Book >Jx3 I8?0 j?H ORAL TRAmiNG LESSONS IN NATURAL SCIENCE AND KMBRAC'ING THE >;UDJECTS OF ASTRONOMY, AXATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, ClIEMISTKY, MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY, NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, THE ARTS, HISTORY, DEVELOPMENT OF WORDS, ETC. ISTKKDED FOK TEACHERS OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, AND ALSO FOR PRIVATE INSTRUCTION. By II. BARNARD, Principal Lincoln School, MINNEArOLIS. MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. GEO. .A.. EIDES, E="U"BXiISIIEE<. 1870. x'^ Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1870, by H. BARNARD, Id the Clerk's Office of tho District Court of the United States for the District of ^Minnesota. INTRODUCTORY AND EXPLANATORY. It need hardly be stated that the Author's object in this work is to present a concise but comprehensive course in the most important Natural Sciences to those who have not the means of purchasing separate works upon each, and who may not have had the opportunity of acquiring a knowledge of them during their school-days. But this is not the only object. The information is all arranged in the probable course that a lesson would take, were the teacher imparting it in the school-room. Not only is the material furnished, and arranged in this manner, but the process of developing new words and applying them has also received particular care and attention. The mode of treating inattentive or idle pupils is also shown during the course of the lesson. By a careful previous study of the lesson any Teacher of ordinary ability may very successfully give either of the lessons of the course ; but if preferred the book may be judiciously used in the hands of the Teacher as a guide. Perhaps none of the lessons will take the exact course here given. You must inevitably follow where the pupils' answers lead you ; but you must at the same time lead their thoughts in the generel direction indicated. The six prominent features of these lessons are : 1st, Elliptical Answers given by all in concert. 2d, Individual Questions and Answers. IV INTRODUCTORY AND EXPLANATORY. 3d, Complete Statements by Individuals as the lesson progresses. 4th, Analogy and Familiar Illustrations. 5th, The writing of all new words on the blackboard, these words being in small capitals. 6th, A rapid general review at the close, with the object of putting the whole lesson in such a form as will connect all its parts so as to form a commencement and a termination. The elliptical answer must never be a mere guess. Only one word should be able to supply the ellipsis. It should never be part of a word. Thus, instead of saying (see No. xxxviii) " some bodies are tumple and others are com .pound," we rather say "some bodies are simple and others Bxe*.....compotindy If it is not entirely by the scholar's own exercise of thought, the object of the lesson is not attained ; nor is it if the answer is a mere guess. At the word immediately preceding the ellipsis the rising inflection of voice should be used to indicate when you wish a word answered. In all individual questions, require the hands to be raised by those who can answer, and call on one. Whenever a question is asked no more than one should be allowed to speak ; but at an elliptical answer, require every voice in the room to be heard. Kemember that the question pumps up the water from the well, but it requires the elliptical answering to lead it on in the proper direction. All words in italics are pronounced by scholars ; those in ordinary letters or capitals are to be given by the Teacher. Write all new words, or those in small capitals on the black-board. Never use a term that has not been well explained, INTRODUCTORY AND EXPLANATORY. V aud whose meaning is not clearly compreliended by the pupil. Anglo Saxon words are always the best. Never do injury to the sensitive feelings of the pupil by saying " No. You are wrong," but train him uncon- sciously, by the natural process, to that which is correct. This fact deserves prominence : A lesson is never GIVEN till it is RECEIVED. Be careful, as each point is gained in the lesson, to require some one, or all, to give the full and complete statement in its simplest form, before going on to the next point. This should be done at the end of each paragraph, at least. These statements are omitted in nearly all the lessons given in this volume, as it would make the work unnecessarily voluminous. A sufficient number of examples will be found throughout the course to indicate the manner in which it is done. When any considerable number of scholars fail to do this, cause them to {|uietly take out their slates and v/rite it from the dictation to some attentive scholar. The younger the scholar who dictates it, the better the effect. Then cause them to read it from their slates, and after- wards to state it, as required at first. It is always preferable to have one point of the lesson well understood than to go over the ground of a whole lesson without any distinct idea of the several steps contained in it. Quality first ; Quantity afterwards. Each pupil should also, at the close of a lesson be able to make all the statements contained in it successively. As often as once each week, the material contained in some previous lesson should be made the subject of a com))0- sition to be written by all. This will be found a most profitable and interesting work. Let them introduce all other facts or conclusions connected with their subject. VI INTRODUCTORY AND EXPLANATORY. NORMAL SCHOOLS Are now being established in every part of the United States and the British Dominions for the express purpose of creating good Teachers from good Scholars, Teaching, being an Art as well as Carpentering, Weaving, Mining, or Agriculture, requires a preparatory apprenticeship. If the present work gives even a very limited assistance to the work of furnishing the Teacher with the material and the manner of imparting, the Author will consider that his efforts are not without success. Not an unimportant part of its mission will be its use at the family fireside. One may be selected to act as Teacher and conduct the lesson with the other members of the family as pupils. This will be found a most gratifying and instructive employment during otherwise unoccupied time. The work, however, is designed particularly for public schools. The lessons may be conducted with all the scholars together, which is preferable, or with a large class composed of all who are capable of answering. COKTENTS LESSON I. PAGE. Natural Science — Climate — Its Elements 1 LESSON II. Natural History — Habits of the Cat 4 LESSON III. Form of the Earth — Proot by Circumnavigation 7 LESSON IV. Physiology — Organs and Functions 11 LESSON V. Natural Science — Heat and its Effects 14 LESSON VI. Natural Science — Atmospheric Pressure 16 LESSON VII. Astronomy — Motions of the Earth 19 LESSON VIIL Physiology — The Five Senses 22 LESSON IX. Natural Science — Atmospheric Pressure 25 LESSON X. Natural Science — The three forms of Matter 27 LESSON XI. Chemistry — Composition of the Air 31 Till CONTENTS. LESSON XII. Mental Science — Memory 34 LESSON XIII. Ekymologv — Derivation — Words from Traho 37 LESSON XIV. Natural Science — Sources of Heat 40 LESSON XV. Physiology — The Nerves 43 LESSON XVI. Mathematical Geography-Lines on the Earth's Surface 46 LESSON XVII. Natural Science — Climate — Its Causes 49 LESSON XVIII. Anatomy — The Osseous System 52 LESSON XIX. Natural Science — Organic and Inorganic Bodies 55 LESSON XX. Physiology — Circulation of the Blood 58 LESSON XXI. Chemistry — Oxygen — Flame 61 LESSON XXII. Physiology — Circulation of the Blood 64 LESSON XXIII. Natural Science — Evaporation of Water 67 LESSON XXIV. Astronomy — The Solar System 70 LESSON XXV. Natural Science — Wind 73 CONTENTS. IX LESSON XXVI. Physiology — Respiration 76 LESSON XXVIL Natural Science — Transmission of Heat 79 LESSON XXVIII. Astronomy — The Solar System 82 LESSON XXIX. Natural Science — Light — Its Nature and Sources 85 LESSON XXX. Natural Science — Sound 87 LESSON XXXI. Etymology — Derivation — Words from Plico 90 LESSON XXXII. Difference between Science and Art 93 LESSON XXXIII. Nat'l Science — Mechanical Properties of Atmosphere.. 98 LESSON XXXIV. Luxuries and Necessaries of Life 95 LESSON XXXV. Natural History— The Camel 100 LESSON XXXVL Natural Science — Why do Iron Ships Float ? 103 LESSON XXXVII. Astronomy — Attraction of Gravitation 105 LESSON XXXVIIL Chemistry — Simple and Compound Bodies 108 LESSON XXXIX. Natural Science — Inertia 112 X CONTENTS. LESSON XL. Human Anatomy — Arteries of the Body 114 LESSON XLI. The Arts — "Weaving 118 LESSON XLIL History — Career of Napoleon 121 LESSON XLIIL Chemistry — Acids, Bases, and Salts 121 Lesson XLIV. History — Five Great Nations of Antiquity 127 Lesson XLV. Manufactures — Brocaded Silk — Jacquard Loom 129 Lesson XLVI. Astronomy — The Solar System — Asteroids — Orbits.... 132 Lesson XLVIl. The Arts — Keduction of Metals from their Ores 134 Lesson XLVIII. Natural Science — Trade Winds 137 Lesson XLIX. Chemistry — Generation of Carbonic Acid 139 Lesson L. Natural Science — Light and Heat — Eefraction, Keflec- tion and Absorption 142 ORAL TRAINING LESSON NO. I. Natural Science — Climate — Its Effects. Raise Lands all who can tell me wliat is meant by Cli- mate. Does no one know ? We will see. In countries where the sun shines perpendicularly, that is, directly over head, vie say that they have a very hot climate. Then when we speak about climate, we mean the heat or cold. Now raise hands those who know a word that means heat or cold. When we speak of the heat or cold of the air, for example, what word is generally used ? George? Temperature. That is cor- rect. Let me hear this word from all Tempenxiture. Again Temperature. The temperature of the air, then, means whether it is hot or cold. Annie, repeat that sentence. (She repeats. If she cannot, from inattention, cause her to leave her seat and write it on the slate two or three times after asking some one else.) Eddie, if I speak of the temperature of the water in the river, to what do I refer ? You mean whether it is hot or cold. Correct. Now, when the air is very hot the temperature is said to be very ? I will tell you. It is said to be very high. When the air has a high temperature then you mean that it is very hot. What would it mean to say thatit is very low? Hands up. Willie? Very cold. Make the whole statement £t/ a loiv temperature loe mean that it is veiry cold. Very well indeed. You would say, for instance, 2 [Lesson I. that ice has a very low tem.peri'aiwe, and that red hot iron has a very high temperature. What wovald you say ot the temperature ol melted lead ? Hands up. Fred ? Melted lead has a very high temperature. When you speak of climate, then, one thing that you mean is the temperature, that is the heat or cold. Now does it mean anything else ? Suppose that it hardly ever rained, what then? It xoould he a dry climate. Yes, and climate will also mean whether it is dry or wet. I also wish you to give me one word for this. Hands up. What, none? The word I wanted was moisture. All repeat together tnoisture. Here, then, are two things. They are temperature and moisture which form the climate ol any country. There is something else meant when we speak of climate besides temperature and moisture. What is it? Did you ever hear of a windy climate, or a stormy climate ? Yes sir. Then the third thing in the climate of a country is the wind. We will call it Prevailing Winds. All answer .prevailing winds. Libbie, will you give us these three things;' Temperature, Moisture and Pre- vailing Winds. What about them? They form the climate of a country. Then you make the complete state- ment Charlie. (He makes it.) Now, in the next place, since these things make up a climate, they may be called its ? Well, let us see. The sounds that compose a word are called its elements. Correct, and those things that compose a loaf of bread could be called its elements. What are the elements of bread ? Alice ? Flour, water, salt and, yeast. Raise hands all who can give me the elements of mortar. Frank ? Lime, water, sand and hair. Of this book? Cora? Paver, ink, cloth and leather. And raise hands all who can tell me the elements of climate. You may tell me, George Temperature, Moisture and Prevailing Winds. And the elements are those things of which any- thing is made up or co7nposed. Before going on to the next point we will revise what we have said. The climate of a country consists of, 1st Temperature^ which means the Tieat or cold. 2d Moisture, or Lesson I.] 3 whether it is wet or dry ; and 3d Preveiling winds. When it is cold the temperature is said to be ^ow, and when hot it is said to be high. Sam, give mean example of this Ice has a low temperature and steam has a high temperature. Yes, bnt you might have omitted the first word temperature. Repeat without using it. Now a country which is not too warm in summer nor too cold in winter has what kind of a climate? Tc7n- perate. (If not known carefully tell it.) A temperate cZ/'wafe means one that is neither too hot nor too cold. Kate, repeat that. (She repeats.) But when it is very cold in winter and very hot in summer, the climate is said to be? I will tell you if all listen attentively. It is said to be EXTREME. All repeat. It is said to be extreme. Again extrevie. What does an extreme cli- mate mean? Fannie? One that is either too hot or too coll. Yes but I want the complete statement An extreme climate is one that is either too hot or too cold. A temperate climate that is not too wet and stormy is also called SALUBRIOUS. All repeat Salubrious. This word means several things. When we say a climate is salubrious we mean that it is neither too hot nor too cold, which in one word would be temperate, and that it is not too wet and stormy. It might not even rain very much, but if it was foggy and damp, would it be salubrious? No sir. Raise hands all who can give me another word like salubrious ? I will give you one. Genial. All answer genial. A genial or salubrious climate is one that is in every way .fine or agreeable. Fred, repeat that last sentence. (He lepeats.) Now all answer promptly. By the climate we mean three things, 1st temperature, or the heat or coll, 2d moisture, or the state of being wet or dry^ and 3d .prevailing winds. Then the temperature may be high (gesture in a case like this) or low, which would mean hot or cold. Since these three things make up or compose climate they may be called its ele- uients. When a climate is too hot or too cold it \a said to be extreme, but if not it is temperate. If it is temperate and also not too stormy or moist, you would say 4 [Lesson II. it was salubrious or genial. Or even if it has extremes, if it is conducive to good health we speak of it as salubrious and genial. OML TRAINING LESSON. NO. II. Natural History — Habits of the Cat. Now all sit upright and attend. When you are look- ing and LISTENING then you are attending. All answer promptly, All animals do not live in the same way. A horse does not get its food as a dog does, and a hen and a duck do not both live in the same .place or oiianner. But every animal is exactly fitted by the Creator for its way of living. Willie, repeat that Every animal is exactly fitted by the Creator /or its way of living. Now all may raise hands who can give me a better word than fitted. Lizzie? .formed. Very good. I now want another. Hands up. George? Arra7iged. Yes, another, 'FrSiukl...... Fixed. Yes, all these words would do. We will repeat them in order. Every animal \b exactly Utted or formed or arranged ov fixed for its way of living. But I will tell you a better word. It is ADAPTED. All pronounce it together adapted. We will use this word through the lesson. All animals are exactly adapted to their way of living. You may all now try and think of one word that means ways of living or doing anything. Can you not think of such a word ? Let us try if we can find one. A boy who Lesson II.J 5 comes in late to school every day, we say, has formed a very bad habit. And a dog that barks at every one who passes has also formed a very had hahif, A boy who tells untruths has an exceedingly bad habit. Now we will use this word instead of ways of living. Every animal \^ exactly ada^^ted to its habits. All who can repeat it raise hands. (All should be able to if you have successfully given the lesson so far.) Jane? Every aimnal is exactly adapted to its habits. Correct. We are to sjDeak to-day of the habits of the cat. What does the cat eat ? Hands up. Annie? 3fice. Susan? Birds. William? Gophers and squirrel s. John? Rats. That will do. We may sny all kinds of small anhnals. They are her food. There is a better word than food. You may all give it if yoi^ can Prey. That is right. (If they do not know it tell it.) Would you call a shpep's food its prey? No sir. But a cat's food is called its .jorey. And you say that her prey consists of all kinds of small animals. These animals are very quick and the least noise would..' — frighten them away. And such animals as mice generally come out of their nesta in the night or in a dark cellar or closet. What do you think the cat will require first of all, if she has to catch her prey in the dark? Hattie? She icill require good. eyes. Very well answered. She must have good sharp eyes, so as to be able to see even where it is dark. Willie, repeat that. (He repeats.) Now all together again. All animals are found to be exactly adapted \o their habits. The cat, having to catch her prey in the dark must be adapted to that, and must therefore have good eyesight. Must she have anything else that you can think of? Jennie? She must be able to run. Well, I do not know whether that will be very necessary or not. Listen to me. Would a sheep s feet do for a cat even if she could run fast? No sir. I think not. She must; have very so/t feet, so that when she walks (accompany these ellipses by gestures,) she may make no noise. For if she made as much noise as a sheep she would .frighten the birds or m.ice. We have now found two things that she must have. Fred? Sharp eyes. 6 . [Lesson II. Next? Soft feet. Who will state this ? WiUard ? The cat must have sharp eyes and soft feet. Good. Now we will try again. She creeps up very softly as near as she can get to a bird or a mouse, and then she crouches down and waits till it hops a little nearer, and while it is not looking she makes a great. , . .spring or lenp, and jumps right upon it. But if she had sheep's feet, what then ? 8he could not catch the mouse. Another .word for catch. She could not seize the mouse. In order to enable her to seize it, she must have sharp claws upon her .feet. But if you look at a cat's foot you see no claws. How is this ? A sword is kept ^in a case or sheath. And if a cat's claws are to be kept sharp they must also be put into cases. Are they ? Yes sir. And if we just pull one of her whisk- ers, we see all her claws displayed at once. Then her claws are kept sharp by means of sheaths or cases between the cushions of her feet. These cushions are under her .feet so that she may make no ?ioise when she walks near a mouse. In the next place, after she has caught her prey she must have proper teeth so as to be able to tear it. Teeth like a sheep's would not do for the cat. Her teeth must be very sharp. Now all answer. In order that the cat may be adajHed to her habits or way of living she must be provided with, 1st, good eyes ; 2d, soft feet; 3d, sharp claws to hold or seize her prey ; 4th, to keep her claws sharp her feet must have cases or sheaths; 5th, she must have good sharp teeth in order to tear her food. Lesson III.] OEAL TRAINING LESSON. NO. III. The Form of the Earth — Proof by Circumnavigation. We are to speak to-day of the Form or Shape of the Earth. How many know its shape ? I see several hands up. Willie? Jkound. Round like a cent? No sir, round like a hall. Round like a stove pipe? No sir, round like a ball. A ball is also called a globe. What word will mean "like a globe?" George? Globular. Right. I will write this word on the blackboard. All answer Globular. This word means lihe a globe. There is another word which means like a sphere. vVhat is it?. spherical. The earth then is round like a ball, or globular or spherical. Now do you believe this ? If you go outside and look, can you see that it is round ? No sir, it is flat. This boy thinks the earth is flat. Does any one else think so. No one. Then you think it is globular. Why? Have you any reason ? What good is there in telling me it is round or globular, it you cannot prove it. This boy who said flat answered as he naturally believed it is. And for thousands of years people lived and died without knowing any better than this. A long time ago it was thought to be as it looks, that is flat. And boys and girls often asked their parents how 8 [Lesson III. far they could go before arriving at "the end of the earth." They felt curious to know if there was any place, away off, where you could "jum)) off," — a regular "jump- ing off place." And then some very inquisitive boy like Sam, here, would ask what it rested on, or what it was built upon. But their parents could not tell anything about these things. Well, Sam, I see your hand up......? lFAa< does the earth rest on f We will see presently. Don't be too much in a hurry. Some wise philosophers taught people that the earth was built on four great pillars. Others that it was carried on the back or shoulders of a god whose name they called Atlas. All repeat this name Atlas. Then others said the land was like a great raft, and floated upon the water. Well, Charlie, what is it? 'What did they think the pillars rested on, or tlie god, Atlas, or the water ? (If such a question is not asked, you ask it.) Oh ! that was the great question which they could never ansiuer. We have just said that the earth was not flat at all but round like a hall, or globular, or spherical. I heard some girl say sperical; all answer it correctly spherical. Now I am going to tell you how we know this. (Use the map of Hemispheres here.) In order to go to India, the people of Europe had to sail round the continent of Africa, or round the Cape of Good Hope, and then across the Indian Ocean. But about four hundred years ago, all repeat, about four hundnedyears ago, a man named Columbus who lived in a city of Europe called Genoa, thought that he could get to India in another way in a ship. This man's name was...... Columbus' he lived in Genoa about four hundred years ago. What did I say about him Lizzie? Se thought he could get to India in another way in a ship. Yes, Columbus believed that the earth was round like a ball or globular or spherical. Very few others believed this. No one in Genoa believed it. But Columbus said to himself, " now if the earth is actu- ally globular, if we sail round the other way, that would be West, we will get to India just as well. And I think it is a shorter way than going round the Cape of Good Lesson III.] 9 Hopey What was it that Columbus thought, Fannie ? (She repeats.) So he went to his King and asked him to tit out a good ship a.nd let him go and try to find another way to India. Do you think the King did so ? Ne, he only laughed at Columbus, and thought he waa mad. He said, " Plow ever could you get round the other way? Why your ship would fall off." We will see in another lesson why it is that a ship does not fall off in going round the world. But Columbus had to go away from his own country. from Italy. He went to this country Spain. There the King and Queen, Ferdinand and Isabella, gave him several ships to go with, and fitted him out for the voyage. What a glad day that was for Columbus ! He thanked the Kin'j and Queen and his ship sailed. They went away many hundreds of miles to the West. Some- times the men got atraid that they would get to the end of the world and fall over ! For, some of them believed the earth was .flat. At one time they threatened to throw ■Columbus overboard and go back to Spain. But he cheered them and they sailed on, and at last one day, a man up on one of the masts, called out that he could see the land ! They had, before this, seen branches of trees and drifting wood, so that they knew they were near land. Then Columbus was sure he was coming near to India, and he felt very glad to think what a great discovery this would be. But as they came near the shore, they saw that the people were not like those who lived in India. They had come to a very strange place that no European had ever seen before. Who can tell me what country it was ? George? America. Correct. Afterwards men sailed across from Europe westward, all the w^ay to India, by going round South America. And now we can travel all round the world in about two months. Since we can start and keep on in the same direction and at last arrive where we started, the earth must be round. But if it was like the stove-pipe we could still sail round 2 10 [Lesson III. it. How are we to know that it is round like a ball ? We will prove this in another lesson. Now all answer rapidly. Long ago the earth was sup- posed to be .fiat. But we now know that it is round like a ball, or ghhular, or spherical. The first man who acted on this supposition was Columbus, who was born in Genoa, about .four hundred years ago. He believed it to be globular, and attempted to go to India by sailing to the West instead of round Cafe of Good Hope. But did he reach India? No sir. Instead of that he discovered America, which is between Uiirope Siudi this continent Asia (pointing to Asia.) Since the time of Columbus, m.en have sailed completely round the world, thus proving it to be round. Lesson IV. j 11 ORAL TRAINING LESSON. NO. IV. Physiology — Organs and Functions. I see one or two boys not sitting in an upright position. Can they attend properly? No sir. Then all sit upright. Our bodies consist of many different .parts, and these different parts have all different things to do. The hands have not the same work to do a,?,.... the feet, (pointing down- wards to the feet; use appropriate gestures wherever they will assist,) and the teet do not have the same kind of work as the e^/es. But every part of the body has something to do. And unless it is diseased, every part does its own xvorh. Now I want to see whether any of you can tell me a name for a part of the body which does any paiticular work. What does the eye do? It sees. Then you could call the eye an ? There is a particular word used for this, which I will give you. Kaise hands all w^ho will try and remember it. Well, hands down. It is ORGAN. Let me hear all repeat this word organ. Again organ. The eye or ear then could be called an organ. The eye is the organ of sight and the ear is the organ of hearing. Raise hands all who will repeat this. (If there is one who has the ability to do so and cannot, 12 [Lesson IV. through inattention, make him stand and write it on his slate, while some smaller boy or girl dictates it to him.) Ella, you may state it The eye is the organ of sight and the ear is the organ of hearing. Fred, let us hear that from you also. (He repeats.) And the nose is the organ of smell. Now all who can give me another organ of the body may raise hands. Annie ? The feet are the organs of walhrig. Only of walking? and of running. Any- thing else ? of dancing. Yes, but we will include those all under one name, motion, or a better word is locomo- tion. I will write it on the blackboard. Now all answer this word locomotion. The feet are the organs of locomotion. Harry, repeat it. (He repeats.) I will now tell you that that which an organ does is called its function. All pronounce this w^rd together .functio7i. We say that seeing is the function of the eye and that hearing Is the function of the ear. The organ is that which performs the work. Now who can give me other organs of the body? Hands up. What are the organs of speech ? Thomas ? The organs of speech are the lips, teeth, tongue and palate. And their function is speech. Mary, you may now give the first organ we named and its function The eye is the organ of sight and sight is its function. Willie, the next The ear is the organ of hearing and hearing is its function. Jane, the next The nose is the organ of smell and smelling is its function. (Always require the whole state- ment in full.) Frank, you give the next The feet are the organs of locomotion, and their function is locomotion. This word simply means moving from place to .place. Fannie, the last one The organs of speech are the lips, teeth, tongue and palate and speecJi is their function. Are there any others that you can think of? Dan? The lungs are the organs of breathing. Eaise hands all who can give me another word for " breathing." The word is respiration, Ali answer together respiration; respi- ration means breathing. Dan, will you repest your example of an organ now, using this word? The lungs are the organs of respiratioyi. Now for others. Emma ? The skin is the organ of touch. Very well. And Lesson IV.] l3 touch or — .feeling is its .function. Any others? Well, what is the organ of digestion ? the organ into which the food is received? The stomach. Don't say stomick say stomach; all give it again stomach. Alice you may make the statement then 2^he stomach is the organ of digestion and digestion is its function. What are the teeth for besides speaking? Chewing. Yes, but does any one know oi a better word than chewing ? I will write one on the blackboard. Mastication. Chewing is also called Tnastication. Now, Ch'^rlie, will you state about the teeth r* The teeth are the organs of mastication or chewing. What does the tongue do beside speak ? It tastes. Then the tongue is tJie organ of taste and tasting is its function. Can you think of others? Annie ? Is the heart an organ? Yes, the heart is an organ. It circulates the blood, or sends it through the body. You, may now, Annie, give us the statement about the heart T/ie heart is t/ie organ winch circulates tiie blood; and the circulation of the blood is its .function. You make it complete, George. (He makes it in full.) Thus the whole body is made up or composed of organs, which all perform certain .functions. We will rapidly go over what we have said. The eye is the organ of sight and its .function is seeing ; the ear is the organ of hearing ; the nose is the organ of smell; the feet are the organs of locomotion or moving from. place to place ; the organs of speech are the lips, teeth, tongue and palate. The lungs are the organs of respi' ration; the skin is the organ of touch. The stomach receives tliefood and is called tJie organ of digestion. The teeth are also the organs of c/iewmg, or mastication. 