V/<" ra l;r*>;, hH ■ ■n 9969 H HI x o & r ^ *P ^. ^ "%. <^> x°<^ % %*■ #% <- •7 -^ ..** ^A V* ++ V* 'i $%. -tl Digitized by the Internet Archive in 201:1 with funding from The Library of Congress ■ http://www.archive.org/details/americanrifletreOOwhel s THE AMERICAN RIFLE &v<' I DEDICATE THIS WORK TO THE MEMORY OF FRANKLIN W. MANN, who has contributed more to the science of rifle shooting during the past decade than any • other person, an exact experimenter, a truthful rifleman, and a friend; AND TO ROBERT AINSLIE KANE, a rifleman, a nobleman, and, more than either, a man. Both died, their lifework uncompleted. I, their friend, have tried to carry it on. INTRODUCTION This work represents the study and labor of the twenty-five best years of my life. I have written it because I believe that there is great need for such a book, a book which will help to make us again what we were a century ago before commercialism and life in cities robbed our young men of most of their primitive virtues — a Nation of Riflemen. A nation skilled in the use of the rifle need never fear for their liberties, nor for those hidden dangers which accompany an effete civilization. Ever since the days when our frontiersmen won their way, and settled our country with rifle and axe the former has been the symbol of real manhood, and so it must always be. Rifle shooting for sport or war has always been associated with the red blooded men, and rifle competitions have never had the faintest trace of professionalism attached. In many years of careful work and study I have gained a knowl- edge of our national arm which it does not seem right that I should keep to myself, especially at a time when my country needs a most thorough dissemination of knowledge on the subject. I have had to write the book before I wanted to, and under great pressure, at the start of my country's participation in the Great War. By profession a soldier I must needs hurry it to completion before it is perhaps too late. I therefore ask for it consideration by the reader. This is not a military book. It is rather a book for the great mass of American manhood in whom the love for adventure, the primitive de- sire for treading the waste places, and the love of country have not been entirely sapped. But the soldier will find in it much dealing with the principal weapon of the Infantrymen which has not here- tofore been available. The book is mine in the main. The experiments detailed were mostly conducted by myself unaided, although I have incorporated the results of a number of experiments and much research work undertaken by Dr. Franklin W. Mann, as set forth in his book " The Bullet's Flight." I alone am responsible for the opinions expressed herein, and I believe that I have told the truth. viii INTRODUCTION I desire to acknowledge the assistance that I have received from the following of my friends: Franklin W. Mann. Walter G. Hudson. Paul B. Jenkins. Robert A. Kane. Kellog K. V. Casey. T. G. Samworth. Harry M. Pope. Adolph O. Neidner. J. R. Mattern. Many times this little coterie of riflemen have assisted me, encouraged me, and helped to put me on the right track. I have tried to arrange the sequence of the chapters in such a manner that a careful reading of the book in the order presented will permit of a full understanding of the text, often a difficult matter in a technical work. Some of the matter presented herewith has appeared under my signature in various magazines devoted to rifles and rifle shooting, but the larger part of it is new matter, not found elsewhere. At the same time it has been necessary to include much matter which is common knowledge among experienced riflemen and ballisticians, and great precautions have been taken to see that this matter has been presented truthfully, and without exaggeration. I have received con- siderable assistance from the various arms and ammunition companies in the mechanical preparation of the work, but no monetary consid- eration whatever, and the reader can regard the work as absolutely free from commercialism. TOWNSEND WHELEN. Headquarters, 79th Division. Office of the Ordnance Officer, Camp Meade, Md. CONTENTS PART I HISTORICAL, INTRODUCTORY, CONSTRUCTION AND BALLISTICS CHAPTER PAGE I The History of tiik Rifle in America 3 II The A. B. C. of Rifle Ballistics 15 III The Nomenclature and Classification of American Rifles 20 IV The American Rifles 23 V Barrels 129 VI Stocks, Forearms, Balance, and Weight 136 VII The Sights 146 VIII Sight Adjustment 170 IX Telescope Sights 179 X Bullets 197 XI Cartridges 208 XII Modern Rifle Powders 284 XIII Reloading Ammunition . 338 XIV Trajectory 360 XV Killing Power 364 XVI Elevation 374 XVII Accuracy 382 XVIII Accuracy Life and Mobilubricant 403 XIX Zero Elevation, Barrel Flip, and Resting the Rifle . 411 XX The Pope Muzzle Loading System 418 XXI Target Measurement 428 XXII Adjustments and Repairs 432 PART II PRACTICAL RIFLE SHOOTING XXIII The A. B. C. of Marksmanship 455 XXIV Aiming 45§ XXV Holding and the Firing Positions 466 ix x CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE XXVI Trigger Pull 4S6 XXVII Calling the Shot 490 XXVIII Sight Adjustment 492 XXIX Position and Aiming Drills 501 XXX Gallery Shooting 505 XXXI Equipment for Outdoor Raxge Shooting . . . .514 XXXII Elevation 520 XXXIII Zero 526 XXXIV Windage and Winds 52S XXXV The Score Book 536 XXXVI Military Rifle Shooting 543 XXXVII Team Shooting . . . -. 552 XXXVIII Rest Shooting and Testing 559 XXXIX Range Practice for the Sportsman 574 XL Shooting at Moving Objects 584 XL! The Rifle in the Wilderness . 588 XLII The Cleaning and Care of the Rifle . . . ".. . 598 XLIII Rifle-Range Construction 614 XLIV The National Rifle Association of America . . . 625 Index 633 PART I HISTORICAL, INTRODUCTORY, CONSTRUC- TION, AND BALLISTICS THE AMERICAN RIFLE CHAPTER I THE HISTORY OF THE RIFLE IN AMERICA THE date of the invention of the rifle is not known with any certainty. Modern rifles and ammunition are the outcome of centuries of evolution. There are extant some early German cross- bows, the missiles from which were delivered through guiding tubes having spiral slots or grooves cut upon their interior surfaces. It is usually claimed by writers on this subject that a date between 1470 and 1500 marks the introduction of rifling into the bore of shoulder arms in order to make the bullet fly true to a greater distance than was possible with the smooth bore. Gaspard Kollner of Vienna became celebrated for rifled guns as early as 1500. The rifle was introduced into America by the Germans from the Rhine countries, and the Palatine Swiss, who began settling in Penn- sylvania in 1683. Some of these settlers were artisans and gun- makers. The rifles which they first introduced were short, heavy, and had a bore of about an inch. The recoil was terrific, and they were very slow to load. The bare lead ball was driven down the bore by the blows of a mallet, and an iron ramrod. After the first shot the bore became so fouled that it often required fifteen minutes to load again. The settlers soon found that the shooting condi- tions in their new land were far different from those pertaining in Europe. In Europe the rifle had been used only for war, and for sport in settled communities where no particular hardship resulted from a lost or bad shot. But in America the first settlers lived in an immense wilderness, and had to depend upon their weapons for much of their food, and often for their lives. Their weapon had to be accurate, and it was very desirable, owing to the difficulties of sup- ply, that it should not waste any of the powder charge ; hence a long barrel was necessary. Ammunition sufficient for long periods often had to be carried on the person, and this led to the small-bore weapon. 3 4 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Speed of fire was often essential, and some settler evolved the greased patch. Also, in order to make the report of the rifle as light as pos- sible in order that it might not reach the ears of distant Indians, a heavy barrel was found very desirable. Gradually, as the gun- smiths and pioneers consulted together and experimented, these changes were brought about, and the first type of American rifle was evolved. This first American rifle reached its development about 1739. It was a flint-lock, long, slender, and very heavy. Its round lead bullet was Fig. 1 Early American flint lock rifles. Upper. One of the earliest American rifles. Made by Matthew Roesser, Lan- caster, Pa., 1739. Half octagon barrel, weight 8 pounds, caliber .40. Lozver. Rifle made by James Woods about 1810. Caliber .45, weight 9 pounds. Rifle is still in perfect condition, and gives accurate targets. Used by the present owner for hunting in 1917. from half an ounce to a full ounce in weight. On the right side, of the stock of the rifle was a little brass patch box, in which there was kept a number of circular patches of greased linen or leather. The powder was kept in a powder horn, usually a steer horn hollowed out thin, and often elaborately and artistically engraved and carved. The powder was poured from this horn, sometimes into a measure, and sometimes into the palm of the hand, and the amount gauged. It was then emptied into the muzzle of the rifle, and a greased patch centered over the muzzle. A bullet was placed over this patch and shoved into the bore with the thumb, the rifle being held perpendicularly THE HISTORY OF THE RIFLE IN AMERICA 5 all the while, the butt resting on the ground. Then the light hickory ramrod was drawn from the thimbles under the barrel, the concave head was placed on the bullet, and the lubricated ball slid down the bore until it rested on the powder charge. Then the ramrod was flung or " wanged " down the bore a couple of times, thus flattening the ball somewhat, and upsetting it so that it filled the bore to the bottom of the rifling, thus shutting off the escape of gas around it. The ramrod was returned to its thimbles, a few grains of powder carefully placed in the pan of the lock, and the rifle was ready to fire. A skillful rifleman could perform this operation of loading in about 30 seconds. It is told of some of the early pioneers that they were so skillful that they were able to load their rifles on a run. While the rifle is not an American invention, as many have sup- posed, yet it is believed that the Pennsylvania Dutch should be given the credit of first developing it into an efficient weapon for sport and war. It is interesting to note just what these old rifles were capable of. One of these rifles made by Rosser of Lancaster, Pa., in 1739 and at present in the possession of Mr. John Dillon of Philadelphia, was tested by the Remi.ngton-U. M. C. Co. at their factory several years ago with the following results : Rosser flint lock rifle, made in Lancaster, Pa., 1739. Round ball, .32 inch diam- eter, weight 49 grains, powder charge 22 grains of black powder. Average velocity over 53 feet 1.305 feet per second Muzzle velocity 1,483 feet per second Muzzle energy 239 ft. lbs. Velocity at 100 yards 850 feet per second Energy at 100 yards 79 ft. lbs. Velocity at 200 yards 617 feet per second Energy at 200 yards 41 ft. lbs. These rifles were not reliable at ranges over 150 yards, and were seldom used over 100 yards. Their best range was about 60 yards, and in their time a majority of rifle matches seem to have been held at that range. At that range a good shot with a good rifle could keep all his shots inside a circle about an inch and a half in diameter. In other words, they were about as accurate as our ordinary rifles of today, up to 100 yards, but are far surpassed by our best rifles, while as to power we can .best class them as being about on a par with our .25 Stevens rim-fire cartridge at short ranges. For a long time the Pennsylvania Germans were the only rifle- makers in America. History points to Lancaster, Pennsylvania, as 6 THE AMERICAN RIFLE being the birth-place of the rifle on these shores. The frontiersmen of Maryland, Virginia, and New York soon caught on to the superior qualities of the new weapon, and were not slow to adopt it. In 1750 it was in very general use all along the Allegheny border. In our wars we first heard of its use in the attack on the French strong- hold of Louisburg, on Cape Breton Island, which was at that time the key to the French possessions in America. The Pennsylvania^ riflemen advanced against the fortress in trenches by sapping, and when near to the walls the precision of their rifles made it impossible Fig. 2 Early American percussion lock rifles. Upper. Originally a flint lock made about 1780, and later converted into a per- cussion lock. Forty caliber, weight 8V2 pounds. Probably made in Reading, Pa. Lower. A more modern American rifle made by James Goulcher, Philadelphia, Pa., about 1865. Caliber .43, weight 11 pounds. for the Frenchmen to serve their cannon. The rifle was practically un- known in New England until the frontiersmen of Pennsylvania and Virginia arrived at the siege of Boston in the Revolution. The first troops levied by the Continental Congress were six companies of rifle- men from Pennsylvania, two from Maryland, and two from Virginia, which joined the main army at Cambridge in August, 1776. These companies consisted of three officers and seventy-seven enlisted men each, and were recruited entirely from frontiersmen. They were armed with rifles, which each man provided himself, and were clad THE HISTORY OF THE RIFLE IN AMERICA 7 in buckskin. At the very start they distinguished themselves on the march to Cambridge by covering this distance, 550 miles, in 22 days without the loss of a single man. During the Revolution, the Con- gress entered into contract with several riflemakers in the South to furnish a small number of these arms for our troops, but as a rule the rifles in use in the Revolution were the private property of the men carrying them. It was not until 1819 that the United States took up the manufacture of a rifle for the army. It is thought, but not known positively, that some of these rifles were made at the Springfield Armory. This model 1819 rifle was a flint lock, muzzle loader of .54 caliber, shooting a round ball, 32 to the pound, and a charge of 100 grains of black powder. Its weight was 9.203 pounds, and its length without bayonet was 51.31 inches. — - — ' Shortly after the close of the Revolution, a Scottish clergyman named Alexander J. Forsyth invented the percussion-cap system of igniting the powder charge. This noteworthy improvement took quite a while to reach our shores, and it was in fact not until 1842 that the percus- sion lock and cap came into general use in this country, although quite a number of privately made arms were constructed with this lock several years before this date. The English army adopted percussion ignition for their Brunswick rifle in 1835. About this time the ex- ploration and settling of the West started, and gradually there were developed two distinctly American types of muzzle-loading, percussion- cap rifles. One of these was the well-known Kentucky rifle, an extremely long rifle of small bore. The Eastern rifleman demanded a small-bore arm in order that he might be able to carry a large supply of ammunition on his journeys, which were usually made on foot, carrying everything on the back. Thus the Kentucky rifle was sometimes known as a " pea rifle," because it fired a ball about the size of a pea, about .32 to .38 caliber. Usually these rifles when new were about .32 caliber, but as the bore became worn and rusty the owner would take it to the maker and have it rebored, and a new bullet mould made, and so the older the rifle the larger the bore. The barrel varied in length from about 36 inches to 48 inches, and was very heavy, making the total weight of the rifle from 12 to 15 pounds. It had a small stock, rifle butt-plate, and double set trig- gers. The forestock usually extended up to the muzzle, and contained the ramrod. The butt-plate, patch box, and trimmings were usually of brass, and often elaborately engraved. But this rifle did not suit the Western hunter, trapper, and explorer. 8 THE AMERICAN RIFLE The bore was not sufficiently large for effective work on the larger Western game, such as elk, buffalo,, and grizzly bear. It lacked kill- ing power and it also lacked range. Moreover, the long barrel was very unwieldy on horseback. Economy in the weight of ammunition was not such a factor, as the Westerner usually had pack ponies for his transportation. So there was gradually evolved a Western type of rifle, reaching its perfection in the rifles made by the Hawken Brothers of St. Louis just before the Civil War. These weapons were of larger caliber, from .40 to .60 inch, and in later years fired a conical instead of a round ball. The barrel was much shorter, usually about 30 inches. The stock was much heavier, to stand the rougher service, and the forearm often extended only half-way up the barrel. The other features of the Kentucky rifle were however retained. Improvements in rifles came rapidly during the first half of the nine- teenth century, practically all being directed towards a breech system of loading. In fact in 1808, only a year after the invention of the percussion cap, patent rights were granted to a French gunmaker for a paper cartridge to the base of which a paper fulminate cap was attached. The cartridge was inserted from the breech, and the firing of the charge was brought about by piercing the cap with a needle which was impelled forward by a spring. Most of the early attempts Lo produce a breech-loading gun, however, resulted in developing a great and grave distrust for any and all systems of loading from the breech end, and it was not until our Civil War was w r ell under way that we witnessed the production of a really effective and safe breech loader. The first breech-loading rifle to be adopted by the army of any nation was the well-known " Needle gun," which was invented about 1839 by Dreyse, a German, and was at first intended as a sporting arm. The first model suffered badly from some of the same defects that had caused all its predecessors to be rejected, namely the escape of gas and flame at the breech end, but the Prussians became interested in it in 1842, and after many experiments and improvements adopted it in 1848. Meanwhile our own inventors had been active, and about 1855 saw the invention and development of the first Sharps breech- loading rifle. This arm had a vertically sliding breech block, some- what like that on the present Winchester single-shot rifle. The cart- ridge was made of a paper cylinder, carrying the conical bullet at the forward end and the powder charge in rear. The breech block was dropped down and the cartridge inserted from the rear. When the breech block was pulled up into place again it shaved the paper off THE HISTORY OF THE RIFLE IN AMERICA 9 the rear end of the cartridge, thus exposing the powder to the face of the breech block. The breech block carried a nipple and a flash hole through it. After the breech was closed, a percussion cap was placed on the nipple and the rifle was ready to tire. This Sharps rifle was issued to a few British regiments for experimental purposes in 1857, and shortly after the start of our Civil War its issue in carbine form was begun to the Union Cavalry. It also became very popular as a sporting arm, particularly in the West. The paper cartridge, how- ever, was quickly supplanted by the brass shell, to which the Sharps and many other rifles were quickly adapted. During the Civil War repeating rifles also began to be in evidence, one of the first of these being the Spencer, which was patented in i860. This rifle had a lever formed of the trigger guard like the Sharps, but the breech block rotated downward and back on a hinge. The magazine was in the butt stock. A number of these were used in the Civil War, and also sent into the West at the close of the w r ar. The Spencer was quickly fol- lowed in 1866 by the Henry rifle, which is the predecessor of our pres- ent Winchester repeater. The success of the Henry rifle was very rapid, and it quickly drove most of the other rifles off the market, many of the old Spencer rifles getting into the hands of the plains Indians. One rifle to retain its popularity for a long time, however, was the old Sharps single shot, now adapted to a metallic cartridge and considerably improved. One reason for this was the powerful cartridge which it carried, all the first of the repeating rifles being made for short cartridges of small power, and not well adapted to the larger Western game or for long range. The Sharps was the rifle that killed off the buffalo ; one model of the Sharps in fact being called the " buffalo gun." This was .45 or .50 caliber, with a very heavy octagon barrel, and outside hammer. The first of the Sharps rifles had outside hammers very similar to the old muzzle-loading ham- mer, but towards the end of its career the Sharps Rifle Company made a single-shot, hammerless rifle, the firing pin and mainspring being contained in the sliding breech-block. This excellent rifle found its way into the hands of a few Westerners, and also became a popular, long-range, target weapon. It carried probably the most powerful black-powder cartridge ever designed in America, a .45 caliber, the long, straight, brass shell containing as much as 120 grains of black powder, and the paper-patched bullet weighing 550 grains. The Henry repeating rifle, which was so popular in those days (1870), used a .44 caliber, rim-fire cartridge, containing 28 grains 10 THE AMERICAN RIFLE ^8 v Fig. 3 Arms of our late frontier. In order from top to bottom : Sharp's buffalo rifle, caliber .45-120-550. Weight 17 pounds. Sharp's rifle, Creedmoor Model for long range target shooting. Sharp's-Borchart hammerless rifle, semi-military model. Spencer rifle, caliber- .56-44 rim fire. . Henry repeating rifle, caliber .44 rim fire, from which the Winchester rifle was developed. - . .... , Winchester carbine, Model 1866, caliber .44 rim fire. The first Winchester rifle made. Spencer carbine, caliber .56 rim fire. THE HISTORY OF THE RIFLE IN AMERICA n of powder and 200 grains of lead. In 1866 the Winchester Repeating Arms Company was organized, this company purchasing the Henry Arms Company and the Spencer Rifle Company, and continuing the manufacture of the Henry rifle until quite recent times. In 1873 the Winchester Company placed on the market the Winchester Model 1873 rifle, probably the most famous rifle produced in America, and the rifle which has made the name " Winchester " famous throughout the world. This rifle was very similar to the Henry rifle, in fact it was made under the Henry patent, but it was very much better made, so much so that it was a thoroughly reliable arm. Until its advent repeaters were not considered weapons that could be relied upon un- der all circumstances, and many hunters, trappers, and explorers still stuck to their old single shots. But the Winchester Model 1873 prac- tically drove all the single shots to the wall. It was first adapted to the cartridge known as the .44 W. C. F., or .44-40; a center-fire cart- ridge containing 40 grains of black powder, and a flat-nosed, conical bullet of 200 grains. While this cartridge was quite a little more powerful than any charge which had hitherto been adapted to a re- peating rifle, it was not considered powerful enough by sportsmen for Western game, and this le.d to the manufacture of the Winchester Model 1876, or " Centennial Model," adapted to much more powerful cartridges, namely the .45-75-350 W. C. F. ; .45-60-300 W. C. F. ; and .40-60-210 W. C. F. About the same time the Model 1873 was adapted to three other cartridges; the .38-40-180; the .32-20-115, and the .22 long rim fire. The Centennial model had practically the same breech action as the Model 1873. We must now turn to the development of the military rifle im- mediately following the Civil War. The first breech-loading rifle manufactured at the Springfield Armory was that known as the Model 1866. This had the famous old " Springfield " action with hinged breech-block. It used a .50-caliber, center-fire, brass cartridge, con- taining 70 grains of black powder and a 450-grain, grooved, lubricated, conical bullet. In 1873 this rifle was improved a little, and the caliber reduced to .45-70-405. Later the weight of the bullet was increased to 500 grains ; the .405 grain bullet, however, being retained for use in the carbine of this model. In all, ten models of the single-shot Springfield rifle have been manufactured at the Springfield Armory, each being a slight improvement over its immediate predecessor. The last one was the Model 1888, containing the rod bayonet. The .45-caliber Springfield was a most reliable and effective weapon. Its 12 THE AMERICAN RIFLE breech action could be operated so quickly that, until the advent of smokeless powder, our army saw no need of adopting a repeating rifle. With the .500-grain bullet this rifle was quite accurate up to 800 yards, but the angle of fall at 1000 yards was too great for good target work at that range. My first experience at military target shooting was with this arm, and my old score books show scores up to 48 at 500 yards and 43 at 600 yards. Almost all important improvements and inventions in firearms have been made primarily for military purposes, and have then been adapted to sporting arms. Having developed the repeating rifle, army officers found that the rapidity of fire of which these rifles were capable could not be fully used on the battlefield owing to the great cloud of smoke which soon arose, obscuring the hostile target. Hence there came a demand for a powder which would burn without so much smoke. An- other reason for desiring such a powder was that with black powder a force at once disclosed its exact location as soon as it opened fire. The development of smokeless powder, like the development of the rifle, is more in the nature of a gradual evolution and improvement than the invention of a single man. Serious experiment with smokeless powders dates from 1846, when Schonbein reported that he had dis- covered a cotton powder which he thought might be used for guns, which would burn without smoke and which left very little residue behind it. A year later Dr. Hartig discovered that it was possible to dissolve guncotton in acetic ether, and it would then, without altering its chemical state, become a clear stiff" jelly when the excess of ether had evaporated. If the ether was allowed to evaporate slowly and en- tirely, a white residue remained behind which had the same property as the original guncotton, but exploded much more slowly than gun- cotton. Here, then, we have the first indication that the rate of com- bustion of guncotton could be controlled. In 1864, Captain Schultz, a German, invented a smokeless powder, which was originally made from disks of wood, boiled in soda and steamed for many hours, and then nitrated. This was the original Schultz shotgun powder, which, in an improved form, is still on the market, but is not suitable for use in rifles. The first man to make a smokeless nitro powder suitable for use in rifles was Frederick Volkmann, who patented a powder in 1871 which he called " Collodin," which would stand immersion in water, and with which the speed of combustion could be controlled by the degree to which the solution of the grains in ether alcohol was allowed to proceed. About this time it became apparent also that a flat tra- THE HISTORY OF THE RIFLE IN AMERICA 13 jectory was very desirable from a military point of view, and that this could be obtained only from a very small bore, long bullet, and large charge of powder. The initiative in this respect came from Switzerland. Major Rubin of the Swiss Ordnance Department in 1883 invented the rifle which bears his name and also designed the cartridge adapted to it. This cartridge had a bullet measuring only .295 inch, and a very large charge of powder. In the meantime a British committee had been appointed to select a new rifle for the army. They went very carefully into the matter and adopted a car- tridge of .303 caliber, having a bullet with a cupro-nickel jacket and a lead core. The powder charge was a compressed cylinder of black powder weighing 70 grains. The velocity of the cartridge was a little over 1800 feet per second, or about 400 feet more than it had been possible to obtain from the large caliber rifles. The cartridge was not a success as the development was really in advance of the black powder used. However, even before it could be condemned a remedy was found in the new smokeless powder. The black powder in this small bore gave so much fouling that accuracy was practically impossible, but the smokeless powder gave almost no fouling and permitted the velocity to be increased to a little over 2000 feet per second. All the other European nations quickly saw the advantage of this new arm and were not slow to change their armament. The United States was among the last to do so. In 1892 the Ordnance De- partment adopted a foreign rifle, the Krag-Jorgensen, for the regular army, and the manufacture of it was commenced at the Springfield Armory. It used a cartridge having a bullet measuring .308 inch and weighing 220 grains. The bullet was jacketed with cupro-nickel, and had a lead core. The powder charge was about 40 grains of a smokeless powder, giving a velocity of about 2000 feet per second. The issue of this rifle was restricted entirely to the regular army. In 1898 a number of minor improvements were made, and the Krag- Jorgensen rifles seen at the present day are almost all of them what is officially called the United States magazine rifle, Model 1898. The first high-power sporting rifle to be placed on the American market was the Winchester single-shot rifle, adapted to the .30-40 U. S. cartridge (the cartridge used in the Model 1898 rifle). It appeared on the market in April, 1894. In March, 1896, the Winchester re- peating rifle, Model 1895, also handling this cartridge, was adver- tised for sale, and we now pass from the realm of history into the consideration of modern American rifles. 14 THE AMERICAN RIFLE In this little sketch of the development of the rifle in America I have been forced to omit reference to many excellent and celebrated arms which have now passed into history, such for instance as the Ballard, the flying-lock Remington, and many others. To refer to and describe them all would require a whole volume, and I have there- Fig. 4 Ballard rifle, a favorite of twenty years ago, and still preferred by Schuetzen riflemen for 200 -yard target shooting fore preferred to give only a short and truthful sketch which would show briefly the part that the United States has had in the develop- ment of the rifle. CHAPTER II THE A B C OF RIFLE BALLISTICS A RIFLE is a gun intended to be carried by one man and fired from the shoulder. It differs from the shotgun or smooth bore in that the surface of the bore is cut with a number of grooves. These grooves are given a spiral direction in the bore, and this has the effect of rotating a bullet forced through the bore by the explosion or ex- pansion of the powder gases. This rotation of the bullet continues after it has left the barrel, the bullet revolving on its longer axis as it travels through the air. Thus the bullet, during its flight, goes to sleep like a well-spun, boy's top, and this causes it to fly accurately, and point to the front, for a much longer distance than would be the case were it shot from a smooth-bore gun. The bore of American rifles varies in diameter from .22-inch to .50-inch, and in designating the size of the bore of a certain rifle its diameter is usually given in hundredths or thousandths of an inch, and this measurement is called caliber. Thus we have a .22-caliber rifle, a .30-caliber rifle, a .405-caliber rifle, and a .50-caliber rifle, and so on. It is usual to designate as the caliber of a certain rifle the diameter of the smooth bore through the barrel before it is cut with the grooves or rifling. The grooves of a rifle vary from .002-inch to .006-inch in depth, and are usually from four to eight in number. The raised portion of the original surface of the bore between the grooves is called the lands. Thus a .30-caliber rifle is first bored out to a smooth, even bore, .30-inch in diameter. The barrel is then placed in a rifling machine and the grooves are cut in it. In the .30 caliber these grooves are usually .004-inch deep, so that this makes the in- side diameter of the barrel from the bottom of one groove to the bottom of the opposite groove .308-inch. In England the diameter of the rifle's bore is usually given in thousandths of an inch instead of hundredths, thus what we would call a .45-caliber rifle they would term a .450-bore rifle. On the continent of Europe still another nomen- clature is in use; that is, the diameter in millimeters instead of iS 16 THE AMERICAN RIFLE inches, and thus we have foreign rifles of 6.5 mm., 7 mm., 7.65 mm., 8 mm., 9 mm., 9.3 mm., 10 mm., and so on. The number of grooves in the bore of a rifle varies between four and eight. The twist of the rifling throughout the barrel varies be- tween one complete turn and 6 l / 2 inches of the barrel's length, and one turn in 60 inches. The longer the bullet in proportion to its diameter, and the slower the velocity with which it travels, the quicker must be the twist to spin the bullet so as to keep it point to the front, or to maintain its gyrostatic stability. The breech end of the bore is enlarged and shaped so as to form a chamber in which the cartridge fits when the rifle is loaded and ready- to fire. The breech is sealed or blocked to the rear by the breech block or bolt, which supports the head of the cartridge, and sustains the force of the explosion. The block or bolt is pierced in the center to contain the firing pin. The firing pin, pulled back, compresses the mainspring, and is held in this position by means of the sear. When the sear is depressed by the pulling of the trigger, the firing pin is released, and carried forward by the mainspring, and its end juts out through the hole in the face of the block or bolt, striking the primer a blow, in- denting it, and firing the cartridge. The cartridge consists of bullet, shell or case, powder, and primer. The bullet is conical in shape (spherical bullets are now obsolete) and is made of either a lead and tin alloy, or of a lead and tin alloy with a jacket of cupro-nickel or copper. Its diameter is the same as the groove diameter of the bore, or very slightly smaller. The bullet is seated in the forward portion or neck "of the shell. The shell is made of brass, and contains the powder. On the center of its base is a primer pocket, in which is seated the primer. The primer is a brass or copper cap, containing the fulminate and an anvil. When the firing pin strikes the primer, the fulminate is compressed cr crushed between the cap and anvil. This causes a spark or flash to pass through the flash hole in the primer pocket into the interior of the shell where the powder is contained. The powder is ignited, and burning, produces a quick, powerful, and elastic gas, which forces the bullet ahead of it and out through the bore. Rifles vary in the velocity with which the bullet leaves the muzzle {muzzle velocity or initial velocity, abbreviated M. V.) from 900 to 3400 feet per second. If the bullet, after leaving the muzzle, were subjected to no other forces than the explosion of the powder, it would continue to move THE A B C OF RIFLE BALLISTICS 17 forward with unchanged velocity in prolongation of the axis of the bore, passing over equal spaces in equal times. But the air displaced by the bullet offers a resistance which reduces the velocity of the bullet, causing the space over which it passes in equal times con- tinually to diminish. Thus if, neglecting the resistance of the air, a bullet would reach at the end of one second a point A, this resistance would cause it to reach only some point A', and at the end of two, three, and four seconds, only to reach points B', C, and D', instead of B, C, and D. (See Fig. 5.) The diminished velocity at any point is called the remaining velocity at that point, and is measured by the space in feet which the bullet would pass over in the next second if the velocity suffered no change. On leaving the muzzle the bullet is also subjected to the force of Fig. 5 gravity, which causes it to fall about 16 feet in the first second of flight, 48 feet in the second, or 64 feet in two seconds, 80 feet in the third, of 144 feet in three seconds, etc. ; the fall in any second being about 32 feet more than in the next preceding. The fall due to grav- ity is not influenced by the velocity of the bullet, being the same as if the bullet were dropped from a state of rest. Thus the bullet, at the end of one second, instead of being at A', will be at A", 16 feet below A'. At the end of two seconds it will be at B", at the end of three seconds at C", etc. The resistance of the air reduces the velocity of the bullet's fall, but this effect is not important at moderate ranges. The curved path followed by the bullet in its flight through the air under the combined action of these forces is called its " trajectory," and is represented by the curved line in Fig. 5. When we speak of the trajectory of the bullet we mean its path through the air from the muzzle of the rifle to the point where it hits the target. In order to be prepared to discuss and compare the trajectories of various rifles, the reader should be familiar with certain terms used 18 THE AMERICAN RIFLE in conjunction with the trajectory. Thus, the angle of departure is that between the ground and the tangent to the trajectory where it leaves the muzzle of the rifle. The line of sight is a straight line pass- ing from the pupil of the markman's eye through the rear and front sights, to the point on the target where the rifle is aimed. The angle of elevation is that between the line of sight and the tangent to the trajectory where it leaves the muzzle of the rifle. The ordinate of any point in the trajectory is its vertical distance above the line of sight. In giving ordinates it is customary to give them for every ioo yards of range, measured on the line of sight. The trajectory reaches its greatest height, or highest ordinate, in one-half the time of flight ; hence, since the velocity continually decreases, this is more than one-half the range distant from the muzzle of the rifle. The range is the distance, measured on the line of sight, from the muzzle of the rifle to the target. The angle of fall is that between the ground and the tangent to the trajectory where it meets the ground. The point where the bullet strikes the target is called the point of impact. A number of shots striking a target are called a group. The center of the group is called the center of impact. If a rifle be fired for a series of shots with a constant point of aim and a constant sight adjustment, the diameter of the circle which will include all of the shots gives the measure of accuracy of that rifle and ammunition. An accurate rifle and ammunition produce a small group. A rifle is said to be accurate when, at a given range, its dispersion does not exceed three minutes of angle ; that is, when the circle which will include all the shots has not a greater diameter than 3 inches at 100 yards, 6 inches at 200 yards, 9 inches at 300 yards, 15 inches at 500 yards, 30 inches at 1000 yards, etc. The energy of a bullet is its ability to perform work, that is its ability to strike a blow, or to overcome the resistance of the air. It is meas- ured in foot pounds, and decreases as the range increases and the velocity diminishes. Thus we have muzzle energy and remaining energy. The energy increases with the weight of the bullet and with its velocity. The amount of energy remaining at any range not only depends primarily upon these features, but also on the ability of the bullet to maintain its velocity, that is to overcome the resistance of the air. A long, heavy bullet (i.e., one with great sectional density) main- tains its velocity better than a short, light one. A bullet with a long, fine point maintains velocity better than a blunt-pointed bullet. The recoil or kick is the movement of the rifle to the rear at the THE A B C OF RIFLE BALLISTICS 19 instant it is fired. It depends upon the weight of the rifle, the weight of the bullet, the initial velocity, the caliber of the rifle, and the rapidity of burning of the powder. The ability of the shoulder to stand recoil limits the power and caliber of the rifle to be fired from the shoulder. CHAPTER III THE NOMENCLATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN RIFLES THE American nomenclature and classification of rifles and rifle appurtenances is rather confusing to one not acquainted with the same. At the same time a knowledge of it is very essential to the un- derstanding of the subject as set forth in this and other works on the American rifle. The system is the more difficult because there is no system to it. It is the outcome of the trade language as set forth in the catalogues of five or six of our leading rifle and cartridge manu- facturers, together with a number of names and classifications, partly slang, which have come into general use among the riflemen of America. American rifles are divided into a number of classes. As regards caliber we have small-bore rifles, and large bores or calibers, the divid- ing line being placed usually at .35 caliber, that rifle being included among the small bores. As regards power, we have high-power and low-power rifles, also called high velocity and low velocity. The di- viding line being placed at 1750 feet per second velocity, all rifles having velocities over that figure being in the high-power class. Of late there has been a tendency to call rifles having a velocity of over 2400 f. s. " high intensity " rifles, to distinguish them from those whose velocity runs around the 2000 f. s. mark. As regards their action or mechanism, we have a large number of names and classifications. Single-shot rifles are those firing but a single shot at a time, and having no magazine or container for cart- ridges other than the one in the chamber. Repeating rifles, strictly speaking, are those having a tubular magazine under the barrel, con- taining a number of cartridges, the operation of the breech mechanism ejecting the fired shell and loading a fresh cartridge. Magazine rifles are those in which the magazine containing the reserve of cartridges is located under the bolt or breech-lock. Lever-action rifles are those repeaters and single shots which are actuated by means of a lever under the grip, usually an extension of the trigger guard. Bolt-action 20 NOMENCLATURE AND CLASSIFICATION 21 rifles are those that are actuated by a bolt, somewhat like a door bolt, the bolt handle being pulled up and backward to throw out the empty shell, and then pushed forward and down to load the fresh cartridge and lock the rifle. The older types of lever-action rifles are almost all repeaters, but we have also several lever actions with the magazine under the breech-block. Bolt-action rifles are usually military arms, or military actions converted and remodelled for sporting use. Auto- loading rifles are those in which the recoil is utilized to reload the rifle; the trigger, however, requiring to be pulled each time to fire a shot. An automatic rifle is one in which the recoil loads and fires the rifle, the rifle continuing to load and fire as long as the trigger is held back. There are no automatic shoulder rifles made, all rifles of this type requiring a tripod or other rest, and are intended entirely for military purposes, their weight precluding their being used as shoulder arms. The principal manufacturers of rifles in this country at present, in addition to the Ordnance Department of the United States Army, and certain firms manufacturing government arms under contract, are: The Winchester Repeating Arms Company. The Remington Arms-Union Metallic Cartridge Company. The Savage Arms Corporation. The Newton Arms Company. An examination of the catalogues of these companies will give one a very clear idea of the names and classification of the various modern American rifles. When it comes to cartridges, the nomenclature is also rather con- fusing. Upon the introduction of the breech-loading cartridge the usual method of naming and distinguishing between the various cart- ridges was to give three figures, the first being the caliber, the second the number of grains of black powder contained in the shell, and the third the weight in grains of the bullet. Thus we have the .32-40-165, being a cartridge of .32 caliber, containing 40 grains of black powder, and a bullet weighing 165 grains. Sometimes the name of the maker of the rifle using the cartridge was coupled with the cartridge, thus we have the .40-70-330 Winchester. In some cartridges the fulminate is contained in the rim of the shell instead of in a primer. These are usually small cartridges, and are called " rim fire," the cartridges containing the regular primer being called " center fire." We find a large number of cartridges called " W. R. F." and " W. C. F.," mean- ing Winchester Rim Fire, and Winchester Center Fire. Among these 22 THE AMERICAN RIFLE are the .22 W. R. F., the .44 W. C. F., the .33 W. C. F., the .25 Stevens Rim Fire, etc. The United States Government cartridges represent again another system of nomenclature, those for the Model 1898 rifle being called ".30 cal. Model 1898 Ball Cartridge." This same cart- ridge, by the way, is called ".30 U. S." in the Winchester catalogue, and is popularly called the .30-40-220. The cartridge for the U. S. Magazine Rifle, caliber .30, Model 1903, the present service arm of the United States, is officially called the " Ball Cartridge, caliber .30, Model 1906." 1 In recent years the tendency has been to give the caliber of the cartridge in thousandths of an inch instead of in hundredths of an inch. Thus we have the .405 W. C. F., the .303 Savage, and the .351 Win- chester Self-Loading. Also lately we note the appearance of two cartridges which fail to follow previous rules, namely the ".22 Savage Hi-power," and the .250-3000 Savage, the latter being a .25-caliber rifle having a velocity of 3000 feet per second. Cartridges are still further distinguished by the names " soft point " and " full jacketed," the former being those whose bullets are jacketed around the base and side only, the lead core at the point being exposed to cause them to mushroom and expand on game and thus give a more fatal wound. The full jacketed bullet is completely covered with the jacket except a small portion in the center of the base where the lead core was inserted in the jacket, and such bullets are intended for military and target shooting and not for game shooting. Most cart- ridges are made with both soft point and full-jacketed bullets, and in purchasing them one should indicate which variety he desires. The soft point should always be specified for game shooting, except that sometimes riflemen prefer to carry full- jacketed bullets in addition to the soft point, the former being used on medium-sized game where as destructive a bullet as the soft point is not desired, as for example where one wishes as little mutilation of the skin as possible on account of future mounting of the specimen. 1 The present service arm was designed in 1903, and adopted to the Model 1903 cartridge having a 220-grain, blunt-nose bullet. In 1906 all these rifles were al- tered to use a new cartridge with 150-grain, pointed bullet, the new cartridge being called the Model 1906. The Model 1903 cartridge then became obsolete, but the rifle retained the date of its design. CHAPTER IV THE AMERICAN RIFLES THE American breech-loading rifle dates from the Civil War. An enormous number of various models have been produced since that time. At one time or another American factories have made rifles for almost all the nations of South America, southern Europe, and Asia, as well as supplied the trade, both military and sporting, in this country. Of recent years the change to smokeless powder has made a majority of these weapons obsolete, and many new arms have taken their place. The rifles described here are those at present being manufactured, both by our government arsenals and private manufacturers. Some few rifles have also been described, the manufacture of which stopped at the start of the great war, owing to the factories which made them being turned over entirely to the manufacture of munitions ; but these arms are still being used in large quantities and thus a description of them seems desirable. These in- clude mostly the products of the Stevens and Marlin companies. Under the head of each arm I have given something of its history, its use, its operation, and rules for dismounting its action. I have also included in most cases an opinion as to its worth. This opinion is mine alone, and is simply based on my experience, together with the published experience of other riflemen, I having read and tabulated practically every bit of literature published on the rifle in this country for the past twenty-five years. I have tried to treat each rifle fairly. In the ten years that I spent experimenting and gathering data for this work I have owned, fired, and tested almost every rifle listed and for the majority of them I have only praise. While our arms are almost without exception made by machinery in large quantities, and sometimes at great speed, yet they compare very favorably with the hand-made foreign product, in many cases actually excelling them in all essentials. This chapter may be said to deal essentially with rifle actions, the other parts being more fully described in subsequent chapters. Reli- ability in the functioning of the action is an absolute requirement in 23 24 THE AMERICAN RIFLE a rifle. If it be a magazine arm, it must surely extract and eject the fired shell, load and lock the loaded cartridge, and surely fire it. It must do this in all weather, and in all positions. Also it must be safe. As regards the latter requirement, it may be said that every Ameri- can rifle has an ample margin of safety for the cartridges it is designed to handle. If one adapts a certain rifle to a cartridge other than that for which it was designed it behoves him to know what he is about, and the same may be said when one attempts to improve the ballistics by loading the cartridges with a different charge from the standard. The Mauser action is the most reliable form of breech mechanism that has ever been designed for repeating rifles, and it is doubtful if it will ever be improved much. The United States rifles, models of 1903 and 1917, the Savage high-power, bolt-action rifle, and the New- ton rifle all have Mauser actions, some slightly modified, but still re- taining all the essentials. The Mauser action is operated by means of a bolt. The mechanical design is such that this action has more power to insert and positively extract shells than any other. A force of 25 pounds exerted on the bolt handle of the U. S. Model 1903 rifle to turn it up or down results in a pull or pressure being exerted on the cartridge of 186.4 pounds, friction being considered. If friction is neglected, the pressure on the head of the cartridge exerted by a 25-pOund pressure on the bolt handle is 216 pounds. This will surely insert or extract a shell slightly larger than normal, or will take care of dirt, mud, sand, rusty chamber, etc. Also this action can be entirely and easily dismounted without tools for cleaning, and this is a great advantage with a rifle which is to be subjected to hard usage in the field, and particularly with one which is to be used in the tropics or the arctic regions. With proper ammunition there is absolutely no chance of this action jamming or failing as long as the user takes pains fully to operate the mechanism — that is, always to open and pull the bolt clear back, and then fully close it without false motion. The other rifle actions made in the United States, while they have not the absolute reliability of the Mauser action, may be regarded as perfectly reliable for all practical purposes, as the chance for any trouble is so remote that we can afford to take the chance if we prefer any other type of action to the Mauser. As regards speed of fire, the bolt action may be regarded as the slowest of all repeating or magazine rifles. Next would come the lever actions, followed by the sliding, forearm actions, and the auto- matics; the latter being, of course, the fastest operated actions. Yet THE AMERICAN RIFLES 25 the bolt action can be operated plenty fast enough for any practical use, or for aimed fire. With a rifle which recoils to any extent it takes time to recover from the shock and the unbalancing of the body before one can aim steadily and accurately again, and during this recovery there is plenty of time to operate the bolt action or any other of our American repeating actions. A bolt action has features which are objected to by certain sports- men. It is very difficult for a left-handed shooter to operate it with any speed. The usual safety on the cocking piece at the rear of the bolt makes this action rather slow in getting off the first shot when the rifle is locked, although this objection is fully met in the new Savage high-power, bolt action with its shotgun type of safety. The other actions — lever, trombone, and automatic — have several faults to which attention must be called. The majority of them require tools to dismount, and the operation takes considerable time. Hence they are not so liable to be kept in perfect working order inside as the bolt actions, and if anything happens it is harder to get at the trouble. All of them have a certain spring in the breech mechanism, owing to the materials of which they are made and the design of breech support. This spring is very evident when we come to use them with modern cartridges giving breech pressures of 45,000 pounds per square inch and over. The fired shell is expanded and lengthened so much that it cannot be reloaded. As a result of this spring, after a long period of use, say after the firing of 7000 to 10,000 rounds, and in some cases after a much shorter period of use, there comes a per- manent springing back of the breech-bolt. The breech of the rifle does not close up as tight as it should, and the head space between the face of the bolt and the head of the cartridge is sometimes increased to such an extent that the heads are blown off the shells, and gas escapes to the rear. In other words, the action is completely worn out. Riflemen are cautioned that this trouble will probably occur only with rifles using very heavy charges, and after long years of use. Such actions, as a rule, should not be relied upon to wear out more than one barrel, whereas the bolt actions, if properly cared for, are almost everlasting. I have one which has worn out six .30-40 barrels and is still in perfect condition. And yet, despite the faults that I have called attention to, the ordinary sportsman and hunter will have precious little fault to find with our lever action rifles. They will go on year after year giving him splendid service without a single hitch. And there is much in 26 THE AMERICAN RIFLE their hang, feel, method of operation, arid make up which appeals to the American. There is no bolt handle sticking out to' one side and often in the way. There are no open parts to collect dirt and pine needles. The hammer shows at all times whether the rifle is ready or safe, and the hammer can be brought to full cock as the rifle is tossed to the shoulder without loss of time. When the rifle is grasped with the right hand in the firing position the hammer, lever, trigger, and grip seem to be in just the right position, and in the correct relation to each other, for the most efficient control and operation. For all ordinary uses every one of our rifles are perfectly safe and reliable. In fact they have such a margin in these respects that one might almost say they were fool proof. However, when it comes to special or extremely hard use, using heavy modern charges, using the rifle for hard service in unexplored regions, the tropics, or the arctic, the Mauser type of action demonstrates its superiority. WINCHESTER REPEATING RIFLE, MODEL 1873 This was the first repeating rifle ever made to use center-fire cart- ridges, and the first really reliable repeater. The action is practically the same as the old Henry repeater which used a 44-caliber, rim-fire cartridge, and which was placed on the market by the Henry Arms Company in 1866, and afterwards made by the Winchester Com- pany. The 1873 rifle gained an enormous popularity which did not begin to wane until the introduction of the Winchester Model 1892 rifle, a superior action to handle the same cartridges. Until a few years ago practically 70 per cent, of the game killed in the United States fell to this rifle. In the West the Model 1876 or Centennial Model Winchester, exactly similar to the 1873 but to handle heavier cartridges such as the 45-75-350 with bottle-necked shell, was very popular until the introduction of the Model 1866 rifle. The Model 1873 rifle is made for the .44 W. C. F„ .38 W. C. F. and .32-20 W. C. F. cartridges, and used to be made also for the .22 short and long cartridges. It is still on the market, being probably the oldest model rifle still being manufactured. Cartridges were trans- ferred from the tubular magazine to a position in front of the breech- bolt by means of a carrier block. The action had but one fault. The carrier block was just exactly long enough to receive the standard cartridge, and if a cartridge happened to be a little longer or shorter than standard it jammed the rifle. The Model 1873 ri ^ e m "st now be regarded as obsolete, but mention THE AMERICAN RIFLES 27 is made of it here because of its one-time practically universal use in America. The sectional cuts herewith explain its operation and method of taking the action apart and assembling. 