make drafts for military service. 
 
 Jaclwson. 
 
 Clmmpioii 
 Hills and 
 Black River 
 
 Capture of 
 Vicksburg. 
 
 The Saiii- 
 tiiry and 
 Chrif^tian 
 CoinniiH- 
 sinns. 
 
 Govern- 
 Uifut ex- 
 penses. 
 
 Con- 
 scription. 
 
U i\ 1 '1' !•: 1 ) S T A ^1^ J'] s 
 
 Draft riot,-* 
 
 Chatia- 
 noogiu 
 
 u-ka- 
 
 Look nil t 
 
 ^loiiiiiain 
 and Mia- 
 eionary 
 Ridge. 
 
 Charleston 
 
 Confeder- 
 ate cruisers 
 
 those between twenty and thirty-five to be tirst called 
 upon. Under this law a call for yOO.OllO troops was 
 made in May. As the full number was not niiiile up 
 by volunteeriiii; a draft was ordered to supply the 
 dutieiency. The first attempts to carry it out resulted 
 i'l forcible resistance in many places, the most notable 
 lieir.g the "ilraft riots" in New York city in July, just 
 ai'ier the bailie of Gettysburjr. These riots lasted four 
 (lays in that city. During: this time New York was in 
 the hands of a lawless niob. many shoekini: murders 
 were committed and $2,000.(11)0 worth of property was 
 destroyed. All opposition was at lenifth ])ut down, 
 l)ut exemptions and subsiilute purchases were freely 
 permitted, and the sttiles endeavored to fill their re- 
 spective quotas as far as possible by offering bounties 
 as a stimulus to volunteering. 
 
 285. After his renowned victory near Murfrecsboro, 
 Rosecrans remained quiet for a perioil, preparing for a 
 new campaign. Late in June he began a series of 
 skillful movements against Hragg which compelled the 
 confederate general to fall back upon Chattanooga. 
 Early in September Rosecrans forced hiui to evacuate 
 the place by threatening his communications. The 
 union general followed him across the Tennessee 
 river and was thus beyond the strong position of 
 Chattanooga. General Bragg, having been heavily 
 reinforced from Virginia, turned at Chickamauga 
 creek to give battle. A severe engagement was fought 
 (September 17-20, 18G3) in which Lougstreet routed the 
 right of the union forces, but the wonderful skill and 
 braverj' of General Thomas, who commanded the left 
 wing, saved the federal army and secured its retreat to 
 Chattanooga. Bragg having gained possession of the 
 mountains around the place cut off almost all avenues 
 of further retreat and laid siege to Chattanooga. The 
 governnient at Washington had committed the mistake 
 of dividing the union forces, for while Rosecrans was 
 left to face an army greall3' superior in numbers, under 
 General Bragg, General Burnside was sent into east 
 Tennessee with an independent command. Bragg was 
 now so sure of Rosecrans' defeat that he dispaiched 
 Long-itreet with a part of his army to attack l!urnside 
 at Kno.xville. In October Rosecrans was superseded 
 by Thomas, and Grant was jiut in command of all the 
 western armies. lie was joined at Chattanooga by two 
 corps under Hooker from the Potomac. General 
 Shermau came up from Vicksburg with a greater part 
 of the army of the Tennessee. Bragc's positions on 
 Lookout MoiMilain and .Missionary Ridge were now 
 assaulted. The former was successfully stormed by 
 Hooker (November 24), part of the fighting taking- 
 place amid.-t a thick mist which covered the summit, 
 hence this has been called the "battle above the 
 clouds." On the ne.xt day Missionary Ridge was car- 
 ried by the main army. Hooker on the rigiit, Thomas 
 in toe center and Sherman on the left. Bragg was 
 driven from all his positions back to Djillon and was 
 soon afterward superseded by (General J. E. Johnston. 
 Longstreet raise<i the siege of Kno.wille and retreated 
 across the mountains into V'irginia to join Lee. 
 
 280. Many attempts had been made to reduce Charles- 
 ton, Souih Carolina, the strongest, as well as the most 
 important of the southern seaports, nut without suc- 
 less. At length Fort Wagner was taken (September 7) 
 after a tremendous bombardment by the Federal fieet 
 and GiUmore's baiterie<; Fort Sumter, also, was reduced 
 to ruins. The bh.ckading vessels were thus enabled to 
 enter the liarlior. and the port of Charleston was 
 entirely closed. Taking advantage of every hxiphole 
 in the British foreign enlistment act, the confederale 
 autboriiii 3 h.id succeeded in fitting out several formida- 
 ble cruisers, which, in the course of the year 1H(!3. did 
 immense damage to American comnnrce. Whenever 
 they were closely pursued by Unileil States vessels tbey 
 took refuge in neutral ports, and lbei\ put out to sea 
 again upon the first favorable opportuniiy. The most 
 
 active ones were the Florida, the Alabama and t'le 
 Oeorijiii. The Florida, built at Liverpool, after having 
 captured twenty one vessels, was seized in the harbor 
 of Bohiii, Brazil (October, 1864). The O'-orgia, built 
 at Glasgow, put to sea in April, but was captured after 
 a short cruise by the United Slates frigate Niagara. 
 The most important of the confederate cruisers was 
 the Alabama. She was built at Liverpool for the con- 
 federate captain, Semracs. The British government 
 was urged by the American minister, Mr. Adams, to 
 enforce its own laws, and prevent her going to sea; yet 
 she was allowed to set sail in July. After destroying 
 more than si.xty vessels, .^he was met by the United 
 States steamer Kear.nage, commandeil by Captain Win- Tl"- Kear- 
 slow, off Cherbourg (June 19, 1S(!1), and afier an l'"ur'8^',.^'^,"|"'' 
 action the Alabama was sunk. 
 
 287. At the beginning of 18()4, several detached oper- Miimi- 
 ations were carried on which, thenigh attracting much °1'^'"'''""- 
 attention at the time, had but little direct bearing upon 
 theelosingcampaignsof thewar. General Sherman made 
 
 his raid nearly across the stale of Mississippi, destroy- 
 ing railroads, bridges and supiilies. General Seymour, 
 leading a union expediti(m into Florida, was defeated. 
 General Banks was sent up the Red river to attack 
 Shreveport, and bring away cotton. The expedition 
 ended in failure and (lisaster. General Rosecrans was 
 appointed to command in Missouri. He succeeded in 
 repelling an invasion by Price, who was finally driven 
 from the state. General Forrest, with a confederate 
 force made a raid into Tennessee and Kentuckj', and 
 captured Fort Pillow (April 12), where a number of 
 negro troops were massacred. 
 
 288. The success of Grant in the west had made him Gnmt 
 the chii-f fisnre in the war. In Jlarch. 18(!4. he super- h^ iiieeiwt. 
 seded Halleek as comnianderinebief, with the r uik of 
 lieutenant-general. He at once took personal direction 
 
 of the campaign against Richmond, while retaining 
 Meade in immediate command. The army of the 
 Potomac was re-orf;anizi d in three crops, under Han- 
 cock, Warren and Sedijwick, to which was soon added 
 another under Burnside, while General Philip Sheridan 
 was called from the west, and appointed to the com- 
 mand of all the cavidry in the eastern army. Lee's 
 forces, which comprised the fiower of the soutliern 
 troops, had otherwise been divided into three corps, 
 under Generals A. P. Hill, Ewell and Longstreet. 
 Sherman had been left in command of the three wi-stern SluTman. 
 armies of the Ohio, the Cumberland, and ihe Tennes- 
 see, and he was to oppo-e Johnston at Dalton. Accord- 
 ing to arrangement, a simultaneous advance was made 
 in Georgia and Virginia, early in May. The army of 
 the Potomac, numbering about 12.').6t)0 men (nearly 
 twice as many as Lee's), crossed the Rapidan and 
 entered the " \Yildi>rness " on the oilier side. ItwasTin- 
 Grant's object to push through this difficult country as ^^'I'deroe^g 
 rapidly as possible and gel between Lee's army and 
 Richmond. In pursuing the direct route through 
 Fredericksburg to Richmond, the union armj' encount- 
 ered a series ol strong defensive positions, of which Lee 
 availed himself wiih consummate skill. The battles 
 began on the 5lh, and continued until the 12lh without 
 interruption, both sides fighting with the utmost 
 bravery and suffering severely. Lee was steadily 
 forced back, and on the 9lh Grant was clear of the 
 Wilderness wiili his forces concentrated near Spott- 
 sylvania conit-housc. Here there was furious and ob- 
 stinate fighting for ten days, with scarcely any inter- 
 mission. Then followed the battles of North Anna 
 and Cold Harbor in which the union losses were ter- 
 rible. Having now reached the Cliickahominy, and 
 finding it impossible to break through Lee's lines of 
 defeuje, Grant crossed the river, and moving far to the 
 right of his adversary, transferred bis army beyond 
 the James to a-s lil Richmond from the south. This 
 involved the reduction of the sinmgly-fortified town of 
 I'etersburg, on the Appomattox, practically a part of p. urBharg: 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 Cetiar 
 Creek. 
 
 The 
 
 Allan tft 
 
 the defenses of Richmond, from which it was twenty 
 miles distant. It also brought the Federal Imes into 
 dangerous proximity to Lee's railroad communications 
 with the south. At this point, tliereforc, the confeder- 
 ate commander stationed the beat part of his troops, 
 and stubbornly resisted all Grant's efforts to e.xtend his 
 lines further to the southwest or to reach the railroads. 
 289 A long siege of Richmond and Petersburg was 
 now begun early iu June, but neither army remained in- 
 active. Ill July, Lee sent Early into the Shenandoah 
 valley, wilh a corps strongenough to menace Washing- 
 ingto"n, hoping that Grant might be induced to call off 
 troops from Peter-burg. The chief result of Early's 
 movement was the burning of Chambersburg, and the 
 capture of a quantity of supplies. Grant put Sheridan 
 in command of the valley, who defeated Gen Early at 
 Winchester (September 19), and at Fisher's Hill two 
 days later, after which he destroyed all the rich crops 
 in the valley and carried off the can le, so that the con- 
 federates might not be tempted to repeat the raid. But 
 Early, having obtained fresh troops, suddenly fell upon 
 the federals at Cedar Creek (October 19), driving thein 
 back in great confusion. Sberidau was absent when 
 the battle was fought, but, getting intelligence of it, he 
 rode rapidly up the v.alley, rallied his men, who were, 
 however, being enheartened by their respective com- 
 manders, and scattered Early's forces, which never met 
 Sheridan again as a compact army during the remainder 
 of the war. 
 
 Meanwhile. Grant had succeeded in getting possession 
 of a few miles of the Weldon railroad, upon which Lee 
 depended for transportation, but the confederate gen- 
 eral brought his supplies in wagons round that portion 
 held by the federals. The two armies now remained 
 in comparatively the same position until the following 
 spring. 
 
 290. The western campaign in 1864 began at the same 
 time as Grant's movement in Virginia Sherman ad- 
 ssnipaign. .^^^^^^.,1 j-,.,,^ Chattanooga with "lOO.OOO men under 
 Thomas, McPlierson, and Schofield. against Johnston's 
 force of 75,000. The objective point of the campaign 
 was the capture of Atlanta, Georgia, a very strongly 
 fortified place about one hundred miles south of Chat- 
 tanooga, and the chief manufactory of the confederate 
 military supfilies. Johnston, wilh his weaker force. 
 dared not risk a regular battle, but h'! made the best use 
 of the various diffusive positiom which the rough and 
 mountainous cuiniry afforded. By a series of masterly 
 flank movements Sherman couipc lied him to evacuate 
 one position after anotlier. Severe battles were fought 
 at Resaca (Jlay 15), Dallas (May 25), Lost Mountain 
 (June 14), and Kenesaw Mountain (June 27). By the 
 10th of July Johnston was intrenched behind the de- 
 fenses of Atlanta, and the two armies were facing each 
 each other wilh the Chattahoochee river between them. 
 Johnston's retreat had been conducted with great skill, 
 but he was nowsuperseded by Hood (.luly 17). who was 
 Operati. ins known as a "tigblinggeneral," Hood atonce proceeded 
 •'■*"*""*• to carry out the active policy of the confederate gov- 
 ernment, and assumed the offensive. Before the end 
 of the month he had made three furious assaults on the 
 union li'jes and was repulsed in every one of them. 
 The federals, however, sustained a heavy loss in the 
 death of General McPherson At leIl^lh, by fine man 
 euvering, Sherman succeeded iii gaining the rear of 
 Atlanta, and cutting the supply railroads. This obliged 
 the confederates to retreat iu all haste, and on the 2d 
 of September, Sherman was able to telegraph to Wash- 
 ington that Atlanta was won, 
 ii,„,li„ 291. Hood, by the direct command of Davis, now 
 
 Tiiir;i-,see. made a fatal mistake, which materiallj' hastened the 
 downfall of the confederacy. lie moved northwest- 
 ward by Tuscumbia and Florence into middle Tennes- 
 see, thinking that Sherman would follow him in order 
 to defend that state. But Sherman was no more to be 
 controlled by this device than Grant had been by Early's 
 
 raid into the Shenandoah. He divided his army, send- 
 ing back part of it under Thomas to take care of Hood, 
 while he himself prepared to continue his advance 
 through Georgia. Hood, moving northward toward 
 Nashville, was met and defeated at Franklin (Novem- 
 ber '60), with heavy loss, by Schofield. The confeder- 
 ate general arrived at Nashville with about 44.000 men. 
 The union forces awaited him there behind the forti- 
 fications. Thomas, having completed his preparations, 
 suddenly moved out of his works and fell upon the Nashville, 
 confederate lines (December 15). The batile la-ted two ) 
 
 days and ended iu the utter rout and demoralization 
 of Hood's forces. Thus one of the two great armies of 
 the confederacy was scattered, ueveragaia to be united. 
 Of all the bailies fought in the course of the war, this 
 was the most complete victory. 
 
 292. While these things were going on, the presi- PresiUentml 
 denlial election of 18t)4 took place. Some of the nnre "'/^^i'™ 
 
 1.1 1' ■■! .1 1 1 iii»tOI 10D4. 
 
 radical men, dissatisfied with what they called Air. 
 Lincoln's timiil and irresolute policy, met in convc iv ion 
 (May31) at Cleveland, Ohio, and nominated John C. Fre- 
 mont forthe presidency. Mr. Lincoln and Andrew John- 
 son werenominaled (June 7) for president and vice-pres 
 sident by the Kepubliean National Convenlidu at Balti- 
 more. TlieDemocraticNational Convention declared in 
 its platform that the inabiliiy of the federal govern men I to 
 restore the union by war was demons' rated by four 
 years of failure; that the constitution had been violated 
 in all its parts under the iilea of military ni cessiiy , and 
 that a cessation of hostilities ought to be obtained It 
 nominated George B. McClellan and George H. Pendle- 
 ton as president and vice president. Ttiis declaration of 
 the peace Democracy that the war was a failure, when 
 all things were now pointing towadthe final success 
 of the north, caused many doubtful vo > s to be cast for 
 the Republican candidates, and asssuied their election. 
 When the electoral votes were counteil. L ncnln and 
 Johnson had received 212, McClellan and Pendleton 21. 
 
 293. Sherman had burned Atlanta, destroyed "^t ^'1,'^,™''^°'* 
 railroads and telegraphs in his rear, sent back the sick ^i^,, g^.^ 
 and wounded, and much of the baggage, and set out 
 (November 14) on his " famous march through Geor- 
 gia." His army, 65,000 strong, was spread out over a 
 breadth of forty miles, subsisting mainly on the prod- 
 uce of the country. For a month scarcely anything 
 
 was heard of him at the north, when he suddenly 
 turned up at Savannah, Ga. He haii met with but 
 little opposition or. his route. The confedcalcs had 
 numerous bodies of troops which might have been con- 
 centrated to oppose his march, hut he had threatened 
 so many points and kept the enemy in so much doubt 
 as to his olijects that Ihey could not tell for which 
 point he was making. On December 1.3 Fort McAllis- 
 ter was taken by assault, and on the 20th Savannah Savannah, 
 was ev.acuaied by the confederates, Sherman sending 
 the news id' the capture to president Lincoln as a 
 "Christmas gift.'' He also sent word that the confed- 
 eracy was nothing but a shell, and that he was ready 
 with his victorious army to march northward. 
 
 294 The only important ports, except Galveston, Mobile and 
 which remained open to the confederacy in the summer )^^°^'"S' 
 of 1864, were Mobile in Alabama, and Wilmington, in 
 North Carolina. The forts commanding the entrance 
 (0 Mobile Bay were captured (August 5) and the port 
 was closed. On January 16, 1865, Wilmington, North 
 Carolina, was taken by a combined land and naval 
 force, under General 'Terry and Commodore Porter. 
 On the day before this event, Sherman had begun his Sherman's 
 northward taarch, passing through Columbia, to Fay- [^"north. 
 ettcville, North Carolina. This movement had forced 
 the evacuation of Charleston and other coast cities, and 
 their garrisons had been concentrated under Johnston 
 as a last hope. The military support of the confed- 
 eracy now rested on the army which Lee commanded 
 within the intrenchmen's of Richmond and Petersburg, 
 and on the remnant of the wes'crn forces with which 
 
U i\ i 'L' ]•: 1) S.T AT ]•: ►s 
 
 Full of Ihe 
 
 coiifed- 
 
 erttcy. 
 
 Five Fork! 
 
 Ricbmond. 
 
 Sarrender 
 of Lee. 
 
 Surrender 
 of John- 
 
 pton. 
 
 Johnston wns tryinir to clieik Shi-rmiiirs iidvnncc. 
 tfoiiif sbarp tiirlilinj; UHik pliu-e nurlh of Fiiyftlcviilc. 
 but Golilsl)oroiii;li was rciu-lKil Martli'JI, and .Iiilinslo:i 
 retreated to Kaleigh. Slu-rman pii^lied on aft<T him, 
 but events in Virginia were fast rendering a conlesl in 
 North Carolina unnecessary. While the union army 
 occui>ie(l (i'lldshorough. Siiernian took a steamer on 
 the eoast and luirriedly visited llie .Tames river, where 
 he nii't the pre:-iilenl. tlemral (irani and (Jeneral Miade. 
 and arranged wilh them llie i)lan of operations for the 
 future. During Sliernian's march through North Car- 
 olina. Sheridan had Ird a coluniu of cavalry up the 
 Shenandoah valley to ilestroy Lee's communications in 
 the rear of Richmond. He passed along the James 
 river. Ooing great damage to the canal and railroads. 
 and joiueil tlie main army in front of Petersburg jusl 
 as Sherman arrived there for his conference wilh the 
 president and Grant. 
 
 29,5. The situation of Lee was now becoming des- 
 perate, lie determined to abandon Petersburg and 
 Richmond, move by way of Danville, and effect a 
 junction wilh Johnston. With this purpose he made 
 one desperate attempt to break the center of the >ini(Ui 
 lines at Fort S'eadman, intending under cover of the 
 attack to wiihdraw liis force. Tlie effort failed, and 
 Lee was repulsed with lieavy loss, (irant resumed his 
 attempts to push liis lines further round to the south of 
 Peter- liurg. SluTldaii was put in command of the 
 extreme left. Here he attacked Lee's right al Five 
 Forks (April 1), destroyed the Soulhside railroaii. anil 
 maintaiueil his |osition. To avoid being outllankcd 
 Lee wasconipellid to lengthen out his line, already too 
 ihin. The next morning (April 2) Grant mad(^ a general 
 assault, and carried his army within the lines of the 
 Petersburg defences. Lee retreated, wilh the intention 
 of bringing his forces aiul Johnston's together for a liiial 
 Stand, while the advance guard of the union army 
 entered Richmond. The confederate authorities 
 hastened to escape to Danville, having first set fire to 
 the shipping, tobacco warehouses, etc., at Richmond. 
 No time was lost in celebrations of the victory. Grant 
 pre.-sed on in the pursuit of Lee wilh all vigor. He 
 had so disposed the federal army that the e,-cape of 
 the confederates was almost impossible. The confed- 
 erate forces were headed oft al Apiiomaltox Courl 
 House, where Lee surrendered (April i), 18(i.j). The 
 terms of surrender offered by Grant wire very generous; 
 all private property belonging to ollicers and soldiers 
 was to be retained, the men were even allowed to keep 
 their horses, " because." Grant said, " they would need 
 them for the work on their farms." Officers and mi n 
 were at once set free on parole, with the understanding 
 that so long as they did not violate iheir parole, nor 
 break the laws, they would not be disturbed by the 
 federal government. 
 
 296. Sherman had begun his final operations against 
 Johnston when the news arrived of the surrender of 
 Lee. Johnsion thereupon cnpilulated (April 2(!) on 
 much the same terms that had been accorded to the 
 confederate army in Virginia, after an unsuccessful 
 effort al a more favorable settlement. All llie other 
 confedera:e forces in the lirld aNo surrendered, and the 
 great civil war came to an end. The news was received 
 wilh an oulburst of joy at the north. Mr. Lincoln had 
 begun his second term on March 4, 180.5. Al that time 
 the end of the struggle was plainly near, and the jiresi- 
 dentin his inaugural address had already expressed the 
 hope that there would be a reconciliation between the 
 two sections. He said : " With malice toward none, 
 with charity for all, wilh firmness in the right as C.kI 
 gives us to see the right, lei us strive to linish the work 
 we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds, to care for 
 him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow 
 and for his orphans; to do all which may achieve and 
 cherish a just and a lasting peace among ourselves and 
 with all nations." 
 
 297. The pulilic rejoicings over the capture of Rich- A^saBsina 
 niond well- clouded by the death of the wise and noble LUicofn 
 L'ncoln. He had gone to Ford's theater on theeveniiig 
 of A|)ril14, and was silling in his box, when an aclor 
 named J. Wilkes Booth entered unperceived and shot 
 the president through the head, crying: !The south ia 
 avengeil. Sir. Ki'm/xr tyrannin." Almost at the same 
 time one of Boot hs accomplices named Payne allem pled 
 to assassinate Secretary Seward, who was ill at home, Scward. 
 and wounded him serifuisly but not fatally. There bad 
 been a plot on the part of .some desperate characters 
 when the confederacy fell, to destroy the leaders of the 
 federal government, but their plans were accomplished 
 in part only. The chief [larties implicated perished 
 miserably. Booth and Payne etscaped for a time, but 
 were soon caught. Booth was killed while resisting 
 arrest. Payne and three ot'hers were hanged, and 
 several persons concerned in the plot w.-re sentenced to 
 imprisonment. The president lingered a few hours, 
 and died wiilmut giving any sign of con.sciousness. His 
 death caused the deepest sorrow, not only in the north, 
 but in the south as well, and throughout all the civil- 
 ized world. He bad won the abiding love and trust of 
 the people, and his name will forever be linked wilh 
 that of Washington; for he was in many ways the 
 second founder of his country, 
 
 29S. Jett'erson Davis, while trying to escape, was .jeficrso* 
 captured by a detachment of General J. U. Wilson's '>»*'». 
 cavalry at Irwinsville, Georgia, and was sent to For- 
 tress Monroe. Here he was confined a close prisoner 
 for a liuig time on charge of treason. He was al la>t 
 liberated on bail furnished by Horace Gneley and 
 others, and all proceedings against him were finally 
 abandoned. In fact, the glorious triuniph of the 
 government of the United Stales was in no w ise sullied 
 by any dismal executions for Ireason. Tlie assa-^ina- 
 tion of Ijincoln checked for a tin.e Ihemovement which 
 had already begun for the restoration of the siceiling 
 states. People who had been ready in ihiir joy to make 
 jieace with those who had been leaders iu the con- 
 federacy now were ready to believe that the spirit 
 which had brought on the warwas unchanged. 1 liere 
 was a demand that the laws against Ireason. passed by 
 Congress dur'.ig the beat of the war, in l.S(i2, should be 
 rigiilly enforced. These laws jirescrilied that the 
 punishmi'iit of treason and rebellion should be death, 
 or fine and imprisonment. But a wiser ju.liimeiu pre- 
 vailed. There was no hanging for treason. The leaders 
 of the confederacy were never brought to trial. The 
 president of the confederate stales was suffi red to go 
 free; and the vicepresident, before his death, became 
 an efficient and respected member 'n the Congress of 
 the United Stales, For a long time, however, all 
 persons who had previously taken oath of allegiance 
 to the federal government, and then had broken it by 
 joining the confederacy, were debarred _.oin holding 
 any oflico under the government of the Uniled Slates. 
 
 299. At the close of the war the feder.d armies num- Number 
 bered about 1.1)01), (100 men. of whom nearly 600,000 mi". in t 
 were present in the field. The number of confederate "'''"'"■■*• 
 soldiers surrendered and paroled was, 174.000, besides 
 whom there were G:!.<)U0 prisoners in the hands of the 
 Federals. The whole number of men who served on 
 the union side during the warwas about l..")O0,000. Of 
 these. 90,000 were killed, 1S4,000 died of disease while 
 in the service: many thousands more died of wounds or 
 sickness after being discharged. The armies of the 
 confederacy aresu|)[)osed to have reached I heir strongest 
 point al the beginning of 180:i, when they numbered 
 about 700.000. There was great dissatisfaction among 
 the southern people at the manner in which Jefferson 
 Davis conducted the war; and Ihi^ arbitrary attempts of 
 the confederate government to force men into the ranks, 
 aroused, at last, a spirit of opposition. During the 
 latter part of the war desertions had become very fre- 
 quent; and this fact, taken in connection with the losses 
 
UNIT E.I) S T A T E S 
 
 f'onfed- 
 
 eraie 
 
 •inances. 
 
 The ma 
 
 inientl 
 
 meiit. 
 
 in bat'.le, aud from disease, caused a Krcut r.'iliu-tion iii 
 the niimeiieal force, so tliat at tlie end of the .siiU!;t;ie, 
 it 13 doubtful whether the confederate armi. s contained 
 more than 200,000 men. As soon as pos-iSle after 
 organized resistance had ceased, the Federal armies 
 began to be disbanded. The men were discharged at 
 the rate of about 300.000 a month, UO.OOO being retained 
 in service as a standing army. 
 
 oOO. The expenses of the Federal government 
 amounted at one time to three and a half million dollars 
 a day. By August 31. 180.5, the whole debt had reached 
 its maximum, amounting to about $3. 84.5, 907. 0'2G. Some 
 $800,000,000 of revenue had also been spent mainly on 
 the war. Beside the regular outlay by the govern- 
 ment enormous sums were spent by states, cities, 
 couuties and towns, in bounties to volunteers, and liy 
 the sanitary commissions and other societies for the 
 comfort of sick and wounded soldiers, and for the 
 whole army in general. The expenses of the confeder- 
 ate government can never be known. Its debt was 
 estimated at about $2,0<H),000.000, but this was wiped 
 out liy the fiilure of the confederacy, all its bonds and 
 notes beeoniiug worthless. The amount of property 
 destroyed by the union aud confeiierate armies can 
 scarcely lie estimated, and the money v.a'ue ($2,000,- 
 000,000,) of the slaves in the south fell a sacrifice to 
 the war. In the United States funds were raised by 
 the sale of bonds, the issue of paper money, of "green- 
 backs." aud tlie inipositiou of heavy taxes, including 
 for some years a tax on incomes. The notes became 
 grea'iy depreciated, so that in July. 1864, the price of 
 gold in pa[ii-r currency was nearly three dollars. Gold 
 aud silver almost disappeared from circulation. 
 
 301. The tinances of the confederacy were in a ruin- 
 ous condition long before the end of the war. It could 
 make no drafts on the future, by bond issues, and it 
 was a very difficult matter to find purchasers for south- 
 ern bonds. As expenses increased, they had to be met 
 by paper issues, and each issue was accompanied by a 
 corresponding decline in value, until a dollar in coin 
 was worth fifty dollars in jjaper. Large sums were 
 required to buy even the most necessary articles. 
 Boots were worth two hundred dollars; shoes, one 
 hundred aud twenty-five dollars; coats, three hundred 
 and fifty dollars; pantaloons, more than one hundred 
 dollars; Hour, two hundred and seventy dollars per 
 barrel; iiotatocs, twenty to twenty-five dollars per 
 bushel; bacon, ten dollars per pound; meal, sixty-five 
 to seventy-five dollars per bushel; butter, sixteen dol- 
 lars per pound. Other things were proportionately 
 high in price; luxuries of all kinds had disappeared, 
 and uhnostthe entij'e population was reduced to ex- 
 treme [lovertj-, 
 
 VIII. — THE BESTOR.VTION OP THE UNION. 
 
 302. At the beginning of the war the greater part of 
 the northern people was opposed to any interference 
 with slavery, and the federal government announced 
 its determinatiim not to meddle with the question. But 
 the progress of the war compelled it to a different 
 course. Hence, firs*, came the Proclamation of Eman- 
 cipation; then in February, 18(55, congress passed the 
 thirteenth amendment to the constitution, abolishing 
 slavery in the United States forever. After the war 
 was over the first wish of those who had been most 
 prominent in putting down the confederacy was that 
 the union should be restored as quickly as possible to 
 its former state, with the exception of slavery. It was 
 to be many years, however, before the warring sections 
 of the union could hit transformed inio a harmonious 
 nation. The war had devastated the country in whicli 
 it haii been engaged. The people on each side had 
 suffered in the Iocs of friends, homo and property, and 
 could not at once be reeonciled. The irreat chiinge 
 which had taken place in the abolition of slavery 
 
 veaehea to the very foundations of southern society and 
 industry. 
 
 303. Upon the death of Mr. Lincoln, Vice-President 
 .Tohnson succeeded to the office of president, and to the 
 (lltficult task of the reconstruction of the rebellious 
 slates. He had lieen selected by the republican party 
 as representing the union men of the south. He was 
 not, however, in full sympathy with the Itepublicans, 
 and it soon became evident that there was a breacli 
 between the president and Congress, which constantly 
 widened. The first business engaging the attention of 
 the government after the restoration of peace was the 
 establishments of regular governments in the southern 
 states. The president issued various proclamations, in 
 which he declared all southern ports open to commerce 
 except four in Texas, and granted amnesty and pardon 
 to all persons engaged in the rebellion, exce|it fourteen 
 specific classes of leaders, who were to make special 
 applications for pardon. About the manner of restor- 
 ing the state governments, however, a serious quarrel 
 arose between the president and Congress. The con- 
 stitution made no provision for the readmission of a 
 state which had withdrawn from the union, and Jlr. 
 Johnson, as a former states right Democrat, held tha' 
 the southern states had never been out of the union; 
 that the leaders were solely responsible; that as soon as 
 the seceded states applied for readmission under such a 
 form of government as the constitution required, the 
 federiil government was bound to admit them without 
 imposing conditions upon subjects over which the con- 
 stitution had not expressly given Congress jurisdiction. 
 The Republican leaders held that the action of the 
 seceded states had deprived them of their rights as 
 members of the union; that in the relation they now 
 occupied they were in the category of territories seek- 
 ing admission to the union, in which case Congress 
 could admit or reject them at will. The particular 
 question which brought on the controversy was the 
 civil status of the negro. The Republicans held that 
 slavery had been the cause of the war; that it was now 
 abolished; aud that only by giving the freedman the 
 right to vote could he be protected, and the results of 
 the war secured. They also claimed that no state 
 should be admitted until it had granted the right of 
 suffrage to the negroes within its borders. Johnson 
 held this to be a matter of internal regulation beyond 
 the control of Congress. 
 
 304. When Johnson succeeded to the presidency in 
 April, 1805, he had a cle:!r field before him, for con- 
 gress w:is not to meet until December. Fromi May 9 
 to July 13 he appf>inted provisional governor-i for seven 
 states, whose duties were to reorganize the govern- 
 ments. The state governments were organized, but 
 passed such stringent laws In reference to the negroes 
 that the Republicans declared it was a worse form of 
 slavery than the old. When Congress met in Decem- 
 ber, 1865, it was very largely Republican and firmly 
 determined to protect the negro against outraee and 
 oppression. The fir>t breach between the (.re-ldent 
 and the party in power was the veto of the first Freed- 
 men's Bureau bill in February, 18(i6, which was 
 designed forthewelfare of thecolored peo[iIe. President 
 Johnson objected that it had been passed by a congress 
 in which the southern states had no representatives. 
 The bill failed to pass by a two-thirds vole. Congress 
 then passed a civil right's bill in March. 1S66, by which 
 freedmen were made citizens of the United States, and 
 United States officers were instructed to protect these 
 rights in the courts. The president vetoed this bill 
 also, th objection being that it interfered with the 
 rights of tue states. This bill was passed over the 
 veto. To make the bill stronger. Congress adopted the 
 Fourteenth Amendment to the constitution (June 16). 
 and submitted it to the states, the necessary majoriiy 
 of which ratified it. Bmh houses then passed a joint 
 resoluil.m that no delegation from any of the stales 
 
 Jolinson aa 
 president. 
 
 Qinirrel 
 l)et\veen the 
 president 
 aiKt Con- 
 
 gr. ss. 
 
 Freedraen't 
 Bureuu bill 
 
 Civilright'e 
 bill. 
 
 The Fonr- 
 tec'iith 
 jimend- 
 nieiU. 
 
U :n^ I 'IM ; 1 ) S T A T E s 
 
 AdmihMon 
 of Nc 
 
 Tcnuri'of 
 Office bill. 
 
 liiipeacli- 
 
 lUt'llI of lllf 
 
 pret«iUolit. 
 
 Alaska. 
 
 N**vacia 
 Hlid N<- 
 bra>ka. 
 
 Gniiit'x 
 election 
 
 liiti'ly "1 n lu'llion elioiiltl be received by either the 
 feimie or the hou^e until both uiiileil iu declariug auitt 
 state a member of the iiiiiou. 
 
 ;!().■). The presiilent (li^a|)proved of thtse mea«iire>;, 
 and there was now open hostility between the execu- 
 tive and eoti;;re>s. In February. 1W7. a bill wa.s passed 
 admitiini; Nel)raska as a .state, with the provision that 
 it should never enact any law denying the right of 
 suffrage to any person because of bis color or race. This 
 was vetoed, and passed over the veto. On March 2. 
 lx«7, the " bill to provide elVicient government.s li>r the 
 ii.surreclionary states." which embodied the congres- 
 sional plan of reconstruction, was pa.ssed over the 
 president's veto. This bill divided the southern states 
 into military districts, each under a luigiidier general, 
 who was to preserve order and e.\ercise all the func- 
 ti.ms of government vnitil the citizens had fiunieii a 
 Slate uovi-rnmeni, rntitied the amendments, and lieen 
 admitted to the union. On the same day the Ti'iiiire 
 of Oflice bill was passed over the veto. This provided 
 that civil ofticers should remain in oflice until the con- 
 tirmalion of their successors ; that the niembers of the 
 cabinet should be removed only with the consent of the 
 senate; thai, while Congress was not in session the 
 IiresiiU'Ul might .s».v;)i;i(< (not remove) any otbcial ; and 
 ill case the senate at the next session should not ratify 
 the suspension, the suspended official should resume 
 his office. 
 
 SOU. On August 5, 1867, the president had requested 
 Edwin M. Stanton to resign his office as secretary of 
 war. Mr. Stanton refused, was suspended, and General 
 lirant was appointed to his place. When congress met, 
 the senate refused to agree to Stanton's removal. 
 General Grant then resigned the office, and Stanton 
 again took possession. The president removed him a 
 second time, and appointed General Lorenzo Thomas 
 to the place. Slanton held tohis office, and sent notice 
 to the sjieakcrof the house ; thereupon the house pa.ssed 
 a resolution (February 24. 1868). for the impeachment 
 of the president. The articles of impeachment accused 
 him of disobeying the tenure of office law, and of various 
 other oflences. The trial took place according to the 
 constitution, members of the house appearing as 
 accusers, and the senate acting as judges, with Chief 
 JusticeChase, of the supreme court, in the chair. After 
 the trial began the president made a tour of the north 
 and west, and delivered many violent and passionate 
 speeches to the cnwds which assembled to meet him, 
 and denounced the congress then sitting as "no con- 
 gress." I)ecau!'e of its refusal to admit delegations from 
 the southern stales. On these speeches the house 
 based additional articles of impeachment. The excit- 
 ing trial lasted two months, and ended in May with a 
 vote of thirty live for conviction, and nineteen for 
 aeiiuittal. Thus there was not a two-thirds majority 
 for conviction. The senate adjourned sine die, and a 
 verdict of acipiittal was entered. 
 
 307. The Russian possessions in North America, com- 
 prising a large and thinlj' i)opulated territory at the 
 northwest corner of the continent, were purchased of 
 the Russian government by the United States in 1867 
 f.ir the sum of $7, 2110.000. This territory is known as 
 Alaska Nevada, the thir'y sixth state, was admitted 
 durinir Mr. Lincoln's administration (1864); Nebraska, 
 the thirty-seventh, was admitted in 1867. In 1868 Gen- 
 eral Grant was elected president, as the candidate of 
 the Repiililican party, thus sealing the process of the 
 reconstniciion; Schuyler Colfax became vice-president. 
 The Uemocra'ic candidates were Horatio Seymour, of 
 New Vork. and Frank P. Blair, of Missouri. Virginia, 
 Mississippi and Texas were the only states of the late 
 confederacy which were excluded from this election; 
 all the re^l had been reconstrucied and admitted by 
 Congress in June, 1868. The Republican candidates 
 carried twenty-six of the thirty four voting states. In 
 his inaugural nrtilress. General Grant declared that the 
 
 government bonds ouL'ht to be paid in gold, advocated 
 a speedy return to sjiecie jtaynients, and made many 
 importaiit n-ccunnicndations in reference to public af- 
 fiiirs. Regarding the good faith of the nation, he said; 
 "To protect the national honor, every dollar of the 
 government's inilebledncss should be paid in gold, un- 
 less otherwise expiessly stipulated in the contract." 
 Congress acted promptly upon his recommendation, and 
 on March 18. 1861). an act was jiassed, entitled "An 
 Act tostrengihen the public credit." Its language gave -^^i n; 
 a iil*dge to the world that the debts of the cou n I ry J|,^!'!|};'|, j|il 
 would be paid in coin, unless there were in the obliga in-du. 
 tioiis express stipulations to the contrary. 
 
 308. On February 26. 1861). the Fifteenth Amendment Tin- XVih 
 to the constitution was passed by Congress. Its adop- ameiidmc-i 
 tlon had been previously recommended by Grant. It 
 guaranteed the right of suflrage without regard to race, 
 color, or previous conditicui of servitude. It was rali- 
 lied by the reipiisite three fourths of the states, and de- 
 clareil in force .March 30, 1870. In the meantime the 
 foreign affairs of the (country had been favorably estab- 
 lished. Its ]iromiitness in disarming at the end of the 
 war hud put it under no disadvantage in dealing with 
 other nations. The successful completion of the At- 
 lantic cabl(Ml866) gave a promptness and dispatch to 
 diplomacy which was well suited to American methods. 
 The most important measure of foreign p<ilicy during 
 President (Grant's administration was the treaty with 
 (!reatBritain(May 8.1871), known as the Treaty of Wash Treaty of 
 ingion. Soon after entering upon his office, the presi ^^,2"''"'^' 
 dent had begun 'legotiations, looking to a sctilement of 
 the claims made by the L'niled Stales against (ireat Bri- 
 tain, arising from the de]iredations upon Aim rican com- 
 merce by confederate cruisers titled out in British ports, 
 the questions growing out of the Canadian lishery dis- 
 putes, and the location of our northern boundary line 
 at its junction with the Pacific ocean, which the juris- 
 diction of the island of San Juan in controvc rsy. 
 
 30!t. A high joint commission had a-siinbl"d at Tli.' Alalia- 
 Washington, eomiiosed of Anieric;in and English 
 statesmen, which forniulateii tlieTieuly of AVashinifion, 
 and by its terms the claims against Great Britidn. com- 
 monly known as the ''Alabama claims." were referred 
 to a court of Hrbilration, which held its session at 
 Geneva. Switzerland. In September. 1872. it awarded 
 the United States the sum of .*l.'),.'jOO, 000, which was 
 subseipienlly paid by the British government. The 
 fishery cpiestion was referred to arbitration by three 
 eommissiiuieis. one to be chosen by the United Slates, 
 one by Great Brilaiii. and the third b}' the other two. 
 provided they should make a choice wilhm a stated 
 time, otherwise the selection to be made by the 
 Emperor of Avistria. The two commissioners having 
 failed to agree, the third was naiued by the Emperor of 
 Austria. The award was unsatisfactory to the United 
 Stales. The decision of tile commission was severely 
 criticised by the peojile and the press, and the dispute 
 has been reopened since from time to time, to the detri- 
 ment of both countries. The San Juan (juestion was san Juan, 
 referred to the Emperor of Germany as arbitrator with 
 sole power. His award fully sustained the claim of the 
 United States. 
 
 310. President Grant's first administration had been 
 vigorous and progressive, but a number of Republicans 
 had become estranged, feeling that they were being 
 ignored by the executive. These per^-ons formed them- 
 selves into an organizatiim under the name of Liberal Liberal Re- 
 Republicans. This'o))position resulted in the nomination publicoiiK. 
 of Horace CJieeley for president, and B Gratz Brown 
 for vice-president, by the Liberal party (1872). These 
 nominations were afterwards adopted by the Demo- 
 cratic party. Tlie republican convention renominated 
 President Grant, with Henry Wilson as nominee for 
 vice pre-id.'Ut. When the election took place Grant 
 carried thirty (uie slates with a popular vote of 
 3..")97.07n, ihc' largest that had ever been given for any 
 
 tiiaclhiine. 
 
 The Usher; 
 qiiesi ion. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 Ro-electioD 
 of Gr:iut. 
 
 Rjliltioiis 
 with Spain. 
 
 Case of the 
 
 "Vir- 
 
 giiiiut*." 
 
 PMlilical 
 troubles* in 
 the boutb. 
 
 Lonisiaua. 
 
 president. He received 286 electoral votes, against 66 
 which would have been cast for Mr. Greeley had he 
 lived. The noted journalist, however, died soon after 
 the election. The canvass had been one of the most 
 exciting and aggressive in the historj' of the country, 
 and abounded in personal attacks on the candidates. 
 During President Grant's first term of office the work 
 of reconstruction according to the plan settled by 
 Congress had been steadily carried out. aud by .luly, 
 1870, the work had been accomplished, and all the 
 states were again members of the union, although the 
 votes of Arkansas and 1 ouisianawere not received by 
 Congress in 1873, because of fraud and illegality in the 
 election. 
 
 311. The relations between the United States and 
 Spain wire frequently disturbed by incidents growing 
 out of an insurrection in Cuba, which had lasted for a 
 number of years. Several American citizens had been 
 arrested by the Spanish authorities, under the pretense 
 that they had been furnishing aid to the insurgents, 
 and American vessels plying in Cuban waters had been 
 subjected to much inconvenience. Ma'ters at length 
 culminated in the seizure by Spain (October. 1873), 
 without justificat ion. of the American steamer Virgiiiius. 
 This outrage created intense excitement in the United 
 States, atid many statesmen were clamorous for war; 
 but the president took more pacific measures, and, by 
 acting with promptness and firmness, soon wrung from 
 Spain ample apology and full sei.aration. Political 
 troubles were still rife in certain states of the south. 
 In March, 1871, the disorders in the soiUhern states, 
 growing out of the conflicts between the whites and 
 the ni-i:roes, had assumed such proportions that the 
 president sent a i-pecial message to Congress requesting 
 "such leaislalion as shall effectually secure life, liberty 
 and properly, and the enforcement of law in all parts 
 of the United Slates." On April 20 Congress passed 
 an aci which authorized the president to suspend, under 
 di fined circumstances, the writ of habeas corpus in any 
 district, and to use the army and navy in stippressing 
 insurrections. He issued a proclamation (May 4). order- 
 ing all unlawful armed bauds to disperse, and after 
 expressing his reluctance to use theextraordinary power 
 conferred upon him, said he would "not hesitate to use 
 that power to its full extent, whenever and wherever it 
 should be necessary to do so for the purpose of securing 
 to all citizens the peaceful enjoyment of the rights 
 guaranteed to them by the constitution and the laws of 
 the United States." As tliis did not produce the desired 
 effect, he issued a pmrlaniaiion of warning (October 
 12), and on October 17 suspended the writ of habeas 
 corpus in parts of North and South Carolina. He 
 followed this by vigorous prosecutions, which resulted 
 ill sending a number of prominent offenders to prison, 
 and the outrages soon ceased. 
 
 312. Soon after President Grant entered upon his 
 second terra of office, the disputes in Louisiana con- 
 ceridng the ri'suit of the election in 1.S72 became more 
 bitter, and armeti violence was threatened in that stale. 
 Early in 1873 the president calk-d the attention of Con- 
 gress to the inadequacy of the laws applying to Mich 
 cases, saying that he had recognized the officers installed 
 by the deci>ion of the returning-hoard as representing 
 the de facto t;overninent, and if he had exercised undue 
 interference liy such a course he urged Congress to an 
 immediate decision in regard lo the matter. Congress, 
 however, took no action, and left with the president 
 the sole responsibility of dealing with this delicate 
 question. The next year the ditficully w-is renewed 
 and a fierce contest aro<e between the Pieimblicans 
 under Kellogg, and the Democrats under Mi-Enery, 
 the respective candidates I'f the two panics for the 
 governorship, which resulted in aimetl hostilities. Kel- 
 logg, the de fiirtii governor, called upon the federal 
 government for protection, which it immediately 
 granted by sending troops thither, and the outbreak 
 
 was for a time suppressed. But tioubles again arose, 
 and General Sheridan was sent to report upon the situa- 
 tion of affairs, and if necessary, to take command of 
 the troops and adopt vigorous measures to preserve the 
 peace. Sheridan became convinced that liis duty was 
 to sustain the government of Kellogg, and on the de- 
 mand of the governor he ejected some of McEnery's 
 adherents from the state capitol. As Congress still 
 omitted to take any action in the case, the president 
 continued his recognition of the government, of which 
 Kellogg was the head, until the election of a new gov- 
 ernor. After this there was no serious trouble. Dif- 
 ficulties of the same nature arose in Arkansas and 
 Texas, which were almost as perplexing to the execu- 
 tive as those in Louisiana; but these attracted less at- 
 tention from the people. 
 
 313. In April, 1874, Congress passed a hill known as 
 the "InUation bill," which increased the paper cur- 
 rency of the country, aud was contrary to the financial 
 policy which the president had maintained and ad- 
 vocated in his state papers. Strenuous efforts were 
 made by his warmest political supporters to convince 
 him that the measure was financially wise and poli- 
 tically expedient. President Grant gave much thought 
 and study to the question, and at length fully deciiled 
 that the measure would in the end prove injurious to 
 the true business interests of tin; country, and delay 
 the resumption of specie payment. He. therefore, re- 
 turned the bill toConttress with his veto (Apiil 22). 
 The arguments contained in his mes-^a^e were unan- 
 swerable, the bill was not parsed over his veto, and his 
 course was sustained by the whole country. The jnesi- 
 dent now earnestly advocated the resumption of specie 
 payment. In a letter addressed to Senator Jones, of 
 Nevada, he gave a full statement of his views on the 
 question. This letter w'as made puSlic, and attracted 
 much attention; and in January, 187.5, the restira] tion 
 act was passed, which to a large extent embodied the 
 views that had been suggested by the president. There 
 were doubts in the minds of many as to the ability of 
 the government to carry it into effect; but it proved 
 entirely successful, and the country was finally relieved 
 from the stigma of circulating an irredeemable paper 
 currency. 
 
 314. Great trouble was caused soon after the close of 
 the war by the depredations of the Indian tribes of the 
 west and southwest. The Sioux and Cheyennes having 
 begun hostilities, an expedition was sen tout against them 
 under the direction of General Hancock in 1867, and 
 another, in 1868, beyond the Arkansas river, where 
 General Custer gained an important victory. In an 
 expedition against the Modocs of Oregon, in 1873, Gen- 
 eral Canby was treacherously murdered during a parley 
 with the Indian chiefs. The Sioux had ceded to the 
 United States a large tract of country in what was then 
 Dakota territory, reserving to themselves the district 
 known as the Black Hills. ^ \Vh. n it was rumored that 
 gold had been found on their reservntion, the whites 
 began to push into this region, regardless of the rights 
 of the Indians. The Sioux were a warlike tribe, and 
 they retaliated by attacking the frontier seilleineiits in 
 Montana and Wyoming. United States troops were 
 sent out against them, but met at first with a terrible 
 disaster. In June, 1876, General Custer, with about 
 two hundred aud fifty soldiers, was sur|irised and the 
 entire force massacred. The war lasted into the winter 
 of 1877 when the Sioux, with their chiefs. Sitting Bull 
 and Crazy Horse, went across the border into British 
 territory. 
 
 315. During 187.5. the president had reason to suspect 
 that frauds were being practiced b\ government ofticials 
 in certain states, in collecting the revenue derived from 
 the u'.:iaufacture of whiskey. He at once took active 
 measures for their detection, and the vigorous pursuit 
 and punishinent of tlie offenders. He issued a stringent 
 order for their prose. -utiun, closing with the famous 
 
 Tlie Infla- 
 tion bill. 
 
 The 
 
 resnmptio 
 
 act. 
 
 Indian 
 troubles. 
 
 Murder of 
 Canby. 
 
 Black Hill 
 
 The Cuete 
 massacre. 
 
 Whiskey 
 frande. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 words, " Let no pui.ty niiin escape." Miiny indictiucnls 
 soon followed: the ringleaders were sent to the |ieiiilen- 
 tiary . and an honest collection of t he revenue was secured. 
 The year for noniinaling a i)resi<lent was at hand, and 
 tlie excitement ran hiijh. Friemls of the convicted, 
 political enemies and rivals for succession in his own 
 party, resorle<l to the most des-|H'rate means to break 
 the president's power and diminish his popularity. 
 The grossest misrepresentations were practiced, tir^t in 
 trj'ing to bring into question the honesty of his purpose 
 in the prosecution of olTenders. and afterward in 
 endeavorini; to rob him of the credit of his labors, 
 which had resulted in the purifyini; of the revenue 
 service. But these elfi)rts signally failed. In ISTti the 
 United S'lites celebrated the one hundredth anuiver- 
 gary of the Declaration of Independence. There were 
 great rejoicings throughout the country, and the 
 various battles of the revolution, as well as the signing 
 of the Declaration, were C(unmemoraled by approiiriate 
 exercises. The centennial year was chosen for holding 
 a great international e.\liibilion at Philadelphia, to 
 which all the nations of the world were invited to con- 
 tribute. It was opened in May and closed in No/einber, 
 having been visited by about ten millions of people. 
 
 lilU. The changes at the south, and the dissatisfac- 
 tion of many at the north with the rule of the Repub- 
 lican managers, were seen in the election of 187(i. The 
 Democrats nominsted Samuel J. Tilden and Thomas 
 A. Hendricks for president and viee-piesideiit. and the 
 Republicans, Rutherford H. Hayes and William A. 
 Wheeler. A national (Jreeidnick convention was also 
 held. May 17, composed of men who desired national pa- 
 per money instead, of national bank notes, and who 
 opposed resumption of specie piyments. It nominated 
 PeterCooper and Samuel F. Cary. The contest was very 
 clo.se, and a dispute arose as to the counting of the 
 votes of certain southern states, both sides claiming 
 them. The controversy was finally settled by the 
 appointment of an electoral commission of fifteen, 
 eight of which dcci.ied in favor of Mr. Hayes. In this 
 year. Colorado, the thirty-eighth state (and the last up 
 to 1887) was admitted in time to take part in the 
 election. 
 ! 317. The administration of President Hayes, although 
 much attacked by the politicians of both parties, was 
 on the whole, very satisfactory to the people at large. 
 By withdrawing the federal troops from southern 
 stale houses, and restoring to the people of those states 
 practical self-government, it prepared th ' way for that 
 patriotism among those lately estranged from the union, 
 that fraternal feeling between the two sections of the 
 countrj', and the wonderful material advancement of 
 the south wl'ich we now witness. It conducted with 
 wisdom and firmness the preparation for the resump- 
 tion of specie payments, as well as the funding of the 
 public debt at lower rates of interest, ar.d thus facil- 
 itated the development of the remarkable business 
 prosperity which continued to its close. While in its 
 endeavors to elTect a thorough and permanent reform 
 of the civil service, there were conspicuous lapses and 
 inconsistencies, it accomplished important and lasting 
 results. Not only without any appropriations of 
 money, and without encouragement of any kind from 
 Congress, but in the face of the decided hostility of a 
 large majority of its members, the system of competi- 
 tive examinations was employed in some of the execu- 
 tive departments at Wa;.hington, and in some of the 
 great government offices in New York, thus proving 
 its practicability and usefulness. The removal by 
 President Hayes of some of the most powerful party 
 managers from their offices, avowedly on the groutid 
 that the offices had been used as part of the polili(;al 
 machinery, was an act of high courage, and during his 
 administration there was far less meddling with party 
 politics on the part of the government officials than at 
 any period since Andrew Jackson's time. 
 
 318. The financial condition of the United States had 
 been steadily improving since the war. A few months 
 after the Cvmclusiou of peace the public debt had 
 reached its highest amount, $;3, 800, 000, 00(1, and by the 
 close of President Hayes' administraliiin no less than 
 one thousand million dollars of that amount had been 
 paid off. The credit of the government rose, and the 
 paper money, once worth only a third of its denomina- 
 tion in gold, increased in value. The operation of 
 refunding the debt had beni begun July 14, 1870. At 
 that time Congress pass' d a.i act. authorizing the issue 
 of five, four and a half, and four per cent bonds to 
 take the place of those at. higher interest. $,')00.()00.()00 
 were issued in five per cent bonds, $185,000,000 in four 
 and one half per cent, ami $710,3ir).!l.')0 at four per 
 cent, thus reducing the annual interest charge from 
 $81,639,084 to $61,738,838. This first refunding opera- 
 tion was completed in the year 1879, at the time when 
 specie payments were resumed. In 1881 about $'.iOO,- 
 000,000 of six per cent bonds fell due. Mr. Windoiu. 
 secretary of the treasury, took the responsibility of 
 allowing the holders of the bonds to exchange them 
 for three and one half per cent bonds, rnleemalile at 
 the pleasure of the government, lloldcis of other 
 bonds lo the amount of $300,0110,000 also availed them- 
 selves of this privilege, thus saving $10,000,000 inter- 
 est. In 187.5 Congress passed a law providing that the 
 paper "fractional currenc)' " used for small change 
 shoidd be redeemed ai once in silver, am! that after tlie 
 1st of January. 1870. the "greenbacks" should he paid 
 ou demand in coin. 
 
 319. At the elections of 1880 the Hepublican candi- 
 dates were General James A. Garlield for president, 
 and General Chester A. Arthur for vice-president; 
 while the Democrats nominated General Wiiificld S. 
 Hancock and William E. Knglish. The Ke[nil)lican 
 ticket was successful, receiving the electoral voles (214 
 in number) of all the northern states except California 
 — which wns divided — Nevada ami New Jersey. The 
 Democratic electoral vote was 15.5 including 11 from 
 Georgia, which, not having been cast on the <lay 
 appointed by law, were objc'cted to when the returns 
 were opened. As they could not effect the result the 
 cpiestion whether they should be counted or hot was 
 never decided. The new administration was inaugur- 
 ated March 4, 1881, and the scramble for office winch 
 had marked each advent to tlie iiresidencj- since 1829, 
 followed. There was bitter dissension in the party in 
 New '\'ork over the distribution of ollie.es. The New 
 York senators, feeling aggrieved at certain ajipoiut- 
 ments in their state, resigned, an<l then made ellorls to 
 be re-elected by their state legislature, in which they 
 failed. In the midst of it all President Garfield was 
 shot (July 3. 1881) by a crazy disappointed oHiceseeker. 
 The avowed object was to promote to the presidential 
 chair Vice-Pn;sident Arthur, who represented the 
 Grant or "stalwart " wing of the paily. The president 
 was not instantly killed. For three months he lay 
 helpless, while the nation watched anxiously every 
 turn in his condition. The sympathy shown by all 
 parts of the country did much to draw the nation 
 together and to lessen the old distrust. Garfield died 
 September 19, 1881, and was succeeded by Vice-Presi- 
 dent Arthur. 
 
 320. The prominent events of President Arthur's 
 administration may be here summarized. Shortly after 
 his accession to the presidency he participated in the 
 dedication of the monument erected at Yorktown. 'Va., 
 to commemorate the surrender of Lord Cornwallis at 
 that place, Oct. 19, 1781. A convention was made 
 with Mexico (July 29. 1882) for re-locating the boundary 
 between that country and the United States from the 
 Kio driuule to the Pacific, and on the same day an 
 agreement was also ellected permitting the armed forces 
 of either country to cross the frontier in pursuit of hos- 
 tile Indians, The death of President Garfield called 
 
 Financial 
 
 condition. 
 
 R''fuinling 
 tlicUcljl. 
 
 Election 
 oflSSO. 
 
 Gartteld'e 
 
 Arttiur's 
 adiiiinis- 
 tralion 
 
U ^^ I T E D ST A T E S 
 
 Chinese 
 iminigra- 
 tiou bill. 
 
 (^'oiivict 
 law. 
 
 Rep.'al of 
 of titiiinp 
 
 tasi-f. 
 
 National 
 
 b:iliks. 
 
 Menbaiit 
 niarnie bill 
 anil bureab 
 of ii(i\ii^a- 
 tion 
 
 M'lliirliou 
 
 of |,-I1,T 
 
 |io-.Iai;i.. 
 
 Fmicb 
 
 t^P'tliatlon 
 
 claiins. 
 
 EK''MinIi 
 of l.iM-1. 
 
 C'lienil atleuliiiii ij tliiit reprehensible system under 
 wbicli each partj-, while iu ortiep. h-wl paid its party 
 expenses bv the use of minor offices for its adherents. 
 The president's iiower of appnintinent could not be 
 controllcri; but the Pendleton Act (188:^) permitted the 
 president to mike appointments to designated classes 
 of offices on the recommendation of a board of civil 
 service ctmimissioiiera. From (he British government 
 a full recogniti^in of the rights and immunities of nat- 
 uralized American citizens of Irish oriain was obtained, 
 and all such who were under arrest in England or Ire- 
 laud as suspects were liberated. A bill passed by Con- 
 gress prohibiting the iminigratiou of Chinese laborers 
 for a term of twenty years was vetoed (April 4. 1883), 
 as being a violation of the treaty of 1880 with China, 
 which permitted the limitation or suspension of immi- 
 gra'ion. but forliaile its absolute prohibition. The 
 veto was sustained, and a modified bill, suspending 
 immigration for ten years, was passed. May C, 1883, 
 which received the executive approval. A law was 
 passed (August 3, 1883) for returning convicts to 
 Europe, and on February 26, 1885, importation of con- 
 tnu't laborers was forbidden. 
 
 831. The suspension of the coinage of standard silver 
 dollars and the redemption of the trade dollars were 
 repeatedly recommended; also, the repeal of the stamp 
 taxes on matches, proprietary articles, playing cards, 
 bank checks, drafts, and of the Iax ou surplus bank 
 capiial and deposits. These taxes were repealed by 
 act of congress (March 3, 1883); and by executive order 
 of June 35, 1883, the number of internal revenue col- 
 lection districts was reduced from 13() to 83. The tax 
 on tobacco was reduced by the same act of congress. 
 On July 13. 1883, an act became law enabling the 
 national banks, which were then completing their 
 twenty year terms, to extend their corporate existence. 
 The attention of Congress was frecjuently called to the 
 decline of the American merchant marine, and legisla- 
 tion was recommended for its restoration, and the con- 
 struction and maintenance of ocean steamships under 
 the United Stales flag. In compliance with these 
 recommendations, the following laws were enacted : 
 Juno 3(), 188-1, an act to remove certain burdens from 
 American shipping; July 5, 1884, an act creating a 
 bureau of navigation, under chtifge of acommission, in 
 the treasury department; and Man h 3, 1885, an amend- 
 ment to the postal appropriation Viill granting $800,000 
 for contracting with American steamship lines for the 
 transportation of foreign mails. 
 
 333. The reiluction of letter postagefrora three to two 
 cents was recommended, and was effected by the act of 
 March 3, 1883; the unit of weight was made (March 3. 
 1885) one ounce instead of a half ounce; the rate on 
 transient newspapers and periodicals was reduced (June 
 9, 1884,) to one cent for four ounces, and the rate ou 
 siiTiilar matter, when sent by the publisher to actual 
 subscribers, was reduced to one cent a pound (March 
 3, 1885). The fast mail and free delivery systems were 
 largely extended. Special letter deliveries were estao- 
 li^hed March 3. 1885. The star service at the west was 
 increased at reduced cost; the foreign mail service 
 improved; and various postal conventions were 
 negotiated. A law for the adjudication of the French 
 spoliation claims was passed (January 20, 1885), and 
 preparations made for carrying it into effect. On 
 March 3. 1885, a bill was passed retiring General 
 Grant with thi; rank of general of the army, and with 
 full pay. 
 
 333. In 1884 the Kepuhlicans nominated James G. 
 Blaine and General John A. Logan, and the Democrats 
 Cleveland and Hendricks. The greenback and anti- 
 monopolist parties jiut forwanl the name of Benjamin 
 F. Butler. The prohibitionists, also, hail organized 
 themselves into a party, and presented as their candi- 
 date Governor St. John. A small majority of the 
 democratic candidates in the .slate of New York gave 
 
 them its electoral votes, and decided the election in their 
 favor. They were inaugurated March 4, 1885. The 
 preMdent aiinouueed in regard to official changes that, Cluv.iand' 
 with the e.xceptions of beads of departments, foreign f^gJ-J,"'"" 
 ministers, at, d other oliices charged with the execution 
 of the policy of the aiimiuistr tion, no removals wouhl 
 take pUce except for cause. He therefore came into 
 conflict with many influential members of his pnrly. 
 who advocated the speedy removal of Ilepublican office- 
 holders and the appointment of Democrats, in order to 
 strengiheu the parly as a political organization. While 
 that class of politicians objected to the slowness 
 with which removals were made, and to the appoint- 
 ment of independents, and in a few instances Republi- 
 cans, the Kepuhlicans and some of the civil service 
 reformers complained of other appointments as not 
 being in accord wilh the professions of the president. 
 He declared ''offensive partisanships" to be a ground "Offensive 
 for removal ; and numerous Republican function- Phfn'""" 
 aries were displaced under that rule, while the term '' 
 itself became a by-word. On March 13. 1885, the presi- 
 dent issued a proclamation announcing the intention of 
 the government to remove from the Oklahoma country, oiilalioina 
 in Indian territory, the white intruders who sought to'^ountn'- 
 settle there, which was done shortly afterwards by a 
 det ichment of soldiers. 
 
 324. In his message at the opening of the XLIXth Con- 
 gress, December 8, 1S85, President Cleveland recom- 
 mended the abolition of duties on works of art, the 
 reduction of the tariff on necessaries of life, the sus- 
 pension of compulsoiy silver coinage, more stringent 
 laws for the suppression of polygamy in Utah, an act 
 to prohibit the immigration of Mor.mons. and the ex- 
 tension of the civil service reform. In January, 188(i, 
 Congress passed the bill regulating the presideiuial i-uc- Presideniia 
 cession in the event of a vacancy. Mr. Cleveland s'lct'^ssion. 
 exercised the veto power beyond all precedent. Of 987 
 bills pasi-ed by both houses in the session eniliug 
 Augusts, 1886, 115 were vetoed. Of these 102 were 
 private pension bills, and six were bills for theereciion 
 of public buildings. Of the general measures which 
 failed to receive his signature, the most important was 
 the Morrison resolution requiring the secretary of the 
 treasury to apply to the redemption of bonds any sur 
 plus to the treasury exceeding $100,000,000. The river 
 and harbor bill, containing appropriaiions, deemed by 
 many useless and extravagant, and the liill taxing oleo- 
 margarine two cents a pound, which was considired an 
 unjust discrimination against one class of producers 
 for the benefit of another, were not vetoed. On signing 
 the latter, the president sent a me.^sai^e to Congress, in 
 which he gave as his reason that the stamps required 
 by the act would mark the character of the substance 
 and prevent it being fraudulently sold. 
 
 335. The presidential campaigu of 1888 was noted Kicciion 
 for the number of candidates in the field, who were as °f '***■ 
 follows; Republican, Benjamin Harrison and Levi P. 
 Morton; Democratic, Grover Cleveland (renominated) 
 and Allen G. Thiirman; prohibition, Clinton B. Fisk 
 and John A. Brooks; union labor. A. J. Streeter and 
 Charles E. Cunningham; industrial reform, A.bert E. 
 Red.stone and John Colvin; united labor, Robert H. 
 Cowdry and W. H. T. Wakefield; woman suf- 
 frafists, Belva A. Lockwood and Albert H. Love. 
 The main issue between the two leading parties. Repub- 
 lican and Democratic, was on the tariff question; the 
 former favoring a modified protected tariff, while the 
 latterdemanded a tariff chiefly for revenue. The prin- 
 ciples of the other parties related to labor, national 
 currency, prohibition and woman's suffrage. The Re- 
 publican party was succeseful, and Harrison as presi- 
 dent, with Morton as vice-president, was inaugurated 
 March 4, 1889. The administration of Mr. Harrison. Harrison's 
 thus far, has been characterized by the passage ofdniinis- 
 the Mrlvinlry tariff bill, which both increases and "'^"°°- 
 diminishes the duties on miny necessary articles 
 
TJ N i; T K J ) S '1^ A T !•: S 
 
 rhe census 
 
 (resent 
 lalioD. 
 
 Sullways. 
 
 Pelegraph 
 kitd tcle- 
 jhune tines 
 
 Atlantic 
 ,elci;raph. 
 
 ^'I'w states 
 
 Vlineral 
 vcaith. 
 
 •nal. 
 ?ctroleani 
 
 Mana- 
 farturcs. 
 
 and adds lo the duties <im hixniits. an 1 1 y tliu 
 regulation of pension niatters. Tlie inva.id pension 
 bill bus been passed, grantin-^ pensions to all disabled 
 soldiers ■without reference lo the time when the disa- 
 bility was contracted. On the beginnint; of June, 1890, 
 the enumeration of the general census for the last 
 decade was begun, under the control of ISuiierintendent 
 Porter, and the returns of the census eruiuierutorsgive 
 the population of the United Stales at 63.3o0,0()0, which 
 is less than was anticipated. Many consider the returns 
 as imperfectly made. 
 
 oJU. In the meanwhile the prosperity of the United 
 Stales has known no cessation. During the civil war 
 of 1801-18(55, the emperor of France, Napoleon III., 
 atlenipled to establish in Mexico a foreign government 
 under Maximilian, an Austrian archduke, aided by a 
 French army. The rcmonslrance of the United States 
 and the resolution of the Mexicans compelled Napoleon 
 to abandon the attempt. Maximilian wassiezcdby the 
 Mexicans and executed (IStiT). A new invasion of Mexico 
 from the U idled Stales was begun, built was the peaceful 
 invasion of commerce. Railways were pushed down 
 along tlur gre.il jilateau winch reaches from the Uidlcd 
 States into the heart of the country, making thus a 
 closer coiuiection between the two peoples. In 1869 
 thelirslof the great railroads, the Central Pacific, was 
 finished, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, 
 and opening the country t') settlement and travel. 
 Since then other railroads have stretched their iron 
 bands across the continent. Of the 2110.000 miles of 
 railroad in the world, there arc, probalily. about 135,- 
 000 miles in the UnitcdSlates. Tliiscouiitry possesses, 
 also, more than 150,000 miles of telegraph lines; and 
 the American telephone lines are still longer in the 
 agijregaie. In ISGli, a previous attempt in 1857 having 
 failed, a telegraphic cable was laid upon the bed of the 
 Atlantic between America and Europe. This cable was 
 followed by others, so that now the citizen of the 
 United States may know each day the principal events 
 which occur in the civilized world. The stimulus given 
 to new territory jiossessing the requisites for settlement 
 by the iiiirodui-tion of a new railway has been wonder- 
 ful l)ey':id description. Most of the western railways 
 have 'lad lo build up theirown trallic. The railway has 
 I.een mainly constructed under land grants from the 
 government, and the sales of these lands have brought 
 into existence the towns and even the states which 
 support it. 
 