14 [Lesson V. OML TRAmiNG LESSON. NO. V. Natural Science — Heat — Its Effects. I need not say before we commence that I hope all will sit upright and give their best attention without which you cannot learn. Our lesson to-day is upon HEAT AND ITS EEFECTS. "Who can tell me what heat is ? Is it anything ? Would a cannon ball weigh any more if red hot than it would if cold? No sir. Then is the heat that it contains any- thing ? I see that you are not decided. "When we spoke of the atmosphere, we said that some things are only known by their effects. The air, for instance, we can neither see, nor hear, nor -feel, nor taste, nor smell. Then how do we know that there is such a thing as air? By Us effects. Now heat also produces certain efl'ects by which it is known, besides being perceived by the sense of feeling. Kaise hands all who can tell me any effect of heat. Bennie, you may tell me one It hums us. Well that is the way it acts on the sense of feeling. But can any one give me any effect that it produces by which we know that a substance contains it ? Let us see. Before the blacksmith places the iron rim on Lesson V.j 15 the wheel he heats it. Why ? I will tell you. When the iron becom(!S hot it grows much larger. I want a word which means " grows larger." George? expands. (If no one knows, tell it.) That is correct. And while it is expanded he puts it on the xvheel and then cools it. As it cools it draws together or ? All listen and I will give you the word I want. Contracts. As the iron cools it contracts or draws together. Willie, repeat that As the iron cools it cordracts or ^ draws together. Kate, you may state what we said before that As the iro7i becomes hot it expands or grows larger. We now know of one effect of heat then. It causes substances to expand or grow larger. Emma repeat that Heat causes substances to expand. This is tne first effect of heat that we have found. In the next place, have any of you ever seen the stove in a dark room any other color than black ? Yes, sir. You have seen it red. When does it get red? When it IS very hot. And it is red or appears red because it gives out light. What causes a candle or lamp to give forth light ? It is the same thing that makes the iron give out light and become red. That is the heat. Heat causes any substance to give forth light-when it is very strongly heated. Now I want a word which means " give forth " or " send forth." I will write it on the blackboard. Emit. All answer together ernit. If iron is made very hot it will emit light, that is send it forth. Eddie, you may stand an i repeat that. 7/' w-ow is hot enough it will emit or send forth light. (Do not object to having the sentence slightly changed if still correct. It shows thought and independence.) We have now spoken of two effects of heat, 1st, It causes substances to expand, and, 2nd, it causes them to give out or emit light. Sam will you repeat that The first effect of heat is, that it causes substances t-o expand, and the second is that it causes them to emit light. Now I want you all to think of any other effect of heat. Try hard. Does it produce any other effect upon substan- ces that you can remember? Hands up. Mary It causes ice to melt. Anything else besides ice ? Yes sir, 16 . [Lesson VI. lead. Yes, or any metal, or indeed any solid substance. Heat changes solids into ? What would you call water ? or melted iron? a liquid. Yes, then all answer, heat changes solids into liquids. But if we go further and heat the water, what then becomes of it It is changed into steam. That is right. And what is it that changes the liquid into a gas? The heat. Very well. It changes solids into Liquids, and then the liquids into gases. Lizzie we want to hear that statement from you It changes solids into liquids and liquids into gases. What does? Repeat again. (She repeats using " heat " for " it.") This is the third effect of heat. Now I will give you a definition for heat. Heat is that WHICH CAUSES THE SENSATION OF WARMTH. You may all repeat Heat is that which causes the sensation of warmth. It produces three effects on substances which we have found. 1st, It causes them, to expand, 2nd,... ..It causes them to emit light, and 3d, It changes solids into liquids and liquids into gases. We will speak in our next lesson of its SOURCES, or whence it is derived. ORAL TRAINING LESSON. NO. VI. Natural Science— Atmospheric Pressure. Now all sit upright and attend. Be sure to answer promptly. Our lesson to-day is on the atmosphere. We are surrounded upon all sides by something which we breathe, and which we commonly term the air. It has another name which I used just now, the atmosphere. Lesson VI. J 17 This word means the air with all that it contains, such as clouds, moisture, &c. The shape of the earth is round. (See No. III.) Like this cent? JVo sir, like a ball. Round like a ball or? I want the word which means like a globe. Hands up. James? Globular. Correct. Another ? What word means like a sphere ? Annie? Spherical. Now it is because the air surrounds our sphere that it is called the atmosphere. Raise hands all who can tell me how high it extends from the earth's surface ? I will tell you. It is forty-five miles high. George, make that statement The aiviosphcre is forty-five miles high. Now we will repeat. The earth's form is f/lobuhir or spherical and it is surrounded by a fluid called the atmosphere which is how high ? Forty five miles. Now we will go a step farther. Boys sometimes in their play "pile on" one another. Who sustains the greatest pres- sure ? The boy underneath. And if this room was piled full of shot, the lowest layer would sustain the weight of all the rest, the next layer not quite so much and so on to the top. Just so it is with the air or atmosphere. The lowest layer bears the weir/ht of all that lies above it. Hence it sustains the greatest pressure. Who can tell me the amount of pressure of the atmosphere ? i will tell you. If you measure on the ground a space of a square inch, and suppose a column of air to rest upon it, extending to the top of the air, that is how high? Forty five mt/es, this column of air would weigh fifteen pounds. Hence we say that the air ])res8es with a force of fifteen pounds on every square inch. Ella, you may repeat that. (She repeats. Call on others,) Then on two square inches it would exert a pressure of thirty pounds, and on four square inches sixty pounds. Then why do I not feel a great weight upon my hand which is more than four square inches ? (In order .to explain this take a common glass tumbler and fill it brim- full of water, place a piece of paper over the surface of the water that will completely cover it. Then take the tum- bler in the left hand, place the palm of the right hand 3 18 [Lesson VI. upon the paper on the surface so as to keep it in position, and invert the tumbler. iJold it with the left hand and take the right away from the paper. The water will not flow out. It will be supported by the upward pressure of the air.) Who can tell why this water does not flow out ? Willie ? I suppose it is because the air presses up against it and Tceeps it in. That is very well explained. It is kept in by the pressure of the air. Now who will answer my former question ? Why cannot I feel the weight upon my hand? Alice? TJie air presses upwards underneath it just as forcibly as it presses downwards above it. Good, and we stated just now that its pressure amounts to how much ? Lizzie ? Fifteen pounds on every square inch. Make a complete statement. (She makes it.) On account of this pressure the particles at the lower part of the atmosphere are pressed tightly together. Now, if we were to place a layer of hops over the floor of this room, and then put two more layers over them, the lower layer would be a very little pressed together. But if we filled this room with hops, the lowest layer would sustain so much pressure th.a,t they would be very much squeezed^ I want a better word. I will tell you one. Compressed. All answer compressed. If you take a sponge and close your hands upon it, it becomes com- pressed. Kepeat that, Charlie. (He repeats, or if he cannot through inattention, cause him to write it on his slate three or four times after calling on some one who can. If he still pretends he cannot, keep him in at recess and allow some smaller boy to dictate the words to him slowly, then let him have remainder of recess.) And just so with the air. The particles down at the earth's surface, on account of the weight above them are very much compressed, and the air there is said to be very tJiich. (This or some other word will probably be given.) I Avant a better word .pressed. Better yet. Can you not think of a word that means very much compressed ? A dark heavy cloud would be said to be ? I will give you the word I wanted if all are very attentive. It is dense. All repeat it dense. Together again dense. Airatthe earth's surface is said to be very dense. Now what is Lesson VIL] 19 the opposite of dense ? Any one ? I will tell you. It is RARE. All give it rare. Then away up in the upper regions of the atmosphere the air is very rare, because, George ? theie is not so much pressure up)onit. Charlie, repeat that. (He repeats.) Now, all answer rapidly. The form of the earth is round like a ball or globular or spherical, (same order in whiuh taken at first,) and it is surrounded on all sides by a thin fluid called the atmosphere, which extends to the height of .forty-five miles dJQo\Q its surface. Since the air in the lower parts of the atmos- phere has to sustain the weight of all that lies above i^, it is greatly compressed. Hence the lower portions are very dense, while the upper parts are rare. The pressure, which means the force with which it presses, is about .fifteen pounds on every square inch. The reason we do not perceive this immense .pressure is that the particles press uptvards (gesture here) as well as downvKirds. We proved this by means of that glass of water, which did not spill, although we turned it upside down or inverted it. OEAL TRAINING LESSON. NO. VIL Astronoray — Motions of the Eartli. This morning we are to have a lesson on the motions of the earth. All must be very attentive, Sind in order to do so it is necessary to sit erect. Of what shape is the earth? Hound like a ball, or 20 [Lesson VII. globular or spherical. When we spoke of-its form (See No. III.) I did not tell you^what it rested on. Does it rest on anything r* Have you ever seen a boy with a string and a button or a ball tied on the end of it? Yes sir. Well, what does the button rest on if the boy swings it round his head ? Nothing. And still it does not fall to the ground. Well the earth is suspended in space, in very much the same wa'i/. But, instead of a string or anything of the kind, there is a very strong force called ATTRACTI03SI which draws it towards the sun, just as the string draws the button toward the boys hand. If the string breaks, the button .flies off, but if not, it holds the button in its .place. Let us invert this sentence. The earth is held in its placehj attrac- tion. It is attracted toward the sun. Now, why does it not go right into the midst of the sun? I will tell you. Like the button it goes round the sun, which tends to keep it off, just as the motion of the button keeps it away from the hand. (It is best to have a contrivance of this kind at the time of giving the lesson to illustrate it.) I have just said that the earth goes round the sun. Bessie, repeat that 27ie earth goes round the sun. Can any one give me a wca'd instead of " goes?" (If not, write it.) Well, Sam? Swings. You try, George Revolves. That is the word. The earth revolves round the sun. Lettie, repeat that. (She repeats.) In the next place, how long does it take to revolve once completely round the sun? Henry? One year. That is correct. All may answer One year. Fred, repeat that The earth revolves around the sun in one year. This is called the EEVOLUTiONARY MOTION of the earth. I will write this on the board. I et me hear these two words from all Revolutionary Motioji. The earth's motion round the sun is called its revolutionary motion. Fannie, repeat that. (She repeats.) But are we not altogether mistaken ? It appears to me that the sun rather revolves round the earth ! You have all seen the sun rise in the east and set in the. west. How is this? When on a railroad train, we can imagine that the trees, houses, telegraph poles, and fences are all Lesson VII.] 21 moving in the oppoidte direction to that in which we are going. But are they? No sir. No, they only APPEAR to do so. Their backward motion is only apparent. (Write this word if they fail to answer it.) And you v/ill afterwards find that it is on account of another motion of the earth that the sun appears to revolve round it. What is the other motion ? If a wagon moves down the street, its wheels move along the ground just as the runners of a sleigh would. But they also have another motion. What is it ? The^/ move round the axles. Right, and as the earth revolves round the suit, it also turns or spins round like a wheel. This is its second motion. Can any one tell me how often it turns round in this way ? George? Onceintiventy -four hours. Very good. (Tell it if not known.) And what is this motion called? I will show you. The latin word Rota means a wheel, and to ROTATE is to turn round like a wheel. There- fore this is called its rotatory motion. (Primary accent on first syllable. Secondary on the third. Write these words and all new words.) Now, a wheel rotates on the axle and the earth rotates on its axis. Repeat that, Jennie. (She repeats.) Do you think the earth's axis is anything 4ike the axle of a wheel? No sir. "When a top spins, it does not spin on an axle, but on an axis. An axis is only imaginary, that is, it does not really exist like an axle. Now, you may answer rapidly. The earth has two motions. One is called its revolutionary motion., and is performed round the sun, and the other is its rota- ix/ry motion, which is performed round an imaginary line called the axis, which corresponds to the axle of a wheel. It performs one revolution in a year., and one rotation in twenty-four hours. We will see in another lesson, that this last motion causes day and night and other curious phenomena. All prepare for our next work. 22 [Lesson VIII. ORAL TRAINING LESSON. NO. VIII. Physiology — The Five Senses. We now expect all to sit upright and keep their senses about them. In order to answer promptly, you must give your best attention. Again, I want your best attention. When we are asleep we cannot tell anything that is going on around us. Eapturous music may be in the air, but we cax\noi......hear it. Beautiful pictures may hang all around but we cannot see them. Our bed-clothes are around us but we cannot -feel them. Unpleasant oders may fill the room but we cannot smell them. Neither can we taste anything. Nothing can come into the mind from outside. Are there any other ways by which we know what is around us besides what we have mentioned? No sir. How many ways did we name? Five. Now, these five ways by which knowledge passes in to the mind are called? They are called the FIVE SENSES. All repeat the five senses. The first sense that we will speak of is the most impor- tant ; it is the sense of seeing. (Use gestures such as pointing to the eyes.) You remember our lesson upon " organs and ./mictions." The organ is that which Lesson VIII.] 23 acts. The function is that which the organ performs. "Well, raise hands all who can tell me the organ of sight. Willie? T/ie eye is the organ of sight. Now who can tell me the function of this organ ? Annie ? T" he func- tion of the eye is seeing, or sight. Is there anything else required for sight besides the eyes? Suppose we are shut in a dark room, can we see? JVb sir. VJhy 7 There is no light. Then we see by means of the light. The light enters our cges and produces in the mind a picture of the object that we look at. This picture is called a ? Anything that is calculated, you would call a calcula- tion. And anything that is formed a .formation. Then what would anything be called that passes in through one of the senses ? a sensation. (Never tell a word if there is any way of making the scholar think it out for himself.) Correct. The mind receives sensations through the senses. Anything that is seen, then, causes a sensation. The next sense that we will refer to is hearing. (Pointing to the ear.) The organ that performs this office is the ear, and the act of hearing is thefunction of the ear. Lizzie, will you make a short statement of this fact? The ear is the organ and hearing is the function that it performs. By what means do we hear? I will tell you. It is by the air. At some other time we will have a lesson on each sense and then I will explain how we hear. But you may all answer for the present that it is by means of the air that toe hear. We have now mentioned two senses. They are Seeing and Hearing. The organ of sight is the eye, and we see by means of the light. Harry, repeat. (He repeats.) The organ of hearing is the ear, and hearing is called its .function. We will now pass on to the next sense, feeling. Let me hear this from all .feeling. It is sometimes also called touch. The sense of touch or .feeling. Raise hands those who know what is the organ of touch. James? The skir^.. /es, and its function is feeling. If I move backwards against the wall, with my hands extended behind me, how do I know when I have arrived at the wall ? By feeling it. When my hand touches it, a kind of influence is excited there 24 [Lesson VIII. which passes to my mind. This influence you would call a ? Since it passes in through the sense of feeling it is a sensation. And sensations pass along the ? Can no one tell me the name of those organs whose func- tion it is to carry sensations to the mind ? If you will all remember I will tell you. They are called Nerves. Let me hear all answer this word together...... serves. The influence excited on my hand passes along the nerves to the mind where it produces what we called a sensation. Can any one tell me where the sense of feeling is most acute? I will tell you. It is most acute in the hands, and especially at the finger-ends. The fine nerves which are found at the ends of the finger are protected by the .finger-nails, because they are so deli- cate. The organ of touch then is the sJcin, and its function is .feeling. The sensations produced upon the skin pass along the nerves to the mind. Give the last sentence again, Charlie The sensations pass along the nerves to the mind. Good. We now come to the sense of smell. Even if we were deprived of eyes, ears, and feeling, if there were burning brimstone in this room we would soon know it by the sense of smell. And we could also tell that sugar was sweet and vinegar... .sowr by the remaining sense oL... taste. We have said that the mind knows things by the five senses. I want a better word than "knows." I will give you it. This word is alw^ays used in the sense of which we are now speaking. It is perceives'. The mind .perceives or knows things by the.... five senses. The 1st of these is seeing; in which the eye is the organ and sight the function. 2d Hearing in which the ear is the organ and heari7ig is tJie function. Sd.... Feeling or Touch in which.... the skin is the organ and feeling the function. 4th Smell, where the . . .nose is the organ. 5th Taste, of which the organ is the tongue. Through these five. . .se?ises the mind receives. . .se?i- sations. The sensations ixoNel oXong.... the nerves to.... the mind which is said to know them or .. .perceive them. That is the best word, and the one I wish you always to use. You would say that the mind perceives sensations. Lesson IX.] 25 ORAL TRAINING LESSON. NO. IX. Natural Science— Atmospheric Pressure. To attend, you have often told me, means to look and listen. Without doing this you could not answer. In our former lesson on The Atmosphere, (See No. VII.) we stated the fact that the earth was surrounded by a thin /f?«VZ called air ; and that this air with all that it contains, such as clouds ».\\d...r..smo]ce and raoist- ure^ receives the general name of the atmosphere. The atmosphere you also told me extends to the height of forty -five miles, and exerts on the earth's surface a pressure of .fifteen jwunds on every square inch. Now do you believe all this ? How do we know that there is any such thing as air ? For instance, there is air in this. . . .room, but I can neither see it, nor hear it, nor can I .feel it or taste it or smell it. How then do I know that it is here at all ? In speaking of the FIVE SENSES (See No. VIII.) we said that there are!five ways in which we become acquainted with the thinqs that surround us. Mary, repeat that sentence. (She repeats.) And now we find that we cannot tell that there is air in this room by either of these five senses. Well, Sam, I see your hand up. What is it? / can 4 26 [Lesson IX. feel the air when I do this, (striking his hand rapidly- through the air.) Good ! I see that we have one boy who THINKS some. Bat, Sam, when I said we could not feel it, I m'eant by rubbing our hands togtther, or the finger and thumb simply, just as you would feel flour or sand. We will repeat our statement, — at the same time we are much obliged to you, Sam, for your suggestion. We cannot tell in the ordinary way, that there is air in this room, by any of the five senses. The question is then, how are we to tell i Now, I am going to tell you that SOME things are only KNOWN BY THEIR EFFECTS. I have Written this on the blackboard. I will now try how many boys or girls there are here who notice things that hapi)en round them ; or, observe things that come within their observation. Who can give me an example to illustrate what I have written on the blackboard? George? If a stranger in a city passed by a cellar full of ashes and cinders, he luould know thai a house had probably been burnt. That is an excellent — '..example. Are there any others that any one thinks of ? Kate? ^Vhen toe see afield of wheat, we know that wheal had been sown there. Very good. We would know that the farmer had sown his wheat, although we did not perceive it through any of our senses. We would, in that case, know it by its effects. We see the eflfect and then judge of the cause. This is called judging of things, or knowing things by their effects. We will now apply this to our subject. If we see the leaves of a tree all in motion, we then immediately think that there must be something that makes them Tnove. They have no power in themselves to viove, and must therefore be moved by something else. That something which moves them is the air. And thus we conclude that there is such a thing as air from its effects. I want to hear that word from all effects. And if we see a door slammed to with a great noise, and no one near it, since the door itself cannot move some force must have shut it, and we conclude that it was closed by the force of the air. Lesson X.] • 27 And when we performed that experiment with the glass of water, which we will now repeat, or perform again, we found another effect of the air. By" its pressure, as we judge, it causes the water to remain in the glass. Now I will extend this lesson a little farther. If this tumbler were twelve inches high, instead of four, do you think that the air would still keep it full of water if inverted so? Yes sir. If it were ten feet long, or were a long tube closed at one end do you think it could then keep it full? I see you cannot tell. It would. And it would do so if the tube were thirty-two feet long. What did I say then, Willie ? You stated that the pressure of the air would keep an inverted tube, thirty-two feet long, full of water. But if it were longer than that it would not remain full. Or we will state it thus : The pressure of the atmosphere would support a column of water thirty-two feet high. Charlie, repeat that. (He repeats.) You may all write this on your slates, as I have done on the blackboard. OKAL TRAINING LESSON. NO. X. Natural Science— The Three Forms of Matter. Now I wish you all to give your attention to what I have to say. In order to improve every one must attend. There is one word that is used to represent all the dif- ferent things that exist in nature. When we use this word we may mean clay, iron, water, rock, air, gras§, or any other thing that we can tliinh of or .find. Can any one tell may what word this is ? All try and think of it. 28 [Lesson X. I want to see some hand raised. Kate, I see your hand up; what do you think it is? Things. Well, that word would do in most cases. But could you say elegantly that a lot of wheat, for example, is a thing? Would you say "what a large thing that wheat is!'' for instance? JV^o sir. Who can think of a better word? You see that I wish you all to think hard before I tell you. Since no one knows I will give you the word. All the substances that I have named, you may repeat them duy,i):on, water, rock, air, and gi'ass may be called Matter. We will put this word on the blackboard. I said that they could all be called different kinds of matter. This word may mean anything that we can find in the world, or in any other world. We can call it all matter. I am going to try how long every one will remember this word. All may repeat it again matter. Willie, what about matter? It is a name that is used for everything around us. Would you call this ink matter? Yes sir, and sand or coal would also be matter. Now the earth is composed or made up of many dif- ferent kinds of matter. And this matter we find in various forms. How many forms does it assume? Per- haps this will be a very difficult question for you to answer, so we will leave it unanswered till the end of the lesson. But I want you all to keep an accurate account as Ave go on. All substances like wood, coal, or limestone we call ? They will not pour like water, because they are solid. That is the word. All repeat solid. Eaise hands all who can give me other solids. John ? Brass. Mary ? Iron. Willie ? Paper. Fred ? Clay. George? Ice. Well, that will do. Ice and iron are both solids. They are solid forms of m,aiter. Anna, repeat that Ice and iron are solid forms of matter. I wish you to tell me now how we could change their form. Do you remember what we said (See No. V,) when speaking of the effects of heat? Yes sir, it changes solids to liquids. That is correct. How, then, could we change the form of ice or iron? £y heating it. And the heat causes it to melt, or become liquid. This is the second form of meatier. Some kinds of matter Lesson X.] 29 are solid, like iron or ice, and other kinds are liquid, like water. Who can mention other liquids? Sam ? Oil Kate ? 