28 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Action closed To load the magazine. The magazine is loaded while the action is closed, as shown in Fig. I, by pressing down the spring cover on the right hand side of the receiver with the point of the cartridge, and in- serting the cartridge through the opening thus made. The opening is closed by the spring cover as soon as the cartridge is inserted. This operation is repeated until the magazine is filled. Action open To prepare to shoot. When it is desired to load, the finger lever B is thrown forward to the position shown in Fig. 2, and then returned to the position shown in Fig. 1. This motion throws out the shell or cartridge in the chamber, transfers a cartridge from the magazine to the chamber, cocks the hammer, and leaves the gun ready to fire when the trigger is pulled. The operation of loading is easily executed while the gun is at the hip, or at the shoulder, without taking the eye off the THE AMERICAN RIFLES 29 sights, thus enabling the shooter to fire as many shots as there are car- tridges in the magazine without removing the gun from the shoulder, or losing sight of the object shot at. To take out the barrel. Take out the two tipscrews and the maga- zine ring pin ; pull out the magazine tube and take off the forearm ; then, before unscrewing the barrel from the frame, the breech pin must be thrown back by moving the finger lever forward — otherwise, the attempt to unscrew it will break the extractor which withdraws the car- tridge and ruin the breech pin. To remove the breech pin. Model 1873. After removing the side plates and links, take out the link pin and retractor ; the firing-pin can then be pulled out with the fingers, first removing the hammer, or set- ting it at full cock. WINCHESTER REPEATING RIFLE, MODEL OF l886 This is a tubular-magazine, lever-action, repeating rifle. It was first adapted to the .45-70 U. S. Government cartridge, and shortly afterwards was also made in the following calibers, all for black-powder cartridges : .38-56-255 ; .38-70-255 ; .40-65-260 ; .40-70-330 ; .40-82- 260; and .45-90. In the fall of 1900 it was also put out with nickel steel barrel for the .33 Winchester center fire cartridge, a high-power cartridge with jacketed bullet. The only black-powder cartridges that it is now made for are the .45-70 and the .45-90. Only a very short movement of the finger lever is required to load this rifle, making it very easy to fire the gun rapidly while at the shoulder. In fact, this rifle, and the Winchester Model 1892, which has practically the same action, are the easiest and quickest in their operation of all lever action rifles. The rifle is locked by two bolts, each fitting into a slot in the receiver on one side, and into a similar slot in the breech-bolt on the other. The first opening movement of the lever draws back and locks the firing pin until the rifle is again ready for firing. A hook attached to the finger lever draws the car- tridge out of the magazine into the carrier block, which enables the use of a light magazine, permitting the magazine to be filled easily. The cartridge is forced from the carrier into the chamber by the forward movement of the breech bolt. The magazine is filled while the rifle is closed, through the spring cover on the right side of the receiver, and is provided with a stop which permits the use of car- tridges of different length, having the same length of shell. Thus rifles chambered for the .45-70 cartridge will handle that cartridge with either the 300, 330, 350, 405, or 500 grain bullets. 3Q THE AMERICAN RIFLE The .45 caliber rifles in ordinary weight have 26-inch barrels ; the •33 W. C. F. rifle has a 24-inch barrel; while the .45-70 light-weight rifle has a 22-inch barrel. Rifles can be furnished with either straight or pistol grip stocks, and with either rifle or shot-gun butt plates, also THE AMERICAN RIFLES 3i with either full- or half-length magazines. A full-length magazine holds 7 to 9 cartridges, depending upon the length of cartridge and magazine ; and the short magazine holds four cartridges of all lengths. The operation of the rifle will readily be understood from the sec- tional cuts of the action. Action closed To dismount the gun. Remove the stock. Unscrew strain screw. Drive out the mainspring from left to right. Remove the carrier spring. Take out the hammer screw and tang with sear attached. Draw out the hammer. Remove the spring cover. Drive out the fin- Action open ger lever pin and bushing. Draw the locking-bolts out from below. Pull back the breech-bolt until the lever connecting pin shows at the rear of the receiver. Drive out the pin. Draw out finger lever and 32 THE AMERICAN RIFLE carrier attached by the carrier hook. Remove the cartridge guide and magazine stop. To assemble the gun. Put in the magazine stop and cartridge guide. Connect carrier and finger lever with the carrier hook, and put them into the receiver from below. Enter the breech-bolt at the rear, and press the upper end of the finger lever into its place in the breech-bolt. Push in the lever connecting pin. To do this it will be necessary to press back the ejector until the notch in the ejector corresponds with the pin. Push the bolt forward into the gun. Push up the locking- bolts from below. Sfictfiat the cartridge guide enters its notch in the right hand locking-bolt. Replace finger lever pin and bushing. Re- place the spring cover. Lay the hammer in place, and push in the tang, drawing back the trigger, so that its point may not catch on the hammer. Push in the hammer screw. Replace the carrier spring. Replace the mainspring and stock. The Winchester Model 1886 rifle has for thirty years been easily the most popular big game rifle made in America. It has probably given more genuine satisfaction to its owners than any other rifle ever made. And this popularity has persisted in spite of the fact that it is made only for three almost obsolete cartridges. Riflemen seem willing to put up with these cartridges just to get the splendid action. The action combines, in a peculiarly lucky manner, a number of very excellent and important features. It has the best trigger pull of any repeating or magazine rifle, and while the factory pull is rather heavy it is capable of excellent refinement in the hands of a skilled gun- maker. The peculiar hang of the trigger and hammer is just ex- actly right for the hands of most men. The action works remarkably easy, and jams are almost unknown. The grip fits the hand very well. The action closes up tight so that snow, water, and dust do not readily find their way into the mechanism. It carries easily either in the hand or on the shoulder, and there is nothing to rattle about the rifle when stalking wary game. It is doubtful if this action will ever be equalled in a lever-action rifle. A majority of riflemen consider that the Winchester Company made a grave mistake in not adapting it to the .38—55, .32-40, .25-35, an d -3°-3 cartridges instead of bringing out an entirely new action, the Model 1894. The only criticism that can be made in regard to this rifle is that it is quite difficult to dis- mount should the mechanism require it for cleaning purposes. Per- sonally I believe it would be well to adapt it to two more modern cartridges, one a .32 caliber carrying a 220-grain bullet at 2,300 feet per THE AMERICAN RIFLES 33 second, and the other a .38 caliber carrying a 275-grain bullet at 2,000 feet per second. These velocities could easily be secured with the new Du Pont improved military rifle powder No. 16. The rifle balances best with round barrel and half magazine. A very popular specification^ for this model is : .33 caliber ; 24-inch round barrel without rear sight slot, half magazine, solid frame, pistol-grip stock, shotgun butt-plate of checked steel, Lyman ivory bead front sight, and Lyman No. 103 rear peep sight, which can be made to order for this rifle. While this rifle will not have the long range accuracy and great killing power of some of the models carrying more modern cartridges, it will probably give more satisfaction to its owner than any other big game rifle he has ever owned. It might also be said that this is probably the very best rifle for a left-handed shooter. WINCHESTER REPEATING RIFLES, MODELS l800 AND IQ06 The actions of these two rifles are practically identical, and they both handle the .22-caliber, rim-fire ammunition. Practically the only difference is that the Model 1906 is slightly smaller and lighter, and is chambered to use interchangably the .22-short, .22-long, and .22-long rifle cartridges, while the Model 1890 is chambered and rifled for either the .22-short, .22-long, or .22- W. R. F. cartridges, but one rifle will only handle the cartridge for which it is chambered. The rifle has a sliding forearm action, the action being opened by pulling the forearm to the rear, and closed by forcing it to the front into place. The breech-block locks itself in plain view, and is of such size as to permit the use of a strong firing pin and extractor, and also to offer a good cover for the head of the cartridge. The action locks with each closing movement, and cannot be opened except by letting down the hammer or pushing forward the firing pin. The mechanism is such as to prevent the pulling of the trigger until the breech-block is closed and the rifle locked. To charge the magazine. Turn the milled head at the top of the magazine until the magazine tube is unlocked. Draw out the inner tube. This will leave the loading hole open. Cartridges can then be dropped into the magazine until the same is full. After the magazine is full, press down the inner case, and when clear down turn to the left to lock it in place. If it is desired to empty the magazine without passing the cartridges through the action, draw the inner tube out en- tirely, and the cartridges will drop out of the mouth of the magazine. To load the rifle. When the hammer is down, the motion of the 34 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Rifle taken apart THE AMERICAN RIFLES 35 sliding forearm backward and forward unlocks, opens, and cocks the rifle, forces the cartridge into the chamber, and locks the rifle. The rifle once closed is locked while the hammer stands at full or half cock. To open the action without firing or letting down the hammer, push forward the firing pin with the thumb, and pull back on the sliding forearm at the same time. When the hammer stands at half cock, the rifle is locked both as to the opening of the breech- block and the pulling of the trigger. The hammer cannot be cocked by the opening motion of the breech-block from this position, but must be cocked by hand. To take dozvn the rifle. Turn out the assembling screw (a stop pin prevents its- dropping completely out), hold the arm by the barrel, with the left side down, and pull the stock from the barrel. Put the rifle together in the same position, first letting down the hammer, and pushing the breech-block to its forward position. Action open To dismount the gun. Take down the gun: All pins drive out from right to left. To take out the breech-block, remove the maga- zine ring pin ; draw out the magazine ; slide out the cover plate ; lift out the action slide; press on the firing pin, unlock the breech-block and draw it out backwards. To take out the extractor, drive out the extractor pin from the bottom of the breech-block. To remove the firing pin, take out the firing-pin stop screws and remove the firing pin stop. The firing pin can then be drawn out. To remove the hammer and carrier block from the tang, take off the stock, loosen the main- spring strain screw and the mainspring screw ; slide the stirrup off the mainspring, pressing down the mainspring to accomplish this. The mainspring can then be swung out sideways. The assembling screw and assembling screw bushing can then be removed and f he hammer 36 THE AMERICAN RIFLE taken out. Take out the trigger ; loosen the trigger spring screw ; drive out the trigger pin. Action closed To assemble the gun. Put in the trigger and trigger spring, carrier and hammer, and slip in the hammer pin. Slide the stirrup over the mainspring and tighten the mainspring screw and mainspring strain screw. Put the firing pin in the breech-block, and replace firing pin stop and stop screws. Replace extractor, driving in pin from top. Slip the breech-block into the frame. Replace action slide, and put on the slide cover. Replace magazine. To do this, turn the magazine so that the loading hole is next the barrel ; slip the magazine stop spring in place ; slide the magazine with stop spring in place so that the lower end of stop spring is under the magazine ring; turn the magazine so that stop spring comes next the barrel, and push it into place. Replace the magazine pin. Replace the butt stock. The Model 1890 rifle has been in use now for over twenty years, and has always given splendid satisfaction. It can be regarded as absolutely reliable in every respect. It is the favorite rifle for the popular shooting galleries, and is there given almost constant use, and very hard use at that. It has been demonstrated times without number that if the rifle is properly taken care of, used with black, Lesmok, or semi-smokeless powder entirely, and never with smokeless powder car- tridges, also when in constant use in the shooting gallery cleaned at least every 100 rounds, it will practically last a lifetime, and give good accuracy all the time. I have seen many of these rifles which have been fired over 100,000 times, and that are still giving fine accuracy. For sporting use the models to be recommended are the Model 1890 firing the Winchester rim-fire cartridge, which is a fine grouse and squirrel rifle; and the Model 1906 which should be used only with THE AMERICAN RIFLES 37 the .22 long rifle ammunition. The latter cartridge is the most accu- rate .22 rim-fire cartridge made, and the firing of the .22 short car- tridge in a rifle chambered for the .22 long rifle cartridge, while possible and practical, will ultimately result in the ruination of the barrel through the burning out of the chamber. The .22 short cartridge should only be used in a rifle which is chambered and rifled for it alone. WINCHESTER REPEATING RIFLE, MODEL 1892 This rifle is exactly the same as the Winchester Model 1886, and everything that has been said regarding that rifle pertains as well to this. The rifle is adapted to the .25-20, .32-20, .38-40 and 44-40 Winchester center-Are cartridges. It is regularly made with barrels of ordinary steel, and weighs from 6% to *fh pounds. In .25 cali- ber particularly it is always best to obtain to special order a nickel-steel barrel, as it is ex- tremely hard to keep one of these small bore rifles clean when using smokeless powder when the bar- rel is made of ordinary steel. When this rifle is made with half-magazine, pistol-grip stock, and shotgun butt plate, it balances excellently and is a most pleasant rifle to handle and shoot. By far the best rear sight that can be placed on this rifle is the Lyman No. 103 which can be obtained to special order for it. This sight has adjustments for both elevation and windage which read to half an inch at 100 yards, and with it all is a per- fect hunting sight for rough work. Owing to the cartridges to which it is adapted this rifle is essentially a short-range arm, and for that purpose is a most excellent model because it can probably be operated faster and easier than any other lever action arm on the market. 38 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Action close To dismount the gun. Take off butt stock. Throw down the lever. Turn out the mainspring strain screw until it does not bear on the spring. Take out the mainspring screw and mainspring. Take out the hammer screw. Withdraw the tang and slip out the hammer. Remove the finger lever pin stop screw (this is the forward screw on the left-hand side of the frame). Drive out the finger lever pin. A hole is left on the right-hand side of the gun, through which a punch may be used to drive out the pin. The pin is opposite this hole when the breech-bolt is in its most forward position. Throw the lever down and draw out the lever with the locking bolts attached. Remove the breech-bolt. Take out the two carrier screws and remove the carrier by pushing it backwards. Remove the cartridge guide screws and take out the guides. i'£2SM IT* 1 ">* I XJ> Action open THE AMERICAN RIFLES 39 To assemble the gun. Slip in the carrier from the lower side. To do this it will be necessary to push in the carrier stop so that the car- rier will slip into place between the walls of the frame. Replace the cartridge guides. The cartridge stop spring in the left-hand guide should be assembled with its point under the cartridge stop and con- caved side towards the receiver. Put in the bolt with the ejector, ejector spring, and collar assembled. Assemble the locking bolts upon the lever and push them, with the lever, into place from the lower side of the gun. Replace the finger lever pin and stop screw. Slip in the tang. Put the hammer in place and put in the hammer screw. As- semble the mainspring loosely on the tang. Catch the stirrup over the end of the mainspring before screwing it fast. Screw fast the main- spring screw and mainspring strain screw. WINCHESTER REPEATING RIFLE, MODEL 1894 This is a tubular-magazine, repeating rifle that was placed on the market in response to a demand for an efficient repeating rifle to handle the popular .32-40 and .38-55 cartridges. It was originally designed for black-powder cartridges. Owing to its light weight and handiness it at once became very popular with sportsmen, particularly for deer hunting. In May, 1895, the famous .30-30 cartridge was adapted to it, a nickel-steel barrel being furnished for this car- tridge. In this caliber the rifle became enormously popular, owing to its good points as a rifle, and also because the .30-30 cartridge proved so far ahead of all-black^powder cartridges for ordinary American sporting use. It is safe to say that even today this rifle in .30-30 caliber has a larger sale than any other American big-game arm. Later on the .25-35 W. C. F., and the .32 Winchester special cartridges were also brought out and adapted to it. The mechanism has ample strength for the cartridges it handles. The breech bolt, worked by a finger lever, is automatically locked and supported by a vertical moving block, which shows on the top of the rifle when it is closed, and covers the whole rear of the breech bolt. The firing pin is automatically withdrawn and the trigger locked until the parts are in the firing position. In order to obtain sufficient move- ment to the rear of the breech bolt to handle the long cartridges adapted to this rifle, the under surface of the receiver (called the "link") drops down, pulling down the locking block and the pivot of the finger lever with it, when the action is opened, and is lifted back into place by the closing movement of the lever. As the lever opens, 40 THE AMERICAN RIFLE u k*&j :\| the cartridge in the magazine is permitted to move to the rear, being forced back by the magazine spring until it lies in the carrier. The latter part of the opening movement of the finger lever lifts the carrier up so that the cartridge is presented in front of the breech bolt in position to be forced into the chamber by the closing movement of THE AMERICAN RIFLES 41 the breech bolt. The arrangement of the carrier and link are such as to prevent the escape of more than one cartridge at a time from the magazine, and to permit of the use of cartridges slightly shorter than the standard. The operation of the rifle will be readily understood from the sectional cuts of the action. Action closed To dismount the gun. Take out the tang screw and remove the butt stock. Take out the finger lever pin stop screw and finger lever pin. Take out the link pin screw and link pin. Take out the finger lever and link. Take out the finger lever link screw, and separate the link from the finger lever. Take out the carrier screw from each side of the gun, and remove the carrier. Take out mainspring screw and mainspring. Take out the hammer screw and hammer, holding up safety catch pin while doing so. Take out lower tang. Take out lock- Hi/T Action open 42 THE AMERICAN RIFLE ing block. Take out the breech-bolt. Take out the cover spring screw and cover spring. Take out the carrier spring screw and carrier spring. To assemble the gun. Put in the carrier spring and carrier spring screw. Put in the cover' spring and cover spring screw. Slip in the breech-bolt. Slip in the locking block from below. Put the hammer in place, and slide the tang into place. Put in the hammer screw, re- membering that the sear cannot be moved without pressing up the safety catch pin. Catch the mainspring on to the stirrup, and put in the mainspring screw. Put in the carrier and replace the carrier screws, one on each side. Assemble the link to the finger lever. Push the finger lever partly up into the gun, and catch the rear end of the link upon the locking block. Put in. the link pin, and the link pin screw. Close the link into the gun, put in finger lever pin and finger lever pin stop screw. Slip on the stock, and put in the tang screw. The Model 1894 rifle is at its best when made up either with 26-inch round barrel, half magazine, pistol grip, and shotgun butt; or in car- bine form. Both of these models are light, and balance and handle well. The carbine is preferable for rough work, and for quick shoot- ing in thick brush, as well as for horseback. By far the best rear sight for this rifle is the Lyman No. 103 rear tang sight, which has adjustments for both elevation and windage reading to half an inch at 100 yards. While this is the best target sight on the market, it is also splendidly adapted for hunting, and is as strong and solid as any. The rifle is made in take-down form as well as solid frame, but the latter model should always be chosen as the accuracy and main- tenance of elevation and zero of take-down rifles can never be de- pended upon. It is not so much a matter of the take-down becoming loose, as it is the introduction of a second joint in the center of the rifle which gives variable flip and vibration. In some rifles that have been in use a long time it will be noticed that the finger lever often drops down at inopportune moments, par- tially opening the action, or even that the action partially opens when the rifle is fired. This is caused by the wearing of the friction stud at the rear end of the link, and the substitution of a new stud will completely correct the trouble. THE AMERICAN RIFLES 43 WINCHESTER REPEATING RIFLE, MODEL 1895 This rifle was placed 011 the market to handle the more powerful of the modern cartridges which were so long that they could not be suc- cessfully handled by the old-style, tubular magazine rifles. It was the first box-magazine, lever-action rifle placed on the market. It was first brought out in a model somewhat different from the present type, having a different finger lever, and a slightly different receiver. A little experience with this first model showed that a secure lock for the finger lever was necessary by reason of the peculiar construction of the action, and the present model took its place. Very few of the first model were sold, it being adapted to the .30-40 U. S. cartridge (KragO, the .236 navy cartridge, the .38-72 and .40-72 black-powder cartridges. The new model was made for all these cartridges except the navy cartridge, but the manufacture of this rifle for the black- powder cartridge was discontinued several years ago. At present this rifle is being made to handle the following cartridges : .30-40 U. S. Government ; .303 British ; .30 Model 1903 ; .30 Model 1906 ; .35 W. C. F. and .405 W. C. F. It is made in sporting, carbine, and musket styles, all having round, nickel-steel barrels. The receiver, open at the top, permits the symmetrical locking of the breech bolt. The first opening motion of the finger lever withdraws the trigger from contact with the sear, before the gun is unlocked, so that it is impossible to fire the gun except when fully locked. The con- tinued opening motion of the lever draws down the locking bolt and withdraws the breech bolt, cocking the rifle and ejecting the cartridge or fired shell. The breech bolt, passing over the hammer, presses the firing pin lock against the latter, and makes fast the firing pin. When the breech bolt is in its rearmost position the hammer is made to hold it open by contact, so that the magazine may be easily loaded. When in this position the upper cartridge in the magazine is so presented as to engage the breech bolt. The closing action of the lever carries forward the breech bolt, forcing the cartridge out of the magazine into the chamber. After the breech bolt has reached its closed position, the locking bolt is lifted into place, first locking the rifle, and afterwards unlocking the firing pin. The final closing movement of the lever presents the trigger against the sear, leaving the rifle in position for firing. The magazine is of the box type, and presents the cartridges to the lower front edge of the breech bolt in position to be forced into the 44 THE AMERICAN RIFLE chamber, and is arranged to prevent the escape of the cartridge fol- lowing before the preceding one is in the grasp of the extractor, thus preventing the jamming of the rifle by false movement. The opera- THE AMERICAN RIFLES 45 tion of the rifle can be readily understood by an examination of the sectional cuts showing the action. The rifle is loaded by opening the action, grasping a cartridge with the bullet between the thumb and forefingers, and forcing the head of the cartridge between the lips of the magazine. Then move the head of the cartridge to the rear of the magazine against the face of the breech bolt, and turn the cartridge down forward into the magazine, following with the thumb until the entire cartridge lies in the grasp of the lips of the magazine. Repeat with each cartridge. Rifles cham- bered for the .30-40 and .303 British cartridges hold five cartridges in the magazine. The others hold only four cartridges, which with one in the chamber, makes five shots at the command of the rifleman. The rifle is made in both solid frame and take-down models, the former being always advised for reasons stated in Chapter XIX. Action closed To dismount the gun. Remove the forearm and butt stock. Open the lever and remove the carrier screw and magazine tip screws. (These are the three lower screws in the forward end of the receiver.) Remove the magazine with the inclosed carrier, turn out the main- spring strain screw, take out the mainspring screw and mainspring. Close the lever and remove the hammer screw and hammer. Remove the finger lever pin stop screw and drive out the finger lever pin from the forward hole in right side of receiver. Remove the link pin. (This connects the link with the lower tang.) The finger lever, link and trigger can then be removed together. Take out the sear spring screw (the forward screw on the bottom of the lower tang) and the sear pin. Take out the locking bolt and breech-bolt. 4 6 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Action open To assemble the gun. Put in the breech-bolt, assembled complete with firing pin, extractor and ejector. Put in the locking bolt. Put in the sear, sear pin and spring. Put in the finger lever and drive in the finger lever pin from the left side. Put in the finger lever pin stop screw. Attach the link to the lower tang by the link pin and drive in the finger lever link pin, connecting the link with the finger lever. (This link should be attached to the tang with the trigger and finger lever catch all assembled.) Put in the hammer and hammer screw. Put in the mainspring and mainspring screw, and turn up the main- spring strain screw. Put in the magazine with carrier in place. Insert the carrier screw through the receiver, magazine and carrier. Replace the forearm and butt stock. Until the advent of the Newton rifle, the Winchester Model 1895 was, generally speaking, the only rifle made in America which used' cartridges that can be considered as powerful enough for all kinds of American game. The rifle is very strong and reliable. Its func- tioning is absolutely sure provided one takes the precaution of always operating the lever to its fullest extent ; that is, working it hard, throw- ing it fully open and fully shut each time. It permits of using un- crimped ammunition and pointed bullets which cannot be used satis- factorily in the tubular magazines. This rifle has been used with great THE AMERICAN RIFLES 47 success for twenty years by sportsmen all over the world, and has always given splendid satisfaction, except in one particular. On ac- count of the protruding magazine and the balance it is rather an un- comfortable rifle to carry. The magazine precludes the rifle being carried in the usual way, barrel up, on the shoulder, and also comes just where the hand grasps it when it is carried at a trail ; that is, in the hand, by the side, with the barrel horizontal. These faults can, however, be forgiven in view of its other good points. There is very little to get out of order or break about the action, which is unusually simple for a lever-action arm. One good feature is the unusual strength of grip, which insures against breakage in the field and also contributes to the good shooting qualities of the rifle. One feature this rifle shares with all lever-action rifles made in this country, but it is more evident in the Model 1895 than in the others because it uses ammunition having a higher breech pressure. I refer to the elasticity of the action, which allows a certain spring to the breech bolt when cartridges developing pressures of much over 42,000 pounds per square inch are used. This springing of the breech bolt per- mits the stretching of the fired shells, so that shells fired with high pressure in lever actions are stretched so that they cannot be reloaded satisfactorily. They will not fit the chamber after they have once been fired without undue force being used on the lever to close the action. The body of the shell is stretched, and this cannot be over- come with a shell resizing die. As a result when the more powerful cartridges are used in this rifle it will be necessary to use new shells for special loads, and if one wishes to use reduced loads he will have to get new shells for them also, although shells that have only been fired with reduced loads can be used indefinitely for these loads, or used once for the full charge. This trouble is not experienced to any extent in the .30-40 or .303 British cartridges. This rifle cannot be used with the ordinary Lyman combination tang sight as the breech bolt has such a long travel to the rear that it interferes with the sight on the tang. The only tang sight that can be used is that with flexible base made by the Marble Arms and Tool Co. This sight is held in position by a spring, and when the breech bolt comes to the rear the sight is pushed down by it. As the breech bolt moves forward in closing the rifle, the sight springs up into firing position again. This sight is the correct one for Model 1895 rifles chambered for the .30-40 and .303 British cartridges. The other cartridges for this rifle, however, develop a little too,, much 48 THE AMERICAN RIFLE recoil for a tang sight ; there is liability of the sight hitting the rifle- man in the eye during the recoil, particularly in the hunting fields, where it is not always possible to take a firm, regular standing position as one naturally does on the target range. When a rifle with one of the heavier cartridges is used, by far the best rear sight is the Lyman No. 41 receiver sight with wind gauge. The No. 21 sight usually seen on this rifle does not permit of sufficient delicacy of adjustment for elevation. It is recommended that the rifle be always equipped with shotgun stock, and with a checked steel butt plate, which can always be obtained on special order without extra charge. The rifle butt plate increases the recoil, and makes snap shooting more difficult, and rubber butt plates will not stand the wear and tear of real wilderness hunting, par- ticularly in mountainous countries where it is absolutely necessary sometimes to use the butt of the rifle as an aid to climbing, par- ticularly in rock work. WINCHESTER SINGLE SHOT RIFLE I consider this the strongest and most reliable rifle action ever made. Of course it is a single shot, and there is no excuse for such a rifle not being strong and reliable, as it has only to open and close to receive the single cartridge loaded by hand and is not called upon mechanically to take a cartridge out of a magazine, insert it in the chamber, and finally withdraw and eject it, as repeating rifles are. This has always been my favorite action, particularly for target shooting and experi- mental work, testing, etc. Even as a young boy of thirteen I strongly admired one of these rifles exhibited in the window of a local gun- store, and longed for the time when I could possess one. At the present time I own no less than seven of them for various cartridges, and have at one time or another owned eighteen. It is the best action made for Schuetzen target shooting, and is the favorite one to which to attach special Pope and Neidner hand-made barrels. The barrels that the Winchester Company regularly equip this rifle with are the best commercial barrels for accuracy that it is possible to obtain. I have one of these rifles for the .30-40 cartridge with regular Win- chester barrel, which in many years has never missed a 2.y 2 inch circle at 100 yards that has not been my fault. The rifle makes a most excellent hunting rifle too, when speed of fire is not a necessity. I used this same .30-40 single shot for one season's big-game hunting in British Columbia, as well as on many hunts in the tropical jungle THE AMERICAN RIFLES 49 of Central America, and I never had any fault to find with it, even when rapidity of fire was considered, except only when my hands were numb with cold, making the handling of the cartridge and loading a slow operation. I have often gotten in two or three shots 50 THE AMERICAN RIFLE at running game with it. When a man has used a certain rifle for twenty years and it has never failed him a single time, he acquires a certain respect and attachment for it. The Winchester single shot rifle is made in a great variety of calibers from the tiny .22 rim fire to the big .405 W. C. F. and 45-70 cartridges. At one time or another this rifle has been made for prac- tically every cartridge that the Winchester Company has produced, but at the present time it is being made only for the most popular cart- ridges. It is regularly made only for cartridges having a rimmed shell, but a few have been made to order for the National Rifle Asso- ciation adapted to the rimless .30 Model 1906 cartridge. It is usually put out with a heavy barrel, especially for the larger cartridges. This barrel is called the No. 3, and rifles with it weigh in the neighborhood of nine pounds. This heavy barrel is free from the vibrations that influence all thin barrels to a certain extent, and it holds its elevation and zero splendidly, especially when the rifle is one with solid frame. These No. 3 barrels are regularly made 30 inches long. This is longer than necessary, and I have adopted for myself a standard of 27-inch barrel, pistol grip, and shotgun butt plate. As so made the rifle bal- ances finely, and one would scarcely believe that it weighed as much as nine pounds. Winchester single shot rifle, caliber .30-40 U. S. owned by the author. Equipped with Winchester telescope sight, Marble flexible rear sight, Lyman ivory bead windgauge front sight, pistol-grip, shotgun butt-stock, and 27-inch No. 3 round barrel of nickel steel. This rifle has a sliding breech-block which drops down through slots in the receiver when the finger level is opened, thus allowing access to the chamber for loading, and also permitting the rifle to be cleaned and examined from the breech. The breech-block is supported by the heavy slots in the interior walls of the receiver, and by the whole of the rear part of the receiver. It is impossible for the breech-block to open up or blow back during firing, except by force which would destroy the entire action. The firing pin is automatically withdrawn THE AMERICAN RIFLES 5i at the first opening movement of the rifle, and held back until the rifle is closed. The hammer is centrally hung and drops down with the breech-block. On closing the breech-block the hammer formerly came to full cock, but the rifle is now made so that it comes only to half cock when the action is closed. It can be made to order, however, to come to full cock as in the early model. Single and double-set trig- gers can be furnished for the rifle, and are desirable if the arm is to be used only for target shooting of testing ammunition. For a hunting rifle I very much prefer the single trigger which can be adjusted to pull at any weight by a good gunsmith. I have mine adjusted to just two pounds, and they are all mighty sweet, clean pulls. The firing pin I have not found altogether satisfactory, especially where smokeless cartridges and non-mercuric primers are used. It misses fire occasionally, and sometimes punctures the primers when used with such ammunition. The late Dr. Mann invented a firing pin for this action which is most perfect, and completely cures this trouble, as well as permitting enormous charges to be fired in the rifle with a complete absence of primer troubles. This firing pin can only be adjusted to the rifle now by Mr. A. O. Neidner of No. 18 Beacon Street, Maiden, Mass., he alone, having the plans and specifications for it. In deference to the desire of Dr. Mann, expressed to me before his death, I defer from describing it here. I believe he intended to de- scribe it in a book that he was preparing at the time of his death. * 1 ill 1 iWii -^ Action closed To dismount the gun. Take off the forearm. Take out the ejector spring. Loosen the stop screw and take out the finger lever pin. 52 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Draw out the breech-block by the finger lever with the hammer at- tached. The extractor will drop out. If it is desired to remove the trigger or sear, take off the stock. Remove the side tang screws and tang; the pieces attached to the tang can then be removed by pushing out the pins which hold them. Remove the sear spring screw and spring. To assemble the gun. Replace the sear spring and screw. Mount the trigger and other parts of the lock on the tang, and slide it into place. Replace the side tang screws. Assemble together the hammer spring, hammer, breech-block, and finger lever, and hold them in the same relation to each other as shown in the cut ; that is, the firing pin protruding, and the hammer against the breech-block. In this posi- tion push them from the under side of the gun partly into position. Put in extractor, and push the whole into place, holding back the trig- ger, so that the sear may not catch on the hammer. Open action, re- place ejector spring, taking care to see that its inner end rests in its seat on the extractor. Replace stock and forearm. WINCHESTER SELF-LOADING RIFLES, MODELS I903, I905, I907 AND I9IO The operation of all the Winchester Auto-Loading Rifles is practi- cally identical. The recoil from the fired cartridge ejects the empty shell, cocks the hammer, and throws a fresh cartridge into the chamber. Integral with the breech-block is a heavy weight so arranged that the weight lies in a recess in the forearm. This weighted bolt is held forward so that its face comes against the opening of the chamber by a heavy bolt spring. When the recoil of the fired cartridge comes on the face of the bolt the inertia of the weight has first to be disturbed, putting the bolt into motion, and moving it to the rear against the tension of the bolt spring. The inertia of the weight is such as to de- lay the starting of the backward movement of the breech bolt until the bullet has left the barrel, and the whole force of the recoil is sufficient to fully operate the breech bolt to the rear. This rear move- ment of the breech bolt from recoil extracts and ejects the fired shell, and presents the head of the bolt in the rear of the next cartridge in the magazine which has been forced up in front of the bolt as soon as the latter reaches its rearmost position, by the action of the magazine spring. The bolt having been forced to the rear by the recoil, the bolt spring then acts to move it forward into its original place, closing the bolt, THE AMERICAN RIFLES 53 forcing the top cartridge into the chamber, and leaving the rifle cocked and ready for instant firing. To operate the rifle it is necessary for the first shot to fill the magazine, and then to push quickly back on the operating sleeve, which will be found projecting just in front of the forearm tip. This operates the breech bolt exactly as firing would have done, and places a cartridge in the chamber of the rifle, leaving the rifle full cocked and ready for firing. To fire the rifle it is necessary only to pull the trigger, the action operating itself by recoil. The instant the rifle is fired it is all ready for firing again, but the trigger has to be pulled for each shot. When loaded and all ready for firing the rifle can be locked by pushing the safety, found on the trigger guard just in rear of the trigger, to the left. Immediately after firing each shot the trigger should be released, allowing it to move fully forward. The operation of this type of rifle will easily be under- stood by an examination of the sectional cuts. The Model 1903 rifle is a .22 caliber, using the .22 Winchester Automatic smokeless cartridge. The magazine is contained in the butt stock, and the rifle is loaded by holding the rifle muzzle down, and turning the magazine plug, seated in the depression in the butt- plate, to the left, drawing out the magazine tube until the magazine follower clears opening in stock. Drop the cartridges, bullet foremost, through the opening in the right side of the stock into the magazine. Push in the magazine tube and lock it by turning the magazine plug to the right. This is an excellent little arm for fancy rifle shooting, and for all use where extreme rapidity of fire in a .22 caliber is desirable. The cartridge is not quite as powerful as the .22 long rifle cartridge, being inside lubricated, and having a 45-grain bullet with a muzzle velocity of 903 feet per second. It is to be regretted that the cartridge manufacturers have never brought out a cartridge for this rifle loaded with Lesmok or semi-smokeless powder. The smoke- less cartridge is quite accurate but will sooner or later ruin the bore of the rifle through pitting, and no known way of cleaning will prevent this. In such a case the only thing to do is to send the rifle to the factory to have a new barrel fitted. The cartridge has a hardened bullet that does not expand well on animal tissue, and as a consequence it has hardly sufficient killing power for even the smallest game. Too much wounded game will escape, and in the interests of humanity this rifle should never be used on game larger than English sparrows and rats. 54 THE AMERICAN RIFLE : M i v,m % INSTRUCTIONS FOR DISMOUNTING AND ASSEMBLING THE WINCHESTER SELF-LOADING RIFLE. MODEL 1903 To dismount parts attached to the receiver. Take down gun by un- screwing take-down screw. Note that all pins are driven out from left to right. Remove forearm tip screws. Draw forearm tip for- ward, and free it from forearm tip tenon together with operating THE AMERICAN RIFLES 55 Action closed sleeve. Remove operating sleeve spring. Remove forearm tip tenon, driving from right to left. Remove forearm. Unscrew bolt guide rod and draw it forward out of bolt. Remove bolt spring. Retract bolt to rear of receiver and lift rear end of bolt away from top of receiver and withdraw from receiver. Remove ejector screw and drive ejector to rear. To remove extractor, take out extractor plunger stop screw ; insert thin instrument such as a knife blade between extractor and extractor plunger ; retract extractor plunger to fullest possible extent, and then extractor may be lifted out. Remove the extractor plunger and spring. To remove firing pin and bolt roll, drive out firing pin stop pin, releasing bolt roll. Withdraw firing pin and firing pin spring. To replace extractor, insert extractor spring and plunger in extractor spring hole and retain plunger in its retired position by means of pin or other small article, pressing on its forward end through extractor slot. Insert extractor until it rests upon the pin which is maintaining extractor plunger in retired position. Withdraw pin and push ex- tractor down in its original position. Replace extractor plunger stop screw. Assemble other parts contained in receiver in reverse order. Action open To dismount parts attached to the tang. Turn magazine plug to the left and withdraw inner magazine tube. Remove butt plate screws and butt plate. Unscrew butt stock nut. (A split screw-driver is necessary for this in order to straddle outer magazine tube.) Take off butt stock. Withdraw trigger lock plunger and spring from rear of tang. To remove magazine friction spring, drive forward out of dovetail cut in which it is seated, using the small hole in the spring 56 THE AMERICAN RIFLE base as a driving point. To remove hammer, allow hammer to assume its forward or dropped position. Drive out hammer spring abutment pin and turn hammer spring abutment to one side and lift out, re- lieving strain on hammer spring. Drive out hammer pin, and slide hammer, with spring and hammer spring guide rod attached, forward. To remove cartridge cut-off, drive out pin, and cartridge cut-off with spring can be lifted out. To remove sear and trigger, drive out trigger pin and withdraw trigger through guard, and trigger spring may be withdrawn from its seat in rear of tang by forcing it forward into trigger slot. Push out trigger lock from either side. It is not advis- able to remove magazine throat from tang, as these parts are put together so snugly that they are liable to be damaged unless proper appliances are at hand for removing them. To remove take-down screw lock and spring, drive out stop pin in shank of take-down screw, remove take-down screw, drive out take-down screw lock pin, and with- draw take-down screw lock and spring. To assemble parts in tang. Replace take-down screw lock and spring, and drive in take-down screw lock pin, holding take-down screw lock in the tang. Insert take-down screw and replace take-down screw stop pin, replace cartridge cut-off and trigger spring. Replace trigger lock with the letter " L " on the lower right hand side ; replace trigger and sear, taking care that sear spring is properly seated in sear. Slip hammer with spring and hammer spring guide rod attached over throat as far to the rear as possible, maintaining meanwhile a rear- ward draught on sear so that base of hammer may pass well back on top of sear. While hammer is in this rearward position, slip in ham- mer spring abutment, and replace hammer spring abutment pin. In placing hammer spring abutment, it should be noted that the larger side of the hole for passage of the hammer spring guide rod should be on forward side. Press base of hammer forward and align hammer pin hole with its opening in the tang, entering hammer spring guide rod through hole in hammer spring abutment, and replace hammer pin. Replace trigger lock plunger and spring. Replace butt stock. The Model 1905 rifle handles the .32 and .35 Winchester self- loading cartridge. The Model 1907 handles the .351 Winchester self- loading cartridge, and the Model 1910 the .401 Winchester self-loading cartridge. These models are all practically identical except as to cartridges and calibers. The magazine, situated in front of the trigger guard, is detachable by pressing forward on the magazine lock found on the right side of the forward end of the guard. Then THE AMERICAN RIFLES 57 pull out the magazine. The action should always be closed before placing the magazine in the rifle. To fill the magazine, detach it from the rifle and press the head of the cartridge on the magazine follower or preceding cartridge, immediately forward of the curved lips of the magazine. Press the cartridge down and back under the maga- zine lips until it slides into the magazine. Place the magazine in the rifle. To load, quickly push back the operating sleeve as far as it will go and let it spring forward. The mechanism of all these rifles is so simple that it is not at all liable to get out of order if given anything like proper care. It should be kept clean and oiled with a light oil. These rifles have been in use now for a number of years and have proved very reliable in their functioning, practically as much so as the best hand-operated, repeating rifles. They are excellent for any use where rapidity of fire is desired, particularly for the shooting of medium-sized game in thick cover. INSTRUCTIONS FOR DISMOUNTING AND ASSEMBLING THE WINCHESTER SELF-LOADING RIFLES, MODELS I905, I907 AND I9IO Action closed To dismount parts attached to the receiver. Cock hammer, release and unscrew take-down screw, take gun apart. Note that all pins are driven out from left to right. Remove forearm tip nut. Draw fore- arm tip with operating sleeve forward. Draw forearm forward, un- screw bolt guide rod and draw it out of bolt. Remove bolt spring. Do not remove washer and buffer. Retract bolt to rear of receiver, lift forward end away from barrel and remove. Ejector is permanently fixed in receiver and can be removed only by unscrewing barrel from receiver. This should not be done. To remove extractor, take out extractor plunger stop screw, insert thin instrument, such as a knife blade, between extractor and extractor plunger, retract extractor plunger to fullest possible extent, then extractor may be lifted out. Remove extractor plunger arid spring. To remove firing pin, drive out firing pin stop pin from below, withdraw firing pin and firing pin spring. 58 THE AMERICAN RIFLE To assemble parts attached to the receiver. When replacing firing pin, drive firing pin stop pin in from above with flat end of pin down, so that crowned end is below top surface of bolt. To replace ex- tractor, insert extractor spring and plunger, and retain plunger in its retired position by means of pin or other small article, pressing on its forward end through extractor slot. Insert extractor until it rests upon the pin which is maintaining extractor plunger in retired posi- tion. Withdraw pin and push extractor down into its original posi- tion. Replace extractor plunger stop screw. When replacing bolt — in case washer and buffer have been removed — insert steel washer on top of buffer. The operating sleeve spring must be compressed in operating sleeve, and retained in this position while assembling, by a pin through hole in side of operating sleeve. Assemble other parts contained in receiver in reverse order from that in which they were dismounted. Action open To dismount parts attached to the guard. Press magazine lock inward and withdraw magazine. Remove butt plate, unscrew butt stock bolt and take off butt stock. To remove hammer, remove tim- ing lever spring screw and spring, drive hammer pin part way out and remove timing lever. With thumb resting on face of hammer, pull trigger, allowing hammer to assume forward position, drive ham- mer pin out. To remove sear and trigger, drive out trigger pin, re- move the sear, sear spring and trigger, push trigger spring forward and out from rear. To remove trigger lock, insert pin or other small ar- ticle through hole in trigger lock, press trigger lock plunger downward, and at the same time push trigger lock out from right to left. Remove trigger lock plunger and spring. To remove take-down screw and take-down screw lock, drive out stop pin in shank of take-down screw, and remove take-down screw. Remove take-down screw lock by push- ing it forward and upward from rear of guard. Remove magazine lock screw, magazine lock, and magazine lock spring. Assemble in reverse order. Note that trigger lock is assembled with letter L down and on right hand side of gun. THE AMERICAN RIFLES 59 To dismount the magazine. Raise up front end of follower and pull it clear of magazine. To assemble the magazine. Replace spring with large portion down, and with cut-off end toward rear. Place follower on spring with end hooked over stud underneath. Press follower down and slide it under lips of magazine. Rifle taken down To take dozvn the gun. Cock the gun by pushing in the operating sleeve. Press down the take-down screw lock, found under the take- down screw, located at the rear of the receiver, and turn the take- down screw to the left until it is free from the receiver. Draw the barrel and forearm directly forward. In cleaning the barrel, retract the bolt by pushing back the operating sleeve and lock it in that posi- tion by turning the tip either to the right or left. THE REMINGTON-U. M. C. AUTO-LOADING RIFLE, MODEL NO. 8 This is a high-power, auto-loading rifle adapted to the .25, .30, .32, and .35 caliber Remington-U. M. C. auto-loading cartridges. The re- coil throws the locked-together barrel and breech bolt backward against springs. These springs not only retard and control the backward movement, but also serve to eject the empty shell and to cock and reload the rifle. In these respects it differs from all other auto-load- ing sporting rifles made in the United States, all others being of the " blow-back " type, the bolt only moving to the rear, its movement being retarded by a weight and springs until the bullet has left the barrel. The Remington-U. M. C. principle is without doubt the best, and it can be used with ammunition having a higher breech pressure than the other type, but the action requires more parts and is slightly more complicated. We thus see this rifle using cartridges which will perform well at long range, whereas the other types use cartridges which will do effective work only at short ranges. 