 327. In the government reports of 1854 Nebraska 
 was de-cribed as a desert ■country totally unsuiled for 
 agriculture, and in the maps of the time it was put 
 down as a part of the Great American Desert. It is 
 now one of the leading agricultural ttates of the union 
 with a population of over a million. Since the admis 
 sion of Colorado in 1876 six other slates have been 
 admitted to lh(' union, namely. North and South 
 Dakota, Washington, Montana, Wyoming and Idaho. 
 There are yet five territories, including Alaska, not yet 
 orgainzed into slates, and the District of C.dumbia. 
 The mineral wealth of the Country has become greatly 
 developed. A few years after the discovery of gold in 
 California the precious metal was found also at 
 Pike's Peak, Colorado (1858). Since then it has been 
 discovered in most of the Pacific states and territories. 
 In 1858 silver was discovered in Nevada, and this metal 
 has been found widely distributed in the country 
 bordering on the Pacific coast. The extent of the vast 
 coal fields of the country has been pretty chtarly ascer- 
 tained. In 1S83 it was es'inmted at over 200.000 square 
 miles. Petroleum was discovered in 1859 in north- 
 western Pennsylvania, numcr: us wells were sunk and 
 vast (pianlities of the oil have been taken from the 
 earth, but the reservoir seems to be unfailing. Manu 
 facturing establishments of every variety have rapidly 
 increased in every part of Ibc coiuitry. The al'sojute 
 free trade which exists belwec'i the ttates has resulted 
 
 in ac iii.-.lanl shifting of ccnUrs of prudnclion and an 
 i.cria.sing developineut. Among the nations of the 
 wcild. Great Uriiain, in 1870, stood first in wealth. 
 France the second and the United States the third. 
 In l^-iSO the United States had left France behind in 
 llie race and stood-at least second. When all the 
 census returns of 1S90 shall be given Ihey will doubtless 
 show that this country ranks with the first. The 
 United States, whose popuhition has been develojied 
 within less than three centuries. does already more than 
 oiie-tlurd of the world's nuning and one-fourth of its 
 manufacturing. It embraces also one-fifth of its agri- 
 culture. 
 
 328. In this wonderful progress and development the Tiic south, 
 south, since the close of the war, has borne her shaie. 
 
 Being relieved of the incid>us of slavery she has come 
 up " through great tribulation " lo as-ume her rightful 
 place as a most imporlMUl factor in advancing the 
 prosperity of an undivi<lcd nation. Under liie stimulus 
 of free labor her growth has been exiraordinary. Nrw 
 railroads have been built and new territory opi lu'd up. 
 Southern railways occupy a leading position in the 
 railway s_vstems of the country. SoiUhcrn in.inufact- 
 ures began lo clTcct northern markets. Cotton nulls 
 have been successfully established, which have the 
 advantage of an inimeiliate contiguity to the cotton- 
 raising states. The great mineral fields, over which 
 contending armies fought fierce battles during the late 
 war, have been tudughl t') light and are being rapiilly 
 developed. I'ennsylvanm iron-masters have a new 
 rival to contend with in the iron |iroduction of the 
 south. The former slave is now a free laboier, and the 
 whUe man is no longer ashamed lo work. White 
 labor produced t-n per cent of the cotton crop of 18()0 
 and fifty-five per cent of that of 1880. Under sbivi ry, 
 cotton-seeds were waste material; in 188() (illO.Oi/O i(Mis 
 of them were crushed, yielding a new prxluction in 
 the form of cotton-seed oil valued at $12,000,000 per 
 annum. 
 
 329. Among the political and econcmuc (jucstio! s Civil 
 demanding the attention of the eovernniciit. no our ol s.-rvice 
 them is more important than theque^iion of the rel'orni ''•^f""''- 
 of the civil service, but it is not avowedly made a party 
 question. Twenty years ago both parlies b'ughed at 
 
 the idea of civil cervice reform, now each one makes a 
 show at least of Irealing it with respect, and the con- 
 trol of the ininii'diatc political future, probably lies 
 with the parly which will treat it in the most serious and 
 practical manner. It is a question that was not dis- 
 tinctly foreseen in the days of Hamilton and .Jeffer- 
 son, when the constitution was made and adopted, 
 otherwise the founders of the constitution might have 
 had .somelhiiig to say concerning it. The (luesliou as 
 to the civil service arises from the fact that the presi- 
 dent has the power of appointing a very large number 
 of petty ollicials, cliieliy postmasters and otlicers con- 
 cernec! with the collecUon of the government revenue. 
 Such officials have properly nothing "to do with politics; 
 they are simply the agents or clerks or servants of the 
 national government in conduct itig its business, and if 
 this business is t'j be maiiaged on the ordinary princi- 
 pli-s of prud.iico which prevail in the management of 
 l>rivale business, such servants ought to be peiected for 
 I'erao:;;.! iiieril and retained for life or during good 
 l)ehavior. In 1883 Congress p.assed the civil service The civil 
 act allowing the president to select a board of examin- service oct 
 ers and make appointtnents upon their recommenda- "' "**' 
 tion. Candidates for otlice are subjected lo an easy 
 competitive examination. The svstem has worked well 
 •n oiher e(nmlries, and under Presidents Arthur and 
 t'leveland it was applied successfully to a considerable 
 part of the civil service. It has also been adopted in 
 some of the slates and principal cities of the union. 
 It is objected to liy the opponents of reform, on the objection. 
 ground that Its exanunations are not always intimately 
 connecteil with the work of the office; but, even if 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 this were so, it removes tbe offices from the category of 
 things known as " piitronajre," and this alone endows 
 the system with great merit. Then again, it relieves 
 the president of much needless work and wearisome 
 importunity. The executive and heads of departments 
 appoint (in many cases through subordinates^ about 
 115,000 officials. It is therefore impossible for the 
 principals to know much about the character or com- 
 petency of those appointed. It becomes necessary to 
 act by advice, and the advice of an examining board is 
 sure to be much better than that of political schemers 
 intent upon getting a salaried office for their needy 
 friends. The examination system has made a fair 
 beginning and will doubtless be gradually improved 
 and made more stringent. Something has been also 
 done toward stopping two old abuses attendant upon 
 political canvasses, namely, that of forcing government 
 clerks, under penalty of losing their places, to con- 
 tribute part of their salaries for election purposes, and 
 that of allowing them to neglect their work in order to 
 take an active part in the canvass. 
 _,. _ 330. Another political reform promising excellent re- 
 
 .Australian suits is, the adoption by m;my states of some form of 
 txillot itie Australian ballot-system, for the purpose of check 
 f.vstem. injr iiititnidation and bribery at elections. The ballots 
 ate printed by the state, and contain the names of all 
 the candidates of all the parlies. Against the name of 
 each candidate the party to which he belongs is de- 
 signated, and against each name there is a small vacant 
 space to be filled with a cross. At the polling place 
 the ballots are kept in an enclosure behind a railing and 
 no ballot can be brought outside under penalty of fine 
 or imprisonment. One ballot is nailed ag,«inst the wall 
 outside the railing, so that it may be read at pleasure. 
 The space behind the railing is divided into separate 
 booths quite screened from each other, each booth is 
 provided with a pencil and a convenient shelf on which 
 to wiiie. The voter goes behind the railing, takes the 
 ballot which is handed to him, carries it to one of the 
 booths, and marks a cross against the names of the 
 candiiiates for wh(mi he votes. He then puts his ballot 
 into the box, and his name is checked off ou the register 
 of voters of the precinct. This system is very simple; 
 and it enables a vote to be given in absolute secrecy. 
 It is favorable to independence in voting, and is unfavor- 
 able to bribery, because, unless the briber can follow 
 his man to the polls and see how he votes, he cannot 
 be sure that his bribe is effective. During the past few 
 years, complaints of bribery and corruption have at- 
 tracted especial attention in the United States, and it is 
 highly creditable to the good sense of the people that 
 preventive measures have been so promptly adopted by 
 many of the states. With an independent and uncor- 
 rupted ballot, and the civil service taken "out of poli- 
 ties," all other reforms will become far more easily ac- 
 complished. 
 
 But u very few of theworliw treating of tlie History of the United 
 Statt'.i in its manifoltl pliases can tie here civen. as they are so nu- 
 merous. The Ili^torks of tin f'tiitt <i stutcti, by George Bancroft, 
 David Ramsay, Riehard Hildretli, liryant iIii,'L.'uison. Lossing, Li-s- 
 ter. Frost. Schouler. Von Hulst. Kui[Kitli. Hamilton, Ilassard, Gray, 
 Leeds ; American HUfonj. edited by Edward L. Knapp : Gilinau, 
 History of the. American People ; \1. H. liancroft, History of ttte 
 Fac.ific Coast; Willsoi]. Antcrican History; Hazard, Historical 
 Colieetions ; Sleptien 11. Newman. .!?/(( /■;(■« ,* Oilman, Histonj of 
 th<i American People; Winsor. Xarnttice and Critical, History; 
 Graliam, History of the Uintcd Slates; Parliraan's ^yorks ; 
 Ludlow, War of American hid, p, inhnce ; Gordon, History of 
 Ike Independence if the l'i,ii,d s/,d,s; Edward D. Neill, .!/«<■- 
 Allistcr. College Contributi"/is /,, American History; Gordon, 
 History of tlie American Kerotation, licaister of Hrljutts i,/ ('on- 
 </ress. Congressional (4lobe, Annals of Congress; ('nies, History 
 of the Ordinance of 1787; Adams, New England F'du-alism. 
 IXOO-lf); Greene. Historical View of the American Jtcrolutton : 
 Tlie American Commonwealtli Series : Lodge, English Colonics 
 in America ; Carringt<in, Battles of the Amerirah liecolulion : 
 Neill, English Colonization of America; Duyrkinrk, National 
 Portrait flallrry ; Htdmes. Annals of America ; JIarstiall. History 
 of the Colonies'; PiMrcy. f/islory of New England ; Slory, Com- 
 vuntaries; Story, On the Cmisliliilion : Frotliinghiim, Rise OJ tlie 
 Jicpahtic; Harpers' Cyclo/ifUlia of American History; Apple- 
 ton' i^ Cyeloricedia of Arnerir an li'iogrnphy: John Roliert Ireland, 
 The Jlejmblic ; Scott, Constitniionid Liberty in tlie Colonifs ; Hen- 
 ton, Thirty Years in the Senate ; Irving, Life of Wnshingliin ; 
 Kent, Comimntarie'S on American Lam; .Johnston, History of 
 American Politics; Johnston, History of the United States; 
 V'lake. American Political Ideas ; Fislic, Civil Government in the 
 
 United States, Johns Hopl-in's University, studies in History and 
 Politics; Howard. Local ('onstitntionoK History of the Trailed 
 States; A. O. VVriLilit. Con stiliilion of the United States ; Brown- 
 H^in, American lu inihlic ; l,ainiiliere. j-l»;( /■/'■«/; Coeennnent ; Wil- 
 son. Coiinressioniil fr'orernme fit ; Manstield. The Political Manual; 
 Curtis, tlisleiryoflhe t'loislitntion ; A. D. Whilliey. United .•itates; 
 Trihinie Almanac. MrlMlersou, Political Manuals; Spoiford, 
 Ant' rican Almanac ; Fallows, The American Manual ; Congress- 
 ional Records ; Reports of the Otiicers of the Various States ; His- 
 tories of the Various States : Compendium of tlie Census from 
 l.s.=iO-1890 ; Cooper, Naval History ; Preble, tlistorij of the Navy ; 
 Porter, Constitutional History; McKnii,dit. FAectoral System; 
 McCrary, Election Laws; Cooley, Constitutional Limitations. 
 Taxeifion and f'onstifulional Law; Alden, Science of Coeerument; 
 Aii<iiTi. Constil nt'ioiiid llepublicanism : ijradford, Histori/ of the 
 Ee.leral Ciii'eniini nt.. 17S',l-|s;5;) ; Coles, History of the Ordi'na'nceof 
 17.S7 ; Dui^ht, History of tlie Hartford Conrenlion ; Draper, tjieil 
 Policy of .\m-rica ; lYxudWu, American Politics; Sneider. The 
 Aih' rican state: Spaulding, Administrations of the United states; 
 Sumner, }yorfs; Ttiompson, Church and Statein the 17. S.; Tliomp- 
 Bou, Revolution Acjainst Free Government; Townsend. -4/irt^y«i> 
 of Civil Government ; Elliot's Debates : Constitutional Conven- 
 tion ; Young, American Statesmen ; Bancroft, Formation of the 
 Constitution of the U. S. ; Blaine, 7'iven.ty Years in Congress : 
 Porter, Con.itiitilional History of the Unite'd States; Preble. //!> 
 toryofthi'Flag of the United States; Sumner, Prophetic Voices 
 Concerning America ; Wilson. Rise anel Fall of the slave Power ; 
 Woolsey and others. First Century of the Repulilic ; l^ussell. His- 
 tory of the War of \»\'i ; Ingersoll, History of the line 0/ 1S12 ; 
 Abbott's History of the Civil War; Coinpte De Paris, History of the 
 Civil War in America ; Borclce, Memoirs of the Confederate iVar; 
 Brownlow, Rise and Progres.^ of Secession ; Campaigns of the 
 Civil War : Drew, John Brown's Invasion; Greviey, American 
 Conflict ; Harpers' History of the Rebellion; Pollard, Lost 
 Cause; Pollard, Lost Cause Regained ; Memoirs of (Jrant and 
 Sherman— Life of Sheridan ; Poilard, c.mral L, c and /lis Lieu- 
 tenants ; PoUtiTd. Military Life of Jtjf, r^"n Diieis : Stephens, 
 Constitutional Vienr of Late' War. irifh Sujg>f nu nf ; lilodgett. 
 Commercial streue/ili of the United States ; Bollea. Einanrial His- 
 tory of the United, states ,' Suniner, History of American Cur- 
 rency ; Taylor, American. Currency; Knox, 'Fifth Report of 
 American ' liaufer.'i' Association; Law. National Circulating 
 .Medium in Uiilt'd .States; Phillips, History of American Paper 
 Cunency and Continental Money; Wells. Robinson Crusoe's 
 Mone-y ;' ^\Kin\i\w:^. One Hundred Years of Bunking ; 'E\y, Labor 
 Movement in America ; Gibbons. Public If' ht oftheUnite'dStates; 
 Mason. The Tarif : Young. Tariff L"iislation of the Ignited 
 states; Hudson, Railwai/s^und the R> public : \h\d\ey, Railroad 
 Transpovtation ; Poor, Manual of F. .s'. Railroads ; Poreher, Re- 
 sources of the .South ; Dresser, United Stales Tariff: Oflicial Sta- 
 tistics of the United Stales, and the Several States. 
 
 PRESIDENTS AND YICEPRESIDENTSOPTHE UNITED STATES 
 
 Terjis. 
 
 PnESIDENTS. 
 
 Vice-Presidests. 
 
 nso-M 
 
 1. 
 
 George Washington, Va. 
 
 1. 
 
 John Adams, Mass. 
 
 17(i:3-fl7 
 
 
 George Washington. 
 
 
 John Adams. 
 
 17ii7-tsoi 
 
 o 
 
 John Adams, Mass. 
 
 2 
 
 Thomas Jefferson, Va. 
 
 isoi-iirj 
 
 ~i. 
 
 Thomas Jefferson, Va. 
 
 a 
 
 Aaron Burr, N. X. 
 
 lSO.i-0!l 
 
 
 Thomas Jeilerson. 
 
 4. 
 
 George Clinton, N, T. 
 
 1.S09-13 
 
 4. 
 
 James Madison, Va. 
 
 
 George Clinton (d. 
 
 1812). 
 Elbridge Gerry, Mass, 
 
 1813-17 
 
 
 James Madison. 
 
 5. 
 
 
 
 
 
 (<^. 1814). 
 
 1817-21 
 
 5. 
 
 James Monroe, Va. 
 
 6. 
 
 Daniel D. Tompkins, 
 
 N, Y. 
 Daniel D. Tompkins. 
 
 I 831-85 
 
 
 James Monroe. 
 
 
 1835-29 
 
 6. 
 
 John Quiucy Adams, Mass. 
 
 7. 
 
 Johu Caldwell Cal- 
 houn, S. C. 
 
 lS29-a3 
 
 7. 
 
 Andrew Jackson, Tenn. 
 
 
 Jolin-C. Calhoun (res. 
 
 is;!2. 
 Martin Van Buren, 
 
 N. Y. 
 Richard Mentor John- 
 
 1833-37 
 
 
 Andrew Jackson. 
 
 8. 
 
 1837-41 
 
 8. 
 
 Martin Van Bnren, N. T. 
 
 9. 
 
 
 
 
 
 son. Ky. 
 
 1811-4.5 
 
 9. 
 10. 
 
 William Henry Harrison, 0. 
 
 [d. 1K411. 
 John Tyler. 
 
 to. 
 
 John Tyler, Va. 
 
 1845^9 
 
 U. 
 
 James Knox Polk, Tenn. 
 
 It. 
 
 (Jeorge MilHin Dallas, 
 
 Pa," 
 Millard Fillmore.N.Y. 
 
 1849-53 
 
 12. 
 
 Zachary Taylor, La. {d. 
 
 13. 
 
 
 
 18.50. 
 
 
 
 
 13. 
 
 Millard Fillmore. 
 
 
 
 1853-57 
 
 14. 
 
 Franklin Pierce, N. H. 
 
 1.3. 
 
 William Rufus King, 
 Ala. {d. 18,531. 
 
 1857-61 
 
 1.5. 
 
 James Buchanan, Pa. 
 
 14. 
 
 John Cabell Breckin- 
 ridge, Ky. 
 
 18(51-65 
 
 16. 
 
 Abraham Lincoln, 111. 
 
 15. 
 
 Hannibal Ilamlin, Me. 
 
 1865-69 
 
 
 Abraham Lincoln (d. 1865). 
 
 16. Andrew Johnson, Tenn 
 
 
 17. 
 
 Andrew Johnson. 
 
 
 
 1S69-73 
 
 18. 
 
 Ulysses Simpson Grant, 111. 
 
 17. 
 
 Schuyler Colfax. Ind. 
 
 1873-7? 
 
 
 Ulysses S. Grant. 
 
 18. 
 
 Henry Wilson, Mass. 
 {d. 1875). 
 
 1S77-S1 
 
 19. 
 
 Rutherford Bircliard Hayes, 
 0. 
 
 19. 
 
 Wm. Almon Wheeler, 
 N. Y. 
 
 188M5 
 
 30. 
 21. 
 
 James Abram Garfield, 0. 
 
 (d. 1881 1. 
 Chester Allan Arthur. 
 
 •20. 
 
 Chester Allan Arthur, 
 N. Y'. 
 
 1885-89 
 
 22. 
 
 Grover Cleveland, N. Y'. 
 
 21. 
 
 Thomas AndrewsIIen- 
 dricks. Ind. <(/. 1SS5.) 
 
 1889- 
 
 23. 
 
 Benjamin Harrison, Ind. 
 
 22. 
 
 Levi Parsons Morton, 
 N. Y. 
 
 S. F. 
 
PHYSICAL lE.VTLllES.] 
 
 U N 1 1 E D STATES 
 
 PART H.-riTYSTfAL OEOGRAPITY AND STATISTICS. 
 
 Races and 
 
 lauguatfo. 
 
 Bi>un>lnrics 
 iiid area. 
 
 oitl posi- 
 iuu. 
 
 PHYSICAL OROGRAPHY ASl> STAT^TICS. 
 
 North America is very uiifqiitiUy divid'-tl between rnees sneak- 
 inK Kui^li-'liand those whotie litlieiiil IiiUKUUKe l- Spnni>h. rrom 
 tnu imnillel of 3u° snutli the eommoiit imrrows very ntpidly, and 
 nearly all the country to thi.- north of this itarullcl is under the 
 control of Eniilish-Sfteakiuk' people. U is true that many onii- 
 BranLs from various p.'rtions ot Eurui.e, and unme from Asia, 
 a;" wt'Il ti» the descendants uf Africans, arc mingled with the de- 
 8Cinilant-s of the Kn^H.-h; but this doet: not injiterially affeet the 
 truth ot the statement, that north of :^)° the EiiKli;^h laiiKUaKO 1^ 
 not niily dotiiinaut. but iilnmst universal, This vast region, enilmie- 
 iiiK an urea of more than seven millions nf sijujiro mih-s. is pr-tty 
 einiiilly divided, .-o tar lu-i area is coueernrd. betwcn eolunial 
 pns-^essions of lireat Britain antl a eouiitry of «hieh the nneleus 
 wjis onee colonial and KnKlish. but whicli for a little more than a 
 hin<ln*d years has been independent of the mitther country, and 
 which iias greatly increased in area since that chantre took place. 
 by the absorption, as I'xpbiined elsewhere, of land foriiierl.\ to a 
 certain extent controlh-'l liy. or in imniinal possession (if. pco|>le 
 speak inu' French and Spanish. 'I'ho Spani.^h-speakinK inhabi- 
 tants of North America are known as Mexicans and Central 
 Americans, the colonial Knjiclish as CanaJian^; and owinK to the 
 dillieulty of makin;: a convenient and euphonious adjective- 
 api'cllativ.- out of the name United .States, the citizens of **lho 
 States" arc beiujr more and more Kcnerally designated by the 
 term "Americans." 
 
 The British possessions in North America, althoufth about 
 t (|iial m area to the United Slates, are much less densely popu- 
 lated than this country, and will in all pnibability ever remain so. 
 since in rcKard to cliiiuiie. soil, and mineral ^)roduetii»ns, the 
 northrrn oortion of the continent stands in a position greatly in- 
 ferior to that of the more southern rcKion. To the United States 
 b.Ionps fh.it portion of North America which by its position in 
 latitude is. in lart'c part, capiiblo of suiiportinj? n dense popular 
 tiun. and where the elimatio conditions are highly favorable to 
 intellectual and physical development. 
 
 The area embraced under the desicnation of "the United 
 States" (of North America) extends from the Atlantic to the 
 Paoilic Ocean. Its brmndarics. other than these oceans, are in 
 part natural and in part artitieinl. The (Julf of Mexico forms the 
 southern boundary of the United Stales between the meridians of 
 8;^*^ and 97"*. Between Mexico and the United States, the bound 
 ary is in part natupil iind in par: arbitrary. The most essential 
 feature ot rhis boundary is the Hio (irando. from the mouth of 
 which the division line between Mexico and the United States 
 follows this river to the point where the parallel of 31° 47' inter- 
 sects it. 
 
 The bouuiiary line between the United Stnt'-s and Canada fol- 
 low-* ttie middle of the St. Lawrence Uivcr and the Great Lakes, 
 from the point where the 4.5th parallel cuts that river to a point 
 on Lake Superior where the Uainy Lake River enters that lake, 
 thence up thjit river to a point on the west side of the Lake of 
 the Woods, and thence niong lhe49th psiriillel to Pupot Sound. 
 
 The tri!int:ular area between Lakes Onfiirio and Erie on one 
 side atid Luke Huron on the (tther extends fur to the south of the 
 remiiininc portion of Cana'la. and rhis southerly area constitutes 
 the most valuable and thickly inhabited portion of the Dominion. 
 The United States, as thus limited, jeavinp out of consideration 
 the remote territory of Alaska, comprises an area of 3.0i5.(i0ll 
 square miles. This includes 5.5,tiOO s(!uare miles of water surface, 
 embracing the following items :— 
 
 Const waters, bays, gulfs, sounds, etc 17.200 
 
 Rivers and smaller streams \i,hU() 
 
 Lakes and ponds 2.3.0(10 
 
 Leavins the total land surface 2,0"n.(:(H) 
 
 Total 3.025.ti00 
 
 Under the heatl of *'lakes and ponds." as given above, no portion 
 of the Crreat Ljikes is included The area of Alaska is given iii 
 the Census Report of 18^'> ns being .S31.4n9 square miles, which 
 fisniics. however, can be only a roui^h approximation, and which 
 differ greatly from th'ise L'iven in the Report of the Commissioner 
 of the (ieneral Land i)i\i('0 for the year ending June 30. lH8(i. 
 The total of the posse-sions of th" United States is therefore. 
 apjiroximately. S.-'vJT.iXI** square miles. The area of the Ilriti.^h 
 PAssossions in North America, inchniinp Newfoundland, but not 
 the Arctic Archipelago, is given by Bohm and Wngner at 3.24'<,077. 
 and by Mr. Selwyn, <iovernnient Geologistof Cunada. at 3..'S.30,tl3O 
 square miles.— the latter estimate itj<duding Xcwf-mndland. and 
 als(. [ho islands in the Are(ir> Ueean and Hudson's Bay. The area 
 of .Mexico is given by Behtn and Wagner as 751,177 .«qu!ire miles, 
 and that of Central America 2n.3:i(» square miles. The total 
 areaof North America, including the Arctic Archipolntroand (Cen- 
 tral Anieriea. may therefore be approximately stated as follows t— 
 
 British Possessions 3..Vi0.fi30 
 
 Unitecl States 3.5-S7.H9 
 
 jMoxico 7.">1.IT" 
 
 Central America 211,320 
 
 Total 8,050.1.W 
 
 The area of the United States lies between the 67th and 125th 
 degrees of longitude, and the 25th and 47th degrees of latitude. 
 
 The form and character of the coast lines of the United States Coast. 
 may properly fiist claim our attention in a lopo^jrapliic sketch of 
 the area under consideriition. Th<- facilitic> for K>">d harbors are 
 lacking on both coasts. The Ueliiicncy in this rci^pect on the 
 Paei^e side is striking, there being only one important bay on this 
 coast between San Oiegii and Pug. f Sound; namely, that of San 
 Fmnoisco. This, as compared with iho mass of the land, is of insig- 
 nificant size, but as furnishing a largr. safe, and easily accessible 
 harbor, is of the greatest importance The indentation at San 
 Uiogo is much small. 'r thiin that of San l-'ninei.-eo. but that also 
 tarnishes a connuodious hiirbor. With tht sc exceptions there are 
 within tin- limits of the United States no .-atisfactory harbors on 
 the raciticcoasi except tliosc of I'uget Sound and Columbia River 
 in the extieme north. 
 
 The oiistern coast of the United Sttttes is provided with several Ports and 
 gooil harbors and some large bays. On the Maim- const there is the harbors, 
 harbor t)f Portland, which may be taken as a type of a number 
 of safcund cornnlodiou^ ports alongtho coast. In Massachusetts. 
 Ciipe C<)d incloses n large and .•■afc bay, at the lower end of which 
 is situated the h trbor ot Boston. In New York, the situation of 
 the city by the same name makes that port the most important 
 center of commerce in the United States. 
 
 The superiority and commodi..usncss of the harbor of New York 
 depends in pa't on the breadth of the Hudson near its month— 
 this river being iti fact almost an arm of the sea— and also on the 
 position <d Long Ishind. the western end of which is so placed 
 with reterenco to the coast of New Jersey and a closely con- 
 tiguous small ishind (Staten Island) as to inclose a laige land- 
 locked area called the Upper Bay. 
 
 Long Island, off the e.iast of Connecticut, has a length of 120 
 miles, It is the only island of any importance on the Atlantic 
 coa,>*t. Tlicre are a riumber of smaller ones, such as Block Island, 
 Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard. 
 
 South of New Y'ork are the Chcsapeiiko and Delawiire Bays. Bays. 
 The latter receives the water of the Delaware River, and the 
 Chesapeake that of the Potomnc and tiie Susquehanna. The 
 largest indentation on the coast of the United States is the Gulf of 
 Mexi<-<i. 
 
 It is into this great reservoir that the superfluous waters of the 
 larger portion of the United SttUes are carried, chiefly by the 
 Mississippi and Missouri, but also by direct drainage into the 
 Gulf from the adjacent States. The peninsula of Florida, project- 
 ing from and extending five degrees south of the mainland, and 
 forming the eastern boundary of the(inlf. is of more importance 
 in its relations to the currents entering into the Gulf than it is as 
 an addition to the inhabitable territory of the country. 
 
 A large portion of the northern boundary of the United Sttttes 
 is of !i peculiar kind. It is neither land, river, nor ocean, but 
 fresh water: it being a line drawn through the central portion of 
 four of the so called "(Jreat Lakes"— Ontario, Erie. Huron and 
 Superior. Luke Michigan, on the other hstnd, is wholly within 
 the limits of the United States. 
 
 The Great Lakes, which are five in number, constitute n mostTheOreat 
 important feature in the topography of the country. Thev are Lakes 
 remarkable for their si/e. and for the near approach to equality of 
 alritude above the sea-level of the surfiice of the four largest ones. 
 Navitration is entirely uninterrupted between Erie. Iluron and 
 Michit:!in. and these have the following elevations: Erie 573 feet; 
 Huron.. ^s2: iMichifran, .i82. Lake Superior is twenty feet higher 
 thiinL!ike Michignn. but this obstruction hns been overcome by the 
 building of a canal around the Fulls of St. Mary (San t Ste. Marie), 
 with a single lock of suflicient dimensiuns to accommodate ve-isels 
 and steamers of the largest size. Lake Ontario is .320 feet lower 
 thjin Kric.aiKl these two lakes are connected bv a canal on the 
 Canada side; while Erie is also thus connected, on the American 
 side, with the Hudson River, and through this with the Atlantic. 
 
 As before remarked, the ciiief driiinnge of the United States is to 
 the Gulf of Mexico, through the system of the Mississippi-Mi^souri 
 nnd their tributiirios. as will be seen by the following table, show- 
 ing the extent of the various important divisions of the drainage 
 area of the country, as given by the U. S. Census of 1880:— 
 
 Atlantic and Gulf 2.17*^.210 
 
 Great Basin 2vs!l50 
 
 Pacific Slope ^119/240 
 
 The dminage area of th? Missi^sippi-^^Hssouri River^is esti- 
 mated at 1.240,0.39 square mile«. or somewhiit over one-third of the Drainage 
 entire areaof the ctmntry. The drainage into the Atlantic and area:-. 
 Gulf, as stated above at 2,178.210 square miles, is divided as 
 follows: — 
 
 Now England coast 61,S30 
 
 Middle Atlantic coast 83^020 
 
 South Atlantic coast 132".o'lO 
 
 Gre;tt Lakes 17.^,340 
 
 Gulf of Mexico , 1.725,980 
 
 Total 2.178,210 
 
 Thedrainnpc into the Gulf of Mexico is thus divided :— 
 
 Into the Gulf direct 485,941 
 
 Through the Mississippi River I,24o!o3o 
 
 1,725.980 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 [GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY. 
 
 This indication of the overAvhi-'liniiig preponderance of ihe 
 drainage of the territ!»ry of the United ritaius iuto the Gulf of 
 Mi.xico naturally open:^ lh<j «ay to a recognition of the moat im- 
 P Ttant fact in the topogniphy of the country — namely, the 
 exHlence of such an orographic structure as compels the waters 
 lu concentrate themselves into one sreat system of tributaries 
 coming in from the east and the west, and uniting in a miiiu 
 iiorth-and-south chnnnel. The cjiu.-^e of this state of things be- 
 come-; evident when we notice the general relief of the country, 
 a:id the positions of the various water-sheds. To acquire the best 
 goneral ideauf the relit-f of tlie surfiiceof the United States, we may 
 bejiin by supposing the land to be depressed, or the level of the 
 ocean raised, to an amount equiil to one thousand feet. By doing 
 this we should flood a great strip of country ncros!* the continent. 
 Mexico would remain on the wi_'St a great mass of land, while to 
 the north of the United States the land would rapidly diminish as 
 higher latitudes were reached. 
 
 GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY. 
 
 In describing the physical features of a country, it is necessary 
 to consider its general jdan, tlie skeleton or framework of minin- 
 taius, to which its plains, valleys, and river systems are subordi- 
 nate, and on the direction and elevation of whose parts its climate 
 is. in a very largo do;;ree, dependent. 
 
 The skeleton of the United St;ites is represented by two great 
 system i of mountain ranges, or combinatioos of ranges, one 
 forming the eastern, the nther the western side of the framework 
 by whieh the central portion of our continent is embraced. These 
 two systems are the Appalachian ranges and the Cordilleras of 
 North America. These systems are of very different magnitude 
 and extent, [between them stretches a great interior valley, occu- 
 pied by the Mississippi and the greatjakes. 
 IMotMitain The central portion of the United States is nearly a level area, 
 n gioas. embracing a tract of country about 1250 miles east and west, and 
 about r2U(,' miles north and south. It .--liipes gt-ntly downward to 
 the center from the east and west, and towards the Gulf of Mex- 
 ico, from it.s northern limits. The mountain legions, both on the 
 east and west coasts, are not embraced under one continuous 
 range, but are complicated in their orographic structure. 
 
 The eastern and western elevated regions being made up of a 
 ^'reat numbi-r of topographieally more or less detached portions. 
 It was not until a conirii.-itively recent period that these regions 
 received sucli general di-tiuetive appellation- us would evidently 
 b* required in any liiseussion or description of the country as a 
 whole. At the present time, by gen<Tal consent nf geographers 
 and geologi.'^ts, the ejistern ele\ ated side of the continent is called 
 tiie Api'alachi.vn Region; the western the Curdilleran. while 
 tae (•uin[»nrati\ ely level country between these ranges is known 
 us the Ml-SlSSIPPI Vaixky- 
 
 The Great Basin of the Mississippi is bisected through its cen- 
 ter by a suprenie artery, whieh. above St. Lnui.s has received the 
 name of the Missouri, and below the Mississippi Kiver. 
 
 This is 5.UUU miles in h-ngth. and its surface is a continuous in- 
 clined plane, descending seven inches in the mile. Into this cen- 
 tral artery, as into a cemnnon trough descend innumerable rivers 
 coming from the great mountain chains of the continent. 
 
 AH of the iinmense'area thus drained forms a single basin, of 
 which the circumferent mountains form the rim. It may be also 
 called an fu»7>/)///it(f?')v. embracing 1.5(10,000 square miles of surface. 
 This has bein, durinu' the anteililuvian ages, the bed of a great 
 ocean, such as is now the iJulf of .Mexico, or the Mediterranean, 
 above the ,-urface of whieh the mountains jirotruded themselves 
 as islands, Gradually tilled up by the filtration of the waters 
 during countless ages, it has reached its presentaliitude above the 
 other basins, over which the oceans now still roll, and into which 
 the watpr-i have retired. .... 
 ?I;ssissippi The fiaaiii of the Mississippi is, then, a pavement of calcareous 
 btisiu. rock, many thousand feet, in depth, formed by the sediment of 
 
 the superincumbent water, deposited stratum upon stratum, com- 
 pressed by its weight and crystallized into rock by i',s chemical 
 fermentation and pressure. It is in exact imitation of this sub- 
 lime process of the natural worldthat every hnusewife com- 
 presses the milk of her dairy into solid cheese and butter. It is, 
 thcrefme, a homogt-neous, undulating plain of the secondary or 
 sedimentary formation, surmounted by a covering of soil from 
 which springs the vegrtitliiin. as hair from the externa! skin of 
 iin animal. Through this coating of soil, and iuto tiie soft surface 
 strata of rock, the deseeniUng fresh waters burrow their channels, 
 converjiing everywhere, from the circumferent rim to the lowest 
 level, and I'ass out to the sea. 
 
 The most noticeable facts in regard to thi.s vast area are its 
 Blight elevation above sea-level and the general plain-like char- 
 acter of its surface. These conditions are well illustrated by the 
 statement that at Cairo, the junction of the Ohio and the Missis- 
 sippi, we are 1,100 miles from the Gulf, and yet only about 300 
 feet above the sea-level. At Pittsburgh, the head of the Ohio 
 river proper, we have attained an elevation of only 699 feet. 
 Going in the opposite direction, or following up the tributaries of 
 the Mississippi and of the Missouri, which come in fn)m the west, 
 we have a similar condition of things. One may travel up the 
 Platte or the Kansas for hundreds of miles, rising so gradually 
 and so imperceptibly tliat the countrj' seems all the time a level 
 plain. From Council Bluffs to the source of Lodge Pole creek, 
 along the line of the Union Pacific railroad, the ascent averages 
 only 5 feet to the mile. From St. Paul, which is only 700 feet 
 al)Ove the sea. we travel for 670 miles westerly before the month 
 of the Yellowstone is reached, and here we Iiave attained an alti- 
 tude of only 2,U10 feet, with an average rise of only 2 feet to the 
 mile. 
 .Ai<a of The great lakes, those vast expansions of the upper waters of 
 
 G:eat the St. Lawrence, are among the grandest of the geographical 
 
 ijttkes. features of the North American continent. They are remarkable 
 
 for their immense area, and for their uniformity of elevation 
 above seadevel, and the consequent facilities which they "nurd 
 for cummercial intercourse. 
 
 Their combined area is a little more than 90,0i;0 square miles. 
 Lake Superior having over 30,000, and Lakes Michigim and Huron 
 each over 2M,nOO sfiuare miles of surlace. Erie. Huron, and 
 Michigan are nearly on the same k-vei, the extreme difference be- 
 tween the first find the last-named being only about lb feet, while 
 Suficrior is ouly 20 feet higher than Michigan, or 36 above Erie. 
 The divide between the un-at lakes and the waters flowing into 
 the Mississippi and its tributaries is also everywhce low, and at 
 the lower end of Lake Michigan it is so trifling that oulv a: mall 
 amount of excavation has been required to cause waters which 
 formerly flowed into that lake to run toward the t^ulf of Mex- 
 ico. Lake Ontario is, indeed, 323 feet lower than Lake Lrie, 
 about half the descent from one to the other being made in one 
 single plunge of the vast body of water, forming a cataract which 
 has, in all I'lrububility, no rival in the world. 
 
 The level and fertile region of the Mississippi valley is pro- 
 longed toward the far southwest, aronnil the Gulf of Mexico and 
 far iuto the interior of Texas, where it finally passes into the " I - 
 vated, barren plateau of the Llano Estacado. 
 
 All that portion of the Mississippi basin lying between Hie Timber. 
 Mississippi River and the Atlantic, is densely timbered, excepimi,' 
 only a portion of Indiana. Illinois, and Wisconsin : so also an' tlio 
 States of Louisiana, Arkansas, and South Missouri An irregular 
 line from the head of Lake Erie, running toward the south and 
 west into Tex:is. defines the cessation of the timber. Between 
 this line and the sea exists a continuous forest region, perpetually 
 moistened by showers from the ocean. Beyond this line, and 
 deeperinto the continent, the upland ceases to nourish timoer, 
 which is replaced by luxuriant annual grasses, though nanow 
 lines of forest continue upon the saturated bottoms of the rivers 
 and in the islands. This is the Prairie region of luxuriant annual 
 grasses and soft arable soil, over which the fires annually sweep 
 after the decay of vegetation. 
 
 Th'^- termination of this belt is marked by an irregular line par- 
 allel to the first, where the rain ceases, and the timber entirely 
 di>;ip|iears. It is about 4.'>0 miles in width, and within it arti- 
 ficial iirigation is not practiced nor necessary, it being t.very- 
 where soft, arable and fertile. 
 
 To this succeeds the immense rainless region onward to the 
 mountains, exclusively pastoral, of a compact soil, coated with 
 the dwarf buffalo grass, without trees, and the abode of the ab- 
 original cattle. That no desert does or can exist within Ibis 
 basin, is manifest from the abundance and magnitude of the 
 rivers; the uniform ealciiprjns formation; the absence of a tropi- 
 cal sun; its longitudinal position across the teniperate zone; and 
 the' greatness and altitude of the mountains on its western rim. 
 The river system of the Mississippi Basin resembles a fan i f River 
 palm-leaf. The stem in the State of Louisiana rests in the (lulf ; gysienu 
 above, the affluent rivers converge to it frum all parts of the 
 cnnipass. From the east come in the Homoehitto, the Yazoo, the 
 Ohio, the Illinois, and the Upper Mississippi. From the rcest^ 
 the Red River, the Washita, the Arkansas, the White. St. Francis 
 and Osage Rivers, the Kansas, the Triple Platte, the L'Eau qui 
 Coiirs, and the Yellowstone, all naviga le rivers of great length 
 and importance. These rivers present a continuous navigable 
 channel of 22.500 miles, having 45.01)0 miles of shore— an amount 
 of navigation and coast equal to the Atlantic Ocean. The areaof 
 the Mississippi Basin classifies itself into one-and-a-half-fifths uf 
 the compactly growing forest, the same of prairie, and two-fifths 
 of great plains. Through all of these the river system is ramified 
 a? minutely complex as are the veins and arteries of the human 
 system. 
 
 Beyond this great main river stretch out the vast prairies of the Plains, 
 west. These plains are not deserts: they are calcareous, and foim 
 the Pastoral Garden of the world. Their position and area may 
 he easily understood. The meridian line which terminates the 
 States of Louisiana. Arkansas. Missouri and Iowa on the west, 
 forms their eastern limit, and the Rocky Mountain crest their 
 western limit. Between these two limits they occupy a longitudi- 
 nal parallelogram of less than 1.000 miles in width, exteniling 
 from the Texan to the Arctic coasts. There is no timber upon 
 them, and single trees are scarce. They have a gentle slope from 
 tiie west to the eost, and abound in rivers. They are clad thick 
 with nutritious grasses, and swarm with animal life. The soil is 
 not silicious or sandy, but is a fine calcareous mould. They run 
 smoothly out to the nnvigiible rivers, the Missouri. Mississippi, 
 and St. Lawrence, and to the Te.xan coast. The mountain masses 
 toward the Pacific form no serious barrier between them and that 
 ocean. No portion of their whole sweep of surface is more than 
 l.OiiO miles from the most facile navigation. The prospect is 
 evervwhere gently undulating and graceful, being bounded, as 
 on the ocean, by the horizon. Storms are rare, except during the 
 melting of the snows upon the crest of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 The climate i-i comparatively raj'a^i'**.- the rivers serve, like the Climate. 
 Nile, to irrigate rather than drain th" neighboring surface, (tnd 
 ha\e few affluents. They all run from west to east, having beds shal- 
 low and luTiad. and the basins thrnush w tiich they flow are flat, long 
 and narrow. The area of the Great Plains is equivalent to the 
 surface of the twenty-four States bctwe- n the Mississippi and the 
 Atlantic Sea. They are one homogenei.us formation, smooth, 
 uniform, and continuous, without a singleahrnpt mountain, tim- 
 ber'-tl sp;ice. desert, or lake. From their ample dimensions and 
 position they define themselves to be the pasture-fields of the 
 w'irld. 
 
 The Pastoral Region is longitudinal. The bulk of it is under 
 the Temperate Zone, out of wnieh it runs into the Arctic Zone on 
 the north, and into the Tropical Zone on the south. The parallel 
 Atlantic ora5/<' and maritime region flanks it on the east; that 
 of the Pacific on the west. 
 
r.IK lOUl.lLI.OlAN HEOIOX.] UNITED STATES 
 
 While, Oil iho whole, so nearly a plain, this vnst area, compris- 
 
 uin over n iiiilliuii aiul a half f>qiiiir>^' iiiilos. has con^iUeniblo 
 
 diversity -"f surface, it beiuK nuialinKeihi-r destitute of mouutuiiis, 
 
 801110 of wbii'h rise to a eiiusideraljh' aliituiU-. To tiescTibe. even 
 
 with a inoderato amount of ilei:iil, the l>a.Hiii (»f the larKet^t river 
 
 8V8tem but one in the world would nquiio many volumes. All 
 
 that can be done is to indieute the salient teaturcs of its Keology, 
 
 Of supi'lemeiitary to that which has been >aid in regard to tho 
 
 Btructun,' of tho great mountain systems by which this geolugi- 
 
 callv eompamtively undisturbed rek'ion is fninud in. 
 
 'eniarv The Tertiary and Creta'-eous rocks, exteudink' along tho (Julf 
 
 nd I'u-ta- and up the Mi-si.-sippi Vall'-y as far as the Ohio Kiver. underlie 
 
 Bous HP. Ks. iiboiit one half nf Alabama and Arkansas, the entire istato of 
 
 .Mississippi. Louisiana, parts of Tennessee. Kentueky. a small 
 
 b'oloirieal onnr nf .Missouri, and nearly all of Te.\as. Thence this zoological 
 
 ormstion. fnrnialioD follows the general trend of tho Uocky Mountains, on 
 
 their ea-storn side and underlies th'^ western half of Kansas, nearly 
 
 all of Nebraska, North and South Dakota, a portion of Iowa, and 
 
 the western part of MtDues<>ta. 
 
 Triassic rtK'ks stri'ieh over a large area of Texiu-i; th»-y also ex- 
 tend into the Indian Territory and tho southtrn part <•£ Kmisas. 
 All hut a suniU rwirtion of the Northern Central group *>( States 
 and portions of (he Suuthern Centnil group of States, are of ihi^ 
 Palfozoio rock f'»raiation. covered by post-Trrtiary and rec-ut 
 detrital formations. In southeastern Missouri, the Axoicareais im- 
 portant frcduaiiecnnomieal staudpnint. Iron ores i>f immense vuluo 
 occur in Pihit Knob, Iron .Mountain and other IcK-alities. Iron is 
 also found in the Azoic formations about Lake Superior, in the 
 States of Wisconsin and northwestern MinnesotJi. North of this 
 iron rej:ion is the copper-bearing rock of tho lower Silurian age. 
 Over New York, northern i'enn>ylvania. and the country Ijorder- 
 ingon tlie Great Lakes is found a large amount of "drift." How 
 this so called "drift"' wa-s distributed «iv<r this area is a question 
 which hivs long been a subject of discussion among geologists. liv 
 far the larger number of those who have invrstigineil tho subjevt 
 ascribe the origin of this coarse deiriial inaferial to gliieial 
 c:nses. It is believed that at one time the northern purt of the 
 continent WHS c«»vered with ice. and ihnt which wo see on the 
 pr ent surface of the region that was thus covered, is the result 
 of the action of these ylaeiers, or of tho tloods which were pro- 
 duced when ihcy melted. 
 
 THK COROnXERAN RKOION. '^ 
 
 The Cordill-'ras are a part -d" the great system or chain of 
 Qiountatns which borders the Pucific coast of both divisions of 
 the American continent. South and North America, and forms its 
 dominating,' and most imposing feature. 
 
 Fr 'm .Mexico the system of the Cordilleras enters our territory, 
 widening and gaining in complexity. Just above the southern 
 border of Arizoim. along the paralhl of32'*, occurs the greatest 
 depression "f tho Cordilleni.-; existing anywhere north of southern 
 Mexico; and here the continent iimy be traversed without rising 
 to an elevati(»n of over I.Oi'O feet 'Ihe country along this line is a 
 tabl..- land, with many short and broken ranges of no great alti- 
 tude built upon it. but deeply excavated by numerous eanon.s as 
 the narrow valleys of the -streams in the Cordilleras are uni- 
 versally called, of which the canon of theColorado may bo taken 
 as the tvpe. 
 Tie Cor- On this plateau, in latitude .15". is agroup of extinct volcanoes. 
 
 illeras. simitar to the range which traverses Alexico. These grand vol- 
 canic cent's. uf which San Francisco mountain is thelnftiest and tho 
 best known, rise to nearly flouble tho akitu'lo of tho plateau on 
 w-hich they stjind. The greatest width of tho Cordillents is along 
 the line passing from the vicinity of San Francisco, by (ireat 
 Salt Lake, to l?ort Laramie, or between latitudes :iH° and 42'^. 
 Here the mass of mountiiius and plateaus atUins a breadth of 
 fully a thousand miles; and if ih.- Black ilills, an outlier of the 
 Rocky Mountains, in latitude 44*. are included— as they may 
 properly bo— the total breadth of the comphxuH of ranges wifl 
 be. in Its in'ixnnum. over l.liiii miles. 'Ihe \vhnIo arcaetnbraeed 
 within (he mounUiinous belt which we call the Cordilleras is 
 but very little, if any. short of a milli.-n of scjuare miles, or one- 
 third the area of the country. Ilenco it may. with propriety, be 
 caHod the greatest phvsieal feature of our territory. 
 
 To roughly indicate the shape of the mass of tho Cordilleras we 
 may consider it as having a loz'.'nge-shap.'d figure, bounded bv two 
 parallel north and sonthsi les and two northwest and southeast 
 Bidts. Thelengfh of each side is apr'roxinmtely r.Oi) miles. Tho 
 western edge of the figure corresponds in trend to tho line of tho 
 Pacific coast, tvhich, as a glance ar the tnai* will show, is north- 
 west and southeast as far as Cape Mendocino, ami from there to 
 Vancouver Island north and south nearlv. Tiie north and south 
 trending portion of tho Pacifi.- edge of the Conlilleras is known as 
 the * as cade rang.-: the m*rrhwest and sriutheiist range as tho 
 Sierra Nevada. Here, bordering on the ('asciide and Sierra 
 ^evada mnges. but -fill nearer the ociin. are the Coii^t rantces, 
 parallel with the loftier masses on th- eust.and inoM-nliiting with 
 them. lit various points, in such a inaiinrr that a disrinct ^epa- ' 
 ration b<--twecn coiK-t and interior riniKes S'-i-ms hardly possihlo, 
 tith'T "" geo^rraphical or an geological grounds. 
 
 The Kocky .Mountains projit-r form (he eastern rim of the Tor- 
 dilleras. Ihroughout New Mexico, CoJora-lo. and southern 
 Wyomingtheir face ranges north and fouth. The northern part 
 of this system, lying in northern Wyoming and MorHuna. pre- 
 Bents to the plains n northwest and southeast face, similar to that 
 of the >ierra Nevada. 
 
 The loz-nge shaped figure thus indicated, framed in. as it were. 
 by the (.a.-'fiido range and Sierra Nevada on the west and the 
 Kocky Mountains on tho east, incloses a high plateau, which. 
 in^/Sii*'? "'' center east and west, has an elevation of from 4.000 to 
 lU.OOO feet above sea-level, falling off toward both tho north and 
 too south from its central lino. 
 
 Lotus consider t„ in its great general features. It maj Oe 
 divided into— 
 
 1st. riiesfction of tho Kocky Mountains, 
 
 2d. That of the plateaus, 
 
 3d. Thai of tlie v>rt.ar Ba?iu, and 
 
 4th. Tliiit of llie Paeilic 
 
 The country lying east of the first section is a great plain, ex- 
 tending to an und' finable eastern limit, ^shieh may beset, how- 
 ever, roughly at tho liOih meridian. This plain is not strictly 
 level, but umluhitiiig. like the swi It of tbehea. Mostof the stream 
 valleys are shallow deprt-Ssii-ns. ai.d the divides between them 
 arc but slightly marked. '1 hose plains rise sluw Iv westward, with 
 an even gradient, to a height of 4,0UO to (i.l Oo feot at the eastern 
 base of tho Uocky Mountains, Ijoing the highe>t in Colorado, de- 
 creasing thence nortlnviird and southward. They are c<ivered with 
 grasses almost throughout, and form a grazlng-grouud of almost 
 incalcuhiblo cupacity. 
 
 With theexci,-ptinnof the Missouri and the Yellowstone, none of 
 the streams are of any importance to navignliiiU. and they arc^ of 
 use only for irrigation. The capacity of this ngion for supporting 
 life is largely depeudent upon its rainfall, whit-u will be discus>ed 
 further on. 
 
 The Kocky Mountains form tho eastern member of the C- r- RocKy 
 dilleran system,— a number made up of many subordinate rant s, Mouuluins. 
 each range or sub-group of ranges having a di^tiuetlv(■ name.rec' g- 
 nized by those living near, while (ho n:(m»- "Kocky MounUiins" is 
 in general use as tho propi.r appellation wlien a number of these 
 sub groups of ranges arc intended to be includtd under one com- 
 mon name. 
 
 From tho south border of the United States to about latitude 
 4.*i° their general course is nearly norih and south, and from thia 
 point northward to the British line it is nearly northwest, thus 
 tormiiig tlie two eastern sides of the lozenge above spoken of. 
 They consist of a number of rangis. nearly nil of which trend 
 pitrailel to one another— a few degrees east of south and wei-t of 
 north. ('T rouj^hly panilKl to the northeastern side of Ihi^ region. 
 
 In the southern portion the rafges run out one after another 
 into tho plains, forming an edition arrangement, thus giving to 
 tho system a U'arly north and s<iutli face. 
 
 In Colorado th'- underlying phiti au attainsa greater elevation 
 than in any other part of thr Cordilleran system, reiuhing aa 
 o.xfrenie height in tho South Park of 10,000 toet. llc-rc, too, tl,e 
 ranges reai-h a greater aJtitude than in any oihtr part of ihe 
 Uocky mountain system. Numberless peaks ri^c from 14,000 to 
 14,500 fei t above searlevel. 1 la-re luc few passes in the ranges rt 
 a h*-ight niuch below timber line, which is from 11,000 to 12.00(> 
 foet- Northward and southward the plateau decieases gradually 
 in height, carrying downward thf ranges which stand upon it. 
 Southward through New Mexico the ranges not only decrease in 
 height, but hceomo broken and scattering, while the extent of 
 level platcjm country becomes much greater. Toward the norths 
 in southern Wy(aning, all tlie ranges sl(-p fihruptly. leaving to 
 represent the Uocky mountain system only ti line of plateaus of an 
 elevation of fi.OOO to 7,000 feet stretching from Bri'lgcr pass, in 
 the s<mthcrn part of the territory, northwestward to the South 
 pass, at the south end of the AVind Kiver chain. In this latitude 
 a immber of ranges rise abruptly fr< ni the plateaU. beginning 
 with the Big Horn on the east, ilan tho AVind Kiver range, some 
 of whose peaks are more than 13,000 feet in altitude, and the mul- 
 titudinous ranges which border the headwitttrs of the Snake 
 river. From this point, as the system coniinnes onward into 
 Idaho and MontJina. the underlying plateau and the ranges also 
 greatly decrease in height, but not in complexity. In the north- 
 western part of Montana and northern Idnho. indeed, the whole 
 country is a mass of mountain ranges, whose elevation is from 
 S. (100 to O.OiiO feet, separated in most cases, by very narrow val- 
 leys, tho whole area beirrg densely covered with forests. 
 
 THK PLATEAU I'ROVINCK. 
 
 The region of which the principal or more striking, topographi- 
 cal and geological fenturcs arc next to be indicated, is that 1} ing 
 south of the tJreat Basin, ami which is drained by the Colorado 
 nnil its tributaries. It is included chiefly within the boundaries of 
 tho Territories of Utah and .Arizona; but, to a certain extent, 
 simihir eharacteristi(? features an found in the adjacent portion ('f 
 Colondo.New Mexico, and Nevada. 
 
 For cnnvenienco of geological discussion, that belt of country Provincea. 
 which lies between the meridian of Denver, Colorailo. and tho 
 Pacific, and b'-twein tho 34th and 4;;d I'arallels. is divided into 
 provinces, eiich of which possesses topographical features wkich 
 distinguish it from the others. The ea.sternmost i.-^ mimed thePjirk 
 Province. It is situateti in the central aiul western parts of Col- 
 orado, and extends north of that State into Wyoniiiig, and south 
 of it into New Mexico. It is pre-eminently a mountain region, 
 having several long ranges of the second <trder of magnitude. 
 The structure and forme of these moiintiiins are not exactly simi- 
 lar to those of any otiier region now well known, but possess some 
 rescniidance to the Alps, though not a very close one. 
 
 To the westward of these ranges in Coltiratlo. there are. rear the Platforms 
 we>tcfn boundary of that State, regions hiivinga very different and 
 topography. Tle^ mountains disappeiir almost wholly, and in terraces, 
 their stead there nro platforms and terraces nearly or quito 
 horizontal on their summits or floors, and abruptly terminated by 
 long lines or cliffs. They lie at greatly varying altitudes, some as 
 high as 1 1.0( feet iibove the sea, others no higlier than 5.000, and 
 with still others occupying intermediiite levels. Seldom does the 
 surface of the liind rise info conical peaks, or into len»:, narrow, 
 crested ridtrcs; but the profiles are lon^-horizontnl lint's, suddenly 
 dropidng down miiny hundred or even two thousr.nd feet, upon 
 another flat pliiin below. This region has been very appropriately 
 narnod, by Pnpfessor Powell, the Plateau Province. It occupies a. 
 narrow strip in tho extreme western part of Colorado, a similar 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 [the great basin. 
 
 Drainage 
 b;i in of the 
 '^(ultrado. 
 
 Cliffs. 
 
 Colorinss. 
 
 Gorges and 
 ravines. 
 
 Prjiinnfro. 
 Channels. 
 
 VegPta- 
 Uon. 
 
 / nita 
 Mouutain: 
 
 strip of western New Mexico, a large part of southern AVyoming, 
 and rather more than half uf Utah and Arizona. 
 
 This region may be roughly defined as comprising the drain- 
 age basin of the Colorado river and its_ tributaries. The upper 
 portions of its tributaries flow, however, in the Kocky Mnuntaiiis 
 and the Wahsatch range, and enter the plateau region lower in 
 their courses. This region lies west of the southern section of 
 the Rocky Mountains and east of the Great Basin, and consti- 
 tutes a great depression or valley in the Cordilleran region of a 
 roughly triangular shape, its apex being in western \V'yoming, 
 near the tead of the (Treen river, one of the torks of the Colorado. 
 It is a region ot table lands and canons; of table lands horizontal 
 or nearly ^o, stretching tor many miles with .scarcely an undula- 
 tion in the uniform surface, but suddenly ending abruptly in a 
 line of cliffs, perhaps thousands of feet in height, and extending 
 in an unbroken line for hundreds of miles. In this region every 
 stream is in a gorge, cut hundreds, or even thousands of feet 
 b'' low the surface' by the action of water on the soft, stratified 
 ^andstones and limestones. Most of this region is uninhabited 
 and uninhabitable, not only by reason of the climate, which for- 
 bids igricnltural pursuits, but from its almost hopeless impassa- 
 bieiiess. 
 
 Separating this region from the Great Basin is the AVahsatch 
 range, which may be considered as a spur from the Kocky Moun- 
 tains. It is a range of considerable breadth and altitude, extend- 
 ing from north'i'ru Utah nearly to the middle latitude of th'^ State, 
 and descending to the general hn-el of the country on the south 
 and ea-t by a series of plateaus, forming a veritable giant's stair- 
 wn\. The elevation of this range in its highest portion is from 
 1(1,000 to 11,000 teet. one or two peaks only reaching an altitude of 
 I'J.OOOfeet. Joining this range in the northern part of Utah is 
 tliat of the Uinta, whieh differs from nearly all the ranges of 
 the Cordilleran region by having an east and west trend. Itforma 
 the southern limit of the Green River basin, the region upon 
 which the fugitive name ''Great American Desert" has been latest 
 bestowed, and where it is probable it has at last found a final 
 resting-place. 
 
 This range far exceeds the Wahsateh in elevation, a number of 
 its praks extending skyward nearly 14,001) feet, and its broad, 
 plati'au-like summit being for a considerable extent at an eleva- 
 tion of 12,000 feet. 
 
 The Grand Canon District is a part of the Plateau Province, 
 As already indicated, it lies between the Park and Basin Prov- 
 inces, and its topography differs in the extreme from those divi- 
 sions found on either side of it. It is the land of tables and ter- 
 races, of buttes and mesas, of cliffs and canons. Standing upon 
 anv elevated spot where the radius of vision reaches out 50 or 100 
 miles, the observer beholds a strange spectacle. The most con- 
 spicuous objects are the lofty and brilliantly colored cliffs. They 
 stretch their tortuous courses across the land in all directions, yet 
 not without system ; here throwing out a great promontory, there 
 receding in a deep b;ty. «nd continuing on and on until they sink 
 below the horizon or swing behind some loftier mass or fade out 
 in the distant haze. Each cliff marks the boundary of a geo- 
 graphical terrace, and marks also the termination of some geo- 
 logical series of strata, the edges of which are exposed like courses 
 of masonry in the scarp- walls of the palisades. Very wonderful at 
 times is the sculpture of these majestic walls. Each geological 
 formation exhibits in its cliffs a' distinct style of architecture 
 which is not reproduced among the cliffs of other formations, and 
 these several styles differ as much as those whieh are cultivated 
 by different races of men. The character which appeals most 
 strongly to the eye is the coloring. The gentle tints of an east- 
 ern landscape, the pale blue of distant mountains, the green of 
 vernal or summer vegetation, the subdued colors of hill and 
 meadow, are wholly wanting here, and in their place is the bril- 
 liant red. yellow and white, which are intensified rather than alle- 
 viated bv alternating belts of gray. Like the architecture, the 
 colors are characteristic of the geological formations, each series 
 having its own group and range of colors. They culminate in in- 
 tensity in the Permian and Lower Trias, where dark, brownish reds 
 aiternate with bands of chocolate, purple, and lavender, so deep, 
 rich, and resplendent, that a painter would need to be bold to 
 venture to portray them as they are. 
 
 The Plateau country is also the land of canons, in the strictest 
 meaning of that terra. Gorges, ravines, canudaa are found, and 
 are more or less impressive in every high region ; and in the ver- 
 nacular of the west, all such features are termed canons indiscrim- 
 inately. But these long, narrow, profound trenches in the roeks, 
 with inaccessible walls, are seldom found outi^^ide the plateaus. 
 There they are innumerable, and are the almost universal form of 
 drainage channels. Nearly everywhere the drainage channels are 
 cut from -iOO to 3,000 feet below the general platform of the 
 immediate country. They are abundantly ramified, and every 
 branch is a canon. All these dniiiiagi^ channels lead down to one 
 great trunk channel cleft through the heart of the Plateau Prov- 
 ince for eight hundred miles—/ /jr rhunm of the Colorado, and the 
 canon of its principal fork, the Green River. 
 
 The region is for themost parta desert of the barrenest kind. At 
 levels below 7,';00 feet the heat is intense, and the air is dry in the 
 extreme. The vegetation is very scanty, and even the ubiquitous 
 sage is sparse and stunted. Here and there the cedar is^ seen, the 
 hardiest of arborescent plants, but it is dwarfed and sickly, and 
 seeks the shadiest nook<. At higher levels the vegetation becomes 
 more abundant and varied. Above 8.000 feet the plateaus are for- 
 est clad, and the u'round is carpeted with rank grass and an exu- 
 berant growth of beautiful summer flowers. The summers there 
 are cool and moist: the winters severe and attended with heavy 
 snow-fall. The Plati'au Province is naturally divided into two 
 . portions, a northern and a southern. The dividing barrier is the 
 Uinta range. This fine mountain platform is, in one respect, an 
 Bnomaly among the western ranges. It is the only important 
 
 one which trends east and west. Starting from the eastern flank 
 of the Wasatch, the Uintas project eastward more than 150 
 miles, and nearly join perpendicularly the Park ranges of Colo- 
 rado. Of the two portions into which the Plateau Province is 
 thus divided, the southern is much the larger. Both have in com- 
 mon the plateau features; their to]>ographies, climates, and phys- 
 ical features in general, are of similar types, and their geological 
 features and history appear to be closely related. Hut each has 
 also its peculiarities. The northern portion is an interesting and 
 already celebrated field for the study of the cretaceous strata, 
 and the Tertiary lacustrine beds. The southern part of the Pla- 
 teau I^rovinee may be regarded as a vast basin, everywhere 
 bounded by highlands, except at the southwest, where it opens 
 wide and passes suddenly into a region having all the charaeter- 
 istics of the Great Basin of Nevada. The northern half of its 
 eastern rim consists of the Park ranges of Colorado. Its north- 
 ern rim lies urmn the slopes of the Uintas- At the point where 
 the Uintas join the Wahsateh, the boundary turns sharply to the 
 south, and for 2oO miles the High Plateaus of Utah constitute 
 the elevated western margin of the Province. A crude conception 
 of this region mav be gained by imagining three lines, each 200 
 milesloug. placed in the positions of three sides of a scfuare: ihe 
 fourth side being for the moment neglected. Upon the eastern Utah 
 side, conceive the ParK Ranges of Colorado; upon the northern, i luteaus. 
 the Uintas; and upon the western side, the southern per' ion of the 
 AVahsatch and tlie High Plateaus of Utah ; and all these highlands 
 having altitudes ranging from 9.000 to 12,01:0 feet above si-a-level, 
 while the included area varies from 5.000 to7,0tiofeet in height. The 
 .space thus partially bounded may represent the northern part of 
 thrsouthern Plateau Province. Along the line required for tho 
 fourth and south side of the complete square there is no boundary. 
 The topography continues on beyond it to the southward, and also 
 widens out both west and east and overspreads an additional area 
 more than twice as great as that already defined. From the east- 
 ern coast of the High Plateaus maybe obtained an instructive 
 overlook of the northern portion of ihe southern Plateau country. 
 
 Throughout the great cirbuniferous age the entire area of the Carbonif- 
 Plateau Province was sulunerged beneath the ocean. Deposition ei ous age. 
 of .'strata went on continuously, leaving at the close of this age a 
 subaqueous surface, whieh was exceedingly flat, and, except 
 around the borders of the Province, quite free from any apprecia- 
 ble inequalities. • The thickness of the carboniferous system is 
 from 4,500 feet to 5,000 feet in the interior of the Province, but, 
 around its borders, and in the Uinta mtuintains. it i« sometimes 
 found in far greater volume. After the Carboniferous came tho 
 Permian age. in which were laid down from 8i to 1.500 feet of 
 sandy shales. The same state of affairs continued through the 
 Trias, during which period sandstone beds were depositeil. 
 Directly upon the Trias rests the Jurassic. — a wonderful bed of 
 sandstone 800 to 1,200 feet thick, and very white and sugary. Next Sandstone, 
 comes the Cretaceous system, — a mass of yellow sandstones with 
 clayey and marly shales, aggregating from 4.000 to 5.000 feet 
 thick. At the close of the Cretaceous period there are evidences 
 that extensive disturbances took place, resulting at some places 
 in the dislocation and flexing of the strata. 
 
 The last period of deposition was marked by the accumulation of 
 the Eocene beds. Around the southern flanks of the Uintas their 
 aggregate thickness exceeds ft, 000 feet, but southward the upper 
 members disappear, and SO miles north of the Grand Canon only 
 about l.OiiO to 1,200 feet make their appearance. In_ the course of Geological 
 geological history, this area, which had been a region of deposi- history, 
 tion and subsidence, became one of elevation and denudation. 
 Since that change took place, the havoc wrought by erosion has 
 been stupendous, the thickness of strata remover! exceeding 
 10,000 feet in some considerable areas, and averaging probably 
 5,500 to 6,000 feet over the entire Province. 
 
 THE GKEAT BASIN. 
 
 West of the Plateau Province is the Great Basin, so named by 
 Fremont, because it has no drainagf to the ocean. 
 
 The first general idea of the drainage and principal topographi- 
 cal fi-atures of the Great Basin is due to Bonneville, who fitted out 
 a party which started from Green River with the intention of 
 making the entire circuit of Great Salt Lake. This, as Irving Bonneville 
 states, was a favorite idea of Bonneville's; and in preparing for and his 
 this expedition all the resources at his command were taxed. The party, 
 party, consisting of forty men. did not, however, succeed in carry- 
 ing out Bonneville's plans, but were driven, by the difticult to- 
 pography and utter barrenness of thecountry on the south side of 
 the lake, toward the west, traveling in which direction they soon 
 came upon tho headwaters of the river called upon Bonneville's 
 maps "Mary or Ogden's," but which is now known as the Hum- 
 boldt. This river they followed until they found that "it lost 
 itself in a great swampy lake (the sink of the Humboldt), to which 
 there was no apparent discharge." From here the party crossed 
 the Sierra Nevada and made their way to Monterey. Bonneville's 
 party was thus the first to explore and map the route afterward 
 'generally followed by emigrants, and along which the Central Pa- 
 cific—the first trans-continental railroad— was built. The peculiar 
 course of Bear River, here already noti:-ed, was shown on this 
 map, and the general character of the drainage of the Paeifio 
 coast was, for the first time, correctly indicated by Bonneville. 
 The first working out of anv of the details of the topography of 
 the Gn^at Basin is due to Butler Ives, a topographer in the em- 
 ploy of the Central Pacific Railroad, the directors of this work 
 having been de.sirous of ascertaining whcthc'- there was any prac- 
 ticable route across the Basin other than that through thi; valley 
 of the Humbcddt; which, however, was the one ultimately 
 adopted, all other routes having been found too difficult. Still 
 further and more detailed explorations and surveys were made 
 on the western side of the Basin, first by the California (leologioal 
 Survey, and later by the United States Engineers; and a belt a 
 
THP: APrALACIIIAN itKiaoN.] UNITED STATES 
 
 hundred iriles in width whs nUo surveyed ncross this reRion, stnrt- 
 
 iuK fruiu the crost of the .Siena Neviidii iiiul KuiiiK iiijit tn the 
 
 easUTU hiu-c of the Hoi-kv Mimutjiiiis. Tlii:* bdi w;is tht- tield 
 
 occupied by iho Forlioth l*tn'iillol Survey uudor the direction uf 
 
 rhiroiice Kinn. 
 
 ropoKraphy The tuponraphy of the Great Basin is wholly peculiar, and 
 
 if the bears no ro>embIanee to either of the two just uieiitiont-d. It oon- 
 
 irt-Ht t«i IS alargo nuuil)er of nin^res. all uf whioU are v«Ty narrow and 
 
 Lja8in. short, separated from eauii uther i)y wide inu'ivals uf smooth. 
 
 barn'M plains. Tht* niountaiiis are of a low nrd<T of iiiaKnitudo 
 
 foriheuiost nail. thuuKh soiuu of the naiKes and peaks attain 
 
 considerable dimensions. Their appearance is strikinRly diCfer- 
 
 ent fnuii the noble and pieturesqne outlines displayed in Colo- 
 
 rad >. They are j;ij;B 'd. wild and unpraoef ul in their aspect, and. 
 
 wh-lher viewed from far or near, ropel rather than invite the im- 
 
 ni,'iuation. 
 