3Rlk. Mary ? Medicine. Yes, some kinds of medicine are. George? Blood. Very good. That will be sufficient now. These substances last named are liquids. What is a liquid? Frank? Anything' nice water. Anything that- flows like vmter is a liquid. When we heat ice it .melts or becomes liquid, and forms water. Now, we ivish to still further change the form of this substance, how shall we do it? By heating it. Yes, this would change it into another .form-. It would then be steam ox vapor. What do we call this form ? I will write it. Gaseous. It is called so because it is like a gas; gaseous means like a gas. The air that we breathe is a gas. What kind of substance would you call air then ? gaseous. And when a liquid is heated, its condition is called gaseous. Ice then is a solid, water a liqttid&nd steam a gas. Libbie, repeat that sentence Ice is a solid, water a liquid and steam, a gas. When water becomes vapor it is s^id to ? We will take this way of finding out. In map-drawing when you form a continent by using a triangle as a basis, you are said to triangulate it. Then can you not think of the word I want? You have all heard it. When water turns into vapor it evaporates. Only one boy answered then. Let me hear it from all Evaporate. And the process is called evaporation. (If they do not know the word triangulate, take any similar word that they do know, to illustrate. The word evaporate may be given at once.) George repeat that When wate)' becomes vapor it evap- orates, and the process is called evaporation. Water is caused to evaporate by heat. Next, we will revise what we have said. Every substance may be included under one name. That is matter. Matter exists in different .forms. We have found three for7ns. 1st the solid form,. 2d the liquid form, and 3d the gaseous form. These are called the three forms of matter. How many can now state the forms of matter ? Harry ? Matter is found in three forms, solid, 30 [Lesson X. llqid and gaseous. Sarah, you may also state it and use the word EXISTS instead of " is found." (She repeats.) Now, if we wished to change vapor back into water, what would you naturally think we would have to do ? When we changed water to vapor we applied heat, and if we are to change the vapor back to water, we must take away the heat. Give me a word that means " take away." Hands up. Well, I will write one. De- prive. We would have to deprive the water of heat, to change it back again to vapor. Has any boy or girl ever held a cold plate or spoon in the spout of a tea kettle where the vapor was issuing ? Sam ?..../ have. And when the cold plate takes the heat out of the -yapo?- it changes back into water and stands upon the plate in small drops. Do you know what this process is called? It is called CONDENSATION. The vapor is said to condense. All may answer. It is said to condense. And when vapor condenses it forms wafer. If we now make the water very cold, that is, deprive it of its heat it, in turn, becomes ?cc, and is said to .freeze. There is a better word. Congeal. The water congeals. By cooling, then, vapor would condense and form water, and water would congeal, and .form ice. (Then rapidly review. Invert sentences when you can.) Lessen XI.J 31 ORAL TRAINING LESSON. NO. XI. Cheraistry — Composition of the Air. The atmosphere, you have several times told me, (See No. VII.) surrounds our ewrth to the height of forty-five tniles ; it also exerts a pressure upon the earth's surface of .fifteen pounds on every square incJi. In the upper regions of the atviosphere the air is quite rare, but a't the earth's surface, itisvery dense. I am glad you remember these facts so well. Now, what kind of properties would you call these ? Its pressure, density and rarity, are what kind of qualities or prop- erties ? Listen attentively while I tell you. I will write the- word on the blackboard. They are mechanical properties. We are now to have a lesson on some other properties of the air ; or rather, we will speak of its com- position, by which I mean the things of which it is composed, and also some of their properties. You have all told me that that which we breathe is air. Now, can any one in the school tell me whether it is only one kind of air or several kinds? Kate? Several kinds. How do you know that ? What are they ? Now it will not do to answer anything without being able to give a reason for it. In all your answers try and be accurate. When you are uncertain do not be too hasty, i ler ans- wer was correct however. There are more kinds of air 32 [Lesson XI. than one in the atmosphere. What are their names? Perhaps you have never thought of this before. Is a cup of tea only one kind of liquid ? No sir. It has at least two liquids mixed, water and TnilJc. Well, the air has two principal kinds of gas or air in it. I used a new word then. What was it ? Gas. Yes, this also means air. The most important kind of gas in the air — we will use the word gas now for one single kind of air — is called OXYGEN. Let me hear this word from all Oxygen. What about oxygen, Charlie? Oxygen is the mosC impor- tant gas in the air. It is the oxygen that is used up when we breathe the .air into our Imigs. And it is the oxygen that causes a fire to hum. The other gasses in the air would not support a flame at all by themselves. They would not do to breathe. Then why not have the air all oxygen ? George? It anight be too strong. Well, that is the very reason I wanted. AH may repeat. The air would be too strong if it was pure oxygen. I hope you never go into saloons or places where liquor is sold, but you may have seen people drink strong liquor. Do they drink it just as strong as it is when they buy it ? ...... iVo sir, they put water in it first. They do this so as to make it not quite so strong, or to — :.wealcen it. Can you not give me a better word than " weaken ? " Look at the blackboard while I write one. Dilute. What is it? Dilute. They put the water into the liquor to dilute it. And the Creator has very wisely diluted the gas that we spoke of in the air the oxygen. It is <^?t7Mi!e<:^ with another gas called nitrogen. Repeat that, Sam? The oxygen is diluted loith another gas called nitrogen. Which of these two gasses is the mosti important? Hands up. Sarah? The oxygen is the\ most important. Can any one tell me, now, how much oxygen there is in] the air, in proportion to the nitrogen ? How much oxygen! would there be in ten bushels of air ? If you will all] remember it 1 will tell you. There would be two bush- els OF OXYGEN IN TEN OF AIR. Then how many in five bushels of air? Peter? There luould be one bushel oj oxygen in five bushels of air. And if we should take Lesson XI ] 33 large room full of air and divide it up into five parts, one part would be oxygen and the other four parts nitrogen to dilute one part of oxygen. Mark, repeat that. (He repeats.) But do you think that the oxygen would all be by itself, and the nitrogen also by itself ? No sir. No, the}' are thorougly mixed together. If I were to put one quart of gunpowder and four quarts of onion seed into a box and shake them up together, this mixture would represent the air. The gunpowder would represent the oxygen and the onion seed the nitrogen. How many quarts of mixture would I have? Five quarts. Hence we say that one-fifth of the air is oxygen and four-fifths nitrogen. Who will state this ? George ? One-fifth of the air is oxygen and four- fifths nitrogen. Now review rapidly. The air does not consist of only one kind of gas but several Jcinds. It consists almost entirely of two Jcinds of gas. They are 1st oxygen which is the most important, axidi 2d nitrogen with which the oxygen is diluted or weakened. For one barrel of oxygen, there are .four barrels of nitrogen. Or better, for one part of oxygen there are four parts of nitrogen, to make up .five parts of atmospheric air. 5 34 [Lesson XII. ORAL TRAINING LESSON. NO. XII. Mental Science — Memory, Now I want your best attention. We are to have a lesson this morning on Memory. We will also speak of its improvement. What is memory ? You have heard people say " I have such a poor memory." What do they mean ? Lizzie ? Remembrance. James? Recollection. Well, let us see. If a man told you he could remember all about the battle of Winchester because he had passed through it, but could not remember anything of the other battles of the Rebellion, would you say that he had a good memory ? No sir. But he would have a good recollection of that particular battle. His remembrance of that battle might be very good, and yet he would have a poor memory. Then there is a difference between remembrance or recollection and memory. I would like you to listen to me while I tell you what memory is. I am writing the definition on the blackboard. You have all tried hard to think of it but as you cannot I will give it. Memory is THAT FACULTY OF THE MIND BY WHICH WE RECALL PAST OCCURRENCES. Annie, repeat that Pa&t occur- rences. I thought so. This girl was looking out of the window, at something, and so, although the sound entered her ears/\i must have gone in atone ear and out Lesson XII.] 35 at the other. (Make gestures with the hands to indicate your meaning.) Annie, do you not feel ashamed to see so many hands up all around you? You will remain in at recess and write that definition five times upon your slate. If you cannot do it alone then I will get little Willie, here to dictate it to you. Willie, you may give it Memory is that faculty of the mind by which we rc-all past occurrences. I said that is was a faculty of the mvid. This means a power of the mind ; or, more simply a part of of the mind. Memory, then, is that faculty or power ov .part of the mind by which we recall past scenes. (Ask several to repeat this.) Memory is a very important faculty of the mind. Think what we would be without memory. I might show you how to perform an operation in Arithmetic or to analyse a sentence, but if you could remember nothing of it next day would it be of any use? iVb sir. Memory then is very important. And it must be a valuable thing to know how 10 preserve or improve it. I will tell you some ways to do this. The first thing to be attended to is this : We must always understand what we wish to remember. Charlie, repeat this. (He repeats.) If you do not under- stand a question in Arithmetic, can you remember it? No sir. You cannot remember it till you tinderstand it. We must first understand, Siud then remember. Kate, repeat the first statement respecting the cultivation of memory We must first understand what we wish to remember. Unless we understand a thing it is impossible to remember it. What else do you consider necessary in cultivating mem- ory ? I will tell you another thing. Children often attend a concert in which they feel highly interested, and there- fore remember all about it. The same children may listen to a lecture or discourse, in which they are not at all interested a.nd then they do not remember it. George, try whether you can state this then We must also be interested iti what we wish to remefmher. If a scholar is not interested in the lesson — if he would just as willingly play with his fingers, or look out of the window, it is impos- 36 [Lesson XII. Bible for him to remember the lesson. The first point we noted was that we must understand what we wish to remember ; and the second, we must be interested in what toe wish to rem,emher. The third way is to use maps, charts, diagrams, books, PICTURES, EXPERIMENTS, or any other aids that can be procured. "What is the third method, Ella? It is the use of such aids and illustrations as maps, charts, diagrams, hooks, pictures, experiments, dc. When we study geog- raphy, for example, we cannot do so well by committing to our memory a long list of names, as we could if they were accompanied by a map to show their position. The map would aid our memory. And so in the study of chemistry, in our lesson on Atmospheric Pressure you could not have remembered it half so well if we had not performed that experiment, to illustrate our subject. The experiment, you see, gave great assistance to our memory. Now there is still one more way to aid the memory. It is what we call The Law of Association. When I tell you about Mount Vernon, if I also tell you that Washington was born there, this will furnish great assistance in trying to remember it. If you remember this place Mount Vernoti, you will then, by this law of association, asso- ciate with it the name of Washington and thus you will remember it when you remember Mount Vernon. And when you think of Washington you will think of the place where he lived. This method of associating one fact with another is called the law of association. This is the fourth method of aiding the memory. Now, we will recapitulate. Memory is that .faculty of the mind,hy which we recall past scenes. Itcan be cultivated in four ways. 1st By always under- standing what we wish to remember. 2d £y feeling interested in what we try to remember. 3d By using such aids as maps, charts, books, experiments, diagrams, <£c. And 4th By the law of association. LefisonXm.] 37 ORAL TRAmiNG LESSON. NO. XIII. Bt3nnology — Derivation — Words from Traho. As every one is in perfect order, we will proceed at once with our lesson. To-day we are to have a lesson on the derivation of words, or the manner in which they are. derived or obtained. I know you will all be very much interested in this lesson. All observe what I write on the board. (Write on the blackboard as follows :) Traho ; Tractum ; io draw. This is a word from the Latin language. A great many words in the English language are derived from Latin. The last two letters of the second word are called the end- ing of the word, Do any of you know a better word than "ending?" What is the ending of a railroad called? The terminus. Yes, and the ending of a word is called its TERMINATION. The termination of tractum is uni. Do you know what the other part of the word is called ? I will tell you. Tract is called the root of the word. Willie, I wish you to tell me the two parts of this Latin word The root is tract and the termination is um. Very good. Now the part that I called the root, which is tract, and means to draw, is found in a great many English words. Raise hands all who can think of any word with "tract" in it. Bessie? Attract. That is an excellent m [Lesson XIII. example. What two letters, Bessie, did you place before " tract?" At. Now this part of the word attkact is called the PREFIX. "At," again, is called the prefix. Pre itself is a prefix. It means " before," and " prefix," is 80 called because it is "fixed before" another word. In attract, then, a^ is the prefix. I will tell you that its proper form is ad, not at. But on account of the unpleasant sound of the word " adtract " it is preferred to call it — attract, thus changing the d to f. The prefix ad, means TO ; and tract, you say, means. ...to draiv. Then what will attract mean ? To draiv to. That is correct. A magnet will ai^rac^ pieces of iron,s\xch. as needles or peris, r, the blood- vessels. Is not the heart a bloodvessel ? A bloodvessel iis simply a vessel that contains blood, just as a school- house is a house used for a school. I will tell you that diflerent names are given to different bloodvessels, but they may all be called by one general name. I will write it. The circulatory system. Why is it so called ? Mary ? Because it is the system of vessels through which the blood circulates. Very wall expressed indeed. James, you may also give that statement. (He gives it.) Of how many parts does this circulatory system consist? We will see. First there is the organ that causes it to circulate, that is the heart. Then the blood flows from the heart 60 [Lesson XX. through a number of long tubes throughout the whole body. These tubes are called Arteries. What about arteries, Genie? The tubes that lead the blood from the heart to the body are called arteries. In the third place there is another set of tubes, different from the arteries, which conduct the blood back again from the body to the heart. These are the Veins. Raise hands all who can tell the difference between arteries and veins ? Emily? The arteries cany the bhod from the heart to the different parts of the body, while the veins conduct it bach to the heart. That is well done. But I observed several whose hands were not raised. We will repeat. The first part of the circulatory system is 1st the heart ; 2d tJie arteries ; and 3d the veins. But now I will ask a puzzling questiou : How does the blood get out of the arteries into the veins ? Let me tell you. At first the blood flows through only one artery. This one branches into two parts, one of which goes dotvnwards (use gestures) and one upwards. Then these seperate into different branches, and each branch becomes divided up, so as to send a small artery to each of the different parts. At last these divide up into very minute vessels, the name of which I will write upon the board. Capillary Vessels. There is another name. Cellular Tissue. It is called so because the vessels are so small as to appear like a tissue of small cells. All may give me the first name again Capillary vessels. And the other Cellular tissue. We will use the first name. The blood flows out of the arteries into the capillary vessels through which it passes into the veins. How does the blood get from the arteries into the veins? George ? It flows through the capillary vessels, which join the ends of the arteries to the ends of the veins. Very well. These four parts, the Heart, the Arteries, the Capillary vessels and the Veifis, form a complete set or system of vessels, which receive the name of " The Circulatory System," because through this system of vessels the blood circulates. This circulatory system, then, consists of 1st The heart; 2d The arteries ; 3d ITie Capillary vessels; 4th ITie veins. The organ Lesson XXI.] 61 which causes the blood to circulate is (he heart. It forces the blood into the arteries, ir ova. them it flows through the Capillary vessels into the veins, hom which it again enters iJie heart to be again sent or drcvlated through the body. The difference between the arteries and the veins is that the arteries carry the blood from the heart to the body, whereas, Archie, the veins carry it back from the body to the heart. ORAL TRAINING LESSON. NO. XXI. Chemistry — Oxygen — Flame. The best method to obtain the full amount of benefit from a lesson is to give strict attention. The air is composed (See No. XI.) of several different kinds of ga^. The two principal gases are, 1st oxygen, which is the most im'portant, and 2d nitro- gen. The nitrogen is mixed with the oxygen, in order to dilute it, that is, to make it not quite so strong. With one part of oxygen are mixed .four "parts of nitrogen. And so we say that the air is one-fifth oxygen and four-fifths nitrogen. The oxygen, again, you tell me is the most important oi i\xe?>'d two gases. We are to speak of this gas in our lesson to-day. When we breathe in the air, it consists of oxygen and nitrogen. Now I will tell you that while it is in our ? What are the organs of breathing? (See No. IV.) James ? The lungs. While the air is in our lungs, ITS OXYGEN IS TAKEN UP BY THE BLOOD. Aggie, repeat 62 [Lesson XXI. that. Here is a girl wiio lias not been attending. Do you not feel ashamed to see such a forest of hands ^all around you ? Emily ? While the air is in our lungs its oxygen IS taken up by the blood. Who can give me a better word for "taken up?' Emma? Abstracted. That is an excellent word. Is there another? I will write one. Absorbed. The oxygen is absorbed, or abstracted, or taken away by tJie blood, while the air is in the lungs. And when we breathe out again, the air that comes forth must be the ? What other gas went in with oxygen, to dilute it? Nitrogen. Well, if the oxygen is taken from it by the blood, or, in other words, if the oxygen is absorbed, by the blood, the air that comes forth from the lungs must be nitrogen. Yes. If wheat and chaff are put through a fanning mill, and the wheat is taken away while going through, what would come forth alone? The chaff. But we breathe out other things besides the nitrogen. I will tell you of them in our lesson on animal respiration. (See No. XXVI.) Now, I want you all to watch closely what I do. I have here a large glass .jar, which has a very large neck. (A confectionery jar will suit.) Here 1 also have n piece of candle, (about an inch or two long) which I will light. I will now drop some melted tallow on this board, and thus cause the candle to adhere to it without any candlestick, for that would make it too large. You now see that the candle burns quite xuell ; another word readily. Why does it burn ? Let me explain. You told me once that heat would change solids into liquids, and liquids into gases. Well, the heat of the flame changes the solid tallow to a liquid. It then changes the liquid to the form of a gas. This gas is hot, and as it ascends the heat of the flame causes it to UNITE or COMBINE with the oxygen, which you told me we find in the air. This union or combination of the evaporated tallow with the oxygen, we call flame. It is another kind of Chemical Action. When did we ever speak of chemical action before ? In our lesson on the sources of heat. Now, I am going to find out all in this room who can reason well. Suppose I put this jar Lesson XXL] 63 over the candle, and allow it to burn inside the jar, where there is only very little o;r?/^e«, and where no more oxygen can enter after it is all used up, what do you think would happen to the flame ? Hands up. Why here are actually two girls and a boy who cannot tell ! Can you tell me this? When all the tallow is gone, what would happen to the flame? It would go out. Most ceitiinly it would. Well, hands down. And, you think if all the oxygen in the jar becomes used up, the candle will (jo out. There, you see, it has just gone out ! That was because there was no more oxygen. I heard one boy say tallow. All the oxygen was u^ed up. Now that we have got through with the experiment I will ask for a better word than "used up." Mary? Gone. Fred ? Burnt up. George ? Exhausted. These were all good words but the last one we will use. The oxygen all became exhausted or used «jo, and consequently the candle wentoutov^diS extinguished. But th^re was still plenty of nitrogen ; why should it not burn there just as well? Emma? You told us that the nitrogen ivas only to dilute the oxygen. There is a girl who has a good memory. That is correct. It was for this reason that I told you that the oxygen was the most Important. Now I will tell you a little anecdote. You may assist me by elliptical answers ; that is by filling up the pauses that I make. This country is India. In the Presi- dency of Bengal is the city to which I now point Calcutta. All answer again Calcutta. A ilindoo monarch once took one hundred and forty-six men as prison- ers at this city. He then shut them up in a dungeon that had only one means of admitting the light. That was where they entered. Because it was so black or dark it was always afterwards known as " The Black Hole of Calcutta." This would be just what I did with the candle. He shut them up in the htark hole, where there was not much air. And what do you think became of them ? Harry? They died. Yes, all but twenty-three of them died! How many died? One hundred and tioenty-three of them died. When they went to take these prisoners out, only twenty-three of them 64 [Lesson XXII. were alive. Now do you think it would do for us to remain in the schoolroom all day without having the windows or doors occasionally opened to let in the air ? No sir. No, we continually require fresh air that contains good wholesome oxygen. When we breathe we take in oxyger^ and nitrogen. While in our lungs the oxygen is absorbed. Then only the nitrogen is left. When a flame hums, the material that burns is emiting or combiiiing with oxygen. (Point to such words on the board as you want.) If we burn a candle in a jar, into which no oxyen can enter, the candle soon goes out, or becomes extinguished. Neither fire would burii, nor life continue, if we were deprived of oxygen. ORAL TRAINING LESSON. NO. XXII. Physiology — Circulation of the Blood. The girl who spoke just now may raise her right hand. No one ? Any one who knows who spoke may raise their hand. Ella, you will leave your place, and write the first ten lines of your reading lesson on your slate. This is for speaking. You will also remain at recess. This will be for not acknowledging that you spoke. And the girl to whom she spoke will also remain with her for not letting me know. Our lesson this morning is on a subject of which we have already spoken, " The Circulation of the Blood." (See Lesson XXII.] 65 No. XX.) The blood circulates througli a number of ves- sels that form, a complete system, called the circu- latory system. This system consists of .four parts ; 1st The heart; 2d The arteries ; 3d The capillary vessels, ^m\ A-ih. The veins. The blood flows from the veins into theheart. This organ forces it into the arteries, from which it passes through the capillary vessels into tJie veins, and on again in the same waw^er throughout the circulatory system. We wi^h to describe this system of blood-ve-ssels more minutely in our lesson to-day. So all must be very attentive and answer .promptly. If the blood flows through the heart it must have some space in it, or it must be holloiv. How many spaces are there in the heart ? I will tell you ; there are four spaces in the heart. Two of them are above, and two heloiu. The two upper spaces are smaller than the two lower ones. They are called Auricles. One is the Right Auricle and the other will be the left auricle. Left Auricle. (Write these names.) Auricle means LITTLE EAR ; and the auricles of the Jteart are so called on account of their shape being similar to that of the ears. Then the two lower spaces are called Ventricles. One will be the Faght Ventricle, and the other The Left Ventricle. I have just told you that the ventricles are larger than the auricles. Was that just as we said it? No sir. How did we state it before ? Louisa? The auricles are smaller than the Ventricles. Very good ; and consequently the lower spaces or ventricles Sire larger than the auricles. Now, before we go on, give me a better word than "spaces." A space would be a space still, even if it were not enclosed by walls. We can imagine an inch space in this large room. T want a word which means an enclosed space. Let me write it. Compartment. What does it mean, James? An enclosed space. And since the heart has four enclosed spaces we will call them the four cotnpartments of the heart. Well, if you will all endeavor to remember it, I will tell 9 66 [Lesson XXII. you that the veins all unite or .join and form at last only one vem. This vein enters the right auricle. Raise hands all who can state which compartment the blood enters from the veins. Here are two who evidently were not attending. They fail to raise their hands. Well, Carrie? The hlood first enters the right auricle. This is the upper, right hand compartment. It is then forced out of the right auricle, downwards into the right veidricle. This is the lower right hand com- partment. When this is full it contracts, or draics together., (See No XIII.) and causes the blood to flow into THE LUNGS. It is in the lungs that it is supplied with air while we breathe. It is then conducted back to the left auricle, out of which it flows into the left ventricle which is immediately below the left auricle. From the left ventricle it flows into the arteries. And you know its course after this. It flows out of the arteries into the veins. Then it goes back to the heart and follows the same course over again. (Revise this once or tv;ice. Give this lesson at least six times, but not in Buccession. Make a circle on the blackboard and divide it into four equal parts. Place the letters R. A., L, A., R. v., L. v., and make a roiigh representation of the lungs, arteries and veins. Arteries carry the blood to the lungs, and the veins carry it back to the L. A.) You may be anxious to know how the blood gets from one place to another, or what causes it to move. I will tell you this in another lesson. Lesson XX III.] 67 ORAL TRAINING LESSON. NO. XXIII. Natural Science — Evaporation of "Water. Now, I wish to see every scholar endeavoring to receive the full benefit of the lesson. To do this, it is neces- sary to give strict attention so as to be able to ansicer prorapthj. Every eye this loay. Heat converts solids into liquids (See No. V. and X.) and liquids into gases. The conversion of a liquid like water into a gas like steam, that is, into a gaseous form, is called ,? Do you not remember that we said that the process of changing water to vapor M'as called Evaporation? All repeat this word Evaporation. This means the process of changing water to steam. Our lesson to-day, is upon this subject. All listen atten- tively as we proceed. In order to cause the water to evaporate we require to heatii. The heat will cause it to evaporate. Well, suppose we place a kettle of water on the fire and allow it to become Iwt, it will get hotter and hotter until at last it ? "What do you call that bubbling motion of the hot water? Boiling. At last, then, it would.'