6o THE AMERICAN RIFLE The mechanical operation of this rifle is best described in six stages : THE AMERICAN RIFLES 61 First stage. At the moment of firing. The hammer has struck the firing pin, driving it forward, exploding the primer, and firing the cartridge. The bolt carrier is locked to the rear of the barrel by the turned position of the breech bolt, there being two locking lugs at the head of the breech bolt similar to the lugs on the Mauser type of rifle. This locked position of the bolt and barrel locks the cartridge in the chamber — all gas pressure is held in — all drive of the explosion is behind the bullet. Second stage. The cartridge having been fired, the recoil instantly develops. The barrel and bolt carrier, locked together, start rear- ward, bringing with them the fired shell. The barrel slides rearward through the barrel jacket — the steel casing outside the barrel proper to which the sights are affixed. The rearward rush of barrel and bolt carrier compresses the heavy recoil and lighter action springs, pushing the hammer backward. Towards the completion of the re- coil motion the resistance of the buffer spring is encountered. This spring slows down the further rearward motion of the barrel and bolt carrier. Third stage. At the instant of completing the rearward move- ment. The recoil and action springs are fully compressed. A pro- jecting latch on the side of the frame, called the " bolt-carrier latch," is allowed at this point to spring into a notch, locking the bolt in its rearward position. The hammer, pushed back to full rear position, is thrown into the safety notch. The trigger is held as if by pressure of the finger when pulled to fire. It will be necessary to release this pressure and allow the trigger to engage with the hammer by the front notch before the next shot can be fired. Each shot, therefore, is under complete control of the trigger finger. Fourth stage. The instant the recoil is spent, the recoil spring begins to draw the barrel forward in its jacket. The barrel and bolt carrier start forward. The bolt carrier moves but a little distance, as it is held from going completely forward by the bolt carrier latch engaging a notch in the bolt carrier. The barrel, relieved from the bolt carrier, continues its forward movement, revolving the breech bolt proper and thus unlocking itself from it. The empty shell is held in position by the extractor until the forward motion of the barrel withdraws the shell entirely from the chamber, when the ejector, held against the base of the shell by the ejector spring, is al- lowed to throw the fired shell up and entirely clear of the rifle. Fifth stage. The recoil spring has carried the barrel forward to 62 THE AMERICAN RIFLE its full forward rest position. The top cartridge in the magazine has been forced upward by the magazine spring. The barrel extension has forced down the barrel lock, which in turn has pressed upward on the forward end of the bolt carrier latch, withdrawing it from the notch on the bolt carrier, and allowing the bolt carrier to start forward, propelled by the pressure of the action spring. The bolt carrier then pushes the top cartridge in the magazine up an incline on the top of the magazine and breech, starting it forward into the chamber. The hammer is still held in the safety notch, and will not be allowed to spring into the forward notch until the bolt carrier has completed its forward motion to lock the fresh cartridge in the chamber. Sixth stage. The bolt carrier has now completed its forward move- ment, forcing the cartridge completely into the chamber. The claw of the extractor has ridden over the head of the shell ready for ex- tracting after firing. The firing pin is in position to be struck by the hammer. The breech bolt carrier has completed its forward motion, rotating the breech bolt so as to turn the locking lugs into their seats in the barrel extension, thus locking the breech bolt to the barrel, and locking the cartridge in the chamber. The trigger is held by the for- ward notch. The rifle is fully cocked, ready to fire. If it is desired to make the rifle safe for carrying, etc., the raising of the safety lever on the right side of the receiver will throw the safety rocker on the rear of the trigger, locking it. DIRECTIONS FOR OPERATING To load. With the safety thrown down, open the breech by draw- ing the operating handle back as far as it will go. This will expose the opening or entrance to magazine, which can be filled by inserting one cartridge at a time or the full quantity (5), by use of cartridge clip. Three clips are furnished with each auto-loading rifle. To load zvith clip. Drop a clip with its five cartridges in the top of receiver, place the end of the thumb on topmost cartridge near the clip, close up to the head, and press the cartridge down into the maga- zine, then draw back slightly on the operating handle and let it go for- ward, which will push a cartridge into the chamber. To load without clip. If not using clip, press the cartridges into the magazine one at a time until it is full, then draw back slightly on the operating handle and let it go forward, which will force the cartridge from the magazine into the chamber. THE AMERICAN RIFLES 63 To refill the magazine when partly empty. It frequently happens that after firing one or more shots it is desirable to refill the maga- zine. To do this, draw back the operating handle as far as it will go and press upward on the thumb-piece of magazine indicator located on left hand side of receiver on lower edge, which will hold the bolt open. After filling the magazine, draw back slightly on the operating handle and let it snap forward. To use a single loader. Drop a cartridge on top of magazine and press down on thumb-piece on left hand side of receiver; or press a cartridge into the magazine, draw back on the operating handle and let it snap forward. To take dozen. A single " take down " system permits the Reming- ton-U. M. C. Auto-loading Rifle being taken down and put together "'X Auto-loading rifle, taken down easily and quickly. This is especially convenient for carrying and cleaning. With the breech closed, unscrew the swivel and remove the forearm, drawing forward toward the muzzle. This will expose the as- sembling screw with lever attached which holds the barrel jacket and receiver together. Turn the lever down and unscrew, pull barrel jacket forward and it will separate from the receiver. This take-down is extremely durable and positively ^ will not wear loose if assembling ||V screw is kept tight. To put together. Open the breech. M Insert end of barrel extension into _ . receiver and press back until the Setting -ill- r* breech-bolt jacket head enters its seat. Screw » km.. ■m 64 THE AMERICAN RIFLE down assembling screw tight. Close breech by pressing down on magazine indicator thumb-piece ; at the same time hold operating handle to prevent bolt snapping forward quickly. Now, if lugs on bolt do not enter slot in barrel extension, draw back operating handle about one inch and hold it there ; then with a cartridge, screw-driver or other implement, push bolt forward until the lugs on bolt are in posi- tion to enter slot in barrel extension. Generally the bolt can be pushed forward with the finger and no implement required. Note that only when the bolt is in its forward position can the lock- ing lugs on bolt enter the slot in barrel extension. Care should be taken to see that assembling screw is always kept tight. Sectional views l^^^^^^mm *^^^BE?L !l ' __— s^— — ifS Action closed Action open I have had almost ten years' experience with this rifle and know it to be most reliable in its action and functioning. In all this time I have known but one accident to occur, the breaking of the recoil spring on a .25 caliber rifle. It can be regarded as perfectly reliable so long as the action is kept reasonably clean and lubricated. It is a good, accurate rifle and can be recommended to any one desiring extreme rapidity of fire as the best of our self-loading rifles. As has been stated, it is the only self-loading rifle that is adapted to cartridges suitable for use at ranges over 200 yards. Of the cartridges adapted to it, the .25 caliber is the most accurate and the most pleasant to fire. THE AMERICAN RIELES 65 The recoil of the .35 caliber cartridge is rather severe, as the auto- loading feature seems to retard the time of recoil so as to make it felt more. The rifle is regularly furnished with a 22-inch smokeless steel barrel, and with either straight or pistol-grip stocks. Either rifle or shotgun butt stocks can be furnished, but the shotgun butt is only furnished with a hard rubber butt-plate, which is very apt to become broken or chipped in rough service. The safety lock on the right side of the receiver has a very small projection to operate it. This projection should be enlarged to afford a firm grip for the thumb and forefinger. It would then be capable of much easier and quicker operation, especially with gloved hands, and it could be held away from the receiver slightly so as to operate noiselessly. As made, whenever the safety of the rifle is thrown from safe to ready, there is a decidedly audible click which is liable to alarm game just at the wrong moment. The trigger pull is very good, better than that on any other automatic rifle. The complete rifle weighs about yVz pounds. Both Lyman and Marble tang, and Lyman receiver sights, can be fitted to the rifle. REMINGTON-U. M. C. HIGH POWER, SLIDE ACTION SPORTING RIFLE This is a high-power, big-game rifle which is operated by means of a sliding forearm. It is adapted to the .25, .30, .32, and .35 Remington- U. M. C. auto-loading cartridges, and to the .38-40 and .44-40 W. F. C. cartridges. The rifle is hammerless, side ejecting, and has a solid breech and solid top. A new form of spiral magazine is provided which holds the cartridges end to end, and at the same time absolutely prevents any bullet in the magazine from coming in contact with the primer of the next cartridge ahead. The breech bolt is securely locked by a lug on top and near its head. The opening movement of the rifle, by pulling the slide to the rear, first starts the breech-block open by a powerful wedge action which easily starts the tightest shells from the chamber, after which the con- tinued backward movement of the slide handle completes the with- drawal of the breech-block to the rear, extracting and ejecting the fired shell, and taking a new cartridge from the magazine and sliding it up in front of the face of the breech-block until it is in the grasp of the extractor, and held against the face of the breech-block. The closing of the rifle by pulling forward the slide handles moves the breech- block forward, forcing the new cartridge into the chamber, and wedges 66 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 06 06 the block up so that the recoil lug seats into its recess in the top wall of the receiver, and locks the rifle. Three distinct safety devices prevent the firing pin from exploding THE AMERICAN RIFLES 67 the cartridge in the chamber until the arm is fully locked. The trigger is out of contact with the sear. The sear lock blocks the sear into the firing pin notch. The action bar blocks the firing pin from reaching the primer until the action bar is in its forward position and locked in that position by the action bar lock. Any one of these devices alone would be sufficient to insure safety from premature explosion. The action is very positive, and much more powerful than one would suppose with a slide-operated arm. It is not at all likely to jam, and it handles the cartridges very easily and quickly. An action operated with the sliding forearm is quite a little quicker than the lever action, being excelled in rapidity of fire only by the automatics. The lines of the rifle are very good, and it is an attractive appearing weapon. It should be particularly good for hunting in thick timber where quick shooting is often necessary. The open rear and bead front sights are very low lying, being much closer to the barrel than in any other rifle on the market. In fact this matter has been very much overdone, and the regular factory sights are so close to the barrel that the glimmer from the top of the barrel often interferes with clear aim. But this is not much of a disadvantage as the riflemen of experience will of course remove these sights and replace them with a tang peep sight, and an ivory bead front sight of regular height. One slight dis- advantage is that there is a slight rattle to the slide handle as one walks and this will have to be looked out for when one stalks close to game. The sear is unusually long, and as the rifle comes from the factory the trigger pull is rather creepy, and it is hard to smooth it down. Barring these slight faults the rifle is an excellent one, made of the very best materials, and with good workmanship. The action can be almost com- pletely dismounted without any tools, in which respect it is way ahead of most sporting rifles. It can be strongly recommended to those who fancy a rifle operated with sliding forearm action, particularly to sportsmen who have been used to using the repeating shotguns operated in the same manner. The regular factory rifle is made with 22-inch smokeless steel barrel, except in .38 and .44 calibers, which have a.22%-inch plain steel barrel: The weight is from 6% to 7 pounds. A carbine model is also made with 18^-inch barrel weighing 6 1 /£ pounds. The magazine for the .25, .30, .32, and .35 Remington-U. M. C. cartridges holds six shots. The full magazine of the .38 and .44-caliber models holds eleven shots, and the carbine of the same model nine cartridges. The rifle models have very good pistol grip stocks with the grip pushed up close to the trigger 68 THE AMERICAN RIFLE where it belongs, and shotgun butt-plates. Carbines have straight grip stocks. DIRECTIONS FOR OPERATING These instructions should be followed step by step. Do not run ahead of instructions. Loading. Open the action by pushing back the fore-end or slide handle (if the arm is cocked, press in the unlocking plunger on ex- posed side of breech block) and insert cartridge in chamber. Push the fore-end or slide handle completely forward, turn the arm over, ex- posing the loading door at the under side of action bar just back of the fore-end. Insert the nose of a cartridge into the forked front end of the loading door, pushing the magazine follower ahead of the bullet. Push the cartridge forward completely into magazine, then let go, when this first cartridge will immediately be driven backward by the magazine spring. The other four cartridges may now be loaded into the magazine. To load the chamber from the magazine, move the fore-end rear- ward to the fullest extent, then completely forward. The fore-end is now locked in its forward position until the arm is fired, after which the fore-end may be instantly moved backward and forward, again re- peating the action. To open the breech of the gun without tiring, or whenever firing pin is cocked, press the unlocking plunger exposed at right side of breech block while starting the fore-end rearward. Single loading. Pull slide handle backward to open the breech, in- sert the cartridge partially into the chamber, then close breech by pulling slide handle completely forward. To unload the chamber and magazine. Press unlocking plunger while starting the rearward movement of fore-end, complete this rear- ward movement to eject the cartridge just withdrawn from the cham- ber. Move the action bar forward to about one-quarter inch of its foremost position, then backward to the limit, ejecting another car- tridge ; continue this until magazine is empty. Note. — When emptying the magazine it is convenient to hold the thumb forward of the fore-end so as to strike the magazine ring about one-quarter inch before the forward limit of movement of the slide han- dle or fore-end is attained ; this allows' extreme rapidity in unloading. To make the arm safe when cocked. Push safety at rear of trigger guard towards the right. To fire, move this safety towards the left. THE AMERICAN RIFLES 69 To take down. Grasp the receiver as shown in cut, pressing in ahead of the trigger guard (Cut 1). Unscrew the take-down screw on left side of receiver and pull out until stopped. (This stop pre- vents the screw from being taken clear out of the receiver.) Turn gun on left side so that take-down screw will not drop back in. Grasp barrel firmly just ahead of receiver with one hand ; place other hand on stock just back of receiver. (See Cut No. 2.) Pull guard with No. 2 stock straight down out of receiver, screw take-down screw back into the receiver. Assemble in reverse order. To remove breech block from receiver. Cock the arm by moving slide handle backward and forward. Take down the guard and stock from receiver. Press unlocking plunger on right side of breech block and pull slide handle completely backward, then turn receiver upside dozen. Pull breech block backward with one hand and with the other pull slide handle forward to detach action bar from breech block. Then move breech block from receiver. To reassemble breech block to receiver with receiver upside down, as before, lay breech block (with firing pin cocked) with the recoil shoulder of breech block in well hole in top of receiver. If the firing pin is down so that it projects from the firing pin hole, cock it by 7o THE AMERICAN RIFLE pressing it back with the end of a pencil or similar instrument in- serted underneath the action bar lock. Be sure that the recoil shoulder is pushed in to the bottom of the well hole. Holding breech block in this position with thumb, press the rear end of the ejector ex- L^ STOCK. CUtAO SCPEtt BUSRUia. Fig. 17 Breech mechanism and nomenclature' of the United States rifle. Model of 1903 able of certain small alterations to enable it to use the new ammunition. Experimental bullets were made and tried in the 1903 shell, and it was found that by slightly shortening the neck of the shell a 150-grain bullet with a 6 diameter sharp point could be used. It was decided to adapt this cartridge to the new rifle. The new cartridge is called the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge, so we have a Model 1903 rifle using Model 1906 ammunition. To adapt the rifle to the new ammunition it- was necessary to rechamber all the rifles already manufactured, cutting the barrel off at the breech and shortening it slightly. The barrel of the original rifle was 24 inches long, and this shortening for the 1906 ammunition accounts for the present standard length of barrel being 23.79 inches long. At the beginning we had to use the old W. A. no THE AMERICAN RIFLE nitroglycerine powder, and the erosion was very serious. The Du Pont Company, however, quickly developed a pyro-cellulose powder for the rifle. Pyro-cellulose powders burn with a much cooler gas than nitro- glycerine powders, and give very much less erosion. The powder has been steadily improved until today the present powder, Du Pont Military Rifle Powder No. 20, is a most stable, cool-burning powder that gives an accuracy life for the barrel of from 8000 to 11,000 rounds, over ten times the life of the bore with the old nitroglycerine powder. So much for the history of our present government rifle. We now come to a consideration of its construction and ballistics. The rifle is a bolt action, military arm, copied, as has been said, from the German Mauser rifle. The box magazine holds five cartridges in two rows. The raising of the bolt handle cocks the rifle, compressing the mainspring by means of a cam. This cam also acts to start the withdrawal or extraction of the cartridge from the chamber, and the turning down of the bolt handle also causes the cam movement to insert the fresh cartridge in the chamber and seat it to the proper depth. This cam movement is extremely powerful, and is the feature that gives such excellence and efficiency to the Mauser type of action. A pressure of only 25 pounds on the bolt handle causes, by means of this cam, a force of 186.4 pounds being applied to the extraction or insertion of a cartridge. Thus there is a surety of loading cartridges and ejecting fired shells that few other rifles have. After the bolt handle has been turned up, the withdrawal to the rear of the bolt continues the extraction of the fired cartridge, and as the bolt reaches the end of its rearward travel the ejector passes through a slot in one of the locking lugs on the bolt, and projecting itself out in front of the bolt face, ejects the fired shell clear of the rifle and to the right. As the bolt is shoved forward its face engages with the head of the top cartridge in the magazine, forcing it out of the magazine and into the chamber. The turning down of the bolt handle completes the seating of the cartridge in the chamber, and also turns the bolt so that the two locking lugs at its head engage in recesses in the well of the re- ceiver, locking the bolt against the explosion of the cartridge. When the cut-off is turned down, or " off," it limits the backward travel of the bolt, so that the bolt head does not go far enough to the rear to engage the head of the top cartridge in the magazine. As a conse- quence the cartridges in the magazine are held in reserve, and the rifle works as a single loader. When using the rifle as a magazine arm, THE AMERICAN RIFLES in when the last cartridge has been fired the follower in the magazine comes up and engages the face of the bolt and prevents the bolt being closed. Thus the soldier is notified that his magazine is empty. The barrel is 23.79 inches long, measuring from the rear of the cham- ber to the muzzle. It is covered with wood almost its entire length to protect it and also to facilitate handling by the soldier when the barrel becomes hot from repeating firing. The wood covering above the barrel is called the hand-guard. The following are the principal dimen- sions and weights of the rifle. Dimensions Barrel : Inches Diameter of bore 0.30 Exterior diameter at muzzle 619 Exterior diameter at breech 1.14 Length of chamber and bore 23.79 Length of travel of bullet in bore 21.697 Diameter of chamber, rear end 4716 Diameter of chamber, front end 442 Diameter of neck of chamber, rear end 3425 Diameter of neck of chamber, front end 3405 Length of body of chamber 1-793 Length of shoulder of chamber 16 Length of neck of chamber 396 Length of chamber, total 2.3716 Rifling: Number of grooves, 4. Twist, uniform, one turn in 10.00 Width of grooves 1767 Width of lands 0589 Depth of grooves 004 Height of front sight above axis of bore 1.05 Distance from top of front sight to rear side of leaf, leaf raised... 22.1254 Stock : Length, with butt plate 40.166 Crook, i. e., distance from axis of bore to heel of butt 2.089 Distance from trigger to butt plate 12.74 Length of gun complete 43-212 Sight radius 22.1254 Sight radius (battle sight) 21.5404 Width of single division on windage scale 0267 Weights Pounds Barrel 2.79 Barrel, with rear-sight base and front-sight stud '. 3.00 Butt plate 26 Receiver 98 Bolt mechanism 1.00 Magazine and trigger guard 44 Magazine mechanism, including floor plate 17 Bayonet 1.00 Stock 1.58 Hand guard 13 Front and rear bands, including swivels 25 Rear sight, not including base 20 ii2 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Pounds Total weight of metal parts 7.30 Oiler and thong case 19 Total weight of arm, including oiler and thong case, with bayonet 9.69 Total weight of arm, including oiler and thong case, without bayonet. . 8.69 Weight to compress mainspring 16 to 18 Trigger pull (measured at middle point of bow of trigger) 3 to 4% Miscellaneous Data Initial velocity 2,700 feet per second Powder pressure in chamber about 51,000 pounds per square inch Weight of ball cartridge about 395.5 grains Weight of bullet 150 grains Weight of powder charge about 50 grains One of the greatest advantages that this rifle, and in fact almost all military arms, has over the ordinary sporting rifle, is that practically every part of the mechanism can be dismounted readily without any tools whatever. It is easily possible for one accustomed to the opera- tion completely to dismount the breech mechanism of the Model 1903 rifle in fifteen seconds, and to assemble it in thirty seconds. This is of importance, not only to the soldier but to the sportsman as well, and particularly when the sportsman assays to explore unknown countries where he is out not for a couple of weeks but for months at a time, and thousands of miles from gunsmiths and even from screw-drivers and drifts. A rifle brought into a warm room or cabin during cold weather will sweat on every steel surface, and if it cannot be cleaned and wiped off at once inside it is going to rust there. Likewise, a canoe upset is liable at any time to make it necessary to clean the action of the rifle thoroughly, or desert dust will also make it necessary. In the tropics one perspires freely, and I have never been out for a day's hunt in the jungle that my rifle was not thoroughly wet inside, either from sweat or water. Once while travelling along the Caribbean coast in a dug-out canoe with some natives I had the misfortune to get swamped by a large wave a long distance from shore, and the canoe turned bottom up. Fortunately I kept a hold of my rifle and ruck- sack. We were over an hour getting ashore, and it was several days before I got to a place where it would have been possible to get either a screw-driver or oil. Fortunately my rifle was a Model 1903 re- modelled into a sporting arm, and I had a field cleaner and oil bottle in the recess under the butt-plate. It was but the matter of a few moments when I got ashore to take the rifle all apart, dry and clean it thoroughly, and oil it. To dismount the Model 190? rifle proceed as follozvs. Place the cut-off at the center notch ; cock the arm and turn the safety lock to a THE AMERICAN RIFLES 113 vertical position, raise the bolt handle and draw the bolt completely out of the receiver. Hold the bolt in the left hand, press the sleeve lock with the thumb of the right hand to unlock sleeve from bolt, and unscrew sleeve by turning to the left. Hold sleeve between fore- finger and thumb of the left hand, draw the cocking piece back with middle finger and thumb of right hand, turn safety lock down to the left with forefinger of right hand, in order to allow the cocking piece to move forward in the sleeve, thus partially relieving the tension of mainspring; with the cocking piece against the breast, draw back the firing pin sleeve with the forefinger and thumb of right hand, and hold it in this position while removing the striker with the left hand; remove firing pin sleeve and mainspring ; pull firing pin out of sleeve ; turn the extractor to the right, forcing its tongue out of its groove in the front of the bolt, and force the extractor forward and off the bolt. To assemble bolt mechanism. Grasp with the left hand the rear of the bolt, handle up, and turn the extractor collar with the thumb and forefinger of the right hand until its lug is on a line with the safety lug on the bolt ; take the extractor in the right hand and insert the lug on the collar in the undercuts in the extractor by pushing the extractor to the rear until its tongue comes in contact with the rim on the face of the bolt (a slight pressure with the thumb on the top of the rear part of the extractor assists in this operation) ; turn the extractor to the right until it is over the right lug; take the bolt in the right hand and press the hook of the extractor against the butt plate or some rigid object, until the tongue on the extractor enters its groove in the bolt. With the safety lock turned down to the left to permit the firing pin to enter the sleeve as far as possible, assemble the sleeve and firing pin; place the cocking piece against the breast and put on mainspring, firing pin sleeve, and striker. Hold the cocking piece between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, and by pressing the striker point against some substance, not hard enough to injure it, force the cocking piece back until the safety lock can be turned to the vertical position with the right hand; insert the firing pin in the bolt and screw up the sleeve (by turning it to the right) until the sleeve lock enters its notch on the bolt. See that the cut-off is at the center notch; hold the piece under the floor-plate in the fingers of the left hand, the thumb extending over the left side of the receiver; take bolt in right hand with safety lock in a vertical position and safety lug up ; press the rear end of the follower down with left thumb and push bolt into the ii 4 THE AMERICAN RIFLE receiver ; turn bolt handle down ; turn safety lock and cut-off down to the left with right hand. To dismount magazine mechanism. With the bullet end of a cart- ridge press on the floor plate catch (through the hole in the floor plate) at the same time drawing the bullet to the rear; this releases the floor plate. Raise the rear end of the first limb of the. magazine spring high enough to clear the lug on the floor plate and draw it out of its mortise; proceed in the same manner to remove the follower. To as- semble the magazine spring and follower to floor plate, reverse the operation of dismounting. Insert the follower and magazine spring in the magazine, place the tenon on the front end of the floor plate in its recess in the magazine, then place the lug on the rear end of the floor plate in its slot in the guard, and press the rear end of the floor plate forward and inward at the same time, forcing the floor plate into its seat in the guard. This dismounting is all that is necessary thoroughly to clean the entire breech mechanism. Should any of the smaller parts require dis- mounting, or should it be necessary to remove the stock from the rifle, proceed as follows : To dismount the safety lock turn it to the dismounting bevel on the sJeeve and remove it by striking the thumb piece a light blow. To dismount the sleeve lock, drive out the sleeve lock pin from the top and remove lock and spring, being careful not to lose the spring. To remove the stock. Remove the upper band screw and drive the upper band forward and off the wood by a few sharp blows on the rear of the bayonet stud with a hardwood block or a brass rod. Press in rear end of lower band spring and drive forward the lower band by a few sharp blows on the lug and then on the top with the hardwood block, and move the lower band forward and off the stock. Draw the handguard forward until free from the fixed base of the rear sight, and remove it. Remove the guard screws and guard. Remove the barrel and receiver from the stock, taking care to lift the receiver out of its seat in the stock. To assemble, proceed in reverse order, taking care to see that the guard screws are screwed up very tight. The front and rear sights are fastened to the barrel by means of bands, called the front sight fixed stud, and the rear sight fixed base. The front sight movable stud fits into the fixed stud by means of a transverse dovetail and the front sight itself, a thin steel blade with flat top, fits in a slot in the stud. The movable stud can therefore be adjusted in the fixed stud to cause the rifle to shoot at zero; that is, THE AMERICAN RIFLES ii5 to shoot center when the wind gauge is adjusted to center on windless days. When the sight is once thus adjusted a hole is drilled through both studs, and a screw placed therein, thus firmly binding the two together, and preventing the front sight ever being misplaced except by destructive force. Fig. 18 United States rifle, Model 1903, remodelled into a sporting rifle, and equipped with Lyman No. 48 rear sight. From the author's collection Fig. 19 United States rifle, Model 1903, remodelled into a sporting of action arm. Top view Fig. 20 United States rifle, Model 1903, remodelled into a sporting arm. View of stock, showing Whelen model of cheek piece Fig. 21 Floor plate of United States rifle, Model 1003. for rifle converted into a sport- ing arm, showing engraving, and insignia of The Camp Fire Club of America. From the author's collection. n6 THE AMERICAN RIFLE The rear sight movable base fits into the rear sight fixed base cuts, be- ing screwed into them by the wind gauge screw. It is also pivoted on a lug on the fixed base so that when the wind gauge screw is turned the movable base works from side to side through the cuts in the fixed base, thus giving adjustment for windage. The movable base carries a scale called the wind gauge scale which is divided into points. An ad- justment of one point causes a lateral change in the point of impact of 4 inches per every hundred yards, or approximately 4 minutes of angle. The fixed base also carries the leaf, and the slide is attached to the leaf and slides up and down thereon. The slide carries the rear sights, really four in number. There is the battle sight on the top of the slide when the leaf is laid flat. This battle sight is adjusted to 547 yards on the theory that it gives the greatest danger space if aim be taken at the belt of an advancing or retreating enemy. At the muzzle and at 547 yards the enemy would be hit in the belt, and at mid range in the head without any estimation or allowance for range. Under the slide is the drift slide, a thin piece of metal which carries an open sight in a triangle, with a peep sight below it. Both these sights are adjustable from 100 yards up. On the top of the slide when the leaf stands vertical is a third open sight which can be adjusted for extreme ranges up to 2700 yards. Also on the top of the leaf is another open sight notch adjustable for the highest range to which the rifle is sighted — 2800 yards. Fig. 22 The United States rifles. Top view Left — Model 1903 Right — Model 1917 The rifle was first issued with an excellent rear sight similar to that illustrated in Fig. 49. This was a purely military rear sight, and did not satisfy the military rifle shots, particularly those interested in competitions, and pressure was brought to bear on the Ordnance De- partment to change it, which resulted on the present compromise sight, really not particularly good for either military shooting or target shoot- THE AMERICAN RIFLES 117 ing. For target shooting the peep sight is used almost exclusively. In fact at the national matches which are held every other year the peep sight is used to the absolute exclusion of the open sight for all shooting at bull's-eye targets. The riflemen gathered at these com- petitions represent the very best shots in the country, and their selection of the peep sight for all shooting where the battle sight is not absolutely prescribed is an indication of the superiority of peep sights over open sights. And yet the peep sight on this rifle is a very poor one, being very much too far from the eye, hard to see, and obscuring most of the target. One who has been shooting a black powder rifle, or even a high power rifle having a velocity around 2000 feet per second, finds a decided change when he comes to fire the Model 1903 rifle. The extremely high velocity makes very much less allowance necessary for distance, and also less allowance for moving objects or running game. The report is much sharper, although not particularly louder, and one must be careful not to get his ear near the muzzle of the rifle when some one else is firing it. He will find the accuracy also probably much superior to the weapon that he has been using. The short stock will bother him a little until he becomes used to it. But probably the greatest difference that the rifleman experienced with other arms will notice will be the great difficulty in cleaning the rifle after the service cartridges have been fired in it. This is due to the fact that at the extremely high velocity (2700 feet per second) and very high pressure (50,000 pounds per square inch) some of the cupro-nickel jacket of the bullets adheres to the bore, or else the bore gets a very thin, invisible plating of cupro- nickel. It is impossible to remove this without a very strong ammonia solution to dissolve it by chemical action. The primer used with smoke- less powders always makes the powder and primer fouling deposited in the bore extremely acid in character, and some of this acid fouling prac- tically always gets imprisoned under the metal fouling. As a conse- quence, unless the metal fouling be removed promptly after firing the acid fouling gets in its work and rusts the rifle. If the rifle be cleaned in the ordinary manner with alkaline oils or powder solvents the acid fouling under the metal fouling will not be touched, and the day after the rifle has been fired an examination of the bore will show it to be apparently fouled again. Patches passed through the bore will come out very black. If the bore be neglected for a couple of days patches passed through will come out red with rust. The bore can be kept polished by cleaning every day with oils or powder solvents, combined n8 THE AMERICAN RIFLE with a lot of rubbing with the patches, but this kind of cleaning alone, without the ammonia solution, really consists simply in polishing off the surface rust which appears from day to day, and with the rust always goes a little metal. The result of this lack of intelligent care is the ultimate ruination of the bore of the rifle through rusting. On the other hand, if the rifle have the ammonia solution used in the bore not later than the evening of the day on which it was fired the solution dissolves all the metal (cupro-nickel) fouling, and being an alkaline neutralizes the acidity of the powder and primer fouling. It is only necessary then to dry and clean the bore well with patches, and then oil it to preserve it in perfect condition. Despite its high velocity and extreme pressure, this rifle has a very long accuracy life when it is Fig. 23 Two sighting shots and ten consecutive shots fired at 600 yards by the author with U. S. rifle, Model of 1903, in the National Team Match, 1909. U.. S. Cart- ridge Co., ammunition. properly cleaned in this manner. Practically no loss in accuracy, even for long range target shooting, will be noticed up to 5000 rounds, provided the rifle be not used for an undue amount of rapid fire, and the accuracy for military purposes will last for from 8000 to 15,000 rounds. This matter has been gone into in detail because satisfactory results with this rifle cannot be expected for more than a short time unless one has a knowledge of how to care for this particular arm, and applies this knowledge. For detailed instructions as to the cleaning of these and other rifles see the chapter on The Cleaning and Care of the Rifle. It has been stated that this rifle is very accurate. In fact it is the THE AMERICAN RIFLES 119 most accurate rifle in the world, excepting only specially hand-made arms like the Pope and Neidner rifles. From a machine rest with accurate ammunition it will group its shots in a four-inch circle at 200 yards, or a 20-inch circle at 1000 yards, but the rifleman can hardly hold and aim this well, and about the human limit in this respect seems to be a 5-inch circle at 200 yards, and a 30-inch circle at 1000 yards. Possibles of 20 shots, all shots in a 36-inch bull's-eye, have been made several times at 1000 yards, and 10 shot possibles at this range are very common. This firing was all done in the military prone position, using the gun-sling as an aid to steady holding as described in the chap- ter on Holding and the Firing- Positions. / / ®© \ \ I ©©©© A. ) \ \ II \ ^^ ® y J Fig. 24 Two sighting shots and ten consecutive shots fired at 800 yards by the author with U. S. rifle, Model of 1903, in the National Team Match, 1909. U. S. Cart- ridge Co., ammunition. The Model 1903 rifle is sometimes remodelled into a sporting arm by sportsmen who have acquired a personal title to the rifle through a membership in the National Rifle Association or in one of the rifle clubs affiliated with the association. The work of remodelling is usually done by a skilled gunmake'r. Ludwig Wundhammer of Los Angeles, California, and Fred Adolph of Genoa, New York, have remodelled many of these rifles in a most satisfactory manner. The military stock, rear sight, and rear sight fixed base are removed from the arm and not nsed. The entire barrel is polished and reblued, and a Lyman No. 48 rear sight is attached to the receiver, or a Lyman No. 1 rear sight of special pattern is fitted to the rear of the cocking piece (end of the bolt). The rifle is then restocked with a sporting stock to fit the owner, and a most excellent big game rifle results. In fact it is gen- erally acknowledged that a remodelled Springfield rifle makes the very best big game rifle for every kind of American shooting that it is 120 THE AMERICAN RIFLE O c O c Q % £ £ g 1 ^o Q £ W b 8 s » o £ OS > I— I P-4 c3 o £ w 03 < E 0) u C H H N E Q u 0J r*i tJ-vO I s *. O co co O O vo \o I s *. On 00 inONio^O 04 m Inno NO oo In co 04 O m- co T oi ro ^vQ no i-< co O \Q In.nO i O flNH O ONO N'nO O cAno IN.O in co d OO NO **f CO - 00 TfONO oj 00 ^t" O m n K fO C. m h In. ro OO 04 CO m £ h m N W r,fOtm u-,NO I s *. tNCC 00 OiO O h h N N PTt^-ifi mO I s *. InOO + + + NO OnO hO^N . ' tT O m-00 in t""- ON On -t O °0. NO PI OK O 00 m m co 0J i-i tJnth d O O >-< oi co ^ I s *. 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COOO lo^NKKh *rf -TO ON OI m,0C in O I s *. m "^ "*r m in oq ono w Tft*,H r\P5M on on q oj^vq ^ m c*i r^Nq q ^ oo cooq -sj-h pj oi mod i- 1 ' m- d no oi doo fNCo' d oi *d oi oo" m *-f t m I s *. i- in. t oi co m d tN*d „K-ic*ioqcoco-fin o^co**!- ncoin^comoi*-rM**i-i-'" ; *i"Oiinco i;'OoOOOOOOOOOHHHH!>iNiN|fi^«)«t , tin m/O O In tN00 8QQOQCQOQOOOQOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOQQ OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOQOOOOOOOOOOO 0) co •*}■ mo Inoo On q M _ o) co Tf m*q KOO on O, >~i 04 co **t in\q r-*.oc_ qjqw « i-T m m r-T m m p-T m i-T of oT oi oi" of of oi oi oi of co co THE AMERICAN RIFLES 121 possible to obtain at any price. It is extremely accurate, and very powerful, especially when used with the special loads described under this cartridge in the chapter on Various Cartridges Discussed. Appended to this chapter are tables giving the ballistics of the service Model 1906 cartridge adapted to the Model 1903 rifle. For sporting and hunting cartridges adapted to this rifle see the chapter above quoted. PENETRATION Material White-pine butts made of 1-inch boards placed 1 inch apart Moist sand Dry sand Loam practically free from sand. Thoroughly seasoned oak across the grain Brick wall Low steel (boiler plate) PENETRATION 50 feet 100 yards I 500 yards j 1. 000 yards RAPIDITY OF FIRE Twenty-three aimed shots have been fired in one minute with this rifle, used as a single loader, and twenty-five shots in the same time, using magazine fire. Firing from the hip without aim, 30 shots have been fired in one minute, using rifle as a single loader, and 40 shots in one minute, using magazine fire. MAXIMUM RANGE (Computed) Maximum range Elevation Time of flight 4,891.6 yards 45 degrees 38.058 seconds ACCURACY f As determined by firings to date.l Deviation Range, yards Mean vertical Mean horizontal Mean radius 1 (X) Inches 0.6 I.I 1-7 2-3 3-0 3-6 4-3 5.o 5-9 6-5 Inches 0.6 1.1 1-7 2.3 3-o 3-6 4-3 50 5.8 6.4 Inches 0.8 ■•00 ■300 1 -5 . 2 -3 3-2 4.1 5-o 60 jOO son 600 700 800 000 1,000 7-1 8-3 9-6 122 THE AMERICAN RIFLE UNITED STATES RIFLE, MODEL I917 Prior to the outbreak of the Great War, in 19 14, the English Army was equipped with the Lee rifle, a bolt-action, magazine rifle which was officially known as the Lee-Enfield, due to its being made chiefly at the ordnance shops at Enfield. This rifle fired the .303 British car- tridge, a cartridge very similar to our .30-40 in shape, size, and ballistics. The rifle itself was rather behind the times. The locking lugs on the breech bolt, instead of being up at the head of the bolt where they would most perfectly withstand the back thrust of discharge, were placed towards the rear end of the bolt. The English ordnance office has considerably improved the ammunition recently by substituting a pointed bullet of 175 grains for the old blunt point bullet of 225 grains, Fig. 25 The United States rifles. View of left side Upper — Model 1917 Lower — Model 1903 and increasing the velocity from 2000 feet per second, to about 2400 feet per second. Further than this they were unable to go, as the de- sign of the rifle was not such that it would withstand a higher breech pressure. . Even with the regular ammunition, the action of the rifle caused many variations in flip and point of impact when conditions were not just right, and considerable pains had to be taken in manufacture to see that each locking lug had exactly the same bearing on the receiver. In 19 13 the English government determined to equip their forces with a more modern rifle using a cartridge with superior ballistics. They selected 28-caliber as being the size with which a bullet of good ballistic coefficient could be fired at the maximum velocity, and yet not have excessive recoil. The velocity was to approach very nearly to 3000 feet per second. A rifle had to be designed to handle this new and powerful cartridge as the Lee was not strong enough, nor was the THE AMERICAN RIFLES 123 receiver large enough. The rifle selected was practically a Mauser. It had the Mauser magazine, bolt, and locking lugs, but the method of cocking, and of compressing the mainspring. in the Lee, was retained, as well as the Lee safety lock. Several thousand of these rifles were manufactured, and a few of them issued for trial at the time that the war broke out. England needed at once a large number of rifles ; the new rifle w T as capable of being manufactured more easily than the old Lee. Therefore it was determined to use the new rifle but modify it to use the old ammunition, and accordingly contracts were let in Great Britain and in the United States for the manufacture of this rifle in large quantities. When the United States entered the war in 1917 it found us with only two arsenals equipped to manufacture the Model 1903 rifle. Fig. 26 The United States rifles. Bottom view Left — Model 1903 Right — Model 1917 Congress at several times had been asked to enter into contract with a number of private arms companies for the manufacture of our rifles, to the end. that we might have a number of factories equipped with machinery, gauges, etc., for the manufacture of our 1903 rifles, so that we would be prepared for any emergency like the present one, but they had not seen fit to make the necessary laws and pass the necessary appropriations. Our entry into the war therefore found us with only two arsenals (Springfield and Rock Island) equipped to manu- facture our own rifle, but with a large number of factories with ma- chinery all ready to turn out the new Enfield rifle in large quantities. It happened that the Enfield rifle could easily be adapted to our am- munition, the receiver being just about the right size, and the locking lugs amply secure. We therefore entered into contract with all these firms to produce these rifles chambered for our .30-caliber, Model 1906 ammunition with which to equip the National Army, and the result was the United States Rifle, Model 1917. 124 THE AMERICAN RIFLE In its essentials this rifle is really not very different from our 1903 rifle. The bolt and magazine are practically the same. The main- spring, instead of being compressed by a cam during the lifting and shutting of the bolt handle, is compressed partly by the lifting of the bolt handle, but mostly by the last three fourths of an inch of the push- ing forward of the bolt, the sear engaging the cocking piece before the mainspring is fully compressed, and holding it back. The safety, instead of being on top of the sleeve, is on the right side of the receiver, Rear view of rear sight of the United States rifle, Model of 1917. Leaf laid flat and battle sight in position in rear of the bridge, and to the right of the sleeve. Bringing the safety lock to the rear to its full extent locks the bolt and trigger by engaging a projection on the cocking piece. The barrel is 26 inches long instead of 23.79 inches, the length of the 1903 barrel. The hand- guard covers the top of the barrel as in the 1903 rifle. The butt-stock is quite a little improvement over our 1903 stock. In the first place it is a little longer. Our 1903 stock was made quite short in an effort to make the whole rifle slightly shorter so that it would suit both in- fantry and cavalry, and as a consequence it was quite a little too short to fit most men perfectly. The butt-stock on the 1917 rifle also has a pistol grip which permits a better grip for the right hand, particularly leaving the trigger finger more limber and under better control when THE AMERICAN RIFLES 125 the grip is firmly grasped. The 19 17 butt-plate is of a better shape to accommodate itself to the shoulder of the rifleman, but it is not roughly checked as is the 1903 butt-plate, and is therefore more liable to slip on the shoulder, particularly during rapid fire. It is in the sights of the two rifles that we see the most important difference. In making the 191 7 receiver the bridge over the bolt well at the rear was made very long, and the rear sight was mounted Fig. 28 Rear view of rear sight of the United States rifle, Model of 1917. raised Sight leaf on this where it should be to get the utmost efficiency. The rear sight is a peep sight, the aperture being on the Lyman principle ; that is, a large aperture and a thin rim. The placing of a Lyman sight back close to the eye follows the most modern methods with sporting rifles, and is a great advance in the sighting of the military rifle. There are two rear sights, the standard or battle sight being always in position 126 THE AMERICAN RIFLE and adjusted for 400 yards. In front of this is a leaf which can be raised for longer ranges, and this leaf carries another aperture, also of the Lyman design, which is capable of adjustment from 200 to 1600 yards, but can be adjusted to hundreds of yards only. A ratchet on the leaf slide snaps into serrations on the right side of the leaf, securely locking the slide for every 100 yards of elevation. There is no windage adjustment for the rear sight. On either side of the sight large lugs or projections of heavy metal stand up, fully pro- tecting the sight from damage, either by falls or in the cavalry boot. The front sight is a straight knife edge, appearing in aiming very similar to our 1903 front sight, but quite a little thicker. It is secured in a dovetail fixed base in a manner almost exactly the same as the front sights on sporting rifles, so that it can be driven from side to SAFETY LOCK. SLCCVC COCHINS piece BARREL RCAR HAND OUARD CARTRIDGE IN CHAMBER 'STOCK RECOIL LUG 'FRONT GUARD SCREW W5WJS TROTT GUARD SMEW REAR OUARD SCREW IAZINE SPRING FLOOR PLATE Fig. 29 Breech mechanism and nomenclature of the United States rifle, Model of 1917 side to zero the rifle. On either side of the front sight large lugs or projections of heavy steel stand up, projecting quite a little beyond the top of the front sight, and protect the sight from any damage, or from blows which might knock it out of alignment. The rifleman must learn not to take one of these lugs for the front sight itself, after which he will find no trouble. Our military target riflemen will probably not take kindly to the 19 17 sights as they cannot be adjusted very closely for elevation, and tbey have no wind-gauge. But these are undoubtedly the best military sights that have ever been placed on a fighting weapon. They permit of a very clear sight, of a very quick sight, and of aim being taken in poor lights. As they do not cut off the vision of the surrounding THE AMERICAN RIFLES 127 country in aiming they lend themselves very well to aim at moving objects, as the object, and its route of travel can be kept constantly in view while aiming. There is also very much less eye strain when using them than there was with the old forms of open and peep sights. The sighting radius is very much longer which adds to the accuracy of aim. It seems to the writer that the 191 7 rifle balances better, and that the stock and the drop thereof fits better than in the 1903 rifle, and if experience proves that the two rifles are made of as good material, and that as much pains have been taken with the 191 7 rifle as were taken with the 1903 in providing an accurately bored barrel, we will profit considerably by the change, due chiefly to the more modern sights. ig- 30 DISMOUNTING AND ASSEMBLING THE MODEL I917 RIFLE To dismount the bolt. Remove the bolt from the rifle by drawing it out to the rear while pulling out the thumb piece of the bolt stop. Hook a loop of string on the dismounting hook on the cocking piece lug, and, holding the bolt in the left hand, and the string in the right draw the cocking piece out until the lug clears the end of the bolt. (See Fig. 30.). Then by moving the right hand in a circular path counter clockwise, four complete revolutions, unscrew the sleeve from the bolt and withdraw the sleeve, cocking piece, and striker from the bolt. Grasp the sleeve with the left hand, and, while holding the point of the striker against a wood or similar sur- face, force the sleeve towards the point of the striker, compressing the mainspring until the lug on the cocking piece clears the lug slot in the sleeve, as shown in Fig. 31. Then, with the right hand, give the cocking piece a quar- ter turn, in either direction, to disengage it from the striker, and draw it off to the rear. Relieve the spring from stress slowly and re- move it and the sleeve from the striker, being 128 THE AMERICAN RIFLE careful that the parts do not fly from the hand. Turn the extractor so that it covers the gas escape holes in the bolt and push it forward with the thumb until it is free of the ears on the collar. To assemble the bolt. Slide the mainspring over the striker. Hold the point of the striker against a wood or similar surface, and, plac- ing the sleeve against the end of the spring, with the flats in its bore registering with the flats on the striker, compress the spring by forcing the sleeve toward the point of the striker. Holding the sleeve with the spring fully compressed, replace the cocking piece on the end of the striker and lock it by a quarter turn so that its lug aligns with the lug slot in the sleeve. Then let the sleeve return to its position slowly under the action of the spring. Grasp the bolt in the left hand and start the threads on the barrel of the sleeve into the threads in the end of the bolt. Holding a loop of string in the right hand as before, hook it on the dismounting hook, and draw the cocking piece out. Then by moving the right hand in a circular path, clockwise, screw the sleeve home in the bolt. Place the lug in the half-cock notch. Slide the extractor to place in line with the gas escape holes, engaging the undercut lug on the extractor with the ears on the ring, and lifting the hook so that the tongue will slide over the end of the bolt. Turn the extractor so that it lies over the unslotted or solid lug, and replace the bolt in the receiver, pulling out on the bolt stop, and pressing down on the follower while so doing. To dismount and assemble the magazine mechanism proceed in ex- actly the same way as with the United States Rifle, Model of 1903. CHAPTER V BARRELS COME twenty years ago when black powder was universally used ^ all rifle barrels were made of soft steel or iron. Black powder exerted a pressure of less than 30,000 pounds to the square inch, and nothing stronger was necessary. The main thing was to get a homo- geneous metal, and one that would work easily and smoothly. With the advent of smokeless, high-pressure powder and jacketed bullets it was found that an improvement in the barrel steel was absolutely neces- sary. A higher elastic limit was necessary, greater hardness to resist wear, and a higher melting point to resist erosion of the hot powder gases. A low carbon, easily machined steel was found which would meet these conditions and adopted by the Government for the service rifles. There has been a slight improvement in- this steel from year to year, until that now in use is ve»ry satisfactory indeed, when erosion, corrosion, machining, and elastic limit are concerned. This same steel is used by practically all commercial riflemakers for their high-power rifles except by the Winchester Company. On the advent of high-power, smokeless rifles the Winchester Re- peating Arms Company adopted a nickel steel for this type of rifle, and have continued to use it to the present day. It has always seemed to me to be a most excellent steel. It is claimed that it has a slightly lower melting point than the ordnance steel used by the United States Government, and that therefore it does not resist erosion as well. My own experience with it has been just the opposite. It seems to resist erosion much better than the other steel, and it certainly is quite a little more resistant to rust. I have one .30-40 barrel of this nickel steel made in the spring of 1906 that has been fired many thousands of rounds, I would hate to say how many, with every kind of ammuni- tion and powder, and as far as I can see the barrel is just as good as ever and shows no signs of wear. During the time that I have had this rifle I have worn out six barrels of Krag rifles, and this one nickel steel barrel has certainly had as many rounds fired through it as all six Krag barrels combined. But this is probably an exceptional 129 i 3 o THE AMERICAN RIFLE case, and an exceptional piece of steel, and too much notice should not be paid to this incident. Of late years a few riflemen in this country have imported steel from abroad and had barrels made of it. The German Krupp hard steel makes very good barrels, but I do not believe that it is a bit superior to our own steel for rifle barrels. About 191 1 Mr. E. C. Fig. 32 Sporting Springfield rifle used almost exclusively by the author as a hunting rifle from 1913 to 1917. This rifle has a Poldi " Anti-corro" steel barrel, and has proved a most efficient hunting arm. Crossman and the writer both imported from the Poldi Steel Works in Vienna, Austria, barrels of what is known as Poldi anti-corro steel, which had attracted much attention abroad on account of its resistance to rust and erosion. We both had these barrels rifled and cham- bered for the .30-caliber, 1906 cartridge, and we have used them con- siderably since. Our experiences with them have been practically identical. This is a very tough, hard steel, and has been used quite a little in this country by mechanics for steel working tools. It was so hard that when I sent my barrel to the Springfield Armory to have it chambered and fitted to a Model 1903 action the mechanics there broke four chambering tools in chambering it, and I had to pay the bill. I find that this barrel has a much greater resistance to rust than ordinary steel, or even nickel steel. I used this rifle for three years in Panama, which is probably the greatest rust-producing coun- try in the world, the dampness there being beyond belief. This rifle was out with me in the jungle almost all the time. I noticed particu- larly that it never had a speck of rust on it, while other barrels would always accumulate quite a respectable coating of rust on the muzzle where there is no blueing, in the course of a day's hunt. To leave a barrel of ordinary smokeless steel, using the .30-1906 cartridge, un- cleaned over night when it has been fired means plenty of red rust in the morning, but the anti-corro steel treated in the same way showed absolutely no rust the next day. Moreover, I have often found rust in smokeless steel barrels a week or so after they have been fired and BARRELS 131 apparently perfectly cleaned, but periodical inspections of my anti- corro barrel have never shown a particle of rust. This barrel is such a good shooting one that I have never abused it to see just how much it would stand without developing rust. I know it will rust eventually because I was once upset with it when 'way out at sea on an unin- habited coast in a dug-out native canoe, and the rifle was under salt water for several hours. I dismounted the rifle entirely and wiped it off well, but there was evidently one spot under the wood of the fore- arm that I overlooked, and on dismounting it several months later I found quite a little coating of rust in a spot about as big as a ten- cent piece. I have only fired this barrel about 500 rounds, not enough to show any signs of erosion, but on account of its extreme hardness I would expect it to resist erosion better than our own steels. Mr. Fig. 33 Floor plate of Springfield sporting rifle owned by the author, showing engraving and coat of arms Crossman in discussing this steel says : " It is not always possible to care for a rifle barrel as per schedule, and there are times, as any ex- perienced hunter knows, when one is so dog-tired, and so ready to crawl into the blankets and rest the weary muscles and aching bones, that one does not give a fig for what happens to the dog-goned rifle that weighed fifty pounds when dragged back to camp that evening. It is for such occasions that we of experience get when we can, Poldi barrels." Of course these barrels cannot be obtained at the present time. I consider myself lucky to have a barrel of this excellent steel, and the rifle has been my favorite hunting arm for the past four years. It is shown in Fig. 32. An enormous amount of experimenting has been done with a view to determining the best shape and design for the lands and grooves of the barrel. Invention has run riot in this respect. There have been produced barrels with all number of grooves from two to sixteen, with rectangular, " U " shaped, triangular, and rounded grooves, and even with a simple oval bore. Of recent years the ordnance depart- ments of various nations have had facilities to test to the fullest extent all these different forms of rifling, with the result that they have determined that the difference between most of them as far as accuracy, 132 THE AMERICAN RIFLE wear, and resistance to erosion are concerned is microscopic. Practi- cally all nations and manufacturers have adopted a rifling with square corners to the grooves and lands, and with either four or six grooves. In .30-caliber, which is the average caliber, the grooves are usually made about .004 inch deep. The grooves are almost always of an even number as it has been found easier and cheaper in manufacture to cut two grooves at a time, but undoubtedly a more perfect barrel can be cut by cutting only one groove at a time, this being the method used by Mr. H. M. Pope, who produces the finest handmade barrels in the world. Perhaps the best form of rifling is one with square upper corners to the lands, but with slightly rounded lower corners to the grooves as shown in Fig. 34, " A " being the ordinary rifling as used by most governments and manufacturers today, and " B " being this A B Fig. 34 ' A. Pope special high power rifling. B. U. S. Government rifling. special rifling. It is claimed that the stiff jacket of the bullet will not adapt itself to a perfectly square corner at the bottom of the groove, and that a little gas always escapes here. As proof of this rifles cut with the special rifling show a few feet more velocity than those cut with the ordinary rifling. Recently one manufacturer has adopted a segmental cut for his rifling, practically a double oval bore, with rounded grooves and lands, claiming less wear, easier cleaning, and not so much strain on the bullet jacket. Undoubtedly he gets the last two, but the writer believes that more wear and friction must result through the tendency of the bullet to creep up and jam to a certain extent on the rounded driving edge of the groove. The twist of the rifling in American arms varies from one turn in 60 inches to one turn in yV2 inches. The longer the bullet in respect to its diameter, the quicker the twist must be in order to maintain the gyrostatic stability of the bullet during flight; that is, to keep it from BARRELS 133 flying point on, instead of turning over and over. Also, the higher the velocity of the bullet the slower the twist may be. For example, the twist of rifling for the .50-100 Winchester express cartridge, which has a very short bullet in relation to its diameter, is only one turn in 60 inches, while the twist of rifling for the .30-40-220 cartridge, which has a very long, small caliber bullet, is one turn in 10 inches. There used to be quite a little difficulty with the .25-20 cartridge in the days of black powder in keeping the 86-grain bullet flying point on. Many bullets would turn over, and pass through the target sideways, making a keyhole shot, so called because the shape of the hole in the target re- sembled a keyhole. But with the introduction of smokeless powder it was possible to load enough smokeless powder in the small shell to increase the velocity enough to overcome this tendency to keyhole. A poorly chambered barrel, or poor ammunition and bullets, require a quicker twist than when the conditions of barrel and cartridge are conducive to accuracy. Thus ordinarily the various .30-caliber United States Government barrels require- a 10-inch twist to get the best re- sults, but with the fine hand-made barrels of this caliber as made by Mr. H. M. Pope, a 14-inch twist gives perfect results up to 1200 yards at least. It often happens that the twist of rifling given to a certain barrel by a manufacturer is sufficient to keep the bullet flying point on up to a certain range, but after that range is passed there is a tendency to keyhole because the velocity has been reduced. Tendency to keyhole with any rifle can be overcome by either increasing the velocity, or shortening the bullet, or providing more perfect bullets, provided that this tendency is not caused by faulty chambering of the barrel or defect in the rifling. Occasionally one sees a .22-calber, rim- fire barrel which persists in keyholing its bullets, and when the cause is investigated it is found to be due to a very dirty bore, or to one very badly leaded. Some riflemen think that it is best to use the slowest twist that will spin a bullet perfectly. Certainly a slow twist re- quires very perfect ammunition to do good work, and perfect chamber- ing too. I would rather have a twist a little quicker than ordinary so as to handle possible defects in ammunition. Quick twists of course cause more friction, heat, and consequently more wear on the bore. Formerly the most popular barrel was the octagonal, or eight- sided one. The only possible excuse for such a barrel was that it could more easily be held level ; that is, it helped to overcome any tendency to cant, or lean the rifle in aiming. As against this the octagonal barrel is more difficult to make than the round barrel, and it is more liable i 3 4 THE AMERICAN RIFLE to be disfigured on its exterior by blows and cuts. But more important than these, the metal in such a barrel is not uniformly distributed around the bore ; there is unequal expansion when the barrel becomes heated, and there is not such a uniform flip or vibration on