 Thi' Wahsatcli. however, is an exoeption. This noble range is 
 properly a imrt uf the Biisiu Province, and is one of the fine-t and 
 m ist picturesquf of the West, but so completely dues it contrast 
 with iho otlii r ba>iu ranges that it mny bo regardinl as an annm- 
 olv amuiiK them. Thu topographical features of this recion are 
 als ) fuan I outside of the limits which Fremont assigned to the 
 lir^'ai lla-in. and reach southward towards Arizona, and north- 
 %vari towards Idaho and Oregon. 
 
 This (ireat Ba>*iniS^of enormous extent, comprising nearly all of 
 Ni'vada and large part-^ of Utah. Wyoming, Idih'i. OreBon. and 
 California. Instead of being one great basin as its namo implies, 
 it consists in reality of a number of smaller basins. It is trav- 
 ersfd by a series of narrow ranges, which are in general highly 
 continuous, extending sometimes for hundreds of miles, having a 
 penoral north and south trend. Between these ranges lie narrow, 
 flat valleys floored (vith detritus fruui the mountains. The niin- 
 fail tiver tliis region is so light, and the atmosphere so dry. that 
 there .are few living streams within its wliole expanse. The little 
 rivuh'ts which trickle down the mountain side in the spring are 
 absoHud in the vallovs at th-'ir bases, so that each valley in very 
 many cises is a sink for its own waters. On the east and the west 
 eides. hnwev<'r,nt iht? bases respeeiivety of the Wnhsatch and the 
 Sierra Xevoda. is a lake, or a series of lakes, into which flow oou- 
 si'lerable bodies of water from these ranges. 
 5urround- On the east is (ireat .^alt Lake, having an extent of 2.31U square 
 ings of miles, and receiving drainage from an area of ;V2.4')U square miles. 
 
 Sreat the hirgi-r part of which consists of high mountains. Thf rapidity 
 
 Basin. of evaporation in tliis dry climate is so great thai the lake is kept 
 
 at approximately thc-^amo lev*'l (h'spite the liberal contributions 
 ma'li) to it by its tributary streams. 
 
 The middle portion of the basin, along a line running down 
 eastern Ni'vada, is more elevated than that of the east or the west 
 side, forming a sort of division, or water parting, between tlie two 
 portions. Such of the waters as do nut immediately sink flow off 
 towaftl the Great Salt T-ake on the one side and the sinks at the 
 base of tbe Sierras on the other. The latter arc known as the 
 Cars n Lake and sink, Humboldt Lake. Mud and Pyramid Lakes. 
 f4»rniing a line along the western part of Nevada. 
 
 Into ihi- system «»f sinks flow not, only the streams from the 
 etat -lope of the Sierras. Init the HnmboMt River— a stream 
 wljich rises in northwestern Utah. and. flowing directly across the 
 trends of numberless ranges, receiving more or less water from 
 thoni all. r aches the Carson sink scarcely larger than at its head. 
 A third system of siinks may be mentioned, viz.. that lying in 
 central Oregon, of which Harney's Lake is the principal one. 
 rhe Pacific It remains to give a slight sketeh of the rani-es of the Pacific 
 Divition. divi>ion. They consist of the Sierra Nevoila of California, the 
 Cascade range of Oregon and Washington Territory, an'l the sys- 
 tem of Coau ranges which border the Pacific. These ranges have 
 one very marked feature in common; they are almost l>reci-n_ly 
 parallel throughniit to the line of the Pacific coist. Trending in 
 thf southern liJilf considerably east of south, they turn at about 
 the panillel of 42° to a course almost directlv north. 
 Cascade The great mass of the Cascade range has tlie form of a volcanic 
 
 range. plat'-au of an (deviition very little above the country on its east- 
 
 ern b »rd r. .At intervals along its crest, however, are stationed 
 high volcanic Peaks, ranging from 8.000 to more than U.HiiO feet 
 above sen-level. Among tho-e may he mentioned Mount Rainier. 
 in Washington territory, 14.444 feet high ; Mount Shasta, UAi2 
 fe"t high, in California; and Mount Hood, in Oregon. 11, 22.'-' feet 
 in height. In north-rn California, j'ist south of Mount Shasta, 
 the rangf is very much br<»ken down, and at tliis point the Pitt 
 RivT. th ' head stream of the Sacramento, has cut its wny 
 throuich th'- range into California. Beyond this gorge again the 
 range c mtinu-s. with but slight chnnge in its characteristics, until 
 we have pa sed 'h- head of the F«'athcr River, where its char- 
 acter ''hanges from that of a volcanic range to one of granite and 
 gnt'issic rocks. With this ehange coines an incronse in elevation, 
 at first gradual, but ultimat'dy attaining enormous proportions 
 obour latitude .36° 3V. Hero the range has a groat breadth, while 
 most of the p^'ttks reach elevations of more than 14. (KK) feet, and 
 the passe^J h ivo an elevation of about rj.OO* feet. In this reirion 
 is the highest i)eakof the Sierras. Mount Whitni-y. which falls but 
 little short of 15.000 foct, and is the culminating point of this 
 group. 
 
 West of the Sierras and the Cascades lies the great valley ex- 
 tending from Pugot Sound southward into the lower part of 
 California. It is walled in from the Pacific on the west by the 
 Coast ranges. In Washington territory it is drained by numi-rous 
 minor streams flowing through th*- Cascade and the Coast 
 ranges into the Columbia River and Paget Sound. In Oregon it 
 compri-ies the valley of the Willarnette and the upp-r valleys of 
 th*" Kugiieand the I'mpqua Rivers. In California it comprises the 
 valley of rhe Sacramento and thr* San .Joaquin. These valleys are 
 separated froin one another by cross ranges of inonntain.*, whieh 
 have the character of spurs sent down by the Cascade range, join- 
 
 ing the Coast ranges on the west. The great valley is terminated 
 by the westward trend of the Coast ranges and their junction with 
 the Sierra Nevada in southern Californni. 
 
 Of the V'oast ranges little need be said, except thot they are of Coast 
 minor elevation etiiupared witli the eastern jairt of the system, i.mgcs. 
 ninging from 3.UI)0 to 4.i W feet south of the bay of San Frauci.sco 
 to 5.0011 or b.lKiO feet in the northern part of the State. They 
 have, however, a very important effect in uKaiifying tiie elimato 
 of the great valley— an i tfcet <iuite as important as that ut the 
 Sierra Nevada and the Cascade ranges upon the elinuile of the 
 region lying to the east of them. Want of navigability is tho 
 cliaracteristie of all tho streams whieli drain the Cordilleras. In- 
 stead of vast stretclies open to steam navigation, as witli tho 
 Mississippi and its trilmtarii-s. allowing aeees> to areas 2.i'i and 
 3.(100 miles away from its ni<»uth, we have the Culunuio, which i.» of 
 littleaceount for tho purposes of navigation, the Columbia, ^^iIh 
 two portages before the Cascade range is crossed, and the Sacra- 
 mento and the San .Joaquin, navigable for moderate sized boats 
 for only a few score of miles. With the^e exetptions there is no 
 stream of any iniportam-e opi ning access to the interior along the 
 whide Pacific coast. On the other hand, the amount of wnter- Rivers, 
 power stored in the streams of the west is fabulous. All the 
 streams fall rapidly through nearly their entire courses, and in 
 and near the mountains there is an abundance of water. 
 
 THK Ari'.M.ACHiAN ItKCION. 
 
 Leaving now the Cordilleras, we have next to consider the east- 
 ern border of our territory— the northeast and southwest-trend- 
 ing mass of ranges— known as the Apimlachian region. In this 
 portion of our brief resume of the phjsioil features of the United 
 States we shall have to rely mainly on the labors of others, and 
 esjiccially on those of Prot. Ouyi.t and ut Prof. J. P. Leslie, ol the 
 Pennsylvania (leolngical Sur\<y. wlui have labored with great 
 zeal ami ability in making the topography of our eastern border 
 intelligible. 
 
 A glance at the map shows that the central portion of North 
 America, fnuu the (Julf of .Mexico to the Arctic ocean, is a regiitn 
 of great rivrrs and lakes, and not of mountains. A sinking of 
 the land of less than l.niiij feet would open a water-way through 
 from ncirth to south ; 2,0i'0 feet of such a sinking, or an e<juivah nt 
 rise of tin- ocean, would divide our territi)ry into two distinct ami 
 remote portions. On the east we should havo a comparatively 
 narrow belt of land, extending in a northeast nnd southwest 
 direction from Pennsylvania to Oeorgia, with groups of outlying 
 islands on the north, esipecially in altout latitude 41°. where tho 
 tops of the Green, the White, and the Adirondack mountains 
 would rise in the form of lofty and precipitous islands above tho 
 waste of waters. On the west the mass of land remaining uncov- 
 ered wculd be of grand, almost continental dimen.'-i'>ns, for its 
 breadtli would bo fully equal to 1,500 miles, narrowing as wo fol- 
 lowed it northward, while in length, north and south, it would 
 extend entirely across our present territory. The breadth of 
 the ocean separating these masses of land would be not far from 
 a thousand miles. 
 
 The Appalachian chain extends from the promontory of Gasp6, Appalo- 
 in a general southwesterly direction, for a distance of about l.'A^^O chian ohaJn. 
 miles, into Alabama, where it dies out, nnd is buried under the 
 horizcmtal strata of more recent geological formations, which 
 cover nearly the whole surface of that state. Tin- base from 
 which this chain rises on the eastern side is the Atlantic seaboard, 
 which, in the early hi^^tory of the United States, seemed to be tho 
 whcde country, ati»l which is still commercially thr most impor- 
 tant, and is the seat of our largest cities. The plain is slightly 
 inclined toward thi- .'Vtlantic, and its elevation ab<i\e the sea is 
 inconsiderable. In New England it hardly exceed^ .'il'" to-P'Ofeet; 
 but toward the south, after passing the bay of N<w York, wh< re 
 it is nearly at the sea level, it gains in altitude, and also in width, 
 finally attnining a height of a thousand feet at thc' base of tho 
 mountains and a breadth of .^ome 2' miles. The western base of 
 the Appalachian range is a pliiteau region, which descentls grad- 
 ually toward the great lakes and the tributaries of tlie Ohio hi; v- 
 inga general eU'\atioii of a thousand feet or more, but deeply 
 gashed bv the streams which traverse it nnd run in vallcvs 
 depressed from 800 to 500 feet below the geuernl level of tho 
 country. 
 
 The Appalachian chain presents, in many of its features, a most 
 marked contrast to the Cordilleras just described. Prof. Ouyot 
 calls attention to a conspicuous feature of the most folded portion 
 of tho Appalachians, characterizing the chain though its entire 
 length; that is, tlie existence of a great central valli v. running 
 through the system from norihea^t to soiitliwrst. which can bo 
 traced without diffieulty, although not inrltctly uniform in its 
 development. I tis the Lake Champhtin and Hudson River valley in 
 New York, the Kittatinny valley of Pennsylvania, tlic great valley 
 of Virginia, and finally, still farther south, the valley of Fast Ten- 
 nessee. The chain, or the system of chains, borderiig this central 
 <lepressi(Mi on the southi-ast is also a pr-rsistent feature of the Apjia^ 
 Inchian system; forit extends, with but few interruptions, from 
 Vermont to Alabama, being known by a variety ol names ns it 
 passes from one state into another. It is the Oreen Munntain rnngo 
 of Vermont, the Highlands of New Y'ork, the South Mountains of 
 Pcnn.'^ylvania, the Blue Ridge, of Virginia, and. finally, the IroQ» 
 Smoky, and Unaka mountains of North ('aroliiui and Tennessee. 
 
 Possessing these features in common as a whole, the Ai>pa- 
 lachian chain presents three subdivisions, eachexhiliiting its own 
 well-mnrked peculiirity of structure. Those are the northern, 
 extending from tJiispe to tho Hudson ; the middle, from New York 
 to the Kanawha, or New river, in \'irginia: the southern from 
 N^w river to thf southwestern extremity of the system. ICach of 
 these subdivisions has its iiecuiiar curvature and general direction. 
 The northern trends to the north from the Hudson river to near 
 the Canada line, there bends to the eastward, sweeping a great 
 
UN i T E D H T A l E tS [thk ArrALAcniAN ke;gion. 
 
 curve, so as to present on the whole its concavity to the southeast; 
 the middle sub livision aNo curves quite regularly, the ndgvs t) end- 
 ing from fiiyt and west around to southwest, so bat the concavity 
 laces tin Atlantic shore; while the most southern portion of the 
 ratigi-;, from New river southward. b<-'nds to the west again, so as 
 to tyi'iii a f^i'ntle curve concave toward th'- northwest. 
 
 T'"emo:^t northern division of thu three isiiuite distiuct from the 
 one next ^»tuth. both geographically and geologically. Itincludes 
 all the iQiuntain groups and ranges nurth a:id east of the valleys 
 of the Mohawk and the Hudson rivers, which make a complete 
 break through the system, both vertically and longitudinally, 
 f jrmitig Lhi'grL-at naturil highway ln'tweon the east and the west, 
 or b 'tween th ■ great lakes and the Atlantic seaboard. This was 
 the first route across the country whieh was traversed by canal 
 and by railroad. So complete is the physical break here that a rise 
 of th'> oC'-an of 400 feet onb' would separate all the extensive region 
 in<'iude(l between the f^t. Lawrence, the Atlantic ocean, and the 
 jludsoii ind Mohawk valleys into a great island entirely detached 
 from tlie rest of the continent. A rise of only UO feet only would 
 detach all that country which lies east of the Hudson and Lake 
 Chnmplain. 
 Oeogra-'h- In any geographical treatment of this eastern group of the 
 icdtiat- Appalachians the subdivisions taken will necessarily be rather 
 meut. artificial, for the mass of elevation is very irregular in its develop- 
 
 ment. The most continuous ranges are the White mountains, the 
 (Jreen (Mountains, and the Adinmdacks. Of the first-named 
 group Mount Washington is the culminating point, 6,288 f -et 
 tiigh: of thelast mentioned, Tahawas. or iMount Marcy. with an 
 a'titude of 5.37V) feet, is the dominating peak. Greylock, in 
 Ma-isachusetts (3,505 feet), and Mount Mansfield, in Vermont, 
 4.1-3 I feet, are the highest points in those states. 
 
 The line of summits extending through Massachusetts and New 
 Haaip-hire. bet^inning with Wachusett. on the south, and extend- 
 ing up to the White mountains, through Monadnock. Sunapee. 
 K arsarge, and other peaks, is broken and irregular. Both the 
 AVhite mountains and the Adirondaeks are rather isohited masses, 
 while the Ureen Mountains proper are in more intimate connection 
 with the Canadian range, which terminates in Gaspe. 
 
 The Central division of the Appalachian chain extends from 
 the Hudson river to the Kanawha, which makes an almost cnm- 
 plete cut across the chain, heading lu the Blue Ridge, and mark- 
 ing an important_ change in the character of the topography. 
 This ceritral division is about 450 miles in length. It is very 
 narrow toward its northern end, but widens out in Pennsylvania, 
 decreasing again in Virginia. It is composed of a considerable 
 number of subordinate chains, much curved toward the west, and 
 remarkable for their regularity, their parallelism, their abrupt 
 d'clivities, and their moderate elevation, both relative and abso- 
 lute, whieh rarely rises to 2.5'iO feet above the sea-level. 
 
 West of this division of the Appalachian chain is the great pla- 
 teau, which occupies all that part of New York which lies 
 south of the Mohawk, and also the northwestern part of Pennsyl- 
 vania, aiid reaches an elevation nf-ar Lake Erie of 2,000 feet. 
 From this table-land the drainage descends by the great lakes to 
 the St. Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico by the Ohio, and to the 
 Atlantic by the Susquehanna, which breaks across the whole 
 chain, finding its way in the most unexpected manner through 
 gap5 in the different ranges. 
 
 The topography of the App:i]achians in Pennsylvania has been 
 carefully worked out l)y the State (geological Survey, and it is so 
 remarkable in its character that some additional details may 
 with propriety bo given in regard to that portion of the chain. 
 
 According to Prof. H. I). Rogers, the mountain-zone of Penn- 
 sylvania may be divided into five well-marked parallel belts, 
 which are as follows, when enumerated in order from the east 
 toward the west: 1st. The South mountains, already mentioned 
 as being the continuation of the Ilighlands of New York, and the 
 equivalent of the Blue Ridge of Virginia. 2d. The great Appa- 
 lachian valley. 3d. The central Appalachian ridg'-s. or the 
 Appalachian chain proper. 4th. The sub-Alicghany vallev. 5th. 
 The Alleghany Mountain, or the southeast escarpment of the 
 Aileghanv plateau. 
 
 The South Mountains have already been alluded to as part of 
 the system of ranges bordering the great central depression of the 
 Appalachians on the east. In Pennsylvania this belt cnnsists of 
 two detached ranges of hills, one of which is the prolongation of 
 the New York Highlands, the other the northeastern termination 
 of the Blue Ridge. Both of these groups of hills have a moderate 
 elevation in Pennsylvania, hardly exceeding 600 or 700 feet. 
 
 The Appalachian valley, or Kittatinny valley, as it is usually 
 called in Pennsylvania, stretches from the Delaware to Maryland, 
 forming a :)irt of the great central valley previouslv mentioned. 
 It has an ehvation of from 200 to 600 feet, and forms a broad, 
 moderaudy undulating plain, having a wid'h of from 10 to 18 
 mdes. This valley is. beyond doubt, one of the most favored 
 parts of our country— climate, soil, mineral resources, and scenery 
 all combining to make it attractive to settlers. 
 
 The third ilivision, or the Appalachian chain proper, may be 
 thus described, using nearly the language of Professor H. D. 
 Rogers: It is a c -mplex chain of long, narrow, verv level moun- 
 tain ridges, separated by long, narrow, parallel valleys. These 
 ridges sometimes end abruptly in swelling knobs, and sometimes 
 taper 'df .in long, slender points. Their slopes are singularly uni- 
 form, being in many cases unvaried by ravine or gully for many 
 miles; in other instances, they are trenched at eciual intervals 
 with great regularity. Their crests are, for the most part, sharp. 
 Jind they preserve an extremely equable elevation, being only 
 here and there interrupted by notches or gan^. which sometimes 
 descend to the water-level, so as to give passage to the rivers. The 
 whole range is the combined result of an ee-vation of the strata in 
 long, slender, parallel ridges, wave-like in form, and of excessive 
 erosion of them by water; and the present configuration of the 
 
 surface is one wiiuh demonstrates that n r^ n.aikable and as yet 
 little understuoLl seiies of geological events has been eoneerncd in 
 its formation. The ridges, which are but the remnants of the 
 eroded strata, are \::riously arranged jn groups, with long, nar- 
 row cre.-rs, si.me ol which, preserve remarkable straightness for 
 great distances, while others bend widi a prolonged and regular 
 sweep. In many instances, two narrow, contiguous parallel 
 mountain crests unite at their extremities and inclose a deep, 
 narrow, oval valley, which, with its sharp mountain sides, bears 
 not unfrequeutly a marked resemblance to a long, slf'nder sharp- 
 liointed canoe. 
 
 Between the Appalachians and the Rocky Mountains there are 
 within our borders no connected masses of mountain ranges; iso- 
 lated hill ranges rise like islands jit various points, as in Missouri 
 and Arkansas, and there are a few short rangp> on the south shore 
 of Lake Superior. 
 
 North of the great lakes and the St. Lawrence, however, there is 
 the dividing ridge which separate> the water> llowiiir Into the last 
 named stream from those which run into Hudson's bay. This is 
 an imperfeclly known region, wonderfully cut up by rivers and 
 dotted with lakes. The highest p(dnt of the Laurentian range, as 
 these mountains are called, is supposed to he where the Saguenay 
 cuts the chain, and 4,000 feet is given as the approximate eleva- 
 tion, while peaks in the parallel ridges nearer the St. Lawrei ce 
 exceed half that height. Among the summits seen with such pic- 
 turesque effect from Quebec, Mt. St. Ann is the highest, and the 
 elevation is given by Bayfield at 2,687 feet. 
 
 This range falls off in elevation as we follow it west, and in the 
 country between the Ottawa and hike Huron the highest summits 
 do not api>ear to exceed I, .500 to 1,700 feet. The range is made up 
 of rounded hills, densely wooded on its higheiit portion, almost ex- 
 clusively with coniferous trees. Its valleys are very wide and full 
 of great jionds and lakfs, so that one may traversi almo-t tlie 
 whole region with the aid of the birch canoe. Sir William Logan 
 noted, in 1863. that over a thousand lakes have already been laid 
 down on the maps of the Canadian portion of theLaurentian moun- 
 tains, although the region had been as yet only imperfectly ex- 
 plored. 
 
 East of the Appalachian system, and separating it from the The 
 Atlantic, is the strip of country known as the Atlantic plain. This Atlantic 
 is the portion of the United States first occupied, and it is to-day plains, 
 the most densely settled portion of the country. In New England 
 this region has a widely varying breadth and rough, irregular 
 surface, while its soil in general is not sutficicntly rich to enable 
 the farmers of this region to compete successfully in the produc- 
 tion of wheat or corn with those of the Mississippi valley. 
 ^The breadth of the Atlantic plain is least about the bay of New 
 York, the ranges of the Appalachian .system here reaching nearly 
 t<i the sea--eoast Southward from this point it increases gradually 
 in breadth, till it reaches its maximum in South Carolina and 
 (Georgia. This part, which comprises by far the larger iiortion of 
 the Atlantic plain, has a very uniform, gentle slope from the foot 
 of the mountains to the sea. Tiie only feature about it which 
 requires notice is the line of sepnration between the metamorphic 
 formations, extending eastward from the Appalachians, and the 
 recent stratifi<^d beds. This line is marked very generally by 
 falls or rapids in the streams flowing seaward, which are in very 
 many cases the sites of valuable water-powers, and mark the head 
 of navigation in all streams of any considerable size, as in the 
 Potomac at Georgetown, and in the .James at Richmond. 
 
 The general character of the coast-line may be briefly described. General 
 In Maine it is bluff and rocky, with deep water immediately off character, 
 the shore, which is deeply indented by numerous bays and arms of 
 the sea. These in turn are dotted by hundreds of islands of 
 greater or less size. Proceeding southward, the character of the 
 coast gradually changes from this bluff, rocky nature at fi'-st to 
 sandy beaches, as in Massachusetts and on Long Island, with 
 small extents of coast swamn. This character develops farther in 
 New Jersey, so that we have along the whole coast a line of sandy 
 islands or reefs, back of which are coast marshes and swamps. 
 The general character of these is briefly described bv Professor 
 Cook in bis volume on the geology of New Jersey, under the head 
 of "Tide Marshes": 
 
 They are of very recent origin, and. in fact, are formed largely 
 within the memory of the present generation. The interval be- 
 tween high-water mark on the shore and the beaches or barriers on 
 the sea-side is mainly occupied by marsh There are between 
 250.000 and 300,000 acres of marsh on the coast of New Jersey, 
 The marshes are C()vered with grass, weeds, or coarse sedge; there 
 is no growth of wood upon them; the upper surface is near the 
 level of high water, the parts near the water-course being high 
 enough not to be covered by ordinary tides, while the parts more 
 remote from the water-cuirse are lower, so as to be always wet. 
 Underneath, the sod whieli covers them is made of soft earth of 
 various qualities: the depth of this underlying mud is variable; 
 all. however, coming within the extreme deitth of 40 feet. 
 
 Farther southward the breadth of thi- swamp section along the 
 coast increases. On the eastern shore of Maryland there is inside 
 of the line of reefs a section, several miles in breadth, of swamp 
 and overflowed land— a paradise for sea-fowl and for the hunter. 
 
 In North Carolina the reefs inclose, besides immense swamp 
 regions, large bays or sounds, such ns Pamlico and Albemarle. 
 The character of the swamps and reefs of this state is well given 
 by Professor W. C. Kerr [Geology of Nortli Carolina, vol. 1, 1875): 
 
 The chain of long, linear sand islands called "The Banks." 
 which fringe the entire coast, constitute? a very remarkable fea^ 
 ture of the region. Though composed of drifting sands, they form 
 nn impregnable barrier to the waves of the Atlantic. They are. 
 in fact, sand dunes of various elevations, from a few feet above 
 tide level (in many cases broken over by storm tides) to 25 or 30 
 feet, and sometimes more, as in Killdevil hills, along Corrituck 
 sound. The breadth of these islands varies from a few rods to 
 
THE POLITICAL ^^^Iil)IViS10^S. ] UKITICD STATES 
 
 more than 2 miles. The largest of tbeiu, tind tbo niae^t. U known 
 as Ualteias island, the oiiiiteriiuio>t point of whioli is tlic woll- 
 knuwii capo Uatteias. Tht-si- islands aro cuinposcd partly of Hut 
 uiursbes luid partly of swell^ audridgi-s of bi'ach-sand. which the 
 wind ha:^ heaped in ridgfji. ottcu t!tr buyond the reach uf the 
 highest wave.-*. 
 
 As Llio .''jind :tnd i-omu.inutod shells aro rolled boi-k in waves 
 from tlie beach i>v ihe wuids. thuy are lu part caught aud fixfil by 
 fltnigKliiJg tuttsof eourse t;riis>. u hich ba.** the power ot ct>utiiiuuu8 
 KTowtli upward with the li.-e ul the kuobs and ridges of sand, and 
 tncy !ue in pari carried uver into the tlats and marshes aud the 
 t^b:i!luM- ^uuiula Oeyond. which are thus i;ra<iu!tlly silting up. The 
 banks aro Keuerally eovered with low, ^c^lbby thickets of cedar, 
 livt»-oak, pine, yau))uu, myrtle, and u number of smaller shrubby 
 growtns. 
 
 Sicorps, poeotiiuft a»d «nr« una*.— There is a larKC nRtrrejrato 
 of Ut..LvTy '.boiweoii 3.ol'U uuU 4M^*i square miles), niostly in the 
 CouhiiC:> iJoriicriuK ou the sea and tlu- sounds, known as swamp 
 iaud>. They are lucully deBiKnatcd "dismals.'* or ''pueosins," of 
 ■wbieh iho Ureat Uistnal Swamp, on the borders of Xorth Carolina 
 and Vir;,'inia, is a if«'od typo. They differ, essentially in tluir 
 cbuiiict.^ii.-tic foaiures frnm an oidinary swamp. They aro not 
 alluvial irat-'ts, ur subject to ovorllow. On the contrary, they 
 ueoui uu tlie divides or vvaler-sheds between tho rivers and sounds, 
 aud lire irequeutly elevated uuiuy feet above the adjacent streams, 
 oi whii:h ihuy are the sources. Smne of them are in lar^o part 
 mere pent swamps or b )gs, licinc eharacterizid by the occurfLiico 
 
 01 an accumulation ot docajeJ and doeayinK venciation. from 1 or 
 
 2 to lo leet deep ami oven more, which, with the growing plants, 
 aces as a >ponge. arresting «u- retarding the escape of the rain- 
 water, whclbcr by evaporation or ettiux. The prominent ingredi- 
 ents are peal and tine sand, m various proportions, and. when of 
 any agricultural value at all, there are also small proportions of 
 clay, iron, lime, and alkalies. The vegetation varies with the 
 character of the foil, aud serves, therefore, as uii index of its fer- 
 tiluy. The prevalent ^Towth of the best swamp soils is black fruin. 
 popior, cypress, ash. aud inuple. As the s ^il becomes more peiity, 
 the proportion of cynress increaiies. Where iuuipcr abounds 
 peat is in excess, and tne soil of little value or none. On the best 
 lands there is often besides a rank growth uf canes; but such a 
 growth is also often found on soils too peaty to be of any value. 
 Much of the poorest and most worthless tracts of swamp, which 
 are covered with several feet ot half decayed wood and other 
 vegetable matter saturated with water, is occupied by a stunted 
 and scattered growth of bay. swainp pine, and other scrubby vege- 
 tation; or, if the drainage be a little better, with a thiekcty growth 
 of bays, gallberries, and a few other shrubs, with an occasional 
 pine and maple. Most of the large bodies ot swamp contain lands 
 Delunging to all these descripti-ms, and inclose, oosides. within 
 their boundaries, knoll>. hummocks, belts, and ridges, like islands, 
 of tirm land, and some ot tluMii iarg- areiis of barren, sandy soil, 
 covered with a tangle of braml)!es and tufts ot sedge, and in the 
 midillo of several ot ihem occur f resh-watev lakes of considerable 
 extent. 
 
 These swamps are, taken as a whole, quite well settled, a birge 
 proportion of the inhabitants being colored. This is particularly the 
 case in South Carolina, in which state much of the swiimpy lower 
 coast region is utilized for rice plantations. Tho Okeelennkee 
 swamp, of treor^'ia and Florida, is rather an inland swamp, aud is 
 d'-seril>ed elsewhere. The Kverglades of Kloridii. which appear to 
 oiler great difliculties to settlement, are als() sketched in another 
 part of this repiirt. The .--wampy region alonf,' the coast extends, 
 with but few minor inierrnptious. all the way down the Athintic 
 coast and iiround the 'iult. It is not, however, i-o markedly 
 fharacteristic along the liulf co;ist in Alabama and Mississipjii ns 
 fi'.rther west. In Louisi.'in-i it h;is a great bn-atlth. aud is almost 
 unlnhabitablo. In Texa-*. although the character of tho coast 
 continues to be the same so far iis roh'.tes to the line of low. sandy. 
 outlying islands, yet the area of the coa<t swamp becomes very 
 much Iviss, being eonfined to a small patch about the Sabine lake 
 and narrow strii'S along a number of ilif streams. M'hetheritis 
 due to geological ciiu.-**'.-*. or to tho lighter rainfall upon this sec- 
 tion of ihv coast, is u question which there is not space to discuss 
 here. 
 
 The broken, irregular course of the whole Atlantic and (Julf 
 coast affortis many excellent harbors, particularly on the New 
 England coast, where the harbors are larire, deep, and well shel- 
 tered; farther southwanl the enlranees are nnrmw and shelving. 
 and are liable to be choked up by saml drif l* d in by storms. The 
 Hreams in nearly all ca-*i-s form bars across their mouths, formed 
 ly thedetritus br-aight down from the upper waters. 
 
 The Pacific coast, as conir'ured to the Atlantic, is extremely sim- 
 ile. It contains ft-w harbors of jmy value to navigation. Th'isc 
 jt S".n Diego and San PVancisco are tlu' principn! and almost the 
 only ones. The coast is, in general, bluff and rocky, and the water 
 is deep immediately off ^hore. 
 
 THK POLITJCAl, AND NATURAL SUilPIVISIONS. 
 
 Having given a description of the physical character of the 
 •reac-'vered by the United States, without reference to political 
 divisions, it becomes necessary to stiite how this region is divided 
 poliiically. and how these divisions ctiu bo grouped, in a manner 
 &a natural us possi'de. 
 
 Some difTieullies are thrown in tho way of such a subdivision 
 of tbo country as shall meet with gi-ncral acceptJince by thefaet 
 that some of the States und Territories arc so large that they 
 include areas of very different physical character; and also 
 becau-^e a nomeiicbiture was introduced, and extensively made 
 use of. when one half the present area of the country was ?«> little 
 known or considered that a name for it was not thought of as 
 being necessary. 
 
 The area of the United States is at present divided into fortv- 
 
 nine subdivisions, excluding Alaska. There are forty-four States* 
 three Territories, and two other ^ubdivi^ion8. neither States nor 
 Territorie>— the District uf Columbia and the Indian Territory. 
 
 Any Territory is likely, at any time, to be r-ceived into tlio 
 Union as a Stiitc; and this may be done by sultdivjding the Ter- 
 riiory. making a State of one portion and allowing the remain- 
 der to remain in a Territorial condition, or by admiiting the 
 whole as one Stale, or by dividing it into two or moie Stales. Only 
 once has a State been divided alier having been received into the 
 Union— namely, Virginia— and this was the result of the Civil 
 War; and it is not possible to say under what circumstances such 
 a thing is likely to Iiappen again. N<)r has any State been 
 remanded back to the Territorial condition after having been 
 roeiived into the Union; although one Stale— Nevada— baa less 
 than half the population required for the election of one repre- 
 sentative to C^^ng^e^s, according to the last iipportionment. baaed 
 on the cen.-us (tl 1880, There is, in fact, no provision in the Con- 
 stitution for this exigency. 
 
 The desirability of grouping these forty-nine political divisions 
 (Alaska being omitted lis not continuous witli the re.^t of thr 
 United Stat'-si according to th'dr geograpldcal situation anc 
 tojiographical and climatic conditioijs,8o that different regions 
 ma\' be spokoii of by some collective name, will be evident to all. 
 
 The plan suggested for the subdivision of the area included 
 within tlie United Stiitr.- by Mr. Gannett, gcogrnphcrof the c«nsu» 
 nf IHhO. was *' to divide the country into three great diTisions, cor- 
 responding to the three primary topographical divisions of the 
 Oimntry: the Atlanlic region, the region of the (ireat Valley, and 
 the Western orCordillcian region.'* The physical character of thc.|;e 
 different rcBions has already been imlicatc-d at some length in Phv-icl 
 the preceding pages. The region of the Great Valley is called by ChuKicser. 
 Mr. Gannett til'- <'entral Region, which is again subdivided into 
 two parts— the Northern Central and the Southern Central— the 
 Ohio Uiver and the southern boundary of Missouri and Kansas 
 being the dividing'line. The Atlantic Division is also divided by 
 him into two subdivisions by a line following tho south boundary 
 of I'e'nnsylvania and New Jersey— these two subdivisions biing 
 cjilled, respectively, the North Atlnntic and South _ Atlantic 
 divisions. On the east, the West' rn or Cordilleran division is 
 marked by the eastern boundaries of New Mexico, Colorado, 
 Wyoming and MontJina. 
 
 The following table shows the area of each of these divisions in Pol-ti^jd 
 square miles and in percentage of the entire area of the United divi."■i<'I«!*- 
 Statos:— 
 
 Area. Percentage of total area. 
 
 North Atlantic 16S,7li5 5.6 
 
 Simth .Atlantic (includ- 
 ing Delaware Bay}... 253,15.5 9.4 
 
 Northern Central 7&5.8.-5 25.3 
 
 Southern Central fd4,550 2(1.3 
 
 ■Western 1.103.275 39.4 
 
 Total 3,025.(300 loo.O 
 
 [In the Western Division, as here limited, Mr. Gannett includes 
 an area of .^.741) square miles of "unorganized territory." lying 
 north of Texas and west of the Indian Territory.] 
 
 The adoption of this scheme of subdivision of the country does 
 not thjc less render desirable and convenient for various purjioses 
 a different nomenclature for certain regions, based more exclu- 
 sively on goographicil po^^ition. Thus the States bordering on 
 the Gulf of Mexico will naturally often be spoken of as the Gulf 
 States: the region of the Great Lakes will be so designated, and 
 this again subdivid.d into the Upper and Lower Luke Kegions; 
 while ciich great river will give a name to its own adjacent region, 
 as the Ohio Valley, the Upper and Lower Mississippi Valley, the 
 Upper Missouri, etc. 
 
 Appended is a statotucnt of the flames of the political divi- 
 sions included in onch subdivision of the United States, as sug- 
 gested by Mr. Gannett; 
 
 Division. Subdivision. States Within .Subdivision. 
 
 Atlantic. 
 
 Central. 
 
 W'cstem. 
 
 North .\tlantic. 
 
 South Atlantic. 
 
 Northern Central. 
 
 Southern Central. 
 
 Maine. New Hampshire, 
 V « r m o n t. Massachusetts, 
 Rhode Island. Connecticut, 
 Now York. Ne w Jersey, 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 Delaware, Maryland. Vir- 
 ginia. West Viginia. North 
 Carolina, South Carolir*** 
 Georgia, Florida. 
 
 Ohio, Indiaim, I 1 1 - jo;.i 
 Michigan. Wisconsin Minne 
 sota. North Dakota. South 
 Dakota, I o w a. Nebraska. 
 Kansas, Missouri. 
 
 Kentucky, Tennessee. Ala- 
 bama, Mississippi. Arkansas, 
 Indian Territory, Louisiana, 
 T'exas. 
 
 Montana. Idaho, Wyoming, 
 Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, 
 Nevada, .Arizona. Washing- 
 ton, Oregon, California. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 [climate. 
 
 The tabular statement following gives for the States and Terri- 
 tories a resume of their areas, population in 1880 and 1890, pop- 
 ulation per square mile at the latter date, and the increase per 
 cent, during the decade 1881-90. The Territories are given in 
 italics in the table. 
 
 POLITICAL AND NATURAL DIVISIONS. 
 
 Arkas and Population— Census of 1890. 
 
 
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 : ; : : : i ; : : S • ■ ^ ^ • • I I ; • ^ i ■ - '- • ■ 
 •••:•:::=::::••:■•:: r^- :::: : 
 
 
 
 :::::: d a ::=::::::::::: S :::: : 
 
 
 
 
 
 re 
 
 So 
 
 iJHIi|ii|iij|li.!ililjil jl 
 
 
 
 * This includes " Unorganized Territory." t Estimate. 
 
 CLIMATE. 
 
 In endeavoring to set forth rhe principal fentures of the climate 
 of the United States, it will be a^sumt^'d that the reader has made 
 himself acquainted with the topography of the country, as briefly 
 indicated in the preceding pages. The great influence which 
 certain of these features have on the distribution of the winds, the 
 rainfall, iind the temperature will be sufficiently apparent from 
 that which follows. 
 
 The United States extends from the tropics north across the 
 temperate zone, and from sea-level to an elevation of o\'er 14.000 
 feet— an elevation which carries with it an arctic clim.-ite. The 
 mean annual temperature ranges over more than 40'^ F.. while 
 the extremes of recorded temperature run from db° below zero 
 
 up to a niaxinmm above 115°; The mean temperature of the hottest 
 month of the year, July, ranges from below 60° to above 90°, 
 while the nu'un temperature of the coldest month ranges from 
 zero Ut more th;in 05°, Were the country a plain, the mean 
 tenipeniture of ihe year would be almost purely a question of 
 latitude; a difference of elevation, however, especially when it 
 takes the form of a mountain range, causes a deflection .southward 
 of tho isothermals. an abrupt rise of about 300 feet of elevation 
 implying a decrease of annual temperature of one degree. 
 Thus we find that the Appahichian system causes a very marked 
 defleciinn to the southnanl of the isotherraals. On the plains, how- 
 ever, where the upward slope is very gradual, it is to bennted that the 
 ele\';ition causes little or no deflection southward of the lines of 
 temper.ituie, the plains and plateaus generally ha\ mg a mean 
 annual temperature nearly or quite as high aspnints in the s;ime 
 latitude in the Mi.-sissippi valley or on the Atlantic cua^t. The 
 temperature of the great western plains and plateaus is, however, 
 modified locally to a marked extent by the exposure to west and 
 northwest winds, A\ hieh havean unbroken sweep in some plnces 
 for hundreds I'f miles, acquiring tremendous force. Attention 
 should bo calledh. re to the well-known fact that the climate of 
 central Montana, including mo>t <^'f thesettlements on the upper 
 ^lissouri. is abnormally warm. It lies at a comparatively low 
 elevation, being only 3.000 to 4.000 feet above searievel. and is 
 sheltered from the fierce westerly winds by the Missduri range, 
 while the northerly winds, to which it is exposed, come from the 
 moisture plains of the Saskatchewan. 
 
 The two maps shiiwing the mean temperature of the warmest 
 month, July, and the mean temperature ot the coldest month, 
 January, as given in the Unit' d States Census for 188U, Vol. 1— il- 
 lustrate, though only to a limited extent, the range of tempera- 
 ture in different sections of the country. 'Ihe former shows a 
 comparatively limited number of grades, running from 60° to 90°, 
 the lines following approximately the parallelsof latitude, except 
 where deflected by mountain masses. The influence ot the coast 
 in avLTaging the climate ia distinctly perceptible on this map. 
 There is apparently a northward movement of the temperature 
 lines in the Cordilleran region, showing that in the summer the 
 temperature is abnormally high in this arid section. These 
 characteristics are illustrated conversely by the January nmp, 
 which aLso shows the influence of the sea and other large bodies 
 of water, while in the Cordilleran region the temperature lines are 
 borne southward by the aridity and consequently extreme char- 
 acter of the climate. The fourth of these temperature maps, 
 showing a generalization from the highest recorded readings of the 
 thermoLueter. coui'led with the fifth map. which shows a similar 
 generalization with regard to the minimum temperature, illus- 
 trates the extreme range of the thermometer in different parts of 
 the country. In the former we see u belt running along the sea- 
 coasf from Maine (o Texas, where the thermometer never rises 
 abtive 100°. while within it is a region, stretching from New York 
 S(uUhward along the Atlantic plain and the lower Mississippi 
 valley, where the maximum reaches 105°. thus illustrating in the 
 clearest nmnner the effect of the sea in averaging the tempera- 
 ture. Thosiime tiling is illustrated, though not so markedly, upon 
 the map of minimum temperatures. 
 
 The fourth map shows also another peculiar characteristic, viz. 
 the fact that as we r-ass up the slope of the plains the maximum 
 temperature increases, not on a parallel, as in the case of the 
 mean annual temperature, but approximately on a contour or oa 
 a meridian, being apparently proportional to the aridity of the 
 atmosphere and the amount of rainfall. This characteristic is, to 
 a certain extent, disguised in the heart of the Cordilleran region 
 by reason of the great diver.-ity of surface which is encountered 
 there, but in general it holds good throughout. _ 
 
 The map showing minimum temperatures is not so clear on 
 these points. Its lines follow parallels more nearly ; but there is 
 a marked deflection toward th" southwest as we pass westward 
 from the Mississiprd valley. The characteristics of this map are 
 still further concealed by the effect of the details of topography 
 in theCordilleran region. A marked change in temperature, as 
 well ,'is in rainfall, takes place at the crest line of the Sierra 
 Nevada and the Cascade range. This change is not particu- 
 l;irlyapp:irent in the mean annual temperature, but on the map 
 showinij the temperature of July and January it is quite apparent, 
 being shown by tlie slight difference Itetween these maps. At the 
 bay of San Francisco the difference between the mean tempera- 
 ture of July and that of January is but 10°. This effect is still 
 more marked in the last two maps, where, in the Mississippi val- 
 ley, the range between maximum and minimum averages 110°, 
 and in theCordilleran region 12^°. On the Pacific coast it de- 
 creases to only 60°. showing that this section of the country enjoys 
 by far the most uniformclinmteas regards temperature. 
 
 The m:iterial for these temperature and rainfall maps was 
 drawn main'y from "Temperature Tables" and "Rainfall Tables" 
 prepaiedby Professor Charles A. Sehott, and published by the 
 Smithsonian Institution. The map of mean annual temperature 
 was compiled, very largely. directly from Mr. Schott's admirable 
 chart in the first of the above-mentioned volumes. The rainfall 
 maps were prepared previous to the publication of the last edition 
 of the Smithsonian "Rainfall Tables," and. as much new material 
 had been collected in addition to that published in the first 
 edition, the maps were plotted from original sources. 
 
 No less than 98 per cent, of the total population lives between 
 40°and "11° F. of mean annual temperature, leaving a very small 
 proportion to be distributed among the other sections. Of these 
 groups, those having a temperature above 55° contain the entire 
 cotton region ; those above 70°. the sugar and rice regions; while 
 between 50° and 6"° is comprised most of the tobacco region. The 
 prairie region of the Mississippi valley lies almost entirely below 
 55°. while the great wheat region of Minnesota and Dakota is 
 mainly below 40° of mean annual temperature. 
 
CLI.M.VTK.] 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 The iiottest part of the coun*ry is. naturally, the .southern end 
 of Florida, while southmi Tcxui- and southwestern Arizona oume 
 m-xt in degree of tempi-rature. 
 
 A rough computation show.^ that the mean annual tempera- 
 ture uf the country is about 53° F.. to wbieh thi* location of the 
 populiition almost precisely corresponds, differing from it by only 
 u fraction of a deiiree. 
 
 W'v give below a table prepared by selection from tho volumi- 
 nou-i loi-'ords of the recent work on American tcnuHralure, show- 
 ing rib' [uean anmuil temperuture of tbe atmosphere at a k'ivcn 
 point lu each of the forty-nine States and Territories of the Union. 
 Thi' pi ice is selected as either the capital or some lending city or 
 town vvliore observations have been most ciuilinuously kept: 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Aliuska... 
 
 .'Vri/.ona 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Colomdo 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Ihikuta. 
 
 I>iduwiirc 
 
 Dist. of Columbia 
 
 Florida 
 
 tieorgia 
 
 Idiiho 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Indiun Territory. 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana-. 
 
 Maine 
 
 Marylitnd 
 
 Mii-siwhuHotts 
 
 Michigun 
 
 Minnesota. 
 
 ft 
 •< 
 
 mmmumm ' 
 
 t2 
 
 1 
 
 
 i5 o o o o (5 oooonooooooooooo 
 
 Mean 
 annual 
 temper- 
 ature. 
 
 s i i lii 5-s 5 5.S.E n T^< « s « s s"! p. 
 
 i i =5; i : ; S.:i.: : o: g-;^: . I . -■ 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 
 *<* 
 
 ?l| lit pl-lrlli-P -if l?Ff l.i 
 
 s 
 
 i'o 
 
 -1 
 
 ? 
 
 t^^j^M^mM^^^^wmm^^ 
 
 Mean 
 annu a 1 
 toinpor- 
 
 aturc. 
 
 Isothermal 
 lines. 
 
 The position of the isothermal lines in the T'nited .States may 
 now be noticed ; and in this connection the inlluence of the tojio-;- 
 raphy of the country becomes at once extremely uppurent. The 
 isothennal lines of the mean annual temperature have quite a 
 marked regularity from the Atlantic coast we>t to the foot of the 
 Kocky .Mountains, being in general only slightlv modified in their 
 direction, which is nearly east and west. This indication of a 
 change of temperature, essentially dependent on that of Intitudo. 
 is in striking contmst with the condition of things on the I*ncific 
 coa-t. as will be seen farther on. But us soon as the Cnrdillenin 
 region is reached,, the isothermal lines iire bent jiwny tmm their 
 eti-t und west course, and become irregular and otten concentric 
 in (heir pas^iage across the various ni'Xintain mnges. 
 
 II}-" the ehantcter of these isothermal lines, three climatic divi- 
 sion-; '"f the I'nited States are suggested: 1. The F.ostcrn Region, 
 ineliidipg all the territory lying <ast of the foot of the Rocky 
 Mountain**; 2. The Plateau and Mountain Uegion of the Cor- 
 dilleras; ;>. The S'urrow belt on the Pacific coast, west of tho 
 Cos'-ade an<l Sitrra Nevada Ranges. 
 
 The E:istern division is. of course, by far the most important 
 and best known in its details, since it is that region where the 
 statistics KO back the farthest, and where the population and 
 wealth are concentrated. Its climatic conditions will, therefore, first 
 be cnsidered. As the topographical features of this division are 
 simple, and do not anywhere interpose any very decided or not 
 ea,'*ily overcome barrier to the movement of the people, so tho 
 climate partakes of asimilar character, the passage from one type 
 to another beink' gradual and decidedly uniform, although rapid. 
 
 The isoth'^rmal lines of mean annual temperature of -U^' and 72^, 
 include nejirly the entire area of the United Statcp. The corre- 
 sponding degrees of latitude are about 45*^ and 29^, so that tho 
 average change of temperatiire with the latitufle is u trifle over 
 l^.tl for each degree ot latitude. The imi>ortanee of this rapid 
 chiinge of temperature with the latitude, with reference' to the 
 intellectual and commercial development of the country is^ ob- 
 viou-i, and has been already pointed out by eminent cliina- 
 tologists. 
 
 The isothermal of 72° passes through the center of Florida; then. 
 entering Texas, is suddenly deflected southward, running parallel 
 with the isothennals of 68° and &i° to the boundary line of 
 Mciico. The iscbennal of 76^ crosses the extreme south end of 
 
 Florida, almost on tho parallel of 25°. Tho isothermal of OS^ 
 enters Florida just below the parallel of 31°. and crossing tho 
 state in an alnio,--! direct ea.^l and \*est line, passes ihrougli tho 
 southern part ot Alabama. Mississippi, and Louisiatia. and into 
 Texas, to the meridian of 10:.'°. where it is suddenly dt fleeted south- 
 ward to the buundary line <.f Mexico. The isutlu-inial i.fo4° enters 
 the United Slates iin the .SmUIi Carolina coast. It passe.- in a wt st- 
 erly direcli<'n very nearly on the parallel t.f ;.3° as far ^\e.-l us tho 
 meridian of li»°. when it is deflooled souihward. like the other 
 isotlurnmls. by the t;radually increasing ilevali.'U of the Plat* an 
 Region. The isothermal of tiU° is, in its general course, parallel 
 with that of t>4° except that the deflection to the soulli betwetn 
 the meridians of S'.y^ and 87° is greater, owing to the iiifiueiice of 
 the lofty southern extremity of the Appalachians. It traverses 
 North Carolina. Suutli Carolina. .Mabauia ; passo into the southern 
 part of Tenne.<.>oe; is deflected into Mississipi i: then enters Ten- 
 ne.sseee again, passing across .-Vikansas and the Indian Territory 
 into New Mexictt. when it is dtfleeted lowanl ;he south, making 
 two loops a.s it runs nearly coincident with the meridian of ltd 
 to the parallel of 31° in Texas, when it again liends to ihe west, 
 a nd.a fter a sctulh west course, is deflected towaid l he northwest- 1 he 
 isothermal of ati° enters tho I'nitt d States on the Maryland c<mst. 
 Its general direction to the meridian nf S7'-' is southwest. Here, 
 in central Alal>ama. it is deflected to the nor'heast f'dlowing thia 
 general direction to the parallel of .'1H° in Kentucky, when it bends 
 again tu tho west ami runs in an almost direct westerly course to 
 the meridian of li)l°, where it is deflectecl to the situih. passing 
 tlirough New Mexico into Texas, where it suddenly bends back to 
 the north, and. after making a long loop in New Mexico, pusses in 
 a nortliwe.vterly ciuu>c across Arizotui. The i>othcimaI of 52°» 
 west ol the Appalachians runs almost coincidently with the Ohio 
 river as far as Cincinnati, then in an uinUilatiiig course passes in 
 a nearly westerly direction through Indiana, Illinois. Northern 
 Missouri, and near the northern boundary of Kansas to tho 
 eastern border of ('(dorado, where it is deflected to the s(.ulh. and 
 runs in a direction nearly south by west for a distanci- of fully five 
 hundred miles along tho eastern base of the Kocky Mountains. 
 A hirgc area is included between the isothermals ol 44"^; and.S'i** 
 It ci'inpriscs: New England, o.vcept the larger part of Maine. New 
 llamp>hire and Vermont; tlie southern and central porti<tiis of 
 New York; Pennsylvania; nearly all "hio; the noithern two- 
 thirds of Indiana and Illinois; the southern half of JNlichigan and 
 Wisconsin; nearly all of Iowa; the southeastern cornerol Min- 
 nesota; nearly the whole of Nebraska; and the southern third of 
 Dakota. The isothermal uf 4(1° enters the United States on tho 
 eastern border of Maine, and. passing through the center of the 
 state, traverses the northern end of New Ilanii)shirc and Ver- 
 mont. It then passes out of the United States, hut enters the 
 country again at llio western end of Lake Superior, crossing tho 
 central part of Minnesota, bending to the south on the meridian 
 of i<7°. and making a large loop in Eastern Dakota, then turiiing 
 to the northwest, and again passing out of the United StJiies at 
 the meridian of 107°. 
 
 West of tho meridian of Wi°, within the second climntic division 
 or the Cordillcran region, the course of the is()thermal is hugely 
 determined by the position of the several mountain ranges 
 embraced in that area of coini>licated topography to wliith tho 
 name of Cordilleras is given. These ranges, unlike the Aipalu- 
 claians, are lofty enough to pniduce a decided influence iii>on the 
 climate, although nowhere reaching what may be called the region 
 of perpetual sikpw. This defiei<'ncy <d lasting accuintilati- n? of 
 snow, however, is in very cniisiderablc p -rt due to the smatlness 
 of The precipitation. ^If this were as great in the Rocky ^'oun- 
 lains as it is in the Sierra Nevada, theformcrrangcswouM.no 
 doubt, be covered to a large extent witli permanent snow fields 
 anil glaciers descending Irom them, "hservations of mean tem- 
 perature, however, on the highiT ranges are extremely d( ficient, 
 so that only a few generalizatinns can be given with regaid to the 
 position of the isothermals in that portion of the territory of tho 
 United States. 
 
 The isothermal "f 44° follows a course in the Cordilleran region 
 which embraces wiihiii n uroat loop to tho south, the entire higher 
 portion of the Roek.\ Movinlains. as far south as parallel 34°. The 
 tops of tlie Sierra Nrvada. hlue Mountains, and Cascade Rai.ges 
 are also iucludeil within th'* loop of the 44°. The Central portioa 
 of the Cascade Range, and the Koiky Mountains in the south- 
 western (Mtrner of v oionidt', have a mean annual temptraturc of 
 40°. The hiuhest i>art of the Rocky Mcmntains is indicated as 
 having a mean ttmperature of less than 3ti°. Accurate and I'^ng 
 continued ohservaiions in this regitm would, however, furnish an 
 extremely complicaieil systi m of isothermal curves, since the 
 ranges are numerous, and many of thcni hiu'h. 
 
 As the land assumes a more deci(UMUy plateau character in 
 Arizona, Utah and Nevada, tho moan annual temperature rises in 
 this portion of the country. In Nevada, the isotliermal of 72° ex- 
 tends as far niH'th as the parallel of 3(t°, and the isothermal of 
 52° reaches to the Trinity Mountains in parallel 40°. In ibis 
 Cordilleran region, we find that a great change may be made in 
 the latitude with but a very modera'c one in the mean annual 
 temperature, as shown by the parallelism of tlir isMtherinals with 
 the eoast line. The temperature is higher an<l nmre uniform along 
 the Pacific coast than il is on the Atlantii- coast of the United 
 States. The isotherrnal of liO^ runs nearly parallel with the coast, 
 and not far from it from the 35th parallel nearly to the 3.Sth. Tho 
 isothermal I'f .52' fnllows the coast from San Francisco as far north 
 as tho parallel of 46°. 
 
 The isothi-rmals for the summer niontlis— .Tune. July, and gumnj..^ 
 August— show greater irregularity on Mr. Sclioit's chart thin isotheruiuls- 
 thnsi'of the year. This holds true cspeciallv in the eastern region 
 of the country. The summer isothermals all bend to the north in a 
 very characteristic manner, owing in great measure to tho southerly 
 winds, which are heated by the Gulf of Mexico. Tho summer 
 
UNITED STAT EH 
 
 [climate. 
 
 Wirrf » 
 
 isotheriiml <>f SO' bounds on the north an i.rt-siular npa, iiidud- 
 
 i ,g Flo id:,, thesouthern part of tieorgia. Alabaum and ■ ' ■^^'-';"P'; 
 
 Louisii.na. the soulheust. rn corner o£ Arkan-a-; th- MmlheaMer 
 
 hal u£ T,-xas; and a t..ng«e of la.id iii New .u.xico W itnni 
 
 this arathc mean summer temperature ranges. trom b(l to W . 
 
 ThJonlhwestern halt of An.,n.. and l«"*';%'\^"J?,"^,^;y:"' 
 
 ce .t.al California have a like summer temperature «* £' " >fl }^ 
 
 88° A str.p including the Kreater part of North and .--.mlh ( aro- 
 
 lin,, Artions of Georgia, Alaba.na. A tssissipp., ^^■^^,';f'^%XZ' 
 
 li -li Missouri, Arkansas. Kansas, the Indian lerrueiy, lexas. 
 
 iJ';^ .Mexico:' Colorado, Utah. Arizona, .md ^'- M-Ti'-iifneYr 
 
 twecn the mean summer isothermals of ib° and bii 1 he »e't near 
 
 the Ohio? extending north as f:;,; "^'h^- «'■'■*« ^akes ad ^^^^^^ 
 
 along the Appalachian table-land into lennes-ee. '^Vf?'s>; •'?■,• '^^- 
 
 baml- and Georgia, and west through , °'>'f f-''' J' "^"i;- X^f^' 
 
 Donions of Wisconsin. .Minnesota. Dak"ta. and Montana. 
 
 ?teb ska.and northern Kansas..lies betw.-en the summer iso he - 
 
 i.ials of «S° and 76°. On the Pacific co:.st the summer ifotherma s 
 
 ppro.ch more nearly to 'h- .u ...n .u.nunl >/"thernml» in the, 
 
 chi.ae.ter and position thai, do those on 'be Atbm.c coast f the 
 
 United States. The region of the United Mates lying fx'i'h ot 
 
 the States named above has a mean summer temperature lang-ng 
 
 ^'■'Thetsothefmals for the winter months-Deeember, January a^^^^ 
 
 . F.bruary-in the eastern region of the ^-nned bta es aie more 
 
 re«Ml«r than the summer curves, thus approaching in this respect 
 
 th- character of the mean annual isothermals. Ihe winter 
 
 ioth»rmal of S2° coincides almost exactly wi'h /he mean aimmd 
 
 ?o ermJl of liH°. It runs parallel.with. and at a lUtle dis an^^^^ 
 
 (,oui. the Gulf of Mexico. The winter curve of 48 «.»'/'-sP'» » 
 
 vov closely with that of 64° for. the year and the w'^tf' ' "^^"^^ 
 
 of 44= with the mean annual isothermal of bO°. Ih- winter 
 
 fsothermal of 32° enters the United States at the southern end ot 
 
 M s"aehusetts. and passes in a southwesterly course ocioss Long 
 
 lil nd. just south ot- New York City, t^"'".?!? N^^^^'^^'^^^'y'if,^ 
 
 across the northern end of Maryland, whore it is deHected to ti e 
 
 eoiith and makes a long loop around the Appalachmns ; then neai 
 
 th Oiifo tl"ough Indiana. Illinois, Mi- ?g»"- ."°^ '^'S%'?^" 
 
 New Mexico, where at the meridian ot 10o°. it is deflected to the 
 
 Touthwest and passes around the Rocky Mo.untams and through 
 
 Ihe center of the (ireat Basin. On .the Pacific coast, the ^mte"- 
 
 isothermals also eloselv coincides with the mean annual isothei- 
 
 l^ils For example, the winter isothermal of o2° corresponds in 
 
 ehiraeterand position with the annual curve ot bt 
 
 The peculiarities of the North-American climate which most 
 strongly impress themselves on newly arrived visitors, and which 
 are no so apparent in general ^'ta.istieal st.atemeii s as they are 
 in Nature, may be best set forth and discussed after tho moie 
 essential fa"s regarding the other principal climatic elements 
 
 nndr^?oS™^ti to be next in order to. ^tate t^ ..-inei^l 
 facts regarding the distribution of the winds in the Uniti d btates. 
 L c a knowb^ige of these will be essential ^ «" ,.;V'; 't^f '^'V Z 
 of the important subject of tho amount and distribution of the 
 
 •' The prevailing winds of the United States, as of all countries 
 lying iSh middi; latitudes, are westerly. At .the 46 ill parallel 
 as an average position, and on the mean annual isothermal of 56°. 
 the eVidenees of this prevale.nce and constancy are overwhelming 
 Or Gibbons li^is noticed, with great care at San Francisco the 
 cours^ of the higher strata of clouds-the cirrus, and the very high 
 ^trntu-'-wh-ie they were visible, and has. found them to come 
 uniformly from some westerly point. During three years of very 
 carefiregistry directed to this particulaj. point in western ^ew 
 York, but thr-e instances of a contrary direction were observed 
 During storms the lower clouds are from various pomts. an I tlie 
 wind is quite variable during the greater storms; two st™ a of 
 different movement oftn lying beneath that from the west, yet 
 the - tratum from a wesf-rly point usually deposits the n.in, and 
 ^h-n ifceases the rainfall ceases, though tho h.wer strata may 
 continue to run on the wind twenty-four hours, or f"'", .ong"-,, ^ 
 Blow the ;«th parallel and on the Gulf coast qnl.N , do the 
 Bhowersof summer take a different movement, showing that the 
 stratum occupied by the cumulus of average heigh doe, not there 
 move from the west, but from the east or south.east-an inflection 
 of the trade-wind mingling with a local coast wind. 
 
 The following t'lble, arranged from data furnished by the bignal 
 Service Bureau, gives an id-a of the direction of the wind in 
 various parts of the country: 
 
 ST ATEMENT sh;udn(i linw mnvy times tlifmnd wnt observed 
 Unmna frnm the eiplit prineipnl pmvis at the conwss rlurmt, 
 eaeh season of the year ending June 86. 188 i. Vowpored from 
 observations taken nt the several stations of obeerrutMns at I 
 a. m., 2 p. m. and 9 p. m. [local time). 
 
 Station. 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 Wind. 
 
 6D 
 
 .5 
 a 
 
 CO 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 < 
 
 Bidmarck, Dak. 
 
 N. 
 
 .5S 
 
 .32 
 
 S3 
 
 42 
 
 N.W. 
 
 ^e. 
 
 ,M 
 
 76 
 
 Vo 
 
 W. 
 
 :'.\ 
 
 27 
 
 34 
 
 1.=! 
 
 S. W. 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 IV 
 
 16 
 
 s. 
 
 16 
 
 HI 
 
 22 
 
 U 
 
 S. E. 
 
 36 
 
 66 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 E. 
 
 3". 
 
 34 
 
 I.T 
 
 3h 
 
 N. E. 
 
 » 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 Calm. 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 27 
 
 21 
 
 Blank. 
 
 II 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 (1 
 
 Station. 
 
 Denver, Colo. 
 
 Los .\ngeles, Cal. 
 
 Saint Louis, Mo. 
 
 New York.N. Y — 
 
 Boston, Mass. 
 
 Au^sta, Ga. 
 
 Chicago, 111. 
 
 Charleston, S.C. 
 
 New Orleans. La. 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 C 
 
 Win . 
 
 to 
 
 s 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 crj 
 
 rXi 
 
 < 
 
 5 S -e .5 
 
 r N. 
 
 ■?,h 
 
 .=>o 
 
 46 
 
 N.W. 
 
 36 
 
 42 
 
 37 
 
 W. 
 
 :■;,^ 
 
 lo 
 
 6 
 
 S W. 
 
 '..4 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 s. 
 
 64 
 
 66 
 
 111 
 
 S.E. 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 20 
 
 E. 
 
 lO 
 
 29 
 
 12 
 
 N. E. 
 
 ;'.3 
 
 28 
 
 26 
 
 Ca'in. 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 I Blank. 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 U 
 
 f 
 
 N. 
 
 31 
 
 .■> 
 
 32 
 
 
 N.W. 
 
 n 
 
 b 
 
 12 
 
 
 W. 
 
 64 
 
 M 
 
 b9 
 
 
 S. w. 
 
 81 
 
 '(4 
 
 4b 
 
 \ 
 
 s 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 S.E. 
 
 16 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 
 E. 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 i; 
 
 
 N. E. 
 
 31 
 
 12 
 
 48 
 
 
 Calm. 
 
 3 
 
 •ii 
 
 42 
 
 
 Blank. 
 
 U 
 
 U 
 
 6 
 
 N. 
 N. W. 
 
 W. 
 S. W. 
 
 S. 
 S.E. 
 
 E. 
 N. E. 
 Calm. 
 Blank. 
 
 
 N. 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 
 N.W. 
 
 69 
 
 .W 
 
 l2 
 
 
 W. 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 38 
 
 
 s. w. 
 
 4.i 
 
 71 
 
 66 
 
 
 s. 
 
 17 
 
 37 
 
 i8 
 
 i 
 
 S. E. 
 
 ,36 
 
 23 
 
 27 
 
 
 E. 
 
 17 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 
 N. E. 
 
 36 
 
 3.T 
 
 2.T 
 
 
 Calm. 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 L 
 
 Blank. 
 
 U 
 
 U 
 
 
 
 N. 
 
 19 
 
 24 
 
 7 
 
 N. VV. 
 
 4.^ 
 
 28 
 
 43 
 
 W. 
 
 48 
 
 .■iS 
 
 77 
 
 S. W. 
 
 62 
 
 58 
 
 56 
 
 S. 
 
 A5 
 
 18 
 
 33 
 
 S.E. 
 
 33 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 E. 
 
 26 
 
 .37 
 
 19 
 
 N. E. 
 
 13 
 
 26 
 
 16 
 
 
 11 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 Blank. 
 
 
 
 (1 
 
 
 
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 •14 
 
 8 
 
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 N. W. 
 
 16 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 W. 
 
 14 
 
 Itj 
 
 5 
 
 S. W. 
 
 ?3 
 
 44 
 
 25 
 
 s. 
 
 29 
 
 27 
 
 12 
 
 S.E. 
 
 31 
 
 ,S2 
 
 32 
 
 E. 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 31 
 
 N. E. 
 
 ?,7 
 
 45 
 
 64 
 
 Calm. 
 
 168 
 
 46 
 
 86 
 
 I Blank. 
 
 U 
 
 U 
 
 U 
 
 N. 
 N. W. 
 
 W. 
 S. W. 
 
 s. 
 
 S. B. 
 
 E. 
 N. E. 
 Calm. 
 Blank. 
 
 N. 
 
 N.W. 
 
 W. 
 
 s. w. 
 
 s. 
 
 S. E. 
 
 E. 
 N. E. 
 Calm. 
 Blank. 
 
 32 .'.O 
 11 I 4 
 I I' 
 
 26 
 :io 
 2< 
 
 .16 
 
 93 
 13 
 15 
 23 
 
 II 
 
 u 
 
 64 
 17 
 42 
 
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 29 
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 12 
 
 
 31 
 44 
 30 
 18 
 91 
 27 
 14 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 18 I 
 54 
 46 
 43 
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 13 
 13 
 53 
 17 
 
 
 19 
 62 
 58 
 55 
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 14 
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 n 
 
 27 
 
 
 13 
 28 
 2t) 
 17 
 24 
 16 
 
 4 
 24 
 121 
 
 
 
 17 
 31 
 61 
 .60 
 37 
 20 
 15 
 16 
 16 
 
 
 34 
 20 
 25 
 67 
 10 
 16 
 41 
 55 
 5 
 
 
 r N. 
 
 35 
 
 IS 
 
 .53 
 
 ,35 
 
 N W. 
 
 13 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 
 17 
 
 W. 
 
 5 
 
 38 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 S. W. 
 
 21 
 
 .54 
 
 8 
 
 22 
 
 s. 
 
 .59 
 
 29 
 
 9 
 
 30 
 
 S E. 
 
 55 
 
 -:6 
 
 48 
 
 65 
 
 E. 
 
 ,55 
 
 48 
 
 66 
 
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 N. E. 
 
 2i 
 
 2.5 
 
 49 
 
 39 
 
 Calm. 
 
 5 
 
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 Blank. 
 
 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 
UNITED S T A 'i' E S 
 
 CMMATK.] 
 