.. ...ioiA Now I wish to tell you that after the water in an ordinary kettle or pot has begun to boil, it cannot be made ant HOTTER ! No matter how long we keep it on the .fire, 68 [Lesson XXIII. unless it is in a tight vessel like the boiler of a steam engine, where the steam cannot get out or escaj)e, it cannot be made any hotter. Is not this a curious thing? We keep heating the water, that is, adding more heat to it^ but cannot increase its heat. Why is this ? Where does the heat go? What becomes of it? Let us investi- gate this matter. Can any one tell me, first, how hot water must get before it boils? George? 212 degrees. The water must have its temperature raised to 212 degrees before it will boil, and I have told you that it cannot be made any hotter in the open air than 212 degrees, which, George says, is the point of heat at which it ..hails. We stated in a former lesson that the air presses on the earth's surface with a pressure of 15 pounds on every square inch. Now, as the water becomes hot, the heat is used up in forming steam. The steam tries to get out of the water (so to speak) rapidly as it occupies so much more space than the water; but the pressure of the air keeps it in as long as it can, till, at last, when the water reaches the heat of 212 degrees, the air by its .pressure can no longer keep the vapor in the water, and so it comes out in the process of boiling. Then when the water begins to hoit, all the heat that enters it is used up in forming steam or vapor, which escapes as rapidly as it is .formed. This vapor, it is, that carries off the heat. This is the reason, then, that the water cannot be made any hotter after reaching the temperature of 212 degrees. Now will any one tell me another word for used up ? Instead of saying " used up " which is not a very elegant expression, there are better words. I do not see any hands up. Well, here is one. Let us write it. Expended. Now, let us repeat the sentence in which this word occurs. All the heat is expended, or used up, in forming steaon, which flies off very rapidly as soon as the water boils. As the steam or vapor, goe.^ off, it carries with it a great quantity of heat. Lizzie, repeat that All the heat is expended in forming steam, widch flies off very rapidly as soon as the ivater boils. As the vctpor goes off it carries with it much heat. Now for another Lesson XXIIL] 69 word for " flies ofi'" or "goes off." Harry Escapes. The steam is said to escape. Mary, you may repeat that statement and use this word. (She repeats.) We said that all the heat, after the water hoils is expended in .forming steam. I want also another word for forming. Willie? Making. Julia? Producing. This is the one we will use. After the water hoils all the lieat is expended in .producing steam or vapor. Now the pressure of the atmosphere at the earth's surface is 15 pounds on every square inch ; and as we ascend the air becomes much.. ..rarer, and consequently the pressure is much less. I will tell you that it becomes so much less at the height of about three miles, that water begins to boil long before it reaches the temper- ature of two hundred and twelve degrees. The pressure of the steam, as it tries to escape from the water, has less of the pressure of the air to overcome, so that "boiling,'' or the escape of the steam commences rapidly before the water becomes very hot. A French philosopher named Gay Lusac, in performing the ascent of a mountain in France, took, among other things, some eggs and potatoes for provisions. But when they tried to boil them after reaching the summit, they failed ; the water " boiled " long before it became hot enough to cook the eggs or .potatoes. Why, James ? Because the air has so little pressure at that height. And, consequently, the steam can force itself out in bubbles and cause the water to boil before it gets very hot. And as soon as the water boils it cannot then be made any hotter. What then, becomes of the heat, Fannie ? It is used tip or expended in forming or producing vapor. The process of producing. ..vapor irom.... water is called evaporation. Now quickly. Heat causes water to evaporate. The water gradually becomes hotter, till it reaches the tem- perature of. 212 degrees, when it begins to boil and can be made no hotter, no matter how long we keep it on the fire. All the heat, after it boils is expended in .2)roducing vapor, and is carried off or escapes in the vapor. The pressure of the air prevents its boiling until its temperature is 212 degrees. But 70 [Lesson XXIV. if carried some three miles above the earth's surface, water will hoil long before reaching 212 degrees. This is because in the upper regions there is too little pressure to prevent the escape of the steam, before the water becomes hot. ORAL TRAINING LESSON. NO. XXIV. I Astronomy — The Solar System. Boys and girls who wish to improve arts always very diligent, and give their best attention, during the progress of a lesson. Then all sit.... upr'ight Siud.... attend. You all know from our former lessons that the earth's form is rou?id like a ball, or globular or spheri- cal. You also know what its motions are. It has two v)iotio?is. 1st the revolutionary motion, and 2d its rotatory motior,.. Now I wish you to tell me about the revolutionary motion. (See No. VII.) Lizzie? Its revolutionary motion is performed round the sun once in each year. The earth then revolves round the sun. Raise hands all who can tell me whether there is any other world besides ours that revolves round the sun. Willie ? The m.oon. Well, the moou I must explain to you revolves around the earth while it revolves Ground the sun. Is there any other world revolving round the sun as the earth does ? I will tell you. There are many others. We are to speak of some of them in our lesson to-day. (You may state that there are " many " planets, because the asteroids between Mars and Jupiter, which number I Lesson XXIV.] 71 over one hundred, are separate planets, and revolve independently around the sun.) Do you think the earth is the nearest world to the sun? Before I call on those who have their hands up we will find a word to use instead of "worlds," Ours is called " the earth " or " the world " to distinguish it from the rest. What word is used for them all ? I will tell you. Planets. I will write it on the blackboard. All answer planets. If you go out on aolear bright night and look up at the stars carefully, you will see a few that are shining with a clear steady light, while all the others around them twinkle or flicker. James, repeat that. (He repeats.) Now those that do not twinkle are planets, that is, they revolve round the sun, as our earth does. Now you may raise hands for my other question. Is there any other planet nearer to the sun than the earth? Sam? J^o sir. Here is a boy who is merely guessing. Annie? Yes sir. How many? Four, ilere is a girl who is only guessin;]. Now in such a question as this it only wastes our time to raise hands unless you know. George ? There are two planets nearer to the sun than the earth. That is correct. Do you know what their names are, George? No sir. Does any one ? 1 see no hands up. Well, all look this way. I will write the name of the first one on our blackboard. Mercury. I must tell you how it got this name. Some of the ancients did not know about God as we do; they had a great many gods. Now these gods, they believed, kept one god as a messenger. In carrying the ?nessages of the gods, you think he would have to move very qnichly. They called his name Mercury. And because this planet (Have a representation on the blackboard, and point to each one as they answer. Only put down one at a time. The sun first in the centre.) is nearest to the sun, it is attracted so strongly by the sun that it is caused to revolve the most rapidly of all the planets. Hence it was called Mercury. It is the swiftest of all the planets^ Mercury is nearer to the sun than the earth. Well, what is the next planet in order from the sun ? We will place its name upon the board. Venus. This 72 [Lesson XXIV. was the name of another of the gods of the ancients. Venus was a goddess. She was the goddess of beauty. And Venus which is the bright star we sometimes see early in the evening, is so beautiful that it gets the name of this goddess. Mercury is the .first planet in order and it gets its 7ia7?ze because it revolves so swiftly. It is called after the god Ifercwy who acted as Tues- senger for the gods. Next is T'ewMS, called after the goddess of beauty, because it is so beautiful. We have now mentioned how many? Two. And these are both nearer to the sun than the earth. What are their names? Kate? Mercury and Venus. And as I said there were only two nearer the sun than the earth is, the next planet in order will be the earth, the earth on which we live. How curious it is to think that our earth is a great ball revolving round the sun, along with many other balk or worlds or, as we called them .planets. The earth then is a .planet and is the thii"d in order among the planets. Now, we are not to name any others m this lesson, but you may all investigate this matter before our next lesson. We have, however, some other things to say. Do you know what name is given to the two planets. Mercury and Venus, because they are at a less distance from the sun than the earth ? They are called Inferiok. You may all repeat this word Inferior. What about inferior? Charlie? Mercury and Venus are called inferior planets. What would your mother mean if she said that she had some very inferior flour? She would mean that it was not good. Now do we mean to say that Mercury and Venus are not worth as much as the other planets ? No sir. What, then, does it mean? George? We mean tliat Mercury and Venus are nearer to the sun than the earth. And they are therefore called inferior planets. What is the opposite of inferior? Let us write it. Superior. The planets that are more distant from the sun than the earth are called superior planets. Ella, repeat that The planets that are more distant from the sun than the earth are called superior planets. I will tell you their names in another lesson. Is the earth a superior or an Lesson XXV.] 73 inferior planet ? Mary ?.,.... Inf&ior, Alice ? 8u2oerior. George, which of them do you consider correct? Neither of them. Why? If Mercury and Venus are inferior to the earth, and the others that are farther off are superior, the earth cannot he either. That answer is very well given. The earth is neither.... «?/mor uoy.... superior. Now quickly. Our earth revolves round the sun. So do many other bodies called planets. The planets shine with a steady light, while other stars twinkle. The first in order is Mercury^ the second Venus, and third the Earth. Mercury and Venus, being nearer to the sun than the earth, are called inferior planets, those beyond the earth are called superior. ORAL TRAINING LESSON. NO. XXV. Natural Science — "Wind. The climate of a country (See lesson on climate — its elements,) we have said, consists of three things. 1st Temperature, 2d Moisture, 3d Prevailing Winds. "What is wind ? When the air moves it makes a wind. Then wind is air in motion. Libbie, repeat that Wind is air in motion. And since it does not always blow in the same direction inmost countries, we said prevailing winds, that is those that are most com- mon. But why should the air move at all ? Can anythiog that is not alive move of itself? No sir. Then what moves the air ? We will try and find out. 10 74 [Lesson XXV. In our lesson on heat we said that one of its effects is to cause the substance that is heated to grow. larger or expand. (See No. V.) Now the heat of the sun's rays passes through the air without heating it, but the ground becomes heated, and heats the particles of air along the earth's surface. And what effect did you tell me heat would have on any substance ? It expands it. And so it will expand the air, or make it become larger. Now, if we were to take a gallon of cold air and heat it, it would expand ov become larger. Then would it all remain in the gallon measure? No sir. Part of it would flow out of it. Would that which remained in, weigh as much as the gallon full of cold air? No sir. Then it would be ? If it did not weigh as much, it would be lighter. We will revise a little. The sun's heat does not heat the air as it passes through iV, but it heats the ground. This heats the particles of mVthat He on its surface. The heat has what effect on them ? It expands them. It expands the air or makes it grow larger. And as it expands it becomes Hgther. Now when we place a piece of wood under the surface of water, does it remain there? No sir. It .floats. Why? It is lighter than the tuater. And therefore it rises through the wate?', and comes to the surface. Now, what would the light, hot air do ? Have you ever seen the motion of the air round a hot stove pipe ? I want to see all who observe the little things they see every day. James, what do you think the hot air would do? It would rise. That is correct, it would rise, just as the wood rises in water. And so the smoke rises, because it is hot, and therefore much lighter than the surrounding air. Hot flames also rise. Can you not give me a better word than rise? All think. Hands up. Emma? Ascend. Eight, and so you conclude that after the air becomes hot and therefore very light it will ascend. George, repeat that When the air becomes hoi and expanded and light, it will ascend. And if there is nothing remaining in the place it has left, what will hap- Lesson XXV.] 75 pen ? Suppose I take a board and make a space or hole in the water, does the space remain long empty? No sir. The water you think rushes m and .fills it up. Now if the air gets hot and light, and ascends or goes up or rises, what would you expect then to take place? The surrounding air tvould rush in and fill up the space. Very good. And this rushing in of the air is what we call wind. Who will now state this cause of wind? Annie? When the air gets heated and light it rises or ascends, and the surrounding air rushes in to supply its place and forms a wind. Raise hands all who will state this. Charlie ? (He repeats it.) In this country the wind does not always blow in the same direction. This kind of wind is called ? It is called vaeiable ; that means changeable. These winds are called variableov changeable, because they blow in different directions. But there are places where the wind always blows in the same direction. I will tell you why in another lesson. There are other causes of wind besides what we have stated. But this is the principal cause. Now all answer rapidly. "When the air at the earth's surface becomes heated it expands or grows larger. It thus becomes lighter, and like wood in water ascends or rises. The surrounding air then rushes in, to supply its .place. This is what we call a wind. Then wind is simply air in motion. 70 [lesson XXVI. OEAL TRAmmG LESSOxN. NO. XXVI. Physiology — Respiraticn. I wish to see every eye fixed on me. Our lesson to-day is upon the breathing of animals. The word which is generally used is ? I will write it. Respiration. This is another word, Mary, instead of breathing. Charlie, what term is used instead of breathing? Mespiratioyi. There are two processes that require to be continued constantly, in order to support the life of an animal. These are Eating and Breathing. By the first the body is supplied with -food; and by the second it is furnished with air. Deprive an animal of either .food or air, and it will die. Both of these processes are necessary to support its life. If we value them according to the time that either process may be interrupted, the most im])ortant will be breathing, for we can live some days without .food. What are the organs of respiration? (See No. IV.) Hands up. Fannie? The lungs are the oryans of respiration. We continually breathe the air into our lungs. There is one word which means to breathe in and another which means to breathe out. What are they ? I will show you. The Latin word Spiro means TO breathe ; Lesson XXVI.] 77 and the prefix In means into. Ex also means out. Now if we use the root (See No. XIII.) spire and place the prefix In before it, we have the word Inspire, vfhich. will mean to breathe in. Now as you have told me the word " breathe in," you can doubtless tell me the word for "breathe out." It is expire. Yes. We inspire and expire ; that is, we breathe in and breathe out again. Willie, you may repeat that. (He does so.) You already know that the air contains two gases, which are oxygen and nitrogen. How much is oxygen ? One-fifth. The other four-fifths is nitrogen. (See No. XI.) The nitrogen is only for the purpose of diluting the oxygen; the oxygen, then, is the most important, because without it, fire could not burn, nor could animals live. We are now about to inquire how this is. The blood, as it circulates through the body, on leaving the right ventricle of the heart passes to the lungs. (Explained in No. XXII.) Here it is exposed in very minute cells to ? What do we breathe into our lungs? Air. We inspire or breathe iti air. Then, in the lungs the blood is exposed to the air that is supplied by the process of breathing. What happens at this time ? Why do you think oxygen is the most important gas ? I will tell you. The blood, while in the lungs TAKES UP THE OXYGEN of the air that is inspired. Can you give me a better word than " takes up ?" A sponge takes up water. But we might say, George, that it absorbs water. Very good. That is the word. And the blood- absorbs the oxygen, while in the lungs. Well, we inspire or breathe in both oxygen and nitrogen. Now, can any one tell me what we expire ? that is what we breathe out. Hands up. Emily? We expire only the nitrogen. Does any one think we expire anything else besides nitrogen alone ? You can tell better when we have advanced further with our lesson. You have told me that in the lungs the blood absorbs or takes up the oxygen of the air that we inspire. It then flows back to the heart. From the heart it is sent through the arteries to all parts of 78 [Lesson XXVI. the body. Now listen carefully while I impart to you another secret. The blood flows, bright and crimson from the arteries into the small capillary vessels. It is bright because of the oxygen that it contains. But as it passes through the capillary vessels, the oxygen is all used up by uniting or combining with the worn out parts of the body. It combines or unites with two substances in particular. These are Carbon and Hydrogen. You will hear more about them afterwards. When the oxygen com- bines with carbon it forms another kind of gas called Carbonic Acid Gas ; and when it combines with hydrogen it forms the water that comes out as vapor in our breath. Then, as the blood travels on through the veins it is not bright and crimson as it was in the arteries, but it is of a dark, bluish-red color. It now has in it, instead of the oxygen the water of which I spoke, and also the carbonic acid. And when it is sent again to the lungs by the heart it gives up both of these substances and they pass out in the breath. Now I will ask some questions. First, the one I asked a few minutes ago. Who can tell me what we breathe out ? Or, what we expire J I see nearly every hand up now. I can plainly see who have been attentive. George? We expire nitrogen, carbonic acid gas and vapor. That answer is perfectly correct. Who can repeat it? All who cannot will remain and write it ten times on their slates. I will get some small boy to dictate it to them. What happens to the blood in the lungs ? Hands up, Sam ? Jt absorbs oxygen. What gas is in the blood in the arter- ies? Kate.'' Oxygen is contained by the blood in the arteries. What does the oxygen combine with in the capillary vessels ? Bessie ? Carbon and hydrogen. And what two substances are formed as they unite ? Fred? Carbonic acid gas and water. Annie, you may tell me what gases we inspire and what we expire We inspire or breathe in oxygen and nitrogen, and we expire or breathe out nitrogen, carbonic acid gas and vapor. I will tell you that a very little of the oxygen also comes out again. But is only thatwhich was not taken up or absorbed by...... the blood. Lesson XXVIL] 79 ORAL TRAINING LESSON. NO. XXVII. Natural Science — Transmission of Heat. I am glad that all our scholars give such good attention, during our Oral Lesson, for I am always satisfied when scholars attend that they will surely learn. Raise hands all who will give me the sources of heat. (See No. XIV.) Emily? 