discharge. Also for a given strength of barrel, the octagonal barrel weighs more than the round. Octagonal barrels are now practically obsolete, being seen only on the older models of tubular magazine rifles. A heavy, thick barrel will always give better results than a thin taper one. It shoots more consistently, and it maintains its elevation better from day to day. Also it is not so much affected by slight differences in the load, and for this reason alone it is more accurate than the thin barrel, particularly at short ranges, where the difference in velocity does not enter into the matter so much. A thick barrel will also fre- quently shoot both full-charged and light gallery or small game loads with practically the same elevation and windage at short ranges, and this is a decided advantage to the hunter, and to those looking for an all-around rifle. But of course a -thick barrel greatly increases the weight of the rifle, and makes it muzzle heavy. The heaviest barrel now made is the No. 3 barrel for the Winchester single shot rifle, but formerly this rifle used to be made to order with No. 4 and No. 5 barrels, a No. 5 barrel, 30 inches long, making a rifle which weighed about 15 pounds. The Winchester single shot rifle with No. 3 round barrel, 30 inches long, weighs from 9 to 9^ pounds according to caliber, and is a very muzzle-heavy rifle. I regard the barrels fur- nished for the Model 1895 T1 ^ e m -3° Model 1906, .35 W. C. F., and .405 W. C. F. calibers as being almost ideal in their exterior propor- tions. These barrels are 24 inches long, rather thick at the breech, with a straight even taper to muzzle. They present just about the right combination of stiffness with the modern requirement of light weight. Many barrels have slots cut in them for sights, and also usually a slot cut on the under side of the barrel for securing a base to which the forearm screw is fastened. There is no excuse for any of these slots. They take away from a barrel much of its stiffness, and increase the flip or vibration which takes place during firing. There is no use at all in providing a heavy stiff barrel in the effort to increase accuracy, and then allowing the manufacturer to defeat the whole idea by cutting on the under side of the barrel a big, deep slot simply for the purpose of dovetailing a base into the barrel to screw a forearm screw into, when he could with much less expense and trouble screw the screw into the barrel in the first place and avoid the slot. BARRELS 135 The muzzle of the barrel flips, vibrates, or bends down and then up when it is fired, and usually the flip is greater the more powerful the cartridge. The character of the flip is such that even at short ranges where the velocity does not count for much the more power- ful a cartridge is the higher will it strike on the target, because it de- parts from the muzzle when the rifle barrel towards the muzzle is at a higher point in its vibration. Light and heavily charged cart- ridges do not have the same starting point when fired from the barrel. This is explained fully in Chapter XIX. There are some exceptions to this rule that the stronger charge strikes higher, and the Ross Rifle Company have taken advantage of this fact in designing the barrel for their .280 rifle, and this explains the peculiar taper of the Ross .280 barrel at the breech. The idea is so to arrange the vibrations of the barrel that the low velocity cartridge will depart from the muzzle at a higher point in the vibration than does the higher velocity cart- ridge. Thus the company attempts to nullify the effect of the small differences in velocity which are always found in all ammunition, making the low velocity cartridge depart from the muzzle with a slightly greater elevation than does the high velocity load. By this is not meant full-charged and short-range cartridges, but two cartridges, we will say, one giving 3030 feet per second and the other 3050 feet per second velocity. It would seem that the details of chambering properly come under the head of barrels, but the matter of chambering is so intimately connected with accuracy that I have been forced to deal with it in the chapter devoted to that subject. The accuracy of a barrel depends upon the correctness of its design, and the accuracy of workmanship. Luck has nothing to do with it, except that among a number of poor barrels one may happen to be accurate because, entirely by accident, it happened to be made nearly correctly. Following the lead of Dr. Mann, riflemen have come to call an extremely accurate barrel a " gilt-edge " barrel. I would call such a barrel one that is capable of delivering ten consecutive shots within a one-inch circle at 100 yards, or a 2%-inch circle at 200 yards. Such accuracy is practically im- possible with machine-made barrels, because about the closest such workmanship can be executed is within .001 inch. Pope barrels are almost always gilt-edge barrels because Mr. Pope has the rare skill of being able to finish his work within .0002 inch of being perfect. In fact I personally know of one barrel which he made for Dr. Mann, on which he performed a certain piece of work to within .0001 inch. CHAPTER VI STOCKS, FOREARMS, BALANCE, AND WEIGHT ' I V HE stocks and forearms of the ordinary factory-made American -*■ rifles are made of American walnut. This wood makes a very satisfactory stock, strong and of fair appearance, but it has not the figure, nor will it take the polish, of the imported stocks. Our selected stocks are made from European walnut obtained for the most part in the southeastern part of France. It is called by the trade " English walnut," but practically none of it is grown in England, although I believe we import it from English dealers. English walnut is simply a trade name to designate a finely figured variety suitable for the better gun stocks. Italian walnut is heavier than French, is not so bright in color, has plenty of dark veins, but the background is one hued instead of having the yellow, orange, and neutral tints of the finest woods. Circassian walnut furnishes the very finest stocks, but it is seldom seen in this country. It is hard in grain, full of figure, exact in marking, bright in color, without cracks and galls. It is quite heavy, but has qualities which quite outweigh this disadvantage. The most beautifully marked stocks are cut from the portion of the tree where the roots and trunk join. The wood should be seasoned for at least a year in a dry storehouse without artificial heat before being made up into stocks. It should be so selected and cut that the grain at the grip is always straight so as to give the necessary strength at the weakest part. Stocks are sometimes made of beech, bird's-eye maple, cherry, and tulip wood, but all these are inferior to walnut. Bird's-eye maple used to be used quite extensively for rifle stocks, particularly on muzzle- loading Kentucky rifles. It makes a nice looking stock, but it is too brittle, and requires varnish to give it a good polish. The cheaper stocks are simply smoothed and varnished. This method of finishing is best suited to American walnut which, as a rule, does not take a good oil polish, but a varnished stock does not retain its good appearance long when in use. It becomes scratched and unsightly very quickly from ordinary field use. By far the best polish 136 STOCKS, FOREARMS, BALANCE, AND WEIGHT 137 is what is known as dull London oil finish. It consists in smoothing down the wood very finely, repeatedly wetting the surface to raise the grain, and then polishing again, until finally a surface is obtained on which the grain will no longer raise up with a fuzzy surface when it becomes wet. The stock is then polished by repeated rubbing with raw linseed oil, each coat being rubbed in by hand until the surface is dry. The finest stocks sometimes have as many as thirty coats rubbed in, and the process takes several weeks to complete. This gives a beautiful polish which brings out all the grain of the wood, and makes a smooth, velvet-like surface, without the glassy shine of varnish, but with the beautiful dull luster of pumice-rubbed mahogany. This polish persists in spite of rain, perspiration, and scratches ; moreover, it may always be renewed practically as good as new by simply rubbing in a coat of raw linseed oil, placing a little of the oil in the palm of the hand and rubbing it well in until the stock becomes warm from the friction, and the surface becomes dry. It is a decided advantage to have the grip of the stock and the center of the forearm checked, as this adds to security in holding, par- ticularly in warm climates where the hands are slippery with perspira- tion, and in cold climates where gloves are worn. Good checking also adds to the appearance of the arm. The checking should not be too fine as it will defeat its purpose, that of keeping the hands from slip- ping. Nor should it be too coarse as it will then not look well. The size of check used on Winchester rifles is about right. Plain checking with a plain border looks best. Fancy carving is out of place on a rifle, savoring too much of the cheap and gaudy. Wherever the receiver will permit of it, the stock should have a pistol grip. This is a great aid to steady holding, and to the quick operation of the rifle in rapid fire. The right hand should do most of the work of holding the rifle to the shoulder, leaving the left hand without strain to point and direct the rifle. If there be no pistol grip, either the right hand must grasp the small of the stock unduly hard to pull it back against the shoulder, thus interfering with the flexibility and unrestraint of the trigger finger, or else the left hand must grasp the forearm hard to pull the butt back against the shoulder, in which case it will be under strain and will not be able so well to hold the rifle steadily and without tremor. When purchasing a new arm, if the rifleman is able to afford extras over the ordinary factory product, the one which will pay most is a hand-made stock built to fit him personally. A well fitting stock is 138 THE AMERICAN RIFLE more important than fine walnut, checking, or pistol grips, but as a rule it is only the expert rifleman who appreciates this. The fitted stock insures steadier holding, makes the rifle come to the shoulder almost perfectly directed at the mark, and thus increases the rapidity of fire, particularly the rapidity with which an accurately aimed first shot can be gotten off. When a rifleman has a stock which fits him perfectly he will find after a time that he becomes so used to his rifle, and to the instinctive pointing of it, that he can do good shooting even at night when he cannot see his sights. Very little attention has been given to the fit of stock by American manufacturers, but there are a few private gunmakers in this country who have the art down to perfection. The ordinary factory stock is either much too short, or else it is too straight for the average man. Factory stocks are supposed to fit the average man, but constant experi- menting on a great number of men with stocks of all dimensions for the past ten years has convinced me that they are far from correct, As a rule they are suitable only for men with very short arms, and thick, short necks. «S or »i«.«T - Fig. 35 Showing method of measuring a stock To measure a rifle stock, lay the rifle on its side on a board floor. Place a long nail in the floor a foot in front of the muzzle, and another a foot in the rear of the butt. Stretch a thin thread tightly from one nail to the other at such a distance above the floor that the thread will be at the same height as the front and rear sights. Care- fully bring the rifle sights up against the thread so that the tip of the front sight, and the middle of the notch of the rear sight (or the center of the peep hole of the rear sight), just touch it without forcing it out of a straight line. This thread now marks the line of sight. Measure the distance at right angles to the thread, from the thread to the comb of the stock, and from the thread to the heel of the stock. Measure the distance from the middle of the trigger to the middle of the butt-plate. Figure 35 shows the method. The average dimensions of factory stocks are as follows : STOCKS, FOREARMS, BALANCE, AND WEIGHT 139 Winchester Stocks Length from middle of trigger to middle of butt plate 13% inches Drop from line of sight to comb 2 inches Drop from line of sight to heel 2% inches Savage Stocks Length from trigger to middle of butt plate 13 inches Drop from line of sight to comb 1% inches Drop from line of sight to heel 3 inches Experience has shown that the following dimensions more perfectly fit the average American: Length from middle of trigger to middle of butt plate 13% inches Drop from line of sight to comb 1% inches Drop from line of sight to heel 3^ inches The small man will do a little better with a length of 13M to 13% inches, and a drop at heel of 3 inches, and the very tall man with a length of 14 inches, but other dimensions the same. It is a difficult matter for the novice to tell whether a stock fits him correctly or not. He must first learn the various firing positions, and have some actual experience in shooting. Really, a man is not in position to tell whether a stock fits him until he has been shooting for several years. To determine whether the stock fits correctly, take the rifle and throw it up to the shoulder several times, so that the butt- plate is perfectly fitted to the hollow of the shoulder, being neither too high nor too low. Do not aim at anything in particular. If it seems to come up easily to the shoulder and to be in perfect control, select a mark ten or fifteen feet distant, and at about the height of the shoulder. Throw up the rifle quickly, while looking only at the mark, the cheek snuggling down to the left side of the stock. Hold the rifle still, close the left eye, glance through the sights, and see if they are directed close to the mark. Repeat this a number of times, and if it is found that the sights come close to the mark each time, with no tendency to be either high or low, that the eye seems to be led each time directly into the line of sight by the comb, and that the butt-plate comes up easily to the shoulder, just escaping it on coming up, and having to be brought back the minimum distance against the shoulder, and that it sticks well there, the stock probably fits all right. If the sights point much below the mark the stock is either too crooked, or too short, or the rifle may be very muzzle heavy. If the sights point above the mark the stock is too straight, or else the toe of the stock is too far to the rear, the butt-plate being set at the wrong angle. 140 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Fig. 36 An "under and over" combination rifle and shotgun made for the author by Fred Adolph of Genoa, N. Y. Top barrel 20 gauge shotgun. Under barrel •30-30 W. C. F. rifle. An excellent all around arm, particularly for South American shooting. It is almost always best to purchase the rifle with the cheapest factory stock obtainable, and, after having sighted the rifle in, proceed to alter the stock roughly by padding or cutting down the comb, and by altering the position of the butt-plate, and padding under the butt-plate to obtain the right length of stock, until the makeshift seems to fit correctly. There is a reason for proceeding in this way. The line of sight from which the manufacturers seem to measure their stocks apparently is fixed arbitrarily, or else measured only from the regular factory sights, and when one places special sights on the rifle the line of sight, and consequently the drop, changes. Thus the dimension of the Savage factory stock is given above, but I found that when I had adjusted special Lyman sights to one of these Model 1899 rifles and sighted it in correctly at 50 yards the drop of the stock became : Drop at comb 2M inches, drop at heel 3% inches. When the rifle is correctly sighted the gunmaker can construct a stock to have the exact drop desired, but until this is done it is much a matter of guess work as to just where the line of sight is coming. The dimensions of the pistol grip are of importance also. On a num- STOCKS, FOREARMS, BALANCE, AND WEIGHT 141 ber of rifles the so-called pistol grip is merely an excrescence some dis- tance in rear of the grip, and of no use at all. The pistol grip should be well curved, and pushed up close to the trigger. The distance meas- ured from the middle of the trigger to the front edge of the pistol grip cap should be between 4 and 4^ inches. On many rifles, however, the finger lever or the lower tang limit the position of the pistol grip, and the grip will have to conform. It is an advantage to have the stock made with a slight " cast off " ; that is to say, the butt-plate, instead of having its center in a vertical Fig. 37 Springfield rifle remodelled by A. O. Neidner with stock for owner who shoots right handed but aims with the left eye line dropped from the prolongation of the axis of the bore, should be slightly to the right of this line (for a right-handed shot), say about % inch. This will make it easier for the right eye to get into the line of sight. Cast-off is particularly good where the rifleman is stout, or has a very muscular shoulder and chest, and in some cases it is best to have a little more cast-off at the toe of the stock than at the heel. The butt-plate is an important part of the rifle. There is very little excuse for the rifle butt-plate often seen on American rifles. It is a relic of the muzzle-loading days when the rifle had a very heavy, long barrel, and something to prevent the stock from slipping up on the shoulder due to the leverage exerted by the heavy muzzle was desirable. Lately some have claimed that they like it with lever-action rifles be- cause it seems to stick well to the shoulder when the lever is worked in rapid fire. There is some excuse for it, perhaps, from this stand- point, as the ordinary, flat shotgun, rubber butt-plate slips badly when rapid fire with the rifle at the shoulder is attempted, but the more modern steel butt-plates, especially the particular one to be described, do not have this fault. The rifle butt-plate greatly increases the effect 142 THE AMERICAN RIFLE of recoil, is hard to get quickly to the shoulder, does not adapt itself to the shape of a man's shoulder, and is very prone to stick to the shoulder. In selecting a new rifle it should never be chosen. Likewise the rubber butt-plate often seen on rifles, and particularly the boy-sized, rubber butt-plate often seen on rifles produced in later years, is to be avoided. Its shape is bad, it is slippery, and it won't last any length of time at all under the usage that a rifle receives. Particularly in mountainous countries it is absolutely necessary at times to use the butt of the rifle as an aid to climbing, especially in rock work. This will scar, disfigure, and break a rubber butt-plate in a little while. On one trip in Montana I noticed that every rubber butt-plate that I saw was broken from this cause. A good checked or roughened steel shotgun butt-plate costs no more than a rubber butt- plate, and should always be chosen. The Winchester Company make a very good checked steel, shotgun butt-plate which they furnish at no extra cost on special order. By far the best butt-plate that I have ever seen, and the one which I have adopted for all my rifles, is that furnished on the Mannlicher-Schoenauer rifles imported into this coun- try before the war. It is a shotgun butt-plate of steel, roughly checked, and rounded so as to fit the shoulder perfectly. Moreover, it is very slightly hollowed so that it sticks to the shoulder most perfectly, either with lever or bolt-action rifles when the mechanism of the rifle is worked in rapid fire. It has a trap door in it so that recesses can be cut in the stock under the butt-plate for field cleaner, small oil can, a few cleaning patches, and a broken shell extractor. The rifle illustrated in Fig. 32 is equipped with one of these butt-plates. It cannot be had at the present time, but I am in hopes that in the near future at least one factory or private gunmaker will see the light and place it on the market. The butt-plate should always be placed on the stock at a very slight angle, the toe of the butt-plate being just a little farther forward than the heel. This keeps the butt from slipping downward when the rifle is at the shoulder, particularly in rapid fire. With the modern, properly balanced rifle the tendency of the butt-plate is always to slip down on the shoulder instead of up. Some American rifles have the butt- plate placed on at just the opposite angle to this, and it is a confounded nuisance, particularly with a lever-action rifle. A cheek piece is a slight advantage on a rifle stock, and many rifle- men think that it adds considerably to the appearance of the stock. Undoubtedly it helps to accustom the cheek always to find the same STOCKS, FOREARMS, BALANCE, AND WEIGHT 143 position on the stock each time, thus enabling one quickly to get the eye into the line of sight. Most cheek pieces have sharp edges, and these quickly become dented and broken down, thus greatly disfiguring the rifle. The cheek piece designed by the author has a rounded edge which gives a very fine appearance, and is free from this fault. After nine years in mountains and jungle this cheek piece shown in Figs. 20 and 32 still retains its good appearance. If a cheek piece is added to the stock the butt should have a little more cast off than when the stock is without this addition. A cheek piece is a good thing to im- prove the balance on a rifle that is a little muzzle heavy, as most of our repeating rifles are. I am a great admirer of the standard forearms as made on the Winchester repeating and single-shot rifles. Their shape, size, and location is just about right, both from the standpoint of utility and looks, and the rifleman who has a forearm made to order cannot go far wrong in adopting the Winchester forearm as a model, par- ticularly those on the fancy models of the Model 1886 and 1895 rifles. The location of sling swivels on stock and forearm is covered in Chapter XXV. A rifle should be well balanced so that it comes up to the shoulder easily and quickly, so that it feels lively in the hand and not like a lump of metal and wood, and so that it is easily carried on the shoulder and in the hand. Balance is a hard thing to explain on paper. It is a thing rather to be appreciated only by feel. A properly balanced rifle feels lighter than it is, and is easily handled. A poorly balanced one is clumsy and slow. When balanced across a sharp edge, such as a ruler, the rifle should balance at a point four or five inches in front of the trigger. Most American rifles balance quite a little in front of this point, very little attention being paid to this detail by our manu- facturers. The majority of our rifles are muzzle heavy, particularly the tubular magazine repeaters having full magazines and rifle butt- stocks. A little muzzle heaviness does not hurt much; in fact, it makes a rifle a little steadier to hold in deliberate fire, and for this reason Schuetzen target rifles are always made quite muzzle heavy. But if the hunting rifle is too heavy at the muzzle it is difficult to bring it into alignment quickly, and hard to swing it in aiming at moving game. The exact point of balance is not everything by any means. There must also be a nice proportion of weight between barrel, action, and stock. Some rifles balance at the right point, but their receivers and i 4 4 THE AMERICAN RIFLE actions are so heavy that they are decidedly breech heavy and clumsy. The Winchester Model 1895 and the Remington auto-loading rifles are particular offenders in this respect. One of the best balanced arms that I know of is the Winchester Model 1886 rifle when made with a 24-inch, .33-caliber barrel, half-magazine, pistol grip stock, and shotgun butt-plate. Springfield rifles when remodelled into sport- ing arms by a good workman can be made to balance perfectly, and as the actual balance comes almost in the middle of the magazine, the balance persists no matter how many cartridges are in the magazine. Of course the balance of a tubular magazine rifle changes constantly according to the number of cartridges in the magazine. If the cartridges be heavy, and the magazine a full length one, the rifle is extremely heavy and handles badly when the magazine is full, but there is little difference in the balance of a half magazine no matter how many cartridges are in it, unless the cartridges are very heavy. American big game rifles weigh from about 9 pounds for the heavier arms to about 6 pounds for the lighter ones when made up in carbine style. Certain models are made in " featherweight " style with very thin barrels, but these are not advisable, and if the sportsman is after light weight arms he had better adopt a carbine than take one of the very thin barrel models as the shooting will be much more reliable. It is possible to cut down the weight of our rifles considerably by hollowing out the stock, and removing excess metal from certain of the parts, including the receiver, but the rifleman had better entrust such jobs to a very skilled gunmaker, otherwise he is liable seriously to weaken the rifle, and even rob it of its margin of safety. The ideal weight for the big game rifle is about 7% pounds, except for the very heaviest calibers which often need a weight of almost 8^ pounds. Of course the lighter a rifle the more it recoils theoretically, but actually balance and fit of stock have so much to do with the feel of the recoil that it is possible so to model a 6%-pound rifle that the recoil will not be felt as much as a poorly fitting one of 9 pounds firing the same cartridge. Other things being equal, of course the heavy rifle will tire a sportsman more on a long day's hunt, but here balance and fit also enter, and in many cases a poorly balanced rifle of 7 pounds weight will tire one more in the course of a day over hard ground than a 13-pound, double-barrelled English elephant rifle of superb balance and design. On the other side of the fence, most of our .22-caliber, rim-fire rifles, particularly the repeaters, are entirely too light and small. The STOCKS, FOREARMS, BALANCE, AND WEIGHT 145 whole rifle seems to be boy sized, and there is certainly a demand in our market for a decent sized, .22-caliber, repeating rifle with full- sized stock weighing about 6V2 pounds, and being so made that adjust- able sights can be fitted to it. At the present time the only man-sized, .22 rifle on the market is the Winchester single shot. CHAPTER VII THE SIGHTS SIGHTS are placed on all rifles for the purpose of enabling one to aim accurately. As the rifle fires but one projectile at each shot it is essential that the aim be much more accurate than with a shot- gun, where the top of the barrel is merely brought into approximate alignment with the object it is desired to hit. To aim any long object, like the barrel of a rifle, it is of course necessary to have two guides or sights which can be brought into the straight line from the eye to the center of the target. This line is called the " line of sight." The two guides or sights are called the front sight placed on top of the barrel near the muzzle, and the rear sight placed either on top of the barrel a few inches in front of the breech, on top of the re- ceiver, or secured to the top of the tang. These two sights are aligned by trial (that is, made high or low, and moved to the right or left) so that when they are brought into the line of sight and the rifle fired the bullet will strike the center of the bull's-eye at the farther end of the line of sight. There are an endless variety of sights, from the simplest forms to the most complex. We may divide them into two general classes; iron sights and telescope sights. The former are the metallic sights, always two in number, front and rear, usually seen on rifles, and familiar to any one who has handled a rifle. The latter are small telescopes secured to the barrel of the rifle by adjustable mountings. They con- tain cross-hairs similar to those in the telescope of a surveyor's transmit, aim being taken by looking through the telescope at the magnified image of the target, and getting the cross-hairs to intersect where one wishes his bullet to hit. Telescope sights are dealt with in a subsequent chapter. The simplest forms of iron sights are known as open sights. The front sight consists of a thin blade of metal affixed to the top of the barrel directly over the center of the bore, near the muzzle, with one edge towards the breech. The rear sight is generally placed on the top of the barrel a few inches forward from the breech. It also con- 146 THE SIGHTS 147 sists of a blade of metal, but is placed with its flat side toward the breech and eye. The top edge usually contains a " V " or " U " shaped notch at the center. See Fig. 38. The act of aiming with open sights consists in so aligning the sights and the target that the front sight appears in the notch of the TROWT SIGHT S">d. V,«. Views from Breech REAR SI6HT Fig. 38 Common American front and rear sights, showing method of attachment to the barrel rear sight, and a prolongation of this alignment strikes the target as shown in Fig. 39. The accuracy of aim depends upon aligning the sights exactly the same each time. For example, the blade of the front sight must always appear exactly in the middle of the notch of the rear sight, and the top of the front sight must always appear exactly the same distance above the bottom of this notch. The ac- curacy with which this can be done time after time depends upon the ability of the eye of the individual to align objects, and accurately to measure and compare small objects by eye. This sense of proportion varies with individuals, and thus the accuracy with which each can aim differs. Accurate aiming may be said to consist of impressing on the retina of the eye by constant practice a memory of the view or " picture " of the sights and target correctly aligned, and then the careful alignment so that this picture appears to be exactly duplicated each time aim is taken. It has been found that while individuals soon acquire a consider- able degree of accuracy and expertness in aiming, yet there is always a certain amount of error, and that with open sights the differences 148 THE AMERICAN RIFLE in light will cause an appreciable difference in alignment even when the picture appears correct. It has also been found that the eye is capable of centering objects with much more accuracy than it is of producing an alignment similar to getting a front sight exactly the I 2 © ® 3 4 Fig. 39 Method of aligning sights 1. English " V " open express sight. 2. Open " U " sight. 3. Target peep sight with cup disc 4. Lyman peep sight same every time in the notch of a rear sight. This has led to the perfection of another form of iron sight called the peep sight, the rear sight consisting of a small round aperture in a plate, or of a sort of ring. With peep sights the act of aiming consists of getting the front sight to appear with its top exactly in the center of the peep hole, and then moving the rifle so as to bring the target into this align- ment. The natural aptitude of the eye for centering objects enables one to do this with considerable accuracy. Fig. 39 shows this method of aiming, 3 being the ordinary peep sight usually seen on target rifles, and 4 being what is known as the Lyman system. In both cases the peep hole appears quite large. It looks large as shown in the figure when the eye is held near to it in aiming, but as a matter of fact the exact size of the aperture illustrated in 3 would probably be .05 inch diameter, and with the Lyman system the peep hole is about .10 inch in diameter. The Lyman sight, as will be seen, permits of an almost unimpeded view of the target during aim, and for this reason it is easier to align quickly, particularly on a moving target, and it can be used in darker lights than most sights. The Lyman peep sight is usually seen on hunting rifles. As we have seen in Chapter II, the bullet begins to drop the instant THE SIGHTS 149 that it leaves the muzzle of the rifle. The sights can therefore be adjusted or aligned for only one range at a time. Thus if the sights are adjusted so that the bullet, when fired, will hit the bull's-eye at 100 yards, the bullet will leave the muzzle under the line of sight, and travelling slightly upward, it will cross the line of sight a few yards in front of the muzzle, and will continue to rise above the line of sight up to a point a yard or two more than half way to the 100 yard target (say 53 yards), and will then fall toward the line of sight until at the target 100 yards from the muzzle it again falls into the line of sight by striking the center of the bull's-eye. With the sights adjusted correctly for 100 yards, and with aim taken at the center of the bull's-eye, it will be apparent that if the target be 50 yards away the bullet will be travelling above the line at that range, and hence it will strike the target above the bull's-eye. And if the target be at 200 yards instead of at 100 yards, the 100 yard sight being used, the Fig. 40 The alignment of eye, rear sight, front sight, and bulls-eye ; also the relation of the line of sight to the path of the bullet (trajectory) bullet will continue to fall after passing 100 yards, and will strike below the bull's-eye. This is graphically shown in Fig. 40. A further examination of this figure will show that if we wish to adjust the sights to strike an object 200 yards away instead of only 100 yards, when aim is taken normally as explained, we must either lower the front sight or raise the rear sight. Doing either of these has the effect of causing the barrel to point higher into the air when aim is being taken, and therefore the bullet rises higher into the air, and travelling upward above the line of sight, falls to the line at (say) 200 yards. For mechanical reasons this adjustment for ranges is ac- complished on the rear sight by constructing it so that it can be slightly raised or lowered. The simplest forms of iron sights do not permit of any adjustment for range, and hence are correctly adjusted for only one range. With such non-adjustable sights if the object be at only half the range for which the sights are set it will be neces- sary to aim below the object to hit it, and if the object be beyond this i 5 o THE AMERICAN RIFLE distance it will be necessary to aim above the object to secure a hit. The rifleman must thus calculate how much the bullet will rise or fall, and must estimate this amount to hold high or low in aiming. This in effect introduces two guesses into the act of aiming with fixed sights at any range other than the one at which the sights are correct, and if in addition we have to estimate the range, another guess is introduced. These two or three guesses lead to considerable inaccuracy. Therefore it is much better practice to have a rear sight that can be raised or lowered for the different ranges, in which case there is at most but one guess, that of the exact range. Military sights have such adjustments, and there is a scale on the rear sight showing how high to place it for ioo, 200, 300, 400, 500 yards, etc. If one knows the exact range he can then set his sight accordingly, aim at the bull's-eye, and be sure of hitting it, always of course provided he does his part correctly, and the sights are correct and rifle accurate. It is also very advantageous to have an arrangement for lateral adjustment on one of the sights. A strong wind from one side or the other may drift the bullet causing it to strike to the right or left of the bull's-eye, and it has been found that much more accurate work can be done by correcting for this with a sight adjustment than by estimating the velocity of the wind, the deviating effect on the bullet, and how much to hold to the right or left for it. This adjust- ment on a sight is called a wind gauge. Sometimes the wind gauge is placed on the rear sight, and sometimes on the front sight. Rifles are usually placed on the market by the manufacturers equipped with the simplest form of open sights, perhaps with a very crude arrangement for procuring a slight adjustment for elevation. These sights are inexpensive, and are easily understood by the novice. Better sights can be procured to special order, or the common sights can be removed and more efficient sights placed on the arm by the rifle- man himself. Usually the sights are so secured to the rifle that this can be done without tools or special knowledge. As one progresses in his skill in shooting he develops decided ideas regarding sights. The manufacturers cannot cater to a thousand ideas, and hence they prefer to equip their rifles with plain open sights which they acknowl- edge are not suitable for expert use, but which are so cheap that the purchaser practically loses nothing when he equips his rifle with better sights of a type which suits him. THE SIGHTS 151 We will now proceed to examine and discuss the various forms of sights commonly seen on American rifles. FRONT SIGHTS Front sights may be divided into two kinds — open and globe or covered. Tfce essential points in open sights are strength, stability, shape, visibility, and definition. Sights should be, and almost all of them are, constructed of hard tool steel. They must be securely fastened to the barrel so that they cannot be knocked out of align- ment easily. The old method of attachment, still seen on many rifles, was to give them a dovetail base, and drive them into a similar transverse slot in the barrel, driving the sight in always from the right, the sight dovetail being slightly taper to give a secure fit. Gen- erally this method is satisfactory, but occasionally a sight secured in this manner is knocked out of alignment. A much better method of attaching the front sight is to provide a stud on the barrel with a longitudinal slot. The sight, in knife blade form, is fitted into the slot and secured by a pin. This method provides an absolutely stable attachment, although the sight cannot be driven a little to the right or left to align it, as is permitted by the former method, and all adjust- ment for lateral errors must be made on the rear sight. The necessity for visibility, particularly in hunting rifles, has led to the invention of an endless variety of front sights. For use in target shooting on a black and white target nothing can compare with a dead black front sight, as this gives a black and white silhouette effect in aiming, and the best definition of sights and target. All military riflemen smoke their sights with burning camphor or in the flame of a kerosene lamp just before starting to shoot in order to obtain a dead black surface on the sights. On objects other than black and white targets, such as big game, a sight is desired that can be seen clearly against the object in any light. For this reason hunting front sights are almost always tipped with German silver, copper, gold alloy, or ivory. The tip may take the form of simply welding a piece of one of these substances to the top and rear face of the sight, or the sight may be " bead " shaped, the face of the bead towards the breech being of one of these substances. Such tips can be seen in poor lights where a dead black sight would be practically in- visible, and they stand out plainly against dark colored objects, and the protective coloring of game. 152 THE AMERICAN RIFLE But it is very necessary also that the front sight shall not glimmer or glisten in the sunlight, for this will make it look much larger than it really is, the elevation and windage will differ, fine definition will be lost, and one will not be able to aim with any degree of accuracy. Silver, or German silver is a particular offender in this respect. A dull gold, or dull copper is better, but ivory is best of all. The most popular front sights of today have dull copper, dull gold alloy, or ivory beads. The two former substances have the advantage of being stronger, and they can be blackened with camphor smoke for target shooting without injuring them. The ivory bead is quite a little better for a rifle intended solely for game shooting. I have occasionally read of ivory beads breaking, but I have used them for twenty-five years in hard wilderness hunting, and I have never had one break, or 2> ^^ Z £ Z S WRONG RIGHT Fig. 41 Correct and incorrect shape of bead of front sight ever seen a broken ivory bead. Ivory beads sometimes get yellow from apparent age, and from oil. Wash them off with alcohol, and leave out in the sun for several days to bleach, and they will regain their original dead white color provided they are made of genuine ivory. I believe the question of selection between gold, copper, and ivory is merely one of whether the rifleman intends to do much target shooting with his rifle, or intends to use it solely for hunting. If the latter, choose the ivory bead. The shape of the tip of the bead is of great importance. If the head be rounded towards the marksman's eye, as in the first cut in Fig. 41, then it is a foregone conclusion that if the sun shines on one side of the front sight (as for example in the early morning when shooting to the north, and strong sunlight shines on the right hand side of the front sight) this side of the tip or bead will be much more brightly illuminated than the opposite side, and the eye in aiming will unconsciously favor the illuminated side, particularly when aim is taken hurriedly as in game shooting. This acts just as though the sight had been moved towards the illuminated side, and the sight will cause one to shoot away from the strong light. With a gold bead THE SIGHTS 153 sight rounded towards the eye I have found that my own extreme error from this cause is about 4 inches at 100 yards ; that is 4 inches lateral difference in points of impact beween strong sunlight shining on the right and left side of this form of sight. All open front sights have this fault to a greater or less degree. Even the straight, flat- top, front sight of the United States magazine rifle, Model 1903, when well blackened with camphor smoke, shows an error due to this cause of about 1 inch per 100 yards. A bead should be of the form shown in the second cut in Fig. 41, to give the minimum error from this cause, the edges of the bead being rounded just enough to take away the sharpness and tendency to chip or nick. The size of the tip or bead is also of considerable importance. The best general size seems to be Yiq inch for gold, copper, or ivory beads. For quick shooting at short range in the brush and dark woods, and for night shooting with a jack light a large bead %2 or % inch in Fig. 42 Various types of front sights 154 THE AMERICAN RIFLE diameter, known as a " Jack " sight, is undoubtedly an advantage, but it is not so good for long range shooting. The shape of the sight blade should be such as to give the greatest strength, and to avoid catching in the brush. It is an advantage to have that portion of the steel blade of the sight which is visible from the rear while aiming finely checked, or roughened so that it cannot reflect light. The illustrations in Fig. 42 show the common, and the most popular and best forms of open front sight on the American market. As Open As Globe Beach combination sight Globe sight, with interchangeable disc Wind gauge sight, with spirit level Fig. 43 Globe front sights A globe sight is one which has a covering of some sort, usually a metal cylinder, covering it to protect it from the glistening sun- light. This form is purely a target sight, and is intended for nothing else. As the sight itself is protected by the cover it is not liable to injury, and it can be made much finer, and give better definition than an open front sight. Often an aperture sight is used under the cover, that is one having a bead which is perforated with a small aperture or peep hole. In aiming the bull's-eye is centered in the aperture. Fig. 43 shows several types of globe sights. REAR SIGHTS The great majority of front sights show a similarity of design. There is a blade tipped with some visible metal or ivory, or else it is left untipped. Rear sights, however, are of many varieties. As be- fore mentioned, the simplest form of rear sight is the plain open sight THE SIGHTS i55 consisting of a bar having a " V " or " U " shaped notch. Fig. 44 shows one of the oldest forms of rear sights still frequently met with on hunting rifles. It is known as the " Buckhorn " sight because of the similarity of shape when viewed from the breech to a deer's horns. It is not a good sight, and it is remarkable that it should have been so popular. The shape is such that it hides much of the Fig. 44 Buckhorn rear sight Fig. 45 Flat top sporting rear sight Fig. 46 Express rear sights target in aiming, and it is very difficult to get and keep the aim on running game with it. It is very hard to align the front sight evenly for elevation in the very small " V " notch at the bottom of the crotch. The step for elevating the sight for longer ranges is very crude ; the various steps meaning nothing until the rifleman has targeted his rifle with the sight set at each step, and at various ranges. A better shaped sight of the same form is that shown in Fig. 45, known as the Flat Top Sporting Rear Sight. Fig. 46 shows another common form known as the " Express " sight. The stationary sight seen in position for aiming is called the " standard." The " leaves " shown folded down are on hinges and can be raised to give additional eleva- tion. 156 THE AMERICAN RIFLE In recent years almost all manufacturers have given up other shapes of open rear sight for the flat top bar with the " U " notch. This is as it should be. The flat top helps to level the rifle, and cuts off no more of the target from view when aiming than is absolutely necessary. The eye naturally centers the front sight on the flat bar, and thus leads the front sight quickly into the notch. The " U " is the best shape for the notch as the Fig. 47 front sight is intended to be aligned so Correct method of aligning sights that its top surface shaU bg Qn & j^ with the flat top of the bar, and the " U " gives two sharp right angle corners at its upper extremities to guide the eye in getting the front sight to the correct height, and in the middle of the " U " every time. The correct method of aligning the front sight in such a rear sight is shown in Fig. 47, the line of sight passing through the intersection of the cross lines. Carbine rear sight Fig. 48 Military type of rear open sights sometimes seen an sporting rifles Fig. 48 shows several of the older types of semi-military rear sights where a slight attempt has been made to obtain a better method of elevation. It is supposed that the graduations on these sights are for hundreds of yards of range, but as a matter of fact they are no such thing, as they are far from correct for any modern cartridge that I know of. As with the steps on the sporting rear sight, the value THE SIGHTS 157 of these markings will have to be determined by a rather extended course of target shooting by the owner of the rifle. For the longer ranges the leaf is elevated and the slide slid up or down to the de- sired elevation, and retained at this adjustment by friction alone. This method of retaining the slide in position did fairly well in the days of black powder and light charges, but with modern ammunition it is entirely inadequate, as the slide is liable to, and usually does slip down before the score of ten shots is completed. These sights would be fairly satisfactory today were the standard and slide given a clean cut " U " shaped notch, and a clamp screw provided for retaining the slide in the set position on the leaf. Fig. 49 The best type of open rear sight. The Model 1902 rear sight for the Krag rifle Fig. 49 shows the very highest development of open rear sight. It is the Model of 1902 rear sight for the United States magazine rifle, Model 1898 (Krag). It is graduated correctly for the .30-40 cartridge for every 100 yards from 100 to 2000 yards, and its construction per- mits of any elevation between these limits. Elevation is secured by moving the slide up or forward on the leaf. As the slide runs along the upper curved surfaces of the base this elevates the eye piece. The eye piece also has adjustment for windage as shown, which is actuated by the knurl headed screw on the left side, while the screw on the right clamps the elevation adjustment. The eye piece has I5 8 THE AMERICAN RIFLE attached to it a peep plate which can be pushed into place, thus trans- forming the sight from open to peep. Open sights are almost always attached to the barrel a few inches in front of the receiver. If they are placed too near to the breech and eye they will appear badly blurred in aiming. Therefore open sights always have a short sight radius, that is a short distance between front and rear sights. A long sight radius is very desirable as it minimizes errors in aim. A small error made in aligning the sights, ---LON0 l«EF)5!6HT ■*•»■-• — -*j ^ — 1 ♦ SHORT (ePIN) SI BUT MWWS ■* -^— — "~~ — ■ — "" " * Fig. SO Showing the advantage of a long sight radius say of .005 inch, which can hardly be detected by the eye, will cause much less of an error at the target with a long sight radius than with a short one. This is perhaps best graphically described in Fig. 50. A short sight radius, differences in light, dependence on sense of proportion in the individual, and lack of precise arrangements for elevation and windage adjustment are faults common to all open rear sights. Year by year rifles and ammunition have been gradually improved, but until very recent years aiming devices have remained practically the same — a blade or pointed front sight and an open bar rear sight with a notch in it. The best results cannot be secured from such sights with modern rifles and ammunition. It is a well-known fact that the human eye cannot focus at the same time two or more objects at different distances, even when they are superimposed as are the rear sight notch, the front sight, and the bull's-eye in the act of aiming with open sights. The eye in this case does its best by adopting a compromise focus which shows the three essentials with varying degree of clearness. The requisite skill is difficult of attain- ment even with the best of young eyes, and the results are greatly influenced by changes of light and other conditions. An open rear sight, in order to be seen at all clearly, has to be placed on the rifle barrel at a considerable distance from the eye when in the shooting position. In many cases the eye may be held when shooting stand- ing at sufficient distance from the sight to obtain a clear outline of it, but when attempting to fire in the prone position the peculiarities of the position make it absolutely necessary to hold the eye much THE SIGHTS 159 nearer the rear sight and bad blurring results. On the other hand if the eye be so focused as to make the rear sight appear clear the bull's-eye will be badly out of focus. If the rear sight be placed a sufficient distance forward on the barrel to obtain clear focus in all positions then the sight radius is so shortened as to greatly magnify the results of all errors of aim as already explained. The optical principles of the peep or aperture sight are quite differ- ent. One looks through the aperture. There is no such thing as taking a fine or coarse sight. No attempt need be made to focus on the aperture. It can blur any amount, and the eye can simply center in the middle of the blur without the accuracy suffering in the slightest. This makes it necessary to attempt to focus on but two objects, the front sight and the bull's-eye, and experience has shown that if the eye be focused entirely on the bull's-eye, as it should be, the front sight, being at a considerable distance from the eye, will be seen with very good definition. The rear aperture sight, can, and should be, placed near the eye, as near as possible without en- dangering the eye from recoil, and this greatly increases the sight radius, and thereby considerably minimizes the errors which result from small imperfections in alignment. Added to these facts, the eye has a natural aptitude for centering objects. It can center a front sight or a bull's-eye much more accurately in an aperture than it can get it in the center of a notch, and at the same time at a uniform height in the notch. Moreover, differences in light do not affect its accuracy in making this alignment. Many arguments could be quoted to prove the superiority of aperture sights over open sights. For years match rifle shots have used nothing else. The best scores with all rifles have been made with aperture sights. All the world records have been made with either aperture or telescope sights. Nine times out of ten when a sportsman has once given that form of aperture sights best adapted to hunting a thorough trial he will thereafter use nothing else. Many men gain a false impression of the peep sight because the only one with which they are familiar is one of the forms which are placed on the barrel far away from the eye. This is not the right position for an aperture, and no conception of the possibilities of the aperture can be gained from the examination or use of a sight so placed. The aperture must be near the eye, either above the small of the stock, or certainly not further forward than the rear of the re- ceiver. Again, many complain that they find difficulty in exactly i6o THE AMERICAN RIFLE centering the front sight in the aperture, not realizing that if they pay no attention whatever to trying to center the front sight the eye will do it naturally and do it far more accurately than they can do it by taking great pains over it. The eye should simply look through the peep. The small size (say .05-inch average diameter) of an aperture, and the ease with which the true center is found by the eye, implies a considerable reduction of error compared with open sights. Although the diameter of the hole is .05 inch, the edges are blurred when aiming because the aperture is so near the eye and consequently out of focus. As a consequence the utmost distance the eye can stray from the exact center is about half of half, .05 inch — roughly .01 inch. The natural aptitude of the eye in centering objects still further reduces this error. An error of .01 inch can easily be made with open sights without the rifleman being at all cognizant of it. We can roughly divide aperture or peep sights into two general groups: The disk aperture and the Lyman peep. In the former group the aperture is placed in a plate, usually a circular plate, called a disk. This disk shuts off all view of the target except that portion which can be seen through the peep hole. This peep hole is small, from .03 inch to .06 inch. Figure 51 shows a sample of this group of sights, and Fig. 39 shows how they appear when aiming at a bull's-eye target. This is the best form of peep for tar- get shooting. The disk shuts off the extraneous rays of light and permits one to see the bull's-eye with a greater degree of clearness, particularly when the source of light comes from the Vernier peep sight for target rifle front and shines in the shooter's eyes. In- addition there is what is called an " orthoptic " effect, the small aperture and the disk causing everything seen through it to appear in perfect focus. Thus the bull's-eye and Fig- 5i THE SIGHTS 161 front sight appear perfectly sharp, and small errors in the individual's vision are corrected. This group of sights is entirely for target shoot- ing. They cannot be used successfully for warfare or for hunting, be- cause they give so little view of the target and landscape around the target that they are of absolutely no use against moving targets. They cannot be used in poor lights. It is hard to catch the target and aim quickly with them. The second group — the Lyman peep sights — may be said to rep- resent the most modern and all around efficient form of metallic Fig. 52 rig. 52 The original Lyman peep sight, and the way it appears when aiming at running game sights. The principle was first embodied in the invention of Mr. William Lyman of Middlefield, Connecticut, about thirty years ago, but it has only been within recent years that the system has attained its deserved popularity. The Lyman system consists of placing the aperture in a very small disk so that in effect it is nothing more than a ring. This sight is near to the eye, and in aiming it appears like a blurred ring. The ring is so thin that it does not obscure a com- plete vision of the target and all the landscape around the target. In 162 THE AMERICAN RIFLE aiming the eye looks through the blurred ring, the centering ability of the eye causing the accurate alignment. The effect is to reduce the act of aiming to practically that used with the shotgun, namely placing the front sight on the object and pulling the trigger. It is just as though there were but one sight on the rifle. The rear sight causes no obstruction to the vision, there is no painstaking effort necessary to align the two sights, and it is not necessary to adopt a compromise focus of the eye. Fig. 52 shows the original Lyman sight and the method of aiming it. Some of the advantages of the Lyman system are: One sees the whole target and landscape around the target in aiming. In actual practice no attention need be paid to the rear sight in aiming, thus greatly simplifying aiming and greatly quickening it. Such a sight can be seen in very poor lights when open sights could not be used at all. The sight does not darken the target. It is very quick to catch and to use on running game. Aim is as accurate with it as with any other iron sights except the disk system of peep sight where the orthoptic effect allows better definition. The sight is not affected by light as all open rear sights are. Personally I have used Lyman sights on all my hunting rifles since 1893, and I would not think of using any other system on a hunting rifle except a telescope sight for special uses. I also believe the Lyman system to be the very best for a military rifle, and in this I am borne out by the action of the British War Office in adopting for the En- field rifle the Lyman system of sighting, and, moreover, thinking so much of it that they made this change during the Great War. It was Mr. Lyman's idea, and this is correct, that the sight should be as near the eye as possible ; that is just far enough away that the sight would not strike the eye when the rifle recoiled. The first Lyman sights were all made to be placed on the tang of the rifle. The introduction of heavier and longer cartridges, and the consequent necessarily greater distance that the bolt had to travel to the rear in order to load these long cartridges, made it impossible to use tang sights on many modern heavy rifles. The bolt would strike the tang sight and turn it down. This led to the designing of what is known as the Lyman receiver sight, the sight being secured to the rear of the receiver. This method of attachment answers very well indeed in most cases, yet it is a fact that the Lyman sight mounted in this way cannot be caught as quickly, nor seen in as poor lights as the same sight mounted on the tang so as to come nearer to the eye. On one THE SIGHTS 163 hunting trip in Montana there were four of us in the party. Two had their rifles equipped with Lyman receiver sights, and two with Lyman tang sights. We tried these sights out in competition under all conceivable conditions, and all of us came to the conclusion that aim could be caught much more quickly with the tang sight than with the receiver sight, and also that the tang sight could be seen clearly enough to aim accurately with at least fifteen minutes earlier in the 2 3 Fig. 53 Various forms of Lyman peep sights 1 — No. 29^2 rear sight with wind gauge for Savage Model 1899 rifles. 