 Till' wui.U uloiiK tlio wlioleoxtint lif the Atlniitic Cimst rcsum 
 ti ive a luMik'-il reseiubliuu-.- in ila'ir iiniiortant t.iitiin-. uotwun- 
 FtiinJiiiK ttio greal ditVeieiR'e in luliiudu. W csiirly winds pre- 
 doniiniitc during thofutiro your; but thoy arc ehiclly fouthwest- 
 frly in suinniiT. nnd northwesterly in winter. ,,,,..■ ■ 
 la the distrioi bftwoen the Aiiiwliii-biims ami the Mississippi, 
 westerly and southwesterly winds are prevalent both in winteruiul 
 suuiinor. I >n tho other hand, over a larne tcrriioiy m the .-outn- 
 we-leni portion of tli6 I'uited States. coveriuK an aroa.d about 
 one third of the e.>nntrv. and incUidinir Nobiiiska, Kansas, east- 
 ern Wvoming and I'olorndo. .-^rUansas, Texas. Utah. .New JIo-\i«o 
 an.l .\riioiia. the summer winds are from the south, while tno 
 winds of winter are north and northwest. In iiorthorn MKhiBaii, 
 Wiseonsin, and Minnesota, this reversal of the wmtor winds is 
 less marked In New Mexieo and among the Rocky Mountains 
 Kencrallv. the winds are of the most extremely irregular ehiirao- 
 ter. .\t"the pa-ses of th> Sierra Nevada, and at all entrances 
 from the coast of the Pacific to the interior, and distriets and 
 d'serts. there are violent and ei.ntinuons westerl.v winds. Un the 
 coasiofCalifornis. the inward draft of air produced by interior 
 nirefaetion is decidedly developed. Capt. Wilkes has desistnated 
 this as the loealitv of the "Me.xieau .Monsoon." blowing niternatcly 
 uiianddowu thisooast.ov northwest and southoa.st. Ih.Mlura- 
 tion of the northern monsoon is from Deeemb t to M ay ; the cur- 
 rents of air arc from the northwest. an<l nearly parallel with the 
 c<Mist. During its prevalence, fine weather is experienced. Iroiii 
 Mavto September the currents of air arc f nun the south and 
 southwest. These are the stormy months, attended with preat 
 explosions of oleetricity. and with copious and constant precipita- 
 tion. This interior rarefaction, above mentioned, is suihcieiu to 
 brin'.' a northwest wind on the coast from the 42iid to the Aith 
 pir.illol. and a south or southwest wind for a long distance bel.ivr 
 the entrance to the (lulf of California— lines which, if projected 
 to the interior, would cross nearly at right angles over the central 
 areas of the dry interior. On the other side of the eonlinent the 
 southeast Mion.soon of Texas blows directly towanl the northwest 
 wind of faliforniii— all proving how great and important this 
 Bgency of interior rarefaction is in producius the surface winds 
 of the latitudes below the well-determined belt of westerly winds. 
 I'o sum up what has b-en said in regard to the winds of the 
 U lited Srates. the following may be added: ,. . , ... ^, 
 
 1. The influence of the trades is but very slightly felt in the 
 cxTenie southeasterly portion of the country. 
 l. The prevaili.ng winds elsewhere are. in general, westerly. 
 A t)u the ,\tlantie coast, east of the Appalachians, nirthwest- 
 erly winds prevail in winter; southwefterly in summer. 
 
 4. In the region botweeii the Mississippi and tlio .\ppnlaehians. 
 eoMthwe.-t and west winds prevail both in winter ami sinnuier. 
 
 5 Over a wide area, extending from southeastern I alilornia 
 to .Missouri, and along the base of the Rocky Moaniams troin 
 New .Mexico to southern Dakota, the winds of summer are nearly 
 the reverse of those of winter, being south, soulheastcrly or 
 southwesterly, with a great predominance of southerly; but north 
 and northwest in winter. , i i 
 
 I.. On the Pacific coast, the prevailing and normal westerly 
 direction is maintained through the year, intensified in summer 
 by the superadded monsoon influence of the heated plateau region 
 to the east. . ^ .... .. 
 
 7. Through the Plateau or intcnor Cordilleran region, the sur- 
 face winds are variable and irregular in character, but the high-r 
 currents are in the normal westcrb direction. 
 
 S The region of the Lower Colorado is one m which southerly 
 winds gri'atly predominate in summer, but where iii winter there 
 is not so complete a reversal of the summer wind as there is in the 
 area speeiliej under 5. . , , •■ • f ii 
 
 The prosperity of a country depemls largely upon its ramtall. 
 a«. to a very great extent, the primary industry, that upon which 
 all others dejamd directly, viz.. agriculture, may bo said to flour- 
 ish in a degree .lireetly proportioned to the amount of moisture. 
 Of rainfall, this eounirv receives in its diff rent parts a very dit- 
 fereni supplv. Throughout the eastern half "f the United .-^tates. 
 the rainfall is ample for all purposes of agriculture, while m the 
 wesrern half, with the exception of a narrow strip along the 
 Paeiliecoist. the supplv is very deficient. With the exception ot 
 the Cordilbran region, the rainfall is nearly all derived from the 
 Gulf of Meiie.. and the Atlanticoccan. Of the two. the principal 
 eouree is the I'lulf. The warm, moist currents which accompany 
 the Ciilf Stream from the Caribbean sea are not deflected toward 
 the cttstwarl in the liulf of Mexieo. as the great oceanic river i,<i. 
 but pass northward and eastward over the land m a broiijl belt 
 extending from the coast of Texas to the peninsula of Honda. 
 Jud/ing from its efteets in the form of rainfall, the central por; 
 tion of this current passes over eastern Louisiana and Mississippi 
 nnd western Alabama. The natural result of leaving the wnnn 
 ocean surface and entering the continent is to cool th'^se air cur- 
 rents, and make th m deposit th'ir vnpor. The heaviest deposit is 
 along the northern shore of the (Julf. in thi' States of I.ouisiana. 
 Mississippi, and Alabama, and the western part of Florida, where 
 the rainfall reaches 60 inches per annum. Were there no moun- 
 tains or other irregular topogniphi.al features to modify the riiiii- 
 fall. this wave would move inland in a northeasterly direction. Iho 
 
 fireciidtaticm decreasing e«.stward. northward.-and westward, the 
 ino3 of equal rainfall taking the form of great concentric ellipses. 
 This form we see roughly o itlined in ihe western part of the Mis- 
 eis-ippi Tall'-v. the rainfall .bcrensing regularly to th- northward 
 nnd westward. To the northeastward, howi-ver, these moisture- 
 lad'm currents cneoanter th" smithern end of the Appalachian 
 chain, and are drivn at once up >o high altitudes, where they are 
 forced to disgi,rgo their vapor, giving to this enii of the mountain 
 BTstom a heavy rainfall; while farther along the chain, toward 
 the northeast, ihe rainfall diminishes, becoming ''ven loss than 
 that of the lower country on the cast and west. The portion of 
 
 the nioi-ture-liiden current which passes to the eastward of the 
 Appalaehmn chain meets and mingles with nioi.st air currents 
 coming directly from the Atlaniic. an.l produces, m the central 
 parts of North and South Carolina, an area of abnormally heavy 
 rainifidl. A second source of moisture is the Atlantic ocean. 
 Ileie the moist air currents from the (iulf Stream produce a lire 
 of heavy rainfall along the Atlantic coast, renchmg from Honda 
 to the neighborhood ol the bay o( New \ ork.. Ibis strip is quite 
 narrow, being conliiied to the coast and its iininodiatc neighbor- 
 hood Uaek of that, and over the greater pornoii of ths Atlantic 
 plain, the precii.itation is notably less. 1 be eonditioiiB of the 
 coast as regards rainfall arc somewhat changed north of the lati- 
 tude last niention.d; that is, near tic bay of New \ork. Ihe 
 Culf Stream, which has been gradually 1 rending off .shore, is hero 
 at a considenible distance from ihecoiist. lieiweeii the coast and 
 theUulf Stream has ai.p.ared a polar current Howing souUnycst- 
 crly The c<mt.iet between the warm air currents of the (nil t 
 Stream ami the cold winds accompanying this polar current un- 
 doubtedlv causes the heavy fogs which prevail on the banks of 
 Newfoundland an.l St. Ceorge's lianks. exteii.liug. in a greater or 
 less degree, to the New Kiigland const. Although there ip a de- 
 crease in the riiinfall of this part of the coasi Irom that farther 
 south yet it is not particularly marked. Ihe precipitation is. 
 however, greatest on the coast, and decreases inland. 
 
 Leaving now the eastern halt of ihe country, let us trace the 
 rainfall westward. The lines indicating a smaller degree of rain- 
 fall succeed one another at intervals more or less ngular as we 
 go west, out "f the course of the great continental wave of inoist- 
 lire and up the slope of the plains. The country here is uniform 
 an.l'genoiallv level, and there is nothing to interrupt the regular 
 decrease in the amount of iirecipitation until we reach the base 
 of the Hockv Mountains. From this line westward to the Sierra 
 Nevada weYind the conditions of rainfall which are incident to a 
 mountain country aecompanicd by a dry atmosphere. Taking 
 the Cordilleran region as a whole, with the exception of tint part 
 lying west of the Sierra Nevada and Cascad.s. the rainfiill iT.iha- 
 bly does not average more than 1(1 or l.'i inches annually. Ihis, 
 however, is not ileposited uniformly over the country; there are 
 certain conditions under which the rainfall in sonic parts of tins 
 region is much greater than in others. Other things being ctiual; the 
 higher the latitude and the greater the altitude, the greater w ill be 
 the rainfall I'nder this rule the more northeni parts of the Cor- 
 dilleran region enjoy a greater rainfall than the southern parts. 
 The mountains and high plateaus are better watered than the 
 low lands. The best watered parts of this region are the north- 
 ern parts of Washington and Idaho, the western part of .Mon- 
 tana, northwestern Wvomiiig. which includes the elevated region 
 known as the Yellowstone National Park, and the high plateaus 
 and ranges (d central Colorado. The most and portions, and 
 those which receive the least rainfall, are western Arizona, south- 
 ern Nevada, and southeastern California. Although throughout 
 this region we have but few and scattered observations of rainf/ill, 
 the relative amount can be predicted with a considerable degree of 
 ceitaintv by the character of the vegetation, tverywhere arbo- 
 rescent vegetation iinidiesa considerable amount of rainfall, and 
 accordingly we find the hiub.T plateaus, the mountains, and the 
 regions in the hiKher latitudes covered with f.>r.>sts. A second 
 
 zone of rainfall is indieat.d by the buneh 1 gama grasses which 
 
 cofer the plains and most of the mountain valleys. Ihey indi- 
 cate a rainfall not in general sufliciiuit for the needs of agriculture. 
 A third 7,on.- is indicated by ArWmUin. or "sage brush, as this 
 characteristic western shrub is popularly called; while a fourtli 
 zone is indicated by the cactus, the yucca, or by an absence of all 
 vegetation whatever. . r ., ■ .i, r, i-i 
 
 As hius lax-n suggested heretofore, the rainfall in the ( ordll- 
 leran region cast of the Si.-rra Nevada is in general insufficient 
 for the needs of agriculture, excepting m a few isohited areas 
 where locnl topography induces a rainfall greater than the normal 
 one In that section, irrigation is everywhere necessary tor the 
 i.rodiiction of cereal crops. Concrally it may be s'tiited that a 
 le,s< annual rainfall than 20 inches, or a less rainfall than IJ'/4 
 inches during the growing season of ereps-that is. diinng the 
 spring and summer— is insnlVicient for their successful cultiva- 
 tion ; and where this supply is not furnished naturally, an equiva- 
 lent must be supplied by means of irrigation. I his limit is 
 reached along a line running approximately on a nieric lan. and 
 passing through the middle of Dakota, western Nebraska, west- 
 ern Kansas, andcentrnl Texas. In the neighborhood of this line, 
 and extending perhaps a degree on each, side of it. is a debiitablo 
 grounil where, in some seasons, the rainfall is siilhcient for all 
 crops, while in others it is insnflicient. This is Powell's sob- 
 humid region. As a rule, wherever irrigation is necessary, the 
 possibleextent of agriculture, and in consenucnoo the possildo 
 densitv of settlement, are dependent upon the amount of water 
 carrie.l in the streams. In most parts of Ihe Cordilleran region, 
 there is apparently a far greater aiiKumt of land suitable for cul- 
 tivation than can ever be irrigateil. even umler the most eeonoi i- 
 ical distribution of water. Concerning this punt, however, wi 
 are at present ranch in the dark, the capacity of few .streams biiv- 
 ing been measured, even approximately. Under the wa-^iefu' 
 system of irrigation at present practiced throughout the \\ est 
 (except in some portions of southern Califi>rnial. the limit of set- 
 tremenl will very soon he reached, so far as the population is de- 
 pcnilent upon agriculture. ,. , - . , i. „.. 
 
 A nnestion which has assumed practicil importance of an almost 
 national character is the eff.^-t of the idariting of tre.s and the 
 cultivation of the soil upon climate, many high authorities main- 
 taining that these causes produce an increase in rainfall, and con- 
 seqiientlv that it is possible to n'decun the whole Cordilleran 
 region by a judicious system of ciiltivntion and tree platiting. par- 
 ticularly of the latter. It is doubtful whether that effect cm he 
 produced by this or by any other means within the power of man. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 [climate. 
 
 Such facts as we havo withiu the form of rainfall records in the Cor- 
 dilleran rfE^inn do imt sub?^tantiate the theory, the rt'conls showing 
 tbat the mintall li;ts not increased iu the retjions covered by uur bor- 
 der settlements since their earliest formation. At the same time, 
 it seems highly probable that a change has been produced, which, 
 ivhile not affecting the climate, has modified decidedly the con- 
 ditions of moisture. The etfeots of cultivation upon the soil in 
 covering it with vegetation, and especially ^vith trees, has in gen- 
 eral been to retain the moisture upon and in the soil, instead of 
 allowing it to run lUrectly off into the streams, or to be taken up 
 at once by evaporation. In other words, a much larger proportion 
 of the rainfall is rendered effective for agricultural purposes. 
 This effect is already very markeil throughout Dakota, Kansas, 
 and Nebraska, and even to some extt-Ut in Utah and Colorado. 
 
 It retniins to sketch the rninfall of the Pacific coast. Itisin 
 ali respects peculiar, and different from that of the rest of the 
 country. Therealoug the whole coast, and ex tending eastward as far 
 .Ts the Sierra Nevada nod the Casc.ule range, well-defined wet and 
 dry seasons— the former corresponding to the eastern winter, the 
 latter to the eastern summer. Taking the year through, the rain- 
 f;iil is very much heavier in the northi-rn part of this section than 
 in tlie 3 juthern. In we-;tern Wa-^himiton Territory, it rains almost 
 constantly for six months of tbe year, while even in the wet sea- 
 son, the supply of rain in south rii California is scanty. 
 
 An ex[)Ianation of this peculiar climate is to be found in the 
 ocean currents and ihe prevailing winds. The winds on the 
 west^^rn coast are. as a rule, the "anti-trades," blowing from the 
 west and southwest These winds pass, on nearing the coast, over 
 the great Japanese current, which north of Oregon, is relatively to 
 the land, a warm current, while south of Oregon it is, relatively, 
 a cool current. In passing over this portion of the sea, the atmos- 
 phere becomes surcharged with moisture.^ In reaching the coast 
 the amount of precipitation from this moisture-laden atmosphere 
 depends upon the change of temperature wiiich it encounters. 
 North of Oregon, the land being, as stated above, colder than the 
 sea, there is great precipitation, while south of that state the land 
 being the warmest, the precipitation decreases, till in southern 
 California, where the difference between the seaand land tem- 
 perature is the greatest, it is almost nothing The line of demark- 
 ation between the ditt'ereut temperatures varies with the season, 
 ranging northward in the summer and southward in the winter, 
 thus giving the alternations between the wet and dry seasons so 
 peculiar to this coast. The influence of the mountains of the 
 Pacific coast, althoui^h not sufficient to account for all the phe- 
 nomena of this climati'. still plays a very important part in it. The 
 ascent ot the warm currents u[i the mountain sides of course cools 
 them very greatly, and causes them to deposit whatever remaining 
 moisture they may contain. To illustrate the extent of the action 
 of mountain ranges, it may be stated that, although in the valley 
 of the iSan Joatiuin the rainfall is very light, yet upon the high 
 Sierras it has been found to reachUii inches in a single year. 
 
 The colder months in the United States, including May and Sep- 
 tember of the warmer months, precipitate most of the rain and 
 snow, which falls in what are called general storms. Most of the 
 rain falling before the middle of June in the latitude of Wash- 
 ington is in storms of two or three days' duration. A south or 
 southeast wind, with hitxh temperature and a palpable sense of 
 preparation, usually begins the cbange: east and northeast winds 
 follow next tor a day or more, during which most of the rain falls, 
 and west or northwest winds blow with unusual strength for two 
 days following, restoring the equable and average weather for the 
 month. In the Northern States, a greater number of months is 
 included iu those of general rains, which may occur in everj' 
 month of summer, though they rarely do so. In the liulf States 
 the period of summer showers is more extended generally, though 
 where the hurricanes of August and September occur, as they do 
 in all the Southern States bordering thefiulf and the Atlantic, the 
 number of extended rains in the summer is more nearly equal to 
 that in New York and New England. In the southwest, at a dis- 
 tance from the coasts, they are rare from the close of April to the 
 middle of October; in the interior farther west they are equally 
 rare, and on the Pacific coast they belong only to the rainy 
 months. But on the Pacific tbe rains have little, if any, corre- 
 spondence at any season with those east of the Rocky iMountains. 
 Some general distinctions should be made at the outset of the 
 examination of storms in the temperate latitudes. The hurri- 
 canes, typhoons and tornadoes, each of which more generally be- 
 long to the tropics, frequently enter these latitudes in their origi- 
 nal forms, and subsequently become blended with the forms wliich 
 originate here, either by encountering one of these, or by putting 
 on such form- by a gradual process of change. The West India 
 hurricanes impress their character on a series of successive or 
 continuous st'trms along the Uulf Stream in nearly every case of 
 their approach to temperate latitudes, and the tracks of these in 
 th'3 western Atlantic and along the const present the most fre- 
 quent instances of the mingling of storms which were originally 
 wholly different, with the widely extended rains above the 35tu 
 parallel. 
 
 The general The observations with respect to the general winter storms of 
 
 winrer the United States m:iy be stated as follows: 
 
 ?.,urms. 1- The general winter storms of the United States often '*over 
 
 an area of from three to five hundred miles in diameter, which 
 area is usually oblong or oval, with its greatest lengh from south- 
 west to northeast. 
 
 2. They all move eastward with the westerly winds of the belt 
 where they are formed, and in a line with the isothermals of the 
 month in which they occur — coming from a point north of west 
 at the Mississippi river, and leaving the Atlantic coast in a direc- 
 tion north of east. This course conforms in both cases to the 
 ( lurse of the isothermal?; or. in oth^r words, they do not leave 
 tlie measure of heat where they originate to go into colder or 
 warmer climates. 
 
 3. Their movement is generally at the rate of movement of the 
 air in these latitudes, or nearly twenty miles per hour; but it may 
 be much greater, or very little- 
 
 4. They may be initiated at all points of this belt, and at any 
 meridian, and they have equalb' no point at which they are more 
 likely to become exhausted and tu disappear than any other. 
 
 5. They are more violent at the Atlantic coast and at the Gulf 
 Stream than elsewhere, because the contrast ot land and .--ea nir is 
 there very great in the coMer seasons, and because the direct line 
 of their progress carries them into a belt of high temperature. 
 When the contrast is not grejit. as in the warmer mon'hs, there is 
 no decided increase ot severity there. 
 
 ti. They are more generally attended by northeast winds than Northeast 
 any others during the first half: or, in other words, the rarefied winds, 
 area almo>t always induces a draft from that quarter first, and it 
 continues over most of the district in which a draft contrary to 
 the general movement is created. 
 
 7. None of the winds from other than westerly points are winds 
 of propulsion, or proriagated from their apparent point of origin; 
 they are all, including a portion from the west, winds ot aspi- 
 ration, induced by the agitation, or by the disturbance of equi- 
 librium itself. 
 
 8. All the movements and processes are usually carried past 
 the mean by the forces set in motion in these storms; the mini- 
 mum of heat, moisture, clouds and winds, following the removal 
 ol the excess of the first two; and this minimum, though a calm 
 and quiescent state, is itself an extreme and not an average con- 
 dition in these latitudes. 
 
 Tornadoes have less connection with general storms than hurri- 
 canes, though they often exist as the nucleus of a general rain 
 inland, and, though belonging to the summer mainly, they are 
 sometimes found in storms of midwinter. The term tornado is 
 one properly limited to local storms of excessive violence, afflicting 
 but a narrow strip of surface a few miles in length, and usually 
 while no storms of consequence exists any ^\ here in the vicinity, hut 
 sometimes as the nucleus of an extended rain. The leading 
 characteristic is intense electrical action, and several lines or 
 threads of tornado force are sometimes developed iu a wide 
 stratum of air of high temperature with clouds and rain, particu- 
 larly if in a cool month, or when the general storm is of much 
 more than the usual excess of temperature. These may be ex- 
 hausted after traversing a short path, and may reappear, without 
 disturbing the general condition and without producing any con- 
 formity to their peculiar violence in the whole area covered by 
 the rain, as th ' hurricanes of the Atlantic do. 
 
 These hurricanes evidently control the movements of any storm Hurricanes, 
 or condition with which they come in contact, superadding to it 
 the characteristics of hurricane violence, until this violence be- 
 conies exhausted by distance, while tornadoes have no general 
 influence whatever. The following extract is taken from the 
 report on tornadoes for JSSO, by Mr, John P. Finley: 
 
 "A map prepared to show tin- entire topography of that portion 
 of the United States included within the meridians of 89*^ and lOP 
 would plainly illustrate an important truth in the tornado prob- 
 lem — viz., that there is not another section of our vast domain 
 wherein there exists opportunities so unlimited for the unob- 
 structed mingling and opposition of warm and cold currents and 
 currents highly contrasted in humidity. As an area of low 
 barometer (not necessarily a storm area) advances to the Lowes 
 Missouri valley warm and cold currents set in toward it from the 
 north and south respectively, which, if the low pressure con- 
 tinues about stationary for some time, ultimately emanate from 
 the warm and moist regions of the Gulf and the cold and compara- 
 tively dry regions of the British Possessions. Here lies the key to 
 the marked contrasts of temperature and moisture, invariably 
 foretelling an atmospheric disturbance of unusual violence, for 
 which this region is peculiarly fitted bv Nature, and in apparent 
 recognition of which it has received the euphonious titlt'of the 
 "battle-ground of tornadoes." It cannot be disputed tbat. so far 
 as the history of tornadoes is concerned, the majority havo 
 occurred over this region, because of its peculiar topography. 
 From the Gulf northward to the central portion of the Lower 
 Missouri valley, and from the British Po.^sessions southward to 
 the same locality, there is permitted an entirely free movement of 
 the air; nothing in the shape of earth or water exists to modify 
 its character, except, perhajis, to intensify the contrast of attiib- 
 utes. Over Texas, Louisiana. Arkansas, and Indian Territory 
 occurs a broad expanse of rolling surface — sometimes abruptly 
 hilly, but on the whole presenting a sameness of outline to a 
 marked degree. Similarly conditioned are the States of Min- 
 nesota. Iowa, Nebraska, and the eastern half of Dakota Territorj-. 
 West of the inlst meridian we find a rugged and abrupt country, 
 traversed by great mountain chains, which deflect the course and 
 modify the temperature and moisture of passing currents. On 
 the east side of the S9th meridian, the Great Lakes introduce 
 an equally important factor into the modification of passing 
 currents." 
 
 As to the duration of the tornadoes observed m the year 18i9, 
 he writes: 
 
 "The time of passing any point was variously estimated from 
 five seconds to two minutes. "Quicker than thought," was an 
 expression often used as conveying the observer's idea of the 
 rapidity of destruction. Estimating the average diameter of tho 
 cloud at 15(J feet, and its average velocity at a mile in two min- 
 utes, we have its mean duration at any one point, about ten and 
 a half seconds. There were times in the passage of the cloud when 
 it appeared to remain almost stationary, whirling upon its narrow 
 base like a top; again it was reported as moving no faster than a 
 horse gently galloping, but only for half a mile or so. when it 
 would make up for lost time by dashing forward at a rate of .511 or 
 (30 miles per hour, and then gradually working down to its accu 
 tomed velocity of about 30 miles per hour." 
 
FORESTS.] 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 The storm ol Marth ll-Il. 1HS8. deserves n notice in this cou- 
 nectinii— tor, iilth 'Ugli imt a torimiltt, it causeii muoli si.ff rin^. 
 Us m(»>t inifr«.-.-tiiit; ffature wa^i the fxtrauntimuy mnnunt of 
 8U0W whirh (vU: and as this ftill took place in the nio>t *len?iely 
 settled pjirt of the country, and caused a coini'lol*' stoppHirr tor 
 several days of all inicrcou-M* between Now York and the adj u-ent 
 cities, it was, probably, of all the storms which have ny^-iirnd 
 since this country was settled— the one which pive rise to the 
 larg.'St amount of conuncnt. The avcraK'' snow tall in central 
 Connecticut and over a large part of etist'-rn New York exceeded 
 forty inches, and iu pla-'es this was piled up in drifts of from 
 fifteen to forty feet in height. The mnxinmin prcoipiratitMi 
 reported U'v78 inehe-) was at Middletown, t'onn. This remarkable 
 storm was the re-ult ('f a conllict between a cyclone advancing 
 from the south, but detleoted to the west on reaching New Eng- 
 land, and a cold wave coming from the west* 
 
 THK FOBK.ST3 OF NOKTII AMKRICA. 
 
 The North American continent, or that part of it situated north 
 of Mextci>. which will alone be con>iiiored here, Uiay bo cuu- 
 venieritly divided, with reference to it-* forest gcctrrnphy, into tlie 
 Atlantic and Pacitic regions, by a line fi)llo\ving the eastern base 
 of th^^- Kocky iMountaiiis and its outlying eastern ran^'cs frtini the 
 Arctic circle to the Kio (Irnnde. '1 he forests which cover these 
 two divi^ious of the continent diflf-r as widely, in natural fea- 
 turi'S, composition, and distribution as Ilio climate and typog- 
 raphy of eastern America diflfer from the c!imate and topogniphy 
 of the Pac fie slope. The causes which have pr-Hlao-il ttn" dis- 
 similar composition of these two forests nmy l>e sought in the 
 climatic conditions of a geological era earlier than our own anil in 
 the actual topoirraplncal formation of the continent; they need 
 not bo discussed here. 
 
 The forests of the Atlantic and Pacific regions, dissimilar in 
 composition in the central part of the coniiiicnt, are united at 
 the north by a broad belt of subarctic forests, extending a<'ross 
 the continent north of the fiftieth degree of latitude. Oiic-half 
 of the species of which this northern for» st is composed extends 
 from the Atlantic to the Pacilie: and its general features, al- 
 though differing east and west of tiie continental divide, 
 in conformity with the climatic conditions peculiir to the Atlantic 
 and the Pacitic sides of the continent, still possess considerable uni- 
 formity. The fore.sts of the Atlantic and the Pacitic regions arc 
 nlsi> united at the south by a narrow strip of the flora peculiar to 
 the plateau of northern Alexico. here extending northward into 
 the 1"nitcd rr^tat-'S. Certain characteristics species of this flora 
 e.Tren<i from the (Jidf of Mcxicr) to the shores of the Pacilic. and 
 while the peculiar features of the eastern and the western slopes of 
 the interior mountain system of the continent arotill maintained 
 here, the Atlantic and Pacific regions of the Mexican forest belt 
 po-se-s many general fcitures in common. Typical N"rth Amer- 
 ican species, moreover, peculiar to the forest of the Atlantic 
 or of the Pacific, minglcupon the Black liills of Dakota, and upon 
 the (tua<Ialupe and otlr^fe mountains of western Texas, the ex- 
 treme easteru ridges of the Rocky iMountair, range, and the out- 
 posts between the Atlantic and the Pacific regions. 
 
 The forests of tht' Atlantic Region may be considered under six 
 natural divisions; the Northern Forest, the Northern Pine I5clt, 
 the .■^outhern .Maritime Pino Belt, the IVciduous Fore.^t of tlie 
 Mississippi Basin, and the Atlantic Plain, the Semi-tropical Forest 
 of Florida, and the Mexican Forest of Southern Texas. 
 
 These natural divisions, although composed in part of species 
 founrl in other divisions and possessing many general features in 
 comiuon. are still for the most part well characterized by pre- 
 dominant species or groups of species, making such a separation 
 natural and convenient. 
 
 The yorthern Foreit stretches along the northern shores of 
 liubrador nearly to the sixtieth (iegree of north latitude, sweeps 
 to the south of Hudson bay, nnd then northwestward to within 
 the Arctic circle. This Northern Forest extends southward to 
 the fiftieth degree of north latitude on the Atlantic coast, and 
 nearly to the fifty-fourth degree at the lUOth meridian. It oecnpies 
 I'l degrees of latitude upon the Atlantic sea-board and nearly 20 
 d'-grees in its greatest extension north and south alorti: tiin east- 
 ern base nf the Rocky .Mountains. The region occupied by this 
 Northern Forest, except toward its southw*-stcrn limits, enjoys a 
 copious rainfall: it i-* divided by innumerable streams anil lakes, 
 nnd abounis in swampy areas often of great extent. The nature 
 of the surface and the low annual mean temperature check the 
 spread of forest growth, and reduce the number of arborcscimt' 
 species, of whieh this forest is composed, to eight. Ot these, four 
 cross to the Pacific coast. whiU^ the r(imainder, witli a single 
 exception, are plac 'd west of the continental divirle bv closely 
 aliieil forms of the Pacific forest. The white and the black sprucor 
 are characteristic trees of this region: thcv form an open, stunted 
 forest upon the low divides of the water-sheds, and reach a higher 
 latitiulo than any other arborescent speeioH of the continent: the 
 vall -ys and wide bottoms are clothed with broad sheets of poplars, 
 dwarf birche.» and willows. The forest of this entire region is 
 scattered, open, stunted, nnd of no great (fconomitr value. It em- 
 braces, south of the sixtieth degree of north latitude. Iho northern 
 extension of the great midcontinental plateau, which will be 
 con8i<iered hereafter. 
 
 South of the Northern Forest the A'ow/jern Piue lirh extends 
 from the .Atlanttp coa-«t to the ninety-sixth mcrltlinn of longitude; 
 cast of the .Appalachian Mountain system it extends south over 
 nearly 6 degrees of httjtude. with a long, narrow spur following 
 the higher Alleghany ridges for nearly .'i degrees farther south; 
 west of the Alleghany Mountains, in the region of the great lakes, 
 the piiie forest is replaced south of th" forty third degree of lat- 
 itude by the deciduous growth of the Missis>ippi Ihimp. The eec- 
 
 •Sce Winslow Upton, in Am. Met. Jour., May, IsBS. 
 
 ond division of the Atlantic forest may bo characterized by the 
 white pine I /'iHW« StmbuH), its most important it nt)l its most 
 gencrnlly-ilisti itiuted jpecies. East of tlie Appalachian s.vstem 
 this tree often forms extensive forests upon the gravelly drift 
 plain of the St. Lawrence basin, or farther south and west appear.H 
 111 i.-olaled proves, often of eonsidemblc extent, scattered tlnipugh 
 the deciduous forest. Forests of black spruce arc still an impor- 
 tant feature lit this rejiion. especially at tde imrth: and wiiliin its 
 boundaries the hem!«a-k. the yellow ctdar, the biU'Swooil. the 
 black and the white ash, the sugar maple and several species of 
 iiireh and tlm find their northern limits, and the center of their 
 most important distribution. The hiekoi ies and the oaks, cliarao- 
 ('■ristic features ef the deciduous forests of all the central portion 
 of" the .Atlantic region. rea(di here the nortliorn limits of tin ir dis- 
 trihulion. as do tho chestnut, the sassafras, the tulip tree, the 
 magnolia (here represented bv a single species) the red cedar, the 
 tupelo, the sycaiiir»re. the beech, and other important genera. 
 
 The Soufhrrn Mart'fittir Pint- /?* /(extends from the thirty-sixth Southern 
 degree of north laiitu>le nlonn the coast in a narrow belt, varying pine bell 
 from one hundred to two hundred miles in width, as far south as 
 Car'C .Malabar and Tampa bay; it stretch* s acro.'-s the Florida 
 peninsula and along llie coast of the <iulf of Mexico until tho 
 alluviiil deposits of tho Mis>i8>ippi arc eneounfi'M d: it r* appears 
 west of that river in Louisiana, north and south of the Kcd river, 
 and hero gradually mingles with the deciduous forests of the 
 ."\lississi|)|)i ba.-in in Arkan-as and eastern 'Icxus This belt ia 
 well characterized by the almost continuous growth, outside of 
 the broad river bottoms and the iinnH<liatc ncrighboihoorl of the 
 coast, by the open forest of the longleavid \>'niv fP pahmfriit). 
 The live oak. the palmetto, and various j-pecies of pine charac- 
 terize the co;^^t forest of this region; throu^di the river bottoms 
 anil along the borders of the >hMll{Av ponds, scattered thri>ugh tho 
 pino forest, diff'-rent gums, water oaks, hickories and ashes, 
 attain noble dimensions. The southern cypress {Toxmlhtm), 
 altliongh extending far beyond the limits of this natural division, 
 here attains its greatest d<'V(dopnient and value, au(l. next to the 
 long loave<l pino. may be considered the characteristic species 
 of the uiiiritime pino belt. 
 
 The Deciiluouft ForcHt uf thv MiBSXHsippi Basin and the Atlantic Deciduouf 
 Plain occupies, with two uniiuportant exceptions to be considered f<^rest. 
 hereafter, the remaindrr ol tho Atlantic region. Through this 
 deciduous forest, wht-re pei-nliar geological features have favored 
 tho growth of ConijWa-. belts of pine, growing gregariously or 
 mixid with oaks and other broad- leaved trees, occur especially 
 upon some portions of the .Athintic plain and toward the limits of 
 the Southern iMaritime Pine Belt, west of the Mississippi river. 
 Tho characteristic features of the forest <if this whole region are 
 found, however, in the broad-leaved species of which it is largely 
 composed. Oaks, hickories, walnuts, magnolias, and ashes give 
 variety and value to this forest; and here, with the exception of a 
 few species peculiar to a more northern latitude, the deciduous 
 trees of the Atlantic region attain their grent''St (Uvelopment an<i 
 value. Upon the slopes of the southern Alleghany mountains and 
 in the valley of the lower Bed river, regions of copious rainfall 
 and rich soil, the deciduous furcst of the continent attains un- 
 surpassed variety and richness. Upon the Alleghany mountaina 
 northern and southern species nre ming'ed. or are only separated 
 by the altitude of these mountains; rhododendrons, laurels, and 
 magnolias hire attaining their maximum development, enliven 
 the forests of northern pines and hemlocks whieh clothe the flanks 
 of these mountains, or arc scattered through forests of other 
 broad-leaved species. The cherry, the tuMp tree, and the chestnut 
 bore reach a 8iz<' unkiu)wn in other parts of the country. The 
 forest of the Bed river valley is hardh less varied. The nortlicrn 
 sp< cies which the elevation of the Alletihany mountains has car- 
 ried south nre wanting. l)ut other species i)eculiar to the southern 
 Atlantic and Gulf coasts arc here niiirgled with plants of the 
 southern deciduous forest. The seven species of Varya 'tho 
 hickories) are nowlicre else closely associated. A ureat vniiety of the 
 most important oaks grow here side by side: here is the center of 
 distribution of the North American hawihoins, which do not else- 
 where attain such size and lieauty. 'i'he osnge orange is peculiar 
 to ih'S rejiion; the n d cedar, the most wid'ly distributed of 
 Ann-ricfln Conifrrtr. the southern and the yellow pine (Piuun 
 pnlufitrin and inidini here reiich their best dcvelojiment. Just out- 
 side of this region, upon the "bhiff" formation of the lower Mis- 
 sissippi valley and of western Louisiana, the stately southern mag- 
 nolia, perhaps the most beautiful of the North American trees, 
 and th" licech, assume their greatest beauty, and give a peculiar 
 charm to this southern forest. 
 
 The western third of the Atlantic region is subjected to very 
 different climafic eonditiims from those prevailing in the eastern 
 portion of the continent: it consists of an elevated plateau. \\hi<'h 
 falls away from the eastern base of the R<i<-ky Mountains, forming 
 what is known as the (treat Plains. This great interior region, on 
 account of its remoteness from natural reservoirs of moi.-ture, 
 receives a meager and uncertain rainfall, sufficient to insure ii 
 growth of herbage, but not suflieient to support, outside the nar- 
 row bottoms of the infrequent streams, tlie scantiest forests. 
 This tr<'eless plateau extends north to the fifty second degree of 
 north latitude; it follows southward the trend of tlio Rocky 
 Mountains far into Mexico, extending eastward at file point of its 
 .gieate^t width, in about liititnde 40° N.. nearly to the ninety- 
 seventh meridian. This wh'de region is generally destitute of 
 forest The narrow bottoms of the large streams are lined, how- 
 ever, with willows, poplars, elms, and hackbcrries— tr<es adapted 
 to nourish under such unfavorable conditions. These diminish in 
 size and number with the rainfall, and often disappear entirely 
 fr'un the banks of even the largest streams towtird the western 
 limits of the plnleau. south of the forty fifth degree nf latitude. 
 North and east of these central treeless plains n belt of prairio 
 extends from the sixtieth degree of north latitude to southern 
 
UNITED STATEb 
 
 [l--OI!fc;ST8. 
 
 
 Texas The average wiJth east anJ west of this praine region, 
 through much of its extent, is not far from loU miles. Its eastern 
 extensi.ui. between the fortieth and forty-tifth degrees of latitude, 
 is mufli o'leater. however, here reaching the western shores of lake 
 Michig'n, and forming a great recess in the western line of tlie 
 hi'avy forest of the Atlantic region with a depth of nearly 600 
 miles ihj transition from the heavy forest of the eastern and 
 central portions of the Atlantic region to the treeless plateau is 
 {:iiidual. The change occurs within tlie inaine regions. Here is 
 tlia strip of debatable ground, where a ooiiiinunus struggle between 
 tho fonst and the plain taltes place. There is here sufficient pre- 
 cipitation of moisture to cause, under normal conditions, a growth 
 of open forest; but. so nicely b.alanced is the struggle, that .iny 
 interference quielilv turns the scale. Trees planted within this 
 prairie belt thrive if protected from fire ard the encroaclimeiit of 
 the tough prairie sod, and so extend tlie forest line westward: it 
 th'! forest which fringes the ea.nern edge of the prairie is 
 de-troyed. it does not soon regain possession of the soil, and the 
 prairie is gradually pushed eastward. 
 
 The eastern line of the phiin. where arborescent vegetation is 
 confined to the river bottoms, and wliuh divides it troin the 
 prairie where trees grow iiaiurally. to smue <;xtent, outside of the 
 bottoms, and where they may be made to grow under favorable 
 conditions everywhere, is d'-lermined by the rainfall enjoyed by 
 thi< part of the continent. The extreme eastern point reached by 
 this line is found, upon the fortieth degree of north latitude, near 
 the northern boundary of the state of l\ans!is. North of the 
 fortieth degree it gradually trends to the west, reaching the 
 eastern base of tlie Roeky Mountains in about latitude r>2^ J.his 
 northwestern trend of the eastern plain hue may be ascribed to 
 tlio comparatively small evaporation which takes place during the 
 shorter summer of the north, and to a slight local increase of 
 spring and summer rainfall. South of the fortieth degree the 
 plain line graduallv trends to the southwest under the influence 
 of the (iulf of Mexico, reaching its extreme western point in 
 Texas upon the one hundredth meridian. . . „ , . , 
 
 Other causes, however, than insufficient rainfall and a nicely 
 balaiced struggle between the forest and the plain have prevent- 
 ed the general growth of trees in the prairie region t•a^t of the 
 ninety-fifth meridian. The rainfall of this region is sufficient to 
 Insure the growth of a heavy forest. The rain falling upon the 
 prairies of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa. Illinois, and .Missouri 
 equals in amount that enjoyed by the Miehig:!n peninsula and 
 the whole region south of lakes Ontario and Erie, while prairies 
 e.xi-t within ihe region of the heaviest forest growth. It is not 
 want of sufficient heat, or of sufficient or equally distributed 
 moisture, which has checked the general spread of forest over 
 these prairies. The soil of which the prairies are composed, as is 
 shown by tho fact that trees planted upon them grow with vigor 
 and ripidity, is not unsuited to tree growth. It is not, p rhaps, 
 improbable that the forests of the Atlantic region once extended 
 continuously as far west at least as the ninety-flfih meridian, 
 altheiigh circumstantial evidence of such a theory does not e.xist ; 
 and the causes which first led to the destruction of the fore.<ts in 
 this region, supposing that they ever existed, cannot, with the 
 present knowledge of the subj-ct. be even guessed at. It is, how- 
 ever, fair to assume that forests once existed in a region adapted, 
 by climate, rainfall, and soil, to produce forests, and that their 
 absence under such conditions must be triiced to accidental causes. 
 It is not difficult to understand that the forest once destroyed 
 over such a vast area could not easily regain posses.«ion of the 
 soil protected by an imoenetrable covering of sod and subjected 
 to the annual burnings which have occurred down to the present 
 time; while the force of the wind, unchecked by any forest 
 barrier, over such an area would, even withflut the aid of hres, 
 have made the sprea I of foi-est growth slow and difficult, ihe 
 assumption that these eastern prairies may have once been 
 covered with forests is strengthened by the tact that since they 
 have been devoted to agriculture, and the annual burning has 
 b»en stopped, trees which w re formerly confined to the river 
 bottoms have graduiUy spreid to the uplands. Small prairies 
 situated just within the western edge of the forest have entirely 
 disappeared within the memory of persons still living ; the oak 
 openings— open fore.-ts of largo oaks through whieh the annual 
 fires plaved without greatlv injuring the full-grown trees— once 
 the characteristic feature of these prairies, have disappeared. 
 They are replaced by dense forests of oak. which only require 
 protection from fire to spring into existence. In western Texas, 
 the mesquit. forced by annual burning to grow nliuost entirely 
 below the surface of the ground, is. now that prairie fires are 
 less common and destrucive. spreading over what a few years ago 
 wastreeless prairie. The prairies, then, or the eastern portions 
 of them situated in the region of abundant rainfall, are fast losing 
 their treeless character, and the forest protected from fire is 
 gradually gaining in everv direction ; regions whieh fifty years 
 ago were treeless outside tho river boltoms now contain forests 
 covering 10 or even 20 per cent, of their area. These enstern well- 
 watered prairies must not. however, be confoonded with their 
 dry western rim adjoining the plains— the debatnble groiind be- 
 tween forest and plain— or with -he plains them.ielves. There is 
 now no gradual, constant spread of forest growth upon the 
 plains. They are treeless on account of insufficient moisture to 
 develop forest growth ; :ind while trees may. perhnp-;. itplant»d.. 
 survive during a few years beyond the western limits of the 
 prairie as hero laid down, th- permment establishment of forests 
 there does not seem practicable, and, sooner or hi ter. n period of 
 unusual drought must put and end to all attempts at forest culti- 
 vation in a region of such insufficient arid uiicertain rainfall • 
 
 It remains to consider the Semi-trorn'cal Forest of Florida and 
 ihe Mexican Foreet of So-utliernleran. 
 
 A group of ai-bereseent species of West Indian origin occupies 
 the narrow strip of coast and islands of southern Florida. This 
 
 belt of semi tropical vegetation is confined to tho immediate 
 neighborhood of the coast and to occasional hummocks or islands 
 of high ground situatid in Uie savannas which co\er a great por- 
 tion of southern Florida, cheeking, by the nature of the soil and 
 want of drainage, the spread of forest grow'h aero.-s the penin- 
 sula. This semi-tropical forest belt reaches ci.pe jMalabar on Ihe 
 east anJ the shores of Tampa bayou the west cou;-t, while some 
 ot its representatives extend fully 2 degrees farther north. It 
 is rich in composition ; nearly a quarter of all the arborescent 
 species of the .\tlautic forest are found within this insignificant 
 region. The semi-tropical forest, in spite of its variety, is of 
 little economic importance. The species of which it is comiiosed 
 here reached the extreme northern limit of their distribution ; 
 they are generally small, stunied. and of comparatively little 
 value. Certain species, however, attain respeeialde proportions ; 
 the mahogany, the niasiic, the royal palm, the mangrove, the si a- 
 grape, the Jamaica dogwood, the manchinecl. and other species 
 here become coiisideiable and important trees. ,,. . . 
 
 In western and south rn Texas the trees of the Mississippi 
 basin, checked by insufficient moisture from tariher exlensioQ 
 southward outside the liver bottoms, are nplaced by species o£ 
 the plateau of northern Mexico. The streams flowing into ihe 
 (Julf of Mi-xieo are still lined, however, t-ast of the one-huiidredlU 
 nieridiMU. with the species of tho Atlantic basin, which thus reach 
 southward to beyond the Eioljrai.de- The Mexican forest belt 
 ot Texas extends from the valley of the Colorado river, mar tho 
 ninety-eighth meridian, to the Rio Griinde- It touche- the coast 
 not far from the Nueces river, and extends to th' eastern base 
 of the mountain ranges west of the Pi cos ; here the spi cu s of 
 which it is coieposed mingle with those peculiar to ihe Pacilic- 
 Mexican forest. The forest of this region, like that of all countries 
 of insnflicient moisture, is open, stunted, and coii'paratively of 
 little value. It is tharacterizcd by enormous areas covered wuh 
 chaparral (dense and often impenetrable thickets of thorny shnilis 
 and small trees), by a stunted and occasional arborescent growth 
 upon the hills and plains, and by fringes of heavier timler along the 
 river bottoms. The most valuable an. I perhapsthe most chjinicLe^i is- 
 tiospeciesofthis whole region— the mesquit— extends to ihe Pi.ciho 
 coast. With this exception, none ot the arborescent species pe- 
 culiar to this region attain any considerable size or iiiipoitance, 
 although the forest of small junipers which cover ihe low lime 
 stone hills of the Colorado valley are locally valuable in a cnujurj 
 so generally destitute of trees. The region immediately ailjoin- 
 ing the Rio (iraide abounds in different species of Aenvin. 
 Leucana, and other Mexican Leguminoem; and farther west, 
 upon the drv plains of the Presidio, the Spanish bayonet 1 1 ucfi 
 haccatu) covers wide areas with a low. open, and characteruiic 
 forest growth. . . . . , ., . r. i-n r, -^ 
 
 The Pacific forest region is coextensive with the great tordill ■ Pacifio 
 ran Mountain system of the continent. The causes which h:,v region, 
 infiui need Ihe present posilion and density of these foiesisniust 
 be simght in the peculiar ilislribution ot the rainfall of tho 
 region, 'Iht- precipitation of moisture i^n the nv.ithwest coast 
 is unequaled by that of any other part of the contioint It 
 gradually decreases with the latitude until, in tsouthern Califor- 
 nia, tho temperature of the land so far exeeds that of the ocean 
 that precipitation is impossible through a large part of the year. 
 Tho interior of all this great region, shut off by the high nountam 
 ranges whieh face the ocean along its entire extent, is very imper- 
 fectly supplied with moisture. It is a region of light, uncertain, 
 and unequally distributed rainfall, heavier nt the north, a9 
 upon the coast, and decreasing gradually with the latitude in 
 nearly the same proportion. This entire region is compi sed of a, 
 mass of mountain ranges with a general north and south trend, 
 separating huig and generally narrow va'Ieys. The precipitation 
 of moisture within the interior region is largely regulated by I hrt 
 position of the mountain chains. Warm currents ascending their 
 sides become cold, and are forced to deposit the moisture they 
 contain. It follows that, while the interior valleys arc rainless 
 or nearly so. the mountain ranges, and espfcially the higli ones, 
 receive during the year a considerable precipitation of both ram 
 and snow. If the distribution of the forests of any region is 
 dependent upon the distribution and amount of moisture it re- 
 ceives, forests exceeding in density these of any other part 
 ot the cmitinent would be found upon the northwest coast; 
 thev would gradually diminish toward the south, ami en- 
 tire'lv disappear near the southern boundary of the United fctates ; 
 while the forests of all the interior region, from the tiimmit ot 
 the principal Coast Ranges to the eastern base of the Rocky 
 Mountains, would be confined to the flanks and suinnuts of the 
 mountains. These forests would be heavy upon the high ranges, 
 especially toward the north; they would disappear entirely from 
 the valleys and low mountain ranges. An exan.inatiiin of the 
 forests of the Pacific region will show that, in general distribution 
 and density, they actually follow the distribution of the rainfall 
 of the region These forests well illustrate the influence of 
 moisture upon forest growth. Wiihin the Pacific region, the 
 heaviest and the lightest forests of the continent coexist with its 
 heaviest and lightest rainfall. .j , i t 
 
 The forests of the Pacific region may be considered under tour xj,e Pacific 
 divisions : tho Northern Forest, the Coast Forest, the Interior porest. 
 Forest, and the Mexican Forest. . . , t ■„ 
 
 The Northern Fore,t of the Pacific region extends from nearly 
 the seventieth to about the fifty-eighth d^ gree of nt.rth latitude 
 or, immediately upon the coast, is re, laced by 'hf Co"s Jweft 
 nearly 2 degrees farther north; it extcn.ls from the continental 
 divide, here mingled with the Northern Forest ol the Atlantic 
 region, to the shores of the Pacific. The .southern limit of this 
 open, scanty Northern Forest, composed of species which extend 
 across the continent, or of species closely a led to those of tho 
 Northern Forest of the Atlantic region, is still imperfectly known, 
 especially in the interior. The determination of the southern 
 
FOIiKSTs] 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 ninBo 111 Aliiskii iiiij British Columbia uf spvituI sptcios, ii,- woll 
 lis tho nortUurn rmicc Iuto of ii low others, uiusi be still luft to 
 (urthor esiilonitiiin. Thu whiio siJiuce. the uiost iiuportiiiit aud 
 tho uiu-t northern species of the fore.-t of the Norili Atlantic 
 reh'ion, is hero also tho most iiunortiiut specie.-. It iittiiins ii o.m- 
 6i.lor;ililosiie H3 lur north iis the si.xty-filth (loj:ie-, lonnini;. in 
 the valley ot the Inkou.f.irests ot'no liitK' l"e:il nniiortiiiiee. The 
 c»no> bireh, the bal.-iiun poplar, uml tlionspiii. tiiniiliar trees of 
 the North Atlantic recion, also oeeur here. The irray pine ami 
 the balsam fir of the Atlantic region aro replaee.l by allied forms 
 of the same „'en ra, 'I'he larch alone, of tho ilenizens of tho e.xtrome 
 Northern I'.nest of tho .Atlantic coast, finUs no congener here iu 
 the northe-n l';o-ific forest. 
 
 The I'aeific ('«(i«( Fonut, the heaviest, although far from the 
 most vari-il, forest of the continent, extends simth aloiiK the 
 • coast in a narrow strip from the si.\iieth to tlie fiftieth iwirallel; 
 hero it wi(ions, tMiibraein^ the .-horcs of l^iKet sonnd and e.vtend- 
 inK eastward over the hii;h mountain ranges north and south of 
 the bouudiry of the I'nitod States. This interior development of 
 the (oast Kori'St. followinit the abundant rninfall of the region. 
 IS eaniod northward over the (i.dd, Selkirk, ami other interior 
 riinges of Kritish Columbia, in a narrow s[nir extending north 
 nearly to the fiftv-lourth imrallel. It reaches southward along 
 tho C<vnr .I'.AIeni), Bitter-Koot, and the western ranges of the 
 Rocky .Mountain system to about latitude 47° ;«!', covering 
 iinrihern \Va.shineton Territory, Idaho, and portions of western 
 ^lotit^ina. 
 
 The (_'oast Fore-t south of the fiftieth degree of latitude occu- 
 pies ilio region boiween the oi'can and the eastern slopes of tho 
 t'a-eade llange; in California th- summits of the principal south- 
 ern iirolong-.iiion of these mount.tins. the .Sierra Nevada, mark 
 the eusiern limits of tho Coast Forest, whi.'h gniduallv disap- 
 P-ar- south of the thirty fifth pi-allel. although still carried bv 
 the high riduos of the southern Coast Range nearlv to the south- 
 ern ii.iuiidary of tho I'nited States. Tho (,'oast Forest, like tho 
 forests uf tho whole I'aeifie region, is largelv compo.sed of a few 
 coniferous species, gen-rally of wide distribution. Tho absence 
 of broa 1 leaved trees in the I'aeilic region is striking: they nowhere 
 form great forests, as in the Atlantic resion: when they occur 
 they are eonfined to the vallevs i.f the coast anil to th- banks of 
 mountain streams, and, economically, are of coniimrativrly little 
 valu ■ or importance. The characteristic and most valuable 
 Fpeei'S of tho northern Coast Forest are the Alaska cedar 
 (f /i.im»-e(;;)ari«), the tide land spruce, and tho hemlock. These 
 form the iirinciiial foi>-st growth which covers the ranges and 
 islaiHls of the coast between the sixty-first and fiftieth jiarallels 
 Uth.'r species of the Coast Forest reach here the northern limits 
 of their distribution, although the center of their greatest de- 
 velopment is found farther south. 
 The red fir. The red fir IPHnalutimoat. tlie most important and widely 
 distribute.! timber tree of the Pacific r.gK.n, reaches the coast 
 archi'ielago in latitude .'il'': farther inland it e.vtends fully 4 
 degrees fjrther north, anil in the regmn of I'nget sound and 
 threogh the Coast Forest of Washington Territi.ry andoregon it 
 is the prevailing forest tree. The characteristic forest of tho 
 nortiiwest eoa.-t. although r.'iiresented by sevenil species extend- 
 ing south liS far as cape .Menilieiilo. near tho fortieth parallel is 
 replaced south of the Hogne River valley by a forest in which 
 forms iieciiliar to the south rather than to the north gradually 
 predoiniiiate. The forest of the northwest cnast reaches it great- 
 est den-ity and voricfy in the narrow region between the sum- 
 mits of the Cascade Range and the ocean. North of the fifty-fir«t 
 parallel it gradually decroa-es in density, and south of the fortv- 
 (hird iiarallel it changes in composition and character. This belt 
 of Coast Forest is only furpasseil in density bv that of some 
 portions of the redwni>d forest of tho California coast. The red 
 fir. the great lidc-lanil si>riiec. the hemlock, and tho red cedar 
 {Tliiiu'O reai-h here enormous dimensions. The wide river bot- 
 toms are lined with a heavy growth of maple, Cottonwood, ash. 
 and alder, the narrow interior valley with an open growth of oak 
 In this great coniferous forest the trunks of trees two or 
 three hundred feet in height are often only separated bv tho 
 snaee of a few feet. The ground, shaded throughout the veiir by 
 the impcnctiBblo canoiiy of tho forest, never becomes dry ; it is 
 densely covered bv a thick carpet of mosses and ferns, "often of 
 enormous size. The mere oiien portions of this forest arc choked 
 by an impen. arable growth of various Vaccimir of almost arbores- 
 eimt proportions, of hazel, the vine-mai)le, and other shrubs 
 ','!" *"''. "nich has produced the maximum growth of forest in 
 this region is, out-ide the river bottoms, a thin, porous gravel of 
 glaeial nri.'in. rar ly more than a few inches in depth; the 
 luxuriance of vcnetable growth, therefore, illustrates tho influence 
 of a heavy rainfall and temperate climate upon tho forest. 
 
 Tho general character of this forest jn the intcrio-. although 
 coniposed largely of the species peculiar to the coast, differs some- 
 what from the Coa-t Forest iiroiier in compoition and 1 irgely in 
 natural featups. The dense, imjienetrable forest of the coast is 
 reiilaeed. east of the summit of the (^ascade Range. h\ a more 
 oijon growth, g-ncnilly largely destitute of undergrowth. The 
 red fir. the h-mliek. and tho red cedar (7/iiii(o) ar' still iniimrtant 
 elements of the forest. Less vnlnablo species of tho Coast Forest 
 —the white fir '.-l/oV. prnndiu], the yew. the alders, the mountain 
 hemlock \,Tiiign Pnitnntnnn). tho hawthorn, the biiekthorn, and 
 th" white pino i/'iniu nion/icofai— are still represented. The 
 latter, a local species upon the coast, onlv reaches its greatest 
 development toward ihc eastern limit of this region, here f inning 
 considerable a'.d i.ip.rtant fersts. Other speeies peculiar to the 
 Coast torcst. the maples, tlica-h. the oak. th- arbutus, and the 
 Alaska cedar, do n.'t extend east of the Cascades. The tirle land 
 spruce is rerlac -d by an allied speeies of th'» interior regi-in. The 
 widely .listribute I yellow pine i/'inut pntirl^rmin), barely rnpre- 
 (ented in the northern portions of the immediate Coast Forest, be- 
 
 comes, east of thi' nieuntains. one of the most important and char- 
 acteristic el. meiits ..f ihe forest. The Coiist Fore.-t south oi tho 
 forty third degree ot latitude changes in composition The tiilc- 
 land spruce, the hcmloek and the Thuyti are gradmilty replaeid 
 by moce southern -leeies. The sugar pine i^ Lmiiht, tiiiiiii' hero 
 first appears. The Califoinni laurel i i'mUlluluri- e..\eis with 
 magnificent growth ilic broad river bottoms. The Lilimnhua, 
 several oaks, anil the chimiuipin here reach the norin< rn limis 
 of their distributioi. The change trom ihe northein to the soulh- 
 ero forest is marked by the apiioarance of the Port Orfoid cedar 
 {C/iumnx-uparis Lnwsoitiun<i^. lidding variety and \alue to tlio 
 (on St- 01 the southern iiregon const Farther south, near tho 
 northein boundary of California, the redwood forests i^Quoia) 
 api;i ar 
 
 ihe Coast Forest of California will be most conveniently dis Coast of 
 eu.-sed under three subdivisions: the forest of the Coast Range California, 
 the t'liest of tho western slope ot the Sierra Nevada, whieli, 
 tonard the northern beundnry of the state, extend- to the const. 
 covering the mass of mountains which here unite the Sierra 
 Nevada and the Coast Range: and. third, the open forest of the 
 long, narrow valh ys lying between the Coast Range and tho 
 Sierra .\evada south of this northern connection. Tin- iniiii riant 
 feature of the Coa-t Kauge. as far south as the thirty scvi nth 
 degree of latitmle. is the belt of redwood occupying an irregular, 
 interrupted strij) of ti'n itory facing the ocean, and hardly c.xeeed- 
 ing thirty miles in widtli al the points of its greatest development. 
 The heaviest growth of the redwood forest occurs north o! the bay 
 ol San Francisco; and here, along the slopes and bottom of tho 
 narrow canons of the western slope of the Coast Kai ge. the maxi- 
 mum iiroductive caiiacity of the forest is reached. No other 
 forest of similar extent equals in the amount ot material which 
 they contain the groups of redwce.d scattered along the eoist "f 
 northern California. The red fir reaches, in the Califori ia Const 
 Range, a size and vnliio only surpassed in the more northern for- 
 ests of tlie coast: th" yellow pine is an important tree in tho 
 northern iiortions of this region, and here flourish other species of 
 the ginus endemic to this region. The forest of the Coast Rango 
 i.s marked by the presence within its limits of several species of 
 singularly restricted distribution, fupretifu/i macmcitrpu and 
 PiuuH insifjnih aro confined to a few isolated groves up.n iho 
 shoi-cs of the bay of Monterey: Alii'tt hractttta occupies three or 
 four canons high up in the Santa l.ueia mountains: it is found 
 nowhere else: and Phins 'J'orrri/aiut. the most b"c;il arborescent 
 speeies of North .Ameiica. has been detected onlv in one or two 
 small groups upon tho saud-dunes just north of th bay of , San 
 Diego. The charaeteri-tic forest of the Const l.'nni-e is eh' eked 
 from farther southern development a little behw rlic thirty fillli 
 parallel by insuftieient moisture; the scanty forests whi- li 
 clothe the high declivities of the Coast Range faithcr south belong 
 in composition to the Sierra forests. 
 
 The heavy forest which covers the western slopes of the Sierra The Sierra 
 Nevada, a forest only surpassed in density by tho n dwood belt of Nevada 
 the C'lost and the fir forest of Puget sound, occutics. in it- forcstn 
 greatest development, a belt situated between 4.' Iin and 8.1 (ill feet 
 elevation. This forest belt extends from about the ba.se of mount 
 Shasta at the north to the thirty-fifth parallel: farther .south it 
 diminishes in density and disaiipears uimn the southern ridges of 
 the Coast Range .iost north of the southern boundary of California. 
 Its greatest width occurs in northern California, where to the 
 south of mount Shasta, the Sierra system is broken down into a 
 broad mass of low riilges and jienks. The characteri-tie spieies of 
 this forest is the great sugar pine (/* /.oai/.erti'oioi*. which hero 
 reaches its greatest devcloiiment and value, ai d gives unsur- 
 passed beauty to this mountain forest. With the sugar pine aro 
 associated the red fir. the yellow [line, tivo lud.Ie Ahit-g, tho 
 LihonilruM: nnd. toward the central part of Ihe state, the great 
 SiQuoid. appearing first in small isi.lnfi d groups, and then, farther 
 south, nenr the headwaters of ICern liv i. in a narrew belt extend- 
 ing more or Ic-s eontinuouslv for several miles This heavy forest 
 of the Siirras. unlike the fop st whicli farther north covers tho 
 western flanks of the Cascade Range, iselmost ilcstitute of urdcr- 
 growtb nnd y. ung trees. It sliows the influence of a warm 
 climate aid nne\cnly di-tribnfid rainfall upon forest growth. 
 The trees, often remote from one another, have attained an enor- 
 mous size: but they have grown slowly. Above this belt tho 
 Sierra forest stretches npward to tho limits of tree growth. It is 
 here sulmlpine and alpine in charaeter. and of little ecinotnio 
 value. lljff"rcnt pines ami furs, th" mountain hemlock, and Iho 
 western junip"r. are scatti red in open stretches of forest upon tho 
 high ridges ' f Ihe Sierras. The fopst below the belt of hcnvv 
 growth gradually .becomes more open. Individual trees are 
 smaller, while the number of species incren.ses. The small pim s 
 of the upper foothills arc mingled with oaks in considera' lo 
 variety. This ■ gradually increase in number. Pines aro less 
 frcouent. and finally di-appear. 
 
 The forest of the valleys is composed of oaks, the individuals Valley 
 often widely sentter d and of great size, but nowheri' forming a forests, 
 continuous, coinp'iet growth The Coast Forest of the Pacific 
 region, unsurtmssed in density, is coniposed of a comparatiiely 
 small number of species, often nttaiuing enormous size. It pre- 
 sents tho same general features throughout its entire extent, 
 except as modified bv the climatic conditions of the regions which 
 it covers. The spi'ctes whicli compose tliis forest range through 
 nearly 26 degrees of latilnde. or northern species, are replaced in 
 Ihc south by closely allied forms: and. as in the .Atlantic region, 
 the southern species far exceed in number those peculiar to tho 
 north. 
 
 The Inlrrior Forrif extends from the southern limits of tho 
 northern subarctic forest to the plateau of northern Mexico: it 
 oecnnies the entire region between the eastern limits of the Pacifio 
 Coast Forest and the extreme western limits of the Atlantic 
 region. The forests of this entire region, as compared with the 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 [forests. 
 
 forests east and west of it, are stuntoil antl remarkable Jn their 
 poverty of corapositiou. They are confined to the higli shjpf.s and 
 canons of the numerous mountjiin ranges composiuy the interior 
 regiun. ^vhile the valleys are treeless, or, outside ot the narrow 
 river bottoms, nearly treeless. The interior forest attains its 
 great'.st development and considerable importance upon the 
 western -Inpe of the California k'ierras and upon the tlanks of the 
 high pL-aks of the southern Rocky .Mountain system, from Colo- 
 rado, wtiere the timber line reaobts an txtreme elevation of 
 13,5UU feet, to southern New Mexico and western Arizona, The 
 minimum in North American forest development, outside the 
 absolutely treeless reirions. both in the number of species and in 
 the prorHiition ot" forest to entire area, is found south of the Blue 
 mountriin.s of Oregon, iu the arid region between the Wahsatch 
 mouiiinius and the Sierra Nevada, known as the Great Basin. 
 Here the open, stunted forest is confined to the highest ridges and 
 slopes of the infrequent canons of the low mountain ranges which 
 occupy, with a general north and south trend, this entire region. 
 The individuals which compose this forest are small, although often 
 of immense age, and everywhere show the marks of a severe strug- 
 gle for existence. Seven arborescent species only have been detect- 
 ed in the forests of the northern and central portions of this n-gion. 
 Tha mountain mahogany {Cerrocarpus), the only broad-leaved 
 species of the region, with the exception of the aspen, which 
 throughout the entire interior region borders, above an elevation 
 of S.MJU feet, alt mountain streams, reaches here its greatest 
 development. This tree, with the nut pine [Piniis monophuUn), 
 characterizes this region. Stunted junipers are scattered over the 
 lowest slopes of the mountains, or farther south often cross the 
 high valleys, and cover with open growth the mesas, as the lower 
 foot-hills are locally known. An open forest of arborescent 
 yuccas {Yucca brevifoHa) upon the high ]\lojave plateau is a 
 characteristic and peculiar feature of the flora of this interior 
 region. The red fir and the yellow pine, widely distributed 
 throughout the Pacific region, do not occur upon the mountam 
 ranges of the Great Basin. 
 Fofx (s of 'I'he heavy forests of the interior region, found along the 
 intei it. western slopes of the California Sierra.s and upon the Rocky 
 Mountain system, are, for the most part, situated south of the 
 forty-second de^Tee of latitude. The forests of the whole northern 
 interior portion nf the continent, outside the region occupied in 
 the northern Kueky Mountains by the eastern development of the 
 Coast Forest, feel the intluonce of insufficient moisture; the 
 number of species of which they are composed is not large; the 
 individuals are often small and stunted, while the forests are 
 open, scattered, without undergrowth, and confined to the canons 
 and high slopes of the mountains. The most gent'rally distributi-d 
 species of this northern region, a scrub pine, (Piiuts Murrayana), 
 occupies vast areas, almost to the exclusion of other .^iiecios, and 
 is gradually taking possession of ground cleared by fire of more 
 valuable trees. South of the fifty-second parallel the red fir 
 {Pscii'lotsuga) and the yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa) appear; 
 with them is associated, in the Blue Mountains and in some of the 
 rang -s of the norchern Rocky Mountains, the western larch 
 {Larix oceidentalis), the largest and most valuable tree of the 
 Columbian basin. 
 
 The forest covering the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada con- 
 sists almost exclusively of various species of pine, often of great 
 Bize and value. The charact^'ristic species of this region are the 
 yellow pine and the closely allied Pinun Jeffrcyi, here reaching 
 Us greatest development. The red fir is absent from this forest. 
 ■while the oaks, mulliplied in many forms on the western slopes of 
 these mountains, have here no representative. 
 
 The forests of the southern Rocky Mountain region, less heavy 
 and less generally distributed than those of the western slope of 
 the Sierras, are, as compared with those of the Great Basin, heavy, 
 dense, and valuable. They owe their existence to the compara- 
 tively large precipitation of moisture distributed over this ele- 
 vated region. The characteristic species of the Colorado moun- 
 tains is a spruce iPicea Engehmnini); it forni:^, at between 8,U00 
 and lU.iifMi feet elevation, extensive and valuable forests of con- 
 siderable density and great l)eauty ; with it are associated a balsam 
 fir of wide northern distribution, and various alpine and subalpine 
 species of pine ; at lower elevations forests of yellow pine and red 
 fir cover the mountain slopes, while the bottoms of the streams 
 are lined with cotfonwood, alder, and maple, oi* with an open 
 
 frowth of the white fir (Abies concotor), a species of the Coast 
 'orest, here reaching the eastern limits of its distribution; the 
 foot-hills above the treeless plain are covered with scant groves of 
 the nut-pine (Pinus edulisK stunt'^d jutiipers, and a small oak, 
 which in many forms extends through a large area of the southern 
 interior region. A forest similar in general features to that of 
 Colorado, and largely composed of the same species, extends over 
 the high mountains of New Mexico to those of western Texas and 
 western and northwestern Arizona, where a heavier forest of pine 
 covers the elevated region lying along the thirty-fifth parallel, 
 culminating in the high forest-clad San Francisco mountains of 
 northern Arizona. 
 
 The species of the interior Pacific region mingle along its 
 southern borders with the species peculiar to the plateau of 
 Dorthern Mexico. The Pacific-Mexican Forest, although differing 
 widely in natural features from the Atlantic-Mexican Forest, 
 possesses several species peculiar to the two. The forests of this 
 region are confined to the high mountains and their foot-hills, and 
 to the banks of the rare water-courses. They disappear entirely 
 from the Colorado desert and from the valleys and low mountain 
 ranges of southwestern Arizona. The most important and gener- 
 ally distributed species peculiaj- to the valleys of this region is the 
 mesquit. the characteristic species of the Atlantic-Mexican region. 
 The suwarrow. however, the great tree cactus, is perhaps the mo>*t 
 remarkable species of the region, giving an unusual and striking 
 appearance to the dry mtsas of central and southern Arizona. 
 