1st, The jSun; 2d, Comhus- iion ; 3c?, Friction ; 4:th, Percussion ; bth, Chemical Action ; ^th, Electru'ity. By the sources of heat -we mean where heat is obtained or derived. Well, to-day we are to speak of the way in which heat passes from one object to another. And first let us speak of the way in which the sun's heat passes to the earth. How does it pass ? In what way ? When you partly close your eyes and look at a lamp with a bright flame you see the light passing off from it in streaks. (Some such word will be given here.) Can you not give me a better word than streaks ? Willie? Lines. That word would do, but there is a better one. It is Rays. The light of the lamp goes off in RAYS. Or, we might say that the lamp sends forth rays of light ; instead of sends forth we will use a word that we have once before used. The lamp sends forth or emits light. It emits the light in rays. The light is then said to ? It is said to Radiate. Let me hear every 8Q [Lesson XXVII. one pronounce it distinctly Radi'ate. Now does any- thing else pass off or radiate from the lamp besides the light? Yes sir, the heat radiates also. The heat, you say radiates, that is, it passes off in ra7/s. And this is the way in which the heat comes to us from the sun. It radiates horn. the sun to the earth; that is, it passed over in rai/s or straight lines. Annie, repeat this.. — The heat radiates from, the sun to the earth ; that is, it jMsses to it in straight lines called rays. Charlie, what else besides heat goes off in similar rays ? Light. What about it? Light radiates as heat does. This way is called Radiation. Heat comes to the earth from the sun, hy radiation. This is oneway in which heat is sent. Another word for " sent." Here is the one I wish you to use. , Teansmitted. This word consists of two parts. The part, " trans," means across ; and the second part, " mitted," means sent. What .will transmitted mean? Eliza? Sent across. Yes. If I tell you one hundred messages were transmitted over the telegraph lines in one day, what would I mean? Peter? You would mean that the messages luere " sent across " the country. And if we say that heat is transmitted from the sun to the earth, we mean that it is sent across. One way, then, in which it is transmitted is by radiation, that is, passing over in rays. Does heat travel or pass in any other way ? If you take a common pin, and try to loosen the wick of a burn- ing candle with it, you very soon have to loosen your hold of the pin. Why? Is it because the heat radiates to your fingers Yes sir. Now let us see. Can you hold your hand at the same distance from the candle without the pin ? Yes sir. Then why does the heat not now radiate, while it did so when you held the pin? George ? Lt does not radiate in that case. I think the pin has soinething to do with it. Yes, I think it has. Let us inquire how it happens. The pin is composed of a. metal. When the particles of the pin that are in the flame become hot, they give the heat to their neighbors that lie alongside them. Do they move themselves? No sir. They do not move, but they lead the heat along from one Lesson XXVIL] 81 to another. Can you give me a word for lead ? Mary? Carry. Now, just think. Could they caery the heat, if they do not themselves move? No sir. Then "carry" is not the word that we wanted. Let me write it. Conduct. The particles of metal conduct the heat or lead it from one to another. This is another way in which heat is transmitted or sent across. This second way is called Conduction because the heat is conducted. Frank, repeat that. (He repeats.) Susan, you may give these two ways of transmitting heat. (She does so.) There is still another way. How is the air in a room heated? Or the water in a boiler? Let us investigate this method of transmitting heat. "When rays of heat pass through the air they do not have any perceptible effect in heating it. It has a certain name on this account. It is called Diathermanous. This word means that it allows the heat to pass through it without becoming heated. The air again, is diathermanous, because it allows the heat to .pass through it. And since the rays of heat pass through it, they do not heat it. But they heat the ground, and the ground heats the particles of air, that lie close to it, by the last way we named conduction. Then the warm particles begin to move among the coHer owes and this causes others to get warm. When they become warm they also Tnove among the colder ones and thus the heat is carried about. The word used to represent this way of transmitting heat is Convection, Convection means carrying, while conduc- tion means leading. In the last way, that is convection, the particles themselves move, and thus carry the heat. Well, there are then these methods in which heat is transmitted. They are 1st Radiation, by which we mean that the heat travels in straight lines called rays ; 2d Conduction in which the heat is conducted or lead^ from one particle to another, while the particles themselves do not move ; and 3d Convection or the carrying of the heat by the moving of the 11 82 [Lesson XXVIII. particles. This can only take place in liquids or gases, where the particles can move -fi'^ely or readily or easily. All repeat the three ways again. First, we have radiation, 2d conduction, 3d convection. OML TEAINING LESSON. NO. XXVIII. Astronomy — The Solar System. We are to continue our former lesson on The Solar System to-day. (See No. XXIV.) You will all require to give your best attention, for without this you cannot learn. The planet which is nearest to the sun is Mercury. This is the swiftest of the .planets, and is named after the messenger of the gods. Next comes Venus, which was called after the beautiful goddess Venus, because it is so beautiful. These two .planets are called ? Because they are at a less distance from the sun than the earth they are called inferior planets, which means that they are at an inferior distance. Then we find, next in order the earth, and beyond it are those planets that are called superior. I did not tell you the distance of Mercury and Venus from the sun ; and, indeed, it would be too much to remember any but that of the earth. Does any one know how far the earth is from the sun? It is ninety-five MILLIONS OF MILES. What is, Alice ? Tlie earth is ninety-five millions of miles distant from the sun. Now we will commence with the superior .planets. Lesson XXVIIL] 83 The next in order after the earth is Mars. Let me hear this name from alL . . .Mars. This is the fourth planet. Robbie, will you now name all four ? Mercury, Venus, The Earth, Mars. Mars was named after the god of War. Who was the god of War, Sam? Mars was the god of War. And the fourth planet in order from the sww was named after this god. It was called... Jtfars. Then we find the largest of all the planets. It is named after the King of all the gods. The King of the gods was ? Let me write it. Jupiter. His name was Jupiter 2iX\d. this was the name of this — ..planet. Mars was the fourth and so Jupiter is the fifth. Allie, you may tell me the fourth and fifth planets The fourth planet is Mars and the fifth Jupiter. The last one named was called after.. ..tJie king of the gods, on account of its size. Jupiter is the largest of all the planets. Repeat that, Frank. (He repeats.) Next we find Satuen. It was named after another god. You will remember it when I tell you of its rings. (To illustrate this, place a small finger-ring inside a larger one, and inside the inner one a pea, or any small round object. The wire of the ring should be square instead of round. A couple of such rings cut from a potato would be better. First cut a flat slice, then cut two rings from it, one a little smaller than the other, so as not to come in contact with it.) It is surrounded by two solid rings of matter which do not touch it or each other. These are called Saturn's Rings. Now you may all answer ; this planet >Sai!Mrre is surrounded by two Ww^s, of solid matter, which do not touch it. They are called SaturrCs rings. How many did we name before Saturn? Five. Then it is the sixth. 1st we have Mercury, 2d Venus, 3d lite Earth, 4th Mars, 5th Jupiter, and 6th Saturn, which is surrounded by two rings. The seventh is called after its discoverer. Its name is Herschel. The name of this planet, then, is Herschel. This was the name of the astronomer who discovered it. It also has two other names, but it would only burden your memories to ask you to remember them. I will, however. 84 [Lesson XXVIII. state them. One is Georgium Sidus which means " George's Star ;" and the other is Uranus. But we will use the name Herschel. The last is also named after its discoverer. It is called Leverrier. It also has another name, which will perhaps be more easily remembered. It is also called Neptune. This was another god's name. It is the last .planet. Its name again is Neptune. Now give them all, pausing between each one Mercury; Venus; The Earth; Mars; Jupiter; Saturn; Herschel and Neptune. How many? Eight. George, repeat their names. (He does so.) Raise hands all who will do so. I see two whose hands are not raised. Fannie, you and Richard will spend a few moments with me at recess in writing their names till you can repeat them. All ma^ now answer again, as we review. Revolving round the Sun there are eight planets. The first two which are Mercury and Venus, are called Inferior. Next is The Earth. Outside of it are those that are called Superior. There are how many superior planets? Five. They are Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Herschel and Neptune. Saturn is surrounded by two solid rings. These eight .planets all revolve round the sun. Lesson XXIX.] 85 ORAL TRAINING LESSON. NO. XXIX. Natural Science — Light — Its Nature and Sources. To-day our lesson is upon Light. Light is that by means of which we see. Again, we see by means of lAgld. What is Light ? Is it anything ? Do you think it has any weight ? Well, Annie ? I think itTnust have weight. Well, it is very natural to suppose so. But let us look at some facts. It has been discovered— I will tell you how in some other lesson — that the light travels at the rate of about twelve million miles in a minute. Well, Sam? IIoxo can they know that ? I said I would explain how it was .found out in another lesson. You must take my word for it now. For what, Willie ? For the fact that light travels at the rate of twelve million miles a minute. Now you all know that if the smallest kind of shot are thrown from a gun at the rate of perhaps two hundred yards in a second, they go with a great.. ...force. Do you think, Annie, that shot, however small, moving so rapidly, would do any injury to our eyes, or the delicate leaves of a flower .''... Yes sir, it would destroy them. Now, in the next place, if the particles of light have any weight whatever, coming at the rate of 12,000,000 mtYes a m^inute, they would utterly destroy our eyes or any other very deli- cate ? Anything that is made or constructed, either 86 [Lesson XXIX. by man or God, may be called ? I will write the word. Stkuctuee. All answer structure. You think that any delicate structure such as our eyes or the leaves of .flowers, or the tender wings of butterflies and other insects would be destroyed if the particles of the liglit have any weight. For this and other good reasons philosophers believe that light has no weight. Does any other boy or girl remember any other body in nature that has no weight ? What else comes from the sun besides light? Heat. Yes. Light and Heat are both bodies that are supposed to have no weight. There is a word which means "having no weight " or " not able to be weighed." What is it? Hands up. Perhaps you have never heard it before. Let us place it on our black- board. Imponderable. Light and heat are both said to be imponderable, that is, they have no weight. Can you think of any other imponderable body ? Only three are known to exist. What is the other one ? What is it that passes so rapidly over the telegraph lines? Elec- tricity. That is the other one. Who will name the three ? Ella? Light, Heat and Electricity are the three imponderable bodies. Very well. Now I wish to ask another question. Whence do we get light? Hands up. Frank? Froin the Sun. Lizzie? From lamps. Allie ? Frotn candles. Mary ? From fire of every kind. Well, who can remember one word " for fire of every kind ?" In enumerating the sources of heat, we said that one source was fire or combustion. (If it is not answered, write it again on the board.) I only heard two voices give this answer. Again Combustion. We have now named two sources from which we get light. They are 1st The /S'mw and 2d Combustion. These, again are two sources of light. Is there any other? Has any one ever seen a very brilliant flash of light come from the sky ? When did you see it, Sam? During a thunder-storm. Where did it come from ? Itcamefrom the clouds. Yes, but what caused it? Tlie thunder. Well, the thunder was a sound that accompanied it. But do you know what caused both the thunder and the flash ? I will tell you. It was that third imponderable body that Lesson XXX.] 87 we mentioned. Hands up those who remembor it. Charlie? Electricity. That is another source of light. Whenever electricity is discharged, and you will know better what I mean by this after we advance further, it causes a flash of light and is therefore a source of heat. Let us now rapidly revise. We conclude that light has no weight. It cannot be weighed. There are also two other bodies or substances, in Nature that cannot be weighed. They are heat and electricity. These three are therefore called the three imponderable bodies. The imponderable bodies again are 1st Light, 2d Heat, and 3d Electricity. Light is derived from three sources. 1st The Sun, 2di Combus- tion, and 3d Electricity. I may state that combustion is only one form of chemical action, and that other kinds of chemical action produce light. ORAL TRAmiNG LESSON. NO. XXX. Natural Science — Sound. You formerly told me in one of our lessons (See No. VIII.) that we become acquainted with what surrounds us by means of what we called the five senses. These are Ist Seeing, 2d ITearing, 3d Feeling, 4th Smell- ing , 2indL bih. Tasting. The second sense which is hearing, is the one by which we perceive sounds. Again, sounds are .perceived by the sense of hearing. 88 [Lesson XXX. Now I wish to ask you what else is necessary in order to hear besides the ears ? Well, you can better answer after our lesson is over. When I strike this desTc, (or whatever you strike, suiting the action to the word,) you hear a sound ; and when a bell rings you also hear a sound. Now what is sound ? It is not many years ago since people imagined that whenever a bell was rung, small particles of metal were struck off and flew rapidly and entered the ear., (pointing to the ear,) thus causing what v;e call a sound. But there were a great many objections to this theory. It could not be explained how the sound was made when the wind whistled round a corner. And it was soon proved •that sound was caused in quite a different way. We proved not long ago (See No. IX.) that air really is a substance, since it weighs something or, in other words has weight. I wish to have you remember this as we will refer again to it in a few moments. Has any boy or girl ever seen a child place the blade of a knife in a crack in the table and then strike the handle, and cause it to make a rattling sound ? Well, Eddie? I had my ears " boxed " for doing it once. Well, you all know what I mean. The knife-handle flies backwards and .for- wards very rapidly. I now want a word which means to go back and forth in that manner. How many know of such a word? Mary? Shiver. Ella? Tremble. Frank? Rattle. Frank, if you stretch a string tight and cause it to do so, would you say it rattled ? No sir. No, but it would tremble or ? What other word do you know besides tremble, shake and shiver ? I will write the word I want. Vibrate. All pronounce it together Vibrate. The blow you strike causes the knife to vibrate or move very rapidly, back and forth. And you remember that you have just said that the air is a real substance. Now if the desk moves or vibrates, it strikes every time against ? What surrounds it every- where? Air. Well, it would strike then against the air, and this would cause the air also to vibrate. Let us see whether we can find a good way to represent this vibration of the air. Has any one ever seen a stone Lesson XXX.] 89 dropped into smooth water? Sam? I have often throvm. them in. Well did you ever notice, Sam, what happened to the surface of the water when the stone dropped? Yes, sir ; the stone made small waves on the surface of the water. Who will repeat that? Fred ? A stone dropped in a pond of ivater causes small waves on the surface of the water. And these waves roll on till they reach the edge of the water. Well, I will tell you that those waves on the water are just like the little waves that are caused in the air when anything vibrates. And when they enter our ears, they cause us to hear a sound, by operating on the nerves of our.... ears. If I strike a great rock, how does it sound ? Would it sound as plainly as when I strike this box? No sir. Why? Who can answer this? All ought if all were listening. Well, George ? It does not vibrate so much, being so solid, and therefore it does not cause so many'waves in the air, and consequently we cannot hear it as plainly. If I strike a sheet of tin or iron, this causes much noise. Why? Allie? Because it vibrates so easily and causes so yrtany waves in the air. These waves roll off in every direction. It some- times happens that the sound-waves strike against the side of a large building, a high bank or bluff, or the edge of the woods. When this happens what do you think becomes of the waves? Did you ever hear an echo? Yes sir. What is an echo ? Kate? It is a sound heard after another, without any apparent cause. Now from what we have said can you not guess what becomes of the sound- waves, when they strike the side of a building ? Henry ? They come rolling bach to our ears again. Very good ; and you think this is what causes an echo. Raise hands all who can now tell me what causes an echo ? Eva ? An echo is caused by the sound-waves rolling back after striTcing some large object. Before our lesson closes I want another word for waves. The one I want comes from the Latin word Unda, a wave. It is UNDULATIONS. The waves on the surface of water might be called undulations. What is meant when 12 90 [Lesson XXXI. men speak of an undulating country or an undulating prairie ? George ? Tliey Tnean that it is waving or not perfectly level ; or has hills and hollows. And these waves in the air are called undulations. I want all to remember this word till we have the next lesson on Light, as we will then use it again. Sounds are produced in the air. When anything is caused to shake rapidly or vibrate, since it moves against the air, it causes it also to vibrate. When it vibrates it contains a great many small waves ^nch. as we see on the surface of wa^er when we throw in a stone. These waves entering the ear, affect a nerve which causes us to hear a sound. The sound, then, is simply the vibrating of the air. When these waves strike against a large object like a housethey roll ^acZ; and cause an echo. Instead of waves we use another word which is undulations. ORAL THAmmG LESSON. NO. XXXL Etymology — Derivation — Words from Plico. We are to have another exercise to-day in examining the process by which English words are derived from the Latin language. In one of our lessons on this subject (See No. XIII.) we said that a Latin word from which we derive words is called a root. The root that we will select for to-day is Plico, Plicatum ; to fold. The words will all contain Lesson XXXL] 91 either " pli," " ply," or " plicate," and will all have some allusion to folding. Those who can give me a word may raise hands. Well, Minnie? Multvply. That is a good word. Multus means many; and since ply means to fold to multiply 'will mean to fold many times. Thus twelve has, as it were, four folded three times; and seventy-five has twenty-five .folded three tmies ; very much in the same way that cloth is .folded. This process is called multiplication. This is another word. Now I will ask again. Fred? Reply. Very well. The syllable Re (See No. XIII.) means bach; to reply then means to .fold hack. It is applied to conversation. The first person makes a statement, and the other replies, or folds his statement back upon his neighbor's ; he in his turn makes another reply or .fold, and thus it is folded over and over again, by their continual replies. Will some one give us another word? Raise hands all who can. Genie? Pliable. That is a good example. You would say that cloth, or paper, or leather is .pliable, or able to be .folded. We are ready for more words. Frank ? Complicated. Yes. Con means together, and therefore complicated will mean ? If "plicated" means folded and con, together, what will be meant by complicated ? Folded together. Thus when we look at a locomotive or a watch, we call it a very complicated piece of mechanism, because it appears to be so much folded together. When a question in Arithmetic or Algebra is composed of a great many parts, it is also said to be complicated or folded together. Now you may raise hands for others. Give yours, Ella iTnply. Right. And since Im means IN and ply, to fold, to imply will be to fold in. If I say " The second house that was burned contained much furniture," you instantly conclude, although I did not state it, that another .,,... hotcse had been burned before it. And you are said to imply this ; that is, you fold this idea in with the other. What is your word, George? Implicated. When a man is guilty of a crime and it is proved that some other 92 [Lesson XXXI. person was also guilty with, him, the second would be said to be implicated. People become implicated in crime. We would now like to hear others. What word have you, Charlie? Triple. Tri 'means three, and so triple means having three folds. The word which means having two folds is double, and the word ample means with many .folds. Mary, what is your example? ExpliciL When any- thing is well explained or unfolded, it is said to be explicit. Ex means out and explicit, then, simply means .folded out. And so, you might easily conclude, implicit would mean .folded in; yes, as when we speak of implicit confidence. Did you ever hear of a word which means " without any folds," or " having no folds ?'' I will write it under our other words ; you will wonder when you see how simple a word it is. It is Simple. Sine means without ; it is changed to sim for convenience. The word means, again, without folds. A lever is a contrivance that is exceedingly simple ; much simpler than a steam engine. In the Bible, simplicity is used for innocence — no folds of guilt. But when we say a person is simple, we mean that his mind has few .folds, or is undeveloped. (Now retrace the lesHon and repeat the definitions, calling on each one for a full statement. Have all the words on the board.) Lesson XXXII.] ORAL TRAmiNG LESSON. NO. XXXII. Difference Bet-ween Science and Art. We have now had a number of lessons upon different subjects. This morning T wish to tell you of something useful in connection with these subjects. I wish to see every one sitting upright so as to be able to attend. You remember our lesson u])on the Solar System. We named eight bodies that revolve round the sun, and called them .planets. Now, that branch of knowledge which describes or relates to these things, and to all the heavenly bodies, and their motions or distances, &c., is called ? Do you not know what it is called ? It is Astronomy. And Astronomy is called ? This word that we want supplied here is the principal word of our lesson to-day. Perhaps some of you have seen it before. If 60 you will at once recognize it when you see it. It is derived from the Latin verb Scio, I know, and it means all that we can know about anything. George? 7s it Science ? Yes, that is the word. Let us write it on the board. Science. Astronomy is called a science. What does a science mean ? If you look at the board you see that Scio means I hnow; then science will probably mean that which we Icnow. Then you may tell me, Alfred, what a science is It is something that we Tcnow. 94 [Lesson XXXII. What we know about the stars is the science of Astron- omy/. Perhaps you would like to know how this word astronomy was formed. I will show you. The Greek word AsTKON means a star ; and nomos, which is also a Greek word, means a law. So Astronomy will mean literally, the laws which govern the stars. And I have just told you that all we know of the heavenly bodies is included in the science of Astronomy. Will any one in the room now tell me of another science ? Bessie? Geology. Yes, this is another science, \h.e science of Geology. It teaches us abouc the rocks, &c., which form the crust of the earth. Any other? Wallace? ArithTnetic. Very good. This means the science q/" wwwiJers, or, that which we hioio about numbers. Now I will proceed to the second part of our lesson. After we study a science sufficiently, we then begin to do the things which it teaches us, or, to do things depend- ing on what it teaches us. What word, now, is used to indicate anything that we do instead of anything that we KNOW ? Let me write it. Anything that we do is called an Art. Thus, we speak of the Art of making cloth, (touching a piece of cloth.) Or, the Art of making glass, (pointing to the window.) Now, Arithmetic besides being a science is also an art, for it is a way of doing something. Can any one give me any other art ? George ? The art of printing. Very good; that is an art. Any other? Alice? The art of teaching. Very well. Now I will allow all to raise hands to give me examples of both Arts and Sciences. Kate ? Building houses or Architecture is a Science and an Art. Edward ? MaJcing boots and shoes is an Art. Is it a science also, Edward? No sir. Jennie ? Physiology is a Science, is it not ? Yes; we have had several lessons in the science of Physiology. (See No. IV.) Physiology teaches us not of the organs of our bodies but of their .func- tions; or that which they do. Now I want others. Hands up. Frank? Is Gram- mar a Science or an Art ? Who can tell him this ? Emma ? It is a Science, Fred ? It is an Art, I think. Lesson XXXIIL] 95 Well, you are both correct. Like Arithmetic, it is both a Science and an Art. "What other Science did I tell you of when I spoke of Physiology ? That which tells us of the organs themselves is Anatomy. Only three answered then. Well, after seeing the word several times, like a new face, it will become familiar to you ; that is, you will then know it. Anatomy then, is a Science. Did you ever hear of the science of Music ? Yes sir. Is it not also an Art ? Do we not do something ? I will tell you. The art is called Singing, but the science is Music. Repeat that, Ella The science is called music, and the art, singing. Then a science is that which we know about anything ; while an Art is that which we do, that depends on the science. OML TRAINING LESSON. NO. XXXIIL Natviral Science — Mechanical Properties of the Atmosphere. Every eye must be directed this way ; then I wish also to see each one sitting upright. This is the best position in which we can sit if we wish to give good attention, and receive the full benefit of the lesson. In a former lesson (See No. VI. and IX.) we spoke of the properties of the air. One was its weight (making a gesture with the hand as though holding a heavy weight.) Raise hands all who can tell me its weight. George? 96 [Lesson XXXIII. A column of air extending from the eartli's surface to the top of the ahnospliere, one inch square, weighs fifteen pounds. That is very well stated. And on accountof its weight it exerts a great .pressure on the eartli's surface. This is the second property of air. Although weight and pressure are the same, we will speak of the pressure as a separate property. You will learn why afterwards. Who will now give the two properties of the air that we have mentioned? Alice? The first property was its weight, and the second its pressure. We will now look at some others. Of what color is the air? Raise hands. Fannie? White. White like snow ? No sir. Well, what color then? Is it yellow? No sir. Of what color are clouds ? The prevailing color is gif^y- Is the air of the same color.'' No sir. No, for then we could not distinguish a cloud from the air. Has air any color ? No sir ; then you would say, if it has no color, that it is colorless. And anything like the air, that we cannot see, having no color is said to be ? In the night we cannot see the sun. Then the sun is not visible, so it is invisible. And air is also, then invisible. I will write this word. Visible would mean able to be seen, hut when we say that anything is invisible Vfe mea.n it is not able to be seen. We will call this property Invisibility. The 1st was weight, the 2d..... pressure, and Sd.... invisibility. We now come to another property. Does any one remember the first effect of heat that we mentioned ? (See No. V.) Edward ?....^.Ji! causes substances to expand or become larger. Air has this property. It becomes greatly increased in bulk when heated. That is, it expands. Air will expand when it is heated. What will you call this property of air? We call it Expansibility. This means its power of expanditig. The first property Kate ? Weight ; the second, Willie ? Pressure ; the third, Ella? Invisibility; and the fourth, Richard? Expansibility. Now we may search for other properties. Have you ever seen a pop-gun ? I have. (Always cause them to raise hands in any such case, and not answer promiscuously. Lesson XXXIII.] 97 But for the general ellipsis, require all to answer simul- taneously.) How is it discharged? Eddie? A pellet 'is fastened m one end and another driven through the tube, to force it out. And does the second pellet press against the first one, Eddie? I do not know, sir. Who knows? Frank? JVo sir, it does not. Well, Frank, what forces pillet No. 1 out? I will tell you. When pellet No. 2 is put in, there is between the two a quantity of air. And when we force pellet No. 2 through the tube, this air is greatly ? Cannot some one tell me what happens to it? It is greatly squeezed, or ? I gave you a better word than this, (See No. VI.) Who remembers it ? It means " pressed together." George ? Compressed. That is it. The air between the two pellets become greatly compressed, and at last forces the first one out. And since air can be compressed we say it possesses Compressibility. This is the fifth .property. We will repeat them all again. 