2 — No. 1 rear sight for Remington-U. M. C. No. 14 rifle. 3 — No. 2A rear sight with detachable cup disc for target shooting. morning and fifteen minutes later at evening than could the receiver sight. These are important considerations to the hunter and the soldier. Nevertheless the receiver sight on the Lyman principle is a very satisfactory sight. It is better for a military sight than the tang sight because the latter is really too near the eye to be used in the prone position without assuming a very cramped attitude. It is also stronger and less liable to injury than the tang sight. Figure 54 shows a number of Lyman receiver sights adapted to rifles which have long bolts, which, withdrawing a considerable distance to the 164 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Winchester Remington Fig- 54 Various types of Lyman receiver sights rear in the act of loading, make the use of the ordinary Lyman tang sight impossible. In recent years the Marble Arms and Manufacturing Company have THE SIGHTS 165 placed on the market a tang sight constructed on the Lyman principle which has a flexible base. There is a spring in the joint, and when the sight is folded down forward or backward it will, when released, immediately spring up again into the firing position. This sight can be used on a number of lever-action rifles which have bolts too long to permit of attaching the ordinary Lyman tang sight. As the bolt Disc No. 2 Showing exact size of the two regular discs fur- nished with each sight. Point blank screw may be turned by inserting in slotted stem socket. Flexible " sight, showing sliding lock button Regular base flexible sight on rifle with long firing bolt Fig- 55 The Marble flexible base rear sight. Same principle as the Lyman. A strong spring holds it in the firing position, and if struck by anything it bends down and springs back into position. It can be bent down against the tang and held there by a lock when the rifle is placed in a case. 166 THE AMERICAN RIFLE comes to the rear it pushes down the Marble sight, and when the lever is closed and the bolt moves forward, the sight at once springs up into the firing position. This is a very satisfactory sight on the Win- chester Model 1895 rifle, except on the .405 caliber, the recoil in this caliber being a little heavy for any tang sight, as the sight is liable to strike the eye during the recoil. Fig. 55 shows this sight. The older models of the Lyman sight had but one adjustment, a screwing up and down of the stem for elevation. The stem has graduations on it, and it is screwed up and down by rotating the knurled sleeve. This is fairly satisfactory as one can get quite fine adjustment by taking care to revolve the sleeve just a little. But it is not positive. There is no way of recording the exact elevation. On most of these sights moving the rear sight up or down one gradua- tion caused a change in point of impact of about 5 inches at 100 yards. The first form of receiver sights were even more crude. There were a number of marks on the side of the sight and a pointer. A clamp secured the sight in position. One loosened the clamp and slid the sight up or down to the desired mark. The pointer snapped in the notch forming the mark, and if this mark was a little out of the correct adjustment it was impossible to adjust as desired as the sight would always slide a little up or down so that the pointer went into the middle of the notch. This form of sight was later improved by constructing it with a first-class scale for elevation and a knurl-headed screw with which to move the sight up and down for obtaining fine adjustment. At the same time the need for lateral adjustment was recognized by adding a wind gauge to many models of Lyman receiver sights, but it has not been until very recently that tang sights were similarly equipped. Within the last five years the insistent demand on the part of expert rifle-men for sights with absolutely positive adjustment, and with ad- justments which could be translated into minutes of angle, has led to the placing on the market of two most perfect aperture rear sights of the Lyman form. One of these is a receiver sight, the Lyman No. 48. It is adapted to the United States magazine rifle, Model 1903, but by a little filing of the base can be satisfactorily mounted on almost all other repeating rifles. Its adjustment for elevation reads to minutes of angle. It also has a wind gauge which has " points " of the same value as the points on the wind-gauge scale of the regular military sight on this Model 1903 rifle, so that the windage tables calculated for this rifle can be used with this sight as well as with the THE SIGHTS 167 regular military sight. That is to say, the points on the scale of the wind gauge have a value of 4 inches at 100 yards. One revolution of the wind-gauge screw moves the wind gauge one point. A click arrangement is placed in this screw, so that it clicks for every quarter Fig. 56 Lyman No. 48 receiver sight for Springfield rifle Fig. 57 Lyman No. 103 rear sight. The most perfect rear sight ever made 1 68 THE AMERICAN RIFLE revolution or quarter point. A quarter point is worth just one minute of angle, so that we really have an adjustment to minutes of angle for both elevation and windage. The elevation screw is also arranged to click for every minute of adjustment. These clicks can easily be felt but are not audible, so they are not liable to disturb game or give one away to the enemy. They are a great advantage, in that the adjustments never slip up or down unintentionally, and it is very easy to make positive adjustments at night by feel alone. This is a most satisfactory sight for either military, long-range target, or hunting use. The second sight is the Lyman No. 103 tang sight. It also has adjustments for both elevation and windage, but in the case of this Fig. 58 Lyman rear sight on the author's sporting Springfield rifle. When the rifle is cocked the sight is brought back near the eye, but the act of firing carries the sight forward so that there is no danger of its striking the eye during the recoil. This is a much better sight for hunting than the receiver sight as it can be seen in poorer lights, and aim can be caught much quicker with it than with the receiver sight. sight these adjustments read to half minutes of angle. The sight was constructed in this manner to satisfy the demand of the gallery shoot- ers, particularly those competing in the series of gallery competitions instituted by the National Rifle Association. Here the demand is for a sight which will adjust to just Vs inch at 25 yards, and a half minute of angle just does this. This also is a most satisfactory rear sight. It is extremely well constructed of excellent material, arrangement is made to take up all back lash and lost motion, and the adjustments have the click arrangement for half-minute adjustment. It is adapted to the Winchester and Stevens Ideal single shot rifles, and to the Winchester Model 1894 rifle. With a little alteration it can be made to answer for the Winchester Models 1886 and 1892 rifles. For the models to which adapted it is a better hunting sight than the No. 48 THE SIGHTS 169 receiver sight, of course mainly because the aperture comes nearer to the eye. The diameter of the normal aperture in Lyman sights is about %2 inch, and there is usually an additional plate attached to the stem which is secured by a hinge and can be folded up into the normal aperture and contains a peep hole about ^2 inch in diameter. I have never found any use for this small peep, and to prevent it some time getting half-way up and down and thus making it impossible to use the sight without folding it down, I have always removed it from all Lyman sights on my rifles. On special order, Lyman and the Marble models of the Lyman sights can be provided with an attach- able cup disk having an aperture about .05 inch in diameter. It is a decided advantage to have this attachment as it makes the sight much better for purely target shooting, and it can always be taken off for field work. One can use it for testing ammunition and for sighting in the rifle, as the elevations and zeros found with it will be exactly the same when it is removed and the true Lyman aperture used. With all rear sights, both open and peep, it is very desirable that the edges towards the eye be clean cut and sharp, so that there can be no reflection of light or glimmer from them. They should be bevelled on the side farthest from the eye, so as to present a knife edge at right angles to the eye and an absolutely perpendicular surface towards the eye. This is often neglected even by the best makers. If there is trouble with the edges glimmering, a jeweler or expert gunsmith can always remedy the trouble in a few minutes by sharp- ening the edges. The sights should be always kept well blued to a dead black so as not to reflect light. If they become bright through wear, it is well to send them back to the maker occasionally for re- bluing. Sights are delicate instruments. To be suitable for aiming a modern accurate rifle they must be in perfect condition. They must be carefully cared for and guarded from all blows and injury. Next to the bore of the rifle, the sights are the most important parts of the weapon. CHAPTER VIII SIGHT ADJUSTMENT THE sights of a rifle are very seldom correctly adjusted when the owner purchases the same. Some factories make no pre- text whatever of adjusting their sights. Others adjust them with considerable care, but often at a range other than that to which the rifleman desires them adjusted. Thus the Winchester Repeating Arms Company adjust all the sights on their high-power rifles, and on many of their black-powder arms as well, on the 200-yard target. That is, when the rear sight is at its lowest elevation the rifle is cor- rectly sighted to hit the center of an 8-inch bull's-eye at 200 yards when aimed at its lower edge. This is entirely too high a sighting for most men, especially for hunting. Take a .30-30 rifle, for example. When fired at 200 yards, its trajectory above the line of sight at 100 yards is 5.79 inches. If this rifle is sighted for 200 yards it will then shoot 5.79 inches, plus 2 inches difference between point of impact and point of aim on account of being sighted to hit 4 inches high at 200 yards, or 7.79 inches above where the top of the front sight is held at 100 yards. This is enough to go clear over the top of a deer on a perfect body hold at 100 yards. Moreover, experience has shown that a sight adjustment that is correct for one man will seldom be correct for another, owing to little differences in methods of aim, eyesight, manner of holding the rifle, etc. Therefore the chances are that a new rifle, besides shooting very high, will not be correctly adjusted for its owner, and the first thing to do is to adjust the sights. We must first consider the shortest distance at which we wish to fire, and adjust our sights for that distance. Let us say 50 yards, because with sights adjusted for this range we are always ready for very close shots which sometimes present themselves, such as the head of a grouse at 15 yards. Select therefore a safe range of 50 yards on which to fire, and if possible have at hand a table, a chair, a small box about 10 inches high, a blanket, a small piece of brass rod several inches long, a couple of files — one a small saw file and the other 170 SIGHT ADJUSTMENT 171 a very small, rat-tail jeweler's file — a number of targets about a foot square with a black bull's-eye about 3 inches in diameter on the same, and rifle and ammunition. Sit down in rear of the table, placing thereon the small box with the blanket thickly folded on top. Arrange table, chair, box, and rifle so that when sitting in the chair one will have his shoulders and chest in about the same upright posi- tion relative to rifle and target as when firing offhand. The rifle is to be rested on top of the blanket on the box, so that the forearm of the rifle rests on the thick, soft blanket about 8 inches ahead of the breech. Experiment with the position until it is comfortable, and the rifle, shoulders, and head are approximately in the same positions as when firing offhand. (See Figs. 155 and 156.) Now with the sights on the rifle set as low as they will go, fire a single shot at the target, using great care as to aim and trigger pull. Note where this shot strikes. (A pair of field glasses are convenient, as the bullet hole can then be seen without having to get up and go to the target after every shot.) Now adjust the sights according to the following rule : "Move the rear sight the way you zvish your shot to go, or the front sight in the opposite direction." That is, if your shot has gone high, striking above the bull's-eye, you must either lower the rear sight, or, if this is impossible, you must file it down on top, deepening the notch with the little rat-tail file. If the shot has gone low, 3'ou can either raise the rear sight, or you can file down the front sight. If the shot has gone to the right and it is desired to make the rifle shoot more to the left, then the rear sight must be moved to the left. If it is fitted into a slot in the barrel, strike the sight a smart blow on the dovetail base, resting the short brass rod against the base and striking the rod with the hammer. If it becomes necessary to move the rear sight so far to the left as to make it unsightly, then the front sight can be moved a little to the right and it will not be necessary to set the rear sight over so far. It is best to verify the shooting by firing three or four shots before starting to adjust the sights. Go slow in moving them, remembering that a very slight move of the sight will change the point of impact considerably on the target. When you think you have moved the sight far enough, shoot again for verification. This is the rough and usual method of adjusting the factory sights on a new rifle. It is not very satisfactory. In fact it is not at all satisfactory for a trained rifle shot. Only the novice or the very poor shot will put up with such methods at all. i 7 2 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Decidedly the best sights are those having accurate adjustments for both elevation and windage, and it is a real pleasure to adjust such sights on a rifle, besides a great saving in ammunition. Often the saving in ammunition will pay for the sights, because with the ordinary factory sights and the crude methods of knocking the sights back and forth and filing down one can easily fire 30 or 40 rounds before he feels that his sights are correctly adjusted for him. With modern adjustable sights, however, the' trained rifleman needs but three or four rounds to adjust the sights, after which he not only has them adjusted for one range, but he also knows the correct eleva- tion for all other ranges. It is only necessary to place these sights on the rifle and go to the range where the same equipment should be at hand, except that the small brass rod, the hammer, and the files will not be necessary. Sit down in the same manner and care- fully fire a shot, notice where it has struck, and then fire another for verification. If these shots have both struck close together then measure the vertical and horizontal distance in inches from them to the center of the bull's-eye. This will give you how much your shots are striking from the point of aim. All that is then necessary is to follow the rule for determining how much a certain change in sight adjustment will move the point of impact on the target as given below, and adjust the sight according to that rule and the table accompany- ing it, and the rifle is sighted in. Of course it is only correctly sighted for the individual who did the shooting and for the particular ammunition that was used at the time. RULE FOR DETERMINING HOW MUCH A CERTAIN CHANGE IN SIGHT ADJUSTMENT WILL MOVE THE POINT OF IMPACT ON THE TARGET First: Measure the distance from the front to the rear sight, and divide this into 3600. Second: Measure the dimension of the graduation or move that you are trying to find the value of on the sight. The accompanying table gives the dimensions of the smallest graduations on some of our most popular and useful rifle sights. Third: Multiply the first result by the second result, and the final result will be the distance that the point of impact will be moved at 100 yards. For 200 yards double this, for 300 yards multiply it by 3, for 500 yards multiply by 5, for 50 yards divide by 2, and so on. SIGHT ADJUSTMENT 173 Example: We have a Winchester Model 1894 rifle equipped with a No. 1 Lyman rear sight. We wish to determine how much an increase or decrease of one graduation on the elevation stem will move the point of impact at 100 yards. First, the distance between the front and rear sights is 30 inches. Thirty-six hundred divided by 30 equals 120. Second, from the table the dimension of one gradua- tion on the stem of this sight is .05-inch. Third, 120 multiplied by .05 equals 6 inches. That is, if we are shooting with an elevation of 2 points at 100 yards, and we then change our elevation to 3 points we will raise our point of impact 6 inches on the target. Sometimes, if we know the trajectory of a cartridge, we can deter- mine the correct sight setting for various ranges without firing at those ranges. Suppose the rifle in the above example is a .30-30 Winchester. From the table of trajectories in the Winchester catalogue we find that the height of the trajectory at 100 yards when shooting at 200 yards is 5.79 inches — practically 6 inches. In targeting the rifle at 100 yards we find that the correct elevation for that range with the Lyman No. 1 rear sight is 2 points or graduations on the sight stem. Now, from the above calculation it is evident that if we raise the rear sight to 3 points the rifle will shoot 6 inches higher at 100 yards — that is, it will have just the height of the 200-yard trajectory at 100 yards — in other words, it will be correctly sighted for 200 yards. DIMENSIONS OF THE SMALLEST GRADUATIONS OF RIFLE SIGHTS Make and model of sight Lyman, rear sight, Nos. 1. iA, 2, and 2 A . Lyman, rear sight, Xos. 29V?! and 30V2 Lyman, rear sight, No. .35 Lyman, rear sight, No. .36 Lyman, rear sight, Nos. 41 and 42 Lyman, rear sight, No. 45 Lyman, rear sight, Nos. 47 and 52 ....... Lyman, rear sight, No. 48 1 Lyman, rear sight, No. 10.3 - and No. 101. Lyman, front sight, Nos. 7, 8, and 18 Elevation graduation, inches Windage graduation, inches •OS .05 .02 .02 .025 .02 .02 .02 .02 .008 .00417 .02 •0.32 .OO417 •02Q75 1 The dimensions given are for 1 minute (i.e., V6 revolution of elevation screw) of elevation, and l A point of windage (i.e.. V4 revolution, or 1 "click" of wind- age screw. One minute in elevation, or Vi point in windage adjustment, gives a change of point of impact of 1 inch at 100 yards with this sight on the Model 190.3 rifle. 2 Each complete revolution of elevation and windage screws are graduated into 10 parts, or "clicks,'' which gives a change for each click of Vino-inch, which, with a 30-inch sight base equals M> minute of angle, or Vj inch at 100 yards, V* inch at 50 yards, and ^ inch at 25 yards, or 1 inch at 200 yards. The No. 101 rear sight has the same elevation adjustment, but no windage. 174 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Make and model of sight Elevation graduation, inches Windage graduation, inches Lyman, rear sights, Nos. 2\ and $*>: From 1st to 2nd graduation ... From 2nd to 3rd graduation ... From 3rd to 4th graduation From 4th to 5th graduation From 51I1 to 6th graduation From 6th to 7th graduation From 7th to 8th graduation From 8th to 9th graduation Lyman rear sight No. 2>2> '■ From 1st to 2nd graduation .... From 2nd to 3rd graduation From 3rd to 4th graduation From 4th to 5th graduation From 5th to 6th graduation From 6th to 7th graduation From 7th to 8th graduation From 8th to 9th graduation Marble flexible base rear •05 •05 •05 .058 •079 .105 .130 ■145 .05 •05 •05 •055 .065 •073 .100 .130 .0417 TABLES OF SIGHT CORRECTIONS — UNITED STATES ARMY RIFLES ELEVATION CORRECTION TABLE Corrections corresponding to a change in elevation of 100 yards. Model 1898 Rifle Models 1903 & 1917 Rifles Range (.yards) Correction corresponding to a change in elevation of 100 yards (inches) Correction corresponding to a change in elevation of 100 yards (inches) 100 4-87 11.38 19-95 31.48 46.04 63.86 86.00 108.87 136.02 166.08 2.88 200 5-44 10.08 17.28 24.72 3+16 46.68 62.48 79-oS 99-24 3OO 400 500 600 700 800 900 1 ,000 WINDAGE CORRECTION TABLE Correction corresponding to one point on the wind-gauge scale. Range (yards) Model 1S98 Rifle Model 1903 Rifle Correction caused by Correction caused b\ moving the movable moving the movable base one point base one point ( inches) (.inches) 6 4 12 8 18 12 24 16 30 20 36 . 24 42 28 48 32 54 36 60 40 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 goo 1,000 Note: The rear sight on the Model 1917 Rifle has no wind-gauge. SIGHT ADJUSTMENT MINUTES OF ANGLE AND ANGLES OF ELEVATION 175 A circle is divided into 360 degrees. Each of these degrees is further divided into 60 minutes. An angle of 1 minute is an angle whose arc is M>i.coo part of the circumference of a circle. With a circle having a radius of 100 yards this arc of a I angle will measure 1.0472 inches from end to end in a straight line. That is to say, 1 minute of angle subtends 1.0472 inches at 100 yards. It is very necessary to understand this before proceeding further. For convenience' sake, and simplicity, we consider that 1 minute of angle subtends 1 inch at 100 yards. It will therefore subtend 2 inches at 200 yards, 3 inches at 300 yards, and so on. Fig. 59 Illustrating a minute of angle Suppose we have a rifle whose front and rear sights are 30 inches apart. This distance between the sights is called the sight radius. In 100 yards there are 3600 inches. Thirty-six hundred inches divided by 30 inches equals 120. The sight radius is therefore M20 of the range. If we move our sight up or down one inch in elevation, we will raise or lower the point where our shots are striking on the target 120 times this much, or 120 inches. Now suppose on our rear sight we have graduations measuring .008 inch. That is, the graduation lines on the 176 THE AMERICAN RIFLE elevation scale are .008 inch apart. If we move our rear sight up one of these graduations, we will have raised our point of impact 120 times .008 inch on the 1 00-yard target. Now 120 multiplied by .008 equals .96 inch, — practically, to all intents and purposes, 1 inch. Thus one graduation dh this sight (.008) gives us an adjustment or movement of practically 1 minute of angle. It is necessary to comprehend this in order to understand and appre- ciate the many experiments and explanations which folloiv in this work. Minutes of angle are used by all ballistic experts and by the Ord- nance Departments of all armies in describing and comparing eleva- tions and sight readings. It is the unit of measure in discussing the sighting of a rifle, in just the same way as the foot and inch is the unit of measure of the carpenter. An adjustment on the sight of 1 minute of angle moves the point of impact 1 inch at 100 yards. That is all there is to it. For example, let us turn to the data of our own Ordnance Depart- ment, and look at the angles of elevation with our service rifle, the United States rifle, Model 1903 (New Springfield), using the .30- caliber, Model 1906 ammunition. This ammunition has a 150-grain, sharp-pointed bullet, and when fired it leaves the muzzle of the rifle with an initial velocity of 2700 feet per second. The angles of eleva- tion required to make the bullet hit the point of aim at the various ranges are as follows: Muzzle Zero 600 yards 20.68 minutes 100 yards 2.40 minutes 700 yards 26.15 minutes 200 yards 5.18 minutes 800 yards .32.50 minutes 300 yards 8.26 minutes 900 yards .39.86 minutes 400 yards 11.83 minutes 1,000 yards 48.3ominutcs 500 yards 15-90 minutes The rear sight on this rifle has graduations on it for every 100 yards, from 100 yards to 2800 yards, but the expert military shot will have nothing to do with them. These yard graduations, while they are just the thing for shooting in war, are not at all fine enough for expert military target shooting, so the expert uses a little instrument called the micrometer sight adjuster with which he adjusts his sight. Then instead of recording the adjustment for a certain range as so many yards, he records it as so many minutes, taking the reading from the micrometer. The micrometer reads to minutes of angle. This instru- ment is very convenient. Suppose the expert is shooting at 600 yards. At that range 1 minute of angle subtends 6 inches (remember 1 inch SIGHT ADJUSTMENT 177 per 100 yards). If his shots are hitting 1 foot below the center of the bull's-eye all he has to do is to snap the micrometer sight adjuster on the sight, raise the elevation 2 minutes, and his rifle then shoots cor- rectly into the center of the bull's-eye. Also he has a little table of the elevation required at the various ranges at which he shoots, which reads as follows : «. From 200 to 300 yards raise 3. minutes From 300 to 350 yards raise 1.7 minutes From 350 to 400 yards raise 2. minutes From 400 to 500 yards raise 4. minutes From 500 to 600 yards raise 4.8 minutes From 600 to 800 yards raise 12. minutes From 800 to goo yards raise 7. minutes From goo to 1,000 yards raise 8. minutes A comparison of this table with that of the angles of elevation of the service rifle just given above will show that the two are practically the same. Suppose the rifleman decides to change from one make of ammunition to another. From some brother rifleman he obtains the data for it. This new make requires 2 minutes less elevation than the old make, and at once he knows just where to set his sight for every range. Suppose he is firing a new rifle at 600 yards, and it is shooting well into the center of the bull's-eye, and he then wants to go to the 800-yard range at which he has never fired this rifle. He merely snaps on the micrometer sight adjuster, runs his sight up 12 minutes, and his first shot at 800 yards, if he does his part correctly, will be in a hori- zontal line passing very nearly through the center of the bull's-eye. A rear sight reading to minutes of angle is of immeasurable value to any rifleman. A perusal of the pages of this work will convince the reader that if he is to know his rifle thoroughly, and to become really expert with it, at long range as well as short, he must come to a sight reading to minutes of angle. The only sights on the American market now which have this convenient reading are the following: The Lyman No. 48 rear sight, the elevation scale of which reads to minutes of angle ; and the wind gauge of which reads to 4 minutes of angle, but has an operating screw which clicks for every minute. This sight is made for the United States magazine rifle, Model 19x13 (New Springfield), going on the receiver thereof, but a first-rate mechanic can easily make slight changes in its base and place it on almost any of our rifles. The Lyman No. 103 rear tang sight, which reads to half minutes of 178 THE AMERICAN RIFLE angle for the convenience of the gallery shot who wishes a sight which he can adjust to Vs inch at 25 yards (Vz minute). This is adapted to the Winchester and Stevens single shot rifles, and to the Winchester Model 1894 rifle, but with slight alteration can be fitted satisfactorily on almost any of our rifles which will allow of mounting the old Lyman No. 1 rear tang sight. The Winchester telescope sight, which when used with a No. 2 rear mounting, the front and rear mountings being placed on the barrel J.2 inches apart, has a reading for both elevation and windage of a half minute of angle. CHAPTER IX TELESCOPE SIGHTS INTRODUCTION A TELESCOPE sight is a small telescope having cross wires similar *■■ *- to a surveyor's transit, and is mounted on the barrel of the rifle in such a manner that in aiming in the usual manner one's eye looks through the telescope at the object. The object is magnified by the telescope, and it is only necessary for the riflemen so to move the rifle that the cross-hairs are superimposed on the particular place that he wishes his shot to strike. The tube of the telescope is made of steel. Two methods of adjustment are in vogue. The commonest is to ele- vate and deflect the tube by an adjustable rear mounting in exactly the same manner that the rear sight is ordinarily adjusted. The method of elevating and deflecting must allow for very close adjustment, as the front and rear mountings of the telescope are so much closer to- gether than are ordinary front and rear sights. The other method is to depress the cross-hairs by means of a screw and dial, which in effect causes one to aim higher. As a rule the first method is preferable as being more positive and accurate. The chief advantages claimed for the telescope sight are : (a) It greatly reduces the errors of aim. The error of aim with the best iron sights used by marksmen with perfect vision is i inch per. ioo yards — that is, for example, 5 inches at 500 yards. The eye cannot see to aim closer than this at the various ranges. With the telescope sight this error is divided by the magnifying power. For example, with a telescope sight magnifying 5 diameters, the error of aim at 500 yards would be only about I inch, depending slightly upon the fineness of the cross-hairs, and whether any mirage was present in the air. (b) It allows objects to be seen more distinctly than with the naked eye. Also it permits the vision to penetrate into places where it could not otherwise, as, for instance, into the edge of a woods, and into dark places that appear perfectly black when viewed with the naked eye. (c) Low power telescopes with large bright fields permit aim being 179 i8o THE AMERICAN RIFLE taken in lights when the iron sights cannot be seen at all. With a good 3-power telescope sight one can see to aim accurately on moonlight nights. (d) Various forms of telescope sights have certain other advantages which will be discussed later, together with the disadvantages. A good telescope sight is quite expensive, and it is to a certain extent a delicate instrument. The whole object of equipping a rifle with one is to attain better accuracy than can be had with iron sights. The tele- scope sight will be here considered primarily as an instrument with which we wish to attain a greater accuracy of aim by (a) eliminating the errors of aim, and (b) making the object aimed at more distinct. Anything which does not reduce, or actually increases, the error of aim is entirely out of place in connection with a telescope sight. For example, a set of mountings which will not adjust, or are capable of being read closer than, say, 3 inches at 100 yards, is entirely out of place because it introduces an error of as much as 3 inches at times, and this is three times larger than the error of the unaided eye, and fifteen times larger than the error of a good, 5-power, telescope sight. It will be made evident in the course of this chapter that no telescope sight has ever been produced that is entirely satisfactory for either military use or for big game shooting. Our telescope sights have all been constructed with a view to target shooting, and foreign telescope sights with a view to sale only, and not for use under service condi- tions. The purpose of this chapter will, therefore, be not so much to describe existing American models, as to discuss the design, capabili- ties, and development of telescope sights suitable alike for target shooting, war, and sport. For the sake of brevity the telescope sight adapted to the aiming of rifles will here be referred to as a " scope," a term in common use among American riflemen. POWER AND FIELD The power of a scope is its ability to magnify objects seen through it. A 5-power scope magnifies objects five times or diameters, or makes the object appear five times nearer than it actually is. To deter- mine the power of a scope, look through it at a brick wall or similar object. Keep the other eye open, and so move the scope that the image seen through it is alongside the image seen by the naked eye. Count the number of bricks seen by the naked eye which line up against TELESCOPE SIGHTS 181 one brick seen through the scope. The result will be the magnifying power. The field of a scope is the area embraced by the object seen through it when the eye is at the correct distance from the eye-piece. It is usually designated by the diameter at a certain range. To determine the diameter of the field, choose a level piece of ground. Drive a stake A at ioo yards from the scope. Have the scope in a steady rest, and so directed that the stake can just be seen at the left edge of the field of view, on line with a horizontal line passing through the center of the field. Have an assistant drive a second stake B, also ioo yards from the scope, to the right of stake A so that it can just be seen at the right edge of the field of view. The distance from A to B will be the diameter of the field at ioo yards. Twice this will be the diameter at 200 yards, and so on. It is a law of optics that, other things being equal, the higher the power of the telescope the smaller the field of view. A high-power scope is best for experimental work and rest shooting, as the error of aim is less. High power and fine cross-hairs are re- quired for absolute alignment, particularly at ranges of 200 yards and over. High-power scopes are usually classified as those magnifying over 6 diameters. Scopes of over 20 diameters are seldom seen. High-power scopes have small, dark fields, and are unsuitable for either military or hunting use. Low-power scopes, from 2 to 6 diameters, have brilliant and large fields. Objects can be seen distinctly in poor lights. The scope and rifle can be held steadily enough offhand so that the object aimed at remains in the field all the time, and is not continually bobbing in and out of view as is the case with a high-power scope held offhand. Low powers are best for military use, ordinary target shooting, and hunting. There is a little error of aim, particularly if the cross-hairs are very coarse, but the error is always much less than with iron sights. A scope having a large object lens, and large eye lens in propor- tion to the distance between the lenses, will have a larger and brighter field than a similar scope of the same power but relatively smaller lenses. The field of a very high-power scope appears dark; that is, the object viewed through it appears in a darker light than it does when viewed with the. naked eye. On dark days such a glass is useless except against a light background, as, for example, a white target. i82 THE AMERICAN RIFLE For making the object aimed at appear more distinctly, particularly in poor lights, a scope of low power should always be chosen. The diameter of the field has considerable to do with the efficiency of the glass for the ordinary uses to which a rifleman will put it. With a glass having a large field the rifleman throws the rifle to his shoulder in such a manner that it points as closely as possible at the object he desires to hit. The object is then surely seen in some part of the field, and it is only necessary so to move the rifle that the cross-hairs superimpose their intersection on the point one desires the shot to strike. With a small field the rifleman may not be able so accurately to throw his rifle to his shoulder that the object will be in- cluded in the field of view, but after placing the rifle at his shoulder he may have to swing the rifle up or down, or to one side or another, until he finds the object in the field. This takes time and makes the catching of the aim slow. Moreover, if the field is very small the slight tremors of the rifle and scope, as the rifleman endeavors to hold them steady, may be sufficient to cause the object to be con- stantly appearing and disappearing in the field. Twenty years' ex- perience with a large number and variety of scopes has shown that a field of view of at least 20 feet in diameter at 100 yards is essential if the object is surely to be seen in the field when the rifle is thrown to the shoulder by a skilled rifleman. This is a slightly larger field than obtains with any scopes at present made in the United States. RELIEF The relief of a scope is the distance at which the eye must be held in rear of the eye-piece in order to obtain the clearest view of the field and its largest diameter. It is greater with scopes than with other forms of telescopes, as it is necessary that the eye be held at some little distance from the eye-piece so that the eye-piece will not strike the eye when the rifle recoils. Also there is a certain latitude to it so that, for example, the eye may be held at any point from 1% to 3 inches from the eye-piece and still see the field at its best. This form of relief we will call the " longitudinal relief." A scope for use on a rifle having heavy recoil should have a long longitudinal relief so that the eye will not be endangered. Considerable latitude in the longitudinal relief is always desirable as the eye then does not have to be so accurately placed as to distance from the eye-piece in order to embrace the full field. Latitude thus makes for a quicker catching of the aim and for easier adaptability to the various firing positions. TELESCOPE SIGHTS 183 The eye, for example, will be held much closer to the eye-piece naturally in the prone position than it is in the standing position. There is also another form of relief which we will call the " lateral relief," that is, the distance which one may move his eye to one side or the other, or high and low, and still see the whole field of view. With iron sights there is no lateral relief at all, and one must get his eye exactly in the line of sight in order accurately to align the front and rear sights. With a telescope there is a certain latitude in this respect, and one may move his eye a little in any lateral direc- tion and still see the whole field of view without disturbing the align- ment of the cross-hairs. The more latitude there is to this lateral relief the quicker can the aim be caught, as the eye does not have to come exactly into the line of sight to obtain an accurate aim. ! > Fig. 60 R — Longitudinal relief, 2 inches. A-A — Latitude of longitudinal relief, 2 inches. B-B — Lateral relief, %■ inch. In Fig. 60 the oval in rear of the eye-piece illustrates the relief of the scope. The drawing shows a longitudinal relief of 2 inches, and a lateral relief of M inch, A-A being the longitudinal relief, and B-B the lateral relief. The eye can be placed anywhere within the oval and still see the entire field of view, and accurate aim be taken. The optical principle is such that the slight shifting of the eye from side to side through the lateral relief does not alter the line of aim, provided the cross-hairs of the telescope are in proper focus. That the cross-hairs are in proper focus can always be told by fastening the scope in a heavy vise. See first that the cross-hairs appear dis- tinctly, then move the head from side to side through the lateral relief, and notice whether the cross-hairs move at all in their alignment on an object in front of the scope. If they do not move the focus is correct. A scope is absolutely useless unless the cross-hairs are in focus. Some scopes have the cross-hairs fixed immovable and in focus all the time. Others have a screw which allows them to be focused. It will be obvious that with a relief, as illustrated in Fig. 60, aim 1 84 THE AMERICAN RIFLE can be caught very quickly as the eye does not have to come to exactly one place to get perfect alignment. In fact, with such a relief, and a large field, aim can be caught very much quicker than with any form of iron sights, provided that the scope is so mounted on the rifle that the comb of the stock helps to lead the eye into the line of sight by offering a guide or measure as to about where to place the head to get the eye into the line of sight. As a rule the scopes manu- factured in the United States have a rather small longitudinal relief, and entirely too small lateral relief. They are thus suitable only for slow target use and experimental work, such as accuracy testing. LENSES The field of view should be well defined and free from color fringes. This demands good achromatic lenses. This matter is always attended to by the makers with all but the very cheapest scopes, so that it needs no further attention other than to caution the purchaser against cheap scopes with ordinary lenses which will prove absolutely unsatisfactory, and probably introduce eye strain. The mounting of the lenses in the tube is of the greatest importance. Every lens has its optical center, and this may or may not correspond to, and be in alignment with, the axis of the tube. In fact, it is a very expen- sive matter to make a scope where these two centers coincide. Nor is it necessary for the ordinary uses to which a scope is usually put. If a telescope in which the optical centers of the lenses and the axis of the tube do not coincide be revolved on the axis of the tube, the cross-hairs, instead of remaining aligned on one spot on the target all the while, will pass in a circle over the field of the target. How- ever, in aiming with such a scope the horizontal cross-hair assists one in holding the scope level, and prevents any tendency to rotate or cant, and thus the line of aim remains constant. But if a lens should start to revolve in its mounting in the tube the line of sight would be thrown off with it, and we would have a constantly changing line of sight as the lens revolved. An experience with a German scope several years ago will suffice to illustrate this point. The tube of this scope was divided into two portions. The rear portion re- volved, screwing in and out for focus. The two portions were held fast by a set screw. No single set screw can be relied upon to hold with a high-power rifle of heavy recoil. In firing this scope on a high-power rifle it was noticed that the rifle was continually shooting high and to the right. In ten consecutive shots at 200 yards the point TELESCOPE SIGHTS 185 of impact, starting at the center of the bull's-eye, moved two feet during the string towards 10 o'clock. Investigation proved that the rear portion of the tube was revolving during recoil, the set screw not holding it. This, of course, caused the rotation of the eye-piece, and as a consequence the line of sight went sailing up towards 10 o'clock. The glass was properly focused and the two portions then soldered up, and no further difficulty was experienced for a while, until finally the same thing occurred again, and after considerable investigation it was found that one of the lenses had become loose in its seat, being simply crimped therein by little brass flanges bent down over the edges of the lens, and this glass was revolving under the vibrations of recoil and shifting the line of sight a little with Fig. 61 A Springfield sporting rifle with German telescope sight attached. A fine ap- pearing combination to the novice, but absolutely useless for practical purposes almost every shot. These faults are found in almost all German scopes, and make them absolutely unsatisfactory, although their optical properties are superb and often entice riflemen into purchasing them. The lenses should all be mounted in barrels which are secured in the tube against rotating by means of a rib on the inside of the tube, and a slot cut in the barrel so that the barrel cannot rotate in the tube. Then there should be a similar rib in each barrel and a cut in the edge of the lens fitting over this rib. Then the lenses cannot rotate. Some arrangement must also be made to prevent the caps which secure the lenses in the barrels from coming unscrewed and making the lenses loose in their seats. It must be remembered that with the peculiar recoil of the high-power rifle single screws will always, sooner or later, become loose. MOUNTINGS The mountings of the scope are by no means the least important feature in connection with this instrument. It cannot be impressed 1 86 THE AMERICAN RIFLE too strongly upon riflemen who have had no experience with scopes that the mountings must permit of very close and positive adjust- ment for both elevation and windage, and must have an arrange- ment for giving a clear reading of the various adjustments. The smallest movement or distance that the unaided eye can well measure or appreciate is just about .01 inch. Suppose we have Lyman sights on our rifle, the sights being 28 inches apart. With the eye alone we can adjust this sight as close as .01 inch. A change in adjustment of .01 inch on such sights means a change in the point of impact at 100 yards of 1.286 inch. This is plenty close enough in this case. But suppose we have a scope with a short tube (all modern scopes have short tubes) and the distance between the front and rear mount- ings is only 7.2 inches. Then the smallest adjustment we can see to make on this mounting, that is .01 inch, will cause a change in point of impact of 5 inches at 100 yards. In other words, with the ordinary crude sliding mountings often sold for telescope sights we cannot adjust our sights to shoot closer than five inches at 100 yards, and moreover we can at no time be sure that our rifle is going to shoot correctly at any given object closer than 5 inches. This, of course, will be absolutely unsatisfactory. The only satisfactory method of adjustment of a scope mounting is by means of micrometer screws having small but positive readings. One who has never used a micrometer very often has the idea that such adjustments are weak and complicated. The fact is they are just the contrary, being nothing more than large, strong screws with the scales engraved on them. A mounting with micrometer adjust- ments is the simplest and strongest of all kinds. With micrometer adjustments we can easily arrange our mountings so that both the elevation and windage adjustments can be positively moved and read to a change in point of impact of half an inch at 100 yards, or in other words half a minute of angle. A scope has two mountings, front and rear, corresponding to the front and rear sights. The front mounting has no adjustment, but holds the scope so that it can be moved slightly at the rear end in any direction. The rear mount should have adjustments for both eleva- tion and windage. The only scope mountings made in the United States, or in fact in any country, which are at all satisfactory, are those made by the Winchester Repeating Arms Company — the regular front mounting and the No. 2 rear mounting. The front mount con- sists of a ring around the tube of the scope, and is secured to the TELESCOPE SIGHTS 187 barrel by means of a dovetail base and a screw. The tube bears on two convex surfaces placed 120 degrees apart inside the ring. In the bottom of the inside of the ring, and placed at 120 degrees from each of these convex surfaces, is a bevel-nosed plunger which engages in a long groove on the under side of the tube, and keeps the tube from rotating but allows it to move longitudinally. This device insures the axis of the tube remaining constant, once it is adjusted. Fig. 62 Springfield rifle remodelled by A. O. Neidner, and fitted with Winchester tele- scope sight and Winchester mountings The shape of the rear mount is oval instead of circular, as in the case of the front mount, and is such as to allow ample play to the tube for elevation and windage adjustments for different ranges. Two springs, one exerting pressure vertically and the other horizon- tally, hold the tube iii contact with the elevation and windage screws. The elevation and windage are set by micrometer screws reading to .001 inch. The division markings on the adjusting screws and mounts are enameled in red so as to make it easy to read them quickly and accurately. When the mountings are placed 7.2 inches apart one point of adjustment on either of the adjusting screws is equivalent to a change in point of impact at 100 yards of half an inch. Small longitudinal dovetail bases are screwed to the barrel of the rifle the proper distance apart, and the bases of the mountings slip over these, being secured from slipping by thumb screws in the base of the mount. By loosening the thumb screws the mountings can be removed from the bases, thus removing the scope from the rifle, leaving only the small dovetail bases screwed to the barrel. Refer- ence to the illustrations of the Winchester scope and mountings will make this description clear. The Winchester mountings as described are very satisfactory, in fact THE AMERICAN RIFLE Fig. 63 Views of Neidner .22-caliber Springfield magazine rifle, showing action and details of bolt. In this rifle the cartridge is not loaded into a holder, but is loaded direct from a .22-caliber magazine into a barrel regularly chambered for the .22-long rifle cartridge. The telescope sight is attached to the rifle with Winchester mountings and Mann taper dovetail bases. almost ideal, in all respects save one. The method of attachment to the barrel is not altogether satisfactory, although in most cases it works very well. It is very necessary that some arrangement be had whereby the scope can readily be removed from the rifle, but this TELESCOPE SIGHTS 189 arrangement should be so positive and accurate that when the scope is removed it can be put back again and still be in absolutely accurate adjustment. Otherwise it will be necessary to sight the rifle in every time the scope is removed and replaced. Also the method of attach- ment should be absolutely rigid so as to allow no movement during firing, or from shot to shot. The Winchester method of attachment does not quite accomplish this, although it comes very near to it. Sometimes there will creep into the mounting -an error of as much as two minutes of angle due to the lack of rigidness in this method of attachment. Either the retaining thumb screws become loose dur- ing firing, or the screws are sometimes screwed up tighter than at other times, thus causing a slight variation of the setting of the mount- ing on the base. Also the bases themselves, being secured to the barrel by* screws alone, sometimes work loose under sharp recoil. Little trouble will be experienced, however, until we place the scope on a rifle of very sharp recoil, like the .30-caliber Model 1906. A few years ago the late Dr. F. W. Mann invented a method of securing the mountings to the barrel. The mountings are so ar- ranged as to fit on taper dovetails securely fastened to the barrel, by a driving fit which gets tighter instead of looser from recoil. The dove- tail base is not only screwed, but also soldered on to the barrel so that it cannot possibly become loose. The base is dovetail in shape, and also tapers slightly from front to rear, the taper on both sides being at an equal angle with the axis of the bore. The under side of the mounting is cut out to fit over this base, and fits on it from the rear, the mounting sliding over the base, and wedging up on the taper to a positive fit. This gives fit which is absolutely secure, must come back to exactly the same place each time the mountings are removed and replaced, and which wedges tighter the more the recoil. Figs. 63 and 64 show the Mann taper dovetail base. A number of Win- chester scope mountings have been altered by Mr. A. O. Neidner, the skilled riflemaker, so as to be secured to the barrel by means of the Mann taper dovetail bases, and these have proved perfect for the purpose, there being no error at all. In taking these mountings off the bases to remove the scope from the rifle it is necessary to drive them off with a piece of hard wood, using light, sharp blows, and to drive them on in the same manner. This may seem rather crude, but experience has shown that it is the only really satisfactory way if accuracy and absolutely positive results are to be secured. Before obtaining these taper dovetail mountings there was always an error 190 THE AMERICAN RIFLE in point of impact from day to day in my experimental work, some- times amounting to as much as 2 minutes of angle, which I could not account for. With these mountings this error has entirely dis- appeared. For example, one day I would shoot a rifle in test at 100 yards and obtain a certain group with it, located at a certain point on the target. The next day I would make a similar test and would obtain another group about the same size as the first group, but per- haps as much as 2 inches away from the location of the first group, aim, sight adjustment, ammunition, everything exactly the same. This error was due to the error of the scope mounting, and the adoption of the Mann taper dovetail bases entirely removed this error. o j TAPM BOVI-TMi I Fig. 64 The Mann taper dovetail method of attaching the telescope sight mounting to the barrel To test the mountings of a scope, the rifle should be firmly fixed in a very heavy vise where it will be absolutely immovable, and in such a manner that it can be aimed at a target at some distance off while thus immovably held. The target should preferably be at an even number of hundred yards. With the scope on the rifle, aim it at a spot on the target and screw the rifle up tight in the vise. Then remove the scope from the rifle without removing the rifle from the vise, place the scope back again on the rifle, and look through it at the target, noting whether the point of aim has moved in the slightest. If, after a half a dozen trials there has been no change in the point of aim on the target, the method of mounting the scope may be taken as positive and accurate. Place a mark on the target 10 inches above, and another 10 inches to the right of, the first aiming point. With the scope adjusted for the first aiming point, give the rear mounting additional elevation to move the point of impact up TELESCOPE SIGHTS 191 10 inches. Look through the scope and see if it is now aimed at the upper mark. If so, the elevation adjustment is positive and accurate. Bring it back to aim at the original point, and adjust the mount to move the point of impact 10 inches to the right, look through the scope and see if it is now aimed at the right-hand mark, to prove the windage adjustment. With the scope aimed at the mark, move the eye from side to side a little through the lateral relief of the glass and see if the cross-hairs move on the target. If they do not, the cross-hairs are in focus and there is nothing the matter with the scope which would interfere with the accuracy. If they do move, then the cross-hairs should be carefully focused, moving them back and forth until they are perfectly distinct and yet moving the eye from side to side does not change the aim on the target. It is always well to repeat these tests with a scope every few months to see that everything is working all right. You are then sure that any error that may come up in the course of shooting is not an error of the aiming device. THE WINCHESTER STYLE A, 5~POWER TELESCOPE SIGHT This is the most modern and satisfactory scope manufactured in the United States. In fact it is the only one which the writer has found that is really satisfactory for use on a high-power rifle. Although by no means ideal it is a very good glass, and the best that can be obtained at the present time. The lenses are % inch in diameter, and the tube 15% inches long. The longitudinal relief is 2 inches and the latitude of longitudinal relief about 2 inches. The lateral relief is only about Vk inch, which is rather small, and trouble is at times had in holding the eye steady enough to keep the full field in view. This trouble is seldom experienced in target shooting but is at times rather aggravating in hunting. The eye-piece is of the terrestrial type, and is adjusted for focus by simply loosening the locking sleeve and turning the eye-piece until the proper focus is obtained, and then screwing up the locking sleeve. When the eye-piece is adjusted to suit the user's sight, no further change should be made in it, focal adjustment for different ranges being obtained by adjusting the ob- jective lens. The micrometer adjustment of the objective lens provides a simple and accurate means for positive and minute relative adjustment of the lenses and cross-hairs required for accurate focusing of the image at the cross-hairs for various ranges. In using this micrometer focus 192 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Micrometer No. 2 rear mount adjustment of objective lens Fig. 65 Winchester type A, 5-power telescope sight and mountings adjustment always start at zero and screw the sleeve towards the rear. The following table shows the number of turns and divisions required to give perfect focus at the various ranges. Range Turns Divisions Range Turns Divisions 50 feet 75 feet 100 feet O O I 8 I*/2 50 yards 100 yards 200 yards I I 2 5% 9% lV 2 From 200 yards up, the focus of the objective lens is universal, and therefore requires no change in adjustment. For ordinary pur- poses the objective may be set in focus for 50 yards, and will answer very well for all distances from 25 yards up, but for constant use at any one range the objective lens should be carefully focused to avoid eye strain. In turning the micrometer screw to focus the objective lens, the lens itself does not turn but slides in the tube, being held from turning by a rib. The cross-hairs are held in a reticule, and as opinions differ as to the best form of cross-hairs or other sighting points, five different styles of reticules are furnished; namely, single and double cross- hairs, triangle, aperture, and post. - The single cross-hairs are almost always to be preferred, except only for military target shooting at bull's-eye targets, when the post is preferable, being shaped very TELESCOPE SIGHTS 193 similar to the front sight on the United States rifle, Model 1903, and aim being taken in the same manner, getting the post so superimposed on the image that the top of the post appears just below the bull's-eye. These reticules are interchangeable, and one can be substituted for another without difficulty (see below). The mountings for the Winchester scope have already been described. The tube glides through the mountings when the rifle re- coils and has to be drawn back to a stop after each shot. This sliding of the scope is almost absolutely necessary. If it were rigidly fixed in the mountings it would receive too much of the force of recoil and would quickly become damaged. Also the tube sliding forward with recoil serves to carry the eye-piece away from the eye, so that there is no danger of the eye-piece striking the eye. If it were not for this sliding feature it would be necessary to have at least 5 inches longitudinal relief to a glass intended for use on a high-power rifle of heavy recoil, and this would materially reduce the size of field. The diameter of the field of this scope at 100 yards is 17 feet. DIRECTIONS FOR REMOVING LENSES FROM WINCHESTER TELESCOPE SIGHTS To secure the most satisfactory results from an instrument of this kind, it should be taken apart only when absolutely necessary. Front or objective lens. Remove the adjusting sleeve cap. Un- screw the adjusting sleeve about Vi of an inch. Then return it to its original position. This leaves the rim of the lens cell exposed so that it crarf'tie pulled out. It is not advisable to remove the lenses from their seats in the cells, as they are liable to injury from improper seating. Reticule (cross-hairs, etc.). Loosen the reticule retaining ring screw, situated on the left side of