 The high mountain ranges, extending across the boundary of the 
 Tnited States, between the one hundred and fifth and the ono 
 hundred and eleventh meridians, enjoy a larger and more regu- 
 larly distributed rainfall than the regions east, and especially 
 west, of these meridians. The forests which cover these southern 
 mountain ranges are often dense and varied. Upon their summits 
 and almost inaccessible upper slopes the firs and pines of the 
 Pacific region are mingled with pines, a juniper, an arbutus, and 
 various other species peculiar to the Mexican plateau. Extensive 
 forests of a cypress of Mexican origin also characterize this moun- 
 tain vegetation. The bottoms of the canons are lined with a 
 dense growth of cottonwood, hackberry, a noble sycamore, an ash, 
 a cherry, and other deciduous trees. The high foot-hills and mesaa 
 are covered with open groves of various oaks peculiar to the 
 Mexican-Pacific region, here reaching, within the United States 
 at least, their greatest development. ' 
 
 Such are some of the prominent forest features of North 
 Aiuei ica; a dt-nse forest, largely composed, exceid at the north, of 
 a greac variety of broad-leaved species, and extending from the 
 Atlantic sea-board in one nearlv unbroken sheet until checked by 
 insuthcient moisture from furtherwesterndevelopment— the forest 
 of the Atlantic region; a forest of conifers, occupying the ranges 
 of the great Cordilleran mountain system, unsurpassed in density 
 in the humid climate of the coast, open and stunted in the arid 
 interior— the forest of the Pacific region. 
 
 A more detailed examination of the distribution of North 
 American arborescent genera and species will serve to illustrate 
 the wealth of the forests of the Atlantic and the comparative 
 poverty of those of the Pacific region. It will show, too. more 
 clearly how widely the forests of these two great regions difl'er in 
 composition. 
 
 The economical importance of the forests of the United States The econoii 
 is very great, but can hardly be expressed by figures. Some facts, ioal impoi 1 
 however, may be stated in this connection. The wood from theanceof the 
 forest is used in the main for fuel. Although coal exists in abun- forests, 
 dance over certain regions, and although there are parts of the 
 thickly settled region.-- where forests are scanty, there is no dis- 
 trict where some wood is not used as fuel. In the cities of the 
 East— even those which are in the immediate vicinity of coal— a 
 good deal of wood is necessarily consumed in the form of kind- 
 lings,— an important item where anthracite is the coal sui'plied; 
 and, moreover, open fires are extensively used by the wealthier 
 class, in conjunction with coal in furnaces. In other regiona 
 where coal is abundant, forests are also abundant, and as these 
 must be cut down to be sawn into lumber, or to clear the land for 
 cultivation, there is a large supply of wood available as fuel, but 
 not fit to be used for building or manufacturing. Except in the 
 large cities, and occasionally in the towns of second and third 
 rank, wood is used almost exclusively for the building of houses 
 and barns in the United States. Fences also consume a very large 
 amount of W(*od, this material being in common use for this pur- 
 pose wherever timber is abundant, and often where it is not, as in 
 the prairie States, where, however, within a few years, wire has 
 begun to be very extensively used for fences. There is also a very 
 large consumption of wood for furniture and for those portions of 
 various imjdements, especially agricultural, which are made of 
 this material. An even larger supply of wood is required for the 
 boxes and barrels in which various articles of merchandise are 
 transported. The consumption of wood in the form of barrels, as 
 required by the two articles flour and salt, is very large. 
 
 The great demand for cheap wooden ware, and the extensive use Chenp 
 of wood in building houses, and for various portions of the finish- wooden 
 ing and fittings of hou.-es and barns, has led_ to the invention of ware, 
 very ingenious machinery by the aid of which wood is wrought 
 into almost every variety of forms with very little direct help from 
 human hands. This makes the coarser kinds of furniture and of 
 household implements exceednigly chenp. As an example, it may 
 be mentioned that barrels strong enough to hold in transportation 
 two hundred and eighty pounds of salt are made in Michigan for 
 50 small a sum as twenty cents. 
 
 The building of 1. g houses— that is, of such dwellings as are liOg house- 
 made by piling trunks of trees on each other, either in their 
 natural shap ', or partly squared with the axe— is almost a thing 
 of the past, although once extremely common. Very few districts 
 in the region of abundant forests are so far away from saw-mills 
 and railroads as to make a log house the most economical form of 
 dwelling. Occasionally some large, substantial and well-finished 
 buildings are erected " log-house fashion,'" either as a matter of 
 fancy, or to attract attention by an exterior of exceptional ap* 
 pearanire. 
 
 Some idea of the importance of the forests from an economical 
 point of view can be gained from the following figures given by 
 the census of ISSO, in reference to the manufacture of sawn lum- 
 ber:— 
 
 Number of establishments ^, ^ 2.5,708 
 
 Capital invested $181.18tU22 
 
 Average number of hands employed H' .^'o6 
 
 Feet ot lumber produced 18,091,356,000 
 
 Number of laths 1.761 .TSs.noO 
 
 Number of shingles 5.D5.-^n4^^^00 
 
 Number of staves 1,248,22inU00 
 
 Number sets headings 14(i.523.000 
 
 Feet of bobbin and spool stock 34,076.000 
 
 Total value of the above specified pro- 
 
 ducts g23n.r.R5.0fit 
 
 Value of other products 2.b82.i'*i8 
 
 Total value ^^367^729 
 
8CEN0GRAPHUAL.] U N 1 J. ii* D 
 
 The consumption of wood *' f»»r dmncstic purposi's "— tlmt i.-^. us 
 fuel in liousi-s— is givon by tin- census of I^nU iis nmountiuK to 
 14l>.537.4.i9 corils. tmviiit; uii rsnniattd value «'f >i*'<i,;".)tM'40. 
 Viilue of The total eon.^uuiption of wood its fuel is given iw follows:— 
 
 wood. C(»rds. Viilue. 
 
 For domestic fuel UO.MT j;i9 83i«i.H5ii.(»40 
 
 By railroads l.HTl .sia 5.1'Jl.T U 
 
 By sleaiuboat^ 787.8G2 i"- Irli'^i 
 
 luminitiK und -meltint: 6-4.'^4.'> 3 ■hH.LS'j 
 
 In making bru'ks und liles J, 157.5^2 3.1*i8..i:.I 
 
 luumkiuKsalt ?^o*1*S 1^-'*^M 
 
 In woollen uitinufacture loS.LUS i^y,^^ J 
 
 Total 14i.778.l37 S321.it02.:i73 
 
 The total value of the wood used as lumber and as fuelauiounU. 
 
 therefoFL', tn no le^s than ?.'>aj.3;i0. lu2, it the figures given by tho 
 census of I8">0tire tu bo trusted. The value ni the wood consumi-d 
 as fiud in the United Stites was more than tbr«-e tinu's as gryat as 
 that of the coal mined. In fat't. the timber of the country is tho 
 greatest of all its material possessions. Th.- coal. onciM-xhiiu^trd, 
 can never be restored, not even with the liipso i)f an indefinite 
 amount of lime, for the conditions favorable to tlie production of 
 coiil on the earth have entirely censed to exist. Tlie timber, on 
 the oilier hand, is restored, nfter detJtruetion by maii.by tliu kindly 
 hand of Nature. This is the case, at least, over the whole of tho 
 onoe densely timbered portion of the country, whore the various 
 growths succeeding each other after the primal forest has been re- 
 moved offer a satisfactory substitute for that which has been made 
 use of. either naturally nr as an easily attainable result of cultiva- 
 tion. In retcions whore the rainfall isof insuffieient uniount. there 
 appotrs to be a tendency in Nature to replaee the <iriK'inal growth 
 bv one of inferior quality. Whether this inferiority would be 
 liistiniTor not. seems a doubtful matter. That th-re has been .a 
 diminution of the precipitation, certainly dating back to the Ter- 
 tiary age. and. in all prob^ibility, to a much earlii-r time, is a 
 geological tact esiabli-lied beyond all possible doubt. That this 
 diminution has anything to tlo with the removal of tho forests by 
 the hand of man. or that rmin can to any pereeptible extent in- 
 iluonee the general climate of the country, there is not the slight- 
 est reason for believing. 
 
 SCENoyilAPHICAL. 
 
 The great extent of the territory occupied by the United States 
 is a sufficient reason why there should be a corresponding variety 
 in the scenery. In the early hi>tory of the county. \\ hen only the 
 Atlantic coast and the eastern -^ide of the Appalachian belt were 
 kniiwu to travelers, the landsea[)e was generally consideroil 
 monotonous by those who visited this region as tourists, or with a 
 view to the enjoyment and description of its scenery. This impres- 
 sion of uniformity and monotony wa.s further confirmed, as the 
 Mississippi Valley and the region of the (ireat Lakes were added 
 to the tourist's range. Many persons visited the prairies of Illi- 
 nois and the adjacent States for the purpose ofgottiut; nn idea of 
 ft vast exp!Ui>e of almost unbroken country such as could hardly 
 be obtained elsewhere in the Northern lleuiisphcre without visil- 
 inu Southeastern Russia and the eountry east of tlie Urals. The 
 g-.-neral resemblance of tho Appalftehian Mountain scenery to 
 that of parts of Northern and Central Kurotu'— as. for instance, 
 that of the White Mountains to that of the Erzebirgc. or that of 
 Northern New England to that of Scandinavia— could hardly es- 
 cape notice, similarity of topographical features bi-ing supplcnn-n- 
 ted in many f^o^es by the absence of any speeially marked differ- 
 ences in the floras of the regions in question. Thus tho writer, 
 having spent a summer in a geolo;rieaI exploration of New Ilami>- 
 phire, found himself after a very short interval of time traveling 
 through Southern Sweden. The inipre:-sion of the scenic similar- 
 ity of the two regions was extremely int'TCSting. Not only were 
 tho rocks, nick-forms and topographieal fcntures the same, but 
 the vegetation— although of course not identical so far as the 
 Fpecies were coneerned— made, from the scenic point <>f view, al- 
 most exactly the same impression on the eye in the Scamlinuviau 
 country that it did over large portions of New I-'iit-dnnd. 
 
 in those I'arly 'lays of travel, especially of English travel, to the 
 United States, the dominating idea was to see Niagara Falls, 
 which was the great point of attraction. Occasionally an adven- 
 turous traveler went farther West and down the Mississippi; but 
 for ninety-nine out of a hundred tourists who \ isited this country 
 and described its scenery, Niagara was the Ultima Thule. The 
 Farthest opening of the " Farthest West " by roads and railntads, tlio acien- 
 Vest, titic exploration of the Cordilleran regirui. the development of its 
 
 mineral resources, and the rapidly growing desire on tho part of 
 many to see as much of the world as possible—all this has very 
 greatly enlarged the range of experience in the enjoyment of scen- 
 ery, while the art of photography has rendered it possible for those 
 not caring to travel, to understand and enjoy the scmio features of 
 distant countries, and to compare undersfandingly tho landscapes 
 of regions wid^ ly separateil from each (»ther. 
 
 To attempt to describe tho r<rincipal features of the scenery of a 
 country having an area of more than three milHtui S(|uare miles, is, 
 of course. soTiiething not to bo thomrht nf in the preeent connec- 
 tion. All that can be done is to indieate some of the points most 
 vi.-ited, and most worthy of being visited, by tourist**, and to 
 compare in a genei^al way, some of the more striking features of 
 the landscape of this country with those of regions of similar scenic 
 character in other parts of the world. 
 Appalftch- In doing this we may begin with the mounUiins. The Appnlnch- 
 ijin Mou:i- i*in Mountain scener>- is only to he compared with that of the 
 tain seen- minor chains of Europe, since these ca.«tern ranu'es never rise to 
 efy, tho snow-line, and are almost always w-oodcd to their summits. 
 
 The principal features of Appalachian topography have been 
 already dwell upon to as great an extent as space would allow: 
 and it needs here only to be stated that, while these features arc 
 
 STATES 
 
 often of exceeding interest to goologist.'! and other close etudents 
 of iiuture. th.'v di. nut exhibit any torins nhioh in grandi-iir can be 
 nuui'iiirU witli thcisc i;f Oiiumoii occurronco in tlu' (..'ordilleras or 
 the A 1 lis i.r, still niuiv. in tho llinialiiya, Thorc arc from the 
 sofuifiiuint of view fc-iv, if imy. nniiiuo figures in the Arpalaeh- 
 iati runKCS. The nearest approaeh.tu sueh is perhaps the Natural 
 IJridKe in Virginui— an ureh of lunestono craeefully spaiiniig a 
 eha-ni about two hundred f.ci deep and sixty feel wide— 
 and the I'rolile in the Kraiiei.nia Noteh. in which nio-sscs of rock 
 ave so disposed as to reiiresent. in KiKantie diinonsious. and with 
 'riUing iipproueh to accuracy in Ki-neral outline, the profile of at 
 hinnau face. Kullvas tinea iirofilc iis tliiit in the Wliiie Moun- 
 tiiins is to he seen in Cohirado ; but as this latter loeallty 19 not 
 easily accessible, and is surroundeil by an abundaiiee of grand 
 scenery, it is hardlv known to the Keiieral tourist, and seems never 
 to have been described, while of the Profile in the White Moun- 
 tains the descril>Hons are numerous. To the tniincd eye of tho 
 topok-rapher and geologist the extraordinary intricate and excep- 
 tional forms of the ranges and vallejsin t'cntnd Pennsylvania are 
 of vastly greater interest than sueh accidental and fanciful occur- 
 rences as th(^ Profile in the Franeonia Noteh. . 
 
 A purely American name for somethinK which is not of uncom- « Uiti! Moun- 
 mon ooeurreuco in mountain regions is the word " flome. whicb tain uume. 
 as applied in the United States, and chiefly in tho White Moun- 
 tains, means a narrow pa-sage or defile between nearly perpendic- 
 ular roeks, through ivhiih riiiia a stream, and usually with a suo- 
 eessiou of cascades. The White M(.untain Hume, in the Franeonia 
 Notch, is till- locality of this kind most visited. It is about tour 
 hundred feet in lonctll. and tin- walls are from twenty to fifty feet 
 in hi'lKht. A di-epcut in the sandstone at Keesville. ^ew \ ork. 
 near Lake Champlain. on the Au liable Itivcr. is called o. eliasm. 
 The term " notch." is u.-ed in the White Mountains, and to a limit- 
 ed extent in the Adirondaeks. for pass nr mountain valley. Isim- 
 ilar passes or depressions in the Apiailnchian ranges farther tsontli. 
 esrieciallv in Pennsylvania, are called "gaps." Ihosi- which are 
 deeply cut down, so as to give passage to streains. are called 
 " water gaps; " those in which the depression in the ridge is not 
 sufficiently deep to give passage to a water-coarse, arc known as 
 " wind-gaps." The gorge at the great bend of the Delaware, w hero 
 this stream traverses the Kittatinny Kange. and which is known as 
 the " Delaware Water-(iap." is a prominent scenic feature of this 
 
 ''I'lie lioints in the New Kngland portion of the Appalachian sys- New England 
 tem which are most visited by tourists for the sake of the pano- Mountains, 
 rainio views whicli theyatTord are Mount Washington— the only 
 iioint ovor six thonsaiMl feet in eb^vation in the Appalaehiatis 
 north of North Carolina; .Mount Lafayette, in the Iranconia 
 Range (.S.-J'.Ofeet); Moosilaoke (4.7;il' feetl. a little farther south; 
 Moniidnnek. near the southern liordt r of New Hampshire (.i.ioa 
 feet); Mount .Mansfield, in the ilreeu Mountain Kange in Ver- 
 mont (1.:M) feel) ; IJrcyloek. in the northwest corner ol Massachus- 
 etts IS.rHiH feet\ Till' Adirondiieks also attract great numbers of 
 visitors, where the hikes and stnams afford o|.portunities for 
 boating and fishing, and where the scenery is extremely attractive, 
 espeeially in the autumn after the leaves have begun to change 
 their color, most <.f this region being still covered with tfic prime- 
 val forest. Mount Marcy. or Tahawas .''..344 feet, and W hlteface 
 (4,871 fectlare the points niostfro<iueiitl' .iscended in this region; 
 but there are maiiv olliers. ranging from three to five thousand feet 
 in elevation, which offer fine views and are not at all difficult of ac- 
 cess. The Catskill group is also a region imioh resorted to by tourists, 
 partly on account of the beauty of the scenery, and partly because 
 it is so easily reached frcao N.'w York. The high mountain region in 
 North Carolina is t<«i remote to attract many visitors from the 
 Northern and Eastern States; and the facilities for travel in that 
 region are as vet extrem"ly deficient, in striking contrast with the 
 condition of things in this respect in the mountain districts of 
 New England and New York, where almost every point can be 
 reached bv railroad, and wh'Te hotels are numerous and commo- 
 dious, and the business of receiving and taking care of summer 
 boarders " seems to he a most important one for the permanent 
 
 "The^monntain scenery of tho Cordilleran region is extremely Cordillenia 
 varied in ch;irieter. as has already been made evident to the read- Mountain 
 er in the sk.'tch of tho topography of that part of the country scenery, 
 given in the preceding pages. Only a few of its more important 
 features can here ho indicated. , 
 
 In elevation the Cordilleran ranges are comparable to tne 
 Swiss Alps, although there is no point in the Liiited States proper 
 quite as high as Mont lihinc (l,i.TS4 feet), or Monte Rosa (1-1.217 
 feetl : but therc^ are several which surpass tho I'lnster Aarhorn,— 
 the culminating point of the Herncse I Iberhind (U.O'Jfi feet),--and 
 there are a large number wllieh have a greater elcvatum than 
 the .fungfrau (13.671 feet). A very curious feature in the Cordil- 
 leras is tho closeness with which the highest peaks approach each 
 other in altitude, as shown by the folhiwing table of eleviitlona of 
 all the points in the Cniteil States supposed to be over fourteen 
 thousand throe hundrcl feet high, all "f which arc in the Rocky 
 Mountains, and all in Colorado with the exception of the two vol- 
 canic cones. Shasta and Rainier:— 
 
 MOU.VTAIN. Et.KVATIOS AT AUTUORITT. 
 
 SI-:a t.FVEL. 
 
 Blanca Peak 14.4l\4 Ilayden Survey. 
 
 Mount Rainier U.4M V . .>. Coast Survey. 
 
 Mount Shasta 14.442 Ciil. C.eol. Survey. 
 
 Mount Harvard 14.:i75 Hayden (14.4.T2 Whitney). 
 
 Mount Elbert 14.:Vil Ilayden Survey. 
 
 Cray's Peak 14.:'41 Ilayden (14.31'.l W hltncy). 
 
 Mount Rosalie 14.:flll Havden fwr^V. 
 
 Torrey's Peak 14.3.W Hayden (14.37o Whitney). 
 
 Mount Evans 14..'^3II Ilayden. 
 
 La Plata Mt 14.311 Hayden Survey. 
 
U N I ^r E 1) S T AXES 
 
 [sCENOGRAPHICATj, 
 
 ri'" vncions 
 iji Colorado. 
 
 Comparison 
 (if Coidil- 
 )e as and 
 Alps. 
 
 Mount 
 Shasta. 
 
 Mount 
 Uood. 
 
 JVImint 
 Kaiiiier. 
 
 Thci/iljuve are nil th'- points in the Coidiilenis believed to be 
 over foiu Leen tli'iusand three huudrLd feet in elevatiun. with the 
 (.'.trepiion of Muuut \Vhitne,\. which has bten several time.-- meas- 
 ured, with ruthc-r di>(_-<trdanl n.'^ulls, ranging all the uaj from 
 14,6U0 to 14.S9S teL't; there i^ youd reason, however, for believing 
 this to be the highest point in tin.- United States, not ii. eluding 
 Alasktt. All the heights given above, with the '.xeepti- n of 
 Kitinior, were nbtiiiin_d by the a.d utthe barometer, and are nut to 
 betuuei'iis btJin;^' absulutely accnrate. The elevations in Colo- 
 rado hy thi- Uayden Survey, %vhich are the result ot aeouibination 
 of barunictiieal and trigonometrical measurements, are probably 
 pretfy el i;;e approximations to the truth. The measurement of 
 Rainier, depending as it did nn trigunnmetrical measurementu 
 niaiie at a great distance, are — in the writer's opinion— not to be 
 aecipted a:^ final, and may be farther from the truth than a single 
 barometrical observation would have been; but this mountain, 
 althouiih several finies ascended, has not heeu measured baromet- 
 rically. 
 
 The essential difference between the Cordilleran ranges and the 
 Alps is that the latter aie much more extensively covered with 
 snow than are th ■ former, and that this snow gives rise to perma- 
 nent y^laeiers, descending far beluw the snow-line, and constitut- 
 ing a very proniineni and exceedingly attractive feature in the 
 scenery ol the High'r .Al|>s. With th'.- exception of the great vol- 
 canic eones of th ■ Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range there is no 
 part "if the Curdiileras where snow or ice forms a prominent 
 ioat'ire in the sc*nery during the summer, at the time when the 
 mountains are visited bv tourists. The winter snow, of course, 
 covers the mountains, often to a very large extent, and summer 
 snow-falls do the same occasionally ; but the effect of this latter 
 kind of occurrence is in no respect to be compart d with that of the 
 p.-rmanent Alpine snows and glaciers; indeed, the irregular melt- 
 ing away of the summer's snow on the flanks of the ranges, leav- 
 ing great patches promiscuously scattered here and there, is often 
 rather a disagreeable than a pleasant feature. A remarkable e.x- 
 cepti'o Is the cross of snow on the " Mountain of the Holy Cross," 
 to which allusion has already been made. There are small masses 
 of ice around the highest peaks of some of the Cordilleran ranges, 
 but those are frequently covered and entirely concealed by snow, 
 even during the summer; and whether prope ly called ghiciers or 
 not, they have no effect on the landscape, and are only seen by 
 those ascending to the summits of the highest ]ieaks, and then only 
 in favorable seasons- 
 
 The snow and ice covering the higher portions of the great vol- 
 canic eones ot the Pacific coast are. however, conspicuous features 
 in the soenic eff' ct produced by these grand niass(S ; and the type 
 of landscape which they present is a peculiar one, and. perhaps, 
 the most impressive wliich this country offeis. Ijassen's Peak is 
 tho most souihern ot these volcanic masses, and it is nearly as 
 high as Mount Hood ; but it rises from a so nuu-h higher base, and, 
 being so much farther south, is so much less covered with snow 
 than that cone, that it is by no moans as grand an object as its 
 more northern rival. The snow fields on the upper portion of the 
 southeirn flank of Lassen's Peak have always presented nearly the 
 same appearance in summer when seen indifferent years by the 
 writer, indicating a considerable degree of permanency; yet when 
 these fields were climbed over there was no indication of the exist- 
 ence of ice visible. 
 
 Mount Shasta, seventy miles farther north, and nearly four 
 thousand feet higher than Lassen's Peak. is. of course, much more 
 covered with ^ now. which, although diminishing greatly in amount 
 after several successive dry seasons, never disapinars entirely, 
 even on the south side. On that side, when this mountain was 
 ascende*! by fh" writer in Septeiiiber, 1862, seven miles of the 
 ascent were made over a snow-field tilling one of the great ravines 
 by which this mighty cone is furrowed. Seven years later this 
 field was almost entirely gone at the same season of the year, and 
 the evaporation of the snow had uncovered a larse field of ice on 
 tlie north side of the cone, of whicli nothing had been visible in 
 1862, in lonkiitg from the summit down upon the flanks of the 
 mountain in that direction. At all times of the year when seen 
 by us, from lS(ln to i8G4, at a distance of fifty or sixty miles. Mount 
 Shasta pres'^nted the appearance of a dazzling white cone when 
 shone upon by the sun. The outline of the mass, as seen from a 
 point fifty-three miles distant in a southerly direction, was that of 
 an almost regular crme. growing slislltl.^■ steeper toward the sum- 
 mit, and having a slopn of 2.V-27" on one side, and of .^O'-'-Sl* on 
 the other, with a smaller, somewhat steeper, subsidiary cone on 
 the western side. 
 
 Mount Hood is a very conspicuous and grand mountain mass on 
 account of its isolation, its regular form, and the extent to which 
 it is covered with snow. It appears higher than it really is, be- 
 cause it can be seen from a point only about thirty mites distant, 
 which is but lirtle above the sea-level, and ^^here the fine scenery 
 of the Columbia River and of the b-'saltic region adjtcent to it 
 makes an admirable foreground. It is a fnvorite euhj-'ct for land- 
 scape artists, and has been repeatedly climbed by tourists, the 
 ascent being witliont special difficulty. The same may be said in 
 regard to Mount Shasta. 
 
 Mount Rainier, of which the aboriginal name is said to be 
 Tacoma, is much less accessible than either Hood or Shasta, but 
 has been climbed several times, and first in 187U by Me.-srs.Stevejis 
 and Van Trump, of Olympia, Washington. As seen from the 
 southern end of Puget Sound, at a distance of forty miles from its 
 base, this mountain is an object of surpassing grandeur. It is of 
 almost exactly the same height as Shasta, but is much more 
 deeply and extensively covered with snow and ice than is that 
 cone. As Rainier is in the midst of a tangled forest without 
 roads, and almost without trails, it can only be reached by travel- 
 ers fitted out with pack animals and camp equipage, and who are 
 able and willing to bear the fatigues of camp life in a difficult 
 forested country. So far as known to the writer, its higher por- 
 
 tions have iKver been visited by any skillful photographer; while 
 Shasta and Hood have been finely photographed from a great 
 nundje of points of view by Mr. C. E. Watkins, of San 
 Franci cu. 
 
 On thr whole, these great isolated snow-covered vtdcanic cones 
 ot iliei'acilie coast are, from tiie scenic point of view, the grand- 
 e^t objects which this country p^esenl^. In the picluretque iffect 
 which they prodnee they may be fairly plactd on an etjuality with 
 anything which the Alps have to show, indeed, so lar liS an opin- 
 ion '^aii he lelied on which is based on comparison of photogaphs 
 oaly, these almost extinct volcanoes of the Ca.'Jcado Range must 
 be fully as attractive from a scenic point of view as the higher 
 ones of Mexico, and, perhaps, not much less admirable as scenic 
 objects than the much loftier cones of South America, which all 
 rise from very high bases, and of which the snow-covered portions 
 seem but insignificant in extent as compared with the uncovered 
 rocky slopes. 
 
 ^ Among the scenic features of the Cordilleras in the United Cranitio 
 States there are two forms of rock masses which are, in certain masses, 
 regions, developed to such an extent as to make them peculiar and 
 exceedingly impressive as elements of the landscape. <.'ne is the 
 pinnacled character of the granitic masses; the other the dome- 
 shaped summits of the same rock. 'Ihe pinnacles are something 
 like the Aiguilles of the Mont Blanc group, but in the latter tlie 
 rock is chiefly slaty and not granitic. In parts of the Cordilleras, 
 notably in the vicinity of Mount "Whitney; in a group of moun- 
 tains called the Castle Range, near Mount Shasta, and in the 
 Wind River Range, the granite occurs in the form ot alnn^st 
 isolated pinnacles, or groups of pinnacles, which rise literally 
 thousands of feet above the general level or crests of the ridges on 
 whii?h they stand, so sharp and so vertical thot the descriptive 
 term " spike " is one which involuntarily suggests itselt to the 
 mind on seeiiig them. These pinnacles are, of course, too ste« p 
 to^be covered by snow; but they rise often from great snow-fieh's, 
 presenting a wondeiful appearance of mingled desolation ai d 
 grandeur, and making, perliaps, as strong an impression on the 
 mind as any type if mountain scenery rau. 
 
 The dome structure of the granitic masses, so wonderfully ex- Yoscmite 
 hibited in parts of the Sierra Nevada, is also a featuie of great Valley, 
 scenic interest, and one which, so far as known to tlie writer, is 
 not seen anywbere else in the world on so grand a scale. These 
 domes are especially w( 1! exhibited in iher.gion just above ilie 
 Yosemite Valley; and here also is that unique ftaiure of the 
 scenery— one of those great, rounded, and exceedingly steep 
 masses, rising almost five thousand feet above the adjacent valhy, 
 and which has been split in two so that on the aide fronting that 
 valley it presents an absolutely vertical face ot somewhat over 
 fifteen hundred feet in height. 
 
 Next to mountains, water-ftills, perhaps, offer the greatest scenic 
 attractions, and the number and variety of form of those occur- 
 ring in the United States is very great. Indeed, there are in the 
 Cordilleras great numbers of water-falls which have been seen by 
 explorers, hut which have never betii described or named; and 
 some of tliese unknown localities are finer than any ot the much- 
 visited falls of the Alps, or even of Norway. 
 
 Among the well known and fn quently visited water falls, there Waterfalls, 
 are thre-- which fb^serve .special notice— Niagara, the Shoshone, 
 an<l the Yosemite Falls, 'ihe first is the type of a fall in which 
 volume of water is the all-important feature. In the Shoshone 
 fall, the vfdume of water is large, althoi gh greatly inferior to 
 that of the Niagara: the height is cotisideralde.— somewhat greater 
 than that of Niagara, — and the surrouiding scenery grand and 
 entirely uninjured by the so-called "improvements" of civiliza- 
 tion. The Yosemite fall, on the oihei- laml, is one in which tho 
 volume of water is small, but the hught extraordinary, while tlie 
 setting of the_ fall is surpassingly grand. Niagara is so well-known 
 that des:cription is unnecrssary. It is the ore of the scenic attrac- 
 tions of the country mo'^t fn quently visited, not only because it is 
 one of the greatest ot the waier-falls of the world— only the Falls 
 of the Zambezi surpavsing it in elevation and. perhaj s. in volunie 
 — but because it is within a few bouts' easy ride of the Atlantic 
 const. Tho Yosemite Valhy, wiili all its water-falls, is farther 
 away from the East than the Shoshone Falls, but reallv much 
 more accessible than the lattt r. which lies at a considerable dis- 
 tance from any inhabited region. Among the entirely unvisited 
 regions of water-fjills. that of the Onon ( f the Tuolumne River, 
 a few miles north of the Yosemite Valhy, i>. perhaps, the most 
 interesting. Here are falls and cascades of large volume and 
 great height, set in the midst of the wildest and most roir. antic 
 scenery — a region into \vhich hardly a trav ler has evi-r found his 
 way. Very much the same may be said with truth of the region 
 of "the Southern High Sierra adjacent to Mount Whitney, where 
 we find many of the same features as those which characterize 
 the Yo^i mite, and on almost as grand a scale as in this now very 
 frequently visited and comparatively accessible locality. 
 
 A most rematkable type of scenery, and one which combines Scenery of 
 features equally interesting to the tourist and the scientific (\,lurado 
 observer, is that of the plateaux of the Cordilleras, of which a without a 
 brief account has already been given in the preceding pages The rival- 
 cnnons of the Colorado and its branches, once so remote, have now 
 heen brought comparatively near by the extension of railroads 
 toward the Southwest, and the tide of pleasure travel is beginning 
 to flow in that direction. In the peculiar tvpo of scenery which ia 
 unfolded along the Colorndo, this country is wiihout a rival. The 
 loess region of Northern China may be stranger and more unintelli- 
 gible in the record which it presents of past geological events; but 
 from a scenic point of view the tremendous canons of the South- 
 ern Plateau region, with their many-colored walls, may unhesi- 
 tatingly be included in the list of the earth's grpatest wonders. 
 
 A portion of the country which has within the past few years 
 b'^conie the resort of travelers in search of the picturesque, and 
 which is now quite accessible by railroad, is the Geyser region of 
 
MINEIl.VL RESOURCES.] 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 Govenior 
 
 Winthrop. 
 
 the Yellowstone. Hero the sciintitiealty intercsuuK and the pic- 
 turostiue unite to furni^ih ii tyi't- uf t^c^n- ry without ii rivnl of 
 its kind, 3urptt^;>in*r iTi'ii ilu- nnw dvv.isied woiidvTlimd uf Now 
 Zealand. The Vcllowsloi.e I*uik. ».> ii i^ fienuenlly iiilled, b.- 
 cause reserved by thf I nilcd States n.id di-vuit-d lu imbhc ust' u,s a 
 visiting Kiountt or I'lirK,. with the ulea of prou-ciitig it tioiu specu- 
 latorv and uiischu-f-iuakoi>, was rarly known to >t>iuo nl ihf moru 
 udveiuuiuus of thi- tin-hunuTS who roanu'doviT ihu iiiviii North- 
 west; hut it IS only wiihin a ffw years that descrii'tiin.s of it 
 have ht'OD published, and its extraordinary chiinicter so rk-arly 
 I'siablished as to induct" truvtlors to undertake tht- lontj j(nirt:ey 
 necc-sary for its ii.siiection. TluTnuiI springs in jjn al number. 
 many of which aro ine iHTtodieally spoutinjf. or gey^T type: pools 
 of hot \viitcr. buih large and small, the sides and bottoms of which 
 art* li-ied with ihe most exqui>iioly and I'rilliniitly colored inicro- 
 scoi-ic Vfg'-tutitin: n markahh* deptisits from the hot springs, some 
 of which exhibit cuiious f'nuis. seen nowhiTo else, except in Asia 
 niinorand in New Zealand, as it was before the volcanic eruption 
 ot I.S^6; gnind luounlaiii sceiit-ry, with water-falls, lakes and deep 
 cannns, whose wnlls iiro fantastically colond by volcnuic depo.-its 
 and siilptiurtius emaDutions— these are the principal features of 
 thfi Ytdr-wstone region. It can be naihed by the Nortliern 
 I'acihc railroad, from a station on which r-tad, eail'cl liivinttstono, 
 ten hundred and thirty-two miles fromfSt Paul, a bianch tiftv-one 
 miles in length runs to Cinnabar, on the boundary lino of rhe so- 
 called *' Vellowstone National Park." There are numerous ex- 
 cellent photographs of this region, whi' h has also been finely illus- 
 trated in a f'dio volume «ith chrotuo, lithographs from paintings 
 by Thimi IS Moran. The geological antl .>^eenie peculiarities of the 
 Yellowstone region have been fully elucidated in various United 
 States lieoltgical reports, antl especially in a voluminous one by 
 I)r. A. C Peale. included in the second volume of llayden's Re- 
 port fi)r the year IS78. 
 
 There is a type of scenery of a remaikable character well 
 exhibited along the bise of the Kocky Mountains at various 
 points, and esp'cially at a locality called the (lardcn of the tJods, 
 near Pike's Peak, and easily aeeessiblq by railroad. Thoattraction 
 here is the remark:? ble effect of theerosiou and withering of tho soft 
 sandstones, which occnnn bedsof great thickness. Many fantastic 
 shape>, sueh as eoUunns or tibehsks, of large dimensions, occurring 
 either sinjily or in elu-ters, ami often capped in tho mo-.t curious 
 manner by great ti:it ial>les of harder rock, are seen in tliis inter- 
 esting region, indeed, all along the eastern base of the Rocky 
 Mountains in Col .nulo are many strange and picturesque forms, 
 parrlv th" result of direct uplift, and partly of erosion, which 
 are alike interesting ro the lover of the picturesque, anil tho 
 gtuil.nt of geology. The b)ng ere>ted uplits of .sedimentary rock 
 worn itit'i curved outlines, au'l often <if grand dimensions, which 
 chara -terize this region arc known by the familar n:iine of " hog- 
 backs," and the region itself as the " hog-back country." 
 
 Of th" scenic effect of the vegetation of the country, and ospe- 
 ciallv its forests, notice has already been taken to as groat an 
 e.xteat as space here permits. 
 
 MINKKVL RF.SOURCK3. 
 
 Iron ore was smelted at l-'alling Creek, Virginia, as early asH'>20. 
 The raids upon the whites at this lime, made by the Indians, put a 
 stop to the industry. From 1H13 to l*J71 tho business of smelting 
 and lUHuufaeiui ing iron was successfully carried on at Lynn. 
 Ma-ssaehusetts. About 17S9 there were fourteen furnaces and 
 more than thirty forges in operation in Pennsylvania. 
 
 Th*^ business of mininir for other metnls than iron wiihin the ter-- 
 ritory of tho United Slates is of much more reo nt orit;m, 'I'o 
 this statement, however, an exception must be made in reference 
 to the metal copo* r, which had been extensi\ ely mined in ilic 
 Lake Siip'Tior region long before the first visit of tho English to 
 these shores. Inde d. so ancient are these workings that no posi- 
 tive knowledge exits as to the people or tribes by whom they 
 were executed. When the region in question was opened to the 
 whiles for settlement in 1844. it was found that the copper-bt aring 
 rocks had been mined through their whole extent along the south- 
 ern sh'T' of Lake Superior, and even on the almost inaccessible 
 island cnlled I il" Royale. There is no reason tosuppose that these 
 ancient workine-. wh'ch in some places hid been carried to a 
 depth of more thiin fifty feet in the solid rock, were known to the 
 Indians iidiabiting that region at the time of the first vi^it of the 
 Jesuit tathers in irt59-6": and the appearance of the excavations 
 indicate-!, beyond possibility of doubt, that they had bten made 
 long before thnt time. 
 
 About the middle of the seventeenth C'ntury the metallif'-rous 
 indications cotnmon in New England, and espceiallv in Connecti 
 cut. engaged the attention of (iovernor Winthrop, by whom min- 
 eralogieai notices of that region were sent to England and pub- 
 lished in the Transactions of the Royal Society. 
 
 Just at the beginning of the eighteenth century a Frenchman. 
 Le Suenr, explored the region of the Upper Mis8issii>pi, and sent 
 back to France, rock whicli he h'ld mined. supt>osiiig it to l)o an 
 ore of copper; but it proved to b-itf no value. Later in 1719 and 
 1720, the French again attempted to explore what was then calh'd 
 the western portion of the country, along the Mississippi near tho 
 junction of th<' Missouri: and poui.' mining of the lead ore. which 
 at that time had already becotne known, was attempted. Tho 
 preciou> metals beinir what was sought for. and there being none 
 jfound in the region, the enterprise was soon abandoned. 
 
 At the beginning of th<' present eotitury, as it appears from 
 what has been stated all that had been done in the way of dis 
 covering and developing the metallic wealth of the I'nited States 
 was the mining and >nieltingrif the ores of iron, on a limited 
 scale, in the Atlantic States, and a snnill production of lead in the 
 mining region of Missouri. Exact statistics of these metals at 
 the beginning of the nineteenth century are wanting. The 
 amoant of iron nroduced in 1810 has been eetini&tcd at fiftv thou- 
 
 sand tons; the production of lead about that time may h.ive been 
 approximately tme thousand tons a year. 
 
 .■\n event of great unporiance took plm-o almost inunediately Gold. 
 after the value oi tiie l.at^e .Superior copper mining district had 
 been fully oscertiiin- d. in the year 1M4. This was the demonstra- 
 tion ot the fact that gold u.\isted in large quantities along tho 
 western slope of the Sierra Nevada. 
 
 The occurrence of gold on that portion of the Pacific coast, 
 called by the Mexican-Spani>h Upper California, had liceii knwwn 
 tor several years prior to its di>covery by immigrants fr<.m the 
 United States and workings had been <-arri< d on lor this metal in 
 the Coast Ranges, far south of the locality wheio it was di.-covered 
 in IWS. 
 
 The demonstration of the fact that over a vast extent of that 
 distant country gold was to be had in almost unstinted quantity, 
 as it at first— not without reasfm— appeared, hd to an extaordi- 
 nary excitemeiu throughout the older States, and to an emigration 
 from all parts of tho world toward tho newly discovered laud of 
 gold on an unprecedented tcale of magnitude. 
 
 COAL.. 
 
 The area underlain by the coal-measures in the United States la 
 very large, as will bo seen from the tollowiiig table, whieh repie- 
 seiits aiiproximately the coal arirasof Carboniferous age cast of 
 tho Cordilleran region That difEoronl porti<*ns of the area.v heio 
 designated are of very ditfercnt value, as lesr'cets quality end 
 quantity of coal, is oerbtin; and that portions of th ni do i ot 
 contain coal-beds of sullicient tliickness or uf good enough quality 
 to bo worked with profit, either at present or at any future tine, 
 is also an undoubted fact, although these uiij>nKlucti\e portions 
 are. except perhaps, in tho case of the Western and Michigan fields, 
 of comparatively small extent: — 
 
 Name of tho field. Area. Coal 
 
 Rhode Inland 500 gq. miles, beds. 
 
 Appalachian 50,165 
 
 Central (Illinois Indiana, and Kentucky) 47,250 '* 
 
 Western (Missouri, Iowa, Kansas. Arkansas and 
 
 Texavt 78,4.0 
 
 Michigan 0,700 *' 
 
 Total 192,045 sq. miles. 
 
 Of these fields the Appalachian is at present by far the most im- 
 portant, and is likely to remain in this position for an indefinite 
 period. The coal field of Khodo Island is not now, nor has it 
 ever been. worke<l to such an extent as to bo of ^pecial importance. 
 The Mieliigan coal-tield has also no present ^alue, the quality of 
 the coal being inft^ri'r. and the cimditions not suth as to allow 
 successful competition witli tlie coal of adjacent regions, 'lb© 
 present rtdative inipoitance of the different Slates as regards iho 
 production of coal and ihc yield of the various fields will be eabdy 
 recognized from an inspi ction of the following table:— 
 
 CoAi, PRnnrcKD m the Srveral States and Territories, not 
 
 Including the Local and Colliery Consumption, and 
 
 THE Value of the Mines in 1885. 
 
 States and Territories 
 
 18S2. 
 
 1883. 
 L^uft tone 
 
 :il,79:i,027 
 24.0OO.liu0 
 lo,;,=>o.0oo 
 
 H, 219. 429 
 2,20i;,172 
 2.2.W,0I 
 •i.y.iih.hiA 
 2,.'i60,00( 
 
 3,iisi,:i00 
 
 l,6'.(i,000 
 
 1,00(),0(,0 
 
 22:-),000 
 
 ilOO,000 
 
 13,'j,000 
 
 10,00(1 
 
 1,400,00(1 
 
 200,( 00 
 
 l,097,8.'il 
 
 (HMM.'SI 
 
 l.SS,703 
 
 2.')0,(100 
 
 17.'S,(I0« 
 
 .'iO.OOO 
 
 300,(!00 
 
 100,(1(1(1 
 
 7.5.1(10 
 
 60,(iOO 
 
 ,')0,(i()0 
 
 l(),()(i() 
 
 17.i,('00 
 
 1SS4. 
 
 18£5. 
 
 Pennsylvania: 
 
 Anthracite 
 
 liilumiuous 
 
 L'ng tonn 
 29,12(J,l.9(; 
 22,IIU0,liMI 
 ii,IJIl(l,lilH) 
 
 L'ng tons 
 :',o,71s,2yj 
 25,li('0,(_00 
 10.000,(01 
 
 7,aio,('6-j 
 
 2,4I9,0,S1 
 
 2,."iOO,CC0 
 
 3,(ill0.(0o 
 
 2,2(0,(100 
 
 3,i«'3.4.=.S 
 
 l..--,'>0,(0(' 
 
 l,2(iO,(>(0 
 
 3(i0.000 
 
 1,100,000 
 
 135,00(1 
 
 10,OmO 
 
 2,0(1(1,000 
 
 200,(l(!0 
 
 1,(0,S,950 
 
 80,5.911 
 
 196,924 
 
 2.tO.00(1 
 
 1 50,0(0 
 
 £0,0(10 
 
 30o,( on 
 
 100.000 
 1. so (100 
 6(1.(00 
 31,2-0 
 20,0( 
 400,00(1 
 
 Ln^g tone 
 32,2&5 421 
 23,214 »5 
 S,742,745 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Maryland 
 
 il.4.iO,ti(XI 
 l,.'i4U,-(l.t; 
 2.00(I,II(JO 
 2.000,000 
 1,076,470 
 ;). 127,700 
 1,31)0,0110 
 8.'>0.l'O() 
 lOO.OOO 
 
 7"iO,ijrio 
 
 l.iO.POO 
 10,000 
 800,000 
 17.i,0M 
 947.749 
 
 ();ii,H:t2 
 
 140,421 
 2.''0,OI)0 
 I,')0,0(iO 
 ,SO,l 00 
 225.000 
 
 6,978,732 
 2,86,5.974 
 2,7.50,0(0 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa • 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 3,008,091 
 2,120,535 
 3,.58:i,737 
 1,700,000 
 892,857 
 
 
 5(">7.orO 
 
 
 1 (182,230 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Rh'de Island 
 
 45,178 
 
 
 2,225 0(iO 
 
 
 133,929 
 
 l,210,7(i9 
 
 720,828 
 
 Colorado 
 
 
 271,442 
 
 Utah 
 
 190 286 
 
 
 (■>:t,942 
 
 
 44.643 
 
 Wnshinifton 
 
 339,510 
 
 Texas 
 
 1.33.928 
 
 
 
 1,^3,928 
 
 
 
 77,179 
 
 
 
 23,214 
 
 Mnho 
 
 
 893 
 
 Indian Territory 
 
 
 446,429 
 
 Totals 
 
 86,710,834 
 
 96,823,198 
 
 97„'il8,89ii 
 
 95,832,705 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 [coal. 
 
 states and Territories. '^'"Julnel'lSsi''* 
 
 PenDsylvania: Anthracite *72. 274.544 
 
 Bituminous 24,7UU,000 
 
 I lliaois 11 .456.493 
 
 < )hio ... 8.20(J,i)S8 
 
 Miiryjand 3.2( 9.b91 
 
 Missouri 8.85u,(ii)0 
 
 West Virginia ^.^09.062 
 
 Indiana 2,731,250 
 
 Iowa 4.819.230 
 
 Kentucky 2.094.400 
 
 Tennessee 1 ,1^1,000 
 
 Virginia 660,792 
 
 Kansas 1.410,438 
 
 Michigan 75,000 
 
 Kh.-du I:^land 
 
 Alabama 2,9^)0.000 
 
 Gi!ur{;ia 180.000 
 
 C.dnrado 3.051.590 
 
 ■\Vyumiug 2,421.984 
 
 New Mexico 918.606 
 
 U [ ah 426,000 
 
 Cal ifornia 214.845 
 
 Oregon 125.000 
 
 AVa>hington 950.615 
 
 Texas 3^ lO.OOO 
 
 Arkansas 225.000 
 
 M untana 302.540 
 
 Dakota 91,000 
 
 Idnho 4.000 
 
 Indian Territory 750,000 
 
 Totals $152,915,268 
 
 Pennsyl- The commercial product, psclusive of that which is consumed at 
 
 V inia an- t^® mines, known as colliery conf^umption. during 1885, was: 
 thracite. Pennsylvania anthracite. 3fi. 137,272. short, or 32.2*35,421 long tons, 
 the market value of which has been estimated to have been 
 S>72,274..544 ; bituminous, brown coal, lignite, and small lots of an- 
 thracite, mined in Colorado and Arkansas. 71.195,358 short, or 
 fi3,567,284 long tons, Iht- nuirkct value of which has boen estimated 
 to have been 38'l.fU0,724. making a total proiluctinn of ln7 ,332,629 
 short .or 95.832,7115 long tnns. valued at S152.915.2HH. Thetotal 
 production, including colliery consumption, was Pennsylvania an- 
 thracite 38,335,973 short, or ;i4.22>^.54S long tons, all other coals 72.- 
 621.549 short, or 64.84lt,h(iS long to!is, making the total absolute pro- 
 duction of the coal mines of the United States for the year, 
 lln.957.522 short, or 99.009,216 long tons. 
 
 The coal areas of Carboniferous age in the United States are five 
 ia number. They are:— 
 
 The Massachusetts-Rhode Island area, comprising approxi- 
 mately 500 square miles; 
 The Alleghany area, about 59.000 square miles; 
 The Michigan area, about 6.700 square miles; 
 The Illinois. Indiana and West Kentucky area, about 47,000 
 Bquare miles; and 
 
 The Iowa. Missouri. Kansas, Arkansas and Texas area, about 
 78.000 square mile.-; 
 
 Forminga total of abtmt 191,200 square miles, underlaid by coal- 
 bearing strata, of which not over 120,000 square miles contain 
 workable coal-beds. 
 
 Two general classes of coal are recognized, viz., anthracite and 
 bituminous, the latter being often subdivided into bitumiuous and 
 eemi bituminous coal 
 
 Anthracite forms the whole of the coal found in the Massachu- 
 6otts-Kh.ode Islnnd area and in that portion of Pennsylvania occur- 
 ring in the neighborhood of Pottsville. Mahanoy City, Shamokin, 
 Hazleton, Mauch Chunk, Wilkes-Barre and Scranton. It also 
 occurs to a limited extent in Virginia. 
 Bituminous coal o 'cupies the rest of the districts just named. 
 A glance on a map of the coal-fields shows how unequally the 
 coal areas are distributed over the United States. M bile Now 
 England and the seaboard Atlantic States contain practically no 
 coal, the greatest development of the workable coal strata is in 
 the Alleghany mountains and to the west of them, extending from 
 Pennsylvania and nhio m an unbroken line to Alabama. 
 
 Next to the one just uientioned the most important field is the 
 one occurring in Illinois, Indiana and Western Kentucky. The 
 coal area which extends from Iowa to Texas is of much less impor- 
 tance and extent, and the Michigan coal-field has scarcely been 
 opened. 
 Different The Massachusf.tts-Rhodf. Islano Area.— The coal isoonfined 
 
 coalfields, to eastern Rhode Island and r»ristol and Plymouth counties in 
 Massachusetts At present the only mine wnrked is at Ports- 
 mouth. Rhode Island, where E one of the three bedsfound, is being 
 exph)ited. The coal-bed-^ in this area sei-m to vary from one to thir- 
 teen in number, but the i-xplnr:itionsmadein the past have been so 
 unsystematic and pi-cuniarily. -^o unsatisfactory, that the data on 
 which these views are founded are not very reliable. The char- 
 acter of the coal is the hardest kind of anthracite, often containing 
 Bpangles and plates of graphite disseminated through it. which 
 characteristics are due to the highly metamorphic action it has un- 
 dergone. To this same action is due in a great measure the pecul- 
 iarly folded character of the deposits, whicli has locally caused 
 cxt>ansions and contractions of the coal-beds, so that in some 
 places they are thirteen feet thick, and in others but a few inches. 
 Such an irregularity renders the cost of minintr th ; conl very grerit. 
 owing to the large amount of " dead work " reiiuired. and to this 
 cause may in part bi; ascribed the slight progress which has been 
 made in the development of the region. The working is now con- 
 6ned to a simple mine. 
 
 The Alleghany Area, the most important in the United States Alleghenj 
 in its extent in the number of workable coal beds and in ih ■ qual- area. 
 ity and variety of the coals found, is situated in Pennsjlvania, 
 Ohio, West Virginia, Virginia, eastern Kentucky, East Tennessee 
 and northern Alabama. This area is dividetl into numerous dif- 
 ferent fields, more or lesh contiguous to one another, aid of which 
 a brief mention folhnvs: 
 
 The Anthracite Coal-Fielus of Eastern Pennsylvania.— 
 These anthracite fields are confined to a linjited area of not over 
 475 square miles, situated in tlie counties of Carbon. Schuylkill, 
 Northumberland, Columbia, Dauphin, Luzerne and Lackawarma. 
 Three districts are CDmmouly leeognized in this region, known as 
 the first, second and third i^oal-fields. The Coal Measurrs within 
 this region are almost uni^■ersally surrounded by two mountain- 
 ridges, the exterior one consisting of sub-Carboniferous sandstone. 
 This is separated fr(»m the interior ridge by a valley, more or less 
 broad, of easily decumposing red shale, overlying which occurs 
 the true conglomerate, holding in its bosom the valleys or basins 
 in which the anthracite occurs. These two series of ridges were 
 the efiicient protectors of the coal from ihe denuding agents, which 
 remdVid it frnm the intervening barn-u districts, separating the 
 different anthracite basins from each other and from the bitumin- 
 ous coal-fields of Central Pennsylvania. 
 
 North of the anthracite coal-fields proper, is the semi-anthracite Semi-an- 
 of the Bernice basin in Sullivan county, Pennsylvania, where the thracite 
 principal coal-Iied, eight to nine feet thick, contains eight to nine beds in 
 per cent, volatile matter. The coal, while classed as an anthracite. Sullivan 
 lacks the brilliant anthracite luster and conchoidal fracture. gen- county, 
 erally breaking in cubes; in consumption it closely resembles the Penn. 
 semi-anthracite of Lykens Valley, in Dauphin^ county. The 
 whole of this coal is carried North and West for distribution and 
 consumption. 
 
 The Bkoad-Top-Coal-Field ok Pennsylvania.— The coals of 
 this basin, which occupies about twenty-five square miles, all be- 
 long to the Lower Protective Coal Measures, of which more pres' 
 ently. with the exception of a few acres of coal of the Pittslmrgh 
 bed. The measures in this coal field have been much distuibed, 
 so that the relations of the strata are not fully understood, and 
 consequently frequent errors have been made in identifying tho 
 coal in different portions c)f the district. There are apparently 
 three workable beds. The coal of this district, while actually 
 bituminous in ehiracter, is commonly called semi-bituminous on 
 account of the ct.imparatively small amount of volatile matter it 
 contains, often as low as eight per cent. At one time the mines of 
 this district were actively worlied, the coal being used for steam- 
 raising and rolling-mill purposes. Since the opening of the Clear- 
 field cnal-district and the more active exploitations of the Cun;ber- 
 land coal-beds, the mining interests of this district have lan- 
 guished, owing in part to an inferiority in quality of this coat to 
 either of the nthers: in part to the greater cost ol extraction due 
 to the more disturbed cnndition of the strata. 
 
 The BiTUMiNors Coal-Fields of Pennsylvania.— While the 
 bituminous coal fields of Pennsylvania are contiguous to those of 
 Ohio and West Virginia, the latter being nctually but extensions 
 of the former, they are. for the sake of description, separated geo- 
 graphieallv. 
 
 In thi; bituminous coal area of Pennsylvania. Ohio and West 
 Virginia geologists and engineers Inive recognized U) Upper Bar- 
 ren Measures. (2) Upper Productive Coal Measures; (3) Lower 
 Barren Measures; (4) Lower Productive Coal Measures; (5) Inter- 
 conglomerate coals. 
 
 The following coal strata occur in the Upper Productive Coal 
 Measures, commencing wiih the upper bed : Waynesburg coal-bed, 
 Sewickley coal-bed. Redstone coal-bed. Pittsburgh coal-bed. Of 
 these the Pittsburt^h is of far the greatest econmical value, but the 
 others are locally of ini]tortance. 
 
 In the Lower Barren Measures are a few beds which are most 
 uncertain in character and of litile economical value; they are 
 most unreliable in character, and while locally they thicken, so as 
 to be of some local value, they speedily thin out again. 
 
 Below the Lower Barren Measures are found the following coal 
 strata, viz: Upper Freepi'rt coal-bed. Lower Freeport coal-bed. 
 Upper KittanninjT co-il-bed, Lower Kittanning coal-bed. Clarion 
 coal-bed and Brookville coal-bed. 
 
 Still lower, gei>lot:icallv. are the coals occurring in the dreat 
 C(.nKlomerate, which include the Clarion group, C theguakertown 
 bed of Lawrence county, and the Sharon bed of Mercer county. 
 These coals occur in six different basins, of which the sixth is the 
 most southwesterly in position and least distinct as to its division. 
 Each basin is separated from its neighbor by an anticlinal wave, 
 or rather by a series of separate anticlinals. the ends of which lap 
 past each other. , , . 
 
 Having the Alleghany mountams as an eastern barrier, the 
 coal fields extend westwardly in a more or less unbroken succes- 
 sion into Ohio. But ihe coal-beds are by no means equally dis- 
 tributed over this area. As middle Pennsylvania and middle 
 New York were lifted, by geological action, much higher above the 
 oM sea-level than southwestern Pennsylvania. Ohio and \ irginia 
 were* the destruction of the coal measure-^ has been greatest in 
 the North and Nortiieast. gradually diminishing toward the Smith- 
 west. Only the lowest, or two or three lowest, beds of coal have 
 been left as isolated patches on the mountain tops of Wyoming, 
 Sullivan, Lycoming. Clinton, Bradfoid. Tioga, Potter, Cameron. 
 McKean and Warren counties. , , , , -, ^ 
 
 The great proiluctive bituminous coal-held may be said to com*, 
 mence in the belt of counties compo>ed of Clearfield, Jefferson. 
 Clarion. Venango and Mercer counties— a distance of 140 miles to 
 the Ohio line from the crest of the Alleghanies. In the counties 
 last mentioned, as.well as in Cambri-i. Indiana. Armstrong. Hutler. 
 Liiwrence, Reaver, Somerset (with the exception of the Salisbury 
 patch), eastern Westmoreland, and eastern Fayette, only the 
 Lower Productive coal-beds, and in places the inter- con glomer- 
 
PETROLEUM.] 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 ate ooiils havo been left, while the Upper Productive Meaaures 
 hiivc l)i-fn .-iwei'l away. ThL-se liittrr are fuund in a great jmrt with 
 ull the Lower l*roiim.'live (\ni\ Meiiaiire.'* in AllegUany, we.-;ti.rn 
 ^Vedtm^^reland and weslorii Kayetle counties, while the whole of 
 the Upper and Lowrr Productive Measures oeeur in Wiijihingtun 
 nnd (Jreenc eounties. In brief, the Coal Mtiisures aro moat 
 ©rod d toward the Northeast, and are least disturbed toward the 
 
 EJOUC t\Test. 
 
 The Ohio Thk CoAi,-Fip;i.ns of Ohio.— The Ohio cmMields are but the 
 
 coal fields. Wfsiern extension of the bituminou" coal region ot Pennsylvania; 
 con>eiiuentIy, the coal-beds which are ft»und in them are the same, 
 wiih local modifications, as thuse of the bitter*'^tJito. Conunenciuk' 
 at the IVnDsylvunia-Ohio lino we tlud that "the^marginof ihe cual 
 basin forms a tortuous line, ooniniencintr in the northern pari "f 
 Trumbull county, passing thenee soutbwcfterly to the iMuhoiiin« 
 Valley, where it is 'leflecied far to the soutlieast. West of \ounKS 
 town it runs thruigh th^* siuitluTU townships of Trumbull eounty. 
 where it is deflected north nearly to the eentcr nf tJeautra county. 
 where it inclos -s a long tongue and two or three small i>laiid'. nf 
 cjal. Thence returninginto Portage.it pisses southeasterly thn-ugh 
 the southern part of Summit, where it is detl -etcd to tht- nurth- 
 west. Fnmi Here it runs southwesterly again f'> the southwi-st 
 corner of Holmes. Thence it pa.tso'^ nearly southward along the 
 western margin of Holmes and CosUncton; thi-nce southwesti rly 
 through the eastern p:irt of Licking. From liere its course fur 
 fifty miles is nearly south to the eetiter of ducking, where it turns 
 ("lightly westward, and pas-^es through Vinton. Jaekson. I'iki* and 
 6ci->to to theOliio. whi're it erosses" into Kentucky. The counties 
 m -re nr less underlaid by coal in <thio are -Mahoning. Cnlrmiltiuna, 
 portage. Stark. Holmes. Carroll. Tuscarawas, Jefferson, Harrison. 
 Belmont. (Juern-iey. Coshocton. Muskingum. Perry. Noble, 
 Morgan. Wa-hingloii. Monroe. Meigs. Athens, Jackson, tiallia, 
 LawT'-nce, Truiabull. Summit, Medina. Wayne. Licking. Hoek- 
 iiig. Pike and Sciiito 
 Virginian Tmk*(>al-Fi i.ns (tK Wkst Virginia and Virginia.— No State 
 coalfields, in the Uaiou surpas>es West Virginia in the variety of coals it 
 contains, nor doej* any contain an equal amount in proportion to 
 its area: for, of the lift v-f our eounties in the State, but six aro 
 entirely destitute '>f ihis iiunoriant fuel. In many of them, how- 
 ever, the coal is 90 dt*eply buried, an. I in others the means of 
 transportation are so inad' quale, rhat it will he many years be 
 fore tne mineral wealth rhey contain will even commence to be 
 developed. In Virginia, on the other hand, there are but six 
 counties which coiitaiti coal of Carboniterons age. and they are in 
 the extreme southwestern corner of tlie State, adjoining West 
 Viririnia and Kentucky. The coal-field of West Virginia ami 
 \'irk'inia is but an extension of the .\ppalachian coal fii'Id from 
 Pennsylvania. .Maryland ami Ohio, and the genenil system of the 
 measures, is the same, with the exception that locally some of the 
 cofti beds in the Great Conglomerate are of a sutlieient thickness to 
 be profitably worki'd. 
 Maryland Thk Marvf. am* CoAi.FiEr.n. better known as the Cumberland 
 coal field, coal basin, is but a prolorijgation <if the Potonnic basin mentioned 
 under \Vest Viruinia This eoal tiild is one of the most important 
 in the United States, due ro the tliickm-ss of the main bed, its 
 good quality, and 'he large tmnmil produetion. The coal is most 
 extensively used fur rolling mill and steam niising purpose-, its 
 chief and only Comiretitor among the bituminous coals being that 
 from the Clearfield region of Pennsylvania. This coal-field is an 
 outlyer of the main Alleghany coal area, of %\hich there 
 are several others in Pennsylvania, svich a.-J the Broad-Top, 
 Snowshoe. Ralston and Blossburg basins. The eoal is semi-bituni- 
 Snous in charaoter. and iloes not coke quite so readily as those 
 which contain more gas. 
 
 The Eastf.rn KKNTorKV Coai^tFikld is but a continuation of 
 that described in Ohio and VVe<t V^irginia. The western bound- 
 ary of the Allefihanv coal area in Kentucky is approximately ils 
 follows, in a north S'>urh direction : Starting at the Oliio 
 river near Tygart's en-ek. 'he line runs tlirough (Ireenur', <^irter. 
 Rowan. .Morgan. Powell. E-itill. Jaekson. Laurel. Pulaski. Wavne 
 and Clinton counties to the Tennessee line, Thi<eoal field un<ler- 
 licsthe whole of fiftc-n c -unties and a portion of five others, con- 
 taining S.i'S't square miles. The boundary line is very crouketi, 
 throwing off numerous spurs, extending west of the line men- 
 tioned. 
 
 Thk Tknnksskk CoAL-FiKr.n is but a prolongation southward 
 of the oostern Kentucky field. Its area is co-extensive with tliat 
 of the Cumberland mountain or table-land. The Cumberhind 
 tnounrain crospi-g Tennessee obliqutly, nnd although much in- 
 dented by valleys and eoves. is nowhere eompletely cut in two 
 by them. The eastern border of ih'n tabl ■ land i- comparatively 
 ft nt-arlv direct or gracefully curving line, the indentations ma^ie 
 by the streams on this si'le being se«rce|y noiieeable. It is very 
 irregular, however, along its western b -nler. bing cut <'nt and 
 notched by deep valleys and coves, separated fr on eiurli nth'T by 
 long spurs jutting to the West. These dei-p imlenfations give the 
 western outline a very rajrgod appearnnee, Mong the Kentucky 
 line the eoal fit Id is about seventy miles wide, while it narrows 
 along the .Mahama line to fifty miles. 
 
 Thk 'Jkorc.ia Coal-Fiei-p.— The Tennessee coal-field west of the 
 Pequatchie valley extends over the border into .\labama. and 
 then soon dies out. That on th*" ea'^tern side of the valley, on the 
 contrary, extends through Dafle. Walker and Chattongt counti'-g 
 in (leorgia into Mnbama. Almost the whole of the former is 
 underlaid bynn excellent quality of bituminous coal, while there 
 is not quite such an extent of it in the other two counties. 
 
 Thk Alabama Coai. Region is an extension southward of the 
 
 Georgia into northern .\Iabama. It is divided into three fields. 
 
 the Ulaek Warrior, the Cahaba and the Coosa. Of these three the 
 
 fir*t is tnueh the Inrgest. 
 
 The I1.LIS013. Indiana and West Kentucky Area— The coal 
 
 measures of this portion of the United States form but one 
 area. 
 
 Thk Indiana CoalFikld.— The Carboniferous Measures occur 
 in the counties of Pos.->ey. Vanderburgh, Warwiek, Spencer. Perry, 
 Crawford. Ciibson. Pike. Dubois, Knox. Daviess. Martin. SulliTun, 
 Ureene, Clay. Owen, Vigo, Parke. Vermillion, Founiain and War- 
 ren; or. in other words, in the southwestern part of iIr> State. 
 There are three beds of coking coal in this field, varying from 
 four and a half to ten feet in thickness, and tliree seams of ojien- 
 burning or splint coals that range from two and a hall to fivf feet 
 in thickness, the average thiekness being four feel. One bed of 
 cannel coal oecurs in Daviess eounty. about tour and a lialf ftet 
 thick. The I'rincipal coals mined with this exception are the 
 bloek coals from Clay county. 
 
 PKTROLKUM. 
 
 Petroleum has been known to exist in this country almost from 
 its first settlement. The records of travels, espiemlly through the 
 region west of the Appalaehian chain, in what wa> tlH-n known &s 
 ih • Creat Ohio \ alley, coniain constant evidencey of the existence 
 of this material in the reports of burning spring- and the oil that 
 accompanied them. 
 
 It wa-s not,, however, until 1859, at the time of the drilling of 
 Drake's first well, that it began to assume any eon.mereial impor- 
 tanee. 'I he excitement attending the discoveries in the Penngyl- 
 Tania (dl field led to explorations in nuiny Suites, and developed 
 the fact that petroleum existed in many iocoliiies. These locali- 
 ties are chiefly on the western slopes *.( the Appalachian chain, 
 reaehing from Petrolea in Ontario to just across the Tennessee 
 State hnc in Alabama. Some quite e.xtensive fieldsare alsofound 
 in California and in Wyoming, and later evidences of the exist- 
 ence of oil have been discovered in other States, but the Appala- 
 chian and the California oil fields are at present the only ones of 
 commercial importance. 
 
 The mo>t importimtof these fields are what are deseribed fur- 
 ther on as the Pennsylvania and New York oil fields. Next iu 
 importance to these is the Maeksburg field in Ohio, near Marietta, 
 the thinl in importance being the California field. West Virginia 
 (iroduces some small amounts of heavy oil for lubricating purposes. 
 Us light iiil having been comparatively exhausted some years since. 
 There are aNo oil fields ihat with better faeilities for transporta- 
 tion might be of importance in both Tennessee and Kentucky. 
 The W> omiitf,' oil fields described farther on in this report are also 
 ot importanee in the amount of petr(deum that can some day be 
 made available; but of this field, as of all others outside of the 
 Pennsylvania and Ma<-ksburK regions, with the excA-ptioiLof Cali- 
 fornia, it will be found that the expense of pioduring and trans- 
 porting the (dl to market will effectually I'revent any great pro- 
 duction in these fields until the price of Pennsylvania I'etroleum 
 shall materially adxance. 
 
 In the following table will be found a consolidation of the statis- 
 tics of the production of petroleum in the various fields of the 
 country, so far as the same could be obtained from the beginniDff 
 of operations in these fields:- 
 
 
 5 
 
 ?i « c^ c4 ffi .-^ M (>:' 'f 0' u^" (C ci cT c-i cr; r^ 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 i M n n N N N ; ; ;s|| 
 
 ; I ! : . irf-c^ico 
 
 
 < 
 Q 
 
 
 
 
 X -0 
 
 6 
 
 
 N N M M M ; M M M^ 
 
 
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 i i : ; ; i i I i ; ; i i i i i^"^ 
 
 
 
 S3 
 
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 ; ; ; ; : i i ; i : ; ; i : ; ;ils 
 
 - ■ ■ * 1 ^ 1 : : : : : : ! : :m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 [natubal gas. 
 
 PenDsyl- 
 vania and 
 N -w York 
 
 California 
 fields. 
 
 Wyoming 
 fields. 
 
 ^1' shins-- 
 txn Holds. 
 
 2 '^ S«5 
 c S = t. 
 
 tin S 
 
 > 
 
 
 2152 
 
 Qor~-ic c 
 
 ■ >c i-~ 
 
 _ ^ ?-i CO Oi 1~ C7i -T - _. 
 jT — -^r-jaca^^io — lO 
 ■^ -T^ r^- — c; -f'"^ M ■-.-" cv 
 
 —. — ■/? -c »• .— -f X "»H 
 
 :c z^ :-l '^ M -i^ ?i 3? c^ c-a 
 ic C5 '-C I -' — * *^ Tt" — ;r oQ 
 r— ^c^cacooj!>j7gc^c>3 
 
 c-i ic >f; *.D CO 'C o ^ -rr— 
 
 C-t30.C30;CCCO = — *o 
 
 rH T— I o5 CO ec 'X' 
 
 
 I~ r-t -H '.C'-C CO '30 Q 1' "-• 
 
 x' oT x -o — r r~* o'o ■^i oo 
 
 CO'Tacoroco^O^iOarr— I 
 
 C' r= o o C5 o o o C' o 
 
 CO il-l-^ ■^" - ' vfc-J :0 X*U3 
 •— j: c: CO z: — 1-- I- 1— .-^ 
 
 X'araoa^X'COMXQOro 
 
 More than 50 per pent, of all the oil produced in the Unit< d 
 States is from the Bradford and AIIej,'haDy. fields, these two dis- 
 tricts being credited with 11.099,512 of the 2l.842,(m barrel.^ pro- 
 dueed in the country iu 18S5. The production in these fields, 
 however, is kept up onI,\ by the liberal use of nitro-glycerine. and 
 even with the use of explosivi-s to an extent before unknown the 
 production is falling off, and it is a question if the vigor of these 
 old fields cjiii be restored. 
 