1st weight, 2d pressure, 3d invisibility, 4th expansibility, and 5th compressibility. There is still one other property that we will mention. You have often seen india-rubber. What is there remark- able about it ? Charlie ? It is very elastic. Very good. You mean by that that it can regain its former shape, or .position. Now I will tell you that the air is far more elastic than india-rubber ! When it is compressed in the pop-gun, it at last, in attempting to regain its former .position , forces out the .pellet. This property of air is called Elasticity. Now for a rapid recapitulation. The first of the mechan- ical .properties of air is its weight; 2d its pressure; 3d its invisibility ; 4th its expansibility ; 5th. its compressibility^ and 6th its elasticity. 13 98 [Lesson XXXIV. ORAL TEAINING LESSON. NO. XXXIV. Luxuries and Necessaries of Life. When we commence it is always pleasant to see every eye directed towards your teacher, by which I know that all are giving their best attention. In order to live we daily use a great many things both in our food and our clothing, and otherwise, which we could do almost as well without. Sometimes, for example, a ring is worn on the .finger, ox candy or sweetmeats are eaten. But if we were altogether deprived of these things, we could probably live just as well, and be equally comfortable. Now will any boy or girl tell me a name that is given to all such articles? Things that we could just as conven- iently do without are called ? Look this way as I write it on the blackboard. Luxuries. They are called luxuries. What are luxuries? Mary? Luxuries are things that we could do without. Eaise hands all who will repeat it ? Harry ? (He repeats.) Who can now give me an example of a luxury ? George ? Tobacco is a luxury. Good. You mean by that we could live just as well, perhaps better, if it were not used. But there are people who are foolish enough to believe that it is a great accomplishment to smoke Lesson XXXIV.] 99 tobacco. They always have cigars or pipes in their mouths. But this is very foolish. A great many people ruin their health by its wse, and then it does nobody any good. But it is still considered a luxury. And it is a very expensive luxury. Now I want you to think of other luxuries. You may give your example, Kate IVine. \ ery good. "Wine is another luxury. You mean by that, Kate, that we could get along very well without it. Like the last instance, it is often very injurious, much more frequently than it is good, or beneficial. Wine and all other kinds of liquor may be called luxu- ries. They are also useless and expensive luxuries. I think you all know the meaning of this word now. Let us go a step further with our lesson. Although there are things daily used that are not required, there are yet others that we must have, without which we could not live. Bread is one of these things. It is the most important article of our .food. We could not get along comfortably without bread. It is, therefore, not a luxury, but a ? There is another word that is the opposite of luxury. What is it ? I will also write it beside the other. But before I do so I think you can tell me it if you try. Can you read in a book that you have never seen, with your eyes shut ? iVo sir. You would have to open your eyes in order to read. Or, to state it differently, it would be necessary to open your eyes. That is the word. I thought you could tell me. Bread, then, is a necessary. It is one of the necessaries of life. Now I would like to have you give me other examples of necessaries. Hands up. Hattie ? WarTn clothing in winter is necessary. That is a very fine example. Yet we often see poor people who are almost without this which we find so necessary. And in some countries more than half of the people are deprived of some of the necessaries of life. We should be thankful that our wants are so well supp lied, or .provided for. Can you think of others? Frank? A warm fire is necessary in wviter. Is it not necessary in summer also ? 100 [Lesson XXXV. How should we cook our food ? Yes sir, fire is always necessary. There are some things that were once luxuries that have now become necessaries. Can you mention one ? Lizzie? Tea. That is correct. Once, in Europe, tea was unknown. When it was first brought from Japan and China, it was agreat luxury. This was before the discovery of America. Now, it has become a necessary of life. We could not do quite as well without tea and coffee. Sugar is another example. (Now ask for as many examples of luxuries and neces- saries as time will admit of. Such as paper, milk, pianos, lamps, schools, newspapers, carpets, silver plate, pictures &c.) Let us complete our lesson. Those things that we cannot do without are called necessa/ries of life, but those that are not absolutely necessary to our comfort are luxuries. Thus bread is necessary, while preserves would be a luxury. ORAL TRAINING LESSON NO. XXXV. Natural History — The Camel. Our lesson to-day is about the habits, structure and uses of The Camel. Let your answers be given promptly. You all know what animals we use in this country as beasts of burden. Eaise hands all who can tell me any of them. (Ask all who have their hands raised and dispose of their answers. The horse, mule, ass, and ox should be given.) Lesson XXXV.] 101 These animals are all used lor carrying burdens or loads. But we do not, here, use the animal that we are to describe .to-day, that is the camel. It is used principally in the countries of the Eastern Continent which contain hot, dry, sandy deserts like this country Arabia. (Point to it on the map.) Eepeat that Charlie. (He does so.) We will see how it is that this animal the camel is so well .fitted or adapted (See No. 11.) to those countries which contain hot, sandy deserts. These deserts, as at the isthmus of Suez (point it out on the map) are sometimes hundreds of miles in extent, with nothing green to be seen._ In these vast deserts, where there is no water, the horse or ox could not live. They would die of thirst, for men often travel there for weeks without meeting a single stream of water, and it would be impossible to carry enough water for oxen or horses. People there use camels which are exactly adapted to these dry, arid deserts. I must first inform you that the camel has seven STOMACHS. Annie, repeat this. (She does so.) The stomach is the place where the food is digested. Now, one of these seven — stomachs of the camel is exclusively devoted to the purpose of containing water. When it fills this stomach with water, it has the power of using it only as it is absolutely required. It can travel for weeks across the hot sands of the c^eser^, without feeling any inconvenience on account of thirst. The men have to carry along their supply of wafer, hnt the camel drinks its supply before they commence their .journey. It has even happened that travelers have been out on the hot burning deserts so long that all their supply of li'ttifer has become exhausted ov used up ; and then they have been compelled to kill a camel and use the water which they thus...... oitomef? from the camel's stomach. But they prefer to go thirsty for several days before they consent to kill so useful and kind an animal as the camel. This is one reason why the camel is so well adapted to life on a desert. Can you give me any other ? Hands up. Well, I will ask a question. Would the feet the horse- 102 [Lesson XXXV. has suit for the camel ?....-.. iVb sir. No ; they would crack and become sore and uncomfortable on the hot burning sand oi the desert. The camel must have a different kind of .foot. How many have ever seen a camel? I see nearly all hands up. You have probably seen one with a circus, or in a menagerie. What kind of a foot has the camel? Dan? It has a foot Ulce — I cant tell. Well, its foot consists of an immense pad. This is the best name that I can think of. It is a mass of soft flesh, which is the best foot that could be contrived for walking over liot sand. The body of the camel, too, is sparingly covered with hair. Have you ever seen camel's hair ? I see by your hands that you have ; it is soft and silky in appearance, and is very valuable. If its coat of AazV was heavy it would be too warm. As it is, it is just right. The camel also serves the purpose of a cow. It gives milk, which is often almost the only food, with dates, of the inhabitants of these deserts. When a burden is placed on the back of the camel, the animal is caused to kneel. At a certain signal, gener- ally a whistle, from its master, the camel at once kneels down. Could it kneel up ? JVo sir. Then simply say that it hieels. (The kneeling of the camel to receive the burden is a most beautiful instance of the difference between mere teaching and training.) While it is quite young its keeper trains it to kneel. He does not merely teach it, or show it how, but actually makes it do the thing required. This is true training. And so the camel always does this when required. We said, when speaking of the Cat, that a way of doing any- thing is a habit/ the camel then forms this habit and is always ready to kneel, at the signal of its keeper, to receive its burden. How nicely God, in His wisdom has provided for the wants of the wanderers of the deserts. (Now rapidly review, as in other lessons.) Lesson XXXVI.] 103 OIUL TRAINING LESSON. NO. XXXVI. Nattiral Science — "Why do Iron SMps Float? Now as soou as there is perfect silence we will com- vience. All must give their best attention. We are to have a lesson to-day that every boy will be interested iu. The subject is Why do Iron Vessels Float ? Who can tell me why ? Well we are about to investi- gate the matter. When a piece of word is thrown upon the water, it does not sink but .floats. Why? Let us inquire a little further. If I hold out this piece of chalk, and let go my grasp, it falls to the floor. Why? I see several hands up. George? Because the earth draws it down or attracts it. And if I hold a pail, full of water, a little inclined, the water also runs down to the ground because the €a7'th attracts it. Or, a piece of wood would be drawn to the earth or attracted in the very same tvay. If I have a ball of lead, and a ball of pine wood of the same size, which is the heavier of the two? Frank? The lead; and if I place them on the extremities of a balance, which will outweigh the other? The lead. And consequently it will arrange itself nearer to the earth, as it is attracted more strongly than the ivood. Now let us go back to our former question. When we 104 [Lesson XXXVI. throw a piece of loood upon the water, which do you suppose will get nearer the ground, the wood or the water ? Alice ? The water will get nearer to the ground because it is the heavier. Now let me ask a question of the whole school. Raise hands all who can tell me. Is a pound of water any heavier than a pound of wood ? I will wait for you all to think of this. Well, Sam? JVo sir, it is not; they both weigh a -pound. Well why, then should a pound of wood thrown on about twenty pounds of water in a pail, float? I will tell you. When the wood is thrown upon the water it sinks just a short distance into the water, and consequently it drives so much water out of its .place, as is equal to the quantity of wood immersed in the...... water. As I wish you all to clearly understand this we will invert the sen- tence and repeat it. When part of the wood sinks into the water, there cannot be any water in the space occupied by the wood; or, the water that formerly occupied this space before we threw in thewood'hs^B been put out of its .place. Raise hands those who do not yet fully understand this statement. (If any, transpose and repeat till all see what you mean.) Now can't we get a better word for " drives out of its place." You say that the wood drives or puts the water oid of its place, or it ? What prefix means APART or asunder? (See No. XIII.) Ella? Dis means apart. Well, raise hands those who can tell what word will mean " to place apart?" Fred? Displace. Well done. Displace means to drive out of place or simply, if place means to place and dis means apart, displace will mean to .place apoirt. Then you would say that the wood displaces the water; that is, it drives it out of its place. Well I will tell you that if the wood, when sunk com- pletely into the water, displaces a quantity of water greater than its own weight, it will float. Edward repeat that. Jf the wood, when sunk completely into the water, displaces a quantity of water heavier than itself, it toill float. Very v;elL And therefore if we put a cannon ball into water, since it displaces a quantity of water that is lighter than the hall, the water in this case will float and I Lesson XXXV IL] 105 the ball will sink or go nearer to the earth. But if the cannon-ball had first been beaten out .flat, and then formed into a large iron pan that would hold a great deal of water ; yes, I know it would hold water, but if there were no water in it, it would then contain air ; I repeat, if it were beaten out in that way so as to contain air, the weight of the iron pan and air together, would be less than the water that would be displaced, and then the iron would not sink, but .float. Now who can tell why an iron ship floats? George? The weigJit of the iron of the ship, with the air inside of it, is not so great as the water it would displace if put under the surface, and therefore it floats. That is to say, it will only displace as much water as is equal to its own weight. But if we were to load an iron vessel full of shot, you think that then it would sinTc. ORAL TRAINING LESSON. NO. XXXVII. Astronomy — Attraction of Gravitation. It always pleases me to see every one sitting in such a ....'. .position that the best attention can be given. You could not lift a ton of iron in your hand. It would be too heavy. What makes it heavy? Hands up. Frank ? Its loeight, I suppose, makes it heavy. And do you not know better, Frank, than to make such a reply as that ? You might as well say that birds fly because they 14 106 [Lesson XXXVII. fly. It must certainly have required great mental exertion to conceive such an answer. James, what do you think ? I think it is heavy because the earth attracts it. That is very well answered. We have several times used this word attract. It means (See No. XIII) to chaw to. In which direction does the earth draw it? It draws it downwards. Now let us think carefully. If an immensely dee]) well were dug extending downwards io the earth's centre, and far beyond it to the opposite side of the earth, Kwdi a cannon ball or any other object, were dropped in, how far do you think it would fall ? Hands up. Eva? It would fall right through. Now, be careful how you answer. George ?. Ithinkit would not fall through completely. Well, let us see which answer is correct. I will allow the school to decide. What causes it to fall in the first place? Alice? The earth attracts it. Well, and when it has gone one-third of the distance through, there would be a great quantity of earth above it which would begin to draw or attract it in the oppo- site direction; and on arriving near the centre there would be just as much attraction drawing it upwards as there would be to draw it doionwards. (Make suitable gestures with the hand, indicating the direction. These gestures greatly assist in securing their attention.) And you could naturally think, as George did, that it would only go half way through. This is correct. Its force might cause it to descend a little more than half tyay, but it would soon stop and come. .. .Wjoz^art/s, and would probably oscillate as an evenly balanced scales would, and at last remain as near as possible to the centre of the earth. I will now ask another question. Suppose that a man living upon the other side of the earth were to drop another ball at that end into the opening, what do you think would become of it ? I see a large number of hands up now. Sarah? It would fall upwards into the hole. Very good. That is to say, it would be upwards to us, but the person who dropped it would call it downwards. Downwards, then, means towards the earth's center and upwards .from the centre. Les3on XXXVIL] 107 This attraction, you say, it is that causes anything to possess weight. Now, I will tell you that the word that is used to represent this attraction is derived from the Latin language, as many other words in English are. The Latin word Gravitas means weight ; and because this attraction of the earth causes weight, it is called the attraction of gravitation. Eepeat that, Harry The attraction of the earth, because it causes weight, is called the attraction of gravitation. In speaking of the solar system we stated that the earth itself is attracted by the sun, and that the sun attracts also all the other .planets. The attraction of the sun, then, is also the attraction of gravitation. Now, what is the shape of laindrops, or dewdrops, or tears? Hands up. "Willie? Bound. Round like a cent ? No sir. round like a ball, or globular. "Why ? Do you not see that the particles of the dewdropall attract each other ? Do you think it would, then, become square ? No sir. No, the form in which all the particles would be nearest to the centre would be that of a ball, or globe. (Illustrate this with a square and also a circular figure on the black-board.) If you imagine the drop to be composed of layers one on another, all the particles in each layer would be equally distant from the centre in the round form, but this would not be so if it were square. A mass of fluid, then, such as a raindop, a dew- drop, or a tear will, if left alone, become round like a ball. Well, it is supposed that our earth, which looks so solid, was once a melted mass. In that condition what would you have imagined its shape to have been ? Hound, like a dewdrop. "Very good. It would become round on account of this attraction which I have called the attraction of gravitation. And we know, and can prove, that this actually is its shape. Now, we will revise, and I will give you a very beauti- ful selection from one of the poets, that you will alv/ays be able to remember, that very nicely embodies all that we have said. Anything on its surface is attracted by the earth. 108 [Lesson XXXVIII. This attraction is called the attraction of gravitation, from the Latin word gravitas which means weight, because it is this that causes bodies to have weight. The attraction which the sun possesses towards the earth and the other planets, is also a form of the attraction of gravitation. And dewdrops assume a round shape in consequence of the same attraction. It is sometimes called the Law oj Gravitation. Here is the stanza. I will write it on the black-board, and wish you all to copy it into your note-books : That very law which moulds a tear, And bids it trickle from its source. That law preserves the earth a sphere, And guides the planets in their course. (Cause them to repeat this stanza in concert several times.) ORAL TRAmmG LESSON. NO. XXXVIII. Chemistry — Simple and Compound Bodies. Our attention is to be given to-day, to a subject of great importance. (Do not state it till after the lesson is over.) In order to receive the greatest benefit possible from a lesson it is necessary to keep our thoughts about us and answer promptly. Then all sit upright and look this way. When you pick up a piece of glass, another of coal, still another of limestone, and also another of iron, they do not all appear to be exactly the same or alike, but are, Lesson XXXVIIL] 109 in appearance, all very diffen-ent. All such things we include under one general name, (See No. X.) which is matter. Now, the first question which I have to ask you is : Do you consider that the iron, or the limestone, if examined, would be found to be each made up of a great many differ- ent kinds of substances blended, or mixed together, or of only one kind? Well, Annie? I think that liraestone is ■made only of one kind of matter, if it is pure, and so 4 iron. Well, T will not now state whether that is correct or not, but will ask another question. If you examine a piece of soap, as pure as you can get it, do you think you would find that it consists of only one substance? JVo sir. It is made of grease and soda or potash, and other things., often containing lime and water. But could you tell this by merely picking it up, cutting it, and otherwise examining its outward appearance? JVo sir. But you know how soap is made, and therefore you also know that it has in it more than one kind of viatte^-. Now when you fiee a piece of pure white marble, can you tell me whether it is only one, or several kinds of matter? Emma? Only one. Fred? Severalkinds. Well, how do you know ? I do not wish answers to be given which are mere guesses, I wish you to think for yourselves and reason, and draw correct conclusions. If you break the marble, which is pure limestone, or rub it, or scrape it, or examine it in any such way, so as to only investigate its outside properties, if you even find its weight, or look at its color, there is nothing to tell us whether it is just one kind of matter or whether it contains several kinds. Or if we take coal, and examine it in the same mantier we cannot tell how many kinds of matter it contains. Well, how are we to tell? Let us see. (Procure a small glass tube. Have one end open and the other closed. Get some small pieces of nice clean white wood. Place them in the tube and hold it in the flame of a spirit lamp, so as to strongly heat the wood. It very soon decomposes. The lamp may be made by perforating a cork, passing a brass, iron, or tin tube through it, and fitting the cork into a small phial with a large mouth. no [Lesson XXXVIII. Have a wick, of course, and burn alcohol in it.) The wood that I have placed in this tube now begins to become quite hlaclc. If we had examined it by merely handling it, we never could have found out what composed it. But when we apply heat to it, we soon know that that the wood is made up or composed of a number of different kinds of matter. You see around the sides of the tube a substance like tar (if you use pine wood) and the solid black substance at the end of the tube is ? It is CHARCOAL. This is the way in which charcoal is 'made. Wood is covered over with earth, to keep away the air, and then heated. The heat soon separates it into different kinds of matter. Well, can you give me one word for separating into parts? When you separate a sentence into its .parts, ov take apart and explain a process in Arithmetic, you are said to analyze it. That is just the word I wanted. I think you can all remember it. The wood becomes analyzed. And this process is called Analxsis. The wood is analyzed by the heat. Now the science which teaches us about the analysis of different substances, and shows us of what they are composed is called Chemistey. Let me hear this word from alL Chemistry. And chemistry teaches us that all substances are not composed of one single kind of matter • many are made of several Icinds, just as we found that this wood is. I will now tell you that all those substances which are known to be made up or composed of only one kind of matter are called Simple Bodies. And those, like wood, which contain more than one kind of matter are called Compound Bodies. Then will wood be simple or compound ? Hands up. Ella? Wood is compound. And can you tell me what water is? John ? Water is simpU. Why do you think so, John ? Because heat does not analyze it; it only changes it into vapor, xolucli can be converted back again to wateo\ That looks like a good reason, John, but I ant sorry to have to contradict you. That answer, however, convinces me that John had thought carefully of what he said. I would give ten times as much for an inde- pendent answer like that with a reason for it, than a Lesson XXXVIII.] Ill thouglitless careless answer with no reason. I will tell you, John, that there are other ways of analyzing besides by heat. We will speak of them in a future lesson. Water is found to consist of two gases. I will also describe them in a future lesson. One of them is Oxygen, of which we have already spoken. It is the principal gas in the air. Iron is found to be simple, thit is, it is only one kind of matter. What do you think of coal? George? It is compound ; for it contains more than one hind of matter. There are the ashes, and other substances that are burned out of it. Very well ; that is another excellent answer, accompanied with a good reason. Always have a reason for what you say. Some bodies, then, like iron, are simple/ and others, such as wood, are compound. They are simple when they contain onli/ one kind of matter ; compound if they contain several kinds. When we find this out, as with heat, we analyze them. The science which treats of analysis is Chemistry. « 112 [Lesson XXXIX. ORAL TMINING LESSON. NO. XXXIX. Natural Science — Inertia. Now, all look this. |.... way and be ready to answer. Iron, rock, sand, water and all other things that we find around us, may be called by one name, which is matter. (See No. X.) And matter has a great many curious properties, as thy are called. For instance, the earth attracts all objects on its swr/rtce towards it, and thus causes them to have weight. Weight, then, is one of the properties of matter. Or a better name is the other word. What causes weight? Attraction of Gravitation, (See No. XXXVII.) Attraction, we say, is a .property of matter. Well, we will to-day speak of some other properties that it possesses. You all see this book lie open upon my desk. Has it any power to move ? JVo sir. You think it cannot put itself in motion, or it is unable to move. Can any one think of a word that means unable to move? I will give you one. Inert. Anything that is inert is unable to move. Lizzie, repeat that Anything that is inert is unable to move. And this is considered another property of matter; its being unable to move or being mer< is another property. It is called by a hard name. I will write it. Inertia. You may all Lesson XXXIX.] 