the tube near the rear end, by turn- ing it inward as far as it will go, using the screw-driver furnished. The reticule holder may then be shaken out rearward by holding the tube vertically. If it sticks, rap the end of the tube gently on a smooth wood surface. After removing the reticule holder from the tube, the reticule disc, carrying the cross-hairs, or other form of reticule, may be removed through the slit provided for it. In replacing the reticule in its holder make sure the side on which the wires are soldered is toward the rear and the projection on the side of the disc is seated in its slot, so that when reassembled the reticule will stand upright. Middle or inverter lens (style A or B, 5-power). Loosen the middle 194 THE AMERICAN RIFLE lens cell retaining ring screw, situated on the left side of the tube near the middle, by turning it inward as far as it will go. Then reach into the rear end of the tube with the finger or any hooked instrument and, engaging the notched end or the rear retaining rod, withdraw it with the rear diaphragm and middle lens cell attached. Replace in reverse order, making sure that when the retaining screw is tightened the center of its head is exactly in line with the line scratched across the slot in the tube. The Winchester Style A, 5-power telescope sight is excellent for target shooting, particularly for Schuetzen rifles. I have had excellent results with it on a .30-40 Winchester single shot rifle. In fact I have used one of these glasses for over ten years, and have had it mounted at one time or another on over 20 rifles. It has always given perfect satisfaction except for the little trouble with the method of mounting on the barrel, as already noted, and the cross-hairs are so thick that it is difficult at times to get an absolutely accurate aim. The cross- hairs should be made thinner. This glass has also been used by a number of our most skilled military rifle shots for long range shoot- ing on the United States magazine rifle, Model 1903, with almost per- fect results. The rifle can be used only as a single loader, and the scope must be pushed forward a little each time the bolt is pulled up so as to escape the bolt handle. On the 1903 rifle the mountings should be placed only 6 inches apart in order to give the rear mounting sufficient scope to permit of its adjustment to the extreme range of 1200 yards. When the mountings are placed 6 inches apart, one point adjustment on either elevation or windage screws moves the point of impact .6 inch for every hundred yards of range. On other rifles the mountings should be placed 7.2 inches apart, then one point of elevation or windage is equivalent to a change of point of impact of half an inch for every hundred yards of range. It is always preferable to have the telescope mounted on the top of the barrel and as low down as possible, so that the eye-piece will come as nearly as possible to the same point that the eye-piece of a tang sight, like the Lyman, would come. Then one can take advan- tage of the comb of the stock quickly to direct the eye into the line of sight, and can also press the cheek against the side of the stock, as he should, to hold the eye steadily in the line of sight. If the scope be mounted on one side of the barrel in order to be able also to use the iron sights at the same time, or if compelled to do so because the rifle ejects its fired shells out of the top of the receiver, one must TELESCOPE SIGHTS 195 forego all this advantage of having the comb to direct the eye into the line of sight, and the cheek rest on the side of the stock. The eye bobs around in the line of sight, and it is very difficult to hold steadily. If necessary to mount the scope very high above the barrel, a cheek pad, made for use on shotguns, can be laced to the stock, thus raising the comb of the stock. For experimental firing the scope should always be mounted on top of the barrel, centrally over the axis of the bore. In fact I would advise that a telescope sight be not used on rifles that do not permit of its being so mounted, because the results are bound to be unsatisfactory, it being impossible to hold the rifle with any degree of steadiness when looking through the scope, except when shooting from a rest. When it comes to a scope for all around use, target shooting, big game shooting, and military work, the Winchester scopes have many faults which makes them really unsuitable. Besides those already noted, the field is too small, the lateral relief is too small. The power should be less, about 3 power, and the lenses larger to permit a much larger and brighter field of view. The lenses should be more securely fastened in their cells against possible rotation. Greater longitudinal relief would be desirable. All these points, of course, were not fully appreciated when the Winchester scope was placed on the market. THE IDEAL TELESCOPE SIGHT Throughout this chapter the various features of the scope have been discussed, the faults and the desirable features pointed out. If all these features were combined at their best in one glass we would have the ideal telescope sight. Thus our glass would be short and of rather larger diameter than the glasses now seen. The tube would be very strong so as to stand the hard knocks of real service. The lenses would be strongly secured in the tube against coming loose and also against rotating. The magnifying power should be about 3 diameters. The diameter of the field at 100 yards should be at least 30 feet. The longitudinal relief should be at least 3^ inches, with a latitude of at least 3 inches. The lateral relief should be at least Vi inch. The field should be very bright, and without color fringe. Focus for clearness of vision and for distance should be arranged for exactly as in the Winchester scope. The mountings should be similar to the Winchester No. 2, and should be secured to the barrel by means of the Mann taper dovetail bases. With such a scope the rifleman throws the rifle to his shoulder and 196 THE AMERICAN RIFLE instantly catches the aim. As his eye does not have to get exactly in the line of sight, as is the case with iron sights, he gets his aim much quicker with the ideal scope. The object is seen clearly magni- fied, and even brighter than when viewed with the naked eye. It is not necessary to get two sights into line, but only to move one sight. the cross-hairs, so as to have them superimpose on the magnified image. When the target is clearly seen it is much easier to get a quick aim at it than when it is indistinct. Every military rifleman knows how much quicker he can sight on a well-lighted bull's-eye target than he can on a drab-colored silhouette. As the target is magnified, and the cross-hairs are thin, much more accurate aim can be taken than with coarse iron sights. In fact the ideal scope is a very much better aiming instrument than any other form of sight under all conditions. Its only disadvantage is that it is a delicate instrument, set up on top of the rifle where it is liable to damage by a fall, or by catching in limbs of trees, etc. This liability to damage can hardly be eliminated except by placing a heavy metal cover over the instrument, which would greatly increase the weight of the rifle. TARGETS FOR TELESCOPE SIGHTED RIFLES The conventional bull's-eye target is not very satisfactory for use with the scope. It is difficult to aim accurately at the center of the large magnified black bull's-eye as the black cross-hairs blend with the black of the bull and are not clearly defined. Particularly if the shooting is to be of an experimental character, or if it is to be a test of rifle or ammunition, it is much better to use a specially prepared target consisting of a bull's-eye with a large white center. For this use, with the coarse cross-hairs of the Winchester type A, 5-power scope, I have standardized on a 100-yard target haying a 6-inch black bull's-eye with a 4-inch white bull inside it. This is easiest made with the materials at hand anywhere by using a compass, and drawing two circles on the paper target, one circle 4 inches in diameter, and the other 6 inches in diameter. Then take a small water-color paint brush, and with ink paint the space between the two lines, making a ring an inch in diameter. For other ranges use circles proportionately larger or smaller. The cross-hairs are then made to intersect on the white bull's-eye inside the black circle, and the eye can do this with almost absolute accuracy. CHAPTER X BULLETS THE first bullets were round and made of pure lead. They were pounded down the bore of the muzzle loader by the ramrod, and it was a difficult task to get them seated all the way down on the powder, particularly when the bore was a little dirty from firing. It did not take the American frontiersman long to get disgusted with this method that had prevailed in Europe up to about 1700. In Europe it was not often that one fired many shots a day, but in America game was very plentiful, and the rifleman had to be con- stantly loading his rifle. As a consequence some one, probably one of the Lancaster riflemakers, invented the greased patch. The bullet was made a little smaller than usual. A round patch about the size of a silver dollar, made of either linen or thin buckskin, and greased with deer tallow, was laid over the muzzle of the rifle, and the bullet pressed down on top of it with the thumb. The ramrod then seated this patched bullet easier, and a few wangs with the ramrod when it was fully seated on the powder sufficed to upset the soft lead ball so that it filled the grooves perfectly. The patch of course left the bullet at the muzzle. This form of bullet and method of loading sufficed very well until about 1820, when riflemen began to press forward into the open prairies of our Central States. Here long shots were the rule, and it was quickly found that the round ball was a very poor long-range missile. It lost its velocity very quickly, and it lacked in penetration for the larger game found in the West. About this time the long conical bullet was invented abroad, and riflemakers in this country were not slow to adopt it, particularly for Western use, as it so greatly increased the range and killing power of the rifle. The conical bullets for the early muzzle loaders were all made small so that they could be driven home easily, they had grooves for lubricant like the present lead bullet, and the base had a hollow cavity in it so that the gases of the burning powder would cause the base of the bullet to expand and fit the rifling to the bottom of the grooves. Sometimes the hollow 197 198 THE AMERICAN RIFLE base contained a cone-shaped plug to insure positive expansion of the bullet. These bullets continued in use up to the introduction of the breech loader, and we even see this type in use today in some revolver cartridges. 675213 476 GRS. 25720 321232 375248 319247 no GRS. r 255 CRS. 457124 •457125 375262 45-10-405 * 500 Ges. 25719 IO 7 31949 II i Fig. 66 Round bullet as used in the first muzzle loaders. Conical muzzle loading bullet with cavity in base to insure expansion on fir- ing, and filling the bore gas tight, to 6. Lead alloy bullets for black powder rifles. Can also be used with low pressure smokeless powder. An express bullet with hollow point to insure its expanding on striking game. 8 and 9. The 405 and 500 grain bullets for the .45 caliber U. S. Springfield rifle. 10 and 11. Sharp point bullets for shooting small game without mangling. With the introduction of the breech loader came the full-sized bullet made of lead alloyed with tin to harden it slightly, as we see it today. There has been practically no change in the lead bullet for the breech loader since it was designed shortly after the Civil War. The only improvement worthy of mention is that introduced with some BULLETS 199 special loads, and for which Mr. H. M. Pope and Dr. W. G. Hudson deserve credit. The forward portion of the body of the bullet was made bore diameter so that it would ride on top of the lands when the cartridge was loaded, and thus serve to straighten the bullet up in the chamber and insure its axis being in line with the axis of the bore before firing. The rear portion of the body was then made full groove diameter so as to fit to the bottom of the grooves and pre- vent the escape of gas past the bullet. These bullets showed quite a little superiority as regards accuracy over the old type with straight cylindrical body. 319273 375272 308206 308 GRS. 257312 308211 308291 3082M 808334 875298 $ IO Fig. 67 1 and 2. The Hudson-Ideal, two-cylinder bullets for target shooting. 3. The Kephart bullet, first successful lead bullet to be used in high power rifles. 4. A popular lead alloy bullet for short range in .30-caliber rifles. 5 to 9. Ideal gas-check bullets for medium high velocity with smokeless powder. IO. Soft-point, jacketed bullet for .32 Winchester special rifle. 200 THE AMERICAN RIFLE The points of all these lead bullets were made either flat, rounded, or rather blunt ogival. Sharp point bullets were later introduced, but always in light weights with a view to their use on small game rather than to cut down the resistance of the air. With the introduction of high-pressure, smokeless powder, and the increasing of velocities to around 2000 feet per second, a new material for bullets became necessary. The lead bullet caused many troubles with high-pressure powder. The base of the bullet would become fused or melted by the heat of the burning powder, and the bullet would lead the barrel badly. This led to the introduction of the jacketed bullets. These bullets have a core of lead enclosed in a jacket of copper, cupro-nickel, tin-plated copper, or mild steel. Very few steel jacketed bullets were ever made in this country, and I know of none being made today except by the Ross Rifle Company for special uses. The bullets made for American sporting rifles having velocities not exceeding 2200 feet per second are almost always made of copper plated with tin or nickel, to keep it from corroding. The United States Government bullets, and those for kindred commer- cial arms, are jacketed with cupro-nickel — an alloy of copper and nickel. Some few modern bullets such as those for the Newton rifles, and for the .250-3000 Savage rifle are jacketed with pure copper. A pure copper bullet seems to deposit less metal fouling in the bore of the rifle than those made of other materials. At the start the metal-jacketed bullets contained grooves for lubri- cant, but it was quickly found that this was not necessary, either as a lubricant for the bullet itself, or to make the cartridge waterproof. The grooves in the bullets were therefore discontinued, and the modern jacketed bullet is perfectly smooth, or else has only one shallow groove in which to crimp the shell. Where a cartridge is to remain loaded a long time, as with military ammunition, it is much better to have the neck of the shell just the diameter of the bullet inside, and to crimp the shell on to the bullet to hold the latter immovable in the shell. But where one reloads his own ammunition it is better to have the shell slightly smaller inside the neck, and force the bullet into the small neck to be held friction tight, as a little better accuracy results by following this method. But cartridges loaded in this manner are apt to split at the neck of the shells after several years storage. The brass neck of the shell under constant tension literally becomes tired and splits. Military jacketed bullets have the jacket completely covering the BULLETS 201 point of the bullet, the core being inserted at the base, and the jacket crimped over the base. It was soon found that such bullets were un- satisfactory for large game shooting. They penetrated straight through animal tissue without causing much damage, and expended most of their energy beyond. The cartridge companies, however, soon came to the rescue of the sportsmen and put out what is known as the " soft-point " bullet, which has a little lead exposed at the point. The base of the bullet is completely jacketed over, the lead core being inserted, base first, into the jacket, and the jacket only coming up .30 Army 220 grain soft point pullets After firing into soft pine boards Before firing penetration 13 boards Fig. 68 Showing the expansion of soft-point bullet to within about Y& inch of the point of the bullet. Such bullets ex- pand well on animal tissue, taking on a mushroom shape, and causing serious wounds. It has been found that the killing power on large game of a 220-grain, soft-point, jacketed bullet of .30 caliber driven at a velocity of 2000 feet per second is just about equivalent to that of the old 500-grain, .45-caliber, lead bullet driven at a velocity of about 1300 feet per second. The soft-point, jacketed bullet should therefore always be used Tor big-game shooting, and the full- jacketed bullet for target shooting, or for small game, particularly where it is desired to kill the small game without destroying more meat than is absolutely necessary, or tearing a large hole in the skin. Soft- point, 30-caliber bullets on broadside shots at deer usually penetrate completely through the animal, making a hole about 3 to 4 inches in diameter at point of exit, and spoiling the meat for about 5 inches around the wound. On small game such as squirrels, grouse, wood- chucks, and rabbits they are liable to blow the whole animal to pieces. After the new high-power rifles with their jacketed bullets had been in use for several years, riflemen began to complain that the bullets were wearing out the barrels. We know now that this was not so, and that the wear was caused partly by gas cutting at the breech due to the hot burning powder and the poor bullet fit, and partly by a lack of knowledge as to how to clean a high-power rifle 202 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 2 ~ l •■■ " o .5 u . CO •gSS' fc.'S w o 5 4) •Q c3 ^S? j§3 >-Q be 5 *-• On be rifles, n, ser in um PQ ; 13 *rt Q oi Pi vo o '0OOCOM1010 POtOtON W n f) BULLETS 203 c* 2 8.22 « Of Crt o.E.o.S.S c w 5 .53 OJ2 - bJO 8 <» C •§ rt u.S .S.S -c'rt 2 J* « g bfl o a a « •?.*« 1=1 in « qj c« CO u ■_ bfirn . - rt n 2 5 - . h -. • In N in ojj . OCQ n tn 13 g'gS£c8£Sj5£ > $ j> o o o io> o IO I I T I M J O iflnO"! moo O ft ^J-rOcocoTl-Tt-oo-ri-ro 204 THE AMERICAN RIFLE barrel. A decided demand grew for a lead bullet which could be used in the high-power rifle so as not to wear out the bore, and it was also wanted for cheap reloading and for small game. The first satisfactory results in this direction were secured by Mr. Horace Kephart, who designed the bullet known as the Ideal Bullet No. 308206 for .30- caliber rifles, and obtained excellent results with it in a .30-40 rifle with a light charge of Du Pont No. 1 smokeless rifle powder. It was afterwards found that any bullet would do satisfactory work in a high-power rifle having a quick twist, provided it was made of a hard alloy of about 1 part of tin to 10 parts of lead, was made from /iooo to 9iooo of an inch larger than the groove diameter of the barrel, and was used with a light charge of low-pressure smokeless powder giving velocities not over 1500 feet per second. Such loads with light bullets proved very satisfactory for gallery and small-game shoot- ing, and with slightly heavier bullets for practice up to 200 yards. The increase in the popularity of military rifle shooting, and the cost of the full charged military cartridge, as well as the mistaken belief that the jacketed bullets were wearing out the barrels, led to the demand for a lead bullet that could be used with high-pressure powder to give increased velocities, so as to be satisfactory for target use up to 600 yards. After considerable experimenting on the part of the Ideal Manufacturing Company, ably assisted by Dr. W. G. Hudson of the Du Pont Company, the former company brought out the series of Ideal gas-check bullets for use at high velocities in high-power rifles. These bullets are cast of a hard alloy, made several thousandths of an inch larger than the groove diameter of the barrel that they are intended to be used in, and then have a small, cup-shaped, copper disk seated on the base. This disk acts to keep the hot powder gases from burning or fusing, and melting the base of the alloy bullet and deforming it, thus destroying accuracy. These bullets have proved very satisfactory, being quite accurate up to 500 yards, and if extreme care be taken in loading they will be found fairly satisfactory at 600 yards in the .30 caliber government arms. The rifleman can cast and prepare these bullets himself, and the expense is greatly reduced. The powder charges used are usually several grains less of the same powder used with the regular jacketed bullet, so as to give a velocity of about 1800 feet per second. When attempts are made to speed these bullets up much higher than this inaccuracy usually results. It seems to be a well-established fact that with ordinary lead or lead alloy bullets accuracy and good results cannot be obtained at velocities BULLETS 205 Fig. 69b Bullets taken from big game, showing mushrooming and deformation: 1. .45-70-330 from deer. 5. .38-55-255 lead, from black bear. 2. .30-172 Newton, from deer. 6. .45-70 fired against steel plate. 3. .45-70-436. 7. .280 Ross, steel jacket, hollow point. 4. .45-70. 8. .280 Ross. over about 1550 feet per second, and that when smokeless powder is used the alloy should be very hard and the bullet slightly larger than the groove diameter of the barrel; that velocities up to about 1900 feet per second can be obtained with good accuracy from hard lead alloy bullets when the base of the bullet is protected by a copper, gas check disk, but that when velocities reach 2000 feet per second accuracy can only be obtained from a metal-jacketed bullet. My own experiments and experiences show that the jacketed bullet is almost always advisable. I have found them quite a little more accurate than the lead bullets. With lead bullets, particularly with calibers below .32, it is necessary to experiment a lot to find just exactly the right kind of bullet, and the right kind of alloy to use to get the best results. It is a fact that as a lead alloy ages it grows slightly harder. A change of the powder charge almost always makes one start all over again to find the right temper for the bullets, and so it goes on with one endless round of experiments when one uses lead bullets. Gas-check bullets, and those over .38 caliber, are a little better, not so much experimenting being necessary to attain and maintain the best accuracy. All lead bullets are liable at one time or another to lead the bore; that is, to deposit flakes of lead in the bore. The metal fouling deposited by jacketed bullets can be easily dis- solved with the ammonia solution, but riflemen have yet to find a really good method of removing lead from the bore of a rifle. Mercury will help a little, but is not entirely satisfactory. Metal- jacketed bullets are also much easier to load. In fact in every way, except that of expense, metal- jacketed bullets are greatly superior to the lead-alloy bullets. 206 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Up to about 1905 no attention had been given to the point of the bullet, with a view to reducing air resistance. It was believed that the point did not figure much in this respect, and bullets were made with round, blunt ogival, and fiat points. The flat-point bullet was designed for tubular magazine repeating rifles where the point of one bullet rested against the base and primer of the cartridge ahead of it in the magazine. The Germans were the first to introduce what is known as the " Spitzer " bullet. Spitzer simply means pointed, and a spitzer bullet is one with a long, sharp point, usually drawn on a curve of six or more diameters. The air offers very much less resist- ance to such bullets than to the old blunt points, and as a consequence the velocity of the former does not fall off nearly as quickly, and their time of flight over all ranges is much less. This is a decided advantage as the trajectory is of course lowered, and the speed of the bullet being greater there is less time for wind to act on it, there- fore, there is less deviation from winds. This spitzer bullet is the modern bullet, and all types of cartridges will be forced to come to it in the near future. Already it has been adopted by the armies of every nation, and by almost all progressive sportsmen. Several of our ammunition companies have succeeded in making satisfactory soft- point bullets in spitzer shape by ending the thick jacket a. short dis- tance back from the tip of the point and jacketing the tip itself with a thin, softer jacket. It has been found that if the tip be left en- tirely unjacketed or unsupported, as is done with the ordinary soft- point, jacketed bullet, the soft point under the extremely high velocity and high pressure has a tendency to upset and flow back, the bullet really making itself a blunt point before it reaches the target. Also unprotected, soft-point spitzer bullets are very liable to injury and ba 1- SI B3 cu ^ u n .U e* o£ £ -r A 1— 1 <^3 O O 0< <*~> -?r •*? 210 THE AMERICAN RIFLE of the barrel for the .30-40 cartridge is given as .308 inch, measuring from the bottom of one groove to the bottom of the opposite groove. Actually this diameter varies in different rifles from .308 to .310 inch, but .308 is the standard size. Wherever reloading is recommended, the chamber pressure of the various charges of powder is given. All these charges have been tried and found safe. I have myself tried over half of them, and at the same time have given accuracy tests to the various loads. But one caution should be given. During the last year (ipi6) the quality of the brass produced for cartridge shells has been very inferior. Many of these shells will not stand reloading with pressures over 48,000 pounds per square inch. Wherever the pressure goes over this it would be well to cut down the powder charge about two grains, unless one knows that his shells are made of good brass such as the ammuni- tion companies were able to obtain prior to 1016. In a majority of cases under each cartridge have been given the " Standard pressure." Standard pressure is the mean pressure which should approximately be given by that cartridge when the standard velocity is developed. Each rifle manufacturer sets this standard for himself, taking into consideration the margin of safety in arms of his manufacture. It will be noticed that in the case of certain special loads giving superior ballistic results this standard pressure has been slightly exceeded. In every case where loads have been recommended which exceed this standard pressure, particular pains have been taken to ascertain that the rifles in which they are recommended have plenty of margin of safety to stand this excess pressure. An examination of the data here given will make it perfectly plain that in many cases the companies loading ammunition have . not modernized their ammunition to the extent that is permissible with modern powders. There are several reasons for this : the natural reluctance to change from existing standards, the fact that a change in the ballistics of a certain load makes necessary a change in the sight- ing of the rifle, and the fact that in many cases an increase in the velocity gained by the adoption of modern progressive burning powders entails a larger charge of powder and a consequent increase in the expense of loading the ammunition. As opposed to these rea- sons it may be cited that such a change means increased ballistic efficiency in the cartridge and rifle, an increase in the accuracy life of the rifle, and in many cases greater ease in cleaning and less trouble with corrosion. These advantages are such that the rifleman himself CARTRIDGES 211 would seem to have a right to demand that the loading companies turn from their old powders of ten years ago to more modern powders and bullets, and this view-point is having its effect, as it is known that in a number of cases the standards have recently been changed. .22 SHORT, RIM-FIRE CARTRIDGE This is the lightest cartridge adapted to any American rifle. As a matter of fact there are two smaller cartridges of this caliber known .22-short, rim-fire cartridge as BB and CB caps, but these cannot be recommended, and are hardly worth mentioning. They are not accurate or reliable, and their use will ruin any rifle. The .22-short, rim-fire cartridge is loaded with about 4 grains of black powder, or its equivalent in other powders, and a lead bullet of 29 or 30 grains. It is designed for short range use in .22-caliber rifles. It is a most excellent cartridge for gallery use up to 25 yards in rifles that are chambered and rifled especially for it alone. Such rifles should have a twist of rifling of from one turn in 20 inches to one turn in 24 inches. This cartridge has been used for years by the most expert Schuetzen riflemen for their 25- yard gallery competitions, and has proved excellent for the purpose and very accurate. Given a first-class rifle and fresh ammunition, and one can rely On every shot striking a ten-cent piece at 25 yards, pro- vided always he does his part correctly. The best ammunition for ac- curacy at the present time is that loaded with either Lesmok or semi- smokeless powder. This cartridge is recommended entirely for gal- lery shooting up to 25 yards. Its accurate range is about 50 yards. It should never be used for game shooting as it is entirely too light for anything but rats and English sparrows. A hollow-point bullet is furnished by some factories, but the velocity is so small that in the majority of cases the bullet does not expand as intended. Almost always the choice of this cartridge is a mistake, as, except for 25 yard (and shorter) gallery shooting where expense and noise are a consideration, it is completely outranked in every way by the .22-long rifle cartridge. Certain cautions should be observed regarding this cartridge. Its continued use in a rifle chambered for the .22-long, or .22-long rifle cartridge will result in ruining the chamber of the rifle through burning it out just forward of the mouth of the shell. Under 212 THE AMERICAN RIFLE no circumstances should this cartridge ever be used loaded with smoke- less powder as the barrel is sure to become ruined in a short time. There is no known way of cleaning a .22-caliber rifle barrel to prevent ruination through pitting and rusting when .22-caliber smokeless am- munition is used in it. The smokeless ammunition is more expensive and less accurate than when loaded with black, Lesmok, or semi-smoke- less powders. When shooting with this cartridge the barrel should be cleaned about every 50 rounds to get the best results, and to pre- vent leading' the bore. The muzzle velocity of this cartridge is about 900 feet per second, and its muzzle energy about 54 foot pounds, but these figures will differ slightly with the various manufacturers and also with various powders used. The standard pressure is 9000 to 10,000 pounds per square inch. .22-LONG RIFLE, RIM-FIRE CARTRIDGE In many respects this is one of the most remarkable cartridges ever produced. It is essentially a target cartridge, and it is remarkably accurate up to 100 yards, at that range not being excelled by any other .22-long rifle, rim-fire cartridge cartridge. It is adapted to a great variety of rifles and is extremely popular among all classes of riflemen. It is used almost exclusively by all the small-bore rifle clubs in this country and England. Many dif- ferent small repeating rifles are made to handle it by all our arms com- panies, but it is only in the heavy, single-shot, target rifle that the cartridge has a chance to show what it is really capable of doing. The following are the average ballistics of this cartridge, although the product of various factories differs quite a little : Weight of bullet 40 grains Weight of black-powder charge 5 grains Muzzle velocity 970 feet per second Muzzle energy 83 foot pounds Penetration in %-inch pine boards 5V2 boards Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 10,000 to 12,000 The cartridge is furnished by the various companies loaded with black, Lesmok, semi-smokeless, and smokeless powders ; the latter, however, should never be used, as it is less accurate, less powerful, higher trajectory, more expensive, and there is no way known of CARTRIDGES 213 cleaning the bore when smokeless cartridges are used which will pre- vent ultimate pitting and ruin of the barrel. The cartridge can be furnished in both solid and hollow-pointed bullets, the latter increasing the killing power quite a little. But even with hollow-point bullets the killing power of this cartridge is so small that its use on any game larger than rats and English sparrows will result in so much crippled and wounded game, with all its attending suffering, that I wish to recommend strongly that this cartridge never be used for hunting, al- though I am aware that it is at the present time a very popular grouse and squirrel cartridge, and many times it has even killed large game when the bullet has happened to hit an instantly vital part. I myself, when a boy, killed a deer with this cartridge. But in recent years I have seen so many squirrels and grouse fairly hit with it, only to struggle off to die in misery that I have entirely given it up as a squirrel and grouse cartridge in favor of the .25-caliber rim-fire cartridge. In the year 1910 I conducted a large number of accuracy tests with this cartridge on a 100-yard, indoor armory range. The rifle used was a Winchester single shot with a heavy No. 3 barrel, set triggers, and a Winchester type A-5 telescope sight. The rifle weighed ten pounds and had a most accurate, barrel. The experiments developed many things already known about this cartridge, and also many things that were at that time not generally known, although they have since been found out by others in the course of the shooting of this car- tridge by thousands of expert riflemen in the .22-caliber indoor and short-range rifle clubs and leagues. These tests showed that cart- ridges loaded with Lesmok and semi-smokeless powder were much more accurate than those loaded with black or smokeless. That freshly loaded ammunition bought directly from the factory was much more accurate on an average than that purchased in stores in small towns where it had been on the dealer's shelf for quite a long time; that various lots of ammunition showed considerable difference in accuracy, although 95 per cent, of it was remarkably good ; that the ammunition shot better on some days than on others, being considerably influenced in this respect by the amount of moisture in the air; that the par- ticular rifle did its best shooting with a certain make of ammunition, and that it also shot relatively poorly with a certain make that did best in another rifle, also of Winchester manufacture. The following tabulation of tests fired with three makes of car- tridges will be of interest to the reader. The figures are the average of 10 groups of 10 shots each fired from rest with the rifle described 214 THE AMERICAN RIFLE above, the measurement being from center to center of shot holes farthest apart. Cartridge 25 yards, ! 50 yards, 1 100 yards, inches inches j inches Remington — U. M. C. Lesmok i •75 T oi 3 96 • 403 2 61 Winchester Peters Semi-smokeless .90 .Co 2.00 1.30 It should be distinctly understood that this table does not in any way indicate the relative accuracy of the various makes, but only shows the average results of a rather extensive test with one rifle and three dif- ferent lots of ammunition. In another rifle the relative accuracy of the three makes of cartridges might be exactly reversed. In fact, many tests of this cartridge have shown positively that all makes of this am- munition loaded with these two powders are remarkably accurate and reliable, but that every rifle has one particular make with which it seems to do better than with the others, and this particular make cannot be determined without a test similar to the above. One test was conducted to get a line on the trajectory of the various cartridges, or, more particularly, on the drop of the bullet. The rifle was sighted in on the 25-yard target, and when shooting nicely was turned on one at 50 yards, the 50-yard group being fired with the sight adjustment correct for 25 yards. This gave a drop of the bul- let below the point of aim at 50 yards as follows : U. S. Cartridge Co., Lesmok 50 inch Peters, crimped, Semi-smokeless 1.25 inches Peters, tmcrimped, Semi-smokeless 75 inch Winchester, Lesmok 87 inch Remington — U. M. C. Lesmok 25 inch No attempt is made to explain these differences. They are simply the actual results of the test. In another extensive test the average elevation required for 50 and 100 yards above the 25-yard elevation was as follows : Cartridge Minutes of an the gle of yarc elevation required above elevation for 50 yards 100 yards Peters, 1 1/2 2% 8% Remington — U. M. C. Winchester 6V2 10% It was decidedly noticeable that in that year, 1910-11, the Reming- CARTRIDGES 215 ton-U. M. C. Lesmok cartridges were striking the target butts much harder than any of the other makes tried, which included almost all makes on the market. The angles of elevation given by the Remington-U. M. C. Co., for their .22-long rifle Lesmok cartridge are as follows: 25 yards 4 minutes 125 yards 23 minutes 50 yards 9 minutes 150 yards 28 minutes 75 yards 13-5 minutes 175 yards 33.5 minutes 100 yards 18 minutes 200 yards 39 minutes The following experiments were conducted by Mr. C. S. Landis, and I have every confidence in them. The rifle was a Stevens Ideal with heavy barrel and a telescope sight set on top of the barrel. The ammunition used was Peters, loaded with semi-smokeless powder. The rifle was carefully targeted at 25 yards, the 25-yard group of course striking center. With this sighting the rifle was then fired at tar- gets placed at 45 and 60 yards. The 45-yard group measured 1% inches and its center of impact was just half an inch below the point of aim. The 60-yard group measured 1 inch, and was just 2 inches low. Both these groups contained 24 shots. The sights were then set for 50 yards and the experiments repeated at 60, 45, and 25 yards. At 60 yards the rifle shot 1% inches low, at 45 yards Vi inch high, and at 25 yards .6 inch high. All of the above tests are given to show the average work of this cartridge, the average trajectory, etc. In scanning them, it will be at once apparent how necessary it is, even on a .22-caliber rifle, to have sights which are readily adjustable in order to have the rifle shoot where it is held. The rifleman may sight his rifle in with one lot of am- munition, and a month later go to the same store and purchase identi- cally the same make of ammunition but from another lot ; that is, made on a different machine at the factory from the first lot he purchased, and probably also loaded with a different shipment of powder from the powder factory. This lot may shoot as much as 1V2 inches away from the point of impact of the first lot at 25 yards, and how is one ever to be sure of his sighting with the sights almost invariably fur- nished with the small .22-caliber repeating rifles? The small re- peating rifle should shoot almost as accurately as the heavy .22-caliber target rifle, for the bores are identical, and the factory spends just as much time and labor on rifling one of the repeating rifles as it does the target rifle. But the light weight of the rifle, the coarser trigger pull, and the crude sights make it impossible for the rifleman to do 2l6 THE AMERICAN RIFLE his part as well with the light repeater as with the heavy single shot. In order to show just what this cartridge is capable of when things are working just right, I record below the results of 40 consecutive shots fired from my Winchester single-shot rifle equipped with tele- scope sight. Ten shots each were fired at 2.5, 50, 75, and 100 yards, indoors, rest, without cleaning, with Peters uncrimped ammunition loaded with semi-smokeless powder. Range, ' yards Elevation, minutes Wind-gauge Size of group, inches 25 ■ 50 75 IOO 4 6 9 13 O O O •47 1. os 1. 16 1.49 .22 WINCHESTER RIM-FIRE CARTRIDGE This is an inside lubricated, rim-fire cartridge adapted to the Win- chester repeating rifle Model 1890, the Winchester single shot rifle, the Stevens Ideal single shot rifle, and the Remington-U. M. C. re- peating rifle Model 12CS. It is loaded with 7 grains of black powder and a 45-grain bullet, both solid and hollow-point bullets being fur- nished. It can also be had loaded with Lesmok and smokeless pow- ders, the latter powder not being recommended as cartridges loaded with it are more expensive, less accurate, and when they are used there is no known way of keeping the bore of the rifle from pitting and rust. Best results will be obtained from cartridges loaded with Lesmok powder. The following is data for the regular factory cartridge as manufactured by the Winchester Arms Company : Muzzle velocity 1,107 feet per second Velocity at 100 yards 915 feet per second Muzzle energy 122 foot pounds Energy at 100 yards 84 foot pounds 100 yards trajectory height at 50 yards 4.39 inches 200 3'ards trajectory, height at 100 yards 20.82 inches Penetration, %-inch pine boards 7 boards Standard pressure, lbs. per sq. in 13,000 to 15,000 The .22 Remington Special is identically the same cartridge but manu- factured by the Remington-U. M. C. Co., for use in Remington rifles. This cartridge is not in the same class as the .22-long rifle as far as accuracy is concerned, nevertheless it is quite accurate up to 150 CARTRIDGES 217 yards, and is a very much better killing cartridge for small game such as grouse and squirrels. Its trajectory is such that it is diffi- cult to hit game with it at ranges over 75 yards unless the range is very carefully estimated and allowance made for the fall of the bullet, either by sight adjustment or by holding over. At 25 yards in a good rifle it should place all its shots in a circle Vs inch in diameter, and at 50 yards into a 2-inch circle. This makes it rather unsuitable for very accurate shooting, like squirrel shooting, except at short ranges. It is, however, a better hunting cartridge than any of the outside lubri- cated, .22-caliber cartridges, as the grease is not rubbed off the bul- lets when the ammunition is carried loose in the pocket, and the action of repeating rifles handling it is not dirtied up with the exposed lubricant. It is also a much better cartridge for use in the extreme cold of northern countries where an outside lubricated cartridge is sometimes apt to freeze fast in the chamber. This cartridge requires a barrel specially chambered and rifled for it, and cannot be used in barrels adapted to the other, .22-caliber, rim-fire cartridges. .22 SAVAGE HIGH-POWER CARTRIDGE Adapted to the Savage Model 1899 repeating rifle. This is a modern cartridge of high intensity and very high velocity. The fol- lowing is the data for the factory cartridge and rifle : Muzzle velocity 2,800 feet per second Velocity at 100 yards 2,453 feet per second Velocity at 200 yards 2,131 feet per second Velocity at 300 yards 1,833 ^ ee t per second Muzzle energy 1,190 foot pounds Energy at 100 yards 911 foot pounds Energy at 200 yards 687 foot pounds Energy at 300 yards 510 foot pounds 100 yards trajectory, height at 50 yards 62 inch 200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards 2.75 inches 300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards 8.00 inches Penetration, soft point bullet, %-inch boards 12 boards Penetration, full patch bullet, %-inch boards 52 boards Powder charge, Du Pont No. 21 24.3 grains Bullet, pointed, soft point, copper jacket 70 grains Diameter of bullet 228 inch Groove diameter of bore of rifle, about 226 inch Depth of grooves 003 inch Twist of rifling, one turn in 12 inches Chamber pressure, pounds per square inch 48,000 to 50,000 2l8 THE AMERICAN RIFLE The following powder charges may also be used with good results in this cartridge : with the regular 70-grain jacketed bullet : Powder Grains weight Velocity, feet per second Pressure, foot pounds Du Pont military rifle No. 20 27-5 24-3 27-5 27.9 27.0 27.8 2,7SO 2,8oO 2,700 2,80O 2,803 2,850 48,000 Du Pont military rifle No. 21 48,000 Du Pont improved military rifle No. 15.. Du Pont improved military rifle No. 18. . Du Pont improved military rifle No. 16.. Du Pont improved military rifle No. 16.. 48,900 46,920 All of these powder charges should be carefully weighed on scales, and not measured, except the Du Pont military rifle powder No. 21, which can be measured quite accurately on the Ideal universal powder measure No. 5. The next to last charge of 27 grains of No. 16 pow- der is recommended as giving low pressure and very clean shooting. For a short range load I have had very good results from the Ideal bullet No. 228367 with gas check and 12 grains weight of Du Pont gallery rifle powder No. 75. This makes a very nice and accurate load. The Ideal Manufacturing Co. recommend that this bullet be used with 17 grains of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 21. This I have not tried. The Savage rifle for this cartridge has been christened by Mr. E. C. Crossman as the Imp. It is well named. I do not regard it as a reli- able cartridge. Some rifles shoot this cartridge fairly well, and others give groups of about 12 inches at 200 yards. It is an effective car- tridge for deer and similar game at ranges under 200 yards, as the velocity gives an explosive effect to the bullet which is very destructive to tissue. The bullet, however, being very light, is prone to fly to pieces on large bones and fail to penetrate into the vitals, and the proportions of failures are a little too numerous to make it a reliable cartridge on large game. It has not the required accuracy for small game shooting. The rifle to which the cartridge is adapted has a 20- inch, very light barrel, weighs only 6Y2 pounds, and the construction of the action is such that it is not possible to get a very good trigger pull with it. It is a hard rifle to shoot accurately on account of these features, and this adds to the general unreliability of the cartridge and rifle. In all points this cartridge, and rifle, are so far outclassed by the newer Savage cartridge, the .250-3000, that I look for it to become obsolete in several years. It is really a freak, and because it was such it obtained quite a popularity at one time due to its very light weight, small size, small caliber, and very high velocity. As its CARTRIDGES 219 manufacturers say, " It was the most talked of rifle in America." .25 STEVENS RIM-FIRE CARTRIDGE : : 3 ! //HOLLOW P INT I This cartridge is adapted to Stevens Favorite and Ideal single shot rifles, Winchester and Remington-U. M. C. single shot rifles, and to the Marlin repeating rifle Model 27. It is loaded with 10 to 11 grains of black powder, and an inside lubricated lead bullet of 65 to 67 grains weight. It is also furnished by some cartridge companies loaded with Lesmok powder and with hollow-point bullets of 5 grains less weight than the solid bullets. It is not at present loaded with smokeless powder. The following is the data for the regular factory cartridge as loaded by the Remington-U. M. C. Co. : Muzzle velocity 1,180 feet per second Muzzle energy 208 foot pounds 100 yards trajectory, height at 50 yards 5.12 inches Penetration, vfe-inch pine boards 7 boards This cartridge is strongly recommended as a small game cartridge up to 50 yards. It makes a most excellent grouse cartridge for sports- men to use on their trips after large game as it kills the birds neatly without ruining meat. It is hardly accurate enough for squirrel shoot- ing except at ranges not over 25 yards. It is advertised as a very accurate cartridge, but I have failed to find it so. It does not hold its elevation well, and when tested on a chronograph a great variation in velocity is found. As a result the shots string up and down on the target. An average target shot at rest by an expert rifleman at 25 yards in a first-class rifle will measure about 1.25 inches high by .75 inch wide. I found that the killing power of this cartridge, and its effect as regards the fitness of the game for the table or taxidermist, were so excellent that I went to considerable time and expense to obtain satis- factory results with it. First I procured a Winchester single shot rifle with heavy No. 3 barrel chambered and rifled for this cartridge, the barrel having the regular 17-inch twist. This barrel was tried on the Mann " V " rest with concentric action and showed the follow- ing average for a large number of shots : 25 yards 1.43 inches 100 yards 3.07 inches 50 yards 2.57 inches 200 yards 6.00 inches 220 THE AMERICAN RIFLE The barrel was then cut off at the breech and chambered by Mr. A. O. Neidner with one of his perfect, tight chambers and tried again. The groups were about a half-inch smaller at 25 yards, but both before and after chambering this rifle gave many key-holes. A .25-caliber barrel with a 14-inch twist was then procured and chambered for this cartridge by Neidner, as it was thought that this would improve the shooting by stopping the tendency to key-hole. This barrel was also tested on the Mann " V " rest on covered range and gave the follow- ing groups : 25 yards 50 yards 100 yards .75 inches 2.25* inches 2.67 inches .95 inches 1.94 inches 2.73 inches 1.07 inches 1.97 inches 2.13 inches .78 inches 1.84 inches 3.12 inches 1. 10 inches 1.95 inches 2.87 inches 1.06 inches 1.43 inches 2.76 inches 1.33 inches 2.3S inches 3.14 inches 1.30 inches 1.98 inches .78 inches 2.54 inches 1.42 inches Av. 2,917 inches T . 1.013 inches I.96 inches 1.76 inches Av. 1.966 inches All the groups contained ten consecutive shots and were fired with United States Cartridge Co. ammunition, shells uncrimped, and Lesmok powder except that marked * which was fired with Remington-U. M. C. black-powder cartridges. All ammunition was purchased fresh from the factory. .25-20 WINCHESTER CENTER-FIRE CARTRIDGE (For Repeating Rifles) This cartridge is adapted to the Winchester repeating rifle, Model 1892, and to Marlin repeating rifles, Model 1894 and Model 27. This cartridge was brought out to fill a demand for a .25-20 repeating rifle. By taking the .32-20 shell and necking it down to .25-caliber the manu- facturers were able to produce a cartridge having almost identical ballistics to the .25-20 single-shot .cartridge, and to use it in actions adapted to the .32-20 cartridge, thus obviating the necessity of bringing out an entirely new rifle and action to fill the demand. CARTRIDGES 221 The factory cartridge loaded with black powder contains 17 grains of powder and an 86-grain bullet. Smokeless cartridges are also provided by the factories loaded with sufficient Sharpshooter smoke- less powder to give the same, or a few feet more, velocity as black powder. There is also a high velocity cartridge furnished, which has a little more Sharpshooter powder than the ordinary smokeless car- tridge, and gives a few hundred feet per second higher velocity. The following are the ballistics of the factory cartridges : BLACK AND LOW POWER SMOKELESS CARTRIDGE Muzzle velocity 1,376 feet per second Velocity at 100 yards 1,108 feet per second Muzzle energy 362 foot pounds Energy at 100 yards 235 foot pounds 100 yards trajectory, height at 50 yards 2.88 inches 200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards 14.08 inches 300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards 41.03 inches Penetration, lead bullet, %-inch boards 9 boards Penetration S. P. bullet, %-inch boards 8 boards Penetration, F. P. bullet, %-inch boards 11 boards Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 20,000 to 22,000 HIGH VELOCITY CARTRIDGE Muzzle velocity 1.732 feet per second Velocity at 100 yards 1,371 feet per second Muzzle energy 573 foot pounds Energy at 100 yards 359 foot pounds 100 yards trajectory, height at 50 yards 1.82 inches 2CO yards trajectory, height at 100 yards 9.37 inches 300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards 26.22 inches Penetration, soft point bullet, %-inch boards.... 10 boards Penetration, full patch bullet, %-inch boards 20 boards Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 27,500 to 30,000 In the winter of 191 1 I conducted a very thorough accuracy test with a Winchester Model 1892 rifle chambered for this cartridge. The rifle had an ordinary barrel of the steel regularly adapted to black powder. The tests were all made at 50 yards from a very good muzzle and elbow rest. Ten groups of ten shots each were fired with each kind of ammunition, and the average is shown in the table on following page, the groups being measured from center to center of shot holes farthest apart. As a result of these tests the Winchester low pressure smokeless cartridge was chosen for use in this rifle, and I used it for a summer's shooting in Maine for small game. Subsequent trials seemed to show that this cartridge was even more accurate than in the initial tests. The combination proved fine for small game shooting, and this was one of the most satisfactory little rifles for a time that I have ever owned. 