 From the time of th.:* first settlement of California by the 
 whites there have been evidences, in the form of spiing and 
 seepage from the asphaltum beds, -if the existence of petroleum in 
 the State. No attempts, however, were made to utilize these 
 deposits until the excitement following the Pennsylvania oil dis- 
 coveries led to prospecting these surface deposits and the eager 
 searching for others. During the years 1865 and 1866 upwards of 
 seventy companies, each with a large nominal ciipital, were incor- 
 porated in Californi.'i for the purpose of searching for petroleum. 
 "While a majority of these companies proceeded no further than to 
 organize, having never expended any money in aetua] operations, 
 some of them began active operations, sinking wells and driving 
 tunnels in their search. Most of the work at this time was iu 
 Humboldt. Colusa. Contra Costa, Santa Clara, and Los Angeles 
 counties. 
 
 About IH75 the oil business in California took on new life. Two 
 wells put down that year yielded some 15 or 20 barrels each per 
 d'ly. Driliins by steam be:;an to be more generally used in place 
 of the spring pole. In is"? the Ventura and the Pieo Canon wells 
 produced daily SU and 40 barrels respectively. Some 2iJ barrels of 
 refined oil were made daily at the Pico refinery at the latter place. 
 The next year 60 barrels of crude oil were for a number ot days 
 taken from the Boyer well, in the Santa Cruz mountains, every 24 
 hours. The oil here, as in most eases in California, was brought 
 to thf- surface by pumping, no flowing wells having as yet been 
 struck in the State. 
 
 From this time there has been a steadily increasing output of 
 oil in ('ahfornia. 
 
 There are. as far as now known, two oil fields in this State 
 probably originally the same, but now diviiled by the range of 
 mountains in which the headwaters of the North Platte and 
 "Wind rivers find their sources. 
 
 As yet no valuable deposits of petroleum or its concomitant 
 asphaltum. have been found anywhere in the far west, except in 
 California. Recently encouraging indications of mineral oil are 
 reported to have been met with at Puyallup, in Washington. 
 
 KATURAL GAS. 
 
 According to Mr. Swank, natural gas was first used as a fuel in 
 connection with the manufacture of iron and steel at Leechburg 
 Armstrong county. Pennsylvania, in 1874, when it was tnken from 
 a well twelve hundred feet deep, and where it at that time fur- 
 nished all the fuel required for puddling, heating.nnd making steam 
 at th*^ rolling-mill of Messrs. Rogers and Darchficld. Between 
 
 1874 and 1831 the use of natural gas was introduced at various 
 other e>tjiblishnTent- fnr p.iddling and rolling. The use of this 
 new fui I -pre:id .-o rapidly, that in Ibh" there were ninety-six roll- 
 ing-millb and steel works either wholly or in part using natural 
 ga~; and Mr. Swank states ihat at the present time ntarl? one- 
 fourth of :ill tht-- establishments id this kind in the United States 
 are thus supplied with fuel. The territory in which are located 
 irtu and steel works using natural gas extends as far east as 
 Johnstown, seventy-nine miles east of Pittsburg. Some ^as is used 
 in Ohio, piped from wills in the adjacent region of Pennsylvania, 
 and some is also obtained from local wells. Pennsylvania gas is 
 also used to a limiied extent in West Virginia. Natural gas has 
 also been obtained at various localities in Indiana, 
 
 According to Mr Ashburner.of the Pennsylvania Survey, there 
 were, in 1SS5. no less than 1.500 dwellings, 06 glass factories. 34 roll- 
 ing-mills, and 45 other industrial establishnn rits supplied with 
 natural gis in the city of Pittsbnrg alone; and this was estimated 
 as representing or displacing iin .amount of coal equal to ten 
 thousand lonsadny. In the I nl lowing table is given the amount and 
 value of the coal displaced by natural gas throughout the country, 
 as nearly as it could be estimated, for the years 1885-87 :— 
 
 Amount. Value. 
 
 1S85 2,796.000 tons. S4.857.2l)0 
 
 1886 5.761.000 " 10,012,000 
 
 1887 8.800,000 " 15,838.5u0 
 
 The rapid increase in the amount of natural gas consumed during 
 the pist li w years is easily seen in the above table. The suri>ass- 
 ing loipor ance of Pennsylvania in general, and of the Pittsburg 
 District in pirticular. as consumers of this kind of fuel, nmi the 
 progress which has been made in other States in the deveh pment 
 of this branch of industry may be seen in the following table, in 
 which the detailed statistics for the year 1887 are given :— 
 
 Amount of Coal Displaced by Natural Gas. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Coal Disrlacod. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Pennsylvania: 
 
 Alkgiiany County 
 
 Renutinder of Pittsburg Dis- 
 
 4,890,000 tons. 
 1.437.900 " 
 
 r.e^s.ioo " 
 
 7.931 ,UUO tons, 
 
 94,fi00 " 
 
 44-.iiiiO " 
 .i3..iM(l " 
 
 2i,s 0, n " 
 2.,^iin " 
 4.4(iO " 
 4. 460 •• 
 
 86,846,250 
 
 2.415,750 
 
 4.487,500 
 
 $13,749,500 
 
 .?33 000 
 
 Western Pennsvlvania (out- 
 side) of Pitt^bure District 
 
 Total Pennsylvania. 
 
 Ohio 
 
 1 (If ■> 1,000 
 
 
 1211 000 
 
 Indiana 
 
 000,000 
 
 
 15.000 
 
 
 15,000 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 !<,Su4.520 tons. 
 
 $15,838,500 
 
 The development of the iron and steel business in the I'nited Iron and 
 States during the last halt century has been as rapid as that of steel, 
 the mining of coal. In 1S5U the total production of iron through- 
 out the world was about six million tons, of which fully half was 
 to be credited to Great Britain; that of the United States was 
 about one million tons, or one-sixth of the whole amount. In the 
 years from 1881 to 1887 the total production of iJig-iron throughout 
 the world varied between nineteen and twenty-two millions of 
 tons, averaging a little over twenty millions, of which about four- 
 fifths were due to England, the United States and Germany. In 
 the last tifteen years the proportional production v'^f England has 
 gradually declined; for the five years ending 1885 it was very 
 nearly five-twelfths, and in 1887 a very little over one-third of the 
 total. England jind the United States together made in 18«7 very 
 nearly five-eighths of the total. 
 
 In regard to the geograpUieal distribution of special products 
 the Special Agent of the Census of is.sii m eharge of this depart- 
 ment—Mr. J. M. Swank— niakis the following' statement: 
 
 " A glance at the statistics for lS8i» shows that New England 
 now makes but little pig-iron, and that the South makes consider- 
 able pig-iron and scarcely any rolled iron: that the West has 
 largely enibarked in the manufacture of steel by the Bessemer pro- 
 cess, while Xt^w York cannot boast of a single Bessemer establish- 
 ment, but has iireferreil the open lieorth process; that New York 
 maki-smostof th<' blooms that are made from ore, and Pennsyl- 
 vania most of the blooms that are made from pig and scrap-iron; 
 that Michig-in is the leading producer of charctial idg iron, and 
 now makes no other kind ; that ^Vest Virginia has developed a re- 
 markably active interest in the manufacture of cut nails; that 
 only five States make Bessemer steel; and two States, Pennsyl- 
 vania and Xpw Jersey, make nearly all of our crucible steel ; and 
 that Pennsylvania has made a greater efifort than any other State 
 to manufacture all kinds of iron and steel." 
 
 At the close of the year 1HS7 there were 613 blast furnaces, then 
 either completed or building (not counting any of which had been 
 abandoned), in the United States, and they were thus distributed; 
 
NATURAL GAS,] 
 Divisioa. 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 Subdivision. 
 
 Number. 
 
 f N'lrtli .Mlnnti'- ai.i 
 
 Atlantic ■( .MiUdlu Atlauiie i'4 
 
 L^joulh .\tluiuio 6 
 
 Norlht'a^torn Coiitnil.. 147 
 
 Noritiwostfrn Ct-ntral.. 13 
 
 ."^jutlu'iv^liTn Ci'iitnil.. 71 
 
 Siiutliwo.-UTii Ci'ntrnl.. 2 
 
 CkntR.11. 
 
 Total. 
 
 375 
 
 233 
 
 I Itioiiy Muuutain 2 
 
 CoRDlLLER.lX-l I'l ilcau U 
 
 I I'ai'ilio Coast 3 
 
 Total 8 ~6ir 
 
 Of tho 613 bla-t furnicoB, 243 wore in Ponns.vlvania, Ohio com- 
 iiiK next in nrdiT with swonlv-ciKht. in tlic Northern Mates 
 th.ro wereJ.W; in the .■'outhoni VA. ■>f which forty-four were in 
 .'\lai»iiun iiivontvf.inri'Oinpleti'd iuid twenty building). Of 414 
 iron uiid steel rolliuK mills, lB9\vero in I'ounsylvanin OhiocomiuB 
 nox! with hltv five. Of Bessemer and Cliipps-Urifliths steel 
 works ther.' wiTe I'oitythree.of which nineteen wore in I'ennsyl- 
 vania:indsix in lh> Sonthem .'^tiites. Of open-hearth steelworks 
 there wer.'fiftv, of which twenty-seven were in IViinsylvunia and 
 two in tho Southern .States. Of oruoihie steel works there were 
 forty one, of which twonlyono wore in I'euiisylvauia. and two in 
 the Southern ."^tatos. 
 
 The prodnciion of pit' iron and of liessemer steel jnj-'ots and 
 mils in the United -rates since 1880 is stated in the followiuK 
 lahle. compiled fr. in tho statistics ooUooted by the American Iron 
 tiUd S:eei Association : 
 
 1881. 1882. 
 
 PiB-iron 4.141.253. . .4,625,323. 
 
 li'.sseiuerstocl ingoLs. 1,374.217. .l.-il4,087. 
 liessemer steel rails . 1,187.769. . .1,284.061). 
 
 1SS.5. 
 
 18.S3. 1884. 
 
 .4,59),510... 4.097.868 
 .l,477,:M.')...l,37.i.:U7 
 .1,148,769... 9a6.4(;5 
 
 1SS6. 
 
 Pia-ir.>n 
 
 B -sseiner steel ingots. , 
 B'Ssoiuer steel rails... 
 
 1887. 
 
 .4.0(l,.i26. . .5.r.S3.329. . .6.417.148 
 .1..51il.426. . .2,2«1.190. . .2.3%.U,i3 
 . '.159,470. . .1,.'^62,409. . .2,101.90.) 
 
 From the above table it will be seen that 1.8S2 and_ 1SS3 were 
 yoirs of larffo production, b >th of iron an<i steel : that in 1884 and 
 "l8S.S. there was a considerable jallint; off in the amount of pig-iron 
 made, while the production of >teel remained nearly tho same; 
 nud it will also bo noticed that in 1S86 there was a larg^ increase in 
 hob i.-on and steel, whicii increase was continued in IS87— the 
 production of the latter year being more than a million and a half 
 of tons greater than it wa.s in 18S4. Theincrea-^eduse of Bessemer 
 steel for purposes other than the manufacture of rails is alsj 
 clearly indioited in the following table: — 
 
 Producti.in of Bessemer steel... 
 Pcrc utage used in rails 
 
 1882. 
 ,.514,687. 
 So.. 
 
 1883. 1884. 
 
 .1,477,.345... 1,375,317 
 
 188,'i. ISSe. 1897. 
 
 Pr .d .cti'm of Bessemer steel 1,519.426... 2,2S»,190... 2.936,033 
 
 Peice.itage used in rails 63.... 78 72 
 
 The production of Bessemer steel was forty-nine per cent, 
 larff r in ISHo than it was in ls85. and 29 per cent, larger in IS87 
 tha.i ill 1>'.S6. The total nuinhcr of completed Bessemer steel 
 works in the Unite^l States at the close of 1*^6 was thirty- 
 three, with_si.\ty-nino converters Pennsylvania in that year 
 ma<le fifty-nine per cent, of the ingots produced; Illinois, 21; and 
 other States, 20. 
 
 The rapid growth and present importance of the steel industry 
 in the United ."-tales will be appreciated on examination of thefoj. 
 lowing table, in which tho amount of steel of all kinds, produced 
 is t'lvcn for each fifth year from 1870 on, an also for the years 1886 
 and 1.S87, in tons: 
 
 Year. 
 
 1S70. 
 IS75 
 ls8i. 
 188.1 
 ls8(; 
 1887 
 
 Bessemer 
 steel ingots. 
 
 37..inn 
 .■)3.i.2<3 
 1.074.261 
 1.519 4.S0 
 2,269.191 
 2,936.033 
 
 Open-hearth 
 steel ingots. 
 
 l.ilS 
 s.e^o 
 liKv'.VI 
 133.S70 
 218.'i73 
 322,01.9 
 
 Crucible 
 steel iugots. 
 
 All other 
 steel. 
 
 35.-79 
 I4.i'i4 
 .•.7..V. U 
 7I.9T2 
 7.i,.:76 
 
 31,250 
 
 11,256 
 7..5;5'i 
 1.514 
 2.366 
 6.593 
 
 Year. Total. 
 
 ]87n 70.08!) 
 
 1^75 anil.?!* 
 
 18sn ] ,247.;a4 
 
 1885 I.7II.!l!) 
 
 IK-vi 2.562.502 
 
 18'i7 3.:i3!i,671 
 
 Production T''" production of rails of all kinds in the I'toted States is given 
 of rails. in the following table for the year 1867, i.i which the manufacture 
 
 of liessemer steel rails began, and also for 1870 und for each suo- 
 ocoJing fifth year, as well ae for the years 1S86 and 1887: 
 
 Y'car. 
 
 Bessemer 
 steel rails. 
 
 Open-hearth 
 steel rails. 
 
 Total 
 steel rails. 
 
 Iron rails, 
 all kinds. 
 
 18i'.7 . . . 
 
 2.277 
 
 3o.:'.57 
 
 2.5li.6<l;l 
 
 8.52. 196 
 
 !i"'!i,471 
 
 1..7i.7.ti 
 
 2,101,90! 
 
 
 2,277 
 
 30.3,7 
 
 2.9.6!i!l 
 
 864 ..352 
 
 9":i.7.50 
 
 1,579.391 
 
 2.119.048 . 
 
 410.319 
 
 is:i) 
 
 
 ,5ii.21-; 
 
 
 
 447,909 
 
 l.S,-iO .... 
 h-5 
 
 IS-6 
 
 18*7 
 
 12.1.56 
 4. 279 
 4.1.91 
 
 17,145 
 
 440,858 
 13.227 
 21.142 
 20,591 
 
 -.-„ „ Totni iron 
 
 lS(i7. 41 2..^l't) 
 
 H~u ;V>;i, 171 
 
 1H75 7ii7,0''0 
 
 1 SSn 1 .31 .').2 1 1 
 
 1 NS.') \i~< >.1'77 
 
 1 biH\ 1 .(>Ui t.Mti 
 
 18^7 2.i.jy.tj;i9 
 
 Th-- ore.'* (if iron are wiiltly disseminatcil over the Vnited States Genenil 
 iinduix'iyf ery tt.ffoieiit (lualities; but then; ii re certiiin regions survey "f 
 ot t:iviitly piniuiuiuatiiig uiipori)ince, iiiul coiinin giMilogioil hori- variou.-^ 
 ZI.HIS or foniiation> from \\hic-li mut-h thi* IarK<'r pirtioii of these kinds of 
 orfs is derived. To each of the.^e a few words of descrii)tion may iron ore. 
 bo devoted. 
 
 The great coal field of the Central United States is .surrounded 
 on the nnrtli. east and south by the uplifted older rncks of the 
 \Visconsiu— Michigan, the .Appalnebian and the Ozark regions. 
 
 This b.l^in and its border contain the fuel and the ore on which 
 and with uliieh the material prosperity of the I'nited State.-' of the 
 twentieth century nmst be built. Ilbeeiimes. therefore, of impor- 
 tance to obtiiiu a general survey of the distribution of the variouB 
 kinds of iron ore both geographically and in the geoh-gieal 
 column. 
 
 On the oxtremi' edge of the border that inclo.«ie.'5 the c*>al basiti 
 we find in the nortti and east tin- Areha'iin with its immense de- 
 velopment of magnt'tic' an<! specular ores. >e.\i within this and 
 overlying it is the Canadian-Cumbrian series, the sulistructuro 
 of the tir>t great Inngitudinal valhy of the Appalacliians extending 
 from Ciinada to Alabama. This valley is not les.srenuirkp.ble for it** 
 enormous we;ilth in limonite ores than for the firtility and dura- 
 bility of its soil. Mill farther inward th-' shales of the Clinton 
 ajie mark a In-lt of hematite ore extending from central Alabama 
 to and throutih eastern New York, and thence westward across tho 
 State. 'I'he Ijelt thus outlined will be seen, on the map. lo have a 
 breadth of from fifty to over one hundred miles. \Vithin it. but 
 le8s persistent in longitudinal representation, are deposits of iron 
 ores occurring— .^ome here, some there— in strata of nlmogt every 
 age !rom tlie Archjvan to the Coal Measures, and the great coal-field 
 thus iron-bound, is itself rich in carbonate ores, generally occurring 
 either as clay imn ston'-, or as black band, or in places as a ferri- 
 ferous limestone altered to limonite. The uiapdoi-s not ari-nipt 
 to represent the actual distribution of the OM-s of the Coal Meas- 
 ures, but only the areas within which they were sampled for tb*3 
 investigation. 
 
 On the South tho Arehjvan rocks come to the surface only in 
 eastern Missouri, and they here exhibit a grt-at develoi>meut of 
 miignetic andspecularores. But they occupy only a small area in 
 the broad iron-bearing belt on the map tliat stretches with a 
 breadth of one hundred miles or more northwesterly from Alalmma 
 to western Missouri. With the exception ot the Missouri Archa'an 
 OP'S this belt consists wholly of later ores, viz: specular and limo- 
 nite ores of th" Cambrian in Mi>>ouri. and limonites on the Sub- 
 carboniferous limestones of Missouri, Tennessee and Kentucky. 
 
 On the North, far removed from the coal-field, are the extensive 
 and numerous d'lKisit^ of rich 8i>ecular an-l nnignetieons of tho 
 Huronian in nnrtheru Minnesota andnnrthern Michigan. Farther 
 eastward tlio northern border is represented be^vond our field of 
 investigation by ores of different kinds, but especially Arclnrnn in 
 that part of tho territory of the Dominion of Canadii lying north 
 of the great lakes. 
 
 Iron in various mineral conditions, and especially as an oxide, 
 is among the most widely disseminated of the elements. It is a 
 i>ase with a strong aflinity for the acids most frequent in tho 
 waters circulating in ihenppercrustof the earth, viz: carbonic, sul- 
 phuric and the organic acids. It also has a stronger atfinity for 
 oxygen, and in the presence of this it ftirms the nearly indestruet- 
 iblo and — in the oriiiiniry processes of Nature— in the absence of 
 organic matter, almost inM)luable sesf|uioxido. As a sesquioxide, 
 in the presence of organic matter, it provides the oxygen for 
 decay, and its residuary protoxide is itself dissolved by the result- 
 ing organic aeid. and outers into circulation. If the laboratory is 
 a niar.-h or pond, the iron nrorosalt is reoxidiz. d nt the surface of 
 the wat'T and returns to tne bottojn as the high r oxide to again 
 P'itt with part of ilsoxvgen and again to be dissolved as a protosalt. 
 iind this is cmtinued until the organic matter is consumed: then 
 the iron accumulates on the bottom as a hyclrated oxide, or limo- 
 nite. or " bog ore." 
 
 Kock strata cont^iininp 'irganie matter and diffused iron oxido 
 have lived thriMigh ^imilf pr>c<s.»es, except that the iron, after 
 furnishing its oxy;:cn to the (!ec;iying matter and forming a sola- 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 [statistics. 
 
 A raorioan 
 iinporla of 
 iron and 
 steel. 
 
 able protosalt with the resulting organic acid, has entered into 
 more extended circulation. 
 
 The most common solvents of iron in Nature are carbonic acid 
 and sulphuric acid; the latter becomes an imijortaut agent in 
 moving and concentrating iron, under certain circumstances, as in 
 Eolfat-iric action and in the oiidation of pyritiferoua nick.s like 
 the Devonian shales of Pennsylvania and Virginia. But doubtless 
 carbonic acid is the most general agent. Besides arising from the 
 oxidation of organic matter cuntined in sedimentary strata, it 
 enters the earth as an accessory of rain water, and more is taken 
 up by the water from the decaying vegetable mould: it is also lib- 
 erated in depth from limestone by the action of chemical processes 
 and enters the ascending euirents. However formed, it becomes 
 an accessory constituent ol the water that permeates the rocks, 
 and alone, or in connection with other agents.it decomposes the 
 silicates and carries off the iron as a bicarbonate. It follows the 
 channels of flow until it reaches an arresting cause. One such 
 arresting cause, of ultimately great economic importance, is the 
 carbonate of line in limestones and dolomites and calcareous sand- 
 stones, resulting in the renlacement of lime by iron; another of 
 equal importance is oxygen, whether at the surface .where the 
 soluahle iron protosalt, emerging in spring water is oxidized to a 
 limonite, or in caverns or small cavities, where it is oxidized, and, 
 parting with its acid, is deposited in successive thin films to form 
 stalactitic and mammillary masses of hvdrated sesquioxide; there- 
 fore when we consider the general diffusion of iron in both de- 
 trital and crystalline rocks, in all sediments and all eruptions, and 
 remarkable reciprocating relation in the most common and essen- 
 tial processes of Nature, it is not strange that we should find 
 it represented by local accumulations in the rocks of every geo- 
 logical age. 
 
 The annexed table, publi-hcd by Mr. Swank, shows the pro- 
 duction of iron ore in tons in the leading ore-producing districts 
 for the years 188«. 18.7:- ^^^^^ ^^._ 
 
 Lake Superior mines of Michigan and Wis- 
 consin 3,263.961 4.344.6.51 
 
 Vermilion Lake mines of Minnesota 3U4,396 394.2.=)2 
 
 Missouri mines 379,776 427.78.5 
 
 Cornwall. Pennsylvania ft88.054 667.21tj 
 
 New Jersey mines .'ill|l..S(ll 547.889 
 
 Chateaugav mines. New York 214,sii0 219.390 
 
 Crown Point mines. New York 60.1184 64.940 
 
 Port Henry mines. New York 298.868 428.522 
 
 Other Lake Champlain mines. New York.. . IS.OtIO 29,000 
 Hudson River Ore and Iron Company. New 
 
 York "5.000 142.422 
 
 Tilly Foster mines. New York 17.728 14,316 
 
 Forest of Dean mines. New York 18,000 21,164 
 
 Salisbury region. Connecticut 36.000 30.000 
 
 Cranberry mines. North Carolina 24,106 45,032 
 
 Tennessee Coal and Iron and Railroad Com- ^ 
 
 pany's mines 81,650 102,601 
 
 Ohio (whole State) 344,484 377.465 
 
 Alleghanv County. Virginia ,9 ,1!L 
 
 Preston County. West Virginia 15,408 
 
 Calhoun. Etowah, and Shelby counties, ,„„„„„ 
 
 Alabama 129.000 
 
 Total of the above districts 6 322,408 8,151,047 
 
 American Imports of Iron and .Steel.— It has been suffi- 
 ciently shown that this country is a hirge producer of iron and 
 steel. The stiitistica of our production of these articles do not, 
 however, show the magnitude of their consumption by our people. 
 We export onlv very small quantitiesnf iron and steel, principally 
 in the form of maehincry. but have been large importers of iron 
 and steel in all forms, which we have consumed in addition to 
 the large quantities we have ourselves produced. Our imports of 
 iron and steel during the Inst fifteen calendar years have been as 
 follows. The quontities of pig, bar, band, pin te. and sheet iron, 
 rails, old iron, and tin plates, are given for every year mentioned 
 and for 1882 ard succeeding years the (luantities of other iron and 
 steel which could not be obtained for preceding years are added: 
 
 Oold and 
 silver. 
 
 Y'ears, 
 
 Long tons. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Long tons. 
 
 1871 
 
 1.141.933 
 1,183.066 
 640.8.58 
 301.647 
 239 712 
 2»4 211 
 2U,4os 
 211,102 
 
 1879 
 
 769.984 
 
 1872 
 
 1880 
 
 1.886.919 
 
 1873 ... . 
 
 1881 
 
 1.180,749 
 
 1874 
 
 1882 
 
 1.192.J96 
 
 1875 
 
 18S3 
 
 691.. 330 
 
 1876 
 
 l,8-;4 
 
 654,696 
 
 1877 
 
 18S5.. 
 
 578,478 
 
 1878 
 
 
 
 
 
 The proiluction of gold in the Southern States rose to nearly a 
 million of dollnrs a year in a few years after th"' first mining ex- 
 citement began in that region. This wns in 1^31 and ISiii Then 
 there was a falling off to about hiilf that; but from lS42on.nntiI 
 the lime of the discovery of gold in ralifornia by the Americans, 
 there was a rise in the product of the Southern Appalachian n gion 
 to nearly a million a year (184'2-48). 
 
 The discoveries of the precious metal in California have already 
 been noticed. By the end of the year at the betrinniiig nf which 
 the first nugget of gold had been picked up in Sutter's niili-raco 
 on the American River (184->). miners were at work along the 
 western slope of the Sierra Nevada from the Tuolumne to Feather 
 River, a dietanoe of full a hundred and fifty miles. There are 
 
 supposed to have been not less than fifty thousand men mining 
 for gold at the close of the year 1850; and those who had good 
 opportunity for observing estimate the number thus engaged 
 during the'years 18.')2 and 1853 at not less than one hundred thous- 
 and. At first Home at-sistance wuf had from the aboriginal popula- 
 tion; l>ut in general there was no hired help, each man working 
 for him^^elf, or a small number of persons owned the same claim 
 and mined together as joint partners. The earliest- washings 
 were along the rivers, on the "bars," or gravel accumulations 
 along the sides or on the beds of the streams, and in the "gulches," 
 or ravines leading down the steep side.^ ot the valleys, or canons, 
 through which these rivers flow. Soon the rivers themselves were 
 partially turned from their courses by means of wing-dams, or 
 entirely carried to one side of their natural channels by ' flum- 
 ing," or building artificial channels of timber. The ^ands and 
 gravels thus exposed were the most protluctive "placers": and 
 those who first go' hold of the rich bars on the American, Yuba, 
 Feather, Stanislaus, and other smaller streams in the heart of 
 the gold region made sometimes from one to five thousand dol- 
 lars a day per man. These very rich spots were, however, 
 soon worked out, and it m'ight be days or weeks before another of 
 equal richness was found. From the spring of 1848 to 1851 nearly 
 al! the mining was of the character thus indicated, that in the 
 river-beds being called **wet-digtrings." and that in the ravines or 
 gulches adjacent to the rivers "dry-diggings." 
 
 The yield of gold in California during the ten years of its great- Yield of 
 est i)roductiveness— namely, from 185U to lhF>9 inclusive— has been gold in 
 estimated as averaging as high as 58^ millions of dollars a year. California. 
 During the pentad, l8(i(Hi4, there was a rapid falling off in the 
 yield, which may be accounted for not only by the approaching 
 exhaustion of the river diggings, but also by the fact that the dis- 
 covery of the Comstock Lode turned the attention of the miners 
 in the direction of Nevada, whither great numbers of stamp-mills 
 were transported iiodily in the course of the years 1861 and 1^'62, 
 these mills being such as had been worked in California with little 
 or MO profit to thi' owners. 
 
 From 1SH5 on, the gnid mining business in California assumed 
 a certain degree of permanence; at least, the yield of the precious 
 metal became, for a number of years, pretty nearly statinnary, 
 never falling below fifteen millions, nor rising quite as hit-'h as 
 twenty millions; the average for the fifteen v t- a rs. 18(35-79. heing 
 about seventeen millions. The figures for the years 1881-87, as 
 given in the reports of the Director of the Mint, are as follows: — 
 
 18H1 818.2(10.(1(1(1 
 
 1882 IH.^Od.liliO 
 
 18H3 14.120.(100 
 
 1S84 I3.i(i(>.)i00 
 
 1885 12.7i'(t.(iOO 
 
 1886 14.725 000 
 
 1887 13 41 '( 1,000 
 
 The most powerful impulse to mining operations, and the im 
 mediate cause of a somewhat lengthy period of wild exeiti ment 
 and speculation, was the discovery and succe.-sful opening of the 
 so-called (\)mstock Lode— a metalliferous deposit, which, consid- 
 ering all the circumstances and conditions connected with it, may 
 be truthfully said to be the most interesting one ever disC'Vered. 
 The conditions which have given this h>de its pre-eminence are: 
 the great extent and depth of its workings; the rapidity with 
 which they have been carried on ; the large amount of the precious 
 metals produced; the extraordinary temperature encountered; 
 and. finally, the very full record which has been kept of the facts 
 observed. 
 
 Thel^omstock Lode lies on the east slopf of the Virginia Range. TheCom- 
 a northeasterly offshoot from the range of the Sierra Nevada. The stock 
 region is a desert, supporting scarcely any vegetation besiles the Lode, 
 sage brush. Potable water is found only in quantities too small to 
 supply a settlement, and the town now depends for its supply on 
 a point in the Sierra Nevada, thirty miles away. The mines were 
 first openi d in this inhospitable region in 1859. but have since 
 been pushed with such vigor that their product is supposcfi seri- 
 ously to have i}ff -'ted the silver market of the world. They have 
 produced abouf. S315.U0O.Oi worth of bullion, of which S175.0i'0.o0O 
 was silver 'at the rate of one ounce equals 31.292!'). Of the total 
 yield. $115.871. Oi;0 has been disbursed in dividends. 
 
 The last great ore body discovered yielded ^111,707,609 39, of 
 which S74 2.50.000 was paid in dividends. The number of men em- 
 ployed in the mines on June 1. ISsO, was 2,770. and the sum an- 
 nually disbursed in wages is now S4,55".00O. The aggregate horse- 
 power of the machinery of the mines is 24.130. The total length 
 of shafts and galh'ries exceeds 150 miles, and the greatest depth 
 reached is above 3.000 feet. 
 
 The gold regions of the United States are divided into three sec- 
 tions, the Pacific. Rocky Mountain and Eastern- These three 
 great divisions will be taken up and treated in order. 
 
 STATISTICS OF THE PACIFIC DIVISION. 
 
 In production of gold California still holds the first place. The CaliforniT 
 vast deposits of auriferous gravel continue to yield largely, tiiough 
 their final exhaustion in view of the enormous hydraulic opera- 
 tions now being prosecuted, is to be looked for at no distant day. 
 Pervinus to the discovery of the Rodic district the placer mines 
 furnished more than two-thirds of the total gold output of the 
 State : but the large yield of that district, amounting to over two 
 and three-fiuTter millions in gold during the years in addition to 
 the considerable silver product, has placed the deep mines about 
 on a par with the placers in point of productiveness. 
 
 California furnishes 71.47 per cent, of the total placer product of 
 the United States, and 40.09 per cent, of the total gold product of 
 the deep mines, or 51.38 per cent, of the gold product of 
 the country (from all sources). _ , 
 
 The proiluciinn of this State shows a considerable decline, as JNevaaa. 
 compared with that of the preceding six years. This is not due to 
 
STATISTICS ] 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 any general fallinK off in the prosperity of the mining industry 
 of tno r^tiito. but to the ileL'rea.-o in iho yield of the loading 
 aouroo. ihLi Conistook L^Ui'. 
 
 The bullion product of Noviida represents nu avernpo of 8^4 IG 
 gold. ;il2.'J9 silver, iind Sloi).4-') Rold iind >ilver for laeh .>*(|uaro 
 mile of ii;t area. In this respect Nevada is surpassed by t'oloiudn. 
 the figures for which are 825.98 gold, Jlo9.22 silver, and SIS5.20 
 total. 
 
 Utah and The bullion product of Utah is n'markably steady, varying lat- 
 
 Arizoua. ti-rly but litilo from year to year, while a marked impulse has 
 bi'on given to the mining industry <»f Arizona by the fine showing 
 of the new Tomlist«<no district, in Pima county. 
 
 Idaho. The deposits of Idaho bullion \so far as it is possible to segre- 
 
 gate them, a very large portion having passed through private re- 
 fineries and thus lo^ii g ihoir i<ientit>) up to the ihtse of the ti^cal 
 year ending June .'-Ki. isSU, arostjited by the diroi-lnrof the mint 
 to have been S2-1. 137.417 gold. S7:i7.2% >iher. and S24.8ti4.713 total. 
 This amount is far loss tlian the actual output U[> to that date. 
 vaKUt3 unofficial estimates placing the total yield as high as 
 SiKi.nlKi.ixm. 
 
 Of the gold product for the census year 1880, .')9.42 per cent, is 
 from placers and 4ii.5S per ceut from the deep miiios. Idaho fur- 
 nishes 7.32 Iter cent, of the placer output of the Unit'd f^tates, 2 18 
 per cent, of th<' de. p mine gold, and 4.43 percent I'f the total b'old; 
 1.13 iior cent of the .-ilver, and 2 i)<» per cent, of the entire pro.iuct 
 of tiie pffcious metals in the whole country. As a gold producer 
 the territory ranKs .-ixth. and in silver, seventh. The average 
 yield per square milo is S17.4-S gold. S'>.3U silver, aiidS2-.7o total. In 
 (his respect Idaho stands fifth in point of gold, seventh in sih or, 
 and sixth in developed riehntss in gohl and silver. 
 
 Oregon. Oregon is one of the oldest of the western mining States, the 
 
 di>covery of gohl wiihin it-* limits having followed closely ui)')n 
 that in California. Itsoutput has never been very large in com- 
 parison with the yield of its neighbor State, but althuuk'h the 
 mines have become secondary to its agricultural resources in point 
 of imptirtanee, tht-y still furni>h uecunation and profit to many <if 
 its tnlia))itni»t«. The quartz veins of Baker county, in the eastern 
 portion of the State, adjoining Idaho Territory, continue to yield 
 the larger portion of the total deep mine product of this State. 
 The prevailing type of the Dregon ores is a freo gold quartz, 
 though rebellious gold ores, requiringspecial treatment, are found 
 in si>nio localities, and a small amount of silver is produced in 
 Grant county. 
 
 Of the small product reported from the deep mines of Washing- 
 ton, neariv the whole ooiiks from iV'shaston district, in Vakinia 
 county, wh' re gold (inaitzniining is conducted on a small scale. 
 
 The Upper Columbia placers furnish over oue-half the total 
 placer yield of tiie State- 
 
 This vast territory, occupying an area of over half a million 
 square miles, is for the most i»art siill an unexplored region. The 
 small nmouul of prospecting wiiieh iia-; b''en done has developed 
 the fact that Alaska contains many gold-bearing localities, none 
 of which however, have yet yielded any considerable output. 
 
 BTATISTKS 1>F THE PIVISIOX OF THF, ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 
 
 From an average annual production of only three or four mil- 
 lions, Colorado lias suddenly risen to the first rank as a pro- 
 dueerof the precious metals among the States and Territories for 
 pold 'ind silver combined, as well as foi' silver alone, while for gnlit 
 It liolds the fourth rank. In thi; re'atiou of production to area it 
 holds the first runk likewise for gold and silver combined, and for 
 silver alone, and the third for gold alone. In the relation 
 of production to population, however, it ranks only third for 
 gold ami silver together, second for silver alone, and sixth for 
 
 • goM alone. The total value of its product during the eunsus year 
 
 in g >!d and silver was. in ri>und numbers, nineteen and a -luarter 
 niilli 'n dollars; and. if we add to this the value of lead and copper 
 in crude metal produced, we have a total value of metallic product 
 of twenty-two and three-quarter^^ million dollars. 
 
 I'akota. Tho metall'cp-oduetion of Dakota is derived from the region of 
 
 the Blaek H ilU. and in greater part from Lawrence county, where 
 free milling gold ([uartB ores of low grade are reduced in amalga- 
 mating mills of great size. 
 
 Montana. MonUma has within its boundaries the elements favorable to a 
 large produetitm of the precious metals— rich and varied ores and 
 abundant find, both coal and wood. As yet. however, owing to 
 lack ttf develoiiineiit an<l want of suffieient transportation facili- 
 ties, it has not taken its proper rank as a producer. 
 
 Xew Mex- Tho mines of New Mcxieo niivo been attracting much attention; 
 
 ico. but their I'ractical development is awaiting the completion of the 
 
 railroads whieh are about to intersect it. ^ 
 
 Wyoming. Wyoming is surrounded on three sides by important mining 
 regions, but has as yet developed but few mines within its 
 borders. 
 
 The following table shows the yield of the States of the Eastern 
 division, for the year IS-iO : — 
 
 FASTRllK DIVISION. 
 
 Wttshing- 
 tuu. 
 
 Alaska. 
 
 Colorado. 
 
 
 $1,300 
 
 81.(1.30 
 
 3.000 
 
 8332 
 7.2"ii 
 
 16.i«l 
 140 
 56 
 
 J I. ,300 
 
 
 M..3(i2 
 
 
 10.200 
 
 Michitran 
 
 2.'i,H.T8 
 
 
 i'l.OOO 
 
 11K.9.V. 
 
 13.041 
 
 1.99S 
 
 9.322 
 
 27.0fi0 
 
 North rar'dina 
 
 119.09=i 
 
 
 13.097 
 
 Tennrgspo 
 
 1.99!t 
 
 
 9.322 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 239.646 
 
 (M9..566 
 
 8289.232 
 
 
 
 Tho reliitive c^uota contributod by each of the throe great arbi- 
 trary divisions into which tho country has been apportioned is 
 indicated in the followinK table; — 
 
 Pacific Division 
 
 Division of the Rooky 
 
 Moiintiiins._ 
 
 Eastern Division 
 
 Total 
 
 $25,261,828 
 
 7.878.189 
 239.646 
 
 $33,379,663 
 
 $21.14-3.881 
 
 19.917.490 
 49..W6 
 
 S41.110,<J57 
 
 846.405,709 
 
 27.79.i.t;79 
 289.2:i2 
 
 $74,490,620 
 
 The following table shows tho production of gold and silver for 
 each t'tute and Territory during the year 1885:- 
 
 
 830(1.000 
 
 880,000 
 
 12.7110,0(10 
 
 4,2(JO.OOO 
 
 3.2(10.000 
 
 lao.ntx) 
 
 1. HI 1(1.(11 lO 
 3.:!(iO.(lll(l 
 3,10(1.(1(10 
 8(111.000 
 1,52.1100 
 800.0110 
 4.'..0(10 
 180.(1110 
 120.000 
 
 90.000 
 
 $2,000 
 
 3.8(10.000 
 
 2.51)0.1 00 
 
 15.800.0(.i0 
 
 100 .OOU 
 
 8302,000 
 
 
 4.(iN0,(iO0 
 
 
 15,200,000 
 
 
 20,(:0( 1.(00 
 
 Dakota 
 
 3.3(1(I.(10(J 
 
 
 136.(Kl0 
 
 
 3.500.UOO 
 10.0(iO.(100 
 6.000.(i((0 
 3.(10(1.0110 
 3.(11 
 10.0(«J 
 
 5.3011.(100 
 
 
 13.aiil,000 
 
 
 O.KKl.WH) 
 
 
 3.N(i( 1.0(10 
 
 
 155.(100 
 
 
 810.(100 
 
 
 43.0(10 
 
 tJtah 
 
 6,75(l.66() 
 70.000 
 
 5.000 
 
 6.y.iO.(l(lO 
 
 Washington 
 
 TexHS. Alabama. Tennessee, 
 Virginia. Vermont, Mich- 
 
 luu.ooo 
 
 95.000 
 
 
 
 Totil 
 
 S31.801.0CO 
 
 $51,600,000 
 
 853.401, (JOO 
 
 
 
 Gold a.sd Silvee Peodcction of the Different States foe 
 THE Ykae 1887. 
 
 State or Territory. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 (Coining 
 value.) 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 8(175.000 
 
 s;i( 1,(1(1(1 
 
 13.400,0(10 
 
 4.(K)0.000 
 
 2.40(1.000 
 
 110.000 
 
 l.OIKI.OdO 
 
 26.000 
 
 5.2:^0.00(1 
 2.500.000 
 500.0(K) 
 225.(100 
 900.000 
 50.000 
 220.000 
 
 150.o(in 
 20.000 
 
 S300 
 
 3.800.0(10 
 
 I..500.(H10 
 
 15.000.000 
 
 510.000 
 
 500 
 
 3.000,000 
 
 35.0(1(1 
 
 15..5I10.00O 
 
 4.900.000 
 
 2,300.000 
 
 5.000 
 
 10.000 
 
 .5(1(1 
 
 7,000.111 
 
 10(l.(Hin 
 
 250,5110 
 
 8 (i75.300 
 
 
 4,030,0(10 
 
 California 
 
 14.910,0(0 
 19,(K (1.000 
 
 
 2,940,000 
 
 
 llo„ViO 
 
 
 4,9(10,000 
 
 
 (i 1.1 100 
 
 
 20,730,000 
 
 Nevada 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 T,4(iO,ODO 
 
 2,8011,000 
 
 2.30,(KI0 
 
 
 010,000 
 
 
 .5o..5(l0 
 
 ITtah 
 
 7,221 l.tHiO 
 
 
 iiOlKIO 
 
 Other States and Territories. 
 
 27II.S00 
 
 
 833.136.000 
 
 S53,941.8(.0 
 
 $87,077,800 
 
 
 
 Peodi-'Ction of Gold .txD Silver in the United States for 
 THE Years 1880-1887. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 
 Coining 
 Value. 
 
 Commercial 
 Value, 
 
 1880 
 
 1881 
 
 1882 
 
 5r16.OOO.OflO 
 34.700.0(Ki 
 32..5(iO.(iOO 
 30,(HlO,(X)0 
 30,800,000 
 31,800.000 
 35.000.000 
 33.000.000 
 
 839.2li0.0flO 
 43,0oO.tHi0 
 46.800,000 
 46.200.000 
 48.800.01 10 
 51.000.000 
 51.000.000 
 .53.3.57.000 
 
 
 1S83 
 
 
 1884 
 
 18*5 
 
 1886 
 
 842.000.000 
 42.504.447 
 39.445.312 
 
 1887 
 
 40.150.000 
 
 
 
 The annexed table still farther illustrates this branch of Iho 
 subject by showinK the eonsnmptioii of the precious "letals in tho 
 United States in the industrial arts, as reported by tlio Jlint. for 
 tho years 1880, 1881, 1883 and I881):— 
 
 (Jold. Silver. 
 
 1880 $8,6,34.193 $.3,464,169 
 
 1881 .: 10.(n;.723 3.388,421 
 
 18,83" 14.4.59,464 5„5,56,.530 
 
 1885;::,,;.,,,,:... 11.152.120 4.598,413 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 [statistics. 
 
 Quick- 
 Silver. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Nearly nil the quicksilver produced in the United States comes 
 from California. Tlie total proiluce of the Calitorniun mines, 
 during the years 1880-1887, bus been as tuUuws:— 
 
 188 1 59.926 
 
 SS 1 bO,>Snl 
 
 .882 52.732 
 
 i883 4(i,725 
 
 1884 3 1 .913 
 
 1885 32.073 
 
 1886 1^9.981 
 
 1887 33.825 
 
 No new discoveries of localities of importance have been made 
 during the r'ast ft-w years, and the mines which are now worked 
 in California have been of bite years in a rather depressed condi- 
 tion, owing to the low price of the metal, the increased expense of 
 production consequent on the greater depth of the workings, and 
 the g^rowing .-scarcity of the ore. No quicksilver mine earned or 
 paid any dividend in 18S5; but since that time there has been a 
 rise in tlie price of the metal, and a somewhat increased activity 
 in its exphiiiation. Two mini,- paid dividends in isSii: thf* New 
 Almad n. SI 18.010.75, and the ^tna. SJO.OjIl; the former also paid, 
 in 1888, S2>2.()f)3. A considerable portion of rhc quii-k-ilver mined 
 in Caliluniiu is used in that and the adjiccnt Curdillerau States, a 
 part go*- to Mexico, and there is a small jind varying export to 
 China. Tlie low price of i^ilverhas materially affected tho ;;rofits 
 of exports to foreign countries. 
 
 The ore of tin has been discovered in Several localities in the 
 United States, and there have been many attempts made to open 
 mines in various parts of the country ; but up to the present time 
 th ' umiiuutof this metal produced has been entir>dy insignificant. 
 AmoD;,' the localities in the Appalnchian region where mining for 
 tin ha; bi-i-n attempted are, \\'inslow, Maine; Jackson, New 
 Hampsiiire; one on the nortiiwestern slope of the Blue Ridge, in 
 Rockbridge county. Virginia; and one near Ashland, in Clay 
 county. Abibauia The veins in the first two localities mentioned 
 are unquesfionably too small for successful working. In regard to 
 the oili'T places, it does not yet seem to be known whether the 
 conditions there existing are sufficiently favor;tble to warrant the 
 exp"Ctjiti"n that thcv will become profitable The fact that there 
 are no appar.-nt indic:itions — judging from the descriptions which 
 have be?n published — of superficial deposits which could be success- 
 fully streaim d f t tin seems a strong reason for believing thrit in no 
 opi- of these localities cnuld there be a successful competition car- 
 ried on with the stanniferous districts of the flnst Indies and of 
 AustraliM , wlice the detrital ores of tin exist in the greatest abun- 
 dance. Of' cnurse tin mining could be made profitable in this coun- 
 try if a suffici'-ntly high duty were laid upon this metal. 
 
 The stannifef-nus r -gion from which the most has been exp^'Cted 
 is th ■ liltick Hills of Dakota, at a locality of about twenty miles 
 souchwe-^tof Rapid City. 
 
 Acconling to the official report of Mr. A. Williams. Jr.. on the 
 mineral rc-^ources of the United States, for the years 1S83-S4, a 
 large amount of mmey has been expended in opi.*ning and pros- 
 pecting the Etta mine, and in erecting mills and reduction 
 works 
 
 Si far as known, however, up to January, 1SS9, there has been 
 no production of tin of commercial importance iu Dakota, nor 
 have regular shipments of this m'_-t:il from that region hr-en 
 b"g m Tin ore has also been found in tlie s uithern part of the 
 State of California, and several attempt-i liave been made to put 
 the mines upon the market. The observations of the present wrirer 
 in this region in 1860, did not le;id him to the conclusion that it 
 was likely ever to become of importance for its production of this 
 metiil. 
 
 Zinc has become within the past few years an important article 
 of prndiiction in the United Stutes. 
 
 Thf* business of making metallic zinc had not become of any 
 importance i»revious to 1875. Since that time it has increased at a 
 'moder<fe and pretty uniform rjite. 
 
 ' Th" l:i*est :ind most reliable statistics of zinc are those given by 
 Mr. C. Kirchhoff, Jr , in the " Mineral Resources of the United 
 States f()r 18s7." as follows, in tons: — 
 
 li-ad min- 
 iag. 
 
 State. 
 
 ..: 
 
 iss:) 
 
 1S84. 
 
 1885. 
 
 18S6. 
 
 1887. 
 
 
 Ifi.2,5« 
 
 fi.r7'-. 
 
 2,232 
 5,0S7 
 
 14.992 
 S.044 
 .5. lis 
 
 4,763 
 
 15.7 9 
 7,(117 
 4,669 
 
 7,019 
 
 17.345 
 7, .591 
 4.176 
 
 7,216 
 
 18.818 
 7,975 
 5,241 
 
 6,037 
 
 19,892 
 10,674 
 7,732 
 
 6,648 
 
 Kan.sas 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Eastern and Southern 
 States 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 30,145 
 
 32,922 
 
 34,414 
 
 36,528 
 
 38,071 
 
 44,946 
 
 The production of zinc in th^ United States for the year 18S8 is 
 estimati'd at .^0,800 tons— a inodc'nte increase ov-r the preceding 
 year. This country furni-hes, therefore, at the present time a 
 little over one-sixth of the total production of tlie world, which 
 has incrcusi-d since the bei-'inning of the present decade from 
 about 225,(iOU to very nearly 300,000 tons. 
 
 For a long term of years the production of lead in the United 
 States was limited to the Missis'-ippi valley. The deposits occur 
 in two districts— one, the so called "Upper Mines," covering an 
 area of three to four thousand sqiinre miles included within the 
 States of Wisconsin, Tnwa. and Illinois; tho other, the '"Lower 
 Mines," in Southeastern Missouri, 
 
 The mode of occurrence of the gulena in both the Upper and Ui'perand 
 Lower Mines of the Mississippi Valley is extremely simple. In lower 
 the Upper Mines th - geological age of the group of strata in which mines, 
 this ore is fouml is l^ower Silurian. In these mines the principal 
 lead-bearing rock is a crystalline dolomite, from 25o to 275 feet in 
 thickness where not partially removed by erosion. The uiiper por- 
 tion of this formation is somewh:it argillaceous; the middle, a 
 very pure heavy-bidded dolomite; the lower, a similar rock, but 
 containing numerous cherty or flinty masses. This groupof strata 
 is locally known as the Upper Magnesian Limestone. It is sepa- 
 rated from a roi-k of very similar lithological character, c^'lhd 
 the Lower Magn:'si;Ln Limestone, by three groups of stratn . i^ hich 
 are commonly designated as the Blue Limestone, th<- Luff Lime- 
 stone, and the St. Peter's Sandstone. The first of thrse is a thin- 
 bedded, highly fossiliferous, purely calcareous rock; the second, a 
 heavy-bedded argillaceous dolomite: the third, a nearly chemi- 
 cally pure quartzose sandstone. The Blue Limestone is from fifty 
 to seventy feet in thickness; the Bluff, fifteen to twenty; and the 
 Sandstone, from eighty to a hundred. The Blue and the Bluff 
 limestones are of about the snme geologieiil age as the Trenton 
 and Black River groups of the New York (Toologioal Survey. 
 
 The yield of the Upper Mines is gia<lualiy diminishing; and 
 this will continue to be the ca<e, since the exte-it of the lead- 
 bearing rock is limited, and the vertical range of the crevices con- 
 fined to a moderate thickness, there being no proliability that 
 pjiying mines will be discovered iu the Lower Magnesian Lime- 
 stone. 
 
 The lead ores of Missouri occur, a.nd almost always in associa- 
 tion with those of zinc, in three somewhat distinct districts: in 
 the southeastern portion of the State, where also nickel and cobnlt 
 ores are found: in the central, and in the southwestern. The 
 mines of the Southrastern district are in the Lowr Silurian. 
 
 The numerous bad mines opened and worked in various States 
 situated in the Appalachian region, from Maine to North Caro- 
 lina, have nearly all proved unsuccessful ventures. A few have 
 for a short time produ(^ed a moderate snrtplv of this metal; one or 
 two have been quite permanent, althoui^h yielding but a very 
 small amount of lead ; while much the larger number have proved 
 entire failures. 
 
 While the Mississippi Valley lead mines have furnished, of late 
 year'*, but a small proportion of the world's supply of tliis metal, 
 the United States has largely increased its product; so that, from 
 1880 on. this country h isfurnished a quarter or more of the entire 
 amount of lead smelttd in the world. 
 
 The total yield of metallic lend throughout the United States Yield of 
 for the years 1873-87 is ?iven (in tons) in the following table, pre- metallic 
 pared by Mr. Kirchhoff * The desilverized lead of the''<'rdilleran p ad in 
 States is separated from the non-arg^'ntifenus of the Mississippi United 
 Valley, and its percentage of the total stated. The table as here States, 
 presented ext-nds back to the time when the argentiferous lead 
 ores of the country brgan to be of importance:— 
 
 
 Desilverized Lead. 
 
 Non-Ar- 
 gentiferous 
 Lead. 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Per Cent, 
 of Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1S73 
 
 1874 
 
 17,999 
 
 47.7 
 
 19,983 
 
 37.982 
 46,410 
 
 1875 
 
 31.168 
 .S3.615 
 45,3j() 
 57,401 
 .57,72i 
 
 77,1 !67 
 92.7 15 
 lll9,l.6S 
 107.112 
 95,926 
 lii2,.526 
 121 021 
 
 58.5 
 .58.8 
 62.0 
 70.6 
 69. 7 
 71.7 
 7.1,7 
 78.3 
 .84,8 
 »i.4 
 83.0 
 85.0 
 84.3 
 
 22,082 
 23,590 
 27,815 
 23,902 
 25,116 
 24,724 
 27,473 
 25,91/7 
 19.465 
 17.796 
 18.728 
 18..571 
 22.454 
 
 53.250 
 
 1876 
 
 ,57,205 
 
 1877 
 
 73.125 
 
 1S78 
 
 81.303 
 
 1879 
 
 82.839 
 
 1880 
 
 H-.HH 
 
 1881 
 
 104,540 
 
 1882 
 
 118.652 
 
 1883 
 
 12'<..533 
 
 18.84 
 
 124,!liS 
 
 18S5 
 
 1I4.I-.54 
 
 1886 
 
 r:l.l'97 
 
 18S7 
 
 14,!.1S2 
 
 The Engiueering and Mining Journal estimates the produetinn of 
 lead in the United States for the yeiir 1888 at no less than 168,700 
 tons. It is an interesting faet that Idaho is beginning to beef 
 considerable importance as a lend producing Stite. The principal 
 mines are in the Oreur d'Alene district. 
 
 To other ver.v important articles— such as lime, cement, and Non-metal- 
 biiildtng-stnne— onl.v brief allusion can here be luade.siiice their liferous 
 mo le of ocmrrence is so varied, and the manner in which they are minerals, 
 utilized so irregular, that they hardly eiune within the sc ijieof the 
 present work. Only very imperfect statisii-s cnuld be obtained in 
 regard to such materials as lime and building stunes. "t which the 
 use isso wide-spread anil so little under I'ossible ciintrol. According 
 to the estimates of the officer in charge of the division of Mining 
 Statistics of the United States Geological Survey, the value of the 
 lime and building-stone used in the country in the year 1887 was, 
 for each of these articles, greater than that of the petroleum pro- 
 duced. The item of coal alone onstitutes nearly seven-tenths of 
 the value of the non-metalliferous minerals mined; and the five 
 items of coal, petroleum, natural gas, building-stone, and lime 
 together make up fully nineteen-twentieths of the suui_ total. 
 Other important articles are: salt, of the produce of which in 1887 
 the value was S4.li9:!.84fi; cement, $5,186,877; limestone for flux in 
 the iron manufacture, 93,226,200; phosphate-rock, 31,836,818. The 
 importance of the salt manufacture in the United States is so 
 
 •Mineral Resources of the United States, for the year 1887, . 
 
8T.\TI.^Tir.S.J 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 (jreiit that space rniiy be found here for ii few reiiuoks on the 
 
 tooluk'tc.il uiovU- lit ocelli r ucc ot suit, and llie KOOKra|>liieal dbni- 
 ithuu uf the (tidt indusiry 
 
 Tiin cuiuuiuu .'*rtti ot [he world U obtainod for use in four differ- 
 ent ways: nauu ly. the evuporiition ot ihe ocean water, the evapor- 
 ation of the water of ^allhe hikes, the evaponition of talino water 
 or brine obtained by Imriiig, and the MiiniiiK ot solid or rock-.satt. 
 B*- iMch of thi'so methods salt is. or im.-* l)oen, pioduccd in the 
 Vnit d .Slates; but the third of those is at prest-nt by lur the most 
 inii"o tant source ot supply of this substance in this country. 
 
 lu ihi' e.irl.v histor.v ot iho country the salt used was in part ini- 
 poi tt^d from KuKlanil. and in p;irt prodnc d by the evuporution of 
 ife,! HiU'-r on the i>l;ind> adjacent to the coast in a Jow latitude, 
 aiol e.-ipeeially Turk'.- Inland. 
 
 The present sources of supply for copper in the I'nited States 
 are ctiielly the Lake f'upi.Tior reKion and the Territories of Mon- 
 tana and Arizona. '1 he produce of the other States is compara- 
 tively insignitieant. 
 
 The mines of Lake Superior, of the date of the oponinpr of which 
 mention has already been made, arc of a peculiar charac- 
 ter. From these mines only is copper taken e.vclusively in its 
 Dative state. 
 
 The "Cliff Mine," on Keweenaw Point, which was Wiirked 
 fr.in l^*> to I87J to a depih of ii.-arly l.'iUU feet, is of historical 
 iniportanc.' in the development of tlio mining industry of the 
 country- a-* being the first permanent deep mine worked, and as be- 
 iiij: the first mine of any ore. other than that of iron to pay rc;{ular 
 div) k-nds. The .Minnesota mine, m-ar the iJntonaRon river. wa.s 
 a otherone<»f interest, and. like mor-t of those to<he west of Ke- 
 wvfii iw I'oint, of a somewhat different character from that of the 
 Cliff mine, since the cupriferous lode ran parallel with the forma- 
 tion instead of aoross it. These longitudinal occurrt nces are, ap- 
 parently, intermediate in character between contact deposits and 
 s- t'r gated veins. 
 
 The Lake Superior region. »oon after it was first opened, in IS^'i. 
 b'-gin to prodnce I:ir*tely and for many years it supplied from 
 s»>v.-ii to nine-tenths of the copper furnished by the United 
 Stites. 
 
 The growth in the production of copper in the United States 
 c mrdU'd up to ISSvS. inclusive from the best data available, is 
 <hin\n in tUe fn Mowing table It iiroves in a striking nmnr.er how 
 prepondiratihg w;i>. until the past few years, the influence of the 
 Lake Superior di>trict ; and again of one great mine in it. the Cal- 
 wmet and the Heela. for more than a decade. In order to point out 
 more clearly bow prepondenitint: has been the output of the 
 Lake district from ls67 to 1H80, u i-<duran has been added giving 
 its perc<-n«^'e of the total product from year to year. It should 
 be srated that the yield of copper from pyrites isuot hero included. 
 
 Production of copper in the I'nited Statea from 1845 to 1885, 
 incfunive. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Total 
 
 prtKlue- 
 
 tion. 
 
 L.nke 
 Superior. 
 
 Calumet 
 
 ait<l 
 Hecln. 
 
 Percent- 
 a(;eof Lake 
 Superior 
 of total 
 product. 
 
 1815 
 
 Long tons 
 
 100 
 
 1,50 
 
 300 
 
 500 
 
 700 
 
 650 
 
 900 
 
 1.100 
 
 2.000 
 
 2.2i0 
 
 3,ft0 
 
 4,0(10 
 
 4.S00 
 
 5,.5(t0 
 
 6.300 
 
 7.200 
 
 7..5no 
 
 9.000 
 S..50(l 
 8.000 
 H..500 
 8.9110 
 10.0110 
 ll.ii(HJ 
 12.5l«l 
 12,000 
 13,0110 
 12..5O0 
 ]5„5IIO 
 17,'.00 
 l.'i.lOO 
 19.110 
 2 
 21. .510 
 2.(,(00 
 27 1 in 
 .•i2iHn 
 4ii--'fi7 
 .51 ..574 
 6 '.,.5,5.5 
 74.063 
 
 Lonff ton« 
 
 12 
 
 26 
 
 213 
 
 4<il 
 
 672 
 
 572 
 
 779 
 
 792 
 
 1.297 
 
 1.S19 
 
 2,593 
 
 3,666 
 
 4.255 
 
 4.081 
 
 3,9-5 
 
 5,:!8,S 
 
 6,713 
 
 6,ot"»5 
 
 5.797 
 
 5,.576 
 
 6.410 
 
 6,138 
 
 7.8.4 
 
 9..346 
 
 11,886 
 
 10,<.'92 
 
 11.942 
 
 10,961 
 
 13,4,33 
 
 15,327 
 
 16,IIN9 
 
 17.085 
 17.422 
 17.719 
 19.129 
 22.204 
 24.363 
 2.5.4.39 
 26.(VJ3 
 3'i,916 
 32,206 
 
 Lonp tons 
 
 12 
 
 184»i :.... 
 
 
 17 
 
 1S47 
 
 
 71 
 
 lW-1 
 
 
 92 5 
 
 1849 
 
 
 
 18-50 
 
 
 
 1&5I 
 
 
 86 6 
 
 185> 
 
 
 72 
 
 ]8>3 
 
 
 64 9 
 
 1851 
 
 
 71.1 
 
 18V> 
 
 
 86.4 
 
 18.56 
 
 
 91.6 
 
 18.57 
 
 
 81 7 
 
 l-S.^-* 
 
 
 74 3 
 
 ]\59 
 
 
 63 3 
 
 1HI» 
 
 
 74 S 
 
 1861 
 
 
 89.1 
 
 1S..2 
 
 
 67.4 
 
 ]S(V3 
 
 
 67 
 
 JSiil 
 
 
 69 7 
 
 i8ia 
 
 
 75.4 
 
 ]sfi6 
 
 
 68 S 
 
 is<;7 
 
 603 
 2,276 
 5,497 
 6.277 
 7,242 
 7.215 
 8,414 
 8.9S4 
 9.5S6 
 9.6S3 
 
 10.1 r75 
 
 11.272 
 11.728 
 14,140 
 14 000 
 ]4,:;ot 
 14. 7-8 
 17.812 
 2i.09f 
 
 78 '' 
 
 1Si» 
 
 80 6 
 
 inm 
 
 95 1 
 
 ]S70 
 
 87 2 
 
 ]S71 
 
 91 9 
 
 1872 
 
 95 7 
 
 1^73 
 
 87 3 
 
 1874 
 
 
 1875 
 
 89 4 
 
 1H76 
 
 88 9 
 
 1877 
 
 82 9 
 
 187S 
 
 82 4 
 
 1879 
 
 83 2 
 
 1880 
 
 82 2 
 
 1881 
 
 76 1 
 
 1M82 
 
 62 1 
 
 1883 
 
 50 1 
 
 1884 
 
 41 4 
 
 1885 
 
 43.5 
 
 Tlu'fiillo»m([is.iniielai|,thonutputof the LnkePuricriiirniincs. 
 lii' uiiijority ut OHM s it is ti.e olliciiil jirodiict, ba.-'cd on suu-ItitiK 
 
 In fl ..., . 
 
 wot kg returns; i 
 
 — -- lew iIl^taIlce> il i.s au oflioiiil c^titiiiil,' «)f the 
 
 initrt pioiluci b.iso.l on ihu known output ot uaiu;r:il. Tho 
 <Ma-s i.s llii' only lurk'ir mine in thi' case of which the ilk. it ivii.^ os- 
 tiiuatoci fnini the pul)lishid siHtcment of tho output of mineral. 
 Tho total is accurate, therefore, within a few thousan J pounds. 
 
 Jhe production of Lake Superior copper mines, 1880 to 1885. 
 
 Mines. 
 
 ISfO. 
 
 1881. 
 
 1882. 
 
 CaluuQet an^l Uecla 
 
 31,675.239 
 
 3,o9ii,2ti3 
 
 3.383.537 
 
 2.336,466 
 
 1.318.471 
 
 2.:M1.195 
 
 970,; 09 
 
 2,1.26.1/78 
 
 67.160 
 
 2:,3.8 4 
 
 517.1.59 
 
 6,615 
 
 43ii,OiO 
 
 3,0.(2 
 
 70.285 
 
 2.':'.,:'5:; 
 
 1.3.195 
 
 78,962 
 
 .31 ..360.781 
 
 5,.'i06.848 
 
 4,179,976 
 
 2,677.932 
 
 1.473.007 
 
 2,528,009 
 
 l,876,'il4 
 
 1,418,465 
 
 2<>,2lvl 
 
 »S6,o9l 
 
 4i 7.684 
 
 669,121 
 
 4 9.3>7 
 
 ,'.7l,8!»7 
 
 254,515 
 
 2 5.606 
 
 13'..492 
 
 79,.382 
 
 32.0,53,039 
 5,665,796 
 4,176.782 
 3,264.120 
 1.6^3,557 
 2.()31,708 
 1.412,666 
 1.3.53.,597 
 757 1 80 
 
 
 U..^eeola 
 
 
 
 
 Pywabic 
 
 tlrand Piu'taKO 
 
 (-'unglomeratc 
 
 Mas.s 
 
 734.249 
 737.440 
 
 
 Pha'nix 
 
 &t7.177 
 540,575 
 364,579 
 102.9.36 
 87.126 
 66.053 
 '.S i;"3 
 
 
 Huron 
 
 Kidgo 
 
 Saint Clair 
 
 riiff 
 
 Wolverine 
 
 
 .55„5S4 
 79.469 
 17.41.7 
 
 ll9.oii| 
 47.3 8 
 15.397 
 
 
 
 3^ 447 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 26.033 
 
 21.227 
 
 
 Brit 
 
 
 Sheldon and Columbia 
 
 26.9,31 
 3.757 
 2,951 
 
 10.031 
 
 3.299 
 3,129 
 
 
 7..500 
 
 
 
 Til nnirack 
 
 0{,'iina 
 
 Concord 
 
 .5;8,i.5' 
 
 10,464 
 10,651 
 21,1 SO 
 
 16'.776 
 
 21.819 
 
 96.8 
 
 4.. 40 
 
 l.,5-i4 
 
 4,207 
 
 
 
 Flint Steel Kiver 
 
 
 
 
 
 9i6 
 
 
 A>h lied 
 
 24,804 
 
 72,636 
 83.554 
 
 
 
 
 6,166 
 
 1.642 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 49.612,337 
 
 54..548.909 
 
 57.1.55.991 
 
 Mines. 
 
 1183. 
 
 1S84. 
 
 1885. 
 
 Calumet and Ilecla 
 
 .33,125,045 
 
 6,012.239 
 
 4,256,409 
 
 3,4.88,708 
 
 1,751 ,.377 
 
 2.t»2.197 
 
 1.171.847 
 
 1,261.556 
 
 735.,598 
 
 221'.! 17 
 
 659.474 
 
 SI 4.1 00 
 
 512.L91 
 
 4^.906 
 
 7J1.2I3 
 
 6li.l.i5 
 
 12.5.225 
 
 10.374 
 
 6<i;i.022 
 
 40,473,.585 
 5.650.436 
 4.247.630 
 3.748.6.52 
 1.921,174 
 3.163..585 
 
 227.834 
 1.44i;.747 
 
 255.81,0 
 l.i98.6'.i| 
 
 411.396 
 
 891.161 
 
 (i.;l.oo4 
 
 .562.636 
 1,927,660 
 
 74,0:iO 
 139.407 
 
 2i.2'25 
 751 .7i;3 
 
 23.867 
 
 16,074 
 
 47.247.990 
 5,148..530 
 1,945.'208 
 4,0i.7,105 
 2.170.176 
 3.512,633 
 
 t).,!Ceola 
 
 
 Atlantic .... 
 
 Pewaliic 
 
 Ccnlial 
 
 2,157.408 
 
 
 
 
 Muss. 
 
 365,000 
 
 I.l(i8.0(l0 
 
 344 3.55 
 
 
 I'hoMiix 
 
 
 2"3.037 
 
 
 Ridce 
 
 63,390 
 
 Saint Clnir 
 
 Cliff 
 
 
 AVolverino 
 
 328 610 
 
 
 28,484 
 
 I.slo Roval 
 
 
 
 
 3„582 
 26,006 
 
 6,226 
 16,402 
 
 
 National 
 
 87,368 
 
 1,144 
 
 130,851 
 
 9.828 
 
 162.2,52 
 V 668 
 
 Ii,.lt 
 
 27,433 
 
 
 
 Aztec 
 
 
 
 
 
 4.:m 
 
 1,22,5.911 
 
 4 000 
 
 Peninsula 
 
 849.400 
 7.4X5 
 3,0o0 
 
 
 
 181,6t;9 
 
 OKiraa 
 
 1,U6 
 
 12,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 9.54 
 
 1,500 
 
 Flint Steel River 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Northwestern 
 
 
 
 
 Ash Hod 
 
 
 1.517 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sundry companies— tributcre 
 
 
 21.696 
 
 S4,0O0 
 
 
 
 Total.... 
 
 .59.702.404 
 
 69.3,53,202 
 
 72.148.172 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 [statistics. 
 
 Montana is next in importance to the Lake Superior district as 
 a copper-producing legion. Theniiins are tor tii" uio.-tpart in tlie 
 neighborhood of Butte City, covering an area of two and a iialf 
 miles long by one mile wide. 
 