113 repeat it Inertia. This is the property of not being able to woi'e, or of being inei't or inactive. What is Inertia? Charlie? Inertia is the property of being unable to move. Inertia is a very curious property of matter. Let us look at some instances. When a boy is standing on a sleigh or in a buggy that is not moving, and all at once it is caused to move rapidly, what happens? Fred? He is caused to fall over backwards. Very good. And this is because his body while at rest, has no power to put itself in motion. Of course, we mean without moving the feet. Again, when a boy is on the back of a horse that is standing still, he has to be careful if the horse moves suddenly or quickly, or he would .Jail off. (Here perform this experiment. Place a card two or three iriches square on the tip of the finger. Then place a large cent on the card, balanced so as not to fall off. As you hold it out on the finger, give the 'card a smart tap with the second finger of the right hand, let go from the thumb. The card will fly off and leave the cent immediately resting on the finger.) Now all watch what I do. Why did the cent not fly off with the card? Why did the card not carry the cent off on its back ? It was resting on the card. Annie ? You moved the card, but imparted no motion to the cent ; so it remained on your finger because it had no poicer to put itself in motion. Now I will also tell you that this property of m,aUer which we have called inertia means more than this. After a body is put in motion it is impossible for it to stop. Well, Sam, I see your hand up I do not thinhso. Roll a ball on the grass and it very soon stops. Wait a moment, Sam ; not so fast. Does the ball stop, or does something else stop it? The grass stops it. And if you were to roll it on ice, it would roll for a very long time, or distance. But, at last, because it rubs against the ice, on account of the earth so strongly attracting it, and also since it is resisted by the air through which it moves, the ball would stop. But if it were away off in clear space, and were set in motion, you can 15 114 [Lesson XL. easily see that it would never stop, until something stopped it. And so, when a horse is running fast with a person on his hack, if a dog or bear were to frighten him so as to make him stop very suddevly, the boy would most likely, unless agood rider, go over his head. When we say that Inertia is a property of matter we not only mean that resting bodies cannot move, but also that moving bodies cannot rest. I will write the definition on the blackboard. Inertia is the property OF MATTER BY WHICH BODIES AT REST CANNOT PUT THEM- SELVES IN MOTION, AND BODIES IN MOTION CANNOT REST. We will repeat it. Inertia is that property of viatter by which bodies at rest cannot move or put themselves in Tuoiion, and bodies in motion cannot rest. What is this propertf called? James ?...It is called Inertia. (This property can be illustrated very beautifully by what is called the " doubling " of a hare when pursued by hounds.) OEAL TRAINING LESSON. NO. XL. Human Anatomy — Arteries of the Body. Now all your attention must be concentrated on our lessoji. I am going to tell you, to-day, the names of the most important Arteries in the body. When we speak of the circulatory system we mean the system of bloodvessels v^hxch. contain the bhod, and circulate it through the body. It consists (See No. Lesson XL.] 115 XX.) of, 1st Theheart,2di The arteries, 2>di The capiUary vessels, and 4th The veins. You must always remember that the blood flows from the heart through arteries, and TO it through veins. The first artery that we will name is the large one that leads from the left ventricle of the heart. (Here you may rapidly revise No. XXIL) It is called the Aorta. I have written it. We will place the names, as they occur, upon the blachboarcl. All answer this word Aorta. What about it? Ella? The aorta is the largest artery in the body. It conies from the left ven- tricle of the heart. On leaving the heart it bends and passes downwards through the trunk of the body. Its name, again, is the aorta. Now, as the aorta passes downwards, it sends oflf emaller arteries which pass around between the ribs, to the front of the body. These are named from the fact that they run between the ribs. The word that means " between the ribs " is Intercostal. Then these are the inter- costal arteries, which run from the aorta, around the body, between the ribs. As the aorta extends downwards still farther it gives off other branches. These, because they pass to the loins are called the Lumbar arteries. The word lumbar means belonging to the Zo/«s, which is that part of the body near the " small " of the bach. We have now three names. Anna, give the first The aorta is the large artery and comes from the left ven- tricle of the heart. Charlie, the next..... The intercostal arteries are those that run between the ribs. Mary, the next. The lumbar arteries run to the loins. Very well. At last the aorta, after traversing the trunk, separates into two branches. These two are named from the scientific name of the thigh bone, which is called the Femur. (See No. XVIII.) They pass down on the inner sides of the thigh bones, and are called the Femoral arteries. The two branches of the aorta, then, that pass down through the thighs are called the femoral arteries. At the knee each femoral artery separates again into two -parts, one of which is called the Anterior and 116 [Lesson XL. the other the Posterior Tibial arteries. They receive these names from one of the bones of the leg, the Tibia. (See No. XVIII.) The Posterior Tibial Artery runs down BEHIND the Tibia, and the Anterior Tibial Artery before it. Now we will again revise before proceeding. First we have the aorta, 2dL the intercostal arteries between the ribs, 3d the lumbar arteries running to the loins, 4th the femoral arteries' in the thighs, 5th the anterior and posterior tibial arteries. These divide, at the ankles, into smaller branches extending to the toes. The arteries of the toes are called Digital arteries. Those of the fingers are also called digital. The Latin word Digit means a finger. So the arteries of the fingers and toes will most likely be called digital arteries. Now we will go back and name those arteries that pass upwards and to the arms. From the aorta two branches pass up through the neck, called the Carotid arteries. (Accent on the second syllable.) Let us all repeat these names as I point to them Aorta; Inter- costal ; Lumbar; Femoral; Anterior Tibial; Posterior Tibial; Digital; Carotid. Next we have those that supply the arms with blood. The artery of the arm first passes beneath the collar bone or Clavicle, (See No. XVIII.) and is hence called the Subclavian artery. Sub, you know, means under and Subclavian will mean, passing under the clavicle. Then as it passes down the upper arm, it is called the axillary artery. (Accent on first syllable.) Let me hear these last two names from all subclavian and axil- lary. This artery, in the arm, is called, as it passes under the clavicle the subclavian artery and in the upper arm the axillary artery. The axillary artery, at the eZJow, (point to the elbow, and when you require such an answer always use a gesture, to keep the attention and indicate your answer ; only those who are looking can answer,) separates into two branches. One follows the Ulna and the other the Radius, the two bones of the lower arm. (See No. XVIII.) Hence they are called the Ulna and Radial arteries. Lesson XL.] 117 All repeat. They are the Ulnar s^nd Badtal arteries. They receive these names from those of the bones of the lower arm, the Ulnar &nd Radius. We have already said that the arteries from the wrist to the finger-ends are called Digital. And now we will rapidly recapitulate. The blood flows from the left ventricle oi the heart into the aorta; from this branch off the intercostal arteries which lie between the ribs. Then it also gives off the lumbar ar^mes going to the loins; next it separates into two parts, the femoral arteries, which in their turn, separate and form the anterior and posterior tibial arteries, and these form also the digital a7teries of the toes. Proceeding upwards to the neck are the carotid arteries ; and passing under the clavicle or collar bone are the subclavian arteries, which in the upper arm, take the name of axillary arteries ; these, at the elbows, separate into two brariches each, one called the Ulnar artery, and the other the radial. They get these names from those of the bones of thearm, which are the ulna and radius. The ulnar and radial arteries at length form the digital arteries of the.... arm. 118 [Lesson XLI. ORAL TRAmmG LESSON. NO. XLI. The Arts — "Weaving. When we spoke of Memory we stated that it would be quite impossible to remember a thing in which we take no interest, or do not understand. Now you will demonstrate that you take an interest in our lesson, if you give good aite7iiiun. What we know about anything is called a science, (See No. XXXII.) and what we do, depending on that science, ia called an art. Then an art is a method of doingr something. The art of painting is the art or way of making .pictures by pai?iting. It is one of the Fine Arts. And you would call a man who practices the Fine Arts an artist. What is an artist? Carrie? (She repeats.) To-day our lesson is ou one of the Arts, the Art of Weaving. This, you know, is the art of making cloth. I called it the art of weaving. The instrument with which cloth is made is called. . . .a loom. In large manu- factories they operate a great number of looms. Then we will first speak of the difierent things of which cloths are m.ade. Books are made of .paper. And the paper is called by a certain name because the book is made of it. The paper is called the ? Let me write Lesson XLL] 119 the word. Material. The paper is the material of which the hook is made. Annie, of what material are combs generally made? Combs are tnade vf India rubber and horn. And the horn or rubber we call the material oi which the combs are made. And cloth is manufactured of certain kinds of w^aterial. Now you can all understand that substances like sand or sawdust would not do to xa?tke....^. cloth. What kind of materials or substances are used ? Only those that are ? There is a woi'd which means consisting of long hairs. It is Fibrous. This means consisting of .fibres or hairs. Cloth, then, can only be made from substances that are .fibrous, or consist of fibres. Willie, repeat that. (He repeats.) Well, you may now raise hands to mention substances that are .fibrous, of which cloth is made. Mary ? Cotton. Sam ? Wool. Ellen ? Hair. John? Grass of some kinds. Yes, coarse cloths called stair-cloths are made from grasses, Emma? Flax. Sarah? Silk. Well, that is enough. Hands down. We may say that anything that is fi.brous can be manufactured into cloth. Or, inverting our sentence, all kinds of fibrous substances, or, the other word materials, c-a.n be used for manufac- turing cloth. We said in one of our former lessons (See No. XIX.) that all those substances which are derived from the organs of animals and plants are called organic. Now raise hands those who can tell me whether the materials used are Organic or Inorganic. Libbie? They a7'€ organic. Then we will introduce this word into our statement. All organic m,aterials that are.... .fibrous are suitable for weaving. Who will repeat this? Annie, you may do so. (She repeats. Call on others for a full statement.) Now you have doubtless often heard a building called a a FABRIC. Raise hands those who have. Well, I see that some have. Hands down. Anything made in a loom, that is, any kind of article that is woven is also called by this name, a .fabric. When it is nice and fine, it will be a delicate .fabric, but such articles as staircloths or carpets would be coarse .fabrics. The name fabric 120 [Lesson XLI. then is often given to articles that are woven, or made in a horn. Mary, repeat that. (She repeats.) Alice, what kicd of fabric would you call silk? iSilh is a beautiful delicate fabric. And muslin is also a delicate fabric. Besides being delicate, since they are woven, they are called, as I now write. Textile Fabrics. Delicate textile fabrics are generally more expensive than coarse ones. Now, let us review. What we know is a science, and what we do is called an art. Our lesson to-day is about the art of weaving, or of making oloth. Cloth is manufactured in an instrument called a loom. Those substances of which we make cloth are called the materials ; and cloth cannot be made from such materials as sawdust or sand, but from .fibrous materials. Since these materials are derived from the organs ot plants and animals, they are called organic. You may now supply these three words. Cloth is made of fibrous organic materials. Anything woven is said to be textile. Cloth is a textile fabric. Such things as carpets are very coarse fabrics, while muslin, or crape, or fine silk is a delicate fabric. We will continue this lesson at another time. Lesson XLII.] 121 ORAL TRAINING LESSON. NO. XLII. History — Career of Napoleon. To-day we are to have a lesson in History. Everything that happens to nations, and to the most remarkable men, is written down and called by this name. It is called History. Let me write a good definition, or meaning of the word History, on our blackboard. History is a record of remarkable events. If I speak of United States History, I am talking of the record of events that occurred in the United States. And what would we mean, Fannie, by a history of Minne- sota? A history of Minnesota would be a record of events that happened in Minnesota. We are to speak of some events in French History that are connected with the life of Napoleon. He was one of the Emperors of France. His life was very remarkable and is equally interesting. Who are we to speak of ? Hands up. Harry ? (He repeats the subject.) Does any one know when and where Napoleon was born ? I will tell you. He was born in the city of Ajaccio, (pronounced A-yat-ce-o,) in the Island of Corsica, which is in the Mediterranean, and belongs to France. James, repeat that Napoleon was born i?i Ajaccio, in 16 122 [Lesson XLII. Corsica, an island in the Mediterranean belonging to France. Raise hands all who can repeat it. Well, hands down. We will go farther. This was more than one hundred years ago. He was born in the year 1769. When he was about sixteen years old, he was sent to a military school, to learn to be a soldier. This school was in Brienne, a city near Paris. Napoleon, we will repeat, attended the military school at Brienne, a city of France, near the city of Paris. While there, he often signalized himself by his bravery and skill during sham fights. Batteries were often constructed in winter, of snow. Then, the storming party with Napoleon at their head as leader, never failed to defeat their opponents, and capture their batteries. In this way he acquired a taste for the life of a soldier. And so he joined the army. Yes, he joined the French army, and very soon had excellent opportunity of showing his talents — his military talents. Ail repeat. We are now speaking of Napoleon; he was born in Ajaccio, a city of... ...Corsica, an island in the Mediterranean Sea, in the year 1769. When about sixteen, he entered the military school at Brienne, a city near Paris. While there he often showed his skill and courage when storming the snow batteries of the opposing.... .force. Now, I will tell you that shortly after he joined the French arm,y, he had to accompany the troops to a city in the South of France. Its name is Toulon. (Pronounced Too-lon^. The g only faintly.) The French troops were besieging the city of Toulon. A little incident occurred here which showed his appreciation of bravery. He was dictating a dispatch to a sergeant who was writing on a drum-head, when a cannon-ball came whizzing past and tore away the ground just beside them, causing some sand or dust to drop on the paper. Instead of showing any signs of fear, the sergeant simply remarked to Napoleon, " we won't need any sand (or blotter) on this document." For this evidence of heroism Napoleon afterwards procured his promotion. Shortly after this he was called to the Capital of France, Lesson XLIL] 123 to Paris, to take charge of the government troops, against the revoluionary forces. Here he gained a brilliant victory with a mere handful of men against a force ten times as strong. On this account he received command of the French army which had been fighting in Italy. It had met with very little success ; but, on the other hand, it had been many times defeated. The entire army, when Napoleon took charge of it, had been driven almost to the summits of the mountains that separate France from Italy. (Point to each on the map.) They are called the Maritime Alps. Those who composed the army, away up among the glittering summits of the 3faritime Alps, were almost perished hj......cold and famished with hunger. They had no heart to engage in battle. This was because they had not a good leader. For a leader, they were now to have Napoleon. When he took charge of the army he addressed them thus : " My good, brave fellows, I am sorry to find you so uncomfort- able and miserable. But cold, hunger and exposure, form the school in which good soldiers are trained. Follow me, I will soon lead you on to comfort, plenty, fame and victory ! " Now what effect do you consider that words like these would have? George? I think that the soldiers would take courage and fight bravely. Well, that is just what they did. The first thing that Napoleon did was to make up apian. In war a plan is called a ? It is called a Stratagem. The Austrian and Italian army had now followed them to the mountains that lie between France and Italy. So Napoleon thought that the best thing that he could do would be to go round quietly and get between them and their own country. They could not then get any supplies, or any help, or assistance. Well, they rushed down the mountain slopes ; and their manoeuvre, or as I called it before a stratagem succeeded so well that they entirely defeated the Austrians, and Italians. They then captured the city of Turin, and at length they got possession of all the fortresses of Northern Italy. In order to continue this narrative, we will have to wait till we can put it in another lesson. 124 [Lesson XLIII. All review rapidly. Our lesson is about Napoleon. He was born in Ajaccio a, city in the island of Corsica. He was educated in the military school of Brienne, a city near Paris. He distinguished himself after he joined the array; first, at the siege of Toulon, and second, at an engagement near Paris. He was then placed in command of the French army that was operating in Italy, lie found them almost starved axidi discouraged, but soon led them on to victory. OML TRAINING LESSON. NO. XLHI. Chemistry — Acids, Bases, and Salts. We have before stated that such substances as wood, or soap, which are composed of different kinds of "matter, are said to be compound ; but others, like iron, being only one kind of .. .Tnatter are. . .simple. (See No. XXXVIII.) Raise hands those who have seen limestone. Well, I see that you all have. T have a piece of marble here, which is pure limestone. When limestone is burned in a kiln, it becomes lim.e. Now is there any difference between limestone and lime? George? When water is poured on lime it produces a different effect to that caused when poured on limestone. James ? The Ihne is lighter than limestone. Harry? lAme is softer than limestone. Now what is it that makes thi» change in the limestone while in the kiln ? I wish you all to raise hands who can Lesson XLIIL] 125 tell me what the change is that the limestone undergoes when it becomes lime. What do you say, Harry? The fire dries the water out of the limestone. Let us see whether this is so or not, Harry. He says that while in the Iciln the heat expels the water from the limestone, or dries it, thus converting it into lime, and causing it to become much lyjhter. Now, Harry, if this were so, by pouring more water on the lime, after taking it from the hiln, we could restore it to its former condition, causing it to again become limesto?ie. But George said a few moments ago that this would not happen. Does lime become limestone when water is poured upon it, George ? iV^ sir, if crumbles and dissolves, while limestone will not do that. Then we have proved that it is not by drying out the water ihaX limestone becomes lime. Well, how is it ? As there are no hands up, I will tell you. I will always give you facts, but let you draw your own conclusions. The limestone is found to be composed of two substances. The first is that v/hich is taken from the kiln after it is burnt. It is the lime. The second is a gas. It is the same as one of the gases that come forth in our breath. (By a gesture they will understand what answer to make here.) It is called Carbonic Acid Gas, The first we called Lime. Now who can tell me the names of the two substances that compose limestone ? Libbie Limestone is composed of Lime and Carbonic Acid. By its name you see that this gas is an Acid. I will be able to tell you better what an acid really is in a future lesson. Acids, like vinegar, are distinguished by a sour taste. This gas which we called carbonic acid gas also has a sour taste; but as it is a gas it is only slightly sour. Still, it is an acid. Then the lime with which this «c/c? combines is called the Base. So an acid is said to combine or unite with a base. You may repeat that, Mary Ana/:id is said to combine with a base. When lime combines with carbonic acid, which is the acid, and which the base? Hands up. Eddie? Car- bonic Acid is the acid, and lime is the base. And what 126 [Lesson XLIII. would you call the limestone, whicli is formed of these two ? Let me write it. It is called a Salt. That which is formed of an acid and a base is called a salt. Lime- stone, then, is a salt. You have all seen common salt. As its name shows, it is a salt. Then it must be composed of an acid and a base. Then, is it simple or compound ? Ella? It is compound. Now, I will tell you that the acid which combines with a base to form common sail is not properly an acid. But it takes the place of an acid, and therefore we will call it an acid. It is called Chlorine, and the base is called Sodium. The chemical name of salt is Chloride of Sobium. This is the best name, for it shows the name of the acid and also the base. Now for a rapid review. The acid of common salt is Chlorine, and the base is /Sodium ; the salt which they form is Chloride of Sodium, which is another name for common salt. Limestone is also a sail, although it does not dissolve like common salt. In it the acid is carbonic acid, which is a kind of gas ; and lime ia the base. And, generally, we say that an acid combines with a base, to form a salt. Who will repeat this ? George ? An acid combines with a base to foryn a salt. Lesson XLIV.] 127 ORAL TRAINING LESSON. NO. XLIV. History— Five Great Nations of Antiquity. I suppose that you all know that the oldest history that we have is contained in the Bible. This book tells us of the oldest nation of which we have any history. It was a great nation and had very powerful kings. It con- tained some immense cities we are told in the bible where we find its history. But they have been destroyed and no longer exist. Not even their ruins are to be seen. They have been buried beneath the sods of ages. The people of this nation are no longer known as a nation, and perhaps do not exist at all. What nation was this ? The oldest nation of which we read in the Bible ? Hands up. I see that no one can tell me. All listen attentively. It was the Babylonian Nation. Or, simply, Babylon. It also had another name. Assyria, The first name I gave you, all answer Babylon or, the other Assyria. It was in that part of the world which is called Asia Minor. Do you remember the names of any of its cities ? George ? Babylon was one. Yes, and another was Nineveh. Babylon and Nineveh were the two largest cities in the kingdom of Babylon or Assyria. This was the oldest nation of which we have any history. 128 [Lesson XLIV. At length this kingdom was overthrown by another that that also was very powerful. It has likewise ceased to exist. It was the Persian kingdom. Let me hear it from all The Persian Kingdom. "What about it, Alice? It was the second kingdom of antiquity. Did I say so? No sir. Well, George? You said it con- quered the Babylonian kingdom. \ ery well. Now I will tell you that before it arose to power and eminence, another nation had arisen in the northern part of Africa, in this country Egypt. (Point to it on the map.) What would you call the name of this kingdom ? Hands up. Frank? It would be called the Egyptian Tcingdoin. Eight. I will also place this on our blackboard, Egyptian. This was the second kingdom. First the Babylon ian ; 2d the Egyptian ; an d 3i the Persian, Vihich. conquered the Babylonian kingdom. The first and third were in Asia; the second was hi Africa. Then there were still two others. They were both in Europe. (Pointing to it.) One was in this country Greece. What will we call it? Emma? It is the Grecian kingdom or nation. It had a great King, who conquered all the rest of the world, and then cried because there was nothing more to conquer. His name was Alexander the Great. Well, Sam, I see your hand up. Did lie conquer the United States? No, Sam, he did not. The people of our country came from Europe since the discovery of America. But Alexander lived many hundreds of years before this. He conquered all the world that was then Z;?ioww, which was only portions of the Eastern continent. Each of these kingdoms in its turn conquered the rest of the world. After some time another nation arose which conquered the Grecian 7iation, as well as the rest of Europe. It received its name from the city that was the Capital of the Empire,, this city Pome. Hence it was called the Roman nation. Let me write it with the others, Roman. It was during the existence of the Roman Empire that our Saviour was born. Christ was born in a country that belonged, as all others did, to Pome. He was Lesson XLV.] 129 born in Palestine. The Roman Empire was so power- ful that Rome was called " The Mistress of the World." Let me see how many will remember this quotation from a celebrated poet : " Where Rome, the Mistress of the World, Of yore, her eagle wings unfurl'd." What do you think, Sam, is meant by " unfurling her eagle wings ?" / supj^ose they had an eagle as we have, for a national emblem. That is correct. Now let us recapitulate. The first of these five kingdoms of antiquity was the Babylonian ; 2d the Egyptian; 3d the Persian, which conquered the Babylonian; 4th ike Grecian; 5th the Roman. The Babylonian was also called the Assyrian. One of the kings of the Grecian kingdom was Alexander the Great. And it was during the time of the Roman kingdom, that Christ was born. ORAL TRAITslNG LESSON. NO. XLV. Manufactures — Brocaded Silk — Jacquard Loom. The materials used for producing cloth, (See No. XLI.) are derived both from the vegetable and animal king- doms. Those derived from the latter, the animal kingdom are the most important. Perhaps the most valuable is the one of which we will speak to-day. Silk. Of the countries of Europe the most noted in the produc- 16 130 [Lesson XLV. tion of silk fabrics is the one to which I now point France. In the south of France, mulberry bushes on whose leave the silk-worms -/eec/, grow abundantly, and the climate is neither too cold nor too warm for raising the silk-worm themselves, or for producing the finest qual- ity of. . .silk. Just at this point, where the Saone flows into. . . the Rhone, v;hich you would call their confluence, is situated the city of Lyons. Repeal that, Harry. (He repeats.) Raise hands all who can. The two whose hands are not raised, Angus and Emma, will remain at recess, when ' I will assist them to prepare this statement upon their slates. All repeat together Lyons is at the confluence of the Rhone with the Saone. It is in the southern .part of France. This city was the most celebrated in all Europe for a very long .period for the production and manufacture of sillc. Kate, you may now state all about Lyons. The particular kind of silk made there was known as Brocaded Silk. Let me hear these two words from all Brocaded silk. Raise hands all who know what brocaded silk is, Hattie ? It has flowers on it. Painted on? I do not know, sir. Does any one know? 1 will tell you. It has the appearance of having flowers and other patterns, or designs, in relief, or raised up on its surface, while it is really perfectly smooth. You may repeat this, George. (He does so.) Brocaded silk was formerly exceedingly difiicult to make or manufacture. The loom in which it was ■ made was very imperfect. Those parts called treadles, which are usually moved by th^- feet had to be operated by children. This was a very unfortunate thing for these children, both physically and intellectually, that is both for their bodies and minds. For they could not attend school, having to work all day, and some two or three being required for each loom. But this was not all. From being in this position all c?ay, the chest became contracted or drawn together, which induced disease that ended in death. No silk- weaver, for this very reason lived over thirty-six or forty years. This was a very sad thing. The children, you see, would Lesson XLV.] 131 grow up, witii weak, sickly hoiHes and undeveloped and ignorant minds. At length the Emperor proposed to bestow a great reward upon any one who would invent a loom that would not require the children's labor. Several men went to work on the problem. The successful man was Marie Joseph Jacquard. This skilful Frenchman invented a loom such as was required. It made the finest kind of brocaded silk, and relieved the chil- elren from their labor. But we are now about to see the sad effects of ignorance upon people, however skilful they may be in the Arts. These silk-weavers of Lyons reasoned very falsely about the matter. They concluded that it would make them much poorer — poor as they were already. They said " If this new loom, makes more and better s/7/t, and and does not require the aid of children, it will lower the ])rice of silk and we will starve." And, however unaccountable it may appear to us, they actually forcibly took Jacquaid's loom out of his Aome and burnt it on the public square. Who can state again what happened to the Jacquard loom, and why ? Carrie ? (She states it.) In a future lesson I will tell you other interesting facts about these things, as I have not time in this lesson. But before we close, let us review. Of the materials used for weaving, that are derived from the animal Tcing- dom, perhaps the most expensive is sillc. Of the cities of Europe, that most celebrated for the m,anu- facture oi brocaded silk -wsis Lyons, at the con- fuenceoi the Rhone and Saone, in southern France. Here a loom wsis.... invented by a man named.. .Jacquard, and called from him the Jacquard loom, which obviated the necessity of employing children. But by the ignorance of the silk-weavers the first Jacquard loom was forcibly taken and burnt. 