222 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Ammunition Winchester, black powder, lead bullet.. Winchester, low pressure smokeless, soft point bullet Winchester, high velocity, soft point bullet Remington — U. M. C. black powder, lead bullet Remington — U. M. C. low pressure smokeless soft point bullet Remington — U. M. C. high velocity, soft point bullet Peters, semi-smokeless, lead bullet Remarks Bad caking at breech. Very accurate, i group measured .8 inches. Clean. Bad caking at breech. Clean. Clean. Xo caking, less fouling than black powder. As I was a little afraid of the Sharpshooter powder, which I knew to be very hard on barrels, the greatest care was taken in cleaning this rifle. The barrel was always cleaned in the following manner. First, it was thoroughly scrubbed with the ammonia swabbing solution (see chapter on The Cleaning and Care of the Rifle), and then thoroughly dried. It was then cleaned again with oil, and finally liberally oiled with Marble's Nitro-solvent Oil. It was never left over night without cleaning, and it was always cleaned again on the following day in the same manner. Despite this care, after about 300 rounds of this ammunition had been fired from it the barrel began to show pitting, and the pitting progressed so fast that after about 500 rounds had been fired the accuracy began to deteriorate. After about 600 rounds it would no longer hold a 2% inch group at 50 yards, and the rifle was disposed of. Pitting in a rifle barrel is practically always caused by the acid foul- ing of the primer, where the rifle is properly clearfed. It was after- wards found that when small charges of smokeless powder are used the fouling of the powder does not dilute the fouling of the primer to any extent. In this case the primer fouling is so acid that it starts to eat the bore right away as soon as deposited. The fouling of most smokeless powders is a little alkaline, but Sharpshooter powder seems to be less alkaline than others, therefore when a small charge of Sharp- shooter powder is used in a shell we have an extremely acid primer fouling. This was the cause of the deterioration of this barrel. It may be said that while at first rifles adapted to this cartridge will prove most satisfactory when used with the low-pressure smokeless ammuni- tion as loaded by the factories, and particularly by the Winchester Company, yet this cartridge and rifles adapted to it cannot be rec- ommended because of the ultimate ruination of the bore when factory ammunition is used. CARTRIDGES 223 It is possible for the rifleman to load excellent ammunition for this rifle and cartridge which will not have this bad effect on the bore. If the rifle has a barrel of nickel steel, or special smokeless steel, these steels being furnished on special order, then very excellent results, as good accuracy as with the low-pressure, factory, smokeless cartridge, can be obtained by using a smokeless primer and as much Schuetzen smokeless powder as can be gotten in the shell without crushing it when the bullet is seated. Use the Winchester soft-point, jacketed bullet. If, however, the rifle has the ordinary black-powder, steel barrel a black-powder primer must be used, and as this primer will not satisfactorily ignite a straight smokeless charge it will be necessary to prime with black powder. Therefore the following load is recom- mended for rifles having black-powder steel barrels : Remington-U. M. C. primers Nos. 1 or 1Y2. Two grains bulk of F. F. G. or F. F. F. G. black powder placed in the base of the shell, and on top of it about 6 grains weight (15 grains black powder measure) of Schuetzen (Du Pont) smokeless powder. A Winchester 86-grain, soft-point, jacketed bullet. This charge will also give excellent results, and will not ruin the barrel. It cannot be impressed too strongly on riflemen that accuracy is absolutely essential in any rifle intended for small game shooting. Draw a life-size outline of small game and see how small the vital parts are. Even at the short range of 50 yards a very accurate cartridge is necessary to make a sure shot into the vitals. An in- accurate rifle will give many misses on this kind of game, and will also give many hits not in vital parts, and thus cause much suffering and wounded game, and therefore be entirely unsuitable for small- game shooting. For this reason, and also because of its bad effect on the bore, the high velocity cartridge cannot be recommended. It is not as accurate, has very little more power than the ordinary cartridge, and the difference in trajectory is so slight as to make little practical difference. In fact, on account of the rather poor accuracy of the high-velocity cartridge, a good shot can make sure shots on small game at a longer range with the low-pressure smokeless cartridge. The low-pressure cartridge is sufficiently powerful for all small game. In fact it will tear grouse and squirrels up pretty badly. It will even kill deer very neatly if it strikes a vital spot, but it is most decidedly not recommended for a deer rifle. This cartridge is a most excellent one for turkeys, foxes, woodchucks, coyotes, western ground squirrels, and similar game at ranges up to 75 or 100 yards, and when a repeat- 224 THE AMERICAN RIFLE ing rifle is desired. Beyond ioo yards this rifle is not satisfactory for small game as the trajectory is too high. .25-20 SINGLE-SHOT CARTRIDGE ) j 1 ^mm^m _i-< Mr. J. F. Rabboth, a member of the Massachusetts Rifle Association, deserves credit for originating the .25-caliber rifle. He wrote the first article advocating such a rifle in the April 18, 1889, issue of " Shooting and Fishing," but for three years prior to this he had been experimenting with a .25-caliber rifle made especially to order for him by the Remington Arms Company. The shell was made by necking down the .32-caliber shell for the Wesson rifle. The charge was 32 grains of Hazard's ducking powder and a 76-grain lead bul- let. The 200-yard trajectory was but 7 inches high at 100 yards. It was experiments with this rifle that led up to the placing on the mar- ket of the .25-20 single-shot cartridge in the summer of 1889. The Maynard rifle was the first arm placed on the market chambered for this cartridge, followed several weeks later by the old Stevens tip-up rifle. The cartridge was first made by the Union Metallic Cartridge Company. The factory black-powder cartridge is furnished loaded with 20 grains of powder and an 86-grain lead bullet. Smokeless powder cartridges are also furnished loaded with Sharpshooter powder and either lead or jacketed bullets. The following are the ballistics of this cartridge as loaded by the various factories : Muzzle velocity 1,412 feet per second Velocity at 100 yards 1,133 feet per second Muzzle energy 381 foot pounds Energy at 100 yards 245 foot pounds 100 yard trajectory, height at 50 yards 2.74 inches 200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards 13.52 inches 300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards 35-8o inches Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 21,000 to 23,00c Penetration, lead bullet, %-inch boards 9 boards Penetration, S. P. bullet, %-inch boards 8 boards Penetration, F. P. bullet, %-inch boards 11 boards The black and smokeless cartridges as loaded by the ammunition factories will give about the same results in this rifle as similar car- tridges in rifles chambered for the .25-20 Winchester center-fire car- CARTRIDGES 225 tridge. The smokeless factory cartridge also has the same ruining effect on barrels as the similar cartridge for the .25-20 W. C. F. Neither of these cartridges are therefore recommended, and the rifle- man should load his own ammunition, purchasing new primed shells in the first place. Black-powder cartridges, or cartridges loaded with semi-smokeless powder, do fairly well when a 77-grain bullet is used. The 14-inch twist with which most of the rifles adapted to this cartridge are cut is a little too slow for the 86-grain bullet at the velocity given with the full charge of black-powder, and many bullets keyhole. The lead bullet should be loaded projecting a little farther from the shell than that of the factory cartridge, which is possible with a single-shot rifle. But the best accuracy is obtained with a smokeless charge and a jacketed bullet. The .25-20 single shot is one of my favorite rifles, and I conducted a great many experiments with various rifles of this caliber running over a number of years from 1899 to 1915. It is not necessary to tabulate all these here, suffice to say that by far the best results were obtained by the following load : Winchester shells ; Winchester No. iW primers; 8.5 grains weight of Du Pont Schuetzen powder; the 87- grain Savage soft-point spitzer bullet made for the .250-3000 Savage rifle loaded as far out of the shell as could be and the cartridge still be easily loaded into the chamber without force. The regular .25- caliber, 86-grain, soft-point bullet was also tried and did very well, but did not give quite as satisfactory results as regards accuracy as the Savage bullet. This load with the Savage bullet gave groups averaging 1.25 inches at 50 yards, and groups as small as .68 inches have been fired with it at that range. The rifle used was a Win- chester single-shot rifle with a 27-inch, No. 3 round, nickel-steel bar- rel, set triggers, and Winchester type A5 telescope sight. With a black-powder, steel barrel I would recommend using the Remington-U. M. C. No. 1 or No. 1V2 primer, a priming charge of 2 grains of F. F. F. G. black powder, and a proportionately smaller charge of Schuetzen powder as in the case of the .25-20 Winchester center-fire cartridge in order to prevent the barrel becoming pitted. A trajectory test of this special load was made in this rifle as follows : Five shots at 50 yards gave a group measuring .71 inches, and the load struck center. Ten shots were then fired at 65 yards with the same sight adjustment, resulting in a group measuring 2.00 inches, the center of impact of which was 1.17 inches below the point of aim. Ten 226 THE AMERICAN RIFLE shots were then fired at 25 yards with the same 50-yard sight adjust- ment, resulting in a group measuring .73 inches, which was .25 inches below the point of aim. The rifle was then fired at 65 yards and the sight correctly adjusted for that range. With this sight adjustment it was found to shoot V2 inch high at 50 yards and exact center at 25 yards. It was therefore decided that the correct range for which to have the sights adjusted for small game shooting was 65 yards. It should be remembered that in this test a telescope sight, mounted high above the barrel, was used, and that the line of sight was about 1% inches above the axis of the bore. Bore sighting. When correctly adjusted telescope is aligned on the center of the bull's-eye at 50 yards, a sight on the target through the bore strikes the target approximately 4 inches above the bull's-eye. This special load has now been used in this Winchester rifle for four years with most excellent results, and the bore, which has always been carefully cleaned not later than the evening of the day on which it was fired, is still in perfect condition. With this load this rifle is a most excellent small game and short-range target rifle. It kills all kinds of small game neatly, but is too powerful for grouse, as it ruins much of the meat, and if grey squirrels are to be fit for the table they must be hit in the head, an easy matter with this outfit up to about 70 yards. At present this cartridge is only adapted to the Winchester single- shot rifle, and the Stevens Ideal rifle. The diameter of all .25-caliber bullets is .257 inch, and all rifles of this caliber that I have measured have practically this groove diameter also. .25-21 STEVENS CARTRIDGE; .25-25 STEVENS CARTRIDGE These cartridges are identical except that the latter has a little longer shell to enable it to hold 4 grains more powder. They are both adapted to the Stevens Ideal single-shot rifle. Quite a number of Winchester single-shot rifles have also been rechambered for the .25-21 cartridge by private parties. The shells are straight inside, and a straight taper outside. They were very popular in the days of black powder and were brought out in answer to the demand for a straight .25-caliber shell, as it has always been thought that black powder shot better from a straight shell than from a bottle-necked one. The .25-20 single-shot cartridge has a slightly bottle-necked shell. The factory ammunition of both these cartridges gives slightly greater velocity than the factory .25-20 single-shot cartridge, but the difference. CARTRIDGES 227 is so small as to make practically no difference in the power and tra- jectory. I have never been able to obtain any satisfactory results from these cartridges with factory loads, which are furnished only with black powder and lead bullet. Either of these cartridges may be reloaded, using practically the same loads as in the case of the .25-20 single-shot cartridge, increasing the powder charges slightly on account of the increased capacity of the shells, and very satisfactory results obtained. The .25-25 shell may be loaded with a charge of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 21, about 18.5 grains weight, so as to leave a small air space, and an 86-grain jacketed bullet, and quite a high velocity obtained, probably almost 2000 feet per second. In all cases where smokeless powder is used the primer should be a Remington-U. M. C. No. 1 or 1Y2, and the shell should be primed with 2 grains bulk of F. F. F. G. black powder in order to obviate the pitting of the barrel from the undiluted primer fouling. All the barrels for the Stevens Ideal rifles, to which these cartridges are adapted, are furnished only with the ordinary black powder steel. Observe the same prin- ciples in loading as in the case of the .25-20 single-shot cartridge. .25-35 WINCHESTER CENTER-FIRE CARTRIDGE This cartridge is adapted to the Winchester repeating rifle, Model 1894, the Winchester single-shot rifle, and the Savage repeating rifle, Model 1899. The following is the data for the factory cartridge : Muzzle velocity 1,9/8 feet per second Velocity at 100 yards , 1.680 feet per second Velocity at 200 yards 1,420 feet per second Velocity at 300 yards M 18 feet per second Muzzle energy 1,017 foot pounds Energy at 100 yards 734 foot pounds Energy at 200 yards 516 foot pounds Energy at 300 yards 386 foot pounds 100 yard trajectory, height at 50 yards 1.32 inches 200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards 6.21 inches 300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards 16.61 inches Penetration, soft point, v's-inch boards 11 boards Penetration, full patched, %-inch boards 36 boards Weight of bullet "7 grams Diameter of bullet 2 57 i nch Average groove diameter of barrels 257 inch Powder charge, Hercules lightning powder, about 18 grains Twist of rifling, one turn in 8 inches Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 32,000 to 34,000 228 THE AMERICAN RIFLE The following powder charges may also be used with either the regular 117-grain soft-point or full-jacketed bullet, or the 86-grain jacketed bullet of the .25-20 cartridge, the velocities and pressures being given for the former bullet : Powder Du Pont improved military rifle No. 16 Du Pont improved military rifle No. 16 Du Pont improved military rifle No. 18 Du Pont military rifle powder No. 20. . Du Pont military rifle powder No. 21. . Weight grains Velocity, feet per second Pressure, pounds per square inch 22.3 25-5 23-5 22.5 20.1 1984 2300 2000 2042 1975 26,000 37,000 35,ooo 37,200 34,000 All the above powder charges, except the last, should be weighed and not measured. The last will measure very evenly in the Ideal Universal Powder Measure No. 5. Use Remington-U. M. C. No. 9 or U. S. Cartridge Co., No. 8 primers. If using the 86-grain bullet, seat only about Vs inch of the base of the bullet in the shell. For reduced load use the 86-grain, jacketed bullet for the .25-20 cartridge, and about 10 grains weight of Du Pont gallery rifle powder No. 75. This makes a very nice load of about the power of the .25-20. Ideal gas-check bullet No. 257306 can also be used with about 17 grains weight of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 21 as a midrange load, but is not quite as accurate as the jacketed bullet. There are a number of other Ideal bullets which can be used in this cartridge, for which see the " Ideal Handbook," but my experience has been that the 86-grain, jacketed bullet is very much more accurate, the twist of rifling in .25-35 rifles being a little too rapid (8 inches) for alloy bullets. This is a very popular cartridge, and deservedly so. It is extremely accurate, perhaps the most accurate of all our sporting cartridges. It will give 5 to 6-inch groups right along at 200 yards in a good rifle. It is also a most excellent all-around cartridge where game larger than deer is not liable to be encountered. It makes a very nice little deer rifle, particularly when loaded with 25.5 grains of Du Pont improved military rifle powder No. 16, the velocity in this case being about 2300 feet per second. The factory cartridge loaded with the full-patched bullet makes a fine turkey rifle and also for varmints such as coyote, fox, etc., particularly when it is desired not to ruin the meat or the skin. The 101 -grain, sharp-point, full-patched bullet for the .25 Rem- ington auto-cartridge can also be used with the same powder charge as for the 117-grain bullet, and fine target results obtained up to 500 yards at least, or this bullet can be used with about 10 grains of Du Pont gallery rifle powder No. 75 and a very nice light charge obtained CARTRIDGES 229 with which grouse and squirrels can be shot without ruining them for the table. If a Winchester single-shot rifle with No. 3 barrel be used, all these cartridges and loads will shoot with practically the same sight adjustment at 50 yards, making an ideal combination. I con- sider this the very best caliber for South American jungle hunting, and for the Eastern United States, where the largest game is deer, it is just the cartridge. I had a Winchester single-shot rifle with 14-inch twist chambered for this cartridge by Mr. A. O. Neidner. The chamber was cut quite tight, and it was intended to use only the 86-grain bullet. After ex- perimenting very extensively with it I found the most accurate charge to be 22 grains weight of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 20, and the Winchester 86-grain, soft-point jacketed bullet. With this load the rifle gave groups at 100 yards averaging 1.77 inches. The rifle had a telescope sight mounted on top of the barrel, and with this sight the sight adjustment was exactly the same for 50 and 100 yards, making a most excellent combination for small game shooting at ranges beyond the capacity of the .25-20 cartridge. I have used this rifle with fine success, even on the small South American deer. It is an excellent woodchuck and turkey rifle, but is a little too powerful for squirrels and grouse. Strange to say, it does not shoot well with the 86-grain bullet if the velocity is reduced to that of the .25-20 cartridge, many of the bullets key-holing. I have never been able to work out a good reduced load for it due to this reason. This rifle has now been fired about 3000 rounds, and the barrel shows no signs of erosion or wear. .25-36 MARLIN CARTRIDGE This cartridge is very similar to the .25-35 Winchester cartridge, but the shell is a little different, and the two cartridges are not inter- changeable. Despite its name, the shell holds about two grains less powder than the .25-35, an d is slightly less powerful. It is adapted only to the Marlin repeating rifle, Model of 1893. The following are the details of the factory cartridge : Muzzle velocity 1,855 f eet per second Muzzle energy 893 foot pounds 200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards 7.38 inches 300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards 18.90 inches Penetration, soft point, %-inch boards 11 boards Penetration, full patched, %-inch boards 30 boards 230 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Bullet, flat point, soft point or full patched 117 grains Powder charge, Hercules Lightning, about 16.5 grains Diameter of bullet 257 inch Average diameter of bore, to bottom of grooves.. .257 inch Twist of rifling, one turn in 9 inches Standard pressure pounds per square inch 30,000 to 32,000 The bullet differs slightly from that of the .25-35 Winchester car- tridge, having a flat point, and being seated a little deeper in the shell. To obtain increased velocity with this cartridge it should be loaded with 25 grains weight of Du Pont improved military rifle powder No. 16 which will give 2250 feet per second velocity, with light chamber pressure. This powder charge should be weighed, not measured. The 86-grain, jacketed bullet can be used for reduced loads with 10 grains weight of Du Pont gallery rifle powder No. 75, and good results ob- tained. This is a very accurate cartridge up to 200 yards. .25 REMINGTON AUTO-LOADING CARTRIDGE This cartridge is very similar to the .25-35 Winchester, and .25-36 Marlin cartridges, except that it has a rimless shell, and contains several grains more powder. It is adapted to the Remington auto- loading rifle, the Remington slide action sporting rifle, and to the Stevens repeating rifle. It is regularly loaded by the factories with two types of bullet, one a 117-grain, blunt-nose, soft- or full-patched bullet, and the other a 101-grain, full-patched, sharp-point bullet. The data for the factory cartridge with these two types of bullets is as follows: 117-GRAIN BULLET Muzzle velocity 2.127 feet per second Velocity at 100 yards 1,812 feet per second Velocity at 200 yards 1,535 f eet P er second Velocity at 300 yards 1,303 feet per second Muzzle energy 1,175 foot pounds Energy at 100 yards 854 foot pounds Energy at 200 yards • 608 foot pounds Energy at 300 yards 433 foot pounds 200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards 4.95 inches 300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards 13-77 inches Penetration, soft point, %-inch boards. . . : 11 boards Penetration, full patched, %-inch boards 44 boards Powder charge, Hercules Lightning, about 22 grains Diameter of bullet 257 inch CARTRIDGES 231 Groove diameter of Remington barrel 257 inch Twist of rifling, one turn in 10 inches Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 34,000 to 36,000 101-GRAIN POINTED BULLET Muzzle velocity 2,330 feet per second Muzzle energy 1,286 foot pounds 200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards 3.98 inches 300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards 9.10 inches Powder charge, Du Pont M. R. P. No. 21, about. . 24.5 grains The following powder charges may also be used in this cartridge with good results : POWDER CHARGES FOR 117-GRAIN BULLET Powder Grains weight tvt , Pressure, M , uzz l e pounds per velocity square inch Du Pont military rifle powder No. 20 Du Pont military rifle powder No. 21 Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 18. Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 18. Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 16. Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 16. 25- 24.2 20.3 27-5 24.6 30. 1857 2100 2125 2350 2Il8 2534 32,700 36.500 31,100 39.30O 22,880 37.760 POWDER CHARGES FOR 101-GRAIN POINTED BULLET Powder Grains weight Muzzle velocity Pressure, poundsper square inch Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 18. Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 16. Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 16. 2600 2369 2753 38,800 23,080 39.440 With these charges the powder should be weighed and not meas- ured. Notice that some of the charges so greatly improve the ballistics of this cartridge as to put it in the very front rank of modern high- velocity cartridges, and this too with a very low breech pressure. Ideal gas check bullet No. 257325, no grains, may be used also with 18 grains of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 21. All the above loads will function the automatic action of this rifle perfectly. A very fine small game load consists of about 10 grains of Du Pont gallery rifle powder No. 75 and the 101-grain, jacketed, pointed bullet. This load will kill grouse and squirrels neatly without injuring the meat for the table, and is quite accurate, but it will not function the auto-loading feature, and it will be necessary to pull the bolt back by hand for each shot. This cartridge is a most excellent one. There has been a most fortunate combination of powder space, caliber, and weight of bullet. It is an extremely accurate cartridge, even at quite long range, and 232 THE AMERICAN RIFLE a most pleasant cartridge to shoot. For game, it is excellent for everything up to and including deer and black bear. Using the 101- grain, pointed bullet, it makes a splendid rifle for long-range shots at ducks and geese on the water, and is excellent for turkeys and such game. The full charged cartridge with the 117-grain, full-patched bul- let is excellent for foxes, coyotes, and other fur bearers, where it is particularly desired not to spoil the skins. .25O-3OOO SAVAGE CARTRIDGE This is a modern cartridge of extremely high velocity adapted to the Savage repeating rifle, Model 1899. The following is the data for the factory cartridge : Muzzle velocity Velocity at 100 yards Velocity at 200 yards Velocity at 300 yards Muzzle energy Energy at 100 yards Energy at 200 yards Energy at 300 yards 100 yards trajectory height at 50 yards 200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards . . . 300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards .. Bullet, soft point, pointed, copper jacket... Diameter of bullet Groove diameter of bore, average Powder, Du Pont M. R. P. No. 21, about.. Twist of rifling, one turn in Standard pressure, pounds per square inch. 3,000 feet per second 2,657 feet per second 2,340 feet per second 2,042 feet per second 1,740 foot pounds x ,375 foot pounds 1,061 foot pounds 783 foot pounds .4 inch 2.5 inches 6.^ inches 87 grains .257 inch .257 inch 30.5 grains 14 inches 50,000 to 55,000 The following powder charges can also be used in this cartridge with good results: Velocity, Pressure, Powder Grains feet per pounds per weight second square inch Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 16. 357 2930 31,240 Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 16. 38 3IOO Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 16. 40 336l 52,200* Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 18. 36 . 3IOO 46,500 Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 18. 37-5 3l8o 50,200 * This is the maximum load and should be used only in new rifles or those in excellent condition. The above powder charges should always be carefully weighed, not measured. Only the regular 87-grain, Savage, pointed bullet should be used. CARTRIDGES 233 For reduced loads I would recommend that either Du Pont gallery rifle powder No. 75 or Du Pont sporting rifle powder No. 80 be tried. About 10 grains weight of the former and twelve grains weight of the latter should be about correct. For bullets, use either the regular 87-grain, jacketed bullet, the 86-grain, jacketed bullet for the .25-20 cartridge, or Ideal gas-check bullet No. 257312, the latter sized to about .258 inch. I have obtained excellent results with 10 grains of No. 75 powder and the regular 87-grain, jacketed bullet as detailed below. I conducted the initial range tests of this cartridge a few months prior to its being placed on the market by the Savage Arms Company. The rifle was a regular stock rifle equipped with a Lyman No. 30^ wind gauge rear sight, and a Lyman gold bead front sight. Rifle shot from my concrete base muzzle and elbow rest. Ten groups of ten shots each were fired at 100 yards for accuracy with Savage factory, full-charged cartridges, which at that time were loaded with 32 grains of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 21, and the 87-grain, soft- point, jacketed, spitzer bullet. The smallest group measured 1.40 inches, the largest 4.12 inches, average 2.96 inches. Measurements were from center to center of shot holes farthest apart. These tests were made with the bullets dry; that is, Mobilubricant was not used. After this firing of no rounds during an afternoon no metal fouling at all was visible. Cleaning with the ammonia metal fouling solution gave, of course, the usual blue color, showing that there was a thin, invisible coating of copper fouling. From subsequent shooting it may be said that this cartridge will not metal foul in lumps if the bore is taken care of. There are very few other purely sporting rifles which will show as good accuracy as this, especially in view of the short, light barrel. Experiments were than undertaken to find a suitable reduced load for use on small game, for the explosive effect of the full charge will literally blow up anything from coyotes down. The regular 87-grain, soft-point bullet was used, and the best charge was found to be 10 grains weight of Du Pont gallery rifle powder No. 75 primed with U. S. C. Co. No. 8 primer, the cartridge being exactly the same as the full- charged, factory cartridge with the exception of the powder charge. This is an excellent load and shoots with all the accuracy of the .22- long rifle cartridge. Ten groups of ten shots each were fired for accuracy at 50 yards from the muzzle and elbow rest, the smallest measuring .95 inch, the largest 1.90 inches, average 1.42 inches. It 234 THE AMERICAN RIFLE was found that for reduced loads it was best to use new shells, or shells that had been fired with reduced loads only. In all lever-action rifles, which do not have the breech bolt supported by lugs at the head, as in the case of bolt actions, there is quite a little elastic spring in the action when fired with cartridges giving pressures around 50,000 pounds per square inch. Shells fired with the full charge are expanded and lengthened, so that if reloaded it is rather difficult to close the bolt. They can be used, but rapid fire with them is out of the question. Shells lengthened in this way can hardly be resized with hand tools. The lengthening is all over and not simply in the neck. For the high-power load, the Lyman sight on the rifle required set- ting at 3 points elevation, and zero for wind. The point of impact at 100 yards was one inch above the point of aim. With the reduced load of 10 grains of No. 75 powder the sight was adjusted to 5H points ele- vation, and 1Y2 points right windage, giving a point of impact at 50 yards % inch above the point of aim. With the No. 30% Lyman rear sight on the Savage .250-3000 rifle, changing the elevation one point or graduation will move the point of impact 6.15 inches at 100 yards, and a similar change of 1 point in windage will cause a change in point of impact of 2.46 inches at 100 yards. This is a most excellent cartridge for all game up to, and including, deer, and mountain sheep. With the full-charged factory cartridge it is much too powerful for all small game, but, as will be seen above, it can be loaded by the rifleman to give fine results on all small game. It has an extremely flat trajectory and excellent accuracy, making sure hits at long range an easy matter. For all except the very largest game it is hard to imagine a better arm than the rifle adapted to this car- tridge, especially when a light weapon is desired. .256 NEWTON HIGH-POWER CARTRIDGE ,256 NEWTON This is a cartridge of very high velocity adapted to the Newton high-power sporting rifle. The manufacturers advertise it loaded with two weights of bullets, 123 grains, and 140 grains. Up to the time of going to press no 140-grain bullets have been placed on the market and the data regarding them is entirely theoretical. The ballistic data CARTRIDGES 235 for the cartridge loaded with the 123-grain bullet, as given by the Newton Arms Company, is as follows : Weight of bullet 123 grains Muzzle velocity 3,103 feet per second Velocity at 100 yards 2,891 feet per second Velocity at 200 yards 2,689 feet per second Velocity at 300 yards 2,495 feet per second Muzzle energy 2,632 foot pounds Energy at 100 yards 2,288 foot pounds Energy at 200 yards 1,980 foot pounds Energy at 300 yards 1,709 foot pounds Diameter of bullet 264 inch Bore diameter of barrel 256 inch Groove diameter of barrel 268 inch Twist of rifling, one turn in 10 inches Powder charge, Du Pont No. 10 or No. 15 46 grains Powder charge, Du Pont No. 20 42 grains 100 yards trajectory, height at 50 yards 48 inch 200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards 2.08 inches 300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards 5.00 inches Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 55,000 to 58,000 The above velocities were calculated for a 30-inch barrel. The standard 24-inch barrel of the Newton rifle will give about 100 feet per second less velocity than these. The powder charges above are subject to change, the charges having not been definitely decided upon at the time of going to print. In fact the cartridge may still be said to be in the experimental stage to a certain extent, the Great War, and the conse- quent difficulty in procuring materials, having considerably upset the plans of the Newton Arms Company relative to standardizing on any one product. At present it looks as though this cartridge will ultimately be furnished with a 129-grain bullet. The most recent reliable ballistic data on this cartridge was determined with this 129-grain bullet in a 24-inch barrel as follows : Powder Grains weight Muzzle velocity, Pressure. feet per second pounds per r square inch Du Pont No. IO Du Pont No. 13 Du Pont No. 15 Du Pont No. 20 48 54 480 44 2,863 2,975 2,875 2J57 54,260 56,200 54,960 53.88o The .256 Newton cartridge is a particularly efficient load for large game, especially at long range. The trajectory is exceedingly flat, in fact flatter than any other commercial cartridge, and the expanding, pointed bullet has an explosive effect on animal tissue, making very deadly wounds. It will give good results on all American game. My own test of this cartridge for accuracy was made in April, 1918, on my experimental range, regular muzzle rest, 100 yards. One group 236 THE AMERICAN RIFLE fired with regular Newton factory ammunition procured in the fall of 191 7 gave a measurement of 3.60 inches. Two groups fired under similar conditions with ammunition reloaded with 52.5 grains of Du Pont improved military rifle powder No. 13, and Newton 129-grain bul- let, gave measurements of 4.80 and 5.18 inches. All groups were ten shots. Rifle equipped with telescope sight. .28-30-120 STEVENS CENTER-FIRE CARTRIDGE This is a low-power, black-powder cartridge adapted to the Stevens Ideal rifle, and to Pope rifles chambered for it. DATA FOR FACTORY CARTRIDGE Muzzle velocity 1,405 feet per second Muzzle energy 526 foot pounds 200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards 32.81 inches Penetration, lead bullet, %-inch pine boards 10 boards Bullet, lead, temper 1 to 32 120 grains Diameter of bullet 285 inch Powder charge, F. G. black powder 30 grains Primer, Remington — U. M. C. No. 2V2 brass Twist of rifling, Stevens Ideal, one turn in 14 inches This cartridge was designed by Mr. Charles H. Herrick for the Stevens Company in answer to a demand for a cartridge a little more powerful than the .25-caliber cartridges, but not quite as large as the .32-40, so that it could be used satisfactorily for deer, small game, or 200-yard target shooting. It was designed to cut down some of the expense, etc., of 200-yard target shooting by employing less powder and lead, and at the same time getting a higher velocity. The shell is straight inside, and has just sufficient taper outside to permit of easy extraction. The shell is one of the best made on the market, very much like an everlasting shell, and will stand almost unlimited reloading. The cartridge represents the highest development of the black powder days. It is an odd size, and never became very popular except with rifle cranks. It is an excellent cartridge where a medium caliber, low- power rifle is desired for Eastern game and target shooting. It seems to do its best work with about 30 grains of C. G. semi-smokeless pow- der, and a 120-grain bullet cast about 1 part of tin to 32 parts of lead. As with all small caliber, black-powder rifles, the rifleman will have to experiment a little with different amounts and lots of powder, and different tempers of bullet in order to get the best results. The regular bullet is the same as the Ideal bullet No. 285221. Ideal bullet No. 285222 is the same except that it has a sharp point, and with it and a slightly smaller powder charge squirrels and grouse can be killed CARTRIDGES 237 neatly without mangling. Low-pressure, bulk smokeless powder may also be used in this cartridge, but the bullet should be of a harder temper. If smokeless powder is used it should always be with the reg- ular No. 2Y2 black powder primer, and a priming charge of about 3 grains of F. F. F. G. black powder, as the smokeless primer is very liable to pit the barrel badly. .280 ROSS CARTRIDGE This cartridge is adapted to the Ross Model 10 straight pull sporting rifle, and Ross long-range target rifle. Two types of cartridges are made, one with a light expanding bullet for sporting use, and the other with a long, heavy full jacketed bullet for long range match shooting. The following is the data for the factory sporting cartridge : Muzzle velocity 3.050 feet per second Velocity at 100 yards 2,837 feet per second Velocity at 200 yards 2,635 feet per second Velocity at 300 yards 2,441 feet per second Muzzle energy 3,002 foot pounds Energy at 100 yards 2,710 foot pounds Energy at 200 yards 2,2_|7 foot pounds Energy at 300 yards 1,929 foot pounds 200 yard trajectory, height at 100 yards 2.20 inches 300 yard trajectory, height at 150 yards 5.25 inches 500 yard trajectory, height at 250 yards 17.00 inches Bullet, copper tube expanding, jacketed 143 grains Diameter of bullet 287 inch Groove diameter of Ross barrel 289 inch Powder charge, Du Pont military rifle No. 10... 58.8 gains Chamber pressure, pounds per square inch 53.500 Twist of rifling, one turn in 83 *s inches This cartridge may also be loaded with the 143 -grain bullet and 60 grains weight of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 15 to give a velocity of 3300 feet per second with a chamber pressure of 55,470 pounds per square inch. This is the maximum charge that should be used. Charges of Du Pont No. 10 and 15 powder should always be weighed on scales, and not measured. For a reduced load the Ideal Manufacturing Company recommend Ideal gas check bullet No. 291379, cast of No. 1 bullet metal, and sized to .291 inch, with a charge of 30 grains weight of Du Pont military rifle powder No, 21, or 25.2 grains weight of Du Pont sporting rifle powder 238 THE AMERICAN RIFLE No. 80. I have tried this load but did not find it satisfactory. The smallest group fired at 50 yards measured 2.90 inches, and some groups at this distance were as -large as 10 inches. Shells that had previously been fired with the regular factory charge were used, and they were exceedingly hard to insert in the chamber and to extract, due to' the body of the shell having been expanded to above size. Probably better results could have been secured with new shells, but I was unable to procure these. I would recommend trying this bullet with much lighter charges, say I2 V 2 grains of Du Pont No. 80; or 18 grains of Du Pont No. 18; or 12 grains of Du Pont No. 75. The factory cartridge is an excellent one ballistically, combining a bullet with a very satisfactory coefficient, and a flat trajectory. Twenty-eight caliber is theoretically the most effective caliber ballisti- cally for a rifle, because a bullet with an extremely effective ballastic coefficient can be used in this caliber without running the recoil up to such an extent that it is not satisfactory for military purposes. But the .280 Ross rifle does not seem to handle this cartridge very well. The accuracy is not good. I have heard of a few rifles which would give 8- inch groups with this cartridge at 200 yards, but I have personally never seen one. Two. rifles of this caliber which I have owned would give about 12-inch groups at 200 yards when shot from my concrete base muzzle and elbow rest, or prone with either target sights or a telescope sight. Also Dr. Mann obtained two selected .280 sporting barrels for testing, and upon placing them on his " V " rest found that the best groups that they would give average 7 inches at 100 yards. The trouble seems to be in the size of the neck of the cham- ber and the groove diameter of the barrel. The bullet is .002 inches smaller than the groove diameter of the barrel, and the chamber is about .004-inch larger at the neck than the neck of the unfired car- tridge. As will be seen in the chapter on Accuracy, good shooting can- not be expected from such an arrangement. It seems a pity that a more accurate barrel is not obtainable for this excellent cartridge. The following are the ballistics of the .280 match cartridge : DATA FOR FACTORY CARTRIDGE Muzzle velocity 2.700 feet per second Muzzle energy 2.834 foot pounds Weight of bullet 180 grains Angle of elevation, 100 yards 1.34 minutes Angle of elevation, 200 yards 3-*5 minutes Angle of elevation 500 yards 9.35 minutes Angle of elevation 600 yards 12.12 minutes Angle of elevation, 800 yards 18.27 minutes CARTRIDGES 239 Angle of elevation, 1,000 yards 26.28 minutes Powder charge, Du Pont military rirle No. 10. . . . 53.5 grains Chamber pressure, pounds per square inch 51,070 Despite the discrepancy between the diameters of barrel and bullet, and the large chamber, this cartridge is very accurate in Ross long- range match barrels. It seems to be a case where the inertia of the long, heavy bullet seems to cause prompt upsetting of the bullet to fill the bore without undue deformation of the bullet. The match barrels are throated out a little more than the sporting barrels to receive this cartridge, and this cartridge is so long that it cannot be worked through the magazine, the match rifle being a single shot only, although with practically the same action as the sporting rifle. Ross match rifles for the .280 cartridge are very popular in England for long range match shooting, and have won many matches with very high scores. Wind probably has less effect on the flight of this bullet than is the case with any other cartridge made. .30 WINCHESTER CENTER-FIRE CARTRIDGE .30 REMINGTON-U. M. C. AUTO-LO/\DING CARTRIDGE Commonly known as the .30-30 cartridge. These two cartridges are practically identical, except that one has a rimmed shell, and the other, the .30 Remington, has a rimless shell. The ballistics, powder charge, and bullet are exactly the same. The .30 Winchester cartridge is adapted to a great number of American rifles, the principal being the Winchester Model 1894 repeating rifle. It was this rifle that made the .30-30 cartridge famous and popular. The .30 Remington car- tridge is adapted to the Remington auto-loading rifle, the Remington slide-action sporting rifle, and to the Stevens high-power repeating rifle. The ballistic data for the factory cartridge, and for rifles adapted to it is as follows : 240 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Muzzle velocity 2,008 feet per second Velocity at 100 yards . 1.735 feet per second Velocity at 200 yards 1,493 feet per second Velocity at 300 yards 1,290 feet per second Muzzle energy 1,522 foot pounds Energy at 100 yards 1,136 foot pounds Energy at 200 yards 850 foot pounds Energy at 300 yards 629 foot pounds 100 yards trajectory, height at 50 yards 1.28 inches 200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards 5.79 inches 300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards . 15.23 inches Penetration, soft point hullet, %-inch boards.... 1 1 boards Penetration, full patch bullet, %-inch boards 42 boards Bullet, jacketed, soft point or full patched 170 grains* Diameter of bullet 305 inch Groove diameter of barrel, Winchester, about... .308 inch Groove diameter of barrel, Remington, about 307 inch Twist of rifling, one turn in 12 inches Powder charge, Hercules Lightning, about 26 grains Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 36,0001039,000 * The Remington — U. M. C. full-jacketed bullet weighs 160 grains. The Remington-U. M. C. Co. also makes a cartridge for the .30 Remington rifle loaded with a 157-grain, full- jacketed, pointed bullet for which the following is the data : Muzzle velocity 2,150 feet per second Muzzle energy 1,610 footpounds 200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards. 5.25 inches 300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards 14.45 inches This cartridge can be reloaded with the following powder charges, using the 170-grain, jacketed bullet: Powder Grains | Velocity | Pressure Du Pont military rifle powder No. 21 26.4 2000 | 36,500 Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 18. 29.3 2010 32,900 Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 16. 28.2 2003 26,500 Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 16. 33. 2305 1 39,120 All the above charges except the first should be weighed, not measured. The following reduced loads will work well in this cartridge : Ideal bullet No. 308291 W, cast of Ideal alloy, and sized to .308 inch. 24 grains weight of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 21. No. 9 Remington-U. M. C, or No. 8 U. S. C. Co. primer. This makes a very nice medium load, and it will kill such game as coyotes and foxes neatly without hurting the skins. It is also an economical load for ordinary target practice. Ideal bullet No. 308241 W, cast of No. 2 Ideal bullet metal, or of 1 part of tin to 10 parts of lead, and sized to .308 inch. Ten grains weight of Du Pont gallery powder No. 75. No. 9 Remington-U. M. C. or No. 8 U. S. C. Co. primer. This is a very good short-range CARTRIDGES 241 load, although it will not operate the auto-loading feature of the Rem- ington auto-loading rifle, and that arm will have to be operated by- pulling the breech bolt to the rear by hand for each shot. It is quite accurate up to 200 yards. At 100 yards it will keep all shots inside a 4-inch circle. It is a fine short range load, and it will kill small game neatly, grouse being killed without ruining the meat for the table. The .30-30 is a very popular cartridge, particularly among pro- fessional hunters and trappers, and all through Northern Canada. Its popularity is due to several things. The .30-30 was the first high- power rifle to be placed on the American market in any quantity, and it at once became very popular. Both the rifle and ammuntion are cheap, and can be procured anywhere. This cartridge is a fine one for game up to, and including, deer and black bear. It is used for all game on this continent, but on the larger game it will seldom kill neatly with one shot, as all cartridges should. It is quite accurate, and at 200 yards the factory cartridge in a good rifle should keep all its shots in about a 7-inch circle. In view of many more modern cartridges hav- ing been introduced since this cartridge made its appearance, it cannot be recommended for the sportsman who is about to purchase a new rifle except for use in Northern Canada, particularly in the Hudson Bay and Mackenzie River regions, where the trading posts carry no other kind of high-power rifle ammunition. The following trajectory table will be of considerable use to the hunter using this and similar cartridges. Figures with the minus sign in front indicate that the shot will strike that amount below the point of aim. TRAJECTORY TABLE. .30^30 CARTRIDGE 170-grain bullet. Velocity 2,008 feet per second Height of Kanj, e sighted to. in yards curve ai: 75 100 '3-i o^ot^O cm d\ in O "5 in inoO CO l-i CM to f^ t>. l-i M CO CO CM "+ 5 &§ to O O lx O -, Ed n >1 >> o o o ; ) CM +j ^_j rt cd >, >, c> CJ o O CU cu >> ni d (S C 7 'V 3 +j +J +j "»V vpO v£0 *+H +r +r o D 4) D f" f " ^3 J5 J3 JU 33 3^ ! " i2 >> >> >; TJ T) "3 b o *v3 £ c O bJO u 1-1 p. ~ •" -^ I o CU CU >>>>. > — i , . . > , . ' — < hn ho ho TJ *0 T3 TJ O cd w ■- -; cd "2 *J2 .£3 VJ3 cu >h ~ S 1= >^ be be bo cd cd cd ^ u u >> >> >> cu cu cu _ _ S3 C G 8 2 ° w w w 2 3 % Ph U lJ 0) C ^ ,n "C a c cu cu Ph Ph Js c o .23 £ £ PQ Q O H Ph Ph CO CARTRIDGES 273 to the standard depth, but the cartridge has retained its old designation. Owing to this lack of powder space a very high velocity cannot be obtained in this cartridge. It is hard to get enough modern smoke- less powder into the shell, and the powder does not burn properly. The following powder charges can be used with good results in the .38-55 cartridge: With lead bullet: 20 grains weight of Du Pont No. 1 smokeless. . 20 grains weight of Du Pont Schuetzen smokeless. 15 grains weight of Du Pont gallery rifle No. 75. With metal-cased bullet, lozv power: 16.4 grains weight of Du Pont sporting rifle No. 80. With metal-cased bullet: 29.3 grains weight of Du Pont military rifle No. 18. Velocity 1593 feet per second. Pressure 26,000 pounds. 22, grains weight of Du Pont military rifle No. 21. Velocity 1390 feet per second. Pressure 19,000 pounds. 28 grains weight of Du Pont military rifle No. 21. Velocity 1690 feet per second. Pressure 36,000 pounds. 29 grains weight of Du Pont military rifle No. 16. Velocity 1594 feet per second. Pressure 18,300 pounds. 32 grains weight of Du Pont military rifle No. 16. Velocity 1700 feet per second. 35 grains weight of Du Pont military rifle No. 16. Velocity 1899 feet per second. Pressure 38,760 pounds. This charge should be weighed on scales, and not measured. It will require a little compression of the pow- der to seat the bullet. Ideal gas-check bullet No. 375296, cast of Ideal bullet metal No. 2, or of 1 part of tin to 10 parts of lead, and sized to .380 inch may be used with about 25 grains of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 21, and a very satisfactory load secured for target practice. The .38-55 cartridge is a very satisfactory one for deer and black bear. It has just about the right power to kill deer neatly without ruining a lot of meat, as many high-power cartridges do. It has often been used for larger game, but is a little light. At one time it was very popular among the guides of the State of Maine, and much used on moose, but several years' experience proved that it was not powerful enough for this game, although it did good work on caribou. This cartridge has long had a big reputation as a very accurate Schuetzen cartridge, the bullet being seated in the bore ahead of the shell, and with the shell full of black or semi-smokeless powder. The bullet used is almost always considerably heavier than the standard bullet for fixed ammunition, sometimes weighing as much as 330 grains. With commercial barrels the best results are now obtained from Ideal bullet No. 375272. The barrel must be throated to take this bullet, 274 THE AMERICAN RIFLE and when so changed cannot be used for other loads, but the results as far as accuracy is concerned makes it fully worth while. This bullet has two large base bands measuring .382 inch, and it cannot be seated in the barrel ahead of the shell unless the bore just in front of the chamber be throated to receive it. The bullet should be cast of 1 part of tin to 15 parts of lead, and not sized. It is to be seated about %2 inch ahead of the shell with the strong Ideal bullet seater. The shell should be rilled almost to the top with Du Pont Schuetzen powder, and a blotting-paper wad seated over the powder to retain it in the shell. Use shells that have already been expanded to fit the particular rifle by firing several times in that rifle. In good barrels this load is good for about 3- to 3%-inch groups at 200 yards, and is much less influenced by the wind than • any other Schuetzen loads usually used. The recoil is very light, about like that of the .32-40 black-powder cartridge. .4OI WINCHESTER SELF-LOADING CARTRIDGE L—LIJI1LL J1J1I J J JJ '' S F T P CJ NX 2Q Q G R.L^^ SOFT POINT 2 50 GR.JH This is a smokeless, high-power cartridge adapted to the Winchester self-loading rifle, Model of 1910. It is regularly loaded with two weights of bullet, 200 and 250 grains. The following are the ballistic data for these two loads: Weight of bullet Muzzle velocity Velocity at 100 yards Velocity at 200 yards Velocity at 300 yards Muzzle energy Energy at 100 yards Energy at 200 yards Energy at 300 yards 100 yards trajectory, height at 50 yards. . . . 200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards. . . . 300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards. . . . Penetration, soft point bullet, %-inch boards Penetration, full patch bullet, %-inch boards Standard pressure, pounds per square inch. 200 250 2,141 1,875 1,721 1,543 1,372 L275 1,132 1,097 2,037 1,952 1,31s 1,323 840 900 560 675 1. 01 1.49 6.47 7-34 17.06 20.36 14 12 r 34 27 J 37.000 37,000 1 t0 to I 39,000 39,000 grains feet per second feet per second feet per second feet per second foot pounds foot pounds foot pounds foot pounds inches inches inches boards boards This is not a particularly accurate cartridge, but it has sufficient accuracy for the purpose for which it was designed, namely for a quick kill at short range. Neither of the loads is accurate enough, CARTRIDGES 275 even for large game shooting, at ranges much over 150 yards. It, and the rifle for which it is adapted, are, however, excellent for deer shooting in thick timber and jungle. With the auto-loading rifle a number of shots can be fired very quickly, and the cartridge is a very deadly one, giving quick kills at short range, or else a big blood trail to follow. This cartridge is often compared to the .30-40 (Krag) cartridge to show its power. It has more power at the muzzle than the .30-40 cartridge, but at all other ranges it is decidedly inferior to the latter cartridge as the following table will show. It must be remembered that game is not killed at the muzzle. Also the long, heavy, .30-40 bullet is much more of a bone smasher than the short, large-diameter bullet of the .401 cartridge. Nevertheless the .401 bullet has plenty of destructive force for deer, and plenty of bone smashing power, and is probably a superior bullet for deer at short range to the .30-40-200 grain bullet, as it will cause much more blood to flow, and consequently a plainer trail to follow, if the deer be only wounded. Muzzle velocity .... Velocity at 100 yards Velocity at 200 yards Velocity at 300 yards Muzzle energy Energy at 100 yards . Energy at 200 yards . Energy at 300 yards . .401 A. L. .30-40 2,141 2,000 I 1,721 1,783 1.372 1,590 1,132 I,4lS 2.037 1,970 I.3I5 1.553 840 1,235 560 985 feet feet feet feet foot foot foot foot per second per second per second per second pounds pounds pounds pounds .405 WINCHESTER CENTER-FIRE CARTRIDGE This is the most powerful cartridge adapted to any American rifle. The only rifle made for it is the Model 1895 Winchester repeater. The following table gives the ballistic data for this cartridge: Muzzle velocity 2,204 feet per second Velocity at 100 yards 1,897 feet per second Velocity at 200 yards 1,623 feet per second Velocity at 300 yards 1,384 feet per second Muzzle energy 3,236 foot pounds Energy at 100 yards 2,399 foot pounds Energy at 200 yards i,740 foot pounds Energy' at 300 yards 1,290 foot pounds 100 yards trajectory, height at 50 yards 1.04 inches 200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards 4.85 inches 300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards 12.82 inches 276 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Penetration, soft point bullet, "Much boards.... 13 boards Penetration, full patch bullet, %-inch boards.... 48 boards Bullet, soft point or full patch 300 grains Diameter of bullet 41 J hich Groove diameter of barrel, about 412 inch Twist of rifling, one turn in 14 inches Powder charge. Hercules " W-A. .30 caliber".. 45 grains Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 43,000 to 45,000 In reloading this cartridge with the regular 300-grain, jacketed bullet the following powder charges of the new pyro powders are recommended as giving less erosion, and consequently a longer accuracy life than the regular charge of W-A. .30-caliber powder which is a nitroglycerine powder : 53.4 grains weight of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 20, muzzle velocity 2173 feet per second. Pressure 43,710 pounds per square inch. 55 grains weight of Du Pont improved military rifle powder No. 16, muzzle velocity 2192 feet per second. Pressure 41,420 pounds per square inch. The Ideal Manufacturing Company make bullet No. 412263 weigh- ing 300 grains for this cartridge, and recommend for powder charge 28 grains weight of Du Pont No. 1 smokeless powder. I would also recommend 28 grains of Schuetzen powder. This load will give a velocity of about 1400 feet per second with very low pressure. Quite a different sighting will be required from the full load, and if the rifle is to use the two loads interchangeably it will be necessary to have it equipped with a sight having a large range of adjustment for both elevation and windage like the Lyman Nos. 38 or 41 receiver sights. This cartridge is the best one on the American market for all kinds of large game. It is powerful enough for any American game, and in fact is unnecessarily powerful for deer and such game. It has been used with excellent results on almost all African game but is a little small for rhino, buffalo, etc., and very much too small for elephant. It is the best moose and bear cartridge made in America, but where one is to do very much long-range shooting, particularly at mountain sheep, the .30 Model 1906 cartridge, loaded as suggested wnder the description of that cartridge, is advisable. This cartridge is quite an accurate one. At 200 yards in a good rifle it should group all its shots in a 7-inch circle. The trajectory is quite flat up to 200 yards, but beyond that distance becomes quite curved, owing to the large caliber and the blunt nose of the bullet. It is not a very suitable load for ranges over 200 yards, but inside that range cannot be excelled by any big game cartridge made in America for American rifles. It will kill big game dead with one shot oftener than any cartridge I know of. CARTRIDGES 277 The recoil of this cartridge, in a Winchester rifle is about the same as that of an ordinary 10-gauge shotgun; a little severe to the novice but not at all troublesome to the seasoned shot. .44 WINCHESTER CENTER-FIRE CARTRIDGE This was the first center-fire cartridge produced for a repeating rifle. It was first placed on the market in 1873, being adapted then to the Winchester repeating rifle, Model 1873. This rifle was the first really successful repeating rifle, and immediately become very popular, so much so in fact that it is still being manufactured exactly as it was first put out. This cartridge at once gained an enormous popularity, due almost entirely to the excellent rifle to which it was adapted. The cartridge and rifle are both to a certain extent obsolete today, but are still very popular in out-of-the-way corners of the world, particularly South America. The sportsman of today would hardly choose it for any work, except perhaps should he be called upon to penetrate the South American jungles and wanted an arm of such caliber that he could be assured of getting ammunition for it anywhere. Ballistically considered, there are two types of ammunition loaded in the .44 W. C. F. shell at the present time ; the black-powder type which has low velocity, and which can be obtained loaded either with black or low pressure smokeless ; and the other the high-velocity type, being loaded with smokeless powder and given as high a velocity as is safe with the old type of rifles having ordinary steel barrels. The following are the ballistic data for the black-powder cartridge : Muzzle velocity 1,300 feet per second Velocity at 100 yards 1,034 feet per second Muzzle energy 751 foot pounds Energy at 100 yards 475 foot pounds 100 yard trajectory, height at 50 yards 3.26 inches 200 yard trajectory, height at 100 yards 15.94 inches. Weight of bullet 200 grains. Diameter of bullet ■ 4^4 inch Powder charge, F. F. G. black 40 grains Twist of rifling, one turn in 36 inches Penetration, lead bullet, %-inch pine boards 9 boards Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 13,000 to 15,000 The high velocity cartridge has the following ballistics: Muzzle velocity 1.569 feet per second Velocity at 100 yards 1,202 feet per second 278 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Muzzle energy 1,095 foot pounds Energy at 100 yards 641 foot pounds 100 yard trajectory, height at 50 yards 2.32 inches 200 yard trajectory, height at 100 yards 12.12 inches Penetration, soft point bullet, 7 /s-inch boards 10 boards Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 18,000 to 20,000 At the present time the rifles being manufactured for this cartridge are the Winchester repeating rifle, Model 1873 (for black and low- pressure smokeless only) ; the Winchester repeating rifle, Model 1892; the Winchester single-shot rifle ; the Marlin repeating rifle, Model 1894; and the Remington- U. M. C. slide-action sporting rifle. The cartridge is not a particularly accurate one beyond 150 yards, and is not suitable for shots beyond 200 yards, both on account of its rather poor accuracy and very high trajectory. The low-pressure smokeless, and freshly loaded, black-powder loads will group their shots in about a 4-inch circle at 100 yards, but after 150 yards the accuracy falls off very fast. The high-velocity cartridge is not as ac- curate at any range as the low-power cartridge, but it has much more killing power for short-range work. This cartridge has been used on all kinds of game, but it is really not satisfactory for anything larger than deer and black bear. Owing to its being about the only satisfactory repeater in use during the latter days of the opening of our West, it was much used there and gained the reputation of having zvonnded more game than any other cartridge made. Nevertheless it is a very good deer cartridge for short-range shooting. .45-70 CARTRIDGE This cartridge was first manufactured for the United States Spring- field single-shot rifle which was the arm of the United States Army prior to 1892, when the first model of the Krag-Jorgensen rifle was adapted. It was loaded by the government arsenal with a 500-grain lead bullet and 70 grains of F. G. black powder for the Springfield rifle, and with a 405-grain lead bullet and 55 grains of F. G. black CARTRIDGES 279 powder for the Springfield carbine. At present the Winchester Model 1886 repeating rifle, the Winchester Single-Shot Rifle, and the Marlin Model 1895 repeating rifle are the only arms being manufactured for this cartridge. We have a great variety of loads on the market at the present time for this cartridge as the following list will show : Muzzle Rullet weight Powder velocity, feet per Make second 500 L & J Black and smokeless I20I Will. & U. M. C. 405 L & J Black and smokeless I3I8 Win. & U. M. C. 350 L & J Black and smokeless 1344 Winchester 330 L Black and smokeless I380 Winchester 300 J High velocity smokeless 1888 Win. & U. M. C. 432 J Smokeless 1340 U. M. C. 345 L Black I39O U. M. C. L — Lead bullet. J — Jacketed bullet. The following tables give the ballistics of the United States Govern- ment cartridges loaded with black powder : ELEVATIONS Range, yards Rifl e. Carbine. 