 Altlioufth tiiere h;is, of lute years, been a falling off in the pro- 
 duction of copper in Arizona, so that at present thi-> 'lerritoiy is 
 overshadowed ijy Lake Superior and Montiina. it appears that this 
 is due to its unfavorable situation with reference to a market, 
 rather than to any exhaustion of its cupriferous deposits, which 
 are numerous and important. 
 
 There are many localities lii the Atlantic States, from Maine to 
 North Carolina, where mining forcopiier has been attempted, but 
 in few of these has anything like a permanent payiiisc mine Ijeen 
 developed. The Vermont Copper Ciimpany. located at Vernon, 
 toas uiade, perhaps, the nearest approach to a success of any copper- 
 mining company on the eastern side of the Appalachians, since 
 operations were carried on here for many years uninterruptedly 
 and with moderate pmfit. This mine was abandoned for a time, 
 liut work has lately been resumed. The ].resent high price of this 
 metal has been a great stimulus to mining, and within the past 
 f.vv months manv bicalities which had lieen abandoned have been 
 taken hold of again by capitalists. This is true for both Eastern 
 and Cordilleran States. 
 
 The effect of this excitement will be seen in the anne-^ted table, 
 arranged and condensed from the various official reports on the 
 Mineral Resources of the United States. It affords a comprehen- 
 sive view of the progress of the copper-mining business in this 
 country daring the years 1882 to 1888; the amounts are given in 
 tons: — 
 
 
 
 CO M — ' fO 
 
 »o c^ 
 
 tr 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 1- CR CO m 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 5 s -^ 
 
 CO (M 
 
 O 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 s r: 
 
 (M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 CO lO t- ■«*< 
 
 CO CO 
 
 S ^ 
 
 CO 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OJ o 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ci <M 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 6S 
 
 
 tr~ 
 
 
 
 
 ^ tB ^ ^ 
 
 
 (M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ". 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — t GO lO "^ 
 
 CJi C-I O^i lO 
 
 -» (O 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 T-* 
 
 S 2 S ^ 
 
 3 ^ 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ O 1^ CO 
 
 o 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 S3 
 
 00 
 
 2 3 ^' g 
 
 ^ :g: 
 
 O) 
 
 
 
 
 in 'W «) tN 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .2 
 
 • * ■ t- 
 
 \ \ : ^ 
 
 S o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' • • a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g : : s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -S 
 
 
 a 1 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 II 11 
 
 •3 a 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J S < o 
 
 H ta 
 
 
 
 The total production of copper throughout the world for the 
 year 1888 has been estimated nt 2.0.^.000 tons. Of this amount a 
 little over two-fifths is to be credited to the United States.* 
 
 *Thi8 is the estimate given in the Enffineering and Mining 
 Journal of Jan. 12, 18S9, from which the figures given in the pre- 
 ceding table for the year 1888 are taken. 
 
 The following table gives the amount and value of metallic pro- 
 ducts in the United Stiites: 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 00 
 
 IT 
 
 So 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C4 
 
 
 
 o- 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 i 
 
 M 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 C-: 
 
 c: 
 
 C' 
 
 oT 
 
 S2 
 
 id" 
 
 ^ 
 
 •^ 
 
 a: 
 
 
 'a 
 > 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 g 
 
 
 CO 
 
 ^. 
 
 CO 
 
 r-t 
 
 
 
 1 ^ 1 
 
 
 
 lO 
 
 CO 
 
 c; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <rj 
 
 
 
 . o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ', -^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 oo 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 -M 
 
 (M 
 
 (D 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 r- 
 
 
 
 
 
 P*> 
 
 ■-»• 
 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 CO 
 
 M" 
 
 u? 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c5 
 
 lO 
 
 
 Tj" 
 
 o> 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t- 
 
 m 
 
 
 C- 
 
 C 
 
 
 S5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 <o 
 
 o^ 
 
 00 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ti 
 
 5< 
 
 C| 
 
 ^. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 vS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o* 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 ~ 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 ~"~ 
 
 t- 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 u: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <= 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 »c 
 
 g" 
 
 o" 
 
 t^ 
 
 t-^ 
 
 C^: 
 
 o 
 
 r-^ 
 
 r-^ 
 
 
 t~ 
 
 i 
 
 
 > 
 
 di 
 
 
 •M 
 
 o 
 
 lO 
 
 o 
 
 (M 
 
 
 
 c^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 eo 
 
 t-; 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tn 
 
 ^ 
 
 'Q 
 
 c:: 
 
 c- 
 
 C^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 iC 
 
 
 
 OT 
 
 iC 
 
 oi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 i 
 
 
 «? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _ *^ 
 
 
 <ji 
 
 c^ 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 r- 
 
 <N 
 
 ^ 
 
 <M 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >t 
 
 CM 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 I- 
 
 oo 
 
 g 
 
 eo 
 
 •0 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 C-l^ 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 CJi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Ir- 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 s" 
 
 -*< 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 cT 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 oo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 "a 
 
 c^ 
 
 s 
 
 o> 
 
 s? 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 !g 
 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 ■»! 
 
 30 
 
 
 I-; 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 C4 
 
 o 
 
 _4 
 
 c< 
 
 OJ 
 
 
 cT 
 
 
 
 
 <N 
 
 
 
 "3 
 
 > 
 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 S- 
 
 ^ 
 
 ff 
 
 £ 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 '= 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — ^' 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 m 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cS 
 
 
 <e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 «& 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lO 
 
 Cl 
 
 <c 
 
 
 o 
 
 ?5 
 
 CO 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tA 
 
 C-l 
 
 t— 
 
 t— 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 I— 
 
 
 
 
 .■: 
 
 
 
 
 iO 
 
 a^_ 
 
 CO 
 
 
 o 
 
 C-- 
 
 o 
 
 Ol 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 :^ 
 
 o 
 
 
 'O 
 
 ir 
 
 ^D 
 
 n" 
 
 r-^ 
 
 
 
 CO 1 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 t~ 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 & 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 CJ 
 
 <N 
 
 t— 
 
 I— 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 
 
 c^ 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 T- 
 
 o 
 
 c^ 
 
 
 
 u: 
 
 u; 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 ci: 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 t^ 
 
 en 
 
 **1 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 o" 
 
 o 
 
 --D 
 
 J- 
 
 
 iS 
 
 oo 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 1" 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 ■ o 
 
 C 
 
 CO 
 
 ■ c; 
 
 ■**■ 
 
 
 
 
 1 "^ 
 
 
 a 
 
 I- 
 
 QC 
 
 » 
 
 
 ir: 
 
 
 Oi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 Of 
 
 c 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lg 
 
 oo 
 
 
 *!& 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _l_^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 eo 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 >* 
 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CJ 
 
 en 
 
 o- 
 
 
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 . 
 
 
 
 
 -tl 
 
 ci 
 
 U-1 
 
 f 
 
 s 
 
 l-H 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 
 <-« 1 
 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 r^ 
 
 CO 
 
 «:: 
 
 C-: 
 
 CO 
 
 <£, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 1-^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 & 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 ffi 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 O 
 
 tc 
 
 
 
 
 
 iC 1 10 1 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 I- 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 c^ 
 
 
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 ot 
 
 t- 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 03 
 
 * i«il 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 c- 
 
 
 
 <M 
 
 
 
 
 "" 
 
 
 15 
 > 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 'JZ 
 
 c 
 
 
 cl 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^. 
 
 
 (X 
 
 (M 
 
 o_ 
 
 c= 
 
 c^ 
 
 :-- 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 •ID 
 
 o 
 
 OC 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ° 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 -5t< 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 CO 
 oo 
 
 
 *» 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '. <« 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 CI 
 
 CI 
 
 
 e^ 
 
 7^ "^ 
 
 
 
 
 c: 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 
 >, 
 
 
 C^ 
 
 ■^ 
 
 c 
 
 C-- 
 
 
 CJ 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 <=> 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 *j=_ 
 
 M 
 
 CO T 
 
 oi. 1^ 
 
 CO_ 
 
 
 cs 
 
 ^. 1 
 
 
 
 Ift 
 
 CO 
 
 
 o 
 
 cc 
 
 c<f cc 
 
 ^" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 CO 
 
 m 
 
 ir 
 
 c- 
 
 CO '* 
 
 irt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 iC 
 
 r-; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 lO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C? 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 : 
 
 : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 
 
 « ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -M 
 
 
 J^ 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 -^ 
 
 _; 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
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 T3 
 
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 t 
 
 C 
 
 3 : 
 
 3 
 
 
 V 
 
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 ai 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
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 c 
 
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 3 
 
 o 
 
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 § 
 
 c 
 
 0. 
 
 c 
 c 
 
 1 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 s 
 
 ^ 
 
 g 
 
 ■i 5 
 
 
 
 
 CJ 
 
 13 
 
 c 
 
 
 t, 
 
 r^I 
 
 
 
 a H 
 
 
 
 Ml 
 
 CO 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 '3 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 < 
 
 0. 
 
 3 
 < 
 
 As will be seen from the table given farther on, the proihiction Salt, 
 of suit in Ohio and Virginia, at the present time, is inu h less 
 than that of Michigan and New York. The advantatie> which the 
 two last-named States offer are, on the whole, decidedly superior 
 to those of the former; so that the production of (.)hio has re- 
 mained nearly stationary during the last six years, while that of 
 the Kanawha Valley, once the most important salt-producing 
 region in thecountry, has during that time decidedly decreased, bo 
 that at present it is hardly one-tenth as large as that of New York, 
 and less than one-seventeenth of that of Michigan. 
 
 The quantity of rock-salt which has I ■ n sluiwn by geological 
 observation, or proved by the drill, to exi.-t within the limits oi 
 the United States is very large. To the existence of large bodies 
 of this material in Western New York and Michigan allusion has 
 already been made. Salt has also recently been discovered in 
 Kansas, by persons engaged in prospecting for oil and gas, in 
 several localities, and in quantities said to be large. Neither in 
 Kansas nor in any of the States mentioned as important pro- 
 
iT\TISTirS.] 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 duoors of salt, has tho mininK for rock-salt been of an^ importance 
 up to the itrcsent time A locality wln-io this matt'rml occurs in 
 liiFKe quantity, iimi tho fxistenci' of nhich htis been known for a 
 lonp time, inimelyj Potito Ansf. an isUiid in Vermilion Bay, oti 
 tho coa,<t of Louisiana, and \vhich U'came of importnneo during 
 tlip (Mvil War. is now quiti* f\(otisivt'Iy workt-ti, and is the only 
 source from which salt is obiaintd to any extent in Louisiana. 
 Tho MUiuUity mined af this localitv has risen, from 276,000 barrels 
 In 1S8J, to over iUiMiOii in 1XS7. 
 
 Unok-salt also oeeurs in huK«' quantity in various portions of tho 
 C<ndilleran region, an-l it has been mined at some localities both 
 for household and metallurgical purposes. A deposit h:is been 
 loriK known to exist on the Hio Virijcn. in Lincoln County, Nevada, 
 whore tho salt appears to occur in very lark'0(iuantity, it beini;— as 
 is stfttwl — exposed in a canon out thmutih ii for a distance of two 
 miles, tho deposit occnpyintr an extensive area, with an unknown. 
 but certiiinlv very considentble thickness. There are^also large 
 deposits of iliis niin<Tal in Utah, especially in San Pete I'ounty. 
 near tho town of Nophi. Most of the salt used in that Stato at 
 present, however, comes from tlie suit-farms around Salt Lake. 
 
 The foIlowiiiB table gives, in barrels, the amount of salt pro- 
 ductd in the United States from 1SS3 to 1S77:*— 
 
 States. 
 
 1883. 
 
 1884. 
 
 1885. 
 
 1S86. 
 
 1887. 
 
 Mieht^n 
 
 New \ork... 
 Ohio 
 
 2.«94.fi72 
 1.619.4S6 
 3.5i,(]U0 
 .320.000 
 26x215 
 2l4,2sii 
 117.143 
 21.429 
 400,000 
 
 3.161.806 
 1.788.454 
 320.000 
 310.000 
 223.9'4 
 178.571 
 114.2-5 
 17.857 
 409,000 
 
 3.297.403 
 2.304.7.ST 
 306.S47 
 223.184 
 2il9.271 
 221.428 
 107.140 
 2S.393 
 250,000 
 
 3.677,257 
 2.431.563 
 400,000 
 2,50,000 
 299,691 
 2I4.2S5 
 161,285 
 30,000 
 240,000 
 
 3.944,309 
 
 2,*)3..ibO 
 
 365.001) 
 
 West Virginia 
 LotiisiftDa — 
 Ciilifornia — 
 I till 
 
 22.'i.(10fl 
 
 341.093 
 
 28.000 
 
 325,li0i) 
 
 Nt'Trtiia 
 
 Other States.. 
 
 ■■256,000 
 
 Total 
 
 6,192.231 
 
 6,514.937 
 
 7,038,653 
 
 7,707,081 
 
 7.831,962 
 
 The astonishing rapidity with which the mineral and metallif- 
 erous resources of the C<»rdiUeran region have been developed 
 during the past thirty years will have been made apparent lo tho 
 reader who has examined tho preceilinj? paKOs. In 1854 the pres- 
 ent writer estimated the total value of tho metals produced in tho 
 United States at S7;i.K27.rW. of wlnoh nearly 8.^0.000,00(1 was to bo 
 Credited to goUl.t The change which has taken place since that 
 time will be seen on examining tho folh'winK tables, which give, 
 in compact form, results obtaine<i iiud i)ublished by the Chief of 
 tho Division of Mining Statistics, of tho United States Geological 
 
 *By W. A. Kaborg, in Mineral Repources of the United States 
 for the year 1SS7, p. 611. A barrel is five bushels of fifty-six 
 pounds each. 
 
 t?ee Metallic Wealth of the United States, pp. 505-510. 
 
 Survey. The first table shows the total value of tho non-uietallio 
 prodaets of the United States for the years 1H82 to 1K'^7, and also 
 the grand total of both metallic and non-met illie iroiiuets for tho 
 sauio years. The second shows thejimotint and value ol the metal- 
 lic products of the United States U>r the years 1SN2-H7. The valuo 
 of tho iron is tho spot value; that td" tho gold and silver, the coin- 
 ing value; thatof the copper had, and zinc, the value at New 
 York; that of the quicksilver, the value at San Francisco: — 
 
 4 s s 
 
 Si r-i 
 
 s *- 
 
 S §8 S 
 
 q n s 
 
 Ci CO 
 
 s ^ 
 
 
 a 
 
 PART III. rOLITICAL GEOGRAPHY AND STATISTICS. 
 
 POPl'LATION ANP IMMlcrtATIOX. 
 
 Tho first census of tho United States was taken in 1790, and 
 ther<^ has been ono taken every tenth year sineo that time. The 
 following table shows th'' absolute number of inhabitants, '* ex- 
 cluding Indians not t'lxed." at each deeonnial period, and also 
 the rate per cunt, of increase during the previous ten years: 
 
 Year. Population. Percentage of 
 
 Increase. 
 
 1790 3,929.214 
 
 ISOO 5.30S.433 a^.l 1 
 
 1810 7.229.881 3ti.40 
 
 182«^ 9,rj;«,822 33.06 
 
 1H30 12.8(16,020 33,55 
 
 1<I0 17.0.;9.i-^ 32.67 
 
 18.50 23.191,876 35.86 
 
 ISHi 31 ;443.32l 35.58 
 
 1S70 38.558.371 22.63 
 
 1880 50.155.7S3 30.08 
 
 1890 C3.2.;i.428 estimate. 
 
 Growth of .T^*' effect of the Civil War on the growth of population in tho 
 »'Pulation. ^'^''®^ States is easily seen in the dinunished ratio of increase 
 shown by tho figures for the deciido lsGO-1870. With that excep- 
 tion the rate has been extraordinary largo and uniform, but loss 
 in the decade 1870-S(I than in any preceding one. That this rapid 
 growth of tho population, due in so large a part to immigration, 
 will continue to be maintained is in the hiKU>-st degree improb- 
 able. Tho fact that nearly the whole of the more viiluable por- 
 tion of the public lands has been already taken up, as will bo seen 
 farther on, can hardly fail to check immigration, althrtugh the 
 population, is at present, far from dense, and far from being go 
 larice that there is not ample room for a much larger number. 
 
 The area embrnC'-d within tho United States at tho time of tak- 
 Big the first census was aboat eight hundre<l and fifty thousand 
 |(|uare miles, a precise statement of tho amount being impossilde, 
 • wing to the peculiar wording of that part of the treaty in which 
 ihe northern and western boundaries of tho country are defined. 
 
 The density of the population at that time was about 4.6 persone 
 per square mile, this population being almost exclusively confined 
 lo tho Atlantic sea-botird. At that time nt)t more than five per 
 cent, of tho inhabitants of the country lived west of the Appala- 
 chian range, the settlements being very closely limited to the bor- 
 ders of the navigable streiMUs, .At the tinio of taking the census of 
 1*^50. the iMiuiidaries of the United Mates had become definitely es- 
 tjihlish.d. the only addition made since that time being the terri- 
 tory acquire<l in 1853 by the (iadsen purchase (about ■t7,;i30 square 
 miles). At that time the average density ol the population of the 
 whole country was a little less than eight persons per square 
 mile. 
 
 Tho following table shows the density of the population at the ^ 
 epoch of eacii census which has been Inken during th>' time when 
 the area of tho country renniined (with the exceptiou of tho pur- 
 chase of Ahu*ka, not hero included) unchanged:— 
 
 Y'ear. Area of U. S. Population per 
 
 sq. mile. 
 
 1860 3,025.600 10.39 
 
 1870 " 12.74 
 
 1880 ** 16.57 
 
 Tho movement of tho population ha.s. from tho beginning, boon Movennnt 
 from the east tnward tlio we^t. the first settlements haying been of popuhi- 
 inade on the Atlantic<'oast. and the emigration to the United Stutos tiou. 
 having been almost exidusively from European countries. The 
 Pacific coa.>it had. previously to the annexation of California, re- 
 ceived a small number of whites eoniing from Mexico, and sineo 
 that timetliore have bet n some aec'ssions to th>'pi'pulution in that 
 region by moans of cmittration frum China; but the number added 
 from this direction is almost insignificant in compari.->on with that 
 which has come into tho country from the east, llenco the center 
 of i>opulation hns been moving westward, and the investigationa 
 of the Coast Survey and of the Census Bureau have shown that this 
 movement has been in an almost exactly westerly direction, and 
 that tho center of population has always reninined very near tho 
 parallel of 39°. In 1790 it was in the latitude 30° 16' .5. at a 
 point of about twenty-three miles east of Baltimore; in lB80it 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 [statistics. 
 
 vfis eight miles west by south frnm CinL-iimRti, in latitude 39° 
 4.1,' having moved westwitrd 457 miles in umety ye;ns. The most 
 southeiiv point leached was that of ]b30, wh'-n ttu' ct^nter vriis in 
 latitude 38*^ 57'. 9; the lUDSt rapid movement was in the p'rioil 
 lS5ii-'JU — iiamt-Iy, eighty-one miles, thi:? being due to the rapid 
 tran'«fer ■>£ a considerable population from the Eastern to tlie 
 Patiitic States, consequent on the discovery of the gold of Cali- 
 fornia 
 
 The division of the population by sexes, as shown by the c nsus 
 of ISSU, was as follows: 
 
 Males 2.5,518,820 
 
 Females 24,636.9(53 
 
 The number of females for each 100,000 males in 1870 and 1S80 
 was as follows ; 
 
 1870. 1880. 
 
 Number of females to 100.000 males 96,514 97,801 
 
 editions As n natural result of the conditions influencing emigration 
 l;ie cing from the older to the newer States, it is found that females ure in 
 imlatiou. exeess in the Atlantic States. In the Di,striet of Columbia, 
 Rhode l.^laud and .Massachusetts, the excess of females over males 
 is five pcT cent, or more; in Connecticut. New llamiishire. North 
 Carolina, South Carolina. New York, Virginia and Alabama, it is 
 from two and a half to five per cent. ; in Maryland, (ieorgia. New 
 Jersey, Louisiana, Tennessee, Pennsylvania and Maine it is less 
 than two and a half percent. The States, on the <ither hand, in 
 which the males are considerably in excess of the females, are those 
 eituat" d in the Cordilleran region, where mining is the chief imr- 
 suit, and where the conditions of life are such as are mur<' easily 
 borne by men than by women. In Michigan. Minnesota. Kansas 
 and N braska, which are not Cordilleran States, but. which are 
 on the -xtreme nortliern, western or southwestern borders of the 
 Central region, the numberof femah^s is from eighty to ninety per 
 cent, of thatnf the males, Hnd New Mexico is in the sanie category. 
 Ip the Pacific co:isr States the number of females is from fifty to 
 eightv per cent that of the males: and the same is true of Colorado 
 and Dakota, which are situated on the'eastern bordi*rsof the Rocky 
 Mountnin , arid which are partly agricultural and partly mining 
 States. In those States in which mining and stock raising are by 
 far the prcdominatiiiK interests, and which are entirely inclosed in 
 the Cordill ras. namely, Idaho, Nevada, Wyoming and Montana, 
 the inequility in the numbers of the sexes is greatest, there 
 bi-iuK in thf?;e territories less than half as many females as males. 
 The sMine ini quality exists in the territory of Arizona. 
 
 Of the colored population the census of 1880 showed the num- 
 ber to b- 6..".S0,793 to 43.402.970 whites, or 15.162 colored in every 
 IOO.OIpO whites. The slight increase in this ratio from that given 
 by the cen;^us of 1S70 (14,528 to lUU.O(lO) is believed to be chiefly, 
 if not entirely, due to the imperfection of the census of 1S70. 
 The colored population is still, in spite of some slight emigration, 
 almost eiirin-ly confined to theformerslaveStat.es. and in three 
 of them-Sonth C-.irolina, Mississippi and Louisiana— the colored 
 are in access of the whites. In Alabama, Florida. Georgia. Vir- 
 ginia, North Carolina and the District of Columbia the colored 
 element runs from fifty to ninety per cent, of the white; in Ar- 
 kansas. Texas. Tennessee and Maryland, from twenty-nine to 
 thirty-five per cent; in Delaware and Kentucky, from nineteen 
 to twentv-two percent; in Missouri. Kansas. West Virginia, New 
 Jersey, Ohio. Rhode Island, Pennsylvania and Indiana, from two 
 to 7 percent; in all the remaining States it is less thaa two pT 
 cent.; and in most of them, especially the more northern ones, it 
 is less than one per cent. 
 
 Distribution of thr Population op the United States in 1830, 
 
 r BY DrAINAOE BaSINS. 
 
 Drainage Basin. 
 
 .Area in sq. 
 miles. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per aq, mile. 
 
 New England Coa-'t. . 
 Miildle Atlantic Coast. 
 South Atlantie Coast.. 
 
 (treat Lakes 
 
 Gulf of Mexico 
 
 6I.S.S0 
 83.IJ2C1 
 I.')2.fi40 
 17.i,340 
 1,725.980 
 
 3,788,334 
 
 9.240,897 
 
 4,114.563 
 
 . 5.6'*4.U7 
 
 25.884,117 
 
 61.2 
 111 3 
 31.2 
 32.4 
 14.9 
 
 Total Atlantic... 
 Great Basin 
 
 2,173,210 
 
 22-.1.W 
 019.240 
 
 48,717,293 
 
 227,1 Ii7 
 1,211,383 
 
 22.4 
 1.0 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 3,023,61:0 
 
 5'',155,783 
 
 
 
 
 The distribution of the population in reference to the topo- 
 graphical and climatic features of the country is &uch as naturally 
 arises from the constant operation of two causes, both acting in 
 the same direction. Emigration and overflow from a more thickly 
 pettled region toward one more thiidy inhabited takes place, with 
 insignificant exceptions, from the east toward the west. Immi- 
 grants arrive from Europe, are landed on the Atlantic coast- 
 about three-fourths at one point, Now York— and thence in largo 
 
 part find their way westward in the direction of lands unoccupied 
 or only thinly settled. To the east of the Mississippi the land is al- 
 most everywhere exceptionally fertile, and the climatic condi- 
 tions are, oyer a large area, as ei:plained elsewhere, very much 
 the same, and on the whole highly favorable. Soonafier crossing 
 the Mississippi, we find that thif^ tavoiiible condition ot things 
 begins to change. Notonlyis t,he immigrant getting farther ai,d 
 farther from his home, but he is finding his environment h'ss . nd 
 lets suited to the devtdopment of those conditions which favor 
 the exi.-tence of a dense population. Never, by any po.-.-ibility, 
 can the region of small rainfall, and, in large part, of rugged 
 mountains, extending from the first belt of Stntes beyond the 
 Mississippi to the belt lying directly on the Pacific coit t. become 
 a densely populated portion of the country. Thi.'-dryt-i r gion 
 is also the most elevated, as has already been fully explained. 
 The results of the conditions thus indicated are sufficiently showr 
 in the above table and the following: 
 
 Geographical Distribution OF the Population of the Jnited 
 States in Accordance with the Topographical Features. 
 
 North Atlantic Coast 
 
 Middle Atlantic Coast 
 
 South Atlantic Coast 
 
 Gulf Coast 
 
 Northeastern Appaladiian Region 
 
 Central Appalachian Region 
 
 Region of the (Jreat Lakes 
 
 Interior Table-land 
 
 Southern Appalachian Region 
 
 Ohio Valley 
 
 Southern Interior Table-land 
 
 Missi.'sippi River Beit, south 
 
 Mi-si ssippi River Belt, north 
 
 Southwestern Central Region 
 
 Central Region 
 
 Prairie Region 
 
 Missouri River Belt 
 
 Western Plains 
 
 Heavily Timbered Region of the Northwest 
 
 Cordilleran Region- 
 
 Pacific Coast- 
 
 
 Prrcent- 
 
 Population. 
 
 a;:e of 
 ■lota! 
 
 
 P<ipulat'n 
 
 2,616,882 
 
 5.2 
 
 4,375,194 
 
 8.7 
 
 875,3.s7 
 
 1.7 
 
 1,055,851 
 
 2.1 
 
 1.669.226 
 
 3.3 
 
 2.344,223 
 
 4 7 
 
 3,049470 
 
 6.1 
 
 5,716,326 
 
 11.4 
 
 2.695.085 
 
 5.4 
 
 2.442.792 
 
 4.9 
 
 3,627,478 
 
 7.2 
 
 710,L6S 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.991,362 
 
 4.0 
 
 2,932.807 
 
 5.8 
 
 4,401,246 
 
 8.8 
 
 5,722.485 
 
 11.4 
 
 8.35,445 
 
 1.7 
 
 323,819 
 
 0.7 
 
 1.122,337 
 
 2,2 
 
 932.311 
 
 1.9 
 
 715.789 
 
 1.4 
 
 Tlie larger divisions of the country are represented as follows, 
 both aa to the aggregate population and its different elements: — 
 
 Region. 
 
 Atlantic Plain 
 
 Central Valley 
 
 Appalachian Region 
 Cordilleran Region . 
 
 Percentage of Population. 
 
 Total Foreign. Colored, 
 
 29.84 
 .53 60 
 13 38 
 3.28 
 
 32.74 
 51.62 
 8.40 
 7.24 
 
 40.50 
 
 50.02 
 
 7.22 
 
 2.26 
 
 In regard to the distribution of the population of the United 
 States in towns and cities, and the positions of those centres, tho 
 following may be stated : — 
 
 In 1790 there were in the country four cities having a population 
 of from 8.000 to 20.000 and two above 211,000. but not one surpassing 
 75 000 in number. Fifty years later, there were forty-four towns 
 and cities having a population of 8,000 and over, and one of about 
 500.000. In 1880 there were 2S6 towns with over 8,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The following statement gives the names and population of aU 
 the cities having, in 1890, a population of over 100,000: — 
 
 Over 1.000,000. Population 
 
 Name. j„ ]h9(,_ 
 
 New York 1,.51.3.,tOI 
 
 Chicago I.0HK..576 
 
 Philadelphia 1,044,894 
 
 Over .500,000 and Under 1,000,000. 
 Brooklyn 804.377 
 
 Over 2.50,000 and Bklow 500,000. 
 
 St. Louis 460,357 
 
 Boston 446,.507 
 
 Baltimore 433,6.39 
 
 San Francisco, Cal 297,990 
 
 Cincinnati 296,309 
 
 Cleveland. Ohio 261,546 
 
 Buffalo, N.Y 255,54.'i 
 
STATISTK'S.] 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 OvKH lOO.uCO AM) Bklow :»i.OOO. 
 
 NfW Orl.nus. La 24 1 .995 
 
 J'iUsburt.', I'oiiii 2;i^.47.i 
 
 Woshinuton, I). C -J-Jf.lGii 
 
 Detroit. Micii 21 T.Till 
 
 Milwunki'i'. Wis 2i 3.!i7'.» 
 
 Nowa k. N. J 1^2.120 
 
 Loui.-ville. Kv IM.T.'ii; 
 
 iMiiini'aitolis. .MiDti li>4.7H(l 
 
 Jersey t'itv N. .1 Ii..1,iis7 
 
 Roihestor. .\. Y I:5.:i02 
 
 liiniihB. Xcb 1;j4.T42 
 
 Si. I'.iul. Minn 1:«.I.tI) 
 
 I'Mvi.k'nco. R. 1 132.043 
 
 Denver, C'lil liG.ISti 
 
 lndiiin!ip,.lis. In.1 12.'>.li(0 
 
 KttTisii.-; Cltv. .\I<> K5.ii()U 
 
 AllcKbuny City. Pa 104,9(i7 
 
 Over V>.(m and Bklow lOO.dOO. 
 
 Scrnnton, Pa 9",.0c 
 
 Allvmv. S. Y gi.Sii 
 
 Niw Hiivin. Ct W.i'Sl 
 
 Wc^rcoster, AlHss 82.1."> 
 
 UiL'hinoml Wi.:'< 
 
 Pat.TSon, X.J 78.300 
 
 Memphis. Tonn 7o..3(iO 
 
 The Ci'nsiis nf mso fhowcd that of the total populntion. .'iO.lM.TSS, 
 there were tj,67i'.14 i born in foreiKii eoiintries. or l.">.3r>4 iter.'^ons 
 fon-iBners to loO.Odii native born: this ratio was n little less thiin 
 in 1?*70, when the uunibrr of foreiKn-born was Hi ^75 to loii.oou 
 niitive. 
 .Vn-nbor of The following tables sh-tw the miinbcr of iimuiprants arriving in 
 tni MiifniDt.s tile ITniti' J States for each (l.'entic from 1H21 to l-SSO, ami for each 
 i^ing in year from ;HS1 to 18^7 Tiie yearly average tluring each decade 
 it.il ros- rapidly, from 14.:il4 in the dcca.l." 1^21-30 to 2SI4.469 for the 
 
 u'S. df-eade l^-'HSO. The numb T of immiKnmts for the year 1881 was 
 
 more than 'wiee as (treat as the yearly aveni^'e of the preeedint; 
 doea le. The maximum was reaehed in 1S82, when the number of 
 immigrants reaehed 730.319. from whieh time forward there wns n. 
 falling off. the figures in 1SS5 being ^i^O.-MO. A portion of this 
 apparent decrease seems to be due to the fiict that the fftatisties of 
 the irainigrarion by land Irom Canada and .Mexico— the latter very 
 sm-ill in amount, howevi-r — could not h^ collected; so that since 
 Julv 1. ls^.■), arrivals of this kind have been excluded from the 
 tab! -s of immigration. In the first table herewith given, the 
 nttionalitv of the immigration is only imperfectly given, the 
 British Islands being S'-paratcd from the rest of Kuro[)e. and the 
 figures also being for China. As will be noticed, the immigration 
 from Kuror>e and China m;tdi' up about five-sixths of the totnl 
 during the decade 1871-80. But in the decode IS.'il-CO the immi- 
 gration frora Earoi»e made up twenty four twenty-fifths of the 
 tot.d. that from China b'-ing praet'cally null. The apparent in- 
 crea.^e of iniiniitration trion extra-Kuroiicmi countries indicateil 
 in th-! table foi 'he deoides >ince IsiVi is chiefly <lue to the rapid 
 increase of iinuiigntion into the United rotates from the adjacent 
 Dominion: but this is made uj) in ruirt of per>ons who have come 
 to the United States from l^urope by way of Canada: 
 
 
 
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 [In this ami the followinj:; t:iblc notirf must bo tiikcn of the fnct 
 tlijit tor the ]ii>t. Imltuf IS-S.' a[i«l f'.rl^s6 nml iss" the imir.igration 
 from Liritif^h Nurih AmcrioaanJ Akxico is not included ] 
 
 Still further Hpht will he thrown on this suhjt-ot by the follow- 
 intr tubhr, in which the natiiniality of tlu- iiuniij-'nttioii into tho 
 United States is piven in cunsidemble detail for tho years 1881 to 
 18S7. in porcontiigt'S of the totiil amount. From tliis table it will 
 be sot'ii that (lermany has furnished durinj; the past seven years 
 somewhat less than one-thinl of the total iinniiKration ; (Jreat 
 Uritain and Ireland somewhut more ihnn a (lUarter; Norway ami 
 Sweden abovit a tenth: Hriu>h North America about a tenth; Aus- 
 tro-lIunKiiry a little over six per ectit; Kus^la (iiK'luilinf,' Poland), 
 frorn four to five p r cent; and 1 tal>' nearly the name. These nation- 
 alities tojretiier have furnished dnriitf,' the past t-\x years nbout 
 ninety-five per rent of the total. Tli'- imnii;:ralion from Italy and 
 Russia shows a moderately rapid, but pretty uniform, incrcusu 
 from year to year: — 
 
 Percentaok Tablk Showino thk Nationality of Immigrants 
 INTO THK United States for the Years 1881-87.* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1881. 
 
 1882. 
 
 1883. 
 
 1884. 
 
 of inimi 
 grants. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 I.T.IO 
 9 S.) 
 
 a 92 
 
 .27 
 
 1.24 
 
 .78 
 
 Jl.Bfi 
 
 2.79 
 
 \.W 
 
 11.61 
 
 2.01 
 
 .06 
 
 1.62 
 
 .00 
 
 2.87 
 
 13.22 
 
 .54 
 
 12.11 
 
 9.99 
 4.10 
 
 .1.5 
 1.75 
 
 .76 
 31.80 
 4.l« 
 l.l'S 
 12 00 
 3.07 
 
 .66 
 1.62 
 
 .06 
 4.87 
 11.90 
 
 .65 
 
 12,92 
 
 14,67 
 
 .5.30 
 
 .29 
 
 1,71 
 
 .70 
 
 32.33 
 
 5.18 
 
 .86 
 
 9.45 
 
 1.78 
 
 .16 
 
 2.00 
 
 .06 
 
 .07 
 
 11.74 
 
 .78 
 
 13.69 
 
 12.70 
 
 6.81 
 
 .37 
 
 1.65 
 
 .80 
 
 33.72 
 
 3.14 
 
 .81 
 
 8.22 
 
 4.3? 
 
 .11 
 
 1.78 
 
 .23 
 
 .02 
 
 10.3? 
 
 1.25 
 
 
 AiiStro-lIuiigary 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Jermanv 
 
 
 Italy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O'her European Countries 
 
 
 Briti>h North America . ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 [the public lands. 
 
 Pkkcentage Table Showing the Nationality op Immigrants 
 INTO THE United States foh the Years 18>i5-87.* 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Irelaiul 
 
 Austri) Hungary 
 
 Lflgium 
 
 Deumurk 
 
 FniicL' 
 
 Germany 
 
 Italy 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Norway and Sweden 
 
 Russia 
 
 Spain and Portugal 
 
 Bwitzerland 
 
 Oth'-r European Countries, 
 
 Ohimi 
 
 British North America 
 
 All Other Couutries 
 
 1885. 
 
 15.92 
 14.21 
 7.31 
 
 .39 
 l.tiT 
 
 .i«J 
 30.72 
 4.42 
 
 .71 
 9.47 
 5.72 
 
 .2(5 
 1.46 
 
 .19 
 
 .02 
 5.22 
 1.41 
 
 1S86. 
 
 18.7'' 
 
 13.47 
 
 10.22 
 
 .42 
 
 1.69 
 
 1.114 
 
 21.96 
 
 7.78 
 
 .68 
 
 11.73 
 
 8.45 
 
 .13 
 
 1.15 
 
 .64 
 
 .00 
 
 1.89 
 
 100.00 100.00 100.00 
 
 1887. 
 
 20.64 
 
 14,06 
 
 7.56 
 
 .58 
 
 1.80 
 
 1.08 
 
 21.53 
 
 8.99 
 
 1.02 
 
 13.46 
 
 5.95 
 
 Ml 
 
 1.26 
 
 .25 
 
 .00 
 
 1.81 
 
 Percentage 
 iajrease of 
 native 
 wtiite 
 element. 
 
 The immigration into the United States is very unequally dis- 
 tributed over the siirfiice of the country. An inspection of the 
 census tables and the accompanying maps shows; that immigrants 
 in very largtj proportion seek Northern regions. In the Southern 
 States, with the exceptions of Florida, Louisiana, and Texas, the 
 foreign element is practically null. Virginia, North Carolina, 
 South Carolina, Alabanm, Georgia, and Mississippi have less than 
 one per cent of foreign-born populatiun; and no State south of 
 Pennsylvania and the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi has 
 as much as four per cent. In the belt of States between the 
 parallels of 41° and 45°. on tho other hand, the foreign element is 
 most strongly represented. Tlius in Massachusetts. Connecticut, 
 Khode Island, New York, Michigan. Wisconsin, Minnesota, and 
 Dakota the fon.-ign-liorn population is over twenty five per cent of 
 the native, and in the two last-named States over fifty per cent. 
 Iowa. Nebraska, and Kansas, forming a bidtof States extending 
 Fouthwesterly from Wisconsin and Minnesota to the 37th parallel, 
 have a foreign-born population ranging between ten and twenty- 
 five per cent of the native, except in the case of Nebraska, where 
 the foreign ia a little over twenty-five per cent. In some of the 
 thinly inhabited States farther west the fonign clement is still 
 more prominent, as in Colorado. Utah, Nevada, Arizona, and Cali- 
 fornia. In Nevarla, for example, according to the census of 1880, 
 the foreign-born inhabitants were lo the natives in the ratio of 
 70.065 to lOU.OoU. But it must be remembered in this connection 
 that the entire population of Nevada at that time was only H2,2ii6, 
 and that of Arizona 40.440. In no State or Territory docs the 
 foreign element equal the native, and only in Nevada, Arizona. 
 L)akota, Minnesota, and California is it more than half as large, 
 while in the two last-named States it is but litt'e more than half. 
 Texas forms an exception to the other- Southern vStates, the foreign 
 element being of importance, especially in the southwestern por- 
 tion of the State. The State as a whole has. however, only a little 
 less than eight per cent of foreign-bnrn inhabitants. 
 
 The percentage increase of the native white element of the popu- 
 lation was. for the three decades 1851-80, as follows:— 
 
 1851-60 32.35 
 
 1861-70 22 .95 
 
 1871-80 3 L 25 
 
 Early in 1882 an Act was passed by Congress suspending Chinese 
 immigration into the United States for the term of twenty years. 
 This was vetoed by the President, antl another one was passed 
 having nearly the same provisions as the first, but limiting the 
 time of its operation to ten years. This Act was not vetoed; but 
 became a law I\Iay H. ]8S2. This S'-coud Act is entitled "An Act 
 to execute certain treaty stipulations relating to Chinese." From 
 and after ninety days after the passage of this Act the entrance 
 of Chinese *' laborers " into the United States was forhiilden, and 
 any master of a vessel bringing them here was punishable by a 
 fine of S50i> for each laborer so brought, and also by im- 
 prisonment for a term not exceeding one year. The pretext 
 for this unprecedented Act was "that the' coming of Chinese 
 laborers to this conntry endangers the good order of certain 
 localities" within^ the territory of the United States. The 
 term "laborers" was held to mean "both skilled and un- 
 skilled laborers, and Chinese employed in mining." 
 
 Further legislation relating to the exclusion of the Chinese from 
 the United States was had by Congress in ISSS. The two Acts were 
 passed, the first having been approved Sept. 13, 1888, and a second. 
 Bupplementary to this. Oct. 1. of the same year, The object of 
 these two Acts was to prevent the Chinese who were then in the 
 United States from returning after having left this country. 
 The first Act. (approved Sept. 13) allowed a native of China to re- 
 
 *The immigration into the United States arriving at the six 
 principal ports (embracing about ninety-eight [ter cent of the en- 
 tire immigration) was, for the first nine months of the year 1888, 
 ■432.802, a slight increase over that of the corresponding months of 
 the preceding year. 
 
 turn, provided he had a " lawful wife, child or parent within the 
 United States, or ftroperty therein of the value of one thousand 
 dollars, or debts of like amount due him and pending settlement." 
 This privilege was entirely cancelled by the supplementary Act, 
 approved Oct. 1 : and as the matter now stands, only " Chinese oflS- Exclusion 
 cials, teachers, students, merchants, or travelers for pleasure or of Chinese 
 curiosity are permitted to enter the United States." Furthermore, 
 it is provided that in order to becom/ entitled to such entrance 
 they must " obtain the permission of the Chinese Government 
 or other Government of which they may at the time b© 
 citizens or subjects." This permission, and the personal 
 identity of the party having obtained it, must be au- 
 thenticated by the diplomatic or consular representative 
 of the United States at the port or place from which the 
 party comes. It is further provided that any master of a vt ssel 
 landing, or attempting to land.any Chinese laborer, "in contraven- 
 tion to the provisions of this Act, shall be deemed guilty of a mis- 
 demeanor, and, on conviction thereof, shall be punished with a 
 fine of not less than five hundred nor more than one thousand dol- 
 lars, in the discretion of the Court, for every Chinese laborer or 
 other Chinese person so brought, and may also be imprisoned for a 
 term of not less than one year, nor more than five years, in the dis- 
 cretion of the Court." 
 
 Provisions have also been made by Act of Congress for the regu- 
 lation of the immigrant earryingbusine^s, and rubs have been pre- 
 scribed as to food, water, light, space occupied, etc. A tax of 
 fifty cents is also iuijiosed on all immigrants landing in this coun- 
 try to be used "in defraying the expense of regulating immigra- 
 tion under this Act. and for the care of immigiants arriving in • 
 the United States, for the relief ot such as are in distress, etc."* 
 
 By an Act of Congress, approved Aug. 3, 1882, it is provided that Rules for 
 no convict, lunatic, idiot, or person " unable to take care of him- iiumi- 
 self or herself without becoming a public charge " shall be permit- grants, 
 ted to land. Under the provisions of this Act it appears that from 
 1883 to Sept. 25, 18>'8, 7,764 immigrants had been returned from the 
 United States to their own countries— or an average of about 1,3U0 
 persons a year. Of those thus returned from 1883 to 18^8 inclu- 
 sive, there were 27 convicts, 371 lunatics, and 131 idiots. The re- 
 mainder (7,235 persons) were returned as" liable to become a pub- 
 lic charge."! 
 
 THE PUBLIC LANDS. 
 
 The emigration from Europe and other countries consists 
 largely of people seeking homes in the New World; and this want 
 is chiefly supplieil by the purchase of government land — " public 
 lands," as usually designated by the authorities — that is. of such 
 land as is offered for sale by authority of thetieneraHioverument, 
 under the direction of the General Land Office — a branch or sub- 
 department of the Department of the Interior. It is desirable. Extent 
 therefore, that the way in which the General Government came in s-n^ 
 possession of these land^ should be briefly stated, and some idea position, 
 given of their extent and position. 
 
 The boundaries of the United States as fixed by the provisional 
 treaty made with Great Britain in 1782, and by the definitive 
 treaty in 1783. gave to the United States essentially the region 
 south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi, as far south 
 as the parallel of 31°: and the southern boundary east of the Miss- 
 issippi, as thus established, nearly ahmg the 31st parallel, was, in 
 1795. re-affirmed by treaty with Spain, by which the line between 
 the United States and the Floridas was fixed; but difficulties soon 
 arose in regard to the northern boundary, both in its eastern and 
 western portions, which wei e, during many years, the subject of 
 heated discussion, and which more than once threatened to in- 
 volve the two countries. Great Britain and tlie United States, in 
 war. The most important points, were, however, peaceably set- 
 tled in 1846. and the last point in dispute finally disposed of, by 
 reference to the Emperor of Germany ns arbitrator, in 1872. 
 
 At the time of the adoption of the Constitution by the original 
 thirteen States, most of thein had <?laims. rather vague, and in 
 many cases decidedly conflicting, to a more or less indefinite area 
 of country west of their settlements, and extending back to the 
 Mississippi River. After much discussion, the States having 
 these claims, influenced by the distinct realization of the trouble 
 which Would ensue in case an attempt was made to maintain 
 them. did. in response to a resokiti<m of Congress, consent to a 
 transfer of these claims to the United States. The first cession of 
 this kind was that of New York, in 1781. and the last, that of 
 Georgia, in 1>1<12. The region thus ceded was divided into two ter- 
 ritories, one of which was called the "Territory Northwest fif the 
 River Ohio," the other the "Territory South of the River Ohio." 
 This region formed the nucleus of the public lands of the Uniteti 
 States. This did not include the present Stntes of Kentucky and 
 Tennessee, the former having been admitted to the Union without 
 any claim on the part of the United States to proprietorship in the 
 soil, and similar rights in regard to the latter having been relin- 
 quished by Act of Congress. The total area of the United States 
 at this time was about 850.000 square miles. The first addition 
 made to this was by the French cession of the undetermined area 
 known as Louisiana. This was brought about by .Jefferson, who 
 recognized the fact that France would not be able to hold the 
 
 *This tax is not collected from immigrants coming from Canada 
 or Mexico. 
 
 fA very stringent Act was passed by Congress in 1885, prohibits 
 ing the importation and immigration of foreigners and aliens "un- 
 der contract or agreement to perform labor in the United 
 States, its Territories, and the District of Columbia. "_ This Act 
 can have little practical effect on the number of immigrants ar- 
 riving in this country ; nor has the writf r been aljle to procure any 
 definite information as tp whether any persons have ever been 
 sent back under its provisions. 
 
THE PL-DLIC LANDS.] UNITED 
 
 rcirion ngainst the EiiKlish. with whom lionnpiirtc. iit thiit tiino 
 First ftddi- (18;i3-lSOI) Fir.-t C.misuI, whs iiboiit to ku to war. Tho tronty of 
 tion. cession with Boniipiirte (fiivo do jtrooise limits to tlu' territory 
 
 ceiled, but only Jcseribed It us beiiit; the saim- a.s thiii ceded by 
 Spiiin 10 Kraaee uccordiuK to the trenty of San lldrfonso. Phis 
 vaKueness wus. nodoiibt aKreeable to tho wishes of the .Amerieiiii 
 noKOtiators. whoiiid not luck forosiitht. iind who must easily have 
 comprehended the fact that the more rafciie tho terms of tlieccsslon 
 the better the ih:ineo of a future extension of tho elaima of the 
 United Slates westw.ird. In point of fact tho French cession did 
 not include tho eountrv west to tho l*aeific. n.s it was afterward 
 held to do. for the French had no claim whatever to the region 
 west of the head of the Missouri. .\s a consetpienoi' of this cession, 
 hovrever, this vast reKion did come into [lossessiou of the 
 United Stales, the boundary havinir been finally settled m l'-72. 
 after ninety years of discussion. The final settlement was by a 
 rofereneo of the point in dispute to the Emperor of llermany. who 
 decided in favor of the United Sbilcs: the main question w ith re- 
 gard to the extension of the boundary alonw the line of the4'.Hh 
 parallel to the Pacific. haviiiK been settled in IMei by the Webster- 
 Ashborton treaty, which fixed the boundary as far west as the 
 Straits I'f Fuca. This cession of Louisiana, as finally settled by 
 treaty with EuBland. added largely to the area of tho United 
 States, exlonding its limits to the Pacific Ocean, and t-irint; tbiit 
 country complete possession of the Central River system of the 
 continent, iho cost of this cession to the United Slates was about 
 twenty-three and a half million dollars in principal and in- 
 
 A further addition to the territory of the United States was by a 
 cession from Spain of tho territory comprised in tlic presi-nt Slate 
 of Florida, which took place in 1819. tho area thus conveyed being 
 about .^S.i-ViO square miles, and the cost about six and a half millions 
 of dollars. Previims to this cession, however, tlie_ United States 
 had, by. Act of ConKress passed in secret session in 1S12. but not 
 promulgated until I'^IH. taKen possession of an area of about 9.74fl 
 pquare miles in West Florida, which was claimed by the Spanish 
 (.iovernment as its property, but which claim was relinquished by 
 the cession of 1S19. 
 
 The next acquisition of territory by the United States was tho 
 result of ihe admission into tho Union of the llepuijlic of Texas, a 
 former province of Mexico. huvingan area of 2i).^.7S(t s<iu«re miles. 
 This annexation led to a war with tho country to which Texa-s had 
 formerly belonged, the result of which was tbeconqucstof Mexico. 
 the occupation of its capital by the United Slates army, and the 
 dictation of a treaty of peace called tho "treaty of (laudalupe- 
 IlidalKo," which was proclaimed July 4, 1S48. Iiy_ this treaty the 
 [ southern boundary of the United States was established : but sub- 
 
 I sequently, r>ec. 30. 18.5;i. a purchase was maile <if a strip of land ly- 
 
 in;: south of the tiila River in Xew Mexico and Arizona, and eon- 
 taininp about 47. 33iJ square miles. This is known as the " Gads- 
 den purchase." 
 Claims of The claims of both Great Britain and Mexico to the region lying 
 Ore;it Brit- west of the Missouri and northwest of Texas being extremely 
 n in and vague, it is not possible to state, with any approach to precision. 
 Mexico. what portions of this area oriKinally belonged to the two powers 
 in ciuestion. All that cjin bn anid is that, remotely, in consequence 
 * of tne purchase of " Louisiana " from Tioiniparte. and more direct- 
 
 ly, as the result of treaties with (!reat Britain and Mexico settling 
 tne northern and southern boundaries of the TInited Slates, the 
 last named country came into possession of a little over l.HDh.oou 
 square miles of land, as shown in the folbwing statement of the 
 nature and size of the areas added from time to time to what was 
 the original domain of the Colonies at the time of their establish- 
 ment as an independent government: 
 
 Square miles. 
 
 Original area of the United States 849,145 
 
 Added by purchase of Florida. 1819, 
 including 9.740 square miles pre- 
 viously in dispute, but in posses- 
 sion of the United States 58.680 
 
 Annexation if Texa^f. 1848 2ro.780 
 
 Ga.lsden Purchase. 1853 47,330 
 
 Purchase of Louisiana and cessions 
 by Mexico, 1804-4-8 l,B04.ti65 
 
 Total 3,025,600 
 
 One other aildition to tho area of tho United States was made 
 in lHii7, namely, by tho purchase from the Russian Government 
 of the region known as .\laska, which comprises an area of about 
 5.fil.0(«l square miles. The price paid for this |)iece of land 
 was S7.2'Hj,(MXi. The purchiiso of this territory, the nearest point of 
 which is four hundred miles distant from Iho northern lino of 
 Washington, was an entirely unprecedonU'd act on tho part of the 
 United Slates, all the rest of the poBsessions_of this country form- 
 Aliska. ing one compact mass of land, Whene\'er. in the course of this 
 work, mention is made of the United States, it will bo unilersto<id 
 that .Ma-ka is not included, unless a statement to that effect is 
 specially ma/le in the same connection. 
 
 The entire area of tho public lands of the United States (exclu- 
 sive of Alaska, no portion of which has yet been surveyed) is esti- 
 mated by tho Commissioner of the (general Land onice. in his re- 
 port for the year 1*'^;. at 2.S:J6.725 square miles, or l.815..i04.147 
 acres. (Jf this area there had been surveyed, up to .Tune .%. 1881!. 
 971.174.878 acres, leaving 844..'!29.269 unsurvoyed. In riference to 
 tbis unsurveyed portion the rommissioner maile the following re- 
 mark: "Thevolumeof land in the unsurveyed portion of the 
 public domain suitable for homes and subject to settlement under 
 the laws of thbUnited States is of comparatively small propor- 
 tions." 
 
 Of tho public lands of the United States a large quantity has 
 
 STATES 
 
 been sold for ea.-^h, nml n uiuoh larjr>*rMinount taken, under vaiious 
 Acts of ConBross, for :^ctioul.s uml cthor educiitiunal puri'tiges; as 
 military bnunty ; as " swamp land," given to th<' respective .States 
 uhoru it ocfuis, <ir ha.s been claiaifd to occur; as a bonus for tho 
 construction i>t various linos of railroad, especially those travt rs- 
 ing the ooutin-rit from eaj^t to west; na ** hom^'^^toads " to actual 
 (JottltTS. and for various other purposes. It iM impossible to state 
 the exact uinount of the public land which has been thus disposi^d 
 of. but it is cortain thiit nearly all tho vnhiabK' porli(tn of the na- 
 tions great iuheritauci- haw bi-en taki-n up alreaily, or has passed 
 out of the control of iho Ooverninent. In re^'a^d|to this point, 
 till" foll'iwinK MU'*'ttti')n may bo made from the introduction to 
 the volume entitled" Statistics of AKriculture.'" formintja part of 
 the report of the census of issu. and published in IN83, the re- 
 marks hero quoted beiiig from tho pen of General AValker» 
 formerly fl.iporintondent of thnt censu>: 
 
 " It tnus appears that, notwiih.-tafidinff the imposijig total of Valuable 
 1, 400.(100 s(|nare miles of still unsettled territory, the amount of laml 
 land avitilablo for occupation for ordinary iiKriculture is not already 
 lari.'c. 'rh(^ Tul'tio Land ('ommission in their rejiort of 1^80, say: gone. 
 'It was estimateil.Iuno ;^(l. isTU. that (exclusive of certain lands in 
 Souihorn State>) of lands over which tho survey and dispo.-^ition 
 laws had extended, lyiuk' in the AVfSt, tho I'nited Stales did not 
 own, of arable aBrricultural public lands, which could bo culti- 
 vated without irritration or other artificial appliances, more than 
 the area of the pnsent Sfiito of Ohi<i. niimi-ly. 2r>.5(5t).Uti(i acres. The 
 quantity of hind taken up in tho arable rcfrion during' the year 
 ending Juno i-iO, 1880. wa-i about 7.fKt0.iHtO acres. Tho Com- 
 mission, therefore, reaehes tho startling conclusion that, at 
 tho same rate of absorption, tho arable lands so situated will all 
 be tnken up within three years, or by Juno 30. 1883.' , . , 
 
 "It is indeed an astonishirif,' announcement that the public land 
 system, so far as relates to ajrricultural settlers, has virtually 
 come to an end: that tlio homestead and pre-emption acts are 
 practically exhausted of their contents." 
 
 Professor A. B. Hart has compiled from public documents the 
 following approximate statem-nt of the manner in which the pub- 
 lic lands had been disposed of up to the various periods men- 
 tioned. The numbers given indicate acres : 
 
 tC t- *^ C7> 
 C-l t- O --' 
 
 C: lO C> I— 
 
 f: S 
 
 ^ S i 
 
 '■a^ ^ 
 
 
 M 
 
 o 
 
 
 ^•-cSS 
 
 : : : S 
 
 7? 
 
 9^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Z-'i'Sti 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 k 
 
 a 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 L is 
 
 
 :2-B 
 
 3 « 
 
 -■r fe.= ao 
 =:S-S S S 
 
 ^ 2 s 
 
 to -r 
 
 2 s 
 
 i-( r-. O M r- — . 
 
 I s^ S 
 
 In reference to the wasteful and reckless manner in which the 
 public lands of the United States had been given away, until but 
 little of value remains. Professor Hart makes tho following re- 
 marks: — 
 
 ** Kxpert^ in the Land Oflico assure us that, making all deduo- 
 tirnis and allowances, tho remaining lands are worth upwards of a 
 thousand million dollars. There is no evidence in the past policy 
 of the government for believing that we shall actually net one- 
 tenth <if that amount. The greater part of tho rcgitm is officially 
 classified as 'desert lands.' and is for salo in tracts of six hundred 
 and forty acres, at a dollar and a quarter an aero. Nothing but 
 tho temporary increase of pro-empiioii enables the Land <»Ihce at 
 present to pay its running expepses out of income. The golden 
 time is past; our agricultural laud is gone; our timber lands are 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 [agricultuke. 
 
 fast going; our coal ami luioeral lands will be snapped up as fast 
 as they prove valuable."* 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The following statements and Uiblcs present a succinct vi^w of 
 the nartire and iuiportiinc^ of tht; agricultural interests ot the 
 luited States, bcginuin}^ with the cereal.--. 
 
 I. — THE CERKAI.S. 
 
 The following table shows the production uf the cereals in bush- 
 els, as returned by the census of ISSO: — 
 
 Production iu bushels. 
 
 Barley 44.1 13.495 
 
 Buckwheat U.SI 7.327 
 
 Indian corn l,"54,8til.535 
 
 Oats 407,858.999 
 
 Rye 19.831.595 
 
 Wheat 459,479,5U5 
 
 Production T^e production of barley was largest in California (twelve and a 
 of cereals, halt* million lm.>iii.*Ni; other States producing eunsidernble quan- 
 tities were: New York, Iowa. Minnesota. Nebraska, Ohio. No 
 other .State produced as much as one million bushels. In 1886 the 
 total production of barley in the United Slates was 59,428,000 bush- 
 els; of that nmount California produced lii. 038.000 bushels: and 
 New Y<jrk, Minnisota, Wisconsin and Iowa each over five million 
 ami less than ten raillinn bushels; while Nebraska, Michigan and 
 Dakota each produced over one million and less than five million 
 bushels. 
 
 The total production of buckwheat within the United Srates. nc- 
 cordinur to the census of 1880. was 11,817,327 bushels; of tliis amount 
 New York and Pennsjlvania produced respeciively, 4,4bL2Ut) and 
 3,592,326 bushels. No other ^State produced as much as half a mill- 
 ion bushels; the production of this cereal in the Gulf States being 
 extremely >;mall, that of the Pacilic States lieinic also very insig- 
 nificant. No one of the States, otlirr than Nrw Y'ork and Pennsyl- 
 vania, produced as much as half a million I'ushels 
 
 In 1886 the totnl r-roduction of buckwheat was 11. 809.000 bushels, 
 oralmost exactly the same as in the last census year (1871*). 
 
 Indian corn is the most bulky crop among the cereals, the total 
 yield as reported by the census of 1880 being 1.7-^4,^61 ,535 bushels. 
 The principal production of this crop is in the belt of States lying 
 north of the Ohio, and in the same latitude on the west of the 
 Mississippi, as will be seen from the following table:— 
 
 ProductioB in 
 
 State. bushels in 1879. 
 
 Illinois 325,792,481 
 
 Iowa 2" 5,024.247 
 
 Missouri 202.485.723 
 
 Indiana ]]5,4'^2 300 
 
 Ohio 111,877. 124 
 
 These five States produced, as will be seon, consid rably more 
 than half the total yield of the country in the year for which the 
 statistics aregiven. As we go north, south, east and west from 
 this belt we find the yield of Indian corn diminishing. Still, this 
 cereal is a product of importance even as far south as the On If 
 States, but is of comparatively little consequence in New England, 
 the total production of the sis New England States in 1879 being 
 only 8.376.133 bushels. 
 
 In 1886 the total yield of Indian corn was 1,665.411.000 bushels, 
 and the States producing over one hundred million bushels each 
 were: 
 
 Production in 
 States. bushels in 1886. 
 
 Illinois 209,818,000 
 
 Iowa 198 847.000 
 
 Missouri 143.709,000 
 
 Kansas 126.712,000 
 
 Indiana 1 18.795.000 
 
 Nebraska 106.129,000 
 
 Yield of In- These six States produced in that year considerably more than 
 dian corn, half of the total, and the gradual advancement westward of the 
 agricultural development of nhe country is shown in the appear- 
 nnce of Nebriiska in the above column of figures as a producer of 
 o\ er a huudn d millions of bushels. The yield of Indian corn in 
 ibis State, according to the census of 1870, was 4. 73h. 710 bushels, 
 and in 1h79 it had increased to 65.450. 115 bushels. The figures for 
 Dakota for the same years were 133,140 and 2.000,8(i4 bushels. 
 Of this crop, so important »s it is for home consumption, but a 
 very small fraction is exported. The following table exhibits the 
 total produce o' the country for the years since the census year 
 U879) up to and including the year 18S6, together with the per- 
 centage exported for each year: 
 
 Production Peroent. 
 
 Year. in bushels. exported. 
 
 1880 1,717.434.543 5.5 
 
 1881 1 .194.916.000 3 7 
 
 1882 1.617.025.100 2.6 
 
 1883 1.. 551 .066,895 3 
 
 1884 1.795,528,000 2.9 
 
 188.5 1.936.176.0UO 3.3 
 
 1886 1 .665,44 1,000 2.5 
 
 *Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. i. p. 181 (number for 
 
 January, 1887). 
 
 The yield of corn in 1887 is given by the Depurtment of Agricult- 
 ure as 1,456,161,000 bushels, and that of 1888 is estimated at 
 1.987.790.000 bushels. Since 1879 the home consumption of this 
 cereal ha.^ averaged ab-mt twenty-seven bushels per annum for 
 each inhabitant of the country: in the ten years precLding it aver- 
 ag'-d about twenty-five buthels. 
 
 The total yield of oats, as reported by the census of 1880, was 
 407.858.999 buslicls. Th ■ di.'^tribution of this crop is pretty uni- 
 form all over the country, with the exception of the Gull and Pa- 
 cific Coast States, where the yield uf this cereal is very small, 
 barley taking the place of oats in California almost entirely. 
 
 The following table exhibits the production of oats in the United 
 States from 1880 to 1888: 
 
 Year. Production in bushels. 
 
 1880 417.885.380 
 
 1881 416.481 .000 
 
 1882 488,2.50.610 
 
 1883 571,3(2.400 
 
 1884 583,628,000 
 
 1885 629.409.000 
 
 1886 624,134.000 
 
 1887 659,618,000 
 
 1888 701 .735,000 
 
 The increase in the number of acres cultivated in oats since the 
 census year has been very marked: more so than in the c.sebf 
 wheat or Indian corn. The averag- for the decade, 1870-79 was 
 11,1)00,000 acres; that for the years 18SO-87 was 21,000,000 acres. 
 
 The amount of rye grown in the United States as returned by Rye. 
 the census of 18&0 was 10,831..^95 bush«ls; the principal States 
 where this crop is raised being, in the order of their yield. Ptmu- 
 sylvRnia, .S,6S3,621; Illinois. 3.121,785; New York. 2.634.t.90; Wis- 
 consin. 2.2!i8,5]3; imd Iowa, 1,518,605 bushels. The production of 
 this cereal in the States south of Kentucky and Virginia is ex- 
 tremely small, but some rye is given as grown in every State and 
 Territory, except Arizona and Nevada. The production of rye in 
 1886 was 24.489.1)00 bushels ; Kansas appearing this year as a pro- 
 ducer of a little over two million bushels, and Nebraska of nearly 
 one million. 
 
 Wheat is an extremely important crop in the United S'ates, Wheat. 
 and is the only cereal of which the export is considerable. The 
 great wheat-growing States are those along the north side (>f the 
 Ohio, from New York westward and across the Mississippi into 
 Iowa. Kansas and Northwest, including Nebraska, Minnesoin and 
 Dakota. The yield of the census yesir (1879) wns 459,479.505 bush- 
 els. In that year. Illinois. Ind'ana, Ohio, Michigan, Minnesota 
 and lowM, each pr-tdueed over thirty million bushels; the total 
 yield of those six States was somewhat more than half that of the 
 whole country. In 18S7 the totiil was very nearly the same (4.56,- 
 329.000 bushels), but the distribution of this yield was S'-mewhat 
 different. There were in that year also six States prorlnc-ng ench. 
 more than thirty million bu.shels. Of these six, four are among 
 those included in a similar category for the year 1879 Michigan 
 and Iowa have dropped out of that list, and Dakota and Califor- 
 nia must be inserted in their places.* These six States, as before, 
 produce almost exactly half the entire yield of the country. What is 
 more remarkable is. that Dakota, which in 1879 only figured with a 
 produce of 2.'^30.2S9 bushels, appeiirs in 1877 as furnishinfr no 
 less than 52,406,000 bushels, or more than one-tenth of the whole 
 crop of this cereal _ Other States of importnnce in 1887 were Mis- 
 souri, Iowa and Michigan, each of which produced between twenty 
 and thirty millions of bushels; and Nebraska. Oregon, Pennsyl- 
 vanifi, Wisconsin, Kentucky and New York, ench of which pro- 
 duced between ten and twenty millions of bushels. 
 
 In the tabular statement of the yield of wheat for the year 1887, 
 as given by the Department of Agriculture, forty-two States and 
 Territories appear as jiroducing more or less of this cereal, but the 
 Quantity grown south of Kentucky and Virginia is very small. 
 The yield of the (iulf States is entirely insignificant, Florida and 
 Louisiana not appi'arinK at all ill the list; and that of New Eng- 
 land is equally iinimiiortant. the whole produce of that section of 
 the country being in that year only 74.547 bushels. 
 
 The following table gives the production of wheat, total value, 
 value per bu>hel. and amount exported for each of the years, 
 1880-87:— 
 
 
 Total produe- 
 
 Total value 
 
 Av. value per 
 
 Amt. export- 
 
 Year. 
 
 ti(in. 
 
 of 
 
 bushel 
 
 ed. 
 
 
 (Bu-h"10 
 
 crop 
 
 (in cnnts). 
 
 (Bushel.x.) 
 
 18S0.... 
 
 49S..54S,.s«8 
 
 8474,201,850 
 
 95.1 
 
 186.321.514 
 
 1881.... 
 
 383,2^0,090 
 
 4,56.880,427 
 
 119 3 
 
 121.892.389 
 
 1882.... 
 
 ,504,1.S5,470 
 
 444.602,125 
 
 88 2 
 
 147.811316 
 
 1883.... 
 
 421.0,S6,160 
 
 38:!,649.272 
 
 91.0 
 
 111..5,S4.182 
 
 1884.... 
 
 ,'il2,7(fi,000 
 
 3».862,260 
 
 t^4.5 
 
 132.570..3(;7 
 
 188.5... 
 
 3.i7,I12,liOO 
 
 275,320,390 
 
 77.1 
 
 94.,5l.5.794 
 
 1886.... 
 
 4.57,218,«iO 
 
 314,226.020 
 
 68.7 
 
 153.804,970 
 
 1887.... 
 
 456.329.000 
 448.815,699 
 
 310,612.960 
 373,794.413 
 
 68.1 
 83.3 
 
 
 Aver'ge 
 
 135.500,076 
 
 The estimate of the Agricultural Department of the yield of 
 wheat for the year 1888 is 415.86S.( 00. 
 
 The grass crop i-: well understood to be the greatest of all the Grasa 
 crops of the United States. Altogether, in addiiion to the very and hay. 
 hirge amount consumed from the ground during the grazing sea- 
 
 * The yield of California remained nearly the same in 1887 that 
 it was in 1S79. In the former year it was a trifle over thirty mill- 
 ions ; in the latter a trifle under ihnt amount. 
 
AC.HICULTrUE.J 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 son. the vnluo uf the burvcstoJ h:iy teaches iionrly to that of the 
 grciit St of Uio cereal crops. The fulluwtDg gtati^iics iiie pre- 
 tieott'd: — 
 
 Tho area mown in 1879 was 30.G3l.054 ncres: in 188t>. 36.5lJl.fi88 
 a<.'rt!i The vahio of iIk- hay out iu the lutier year wu.- ;i.')3.437.r)99.* 
 lu Mn • .State (Ni-w York) ihu thIuo utiioiintt'd to ovi-r fitly millions 
 ot dollars; iu uho (Pennsylvania), to uvor thirty and less than 
 forty millions; in three t^Uile.-* (Illinuis. Ohio and Iowa), to over 
 tweilv a:id loss than thirty unlli»ins. 
 
 Th»'K'ra-s and hav proiiucinK* indu.stry decreases in inirortanco 
 a^ w ■ »:o troiti the Norlli lowjird the 8"'Uth. Thus, tlie thirteen 
 ^tatfs in tiifli .if which (in IS?'.') more than a million of acres were 
 mown ftTL" 111! ni>r(h ot tlie punilh-I of :>7°; and all but two (Missouri 
 ati'l Kansas) north of 39°, e.\cepting very small fractions of Ohio, 
 In>liaii:i and lilinois. 
 's The nnmhcr and value of the animals on farms in the year 1886 
 
 prod- was ad follows:— 
 
 Number. Value. 
 