132 [Lesson XLVI. ORAL TRAINING LESSON. NO. XLVI. Astronomy — The Solar System — Asteroids — Orbits. The Sun and the planets that revolve around it are called by a name which I will place on the blackboard. The Solar System. Let me hear it from all The Solar System. Solar means "belonging to the sun," and this system of worlds is called the Solar system because they revolve round the Sun. The planet on which we live is called the Earth. Between it and the Sun are two planets, the first of which is Mer- oiry and the second Venus. (See Nos. XXIV and XX VIII.) They are at a less distance from the Sun than the Earth, and are therefore called inferior planets. Then after passing the Earth, we find those that are called superior. The first of them, which is fourth in order from the Sun is called liars. The fifth is Jupiter; it is the largest of the .....joZawe^s. Sixth is Saturn. Seventh.. — Herschell, which was called after its discoverer. And the eighth, which is the last of the planets is Neptune. Now I suppose that you imagine that these planets are all at regular distances from each other. And those who think so are correct. Their distances apart are regulated Lesson XLVI.] 133 by a fixed law. The distance gradually increases from each planet to the next beyond it. But during the course of observation it was found that the distance between Mara and the next beyond it, that is Jupiter, was twice as great as it should be, to conform to this law. But no astronomer was able for a long time to find in this space any flanet. But at last an astronomer named Piazza discovered a very small .planet in this region. It was 80 small that it excited much curiosity. Consequently observers weie all on the lookout, and in another year, another astronomer named Olbers discovered another. Then were found two others. In a few years, a great number were found, all in this space between Mars and Jupiter. "We now know of about one hundred of these small planets. They are called Asteroids. I wish to hear this word from all Asteroids. The Asteroids revolve round the Sun as the other .planets do, and as we have just said are found between Ifars and Jupiter. Now, does it not seem strange to see so many yery small planets where there should only be one ? How do you account for this ? Well Sam, what have you to s;iy ? T'erhaps it was 01 Jy one planet once, and was blown to pieces. "Well done, Sam. That is what the most celebrated Astron- omers think. I will tell you that some of these planets which are called Asteroids are so small that a man could jump up to a distance of sixty feet from the surface, if he could stand on one of them ! On our Earth, the Attraction of Gravitation (See No. XXXVII.) is so powerful that a man could not jump up more than two or three feet from the ground. But there are asteroids so small that the Attraction of Gravitation on them becomes very slight. It becomes so slight that we could jump up sixty feet from the ground. A western farmer could almost cultivate the whole surface of one of them if there is a proportionate amount of water surface to that which we have on the earth. The last point to which I call attention is this : "When a ship sails thr'ough the water do you think she leaves such a track behind her that another could follow her next 134 [Lesson XLVII. day ? No sir. She leaves no track or .path. So you have heard of the " trackless ocean.'' Now, do you think that a planet leaves any path as it revolves round the Sun? JVo sir. But you can imagine one. And the imaginary path which a planet follows in revolving round the Sun is called its ? It is its Orbit. What is the orbit of a planet Bessie? A planet's orbit is the imaginary path that it makes in going round the Sun. Now let us review. Between Mars and Jupiter, we find a greater distance than that which we would expect, judging from the distance of the other planets. In this space we find a number of small .planet$ called .... Asteroids. They number nearly otie htaidred. They are supposed to be fragments of a larger .planet, which has been blown to pieces. We have also noticed that the imaginary .path, of a planet in its revo- lution round the Sun, is called its orbit. ORAL TRAINING LESSON. NO. XLVII. The Arts — Reduction of Metals from their Ores. You can all doubtless tell me the name which is given to such substances as iron, copper, tin, lead, zinc, &c. Raise hands all who know it. Annie? Metals. What about them ? Iron , copper, tin, lead and zinc, are called onetals. Who can mention others? Henry? Brass is a metal. Well, it is a combination of several metals. Kate? Silver and gold are metals. Yes. George ?...v' Lesson XL VII.] 135 Quicksilver is a metal. Is it in any way different to the others? Yes sir, it is a liquid metal. Now can any one tell me where we obtain metals ? Are they in the form of metals when they are found ? They are found in the ground. Yes, that is true, but do people find iron all ready made for use ? I see you cannot now tell. Let us investigate the matter from what you already know. When we allow a piece of steel or iron, such as an axe or a saw, to remain outside exposed to the weather for several weeks, we find it at last all covered over with what we call rust. Repeat this, Eugene. (He repeats.) Now, what is rust ? Hands up. Does no one know ? You know the name of the principal gas in the atmosphere. It is oxygen.. In explaining the nature of flame (See No. XXI.) we said that fire is caused by the union or combination of this oxygen with the substance which burns. Now, rusting of metals is a species of burning. The metal combines with oxygen and forms what we call rust. Then rust is merely some metal combined with oxygen. "Willie, you may now state to the school what IRON rust is Iron rust is iron combined xoith oxygen. Bessie, what is zinc rust? Zinc ru^t is zinc combined with oxygen. (Ask for other similar cases.) Now I will inform you that iron and the other useful metals are always foiind in this cotidition or state; that is, combined with oxygen or some similar sub- stance. When the iron is in combination with oxygen it is called OxYD of Iron. What would you call lead and oxygen in combination? George? Lead afid oxygen xuould form oxyd of lead. And so it would also be with other metals. Well, the iron, zinc, lead and other metals having been exposed to the weather and especially exposed to the oxygen, have all changed to ru^t or ? The other word that I just now wrote on the board was oxyd. We mean by this, Harry, that these metals have combined with oxygen. But we sometimes find them combined with other substances such as Carbonic Acid. This gas, when combined with iron forms Carbonate of 136 [Lesson XLVII. Iron, wliich is very much like Oxyd of Iron, (Ask for this statement.) I will now try whether you can answer another question. If I were to find a quantity of oxyd of iron somewhere on the ground, how could I contrive to extract the iron from the rust? You tell me that the rust consists of iron and oxygen. Now how could I expel the oxygen and retain the iron? "Well, Eddie ? By heating it. But I will inform you Eddie that heating it, alone, no matter how strongly, would not do. This would only tend to keep it more firmly in the condition of rust. When a blacksmith heats a piece of iron until it becomes red, or even white, small scales of this substance rust, continually drop off while he hammers it. While the iron is hot it very readily combines with oxygen of the air. The hotter it is, the more readily will it co^mhine. Now if we keep on making the rust hotter, do you think it would ever change back to iron ? No sir. No, because this is the very best means of changing the iron into rust; and if even a particle were to become iron again, in the intense heat, it would immediately again combine with oxygen and form rust. But it could not, under these conditions, change back again into iron. Now what do you think of this, Eddie? It is quite evident that this will not do. Your answer, however, was good, as it indicated attention. Has any one a differ- ent view ? Well, I will allow you all to investigate this until we have another lesson on the subject. (Here review the former part of the lesson.) Lesson XL VIII.] 137 OEAL TRAINING LESSON. NO. XLVIII. Natural Science — Trade "Winds. We stated in our lesson on "Wind (See No. XXV.) that it ia caused in the following way : The air at the earth's surface becomes heated, and consequently expanded. When expanded, since it occupies more space'ii becomes much lighter, and therefore rises; at the same time the surrounding air rushes in to supply its place. (Use gestures here.) Now, from what you know of Climate, where would you expect this cause to affect the air most? George? At the Equator it would affect it most. Correct. Those countries that lie between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn are called intertiopical. In intertropical countries, the heated air is continually rising to the upper regions of the air. Now, all may raise hands who can tell me how its place is supplied. Willard? The cooler air of the temperate regions rushes in and takes the place of that which ascends. Very good. We can now pass on to our next point. One of the Earth's motions is round its own axis. It rotates on its axis once in twenty-four hours. Now I want you to listen carefully to my next question. (If 138 [Lesson XLVIII. you have a globe illustrate it,) If we take one point any- where at the Equator, and a second point say one mile from the North Pole, which point moves the faster of the two? Angus? BecsiTefnlhow yon SbUBwer?... The first point moves the more rapidly. Why do you think so, Angus? Never make a statement unless you have a reason for it. The first point goes 25,000 miles in 24 hours, while the second one goes only about three Tniles in the same time ; therefore the first must move m,ore rapidly. Then you would conclude that the farther we go from the Equator, the more sZoit'/y does each point move. Bessie, repeat this. (She does so.) And, in the next place, since the air moves around with the land or water on which it rests, the particles of air towards the Poles will move more slowly than those near the Equator. For this reason, the air which rushes in from the temperate regions, when it comes near the Equator, XQ.niil he \eh behind. People living near the Equator, therefore, would find the air moving back in a direction opposite to that in which the earth is rotating. Who can tell me the direction in which the Earth rotates ? I will tell you. It rotates from West to East. The sun appears to move from East to West, on account of the earth's motion being .from West to East. A point, then, at the equator, moves towards the East; and if the air coming from the temperate regions is left behind it will be moving over the surface, appar- ently, from East to West. Or, a man at the Equator would say that the wind was blowing from the East. This wind, at the equator, blowing from East to West, receives the name of Trade Wind. It probably receives this name because it is so advantageous to trade or commerce. (Now call on different individuals to state what Trade Winds are, where they blow, and their causes.) In consequence of these trade winds, which blow from East to West, in the regions on each side of the Equator, a ship leaving this city in Mexico, called Acapulco, (point it out on the map of the World,) can sail completely across the Pacific Ocean to the continent of Asia with a fair wind all the way. Well, Sam, I see Lesson XLIX.] 139 your hand raised, what is it? / cafit see how the ship can get hack again, if it is always blowing from East to West. Well, this shows me that we have one boy, at least, who THINKS. Can any one tell Sam how the ship would return ? As there are no hands raised I will tell you, Sam. The navigator is aware of the fact that at iiome distance North of the Tropic of Cancer, (point to it,) these winds which we call trade winds, do not prevail, or do not bloio. Other variable winds blow here, and ships returning to America, do not sail in the region of the trade winds, but return by sailing farther North., We will continue our lessons on Winds at some other time, and will then find some strange and interesting facts. We will now review our lesson. (Here rapidly review.) OEAL TRAINING LESSON. NO. XLIX. Chemistry — Generation of Carbonic Acid. You are all satisfied that those who do not give their best attetition cannot learn or answer. Then you may all prepare to give your attention by sitting in the proper .position and looking this way. Eaise hands all who can remember how we proved that wood is made of various kinds of matter. Robbie? We proved it by analysis. Right. We analyzed the U'oof? by means of heat; that is, we separated it into the difierent substances of which it is comp)osed or mxide up. We proved in this way that it is. . .compound. 140 [Lesson XLIX. We also referred in the same lesson (See No. XLIII.) to limestone. Those who remember whether it is simple or compound may raise hands. Sarah? Compound. At first you thought it was simple, or made up of only one kind of matter. I told you however that it is com.'pound. We will now describe it. Raise hands all who have ever seen lime. How is it made ? Angus ? lAmestone is burned in a hiln for some hours., and when taken out is found to he lime. Your answer is good. Now I wish to ask you what changes the limestone to lime ? The heat. How? Do you remem- ber our lesson on Acids, Bases and Salts? (See No. XLIII.) Henry? By (hiving off the carhonic acid into the air. Yes, limestone is composed of two substances, which are lime and carhonic acid gas. And by heating it in a kiln the carbonic acid is driven off, or expelled, and therefore nothing but the lime rem,ains in the kiln. I am now prepared to show you another mode of pro- ducing this gas from limestone. The lime, you say, is combined or united yf^Wh. the carhonic acid. They like each other, apparently, very much; or they are said to have a very strong Affinity for each other. Repeat my statement, Ella Lime and carbonic acid have a strong affinity for each other. Now, if I can place with limestone some substance which likes the lime better than it is liked by the carbonic acid with which it is already combined; we repeat, if we can find some other substance that has more or greater ? What word did I use just now ? Here we have it on the blackboard, affinity for the lim.e than the carbonic acid has, this substance, you would expect, would instantly unite or ...... cowJme with the /ime, and allow the carbonic acid to escape, or go free. Let us further illustrate. Charlie and Harry are firm and steadfast friends. They are always in company. On some fine day they walk down the street. As they pass a certain point, Frank, one of Charlie's old friends, whom he knew in the East ten years before, is observed coming up the other side of the street. Now raise hands those who think they know what would happen. John? Charlie Lesson XLIX.] 141 would leave Sarry and run over to meet FranTc. Very good. And now let us make our statement again about the limestone. It consists of Ivme and carbonic add; if, however, we introduce some other substance, which the lime prefers to the carbonic acid, at once the lime leaves the car bo7iic acid, to unite with this new substance and the carbonic acid being a gas, escapes into the air. The new substance introduced I will here tell you, is called Hydrochloric Acid. James, you may now describe this process again. (He does so. Do not leave it till all can.) (Procure a glass jar with with a neck from one to two inches in diameter. Fit a cork to the neck. Perforate the cork and pass through it a glass tube that exactly fits in the orifice. Bend the tube in the flame of a spirit lamp so as to make it lead downwards. Now place some pieces of limestone, or marble, in the jar, and pour upon it about a tablespoonful of Hydrochloric Acid diluted with twice as much water. Then insert the cork and tube. The carbonic acid, after all the common air in the glass is expelled, will issue abundantly. It is so heavy that it can be collected in glass or other vessels, such as tumblers, at the extremity of the tube. It can even be poured from one glass to another. A candle-flame may be extinguished by pouring it gently from a glass upon the flame. A lighted candle attached to a wire and lowered into a glass of carbonic acid is immediately extinguished.) Now let us revise. We have just described another process for generating or .producing the gas which ia contained in limestone, which is carbmiic acid. We introduce some substance which likes the lime better than the carbonic acid does. This substance is hydrochloric acid. It combines with the lime and allows tJie carbonic acid to escape ; it passes out through this bent tube. 142 [Lesson L. ORAL TRAINING LESSON. NO. L. Natural Science — Light and Heat — Refraction, Reflection and Absorption. You will all remember that we named three things in Nature that are considered to have no weight. They are said to be iviponderable. What are they ? Harry? Light, Heat, and Electricity. (See No. XXIX.) What about them ? Annie ? They are the three impon- derahle bodies of Nature. Eaise hands all who will make the complete statement. Ella? (She makes it.) Now our principal source of light and heat is the sun. The sun sends off or emits its light and heat in straight lines called rays. The word which means "to send off in rays" is radiate. Frank, you may state this again The sun radiates its light and heat. We are now prepared to extend this subject further. When the rays of light or heat pass off from any source such as the sun, you can see that they will proceed in their course until they are interrupted. Kepeat this Eddie. (He repeats.) Well, in what ways may they be interrupted? I will tell you. They are interrupted by meeting objects. When a ray meets an object it is interrupted, that is, its progress is interfered with. This is done in three diiferent ways that we will now proceed to consider. Lesson L.] 143 When a ray of light or heat comes in contact with any object, three things may happen to it. What are they ? All think carefully. Let me direct your thoughts. When the rays of light from a lamp-flame strike the glass chimney what becomes of them ? Do they stop there ? No sir. They pass through. Do they pass through any- thing besides the glass? 8am? They pass through the air. That is correct. We have now taken one step. There is a name given to a substance that will allow rays to pass through it. Raise hands those who can give it. I will write it. It is called a medium. What is a medium ? George ? (He states it.) The air, then, is amedium for the rays of light or heat. So also is glass; that is, these substances allow rays to .pass through them. Do you know of any others ? Fannie ? Is water a medium f I will ask all who think it is to raise hands. Can you see through water? I see nearly all hands raised. Water is. a medium. Now, water is thinner than glass, and air is thinner than water. Then if air is thinner than water, the water, when compared with the air, is more ? When speaking of the air, we said that in the upper regions it is very rare, and at the earth's surface it is dense. We now wish to use these two words. Air is thinner or rarer than water; and the water would be, on the other hand, more derise than air. Of the three, glass, water, and air, the glass is densest and the air the rarest. Now I will tell you that when a ray passes from a rare medium into a dense one, it is bent towards the DENSE ONE. But the word that is used instead of bent is Refracted. The rays are refracted or bent towards the dense medium vihen they pass into it from a rarer one. And this bending of the rays is called Refrac- tion. Emily you may now tell me what Refraction means. But a piece of iron would not be a. medium; it would not allow the rays to pass through it. What then would become of them? When a rubber ball is thrown against a hard surface it rebounds. Well, Frank? The rays would rebound. Well this is one 144 [Lesson L. tiling that might happen. And I will tell you that this is called Keflection. When the rays strike a surface, they Sire sometimes... reflected. Reuben, repeat this. (He repeats.) Still another effect. When a ball is thrown against a surface of water or mud, what then? Does it rebound ? Ho sir. What happens when water is placed about a sponge? Ella? T/ie sponge absorbs the wafer. Very good. Ella has just used the word we want, I am now writing the word. Absorption. Sometimes when rays strike an object, they are absorbed, and this absorb- ing of the rays is called absorption. A substance which is black, for instance, absorbs more heat than one which is white. Thus in summer it is more comfort- able to wear white clothes than black. All now answer rapidly. When rays of light or heat meet an object, they are either allowed to .pass through or are reflected or obsorbed. The substance which allows them to pass through is called a medium. And when they pass from one Tnedium into another, they are said to be refracted. All may repeat these three words. 1st Hefraetion; 2d Reflection; and 3d Absorption. INDEX Absorption of Oxyseu 62 Absorption ol Light 145 Acids, Bases and Salts 124 Adai>tation * Afferent Nerves 45 Affinity. Chemical 12i-134 Aids for Memory 3G Air, rises when heated 74 Ajaccio 121 America discovered, how 9 Analysis 110 Apparent Motion 21 Art and Science 94. 114 Arteries CO, 118 Arterial Blood 77 Association 36 Asteroids 132 Astronomy 19, 70, 82, 94, 10.5, I:i2 Attraction 37, 10.') Auricles of Heart 65 Axis of Eartli 21, 46 Babylonian Nation 127 Bases 125 Black Hole of Calcutta (i Boiling Water, temperature of, . . . '"' Brocaded Silk 130 Camel, its stomach 100 Capillary vessels 60 Carbonic Acid o4' breath 78, 125 Carbonic Acid, how generated. .125, 140 Card experiment 113 Carjras 54 Chemical Combination Chemical Action a source of Heat. . 42 Chemi.stry 31, Gl, 109, 141 Chlorine and Chlorides 126 Circulation discovered by Harvey.. 58 Circulatory System 60, 64 Circumnavigation 9 Clavicle 54 Claws of Cat. — Sheaths C Climate 1, 9 Columbus' discovery 8 Combustion 41, 86 Compartments of Heart 65 Complicated 91 Composition of Air 61 Compressed 18 Conipressibility of Air 97 Compound Bodies 110 Condensation . 30 Conduction of Heat 81 Congeal 30 Contract 38 44 Convection of Heat 81 Coi-puscules or Globules 59 Degrees in a circle 48 Dense 18 Detract 39 Dewdrops are round 107 Dilute 32 Discs. Globules of Blood are 59 Displace 104 Distance from Equator a cause of Climate 50 Distract 39 Double 92 Down, what it means 106 Earth appears flat. 7 Ea "til's globular form 9 Ettects, judging from 26 Efferent Nerves 44 Egyptian Nation 128 Elasticity of Air 97 Electricity a source of Heat 42 Electricity a source of Light 87 Elements of Climate 2 Elevation above sea level 50 Emission of Light 15 Equator, where drawn 47 Evaporation 29, 67 Expansion by Heat 15, 74 Expansibility of Air 96 Expended, Heat how 68 Experiments, use 36 Explicit 92 Extremes of Temperature 3 Eyes of Cat 5 Fabrics 119 Feeling, the third sense 23 Feet of the Cat 5 Femur, Femora 53 Ferdinand and Isabella 9 Fibula 53 Friction, a source of Heat 41 Functions of Organs 12 Gaseous Form 29 Gay Lusac's Experiment 69 Globular Form 10 Globules of Blood 59 146 INDEX. Gravitation 107 Grecian Nation 128 Habit 5 Height of Atmosphere 17 HerscheU 83 History 121, 127 Humerus 51 Imply 91 Implicated 91 Imponderable 86 Inclination of Earth's Axis. ....... 47 Inertia 112 Inferior Planets 72 Inorganic Bodies 57, 119 Interest cultivates Memory. . . 35 Intertropical countries 50 Invisibility of Air 96 Iron vessels float 103 Jacquard Loom and Silk 130 Jupiter, a god 83 Ligaments 53 Light — Rapid Motion 85 L'niestone, its Composition. .. .125, 141 Liquid Form of Matter 16, 28 IjUnLis and Respiration 66 Luxuries of Life 98 Lyons and Silk Weaving 130 ;Mars, a god 83 Matter, its forms 28 j\iechanical properties of Air. 16, 25, 31 Medium of Light or Heat 145 Memory, a Faculty 34 Mercury, a god ,. ... 71 Meta, beyond 53 Metacai'pus 54 Metals, how obtained 134 Metatarsus 53 INIoisture 2 Motion 113 Motions of the Earth 20, 46 Moon is a Planet 70 Multiply 91 Napoleon's birth-place 121 Necessaries of Life 99 Neptune, a God 84 Nerves carry sensations, etc 24 Nitrogen of Air — Use 32, 44 Orbits of Planets 134 Organs of Human Body... 11, 12, 13, 55 Organic Bodies 56, 119 Oxydof Iron 135 Oxygen absorbed by blood 77 Oxygen of Air 32, 62, 111 Passage to India 9 Passage westward across Pacific. . . 138 Perceives 24 Percussion a source of Heat 42 Persian Nation 128 Phalanges 53, 54 "Pillars" of the Earth 8 Planets 71, 82, 132 Pressure of Atmosphere 17 Prevailing Winds 2 Prey of Animals ..:... 5 Proportion of Gases in Air....^... 32 Protract '. . . . 39 Proximity of Laud or Water a cause of Climate 51 Radiation of Light and Heat 97, 142 Radius 54 Rare 19 Reflection 145 Refraction 145 Reply 91 Respiration 76 Rest 113 Retract 88 Revolutionary Motion 20 Roman Nation 128 Roots— Traho 37 Roots— Plico 90 Rotatory jNIotion 21 Salts, how formed 126 Salubrious Climate 3 Saturn's Rings 83 Scapula » 54 Science and Art 93, 118 Sensations 23 Senses of the body 22 Sight, the first Sense 23 Silk weaving 130 Simple 92 Simple Bodies 110 Smelling, the fourth Sense 24 Sodium, Chloi'ide of '. . . 126 Solar System 70, 82 Solid Form of Matter 28 Solid Liquid and Gaseous Forms. . 16 Sounds, how produced 88 Sternum 54 Subtract. 39 Superior Planets 72, 82 Tarsus 53 Taste, fifth Sen4e 24 Teaching and Training 102 Tears are Globes 107 Teeth of Cat 5 Temperature, high or low 1 Termination, Terminus 37 TextUe Fabrics 120 Thirty-two feet Column 27 Tibia 53 Toulon 122 Trade Winds 137 Triple 92 Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. . 48 Vapor, produced by Heat 69 Variable Winds 75 Veins 60 Ventricles of Heart 65 Venus, a goddess 71 Venous Blood 73 VertebriB of backbone 52 Vibration 88 Weight of Air 17, 95 Wind 73, 137