500 -grair bullet 405-g ram bullet, 70 grains powder 53 grains powder IOO 17 53 2.2 32 200 31 18 31 23 300 44 58 43 15 400 I 32 58 30 500 I 17 18 I 18 36 600 I 34 30 I 40 12 700 I 52 36 2 03 23 800 2 12 02 2 27 22 900 2 34 36 2 52 52 1000 2 5« 10 3 19 53 These angles of elevation are taken directly from VELOCITY AND ENERGY the arms. Rifle Car jine Range, yards 500-grain bullet 70 grains powde 405-grain bullet 55 grains powder Velocity, feet per second Energy, foot pounds Velocity, feet per second Energy, foot pounds Muzzle L3l6 1,921 1,150 1,189 100 1,172 1,525 I,0l8 930 200 300 1,059 986 1,245 1,079 913 827 749 616 400 500 600 700 800 932 886 844 807 772 965 872 792 723 662 757 697 646 602 564 515 437 376 326 286 900 74i 609 530 253 1000 712 562 1 500 1 225 Note : These velocities were taken with the regular Springfield rifles and 28o THE AMERICAN RIFLE carbines, the rifle having a barrel 32.6 inches long, and the carbine one of 22 inches. The regular rifle cartridge with 500-grain bullet gives a muzzle velocity of 1201 feet per second in a 26-inch sporting rifle barrel. CHAMBER PRESSURE The chamber pressure with the rifle, and the 500 grain bullet, 70 grains of black powder, is about 25,000 pounds per square inch. ORDINATES OF TRAJECTORY ABOVE LINE IF SIGHT-RIFLE Ss-p Height in feet at N 0) 100 ->00 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 ^ a yards yards yards yards yards yards yards yards yards yards Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet 200 I.I O 300 2-3 2.4 400 3-7 S.i 4.1 500 s.i 7.9 8.4 57 O 600 6.6 10.9 13-0 11.9 7.0 O 700 8.1 1 4.1 17.6 18.3 154 9-4 O 800 9.8 17.4 22.6 247 23.9 I9.6 1 1.9 O 900 11.6 21.0 28.2 32.3 33-5 31.2 25-5 15-5 O 1000 13-5 24.8 34-0 40.3 43-4 43-4 39-8 32.1 l8.5 The following are the ballistic data given by the Winchester Repeat- ing Arms Company for their black and low-pressure smokeless cart- ridges in Winchester rifles having a barrel length of 26 inches : Weight of bullet Muzzle velocity Velocity at 100 yards Muzzle energy Energy at 100 yards 100 yard trajectory, height at 50 yards 200 yard trajectory, height at 100 yards 300 yard trajectory, height at 150 yards __. Penetration, lead bullet, %-inch boards Diameter of bullet Groove diameter of barrel, about Twist of rifling, one turn in .... Powder charge, F. G. black 500 1,201 1,082 1,602 I.3I7 405 L3i8 LU3 1.562 1,176 350 1,343 1,139 1,403 1,009 330 1,380 IJ55 1,396 974 3-35 2.90 2.86 2-75 14.82 13.27 14.96 I3-05 36.12 33-55 34-32 3378 18 •456 •457 20 13 •456 •457 20 13 456 •457 20 10 .456. •457 20 70 70 70 70 grams feet per second feet per second foot pounds foot pounds inches inches inches boards inch inch inches grains Note : The twist of rifling in the Springfield rifle is one turn in 22 inches. The following are the ballistic data for the Winchester high-velocity cartridge : Muzzle velocity 1,888 feet per second Velocity at 100 yards 1,539 feet per second Muzzle energy 2,375 xo °t pounds Energy at 100 yards 1-579 foot pounds 100 yard trajectory, height at 50 yards 1.47 inches 200 yard trajectory, height at 100 yards 7.40 inches CARTRIDGES 281 Penetration, %-inch pine boards 13 boards Bullet, soft point jacketed 300 grains Diameter of bullet 456 inch Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 23,000 to 25,000 ACCURACY Under good conditions, with freshly loaded ammunition, the .45-70- 500 and .45-70-405 cartridges will group their shots in about a 5-inch circle at 200 yards, and in about an 18-inch circle at 500 yards. The .45-70-350 and the .45-70-330 Gould hollow-point cartridges will group their shots in about an 8-inch circle at 200 yards. The Win- chester high-velocity cartridge will group its shots in about an 8-inch circle at 200 yards, but its accuracy falls off very quickly after passing 200 yards; it being essentially a short-range cartridge where great power is desired, and flat trajectory over 200 yards. In killing power on game the high-velocity cartridge will be found best for broadside shots on most game, but taking it all around, game in all positions, the cartridges loaded with 500- and 405-grain bullets are much the best killing loads. These last cartridges are powerful enough for all American game, and the high-velocity cartridge for all game except moose and large bear. This is an excellent cartridge for big game shooting where long shots are not expected. It combines power, accuracy, and a practically un- limited accuracy life. The recoil is rather severe to the novice, but nothing to speak of to the seasoned shot. This cartridge can be re- loaded to give greatly increased power, but caution is needed in so re- loading it, as there are in use many rifles for this cartridge that have been fired many thousands of rounds, and in which the breech bolt does not breech up as tightly as it should. The following load will be found to be exceedingly powerful, but it should only be used in new rifles, or rifles in first-class condition, and the powder charge should be weighed and not measured. Use the Winchester 405-grain, soft- point, jacketed bullet. The powder charge should be 50 grains weight of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 20. This load will give a velocity of about 1700 feet per second, and a chamber pressure of about 32,- 000 pounds per square inch. Forty-four grains' weight of this powder with the same bullet gives a velocity of 1490 feet per second at a testing range of 50 feet, and a breech pressure of 22,000 pounds per square inch and is a very good load. The best reduced load that I know of for short range and gallery work is the 405-grain lead bullet, cast of 1 part of tin to 25 of lead, and 35 grains bulk of Hazards F. G. black 282 THE AMERICAN RIFLE powder. This load is very good up to ioo yards, and was much used in gallery work by the New York National Guard prior to the Spanish- American War. .45-90 WINCHESTER CENTER-FIRE CARTRIDGE This cartridge is adapted to the Winchester Model 1886 repeating rifle, the Winchester single-shot rifle, and the Marlin Model 1895 re- peating rifle. It is very similar to the .45-70 cartridge, being slightly longer, and containing 20 grains more powder. Two types of cart- ridges are loaded by the ammunition factories. One with black or low-pressure smokeless powder, and the other a high-velocity car- tridge : The following table gives the ballistic data for these car- tridges : Black and High smoke- velocity less i,S32 1,992 feet per second 1,248 1,621 feet per second 1,563 2,644 foot pounds i,037 1,752 foot pounds 2.28 1. 41 inches 11.24 6.63 inches 13 — boards 15 14 boards 300 300 grains 456 .456 inch •457 .457 inch 32 2,2. inches 90 — grains Muzzle velocity Velocity at 100 yards Muzzle energy Energy at 100 yards 100 yard trajectory, height at 50 yards 200 yard trajectory, height at 100 yards .... Penetration, lead bullet, %-inch boards Penetration, soft point bullet, %-inch boards Weight of bullet, lead or jacketed Diameter of bullet Groove diameter of barrel, about Twist of rifling, one turn in Powder charge, F. G. black powder This cartridge can also be reloaded with the following powder charges and bullets to give superior ballistics : Bullet, weight Charge, Velocity, Pressure, Powder grains feet per pounds per weight second square inch 300 M. P. Du Pont Military No. 20 57 1,996 30,880 350 M. P. " No. 20 53-5 1,851 28,100 405 M. P. . No. 20 52.3 I,/84 28,650 300 M. P. ' Sporting No. 80 31.2 I,6oo* low 300 M. P. " " Imp. Mil. No. 16 68 2,325 35,000* * Estimated The last listed load gives great killing power, but is not as accurate as the others, particularly at ranges over 150 yards. It must be re- CARTRIDGES 283 membered that the faster one speeds up a short, blunt pointed bullet like the 45-caliber 300 grain, the poorer the accuracy will be. Such bullets are really not accurate except at very low velocities. The regular .45-90 cartridge gives good accuracy up to 100 yards, and fair accuracy up to 200 yards. At 200 yards, good ammunition in a good rifle should keep all shots in about a 10-inch circle. The high-velocity cartridge will not do quite as well as this at 200 yards, but at 100 yards there is practically no difference between the two. This is an excellent cartridge for all but the very largest game at ranges up to 200 yards. It used to be a very popular big game car- tridge, but of late years has had to give away to the small-bore, high- velocity arms. CHAPTER XII MODERN RIFLE POWDERS * HISTORICAL GUNPOWDER has been known by the inhabitants of China and India almost since prehistoric times. We find reference to it in some works compiled before the Christian era. It was not until about the year 1320 that it became generally known in Central Europe. As far as known there was very little difference between these early pow- ders and our black powder as we know it today. All were a mechani- cal mixture of sulphur, saltpeter, and charcoal. There has been com- paratively little development in black powder during the past century, except as to the refinement, methods of manufacture, and granulation. As has been stated in Chapter I, the first successful smokeless pow- der was that invented by Schultze, and made almost entirely from gun- cotton. It was applied almost exclusively to shotguns, but some rather unsuccessful experiments with rifles of low velocity were made with it. The shotgun presented an easier problem than the rifle, and this is the reason why a shotgun powder was the first successful one. In the case of the shotgun the type of projectile used is a limitation which stands hopelessly in the way of attainment of higher velocity, and con- sequent increase of range. The rifle presents a problem in which the attainment of higher velocity is not limited by the form of the projectile. Accuracy is attained by the use of a single projectile fitted exactly to the barrel, and high velocity is possible because the form of that projectile is not limited to a sphere. The forerunner of the rifle, the smooth-bore gun, was used with a round bullet, and the velocity obtainable was limited by the air resistance to the surface of a sphere. Upon the development of the rifle it was quickly found that a cylindrical bullet could be used, which overcame the resistance of the air much better than the sphere. Then came a contest for high velocity between rifle and powder manufacturers to produce a rifle strong 1 The author desires to acknowledge the great assistance rendered by E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Company in the preparation of this chapter. 284 MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 285 Fig. 73 Schr.ltze shotgun powder. The first successful smokeless powder. 400 times actual size enough to withstand the pressure developed by powder sufficiently powerful to give a velocity which would meet demands created by the possibilities which people foresaw. Air resistance was cut down by making the diameter of the bullet smaller and smaller, and weight was increased by making the bullet longer, thus having the air resist- ance applied to the smallest possible area and putting all the mass pos- sible behind it, in which mass energy is stored, having been imparted to it by means of the powder. It was not long before the black-powder manufacturer reached the limit of development in the contest. This powder, by its nature, is 286 THE AMERICAN RIFLE capable only of a moderate amount of improvement. It gives a relative small quantity of gas in proportion to its volume. If the high velocity now obtainable with modern powders were attempted with black pow- der, the volume of the shell would have to be nearly three times as great as it now is. This would make a clumsy cartridge to handle, and the parts making up the breech mechanism of the rifle would have to be correspondingly enlarged so that the result would be a monstrosity. Also black powder leaves a heavy residue in the bore. With the best of conditions this residue causes a slight falling off of accuracy after from five to fifty shots have been fired from the rifle without cleaning, and when it was attempted to increase velocity by decreasing the caliber, lengthening the bullet, and increasing the powder charge, the increase in the residue was so great as to destroy the accuracy unless the bore was cleaned after every shot. Military requirements have always played an important part in the development of the rifle, and its cartridge, and besides high velocity, and consequent low trajectory, the military requirements have always demanded a powder which shall give forth as little smoke as possible both in order that the exact position of the firing troops shall not at once be disclosed to their enemy, and also that there be not a large cloud of smoke in front of the firing line to interfere with, or totally obscure, the aim at the hostile target. The latter requirement also has its importance from a sporting stand- point. It has been stated that the first successful smokeless powder was for shotguns. Control of rate of burning of guncotton was not mastered for some years after the first shotgun powder appeared. The quick burning and low pressure required made the main factors of the prob- lem an easy one for shotguns, but when the knowledge thus far gained was applied to military rifles immediate success was not forthcoming. Control of nitration, colloiding, ignition, and hygroscopic qualities were not understood as they are now, and the result was that early smoke- less powders applied to rifles were far from satisfactory. These early powders were, of course, made to suit the requirements of black- powder rifles, and these, on account of their design, must be operated at very low pressure. The art of smokeless powder manufacture reached a critical point in its development when Vieille, in 1886, per- ceived how important was the use of solvents. For the first time nitrocellulose was completely gelatinized, and made into squares. This was the first military powder. It was soon followed by ballistite, in- vented by Sir Alfred Nobel, then by cordite, invented by Sir Frederic MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 287 Fig. 74 Ballistite powder. 400 times actual size Abel. Both of these powders contained nitroglycerine. No attempt was made to obtain progressive burning by using a perforated powder until experiments in the manufacture of a perforated grain were begun independently, but almost simultaneously, by Francis G. du Pont and Colonel Whistler. The next development in smokeless powder was the improvement of the grain. If a solid form of grain is ignited, like the grains of black powder or any grain without perforation, the burning surface begins to decrease immediately after ignition. As the grain burns it gets smaller and smaller, and as a consequence there is a decrease in the 288 THE AMERICAN RIFLE evolution of gas. This decrease comes at a very inconvenient time, just when the projectile is getting up speed, and needs all the push behind it that it can get. Suppose, however, we make our powder grains in the form of short cylinders, and through the center of each cylinder make a small hole or perforation. When a grain of this form burns, the interior surface, inside the perforation, begins to increase immediately upon ignition, and continues to do so with an increasing production of gas until this surface meets the steadily decreasing ex- terior surface of the grain, at which time the grain is consumed. With such a grain the increase in the interior burning surface and the decrease in the exterior burning surface about balance each other, thus there is a steady maintenance of gas production until the grain is completely consumed. Such powder is called " regular burning pow- der." With regular burning powder the pressure begins to fall off as the projectile starts forward in its passage through the barrel, because the space the powder has to burn in is steadily increasing. This condition is not ideal. What we want is a steadily increasing push up to the point where the bullet leaves the muzzle in order to increase velocity, as with the regular burning powder the velocity is limited by the permissible pressure exerted by the gases at their maximum pressure, that is the breech pressure. It will be evident that if we take a cylindrical grain and increase the number of holes or perforations through it we will soon arrive at that point where the interior burning surface will increase faster than the exterior burning surface decreases. In other words, our grain will constantly throw off more and more gas until it is completely consumed, that is it burns "progressively." This principle was applied to early smokeless powders for cannon, finally ending in a grain with nineteen perforations. This final form of grain, however, was abandoned because it was too progressive, and the pressure at the muzzle too high. In the case of cannon, weight at the muzzle to strengthen it to meet the pressure at this point is objectionable, also vibrations are set up, coincident with high muzzle pressure, that cause bursting of the gun even though, seemingly, the pressure is not great enough to cause disaster. Now the manufacture of smokeless powder for rifles is limited to a grain of cylindrical form having a single perforation, because a grain having more than one perforation would be so large that accuracy in measuring charges by machinery, and a required variation of the powder charge for various rifles, would be impossible. This limita- MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 289 tion has caused our powdermakers to look elsewhere than towards the form of grain alone for obtaining the progressive burning qualities so earnestly sought. It was then found that by coating the grain of ordinary powder with another powder of slightly different composi- tion it was possible to cause the grain to burn slowly while the coating was being consumed, in other words, to burn progressively. This started the bullet on its way with a gentle push, and thus avoided the shock caused by the ignition of regular burning powder at high pres- sure. Any rifle is capable of being operated at a certain pressure, tak- ing into consideration a reasonable safety factor. Let us suppose that the permissible working pressure is 50,000 pounds per square inch, and that with this pressure, and regular burning powder, a muzzle velocity of 2700 feet per second is attained. When we come to use a progressive, or coated, powder in this arm we find that owing to the sustained push throughout the length of the bore we are able to get this 2700 feet per second velocity with a breech pressure of only 45,000 pounds. Our rifle will stand 50.000 pounds working pressure, there- fore we are able to use more of the progressive burning powder, and when we use enough of this powder to give 50,000 pounds pressure we find our velocity has increased to about 3000 feet per second. This progressive burning powder marks the latest development in modern rifle powders, the first successful powder of this type having appeared in 1914. While these powders have considerably increased the ballis- tic efficiency of existing rifles, the full advantage of them will not be realized until they are applied to a rifle and cartridge expressly de- signed to obtain the maximum advantage from them. In this respect the .30 Newton cartridge would seem to be a step in the right direction. It is difficult to ascertain just where the first idea of coating powder to make it burn progressively originated. The first experiments that showed any positive indication of success were performed in 1901 by Dr. William J. Williams, chemist for the Ordnance Department, United States Army, and by J. C. Carr, ballistic engineer at Frankford Arsenal. The work was brought to the attention of Francis G. du Pont, who ex- amined samples of powder treated by Dr. Williams, and decided that the improvement had little value. Again the attention of the Du Pont Company was called to it in subsequent years, and finally in 1905 some samples were very carefully prepared and tested in comparison with ordinary powder at two different ballistic stations by different opera- tors. The result indicated little advantage. Not many years after this it became known that a progressive powder was manufactured in 290 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Germany, and the advantage that this powder had was apparently that a higher velocity was obtained with a pressure that was not ex- cessive. The lack of success in the perfection of a progressive powder in this country was due to the fact that the military rifle, in which all experiments were carried on, used a nitroglycerine powder, and the process invented by Dr. Williams did not adapt itself with advantage to this type of powder. In subsequent years experiments were taken up independently of the Du Pont Company with the advantage of all the information that could be obtained on the manufacture of progressive powders. The series of powders now in use were brought out, and their superiority is due to the care taken in their gradual development, the result of years of experience, and the adoption of only the best in- ventions and suggestions. MANUFACTURE OF MODERN POWDERS The different types of smokeless powder having been carried through their development, it will be of interest to the riflemen to learn something about their manufacture. Few manufacturing processes differ more widely than black and smokeless powder. The former is chiefly mechanical ; that is, being assured of the purity of the in- gredients all that remains is to put them together properly, and in a day or two the finished product is ready for use. In fact in the olden times the ingredients of black powder were carried separately by armies, and the powder mixed on the battlefield. The manufacture of smokeless powder, however, from the beginning to the turning out of the finished product, requires at least three weeks. It is a chemical process throughout, and laboratory control is necessary at every stage. Smokeless powder used by various governments, and for sporting purposes, is of two kinds, sometimes classified as " single-base " pow- ders, and " double-base " powders. Single-base powders are made from straight nitrocellulose without the admixture of any other in- gredient except a small amount of some stabilizing material. Double- base powders are made from a mixture of nitrocellulose and nitro- glycerine. The principal governments using single-base powders are the United States, France, and Russia, while those using double base powders are England, Italy, and Spain. The powder used by the United States Army and Navy is a pure nitrocellulose powder, to which is added 0.5 per cent, of diphenylamine as a stabilizing agent, and the grains are coated with graphite. Nitro- cellulose is a material obtained by treating cellulose in a mixture of MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 291 nitrie and sulphuric acids. It is frequently referred to as guncotton, collodion cotton, soluble cotton, etc. Our own nitrocellulose has a nitrogen content of between 12.50 per cent, and 12.70 per cent., which is not less than 95 per cent, soluble in a mixture of two parts of ether and one of ethyl alcohol. It is common to refer to this grade of nitrocellulose as " pyro," which has a definite meaning to powder manu- facturers in the United States. Guncotton, strictly speaking, has ref- erence to a particular form of nitrocellulose of higher nitration, usually between 13 per cent, and 13.40 per cent., which is only slightly soluble in the mixture of ether and ethyl alcohol. At most powder mills the construction of smokeless powder begins with the manufacture of nitric and sulphuric acid, and with the purifica- tion of crude cotton fiber of the grade called " linters." To purify the cotton it is heated for several hours in a caustic soda solution. The purification of this and the acids requires an immense amount of laboratory work. After manufacture, the nitric and sulphuric acids are mixed, and the mixture checked by chemical analysis. The mixture is maintained at an even temperature, and the cotton in a dry state is immersed in it. This is done by machinery, and is called " nitrating." The cotton is changed into nitrate of cellulose, or " nitrocellulose," and water by the action of the nitric acid. The sulphuric acid present ab- sorbs the water formed, and prevents it from causing hydrolysis which would otherwise result. The nitrocellulose is then placed in a centrif- ugal wringer, and as much of the acid extracted as possible. This acid has been considerably weakened by the giving up of combined nitro- gen, and the taking on of water, but it can be fortified by the ad- mixture of strong nitric and sulphuric acids in the proper proportions and used again. The nitrocellulose taken from the wringer, and con- taining a considerable quantity of acid, is immersed in water immedi- ately, otherwise it would soon catch fire spontaneously. Nitrocellulose of various strengths is made by changing the strength of the acid mix- ture. Chemical analysis of the acids is constantly made to make sure that the desired grade of nitrocellulose is being turned out. This nitro- cellulose in water is transported in wooden tubs in which it is boiled for forty-eight hours to set it free from acid. It is necessary to keep the water in an acid condition, but not too strongly so, for a portion of the time, consequently frequent chemical tests must be resorted to. When boiling is complete the nitrocellulose is reduced to pulp by machinery similar to that used in a paper mill, and the laboratory is again called upon to determine the fineness of the pulping. Proper regulation of 292 THE AMERICAN RIFLE the pulping has an important bearing upon the quality of the finished powder. When the pulping is complete the product is transferred to " poachers," or large tubs, where a further boiling treatment, with agitation, is given to set free any acid which was imprisoned inside the individual fibers. The nitrocellulose is boiled six times for periods of five hours each, and the water changed each time. Then it is washed ten times, the water being changed each time, after which a complete set of chemical tests is made upon each lot to determine its content of nitrogen, solubility, viscosity, stability, and per cent, of ash. Having passed the prescribed tests, it is ready to be made into powder. There are three different kinds of powder, single-base bulk, nitro- glycerine or double base, and single-base dense. Bulk potvder manufacture. The wet nitrocellulose is placed in a still fitted with an agitator, and containing a solution of barium and potas- sium nitrates. While the mass is being stirred, a solvent consisting of a mixture of amyl acetate, benzol, and paraffin oil is introduced. This solvent, being insoluble in water, separates- into globules. Each globule dissolves a certain amount of nitrocellulose, and by reason of the agitation they retain their separation. Heat is applied to the still, and the solvent is boiled off, leaving hard grains of nitrocellulose. Grinding, sieving, drying, seasoning, blending, and packing follow in the order given. The chemical laboratory controls the entire operation with tests to determine the strength of solutions, proportions of in- gredients, amount of volatiles left in the powder, amount of ash, and many other features on which the reliability of the finished product depends. This process is original with the Du Pont works, and was invented by Francis G. du Pont. It is the same process by which Du Pont shotgun powder is made. Nitroglycerine powder. Wet nitrocellulose is set free from water by forcing alcohol through it, displacing the water. This is done in a hydraulic press, and the nitrocellulose, soaked in alcohol, is squeezed until there is left in it only a small quantity of alcohol. This process was also invented by Francis G. du Pont, and is called " dehydration." Previous to this invention it was necessary to dry all the nitrocellulose — an exceedingly dangerous undertaking, and one which had many fatal consequences. The nitrocellulose containing alcohol is placed in a mixing machine. Nitroglycerine and acetone are mixed with it, the operation being, of course, a dangerous one. Then it is placed in a hydraulic press and made to pass through dies which give to it the form of tubes or perforated cylinders. These tubes are cut into slices MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 293 or short lengths, and as a result, grains are produced cylindrical in form with a central perforation. The length of cut, the diameter of the tube, and the diameter of the perforation are changed in accord- ance with the use to which the powder is to be put, the principle being approximately as follows: A powder for the .45-90 Winchester cartridge must burn quickly, therefore the cut is very short and the perforation large. A powder for the United States rifle, Model of 1903, must be slower burning, therefore the grain is as long as possible, the length being limited by the difficulty encountered in loading ac- curate charges into the cartridge shells by machinery. The diameter of such grains is small and the perforation exceedingly small. Drying, sieving, blending, and packing follow in the order given, the entire group of operations being controlled by the chemical and ballistic labratories. Nitrocellulose powders. These are also known as " single-base dense rifle powders." The process of manufacture of these powders is simi- lar to that of nitroglycerine powders as far as dehydration. After this the alcohol-bearing nitrocellulose is sieved, placed in a mixer, and ether, diphenylamine, and graphite are added. Diphenylamine is a compound which insures chemical stability. Its introduction in 1908 was an im- portant step in the improvement of all kinds of smokeless powders. When the mixing is complete the mass is transferred to a hydraulic press, and compacted into a cylinder about 12 inches in diameter and 18 inches long. Several cylinders are placed in a finishing press by means of which the powder is pressed through dies as described for nitroglycerine powders, only the average size of the tubes are much smaller than the nitroglycerine powders. The strings or tubes of powder, as they come out of the dies, are fed into a machine which cuts them accurately into grains having a uniform length. The granu- lated powder is placed in an apparatus called " solvent recovery " where the ether contained in it is volatilized by a current of warm air, then condensed. By this means an important economy in the use of ether is effected, as well as control of the shrinkage of the powder which has an important bearing on its quality. This solvent recovery process was also the invention of Francis G. du Pont. All of the ether neces- sary to be extracted cannot economically be taken out by the solvent recovery, however, and the powder has to be placed in warm water and kept there for about a week. This process is called " water dry- ing." Then the powder is dried by a current of warm air, glazed, sieved, blanded, and packed. Chemical control exerts a most important 294 THE AMERICAN RIFLE influence throughout the manufacture of this kind of powder. The amount of solvent left in the powder after solvent recovery and water drying treatment has to be ascertained, and many other properties must be controlled and watched. Progressive powders. The process is the same as for the powder just described, except that the coating material is made to adhere to the grain before glazing. We have; as a result, a grain made of pure nitrocellulose, coated and partly impregnated with a layer of slow-burning material, and imposed upon this a thin layer of graphite. The progressive properties of the powder can be controlled by changes in the size of grain, and changes in the thickness of coating. The rate of burning of this coating material likewise has an important influence upon the progressive features of the powder, and is being given close study. There is probably room for further improvement in this type of powder, and it may be that within a few years a combination of rifle and powder will be developed in which the velocity will be much higher than anything heretofore attained. THE COMBUSTION OF MODERN POWDERS In considering the combustion of modern powders we must first de- fine what an explosion is. A good definition for the word " explosion " is " the transformation of a solid into gases in a limited time." Powder is said to " burn," speaking technically, and if we use that term the process may be easier understood. When a stick of oak wood burns in a stove it undergoes the same process in a slow manner. If the stick be pine it burns somewhat faster. If, again, the same amount of wood be put in the stove in the form of fine, dry shavings it burns in still less time. The latter, though a long way off from it, is most like the form of burning which in powder is popularly called " exploding." Now the big difference between black and smokeless powder is in the speed of their burning. So far as its composition goes, black pow- der has only one speed, the speed of its burning being controlled, not by composition, but by the size of the grain. In the open air, or tightly packed behind a bullet, ignited by a white hot flame, or a red hot poker, or by a primer flash, it burns just the same — that is, it explodes. Of course there is some variation in its burning, due to fine or coarse granulation and shape of grains, but this is not important here. Smokeless powder has two speeds of burning, if we classify its com- bustion roughly. When ignited in the open air, as when on a board, it burns slowly, — much slower than black powder — and more feebly. MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 295 In an enclosed shell, behind a bullet, and when its own expanding gases subject it to a certain pressure that the powder manufacturers know within a few pounds, it burns at a much faster rate. This is faster by far than the one speed of black powder, and is the burning popularly known as " exploding." At the end of this chapter I will describe twenty or more different modern powders. Nearly all of the twenty are necessary. Few could be dropped without a loss in accuracy, power, or other shooting quali- ties in certain cartridges. To state the matter in another way, differ- ent cartridges, barrels, bullets, and purposes require different powders. In the old black powder days of rifle shooting, which roughly may be denned as the period for a hundred years before 1885, the idea was to get an explosive — any explosive — and then to use that explosive in ways that might be devised. At the present time the idea is to secure an explosive that will fit the conditions of rifle and work under which it must be used. From the explosive ingredients, already named under the manufacture of powder, can be produced, within limits, any result desired. Thus it is no impossibility to manufacture a powder so easily fired that it is dangerous to handle, and so violent in action that it bursts the rifle barrel, while little more than expelling the bullet from the barrel. On the other hand, mixtures can be concocted which pos- sess no more capacity than black powder, and that are harder to ignite. The successful modern rifle powder must conform in nature and action to upwards of a dozen major specifications. The influence of the rifle, primer, and the bullet on the combustion of the powder must be understood before an intelligent selection can be made of a powder for any particular rifle and purpose. Briefly, the burning of a charge of smokeless powder should be completed by the time the bullet reaches the muzzle of the barrel. To accomplish this seemingly simple result, however, the powder must meet at least five conditions. First, each cartridge or load is intended to give a certain velocity to the bullet. To drive the particular bullet at the required speed requires a certain push or pressure, therefore the powder must burn uniformly, safely, and otherwise satisfactorily at this pressure. Second, only a certain limited period of time is available for the burning process, and this time is determined by the velocity of the bullet in the barrel, and by the length of the barrel. Thus the .30-40 Krag cartridge with 220-grain bullet at a standard muzzle velocity of 2000 feet per second from a 30-inch barrel gives a much longer burn- ing period than the same cartridge loaded with 150- or 170-grain bullets 296 THE AMERICAN RIFLE at 2300 to 2600 feet and fired from a 24-inch barrel, hence one reason why the latter load should use a different powder from the former. Third, the powder must burn correctly, neither too slowly, too quickly, nor too violently, in the particular combustion chamber. A .45-70 or even a .32-40 shell, for example, presents a totally different problem from a .22 high-power shell. In the former the burning pow- der drives sraight away from the primer, while in the latter some of the hot, expanding gas is caused by the abrupt bottle neck to curve or churn back into itself, and into any powder not yet burning, with the result that the combustion is hastened and intensified. Fourth, the powder must ignite freely from the flame of suitable primers, and every grain must begin to burn, those in the front end of the charge as well as those in rear. Smokeless powder is harder to ignite than black powder, hence special primers are employed. It will be noticed that certain primers in the manufacturers' lists are marked " for smokeless powder " and these only should be used with this kind of powder. Even at that one or two of the earlier powders ignited so slowly that target shooters sometimes assisted the primers by loading in the bottom of the shell a few grains of black powder or other easily ignited powder. Yet smokeless powders are so sensitive to igni- tion that the hot flash of an inordinately strong primer runs the pres- sures up excessively. Fifth, the powder must ignite properly in the amount required for the charge. For example, the very small charge required in a .22 rim- fire, or .2)2 center-fire cartridge can be penetrated easily by the primer flash, or ignited throughout by self-generated heat without delay, but the large, long charge of a .45-70 or .30-1906 cartridge is harder to fire evenly and quickly. Even more important, the powder used in the small charge, if ignited in large amounts, flashes too quickly, and generates too much heat and pressure, while the correct powder for the large charge, in its own shell, fails to ignite or to burn completely when used in too small amounts. Summed up, these five factors taken together require that the powder ignite properly, and burn at the right pressure while developing the required velocity under the particular conditions of each rifle and car- tridge. When it burns at a higher or lower pressure a train of evil results follow, including unevenness, inaccuracy, lower velocity, metal fouling, and sometimes positive danger. Some of the first smokeless powders on the market, as for instance Hercules W. A., were designed for use in particular rifles and cartridges. When attempts were made MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 297 to use' them in other cartridges they failed to give satisfaction. An example of this was the effort to use W. A. powder made for the .30-40-220 Krag cartridge in the .30-caliber Model 1906 cartridge which resulted poorly. A good cartridge came near being condemned because of the unsuitable powder used in it at the start. Until very recently numerous hunting cartridges were on the market which were inferior in one or more respects for the same reason, although they had much merit in design. FACTORS THAT CONTROL PRESSURE Various means are available for controlling the pressure at which the powder burns in the shell. Some of them are through the rifle and manner of loading, as by the amount of powder taken for the charge. As the charge is increased the pressure builds up faster than the proportionate weight. When heavy charges are used in such a way as to give pressures near the maximum limit for that powder or rifle, one or two grains more may cause a variation in several thousand pounds in the pressure generated. The influence of the shape of the combustion chamber on the burning of the powder, already mentioned, extends of course, to the pressures generated. To illustrate, the powder capacities of the .22 high- power shell, and the .401 Winchester self-loading shell are about the same, but each of necessity uses its own type of smokeless powder. If the charges be switched, the .401 bullet will be given but little velocity and the rifle action will fail to function, while the .22 high-power car- tridge will give dangerous pressure. In the straight shell of the .401 the powder that is correct for the .22 high-power, fails to burn com- pletely, while in the severely bottle-necked shell of the .22 high-power the powder correct for the .401 churns its gases to enormous pres- sure. This example is extreme, and the above are two cartridges in which the powder cannot be exchanged at all. There are many other cartridges less radically different in which the shell shape clearly indi- cates the use of certain powders for best results, but in w r hich other powders can be used with fair satisfaction. The resistance of the bullet is another factor in controlling the pressure. A bullet that offers little resistance permits a powder charge to burn behind it with the minimum of pressure, while one that offers more resistance will cause the same powder charge to de- velop much higher pressure. Years ago when the first dense smoke- less powders were placed on the market the .45-70 cartridge was loaded 298 THE AMERICAN RIFLE with a certain one. The results were good when the' shell was heavily crimped, thus confining the powder gases in the shell until the combustion was more or less advanced. But this powder would give practically no velocity at all when the bullet was not tightly crimped, although the primer flash was strong enough to shove the bullet an inch or two into the barrel. Bullet resistance, in addition to crimp of shell, depends upon its weight, and on the friction developed in the barrel. The latter in turn depends upon the hardness of the alloy of which it is made, or the hardness of the metal of the jacket, on the length of bearing surface of the bullet in the barrel, on the depth of lands in the barrel, on the diameter of the bullet in relation to the size of the bore of the barrel, and on the amount of clearance about the neck of the shell and the front of the bullet. All these factors must be taken into account when a pow- der is designed or selected for any particular cartridge or loading. In the powder itself very important means of controlling pressures are available. Finely grained powder, of course, burns faster, and hence sets up higher pressures than coarse powder, just as the shav- ings burn faster and hotter in the limited time than the solid stick of wood. Black powder granulation was and is varied, but only as to size. Smokeless powder granulation is varied as much or more in size, and in addition is varied greatly as to shape of grain. Most of the Du Pont series of dense powders, for example, have grains the shape of short pieces of tube. They burn on the inside as well as the outside of the tube. These dense powder grains are very uniform in size, which means that they always burn the same within narrow limits. Some particular brands, however, are very fine, and they burn so fast that their combustion takes place at the maximum permissible speed and pressure, the only variation being due to the way in which the ignition happens to vary through the powder lying back against the primer without air space, or failing to fill the rear end of the shell completely, which may be a matter of the position of the cartridge, and elevation of the rifle barrel. Of almost equal importance in control of pressure is the composition of the powder. Some ingredients are capable of generating much greater volume of gases than others, grain for gtain, bulk for bulk. For instance, Du Pont No. i smokeless rifle powder cannot possibly give as much pressure as Du Pont No. 75, or as Hercules Unique, owing to the ingredients used. This is a direct strength comparison. Much more subtle differences exist, wherein the final pressure result- MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 299 ing is not so- much a matter of actual concentration of potential gases as of the manner in which the ingredients used burn and give off their gases. The pressure generated by Hercules HiVel powder, for example, in correct charge in the .280 Ross cartridge is very much higher than the pressure of an equivalent charge of Du Pont No. 10 powder, due to the different components ; while the pressure given by Du Pont No. 15 or 13 progressive powders to produce the same bullet velocities in this cartridge are lower yet, due to the difference in the way the more or less slightly varying components burn. The actual volume of gases with Nos. 10, 15, and 13 powders probably vary little. This matter of the way in which a powder burns deserves em- phasis, as on it hinges some of the most important distinctions between powders that are good and others that are better. Black powder and the finer grained smokeless powders burn like a flash, so to speak. They set up their maximum pressure right in the chamber, and exert force on the bullet largely in the form of a blow, followed by a de- creasing pressure as the bullet travels up the barrel. Other smokeless powders, such as Du Pont No. 20, Du Pont No. 21 and Du Pont No. 10, burn steadily, and are burned completely only when the bullet has reached the muzzle of the barrel, maintaining pressure on the bullet all the way up the barrel. Grains nearest the primer apparently are well onward in combustion before those at the front end of the charge are more than started, and it is these front grains, adding to the gases, which keep up the pressure. This type of powder is known as the " regular " burning kind. Still other powders, of more recent introduc- tion, such as the Du Pont Nos. 15, 16, 18, and 13, known as pro- gressive burning powders, apparently ignite throughout the charge as quickly as the regular burners, but burn more slowly, due to the way in which they are coated with a slower burning compound. Com- bustion is complete by the time the bullet reaches the muzzle, but from the time the bullet starts from the chamber the volume of gas steadily mounts higher and higher, the force being applied to the bullet more in the nature of a steadily increasing push than like a blow. In applying these various fundamental facts to the selection of a powder for a particular cartridge or load in any certain rifle barrel, we must, therefore, look for a chemical composition and shape and size of grain that will insure complete burning within the barrel length during the time available, and at the pressure required. Further- more, the burning must take place in the manner required to give the bullet used the essential velocity with the pressure permissible. To 300 THE AMERICAN RIFLE illustrate, a powder that will burn completely in a revolver, or even in a carbine of small caliber, with their lower pressure and short barrels, cannot possibly meet the conditions of full charges in long barrelled, high-power military or hunting rifles ; nor can a hot, violent powder be used where pressures must be high to get ultra high velocities. Each different size and shape of shell, each different weight, shape, and hardness of bullet, each different caliber and barrel length, de- velops a different pressure. From this comes the necessity of having so many different smokeless powders, and the necessity also of chang- ing the powder when any of the features of rifle, shell, and bullet are changed to any extent. If the powder is increased or decreased, the air space cut down much or decreased, bullet made heavier or lighter, harder or softer, larger or smaller, or barrel much shortened or lengthened, the kind of powder should be changed accordingly. NITROGLYCERINE AND NITROCELLULOSE POWDERS One of the most desirable qualities in a rifle powder is that it shall damage the steel of the barrel as little as possible. To insure this the powder must burn at as low a temperature as possible while developing necessary pressures. The temperature developed seems to depend more on the ingredients than on any other factor, and of the ingredients, nitrocellulose burns much cooler than nitroglycerine. One of the best illustrations of a hot burning nitroglycerine powder and its effects on the barrel is the old 1908 military powder (now duplicated by Du Pont No. 19, and Hercules HiVel. This powder was first brought out as an improvement on the old W. A. powder which had been used for so many years with success in the Krag cartridge. It was designed to be used in the then new .30 caliber Model 1906 car- tridge with 150-grain pointed bullet. So great was its damaging action on barrels that expert military riflemen frequently had to dis- card barrels for accurate work after only about 400 rounds had been fired from them, on account of the excessive erosion. Another ex- ample of the nitroglycerine type of powders is " Sharpshooter." The action of this powder, especially in small bore rifles using small shells, seems to be slightly different, in that corrosion is produced and not erosion, and this corrosion can sometimes be noted; in .25-20 rifles for example, after only 200 rounds have been fired. The nitrocellulose powders, on the other hand, do not damage the barrels nearly as much. Du Pont No. 20 can be fired in full charges MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 301 in the .30-caliber Model 1903 rifle for from 5000 to 15,000 rounds before the accuracy of the barrel is seriously impaired, and it is re- ported from a number of tests that the newer progressive burning powders, Nos. 15, 18, 13, and 16, especially the two latter, produce little effect even in 20,000 rounds. Nitroglycerine powders damage the barrels by first softening the steel through heating, and then eroding or washing it away as a stream washes away its banks. The nitrocellulose powders burn cooler, and with them it is possible by increasing the charges to get higher velocities than ever before without serious erosion of the barrel. This matter of erosion is fully covered in Chapters XVII and XVIII. STABILITY, RESIDUE, AND UNIFORMITY OF BURNING Stability is essential in any powder. Some powders deteriorate through time, but it must be said that the majority of our American powders are splendid in this respect. Most of the modern military powders, at least, will keep in perfect condition for years in good storage, or when loaded in clean shells. A few powders will absorb moisture, among them Du Pont No. 1, No. 75, and Schuetzen. Powders that will not do this have the advantage. Stability against changes due to temperature is another important factor. Nitrocellulose powders are not affected much by any range of temperature encountered from pole to equator, but nitroglycerine powders are. So much are the exploding pressures of the latter type of powders increased by extremes of heat that cartridges loaded with them for use in the tropics have several grains less charge. The residue of a smokeless powder should be as little as possible, and should contain no hard lumps that may get into the chamber and prevent the cartridges seating readily, or into the breech action and interfere with the functioning of the rifle. The residue should be easily removed and non-corrosive as a further element of protection to the rifle bore. In this respect the new progressive burning powders ap- parently are superior to both the regular burning nitrocellulose and the nitroglycerine powders. Nearly all modern powders are graphited, with the result that the residue they leave in the barrel has lubricating properties of some value. Uniformity of burning depends somewhat on composition, but more on evenness of granulation and character of grain. Nearly all modern powders are excellent in this respect. Uniformity, however, is secured 302 THE AMERICAN RIFLE only within the range of normal working pressure for each powder. When such pressure is exceeded, or when less is developed, the burn- ing becomes erratic and unreliable. Muzzle flash, fumes, and smoke are objectionable to some extent. From a military standpoint a flash betrays the location of the firing troops at night. BULK POWDERS Concentration of powder deserves more than passing attention. Present day powders are of two distinct types, " bulk powders " and " dense powders." Bulk powders are the oldest, having been intro- duced in America about 1894, while the true dense powders were unknown to most riflemen until about 1899, although various govern- ments, including the United States, had used different types of dense military powders before that time in small-bore, military rifles. The first satisfactory smokeless rifle powder was introduced by the Du Pont Company in 1894. This was a bulk powder known as the Du Pont No. 1 rifle smokeless. In those early days of smokeless powder no rifleman or shotgun shooter overlooked a reloading outfit when purchasing a new arm. Normally included in the price of every shotgun was included a three-joint cleaning rod, and a complete outfit for reloading shells. Every rifle manufacturer listed reloading tools in his catalogue, and stores generally sold tools, and no one wasted time or breath in ridiculous cautions or warnings against reloading. With every set of tools, whether for rifle or shotgun, came the con- ventional dipper, or " scoop " for measuring out the proper charge of black powder. Naturally early smokeless powders received the re- ception accorded to every new thing, including percussion caps in flint-lock days, the breech loader later on, the magazine rifle still more recently, and the small-bore, high power rifle even today among less informed hunters. The " old timers " loved to cling to their ancient customs and beliefs. Many were the objections against the new " white " or " wood " powder. " It was not as strong as black powder." " It rusted the barrel." " You could not use the same caps." " It did not keep well." And a host of other minor com- plaints. But at the start the manufacturers wisely eliminated one factor that would have been a real complaint, and that would have caused endless trouble in those " black powder days." They made, the first smokeless powders measure bulk for bulk with black powder so far as strength or correct charges were concerned. The old scoops MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 303 or other measures could be used to measure out the charges without special directions or precautions. The proper charges occupied exactly the same space as the displaced charges of black powder, hence the name "bulk powder." In developing and perfecting these early bulk powders the manu- facturers were naturally greatly handicapped by the limitations of the rifles of that day. Pressures in excess of 28,000 pounds per square inch were unheard of, barrels were of soft steel, bullets were of smaller diameter than the rifle bore (dependence being placed on the blow of black powder explosion to " upset " them and properly seal the bore), and other minor difficulties obstructed progress. The pressure limit was met by producing powders that burned properly and uniformly under the imposed conditions. Soft barrels were taken care of by using practically the present cool burning nitrocellulose composition. Some complaints against the inaccuracy of the new powders developed until the shooters were educated to the fact that smokeless powder lacked' the initial blow of black powder that upset the bullet and filled the bore, and that therefore bullets of slightly greater diameter were required. Attention was called to the fact that the corroding of rifle barrels, when using the new powders, was brought on by a different type of fouling, a fouling as easily removed as that of black powder, but demanding different methods of clean- ing and solvents. These points are even more vital today than at first. It was gradually found that the new product could be sub- stituted for almost any black powder charge with advantage. This explains the origin and meaning of the term " bulk " powder. The bulk powders are of a fibrous, porous nature. They might be termed " soft grained " also, as the grains can be crushed between the fingers. The grains are of no such symmetrical and non-varying shape as those of dense powder ; some are round while others are exceedingly irregular in outline, resembling the old time Fg black powder. In the manufacture of bulk smokeless powders, as described on previous pages, the large cakes of combined ingredients are broken up in crushers instead of being forced through dies and made into tubes as are dense powders. The small particles resulting vary in size from dust to the size of small buck shot. These particles are then passed through various screens, and only the desired granulation is retained. For instance Du Pont No. 1 rifle smokeless is sifted through a mesh of 16 to the inch, and caught on screens having 26 meshes 304 THE AMERICAN RIFLE to the inch. All the powder retained between these two screens is of proper granulation, but any failing to pass through the top one is too coarse, and all that falls through the bottom is too fine. On the same basis sporting rifle powder No. 80 is termed a 34-56 granula- tion. The rate of burning of bulk powders is not as easily controlled as that of dense brands, because of the soft, irregular grains, with- out perforation. Size of grain and composition are the only factors that can be manipulated to determine the rate of combustion. The porous nature of the grains of most bulk powders renders them more susceptible to atmospheric changes, also to the deteriorating effect of dirt in old shells, than the dense powders. These are practically the only logical complaints that today can be laid against bulk powders. They will absorb moisture if stored and handled under improper con- ditions. How keenly the manufacturers realized this point is shown by the improvements in Du Pont sporting rifle powder No. 80, the latest and most modern bulk powder. This brand has been modernized by the addition of an ingredient that to a great extent prevents its absorb- ing moisture or responding to atmospheric changes. Personally I am unable to see where it does so in the least, as I have had a large amount of this powder with me in the Panama Canal Zone for over two years, and have not been able to notice the slightest deteriora- tion, despite the fact that some of this powder was stored in 8-gauge, paper, shotgun shells, in which containers it had been shipped to Panama so that it would come under the express rating of loaded cartridges and not as powder. Unless it becomes actually wet I do not believe it will be affected at all by atmospheric changes. As a matter of fact if common sense is used in the storage of any bulk powder it will not be affected by moisture. Such powder stored in an open wood shed, or in a cellar cannot be expected to give normal results. When bulk powders are loaded into fired shells that are dirty from previous firing, and the loaded cartridges are then not fired for a considerable length of time, they will gradually deteriorate. If fired at once, or within a month or two, no bad results will be noted. If the loaded ammunition is to be kept for a greater period care should be taken to clean and thoroughly dry the shells before loading. The best methods of cleaning fired shells are described in Chapter XIII. MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 305 DENSE POWDERS Events moved fast with the powder makers in the '90s. The small- bore rifle shooting a light-weight, long, metal- jacketed bullet at high velocities was taken up by all governments. The sporting trade, fall- ing into line, soon demanded rifles lighter in weight than those of .44-40 and .45-70 caliber that they had been regarding as the best. It was not enough to make these same rifles and cartridges smokeless. Powders of greater power or concentration were in order, so that the ammunition could be lightened and power increased. The manu- facturers responded with a new, small-bore, high-power rifle, and a new type of smokeless powder occupying less shell space, and develop- ing a much higher velocity. So these concentrated or high potential powders were soon known as condensed or " dense " powders. The actual formulae of different dense powders vary widely as has already been explained, but all American powders of this type have a similar appearance and structure. Their grains are of a hard, gelat- inous, or celluloid material, moulded and formed in the shape of small tubes or perforated cylinders, and colored shiny black on the outside with graphite. Dense powders vary widely in strength, so we must not get the idea that the term " dense " represents any set standard. The tendency is to produce powders more dense and concentrated than ever. How- ever, this in itself is not always a desirable characteristic unless ac- companied by other equally essential features. To illustrate, " Sharpshooter " powder, one of the older powders, is undoubtedly the most highly concentrated of all rifle powders, much more so than Du Pont No. 10. But Sharpshooter exerts its potential strength in a manner so inferior to No. 10 that with it maximum practical velocities of but 2000 feet per second are possible, while the velocities normally obtained with No. 10 are 3000 feet per second. Dense powders possess undoubted points of superiority over the bulk brands. They are far more stable, are waterproof, are not af- fected by atmospheric conditions, permit the obtaining of higher velocities, and due to their peculiar grain construction and method of manufacture allow more perfect control in burning. As has been stated, all dense powders of American manufacture are made in a distinctive type of grain, resembling short lengths of small tubing. Some have grains resembling washers ; that is, the length of grain is less than the diameter ; others have grains longer than thick. The 306 THE AMERICAN RIFLE perforations or holes through the center of the grains are usually about the size of a needle hole in the nitroglycerine brands, and smaller than this in the nitrocellulose powders. This peculiar shape of grain permits control of the rate of burning impossible of attainment by any other means. Where the bulk powder can burn from the out- side to the center of grain only, the dense