 Horses l;i.l7l!.l)3*) ri4<i.ftt6.154 
 
 Mules 2.191.727 174,85.3.563 
 
 iM ilch cows 14.'<5(J.414 3i36.252. 173 
 
 Oven and other cattle 34.37S.3(i-J 6n.7.V).52u 
 
 Mieep 43.544.755 89.279.920 
 
 Hogs 44.:i46.525 22().81 1 .082 
 
 Th ' importance of the crop of Indnm corn has ijiven a great de- 
 velopment to the business of fattt-nintf swine, and an average of 
 abuut fifteen per cent, of this proiluetion hiis. during the past 
 twenty-seven vears. b-en exporteii. The uvoragi' value of "hojf 
 
 t)riiducts" (live hogs, bacon, hums, pork and lard) exported has 
 jeen. during the years 1S^^1-S7, $73,671,007 per annum, as a^^ainst 
 $65.13. .-;9s in the deo:ide 1871-SO. 
 
 The stati-tics of dairy products given in the Agricultural Report 
 of ih C -nsus uf 1880 for the year 1H79 are presented in a very con- 
 de^^ed tonn, as follows: — 
 
 Milk soM. or sent to butter and cheese 
 
 factories - - • 530.129.755 gals. 
 
 Butter mmic on farms 777.2-50,287 lbs. 
 
 Cheese made on farms 27.272.489 Iba. 
 
 The very great extent ond importance of the poultry industry 
 in the I'nited Stjites is miide apparent by the following statement 
 of facts gathered by the census of 1880: — 
 
 Barnvard poultry on hand. June 1. laSO... 102.272.135 
 
 Other ponltrvonhand Junel. 1880 23,235.187 
 
 Eggs produced in 1879 456.910.916 
 
 At twelve cents a dozen, the annual value of the egg product to 
 the farm would reaeli nearly 855.0*1)1, (KX). find the value of tli.- fowls 
 consumed as fo"d may fairly be estimated at 8-0.()0ll,ii0<i, The aver- 
 ngo yield of egt^ per fowl is fully twice as great in the Northern 
 States as it is in the Southern. 
 1. The cotton production of the I'niteil States is of great impor- 
 
 tance, both from the extent to which this material ismanufact- 
 ure*t within the country, and because it is the first on the list iu 
 value among the expt)ris. 
 
 _ Cotton is mentioned in the records of the Colony of Stmth Caro- 
 lina as early as 1664. and tt small quantity was exported in 1747. 
 The invention of the cotton-sin by Eli Whitney, in 17'.i4. wjts fol- 
 lowcfl by a rapid development of the cotton-mising hu-^iness 
 throu^'hout th" Suuthern iStatcs. The first crop of sea-island cnt- 
 tttn w.'is riiised in 179<i, from seed that came either from the Jiaha- 
 ma or Barbudoes Inlands. 
 
 The total production of the country in the year 1879 is given by 
 the census (tf 18SU at 5.737.257 bales, of 375 pounds; this having 
 been assumed to be the weight of the bale, in 1H79 — the a\('rage 
 proi'*'rtion of seed lo fibre, or lint, in the crop as it comes from the 
 field being given as two to one. The stated number of biiles is 
 equivalent, therefore, to l.;i62.599 tons (of 2.000 pounds) of lint or 
 fibre, and 2.725.197 of seed. 
 
 This production was divided among the States as follows: 
 
 Field. Av. Product 
 per acre. 
 
 Bales. Fraction of bale. 
 
 Mississippi 9.55.Hn8 0.4i) 
 
 Georgia 814.441 0.31 
 
 Texi.s 803.642 0.37 
 
 A lahiima 699,654 30 
 
 Arkansas 608.2.56 0.5S 
 
 South Carolina 622.548 0.38 
 
 Louisiana 608..569 0..59 
 
 North Carolina aS9.598 44 
 
 Tennessee 3;J0.r44 0.46 
 
 Florida 54.997 0.22 
 
 Missouri 19.7.33 0.60 
 
 Indian Territory 17 WK) 0.49 
 
 Virginia ll.OdO 0.46 
 
 Kentucky 1..367 0.51 
 
 Total 5,7 .7.257 gen. av. 0.40 
 
 From the nbovo tjible it will bo seen that the limit of profitable 
 cultivation <'f cotton is pretty sharply (iniwn -it ubiul the parallel 
 of 37"; the nrnduction of Virginm and Keiituekv— the southern 
 border of which States is in the latitude 3'l°;i0'— bi-ingexceedinply 
 small. Tho production of Missouri is limited to a highly fertile 
 
 * This includes only hay cut on farms, and not that cut on 
 public lands and lands of non-residenta* 
 
 region lying in the extreme southeastern portion of the State; 
 while thai of Kentucky pertains In the eountrv lying adjacent to 
 Western Tennnesseo and the rich bottom-lands al< uu the Missis- 
 sippi Uiver. It does not appear that any cotton is produced north 
 of ihf Ohio River. 
 
 According n. Professor E. W. Ililgard, Special Agent of the Cen- 
 sus ut l-^Ho. in chargf <'t the subjt ct of Cotton Produci ion, the 
 h'liih productiiin ot .\li^^i^^ippi is due in part to tlie greut fertility 
 and large area of the "boitoiu-Iaud" aicug the Mis^iseij pi River 
 
 within the limits of thut State, and in larger pjirt to the icrtility 
 table-land bordering the Missisnjtjd bluff. 
 
 ol the ■ uplands. _ ^ , . . 
 
 and the interior "prairie belts." These favorable conditions havo 
 as a result that cotton culture is the one pur>uit to which the pop- 
 ulaliiiu of this Statu ik-votes itself. ll is rather great natural ad- 
 vantages than skill and industry which give Mississippi the first 
 idaee ill the production of cotton. Professor Ililgard thinks that 
 oy enlarging the urea of tillable IsiihI in the \a/.iM) bottom, by sim- 
 ple exclusion of the overflows of the Mississippi, without any 
 change in the methods of culture, the priduce ol the State might 
 be raised to two and a (juarter millions of bales: and that with 
 improved cultivation the production might be brought up to five 
 millions, so that under these eomliiions Mississipjd alone could 
 produce the entire cro|) now grown in the United States. 
 
 (Jeorgia stands second in total production among the States, 
 but the average production |)er acre is but two-thirds that of Mis- 
 sissippi. The area of what would be calhd in the last-named State 
 first and second class cotton soil is in (jleorgia <iuite limited— tar 
 more so thiiii is the case iu the neighboring State of Alabama; yet 
 the former State is slightly in advance of the latter in the average 
 proiluct per aero. The high position of tieorgia as a cotton produc- 
 ing State is due therefore, not to natural advantages, but to better 
 cultivation of the soil, the use of fertilizers, and the thrift of an 
 industrious popuIati<m. 
 
 Texiis— much the largest in area of the cotton i>rodiicing States, 
 and also slightly larger in population than imv of the other ihilf 
 States— stands third on the list of total production. Intheavrrago 
 product per acre it is nniong the very lowest. This fad seems to be 
 due. in large part at least, to the position of Texas in reference 
 to precipitation. In this State the total amount of raintall is 
 considerably less th;in in the other (lulf Stales, owing to it- p.pgj- 
 tion in referenee to the prevailing winds; and the <liminiition of 
 rainfall is rapid as we recede from the coast. The precipitation is 
 largest in theextreme northeastern portion of theStato, Jii.dhero 
 —north of the 32d parallel an(i east of the 98th meridian— moro 
 than half the cotton protluct of the State is grown. The tuct 
 that Texas is so much larger than the other cotton pn dncing 
 Maicamust also be borne in mind in connection with its position 
 HS the third on the list. Itluis. in fact, an area more than five 
 times as great as the average area of the si.\ other principal cotton 
 States. 
 
 Alabama is naturally as well suited for the growth of cotton as 
 the two States adjacent to it on the east and west. Georgia and 
 Mississippi; and its position as fourth on the list, and as inferior 
 to both these States, is c<msidered by Professor Ililgard ro bo 
 due to the fact that Mississippi is still within the period of the 
 first flush of fertility, while tiCorgia has reached the stage where 
 iier fields are being renovated by the use of fertili/.ers; while the 
 soil of Alabama has begun to be exhausted, but this exhaustion 
 bus not yet proceeded so far that th'- cultivators realize the neces- 
 sity of making good this deficiency by proper modes of cultivation, 
 as is dr>ne to a certain extent in (Jeoigia. 
 
 In StMith and North Carolina the nveruge cotton production per 
 acre is hit;has eompiin-d with that of Ahibntna and (leorgia. ami 
 in the case ot North Carolinaappri'aches that of Mis8issipi>i itself. 
 The reason for this condition ot things is to be foun<l chiefly in 
 the introduction of improved methods of culture, and the use of 
 fertilizers. In South Carolina the so-called sea-island ctton is 
 produced— a variety of cotton of great value, although small in 
 amoiMit. the production of it for the year ISSd being set down in 
 the Census Report as 0.966 bales. The finest cotton ever known to 
 h)(Vo been pnKluced is the long stuple cotton of Edisto Island, 
 which -^old for two dollars a pound when otlicr cottons were only 
 bringing nine cents. The ishmds wdiere this crop is grown line 
 the cia^t. sometimes forming three or f<iur panilhd belts, having 
 tiieir greatest development at the mouth of Rroad River, frura 
 which in each direction along the coast they <limini?h in num- 
 bers. 
 
 All the important cotton-producing States with the exception 
 of Aikansas and Tennessee, lie either on the (lulf of Mexico or the 
 .Atlantic eoast; but the principiilcotton-i'iortucing areas in the case 
 of each of these States are at a considenible distance from tlieeoast. 
 Thus, in Mississippi by far the grenter portion of the area planted 
 in cotton lies in the northern atid western part of the State, 
 while in the extreme south there is an area wliere cotton culture isi 
 either very subordinate or practieally non-existent; nor is this de-! 
 crease of cott<m culture accompimied by a corresponding increiiso 
 of some othi-r prodnction. In Louisiima ati ohvious fact— ren- 
 dered aiiparent by a glance nt the map showing the reliitive area.s 
 given to cotton eulturo in the State— is the decrease of cotton cul- 
 ture as we advanee southward In Alabama the central prairie 
 region, or black soil belt, a narrow strii) of country only about 
 twenty-five miles wide, running east nnd west through the centre 
 of th'' State, more than a hundred miles from the coast, produces 
 forty per cent of the entire cotton crop. AdWicent to this particu- 
 larly rich bolt on the north and south is a l)clt of h-ss but still 
 large productiveness, making the total width of the central cotton 
 belt about seventv-five miles; atid here nt least sixty per cent, of 
 the cotton of the State is raised. In (ienr»;ia the principal cotton- 
 producing belt runs nearly parallel with the co-t^t. and nt a dis- 
 t'utee of from one hundred to one hundred ami fifty miles from it. 
 A sin. iliir Condition of things is clearly indicated in both North 
 and South Carohna. 
 
 Ooorgi" as 
 a cotton 
 producing 
 State. 
 
 Texas. 
 
 Alabama. 
 
 South and 
 
 North 
 
 Carolina. 
 
UNITED 
 
 Oil comparing the facts here stated with the position of the 
 i^otlierinal and isohyetal curves in the r<--giun where cotton is 
 grown, it will be seen that nearly the entire productiou of cotton 
 comes from the area included between the isolhernials of 6u° and 
 6'i°, and there is none cultivated in any ret^ion <if lower mean an- 
 nual temperature than 56^. It also appears that the cotton-pro- 
 duciug area is one of comparatively large precipitation, being no- 
 where less than thirty-ei{,'ht inches, and generally considerably 
 over that amount: and also that this precipitation is pretty uni- 
 formally distributed throughout the year. From this it is seen 
 that the climatic conditions favorin;; the growth of cotton are of 
 such a nature as to limit its succes-ful production to a compara- 
 tively small area, differing in this reMnct materially from some of 
 the other staples of the country, esjiecially Indian corn and wheat. 
 It will also be evident that the conditions existing on the Pacific 
 coast do not favor the successful caltivation of cotton in that 
 region - 
 Tible of The following table exhibits the production of cotton and the 
 
 € -ttoii amount exported for each year from 1S80 to 1887. The average an- 
 
 I'roduction. nual vield during the twenty years previous to 1861 was 1..335.000,- 
 OCO pounds ; during the twenty-three years from 1865 to 1886 it was 
 2.207,0110.000 iioiinds— an increase of lj.")..3 percent. During the 
 pen tad 1833-S-7 the average was 2.036,345.355 pounds, or a little less 
 than the average of the years 1865 to 86 : — 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 largest 
 
 tobacco 
 
 producing 
 
 tjtate. 
 
 Rice. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Production in Pounds 
 
 Exports in Pounds. 
 
 1S80 
 
 3.l;)'.l.822,b82 
 2,588.286,636 
 3,405,1170,410 
 2.7.57,544,422 
 2,74JH66,oll 
 3,lK2,:i.5li..531 
 3 1,57,378 443 
 3 .31 O.UOO.i.OO 
 
 2,190.928,772 
 
 Issi 
 
 1.739,975.961 
 
 1882 
 
 2,208.075.062 
 
 1833 
 
 1,862.572.530 
 
 18S4 
 
 1,891.659.472 
 
 18^5 
 
 2.058,037.444 
 
 1886 
 
 
 2,169,457,330 
 
 18=7* 
 
 
 2.200,000.000 
 
 
 "Approximnfe 
 
 
 The climatic conditions un uji woich tobacco can be raised seem 
 to be quite variable, since more or less of this crop is furnished by 
 almost every State in the I'niim.The yield of the extreme Southern 
 and extreme Northern States is. however, very small: as (in 1870), 
 of Maine only 250 pounds; of Oregon, 17,325; of New Mexico, 890; 
 of Louisiana. 55.9o4. 
 
 The largest tobaceo-producing State is Kentucky, with 171.120.- 
 7S4 pounds in 1879. according to the census of 1880. Next 
 comes Virginia, with 79,9S8.8l»: then Pennsylvania. 36.943.272; 
 nhio. 34.735.235; Tennessee. 2H.3(i5.i'52; North Carolina. 26,986,213; 
 .Maryland, 26.082,147; Missouri, 12,015,6.i7; Wisconsin, 10,608,423. 
 From this it is evident that the ciilture of tobacco is 
 carried on most successfully in the Middle Atlantic States 
 aod those bordering on the Ohio River, diminishing gradu- 
 ally in this latitude westerly, and having no importance in 
 the extreme Western States. The mean temperature of the chief 
 tobacco producing area is indicated by the statement that it lies 
 b 'tween the isothermals of 52° and 60°. As regards precipitation, 
 a somewhat moi-t climate seems to be required, and there is little 
 tobacco raised where the rainfall averages less than thirty-eight 
 inches. The isothermal of thirty-two inches seems to be the limit 
 b-yond which it cunnot pass. The total yield of the United 
 States in the year lS7;i was 472,661.159 pounds, having an estimated 
 value as raised, in the producers' bands, of 851,104,870. 
 
 The production of tobacco in ISSti was about eleven per cent. 
 Inrtrer than in 1879— namely. 532,537,000 pounds. The relative 
 rank of the States in the production of this crop was almost ex- 
 actly the same at the two periods. Kentucky and Virginia to- 
 gether furnished in 1.886 more than half the total, or 285.104.0n0 
 pounds. The entire value of the tobacco raised in 1886 was 
 $39,469,218. 
 
 The production of rice tor the year 1879 as returned by the cen- 
 sus of 18S0 was as follows: — 
 
 Pounds, 
 
 Alabama 810,.'(S!i 
 
 Florida 1,294,677 
 
 Georgia.,, 25.369,«s7 
 
 Louisiana 23.188.311 
 
 .Mississippi 1,718,951 
 
 North Carolina 5.669.101 
 
 South Carolina 52,077,515 
 
 Texas 62,152 
 
 Average yield per acre. 
 ,5U 
 508 
 725 
 5,52 
 491 
 517 
 664 
 186 
 
 Total 110,131,373 gen. av. 632 
 
 The production of sugar from the sugar-cane is extremely small 
 as compared with the consumption of this article. Louisiana is 
 the only State of any importance in this connection, although a 
 small quiintity of sugar is made in each of the following States: 
 Georgia, Florida, Texas, Alabama. Mississippi and South Carolina. 
 The total production in the year 1879. as returned by the census of 
 1880. was— of sugar. 178.872 hogsheads, and of molasses, 16,573.273 
 p.allons. of which Louisiana furnished 171,706 hogsheads and 11,- 
 696.24S gallons. 
 
 The census of 1880 gives the following statistics of the produc- 
 tion for that year of sugar and molasses from sorghum and the 
 maple: 
 
 Sugar Molasses. 
 
 Sorghum 12.792 lbs. 28.444.262 gals. 
 
 Maple 36..576.061 1.796.048 
 
 The principal production of sorghum molasses is in the States of 
 Missouri. Tennessee, Kentuckv, Illinois, and Iowa: that of maple 
 sugar, in Vermont and New York, in each of which States the 
 "roduce was over lO.OiKl.OOO pounds. 
 
 The following additional facts in regard to the agriculture of the 
 
 STATES [agriculture. 
 
 United States are condensed and arranged from the volume en- General 
 titled " Statistics of Agriculture," in the Census Report for 1880 :— summary. 
 
 1870. 1880. 
 
 Total number of farms 2,659,985 4,008,907 
 
 The term " farm." as here used, is understood to mean a tract 
 of not less than three acres, unless $500 worth of produce has 
 actiuilly been sold off from it during the year, and owned or 
 leased by one man and i uitivated under his care; — 
 
 Total area of United States in acres 1,856,108,800 
 
 Number of acres in farms 536.081,835 
 
 1860. 1870. 1880. 
 Proportion of unimproved land in farms 
 
 to improved, ill percentage 59,9 53.7 46.9 
 
 Of the 4.t>08.907 farms returned, 74 per cent were cultivated by 
 their owners, 8 per cent by tenants on basis of fixed money rental, 
 and 18 per cent by tenants paying a share of the product or rent. 
 
 The totiil value of the farms of the United States, including 
 land, buildings and fences, is given by the census of 1880 at 
 $111,197,096,776; and the estimated value of all farm productions 
 sohi consumed, or on hand, in 1879, was $2.12.540.927, 
 
 The following tabular statement, from the volume of the Census 
 Report of 1880. entitled "Statistics of Agriculture." and published 
 in 1883. presents a resume of the principal facts connected with 
 the agricultural interests of the country, so far as concerns the 
 amounts or values of the different products: — 
 Condensed Tabular View of Aqeicultukal PROOtCTS chiefly Tabular 
 
 IN THE Year 1879. arranoeo from the Census Report. Volume statement. 
 
 ENTITLED "STATISTICS OF AGRICULTURE," PUBLISHED 1883. 
 
 Number of farms 4.0ti8,907 
 
 Value of farms, including land, fences, and 
 
 buildings $10,197,096,776 
 
 Estimated value of farm products for 1879, . $2,212,540,927 
 
 Wool produced 210,681,751 pounds 
 
 Milk (not including that sent to butter or 
 
 cheese factories) 530,129,755 gallons 
 
 Butter (including that made on farms andin 
 
 factories) 806,672,071 pounds 
 
 Cheese (made on farms and in factories).... 243.157.8.50 
 
 Barley 43.997,495 bushels 
 
 Buckwheat ^11,817.327 " 
 
 Indian corn 1,7.54 591.676 ** 
 
 Outs 4i7.858.',i99 
 
 Rve 19.83l„595 
 
 Wheat 459,483,1,37 
 
 Cotton 5.7.T5..3.59 bales 
 
 Flaxseed 7.170.951 bushels 
 
 Flaxstraw 421.098 tons 
 
 Flux fibre 1,665.546 pounds 
 
 Hemp 5,025 tons 
 
 Sugar (sugar-cane) 178,872 hhds. 
 
 Molasses (sugar-cane) 16,573,273 gallons 
 
 Sugar( sorghnin) 12,792 pounds 
 
 Molasses (sorghum) 28,444,202 gallons 
 
 Sugar (maple) 36..576.061 pounds 
 
 Midasses (maple) 1 .79r.."4H gallons 
 
 Hay mown ,36,l.">e.711 t'>ns 
 
 Clover-seed l,'.'i;'J.;is2 bushels 
 
 Gras.s-seed 1,317.701 
 
 Eggs 466.910,916 dozen 
 
 Honey 25.743,208 pounds 
 
 Wax 1,105.689 
 
 Rice 110.131.373 
 
 Tobacco 472.661.157 " 
 
 Potatoes. Irish 169,158,539 bushels 
 
 Potatoes, sweet 33.378.693 
 
 Orchard products (sold or consumed) $50.876.1,54 
 
 Market-garden products $21,761,250 
 
 Hops 26,.546,378 pounds 
 
 Broom corn 29,480.106 
 
 Peas 6.514.977 bushels 
 
 Beans 3.075.( .50 
 
 Wood, amount out 51,442.624 cords 
 
 Forest products, value of all consumed or 
 
 sold $95,774,735 
 
 The following general summary presents in one table the esti- 
 mated quantities, numberof acres culjiyated, and aggregate value 
 of the principal crops of the country in the year 1886: — 
 
 Products, 
 
 Quantity, 
 
 No. of Acres 
 
 Value. 
 
 Indian corn 
 
 Wheat 
 
 1,66.5,441,000 bushels 
 4.57,218,000 
 
 24,489,000 
 624,134,000 
 
 69,428,000 
 
 11.869,000 
 168.051.000 
 
 75,694,208 
 36.806,184 
 
 2.129.918 
 23,658.474 
 
 2.652.ft57 
 917.915 
 
 2,287,136 
 
 $610,311,000 
 314.226.020 
 
 Rye 
 
 13,181„310 
 
 Oats 
 
 186.137,930 
 
 Barley 
 
 31 .840.510 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 6.465.120 
 7S.441.940 
 
 Total 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 Hay 
 
 3.010.630.000 bushels 
 
 5.32„570,no0 pounds 
 41,796.499 tons 
 6,445,864 bales 
 
 144,146,792 
 
 750,210 
 36,501,688 
 18,454,603 
 
 $1,240,603,850 
 
 39.468.218 
 35:5.437.699 
 
 
 257,295.327 
 
 
 
 
 
 199,853,293 
 
 $1,890,805,094 
 
 
 
 
>(.\XrFACTritES.] 
 
 UNI 'J' ED STATES 
 
 MiSllAlTlRKS. 
 
 The most importiint fai-ts oiuiiireteil with tho inanufmturinK in- 
 tOFL'Sts of the rnili'd ."^tatrs. as rovealod by tho census of Kso and 
 those of the procedint; decades, may be stated, iu the most eon- 
 don-ed form, lu-i follows: — 
 
 Fimi, a table is (jiveu showiuK certaiu of the principal items 
 coiiriccted with niaiiDfnctures in the form uf totals for the whole 
 United States, for tho three census years I860, 1870, and 1880:— 
 
 TABfLAR StaTKMKST DF M ANIPACTUHK3 IN THK UxITEU STATES. 
 
 1860. 
 
 Number of Establish-I 
 
 n.ents 140.4.33 
 
 Capital Invested I81.009,8o5,715 
 
 Avera»:e Number of 
 
 llau'ls Eniployed 
 
 Males above 16 years. . 
 
 Feiiiiiles above 15 yrs. 
 
 Children and Youths 
 Total am't. paid in 
 
 wiu'esdurintf the year. 8378.878, 
 Viilue of .Materials used. 1.031,605, 
 Value of Products 1.8.-*5.861 
 
 ,966 
 
 1870. 
 
 1880. 
 
 2i2.148 
 12.118,208,769 
 
 1,615..S9S 
 S2:J.770 
 114.628 
 
 8775..'>84..343 
 2,488,427,242 
 4.2:i2,325,442 
 
 253.852 
 2,790,272.606 
 
 2,019,n,» 
 531.(;.» 
 181.921 
 
 $047.9,53.795 
 3.39li.S23..'49 
 5.369,579.191 
 
 The proportion in which the various branches of raanufacture 
 are geographically distributed over the country, aecordinc to tho 
 census of 1880, isshowii by the following percentaee statement: — 
 
 Table of (iKOOBArniCAi. Distuibition op MAXUFACTtiRES in 
 THE United States. 
 
 
 Propor- 
 tion of 
 total 
 Area. 
 
 NiMiiber 
 ot E-tab- 
 
 lish- 
 mentt. 
 
 .Amount 
 of Capi- 
 tal 
 invested 
 
 Hands 
 Em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Wases 
 Paid. 
 
 Oross 
 Product 
 
 X. Atlan-.ic 
 
 5.6 
 
 44.87 
 
 61.94 
 
 62.23 
 
 04.33 
 
 59.64 
 
 S. .Atlantic 
 
 9.4 
 
 10.16 
 
 5.89 
 
 7.59 
 
 4.99 
 
 5.26 
 
 N. Central 
 
 25.5 
 
 34.33 
 
 25.78 
 
 24.39 
 
 24.86 
 
 28.94 
 
 S. Central 
 
 20,3 
 
 7.55 
 
 3.75 
 
 3.85 
 
 3 11 
 
 3,47 
 
 \V. (Cordil- 
 leran). 
 
 39.4 
 
 3.09 
 
 2.64 
 
 1.94 
 
 2.71 
 
 2,69 
 
 Nt'xt may follow a statement of the various most extensive 
 mauufarturinB industries nrrunRcd in the order of their iinpor- 
 tancf. with relereiici" to tho value of their products. In this table 
 all branches of manufacture are included in which the total pro- 
 ducliou fxceeds ^U.OoO.OOO in value:— 
 
 Table of Individual Masufactcrinq iNDtrsTRiES in the United 
 Statks, according to the Census of 1880. 
 
 Products. 
 
 Flouring and (tri-Jt Mill Products — 
 
 SlauKhtering and Meat Packiut' 
 
 Iron and Steel 
 
 Woolen ">f all classes 
 
 Lumber, Sawed 
 
 Foundry and Machine Shop Prod- 
 ucts 
 
 Cotton rtoods 
 
 I'lothing. Men's 
 
 lioots imd Shoes 
 
 Bugar and Mola-ises. Refined 
 
 Leather. Tanned 
 
 Liquors. Malt 
 
 Carpentering 
 
 Priitting and Publit^hing 
 
 Furniture 
 
 Leather. Curried 
 
 Afrriciiltural Implements 
 
 Mixed Textiles 
 
 Itreud and othor Hnkory Produots — 
 
 Carriages and Wagons 
 
 Tobacco, Cigars, etc 
 
 Paper 
 
 Tubacco. Chewing, Smoking and 
 
 Snuff 
 
 Tin wBro. Copper ware, and Sheet-iron 
 
 wn re 
 
 Blncksmithinir 
 
 Linuors. Distilled 
 
 Bilk and Silk Goodd 
 
 Number of 
 
 Number of 
 
 Establish- 
 
 Hands em- 
 
 ments. 
 
 ployed. 
 
 a.338 
 
 58.407 
 
 872 
 
 27,297 
 
 1,005 
 
 140,978 
 
 2,689 
 
 161.5'i7 
 
 25,708 
 
 147,956 
 
 4,958 
 
 145,357 
 
 ],(KI5 
 
 185.472 
 
 6.166 
 
 160,813 
 
 17,972 
 
 133.819 
 
 49 
 
 5,857 
 
 3.105 
 
 23,812 
 
 2,191 
 
 26,220 
 
 9,184 
 
 .54,138 
 
 3,467 
 
 58,478 
 
 5.227 
 
 69,304 
 
 2„119 
 
 11,013 
 
 1.943 
 
 39,.580 
 
 470 
 
 4.3,373 
 
 6.396 
 
 22,488 
 
 3.841 
 
 45.394 
 
 7,145 
 
 53.297 
 
 692 
 
 24,422 
 
 477 
 
 32,756 
 
 7, .195 
 
 26.248 
 
 28,101 
 
 34.526 
 
 844 
 
 8,502 
 
 382 
 
 31,337 
 
 Products. 
 
 Amount 
 paid in 
 Wages. 
 
 Value 
 
 of 
 
 Materials. 
 
 Value 
 
 of 
 
 Produots. 
 
 FlouriuK and Grist Mill 
 
 $17,422,316 
 
 10..108.5:!0 
 .S5.47i;.7K5 
 47.;i89.(i87 
 31,845,074 
 
 65,9,82.1,33 
 45,1.14,419 
 45,940,353 
 50,995.144 
 
 2.H75,032 
 9,204,243 
 l2.10K,(i,W 
 24,582,077 
 
 30,.S.31.657 
 23,605.080 
 
 4,845.413 
 15.319.610 
 13,316,753 
 
 9.411. .328 
 1H.988 615 
 18.464..162 
 
 8,525.355 
 
 6.419,024 
 
 10.722.974 
 11.126.001 
 2,6l.3.9li7 
 9.146,705 
 
 8441,545.225 
 
 267,7.38.9r2 
 191.271,1.10 
 164.37 1..V>1 
 146.1.15.385 
 
 103.345.083 
 1 13.765,537 
 131.363.282 
 114,966,575 
 
 144,698,499 
 8.1.049.207 
 .16.8.J6,.10O 
 51.621,120 
 
 32,460.395 
 35,860,206 
 
 59.306,509 
 31,.131.170 
 37,227,741 
 
 42.612.027 
 .30..197.( 86 
 29.577.8:53 
 39,951.297 
 
 34.397,072 
 
 25,232.281 
 14,572.363 
 27.744,245 
 22,467.701 
 
 850,1,185.712 
 303 .162 413 
 
 SlauKhtorinK and Meat 
 
 Iron and Steel 
 
 Woolen of alt classes. . 
 
 Lumber, Sawed 
 
 Foundry and >lHchiiie 
 
 Sliop Products 
 
 Cotton tiood.,; 
 
 t?lotliinK, Men's 
 
 Boots and Shoes 
 
 Sugar and Molasses. 
 
 ;:liii..ViT.685 
 267.2.12.913 
 233.268.729 
 
 214..578.468 
 210.950.383 
 209 ,.148,460 
 1%,920,481 
 
 151,484,915 
 
 Leather, Tanned 
 
 Liquors, Malt 
 
 ll.!,.i48.336 
 I01,0.i8,:i85 
 94,152,139 
 
 Printing and Publish- 
 
 90.789.341 
 
 
 77.845,725 
 
 Leather. Curried 
 
 Agricultural Im pie- 
 
 71,351.297 
 68.640,486 
 
 Mixed Textiles 
 
 Bread and other Baic- 
 
 ery Protiucts 
 
 Carriages and Wagons. 
 Tobacco, Cigars, etc.. 
 
 66,221,703 
 
 65,824.896 
 64.951.617 
 63.979..175 
 55.1U9.9U 
 
 Tooaeco. Chewing, 
 Smoking and Snuff 
 
 Tin wRio. Copper ware 
 )iridSheet-in)n ware 
 
 52,793,056 
 
 48.0',16,038 
 43.774.271 
 
 Liquors, Distilled 
 
 Silk and Silk Ooods, . .. 
 
 41,063 6133 
 41,033,045 
 
 The remarkable concentration of the manufacturing interests of 
 the United States in the extreme northeastern portion of the 
 country will be evident from the above table. New Kngland. New 
 York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, embracing only a little over 
 one-twentieth of the area of the whole country, proiluce 8ix-teTith.s 
 of the total gross product of its mnnnfnetures. Similar condi- 
 tions are shown in contrasting the northern with the southern 
 sections of the country. The North Atlantic and North Central 
 divisions, with thirty-one per cent of the total area, furni.^^h over 
 eighty-eight percent, of the gross product. The Western or Cor- 
 dilleran region, with nearly forty per cent, of the total area of the 
 country, furnishes only a little over two and a half percent, of its 
 nnumfuctures. 
 
 The Census Report of 1882 gives a great mft.«s of statistics in 
 reference to the manufacture of eolton in the country, from which 
 tho following are selected a,s representing the most essential feat- 
 ures of this extremely important business: — 
 
 Number of spindles 10.6.13.4.35 
 
 Number of looms 225.7.19 
 
 Bales of cottou consumed 1,-170,344 
 
 Number of persons employed 172..144 
 
 Wages paid 842,040,110 
 
 These are said to be the final figures of the specific manufacture 
 of cotton yarn aiul woolen fabrics, including some cotton hosieryj 
 and by the term " specific " is meant cotton " worked into a fabric 
 known and sold under that name." 
 
 Including the cotton used in mixed goods and unholstery. the 
 total consumption is estimated at 1.760,000 bales. The total num- 
 ber of oiieratives eniployeil. including those engaged in print and 
 dye works and bleaeheries, and also in manufacturing special 
 fabrics in which cotton forms a part, is 19S.3,'i8. The operatives 
 employed in tho specific cotton mills are thus cla.s8ed as to age and 
 sex: — 
 
 Men M.685 
 
 Boys 15. 107 
 
 Women 84,.1:i9 
 
 Girls 13.213 
 
 Total 172.514 
 
 Tho average wages earned in the cotton mills amount, for 300 
 days in the year, to 81 cents per day. Since 1840 the hours of labor 
 have been reduced from 13 or 14 to 10 or 11. and the average earn- 
 ings per hour are now more than double what they were at that 
 
 The manufacture of eolton is carried in nearly all the Atlantio, 
 Central, and Southern States, but is principally developed in and 
 near Massachusetts. This State alone consumed considerably 
 more cotton in 1880 than all tho olhiT States outside of New 
 England. Of 1..170.344 hnles consumed in " specific" cotton manu- 
 facture in the country, in 1K8I), 1.1-.9.498 were taken by New Eng- 
 land. Massachusetts and Rhode Island, having togetj-.er about 
 ten thousan<l square miles of area, cimsumcd 742. :«7 bales, or 
 nearly half the wlode consumption of the I'nited States, 
 
 Some cotton cloth is still made by hand in tho uiountamoua 
 sections of the South, some two or three hundred thousand perions 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 [foreign commerce. 
 
 being supplied in this way. As a measure of their work, it is snid 
 by Mr. Atkinson, Special Agent of the Census in charge of the 
 subject of Cotton, that "two carders, two spinners, aud one 
 weaver could produce eight yards of coarse cotton cloth in a day 
 of ten hours.'* To this he adds: "Of the whole force engagt-d in 
 the specific cotton manufactures, about ItjO.OOO are empl<ty<'d nn 
 goods for homt' consumption. It would take 16,00.000 to make the 
 saini' number of yards by hand-work, and the cloth would hv of a 
 far different kind— more durable, it is true, but coarse and un- 
 sightly." 
 
 The following table will furnish the nec^^ssary data for an un- 
 derstandin^r of the importance of the petroleum business in the 
 United States: — 
 
 
 Profluction 
 in Barrela 
 
 of 42 
 Gallons. 
 
 Exports, in gallons. 
 
 
 Tear 
 
 end- 
 ing 
 June 
 
 so. 
 
 Illuminat- 
 ing Oil. 
 
 Crude Oil, 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total Val- 
 ue of Ex- 
 ports. 
 
 1864 
 
 2,478,709 
 
 12,791,518 
 
 9,980,654 
 
 23,210,369 
 
 810,782,689 
 
 1865 
 
 2,424,905 
 
 12,722,005 
 
 12,293,897 
 
 25,496,849 
 
 16,563,413 
 
 1866 
 
 3,165,700 
 
 34,255.921 
 
 16,0,57,943 
 
 50,987,341 
 
 21,830,887 
 
 1867 
 
 3,591,900 
 
 62,686,657 
 
 7,344,248 
 
 70,255,481 
 
 24,407,642 
 
 1868 
 
 3,613,709 
 
 67,909,961 
 
 10,029,6,59 
 
 79,456,888 
 
 21,810,676 
 
 1869 
 
 4,046,558 
 
 84,403,492 
 
 13,425,566 
 
 100,636,684 
 
 31,127,433 
 
 1870 
 
 4,411,016 
 
 97,902,505 
 
 10,403,314 
 
 113,735,294 
 
 32,668,960 
 
 1871 
 
 5,558,775 
 
 132,608.955 
 
 9,,859,038 
 
 149,892,091 
 
 36,894,810 
 
 1872 
 
 5,842,497 
 
 122,539,575 
 
 13,559,768 
 
 145,171,583 
 
 34,058,390 
 
 1873 
 
 7,242,343 
 
 158,102,414 
 
 18,439,407 
 
 187,815.187 
 
 42,050,756 
 
 1874 
 
 11,188,741 
 
 217,220,504 
 
 17,776,419 
 
 247,806,483 
 
 41,245,815 
 
 1875 
 
 10,083,828 
 
 191,551,933 
 
 14,718,114 
 
 221,955,308 
 
 30,078,563 
 
 1876 
 
 8,823,142 
 
 204,814,673 
 
 20,520,397 
 
 243,660,152 
 
 32,915,786 
 
 1877 
 
 10,822,871 
 
 262,441,844 
 
 26,819,202 
 
 309,198,914 
 
 61,789.438 
 
 1878 
 
 14.738,262 
 
 289,214,541 
 
 26,936,727 
 
 338,841,303 
 
 46,574,974 
 
 187<i 
 
 16,917,606 
 
 331,586,442 
 
 25,874,488 
 
 378,310,010 
 
 40,305,249 
 
 18S0 
 
 22,382,509 
 
 367,325,823 
 
 23,297,997 
 
 423,964,699 
 
 30,218,625 
 
 1881 
 
 25,805,363 
 
 332,283,045 
 
 39,984.844 
 
 397,660,262 
 
 40,315,609 
 
 1882 
 
 28,650,181 
 
 488,213,033 
 
 41,304,997 
 
 559.954.590 
 
 51,232,706 
 
 1883 
 
 26,662,808 
 
 419,821,081 
 
 52,712,316 
 
 5^5,931,622 
 
 44,913,079 
 
 188i 
 
 23,744,924 
 
 415,615,693 
 
 67,186,329 
 
 513,660,092 
 
 47,103,248 
 
 1885 
 
 21,750,619 
 
 453,243.192 
 
 81,037,902 
 
 574,628,180 
 
 50,257,947 
 
 1886 
 
 22,463,744 
 
 469.471,451 
 
 80,246.703 
 
 577,781,752 
 
 50,199.844 
 
 1887 
 
 25,316,000 
 
 480,345,811 
 
 76,062,875 
 
 592,303,267 
 
 46,824,933 
 
 1883 
 
 23,249,597 
 
 456,417,221 
 
 85,538,725 
 
 578,351,638 
 
 47,042,409 
 
 The relation of materials to product, in the statistics of industry, 
 needs to be carefully borne in miud ; and for the purpose of throw- 
 intr Iij,'ht on this .subject, the Census Kfport of 1S8'1. in the volume 
 devoted to manufactures (published in 1883) groui»s the manu- 
 facturing and mechanical industri-s into four chis-es. as follows: 
 I. Those industries in which the subject-matter is of a distinct 
 and immediate commercial value, but the proj.erty does not reside 
 in the person who treats it; II. Those industries in which the 
 entire valuo of the subject-matter is carried into the value of 
 ''materials." and appears again in the product, enhanced by the 
 Value of labor, use of capital, rent, freight, etc.. but in which the 
 value is BmalL compared to the cost of labor; III. Industries 
 which are otherwise under the same conditions as those of the 
 Becond class, but in which the value of the materials approaches, 
 or even miKtrately exceeds, the value of the labor employed, and 
 becomes thus an important element in the final value of the prod- 
 uct, enhancing the apparent production of the industry in a high 
 degree; and IV. Industries in which the value of the materials far 
 exceeds all other elements in the cost of production combineil. 
 although, in fact, compuratively little value has been added by 
 these operations, and only a small number of artisans or laborers 
 Bupporied. The following table is intended to illustrate the rela- 
 tion of materials to product, indicated above:— 
 
 
 
 ^s?g^ 
 
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 * All the industries tabulated were assigned entire to one claia 
 or another, according to the principles indicated in the text. The 
 lines of division taken tor the second, third, and fourth classes 
 were: (1) where the value of the materials is le.'^s than two-fifthsof 
 that of the ultimate product ; (2) where the value of the materials 
 is from two-fifths to four-fifths of that of the ultimate product; 
 and (3) where the value of the materials is over four-fifths of that 
 of the ultimate product. 
 
 t In this table the same groups of industries in 1870 are com- 
 pared with each other. The table differs from that contained in 
 the volume on Manufactures of the Ninth Census and in the 
 Compendium of that census in this, that the mining and fishing 
 interests, and the statistics of a few industries which form the 
 subject of special reports in the census of 1880 are, for purposes 
 of comparison, excluded herefrom. 
 
STATISTICS.] 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 Valubs in Dollars op thb Products of Doukstio Aobicultdek 
 
 EXPOKTKl) b'KOM THK U.NITKD 8tATKS FOB THB VEAKS 
 
 188li, 1S87 AND 1S8S. 
 
 AniiDiils 
 
 Aiiiiiuil Oils 
 
 Provisions, iiicluilin^ Muati 
 
 mill Djiiry ProiluoU / 
 
 Brciuistuffs 
 
 Fruits 
 
 Seetts 
 
 Ti'xtih'S. Uiimaniifnoturod.. 
 VoKotiibh' Oils and f.Jil cake. 
 
 Tofmoco U-iif 
 
 All Other Agricultural Pro- 1 
 
 duets / 
 
 Total Value of Agriculta-1 
 ral Products J 
 
 Total Value of nil E-xportsl 
 of Domestic Mcrchaodisc. J 
 
 Pcrci'Dtage Value of Agri-1 
 cultural Products J 
 
 1886. 
 
 2.M8, 
 718, 
 
 ,62.";, 
 
 ,S-I6, 
 
 ,:iik8, 
 
 ,949, 
 ,.Mil 
 ,2.=i5. 
 1.58, 
 
 Oil 
 
 .660 
 ,6.M 
 
 ,216 
 
 ,.'>5S 
 ,3ii,H 
 ,991) 
 .916 
 ,170 
 4S7 
 
 ,666 
 
 484,954,595 
 
 665,964,&'i2 
 
 73 82 
 
 1887 
 
 10/i9.S,362 
 819,670 
 
 92.783,296 
 
 165,7H8.662 
 2.6t)9.1«15 
 I,9ii7,4ci9 
 
 206.300,11.59 
 9,011.4.il 
 25,948,277 
 
 7,275,647 
 
 523,073,798 
 
 703,022,923 
 
 74.40 
 
 1888. 
 
 12.S85,000 
 924,136 
 
 93,05S.7«5 
 
 127,191.687 
 3,510.2(18 
 l,5I(i,()9() 
 
 223,022,1 3:J 
 8,45S.608 
 21,93(),()84 
 
 8,356,746 
 
 .500,840,086 
 
 683,?62,104 
 
 73.23 
 
 From a ooiunariflon of the facts given in the various tables here- 
 with presented, it will bo evident thut, with the exception of those 
 items callt-d " luaiiutactiires " in the Ceii.'.us Reports wliieh are not 
 properly manufMctur* t^. hut the conversion of artieles ot food into 
 a more suitalde iind convenient lorin for shipment to foreign 
 countries— as. fur instiinee. ^hiuKhteriiiR of iininifils. and KrindiiiK 
 (ind packing of wheat in barrels — the inanufactiircs of tiie United 
 States are intended and used for hoineeonsumpiion. The amount 
 of these exported is very small as eomi>ared with tlie total of the 
 exports. Ihere is no one inanutdciured jiriicle of which the 
 l"nitod States has anything like a monopoly abroad, or which 
 greatly predominates in importance as an article of export over 
 any otlior article. 
 
 The following data, compiled from the reports of the Bureau of 
 Statistics, will give a sufliciently complete and comprehensive view 
 of the nature of the imports into the I'nited States. 
 
 The imported articles, including those admitted free of duty and 
 the dutiable, are tUuscla-ssified:— 
 
 \. Artichi* nf food and live animah B. ArtxrUn in (i crude 
 condition which entrr into the varioiin prncenficti of dommtic indus- 
 try. C. Articlcfi whollii or partially inanufacturid for wwe. a» 
 matcrialn in the rnanu.locttire» and mechanic arts. D. Articles 
 manufactured ready /or consum/ition. E. Articles of voluntary 
 use. luxuries, etc. The following table gives theatnonntin value 
 of each of tllese classes iniported during the years 1884 and 18^5, 
 and tile average for the fivi^ years (18S1-H.)): also the ad vaktreni 
 rate of duty on the dutiable articles of each class, and the per- 
 ocutaBO relation of the ad valorem duty to the entire duty col- 
 locted: — 
 
 
 1884 and 18S5. 
 
 Average of Years 1881-85. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Free of Duty. 
 
 Dutiable. 
 
 .\d ^'alorem 
 Rate on 
 Duituble. 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 of Total. 
 
 Duty. 
 
 Free of Duty. 
 
 Dutiable. 
 
 Ad Valorem 
 Rate on 
 Dutiable, 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 of Total. 
 
 Duty. 
 
 ISM A. 
 188.5 
 
 892,589.286 
 86,559,991 
 
 $132,136,969 
 107,706,.369 
 
 44.75 
 57.28 
 
 31.15 
 34.79 
 
 $86,851,618 
 86,066,234 
 
 $I30.072.2;i8 
 129,907,732 
 
 44 90 
 46.41 
 
 29 47 
 30.57 
 
 1884 B. 
 1885 
 
 94,039..567 
 82,507,747 
 
 44.4.57.174 
 37,101, .595 
 
 26.82 
 25.48 
 
 6.28 
 5.33 
 
 97.895.975 
 95,001,401 
 
 ,54,3.58,668 
 49,163,935 
 
 29.96 
 28.57 
 
 8.21 
 7.12 
 
 1884 C. 
 1885 
 
 12.1K6.427 
 11.185.JS7 
 
 69.774.216 
 61,O45,0.5;i 
 
 26.48 
 27.88 
 
 9.73 
 9.61 
 
 11,719,621 
 11,85(1,883 
 
 66,492,197 
 66,169,(J52 
 
 29,42 
 29.01 
 
 9.87 
 9.73 
 
 1884 D. 
 
 1885 
 
 11,0.3.5.112 
 IU.617.405 
 
 123,20.5,489 
 108.636,576 
 
 47.54 
 48.28 
 
 30.86 
 29.58 
 
 10,207.857 
 10,504.966 
 
 1*5.602,292 
 133,155,050 
 
 47 22 
 47.52 
 
 37.. 31 
 
 32.08 
 
 1884 E. 
 1885 
 
 1.429,873 
 2,041,604 
 
 80,721,276 
 72,178,227 
 
 48.12 
 50. S4 
 
 21. 9S 
 2(1. (i9 
 
 1.199.322 
 1.46.i,551 
 
 78,128,835 
 79,690,207 
 
 51.(19 
 50.(9 
 
 20.14 
 20.49 
 
 Total 18*4 
 
 $211,280,265 
 
 $456,195,194 
 
 av. 41.61 
 
 100.00 
 
 $207,904,425 
 
 $464,634,230 
 
 av. 42.06 
 
 100.00 
 
 •' 1885 
 
 192.912,234 
 
 386,667,820 
 
 45.90 
 
 100.00 
 
 204,877,035 
 
 458,086,576 
 
 43.05 
 
 100.00 
 
 Abolition. 76.5. 
 
 Ada(ns. Pres. Jno., 7.54. 
 
 Adams, Pres.Jno.Quinoy. 
 7B1. 
 
 Admission of Nebraska, 
 785. 
 
 African Slave trade, 771. 
 
 Alabama. T29. 825. 
 
 " Alabama " Claims. 785. 
 
 Alaska. 7S5. 815, 823. 
 
 Alperine War, 759. 
 
 Allen and Sedition Laws, 
 7,54. 
 
 Allen. Ethan, 739. 
 
 American Authors. 769. 
 
 American imp(»rt8 0f Iron 
 and Steel. 814. 
 
 American Seamen, im- 
 pressment of, 7.53. 
 
 Andre, Major. 743. 
 
 Annals. 825. 
 
 Annexation of Texas,765. 
 
 Antieriim, Battle of, 778. 
 
 Anti-Xchraska .Men, 770. 
 
 Appalachian Chain. 795, 
 
 Appnl:icliiaii region. 795. 
 
 Area of (treat Lakes. 792. 
 
 Area of United States, 797 
 
 Arkansas. 7(h5. 
 
 Army disbanded, the. 744. 
 
 Army of the Potomac,778. 
 
 Arthur's .Administration. 
 787. 
 
 Assassination of (jarfield, 
 787. 
 
 Atlanta Campaign. 782. 
 
 Atlantic Regi<,n, H(i,i. 
 
 Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, 
 803. 
 
 Augusta. Georgia. 800. 
 
 Australian Ballot Sys- 
 tem, "iio. 
 
 Ball's liluff.Battle of.776. 
 
 Beginning of the Govern- 
 ment. 752. 
 
 Beginning of the Strug- 
 gle. 73S. 
 
 Belmont. Battle of, 776. 
 
 Bennington, Battle of.742. 
 
 Bessemer Steel, 81 
 
 Bit-low Papers, 7(57. 
 
 Bill of Rights. 7.38. 
 
 Bill, the Embargo. 756. 
 
 Bismarck. Dak.. Hio. 
 
 Bituminous CoaUfields of 
 Penn.. 810. 
 
 Black Hawk War. 763. 
 
 Blockade running. 776, 
 
 Bonneville and his Par- 
 ty. 794. 
 
 " Border RufTiane." 771. 
 
 Border States, 775, 
 
 Index. 
 
 Boston, 737. 740. 741. 800. 
 Boston Port Bill. 738. 
 Braddock's Defeat. 7.33. 
 Braudywine, Battle of, 
 
 742. 
 Brooks and Summer, 771. 
 Brown. John, 772. 
 Buchanan. Pres. James, 
 
 771. 
 Bull Run. Battles of, 776, 
 
 V7S 
 Bunker 11111,740. 
 Burgoyne's Invasion, 742. 
 Burr's Conspiracy. 7.5(t. 
 Calhoun, John C, 7.57, 
 
 763. 
 California, 767. 814. 
 California Fields. Kl2. 
 Campaign '*f 1777. 742. 
 Campaign of I77s, 742. 
 Campaign of 1779. 742. 
 
 7&). 
 Campaigns in the West, 
 
 77s. 
 Canada, attack on, 740. 
 Canby, murder of, 786. 
 Capital removed. 7.55. 
 Carboniferous Age, 794. 
 Carolina. 729. 
 Causes of the .American 
 
 Revolution, 734, 739. 
 
 Cedar Creek, 782. 
 Onsus. 7.51. 789. 
 (_'hancellorsville. 780. 
 Charleston. S.__C., 800. 
 Chattanooga. 781. 
 Chicago. Ill..8(i0. 
 Chickamauga. 781. 
 Chinese liumigrationBUl, 
 
 Civil'Rig'hts Bill, 784. 
 Civil Service Act. 789. 
 Claims. Court of, 750. 
 Clay. Henry. 7.57. 767. 
 Clev<dand, Pres. Grover, 
 
 788. 
 Cliffs. 794. 
 Climate, 792, 798. 
 Coal. 789. 809. 
 Coal-beds. 8o9. 
 Coast. 791. 
 
 ('oast of California, 805. 
 Coast, operations, on the, 
 
 776. 
 Coast ranges. 795. 
 Colonial Oppression, 735. 
 Colorado. 815. 
 Colorings, 794. 
 Commerce, Foreign, 828. 
 
 829. 
 Commissioners to France, 
 
 742. 
 
 Compromise, Effects of, 
 767. 
 
 Comstock Lode, the, 814. 
 
 Confederacy Organized, 
 773. 
 
 Confederate Cruisers, 781 
 
 Confederate Line of De- 
 fense. 775. 
 
 Confederate Finances. 784 
 
 Congress. Contincntal,736, 
 73S, 739. 
 
 Connecticut. 7'J9. 730. 746. 
 
 Connecticut Compromise, 
 746. 
 
 Conquest of Cana<ln, 734. 
 
 Constitution. 745-751. 
 
 Constitutional Union 
 Party. 772. 
 
 Conventions of 1852,769. 
 
 Convict Law, 788. 
 
 Copper. 817. 
 
 Corinth. 779. 
 
 Comwallis. Lord. 743. 
 
 Costof the Civil War.784. 
 
 Cotton, 8'25,8'2(i. 
 
 Cotton Gin. the, 760. 
 
 Cowpens. Battle of, 743. 
 
 Crock War. 7.58. 
 
 Cuba. 769. 
 
 Cumborland,Army of the. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 /^ 
 
 Cu-ter Massacre, 786. 
 
 Uakoin. 81o. 
 
 Davis. J>fEerson, 773, 783. 
 
 Dei'laration of Independ- 
 ence. 741. 
 
 De Kalb. Baron, 743. 
 
 Delaware, 730. 
 
 Democratic Party, Split 
 in the, 772. 
 
 Denver, Colo.. 800. 
 
 Detroit, Surrender of. 757 
 
 Different Coal-fields. 810. 
 
 Difficulties with France, 
 754. 
 
 Discovery and Settlement 
 of America. 729. 
 
 Dispute about Charters, 
 735. 
 
 Douglass, Stephen A., 
 77U, 772. 
 
 Downfall of the Federal 
 Party, 759. 
 
 Draft Riots. 781. 
 
 lircd Scott Decision, 772. 
 
 Dutch Settlements, 7.30. 
 
 Early Discoveries, 729. 
 
 Eastern Kentucky Coal- 
 field. 811. 
 
 Efforts to found colonies, 
 721. 
 
 Electoral College, 748. 
 
 Electoral Commission, 749 
 
 Election of 186i), 772. 
 
 Election of 1864, 782, 
 
 Election of 1876, 787. 
 
 Election of 188(1. 787. 
 
 Election of 1884, 788. 
 
 Eleventh Amcndment,754 
 
 Emancipation, 779. 
 
 Emancipation Proclamar 
 tion, 779. 
 
 Embargo Act. 756. 
 
 End of the Dutch Power, 
 730. 
 
 English Policy towards 
 the Colonists. 731. 
 
 Era of Good Feeling. 759. 
 
 Erie Canal, 760, 
 
 Eutaw Springs. Battle of 
 743. 
 
 Evacuation of New York, 
 741. 
 
 Executive Departments, 
 718. 
 
 Expedition of Doniphan, 
 766. 
 
 Fair Oaks, Battle of, 778. 
 
 Fall of the Confederacy, 
 783. 
 
 Federalists and Anti- 
 Federalists, 7.52. 
 
 Federal Jurisdiction, 749. 
 
 Filibustering. 769. 
 
 Fillmore, Pres. Millard, 
 767, 768. 
 
 First Ten Amendments, 
 the. 751. 
 
 Fishery Question, 785. 
 
 Five Forks. Battle of,783. 
 
 Florida. 729, 759. 
 
 Foreign Officers. 742. 
 
 Foreign Relations, 777. 
 
 Forests of Interior, 806. 
 
 Forests of North Amer- 
 ica. 803. 
 
 Formation of the Con- 
 stitution, 744. 
 
 Fort Donelson, 777. 
 
 Fort DuQuesne. 733 
 
 Fort Erie, Battle of, 758. 
 
 Fort Henry, 777. 
 
 Fort Sumter, 774. 
 
 Fourteenth Amendment, 
 784. 
 
 Fourth Administration, 
 755. 
 
 France. 732. 733, 734, 742. 
 
 Franklin, Benjamin, 736. 
 741. 
 
 Fredericksburg. 825. 
 
 Fremont. Jno. C, 766,771 
 
 French and Indian War, 
 734. 
 
 French Spoliation Claim, 
 788. 
 
 Fugitive criminals. 7.50. 
 
 Fugitive slaves. 750, 776. 
 
 Fulton, Robert. 756. 
 
 Gadsden Purchase, 767. 
 
 (Jage. General. 738. 
 
 Garfield, Pres. Jas. A., 
 787. 
 
 Gathering of Troops. 
 General Topography, 792. 
 General Winter Storms, 
 
 802. 
 Geography and Statistics, 
 
 819. 
 Geological History, 794. 
 Georgia, 729, 730,742, 743, 
 
 825. 
 Germantown, Battle of, 
 
 742. 
 Gettysburg, Battle of,780. 
 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 
 
 729. 
 Gold and Silver. 814. ^ 
 Gorges and Ravines, 794. 
 Government Expeditions, 
 
 7ii8. 
 Government Expenses, 
 
 780. 
 Grant, Ulysses S., 776, 
 
 781, 782, 785. 
 Greene, General. 743. 
 Greiiville. Lord, 7.:i6.^ 
 Growth of Colonies, 731. 
 Guilt.inl, Battle of. 743. 
 Hamilton and Burr. 756. 
 Harrison, Pres. Benj., 788. 
 Harrison, Pres. Wm. H., 
 
 7ii4. 
 Hartford Convention, 759. 
 Hay and tirass, 824, 
 Hayes Administration, 
 
 787. 
 Henry, Patrick, 736. 
 Hood ill Tennessee. 782. 
 House of Representa- 
 tives. 746. 
 Howe, General, 742. 
 Hudson Bay Company, 
 
 764. 
 Hurricanes, 802. 
 Idaho, 815. 
 
 Immigration and Popu- 
 lation, 819. 
 Inipeaehment of Pres. 
 
 Johnson, 785. 
 Imports, 829. 
 Indiana, 811. 
 Indian Tnmbles, 763, 
 Indian War, 752. 
 Insurrection, the Whis- 
 key, 752. 
 Invasion of Pennsylva^ 
 
 nia, 780. 
 Inventions, 768. 
 luka, Banie of, 779. 
 JaeksoBi Battle of, 780. 
 Jackson, Pres. Andrew, 
 
 758, 762. 
 Jamestown Colony, 729. 
 Jefferson, Pres. Thomas, 
 
 741. 7.54, 7.'i5, 756. 
 Johnson and Congress, 
 
 784. 
 Johnson, Pres. Andrew, 
 
 784. 
 Judiciary, 749. 
 Kansas Admitted, 774. 
 Kansas - Nebraska Bill, 
 
 770. 
 Kearsarge and Alabama, 
 
 the. 781. 
 Key, Francis S., 758. 
 King George's War, 733, 
 
 731. 
 King William's War, 732, 
 
 733. 
 La Fayette, 742. 761. 
 Lake Champlain, Battle 
 
 of, 7.5H. 
 Lake Erie, Battle of, 7,58. 
 Lecompton Constitution, 
 
 771. 
 Lexington and Concord, 
 
 7.39. 
 Lexington. Siege of, 776. 
 Liberty, the Spirit of, 
 
 731. 
 Lincoln, Pres. A., 772, 
 
 774, 783. 
 Literature, 768. 
 Livingston, Robert R., 
 
 741. 
 Long Island, Battle of, 
 
 741. 
 London Company, 729. 
 Lookout Mountain, 781. 
 Los Angeles. Cal., 800. 
 Louisiana, 752. 786. 
 Louisiana Purchase, 755, 
 
 7.56. 
 
 Madison's Administra- 
 tion, 7.57. 
 
 Manufactures, 789, 827. 
 
 March to the Sea, Sher- 
 man's, 782. 
 
 Marquette, Father, 732. 
 
 Marshall, Chief Justice, 
 755 
 
 Maryland, 728. 730. 
 
 Maryland Coal-field, 811. 
 
 Mason. Jno., 729. 
 
 iNlassaehusetts, 729, 730. 
 
 Me.Clellan. Geo. B., 776. 
 
 Message, the President's, 
 748. 
 
 Mexican War, 766. 
 
 Mexico, 766. 
 
 Michigan, 765. 
 
 Military Condition of the 
 North. 775. 
 
 Military Condition of the 
 Stiuth. 775. 
 
 Mineral Wealth. 789. 
 
 Mining Business. 8(19, 816. 
 
 Missionary Ridge. 781. 
 
 Mississippi Basin, 792. 
 
 Missouri Compromise,761 
 
 Mobile, 782. 
 
 Monitor and Merrimac, 
 
 Monmouth, Battle of,742. 
 Monroe. Pres. James, 759. 
 Montana, 815. 
 Mormons, the. 768. 
 M..rii-. Kehert, 745. 
 Mouiitiiin Regions, 792. 
 Mount Hood, 808. 
 j\lount Shasta, 
 Movement of Population, 
 
 819. 
 Name of the Field, 809. 
 Niishville, 782. 
 National Bank, 753, 759, 
 
 779. 
 Native White Element, 
 
 822 
 Natural Gas. 812. 
 Naval Exploits, 757. 
 Negro iSoldiers, 780. 
 Nevada. 7.'^5, 814. 
 New Amsterdam. 730. 
 New England. 731. 
 NewEngland .jlountains, 
 
 807. 
 New Jersey, 730, 741. 
 New Hampshire, 729.730. 
 New Mexico, 766, 815. 
 New Orleans, La., 732, 
 
 758, 778, 800. 
 Newspapers, 768. 
 New States, 789. 
 New York, 730, 741, 744, 
 
 800. 
 Non-metalliferous Min- 
 erals. 816. 
 North Carolina, 729, 730, 
 
 825. 
 Northeast Winds, 802. 
 Northern Pine Belt, 803. 
 Nullification. 763. 
 Number of Men in the 
 
 Armies of the North 
 
 and the South. 783, 784. 
 Office. Rotation in. 762. 
 Ohio Coal-fields. 811. 
 Ohio Company. 7';3. 
 Oklahoma Country. 788. 
 Old Continental Congress 
 
 738. 
 Opposition to the Stamp 
 
 Act, 636. 
 Orders in Council, 756. 
 Oregon. 764. 815. 
 Original and Appellate 
 
 Jurisdiction, 750. 
 Origin of PoliticalParties, 
 
 752. 
 Ostend Manifesto, 769, 
 Otis, James, 7.36. 
 Pacific Forests, 804. 
 Pacific Region. 804. 
 Panic of 1837, 764^_ 
 Paper Currency. 779. 
 Party Principles. 7,54, 
 Peace Congress. 774. 
 Pennsylvania, 7.30, 780. 
 Pennsylvania Anthracite, 
 
 810. 
 Personal Liberty Laws, 
 
 768. 
 Petersburg. 781,782. 
 Physical Character, 797. 
 
 Physical Geography and 
 
 Statistics. 791. 
 Pierce's Administration, 
 
 7o9. 
 Pitt, Wm., 738. 
 Pittsburg Landing.Battlo 
 
 of, 777. 
 Plains. 792. 
 
 Plans of the South, 773. 
 Platforms and Terraces, 
 
 793. 
 Plattsburg, Battle of, 758. 
 Plymouth Colony, 729. 
 Plymouth Company, 729. 
 Politicitl Divisions, 797. 
 Polk, Jas. K.,7116. 
 Ponce de Leon, 729. 
 Pontiae's AVar. 7.34. 
 Population. 731, 819, 820. 
 Ports and Harbors, 791. 
 Powers and t>uties of the 
 
 President. 748. 
 Presidents <if the LTnited 
 
 States, 790. 
 Princeton, Battle of, 742. 
 Privileges of Citizens. 750 
 Production of Rails, 813. 
 Project of Separation, 741 
 Protective Tariffs, 761. 
 Provinces, 793. 
 Provisions of the Stamp 
 
 Act, 736. 
 Public Lands, 822. 
 Puritans, the, 729. 
 Putnam, Israel, 740, 741. 
 Qualifications for the 
 
 Presidency. 748. 
 Quebec Act, 738. 
 Queenstown Heights. 757. 
 Quicksilver, 816. 
 Races and Language, 791. 
 Railroads, 760, 789. 
 Rainfall. 801. 
 Randolph, Edmund, 752. 
 Randolph, Peyton. 739. 
 Refunding the Debt^787. 
 Relations of States. 7.50. 
 Religious Condition, 731. 
 Repeal of Stamp Taxes, 
 
 788. 
 Republican Government, 
 
 751. 
 Republican Party of 1792. 
 
 753. 
 Republican Party of 1856, 
 
 770. 
 Restrictive Policy of Eng- 
 land, 735. 
 Resumption Act, 786. 
 Rhode Island, 729, 730. 
 Rice, 826. 
 
 Richmond, 782, 783. 
 Rights of English Sub- 
 jects, 7.-il. 
 Rivers. 795. 
 Rocky Mountains. 793. 
 Rotation in Office, 762. 
 Rules for Immigrants, 822 
 Rye, 821. 
 .Salt, 818. 
 
 Sale of Lauds, 745. 
 Savannah, 742, 782.^ 
 Scenographical. 8(i7. 
 .Schuvler, Philip. 740. 
 Scott', Winfield, 7.58. 
 " Scrub Race for the 
 
 Presidenc: ." 761. 
 Secession, 773. 
 Second Continental Con- 
 gress. 739. 
 Second Year of the Civil 
 
 War, 777. 
 Sedition Laws. 754. 
 Senate, the. 746. 
 Seven Days' Battles, 77S. 
 Seven Pines, Battle of, 
 
 778. 
 Seward, Wm. H., 783. 
 Sherman, W. T., 776, 781, 
 
 782. 
 Shays' Rebellion, 745. 
 Siege of Y'orktown. 743. 
 Sierra Nevada Forests, 
 
 805. 
 Silver, 814, 815. 
 Slave Power, the, 769. 
 Slave Trade prohibited, 
 
 756. 
 Slavery, 760,761. 
 Sons of Liberty, 736, 737. 
 South Carolina, 736, 737, 
 
 825. 
 
 Southern Pine Belt. 803. 
 
 South, the, 7.'<9. 
 
 Specie Circular, 764. 
 
 Stamp Act, 736. 
 
 State Governments, 751, 
 
 Steamboats. 760. 
 
 Stone River, Battle of,779 
 
 Stony Point. 743. 
 
 Sub-treasury System,764. 
 
 Sugar, 826. 
 
 Summer Isothermals, 799 
 
 Supreme Court, 749. 
 
 Su|)reme Law of the 
 Land. 751. 
 
 Surrender of Lee, 783, 
 
 Surroundings of Great 
 Basin, 795. 
 
 Swedes in America, 730. 
 
 Tariffs, 752, 763. 
 
 Taylor, Pres. Zaehary, 
 767. 
 
 Tea Destroyed at Boston, 
 7.37. 
 
 Tccumseh, 757. 
 
 Telegraph, 768, 789. 
 
 Telephone, 789. 
 
 Tennessee Coalfields, 811 
 
 Terms of Clflice. 749. 
 
 Tenure of Office Bill, 785. 
 
 Texas, 765. 
 
 The Afiproaching Con- 
 flict. 769. 
 
 The Atlantic Plains, 796. 
 
 The Civil War, 774. 
 
 The Cordillerau Region, 
 793. 
 
 The First Blood of the 
 Civil War, 780. 
 
 The tJovernment under 
 the Constitution. 751. 
 
 The Great Basin. 794. 
 
 Thermal .Springs, 809. 
 
 Third Year of the Civil 
 War, 780. 
 
 Timber, 792, 
 
 Tin, 816. 
 
 Tobacco, 826. 
 
 Topography of the Great 
 Basin. 795. 
 
 Treason, 750. 
 
 Treaty of Alliance with 
 France, 742. 
 
 Treaty of Washington, 
 785 
 
 Trenton, Battle ot.741,742 
 
 Twelfth Amendment,749. 
 
 Tyler, Pres. Jno., 764. 
 
 Uncle Tom's Cabin, In- 
 fluence of, 769. 
 
 Union Flag, the, 740. __ 
 
 United States Bank. 763, 
 
 Utah and Arizona. 815. 
 
 V.an Buren, Pres. Martin, 
 764. 
 
 Valley Forge, 742. 
 
 Valley Foreste, 805. 
 
 Vegetation, 794. 
 
 Veto, the President's,747, 
 
 Vicksburg Campaign, 780. 
 
 Virginia, 729. 730. 
 
 Virginia Campaign, 778. 
 
 Virginia Coal-fields, 811. 
 
 Volunteers, the First Call 
 for, 774, 
 
 War for Independence, 
 the, 739, 744. 
 
 War of 1812. 757. 
 
 Washington City, Cap- 
 ture of, 7.58. 
 
 Washington, 812, 815. 
 
 Washington. Pres. Geo. 
 733. 740, 751, 753, 755, 
 
 Waterfalls, 808. 
 
 Webster, Daniel, 763. 
 
 Whigs, 7ti2. 
 
 Whisky Frauds. 786. 
 
 Wilderness, Battles of 
 the. 781. 
 
 W'ilmington, 782. 
 
 Wilson'sCreek, Battle of, 
 776. 
 
 Winds, 800. 
 
 Wyoming, 812, 815. 
 
 X. Y. Z. Dispatches, 754. 
 
 Yield of Gold in Califor- 
 nia, 814. 
 
 Y'ield of Metallic Lead, 
 816. 
 
 Y'ork, the Duke of, 730. 
 
 Y'orktown, 743. 
 
 Yosemite Valley, 808. 
 
 Zinc, 816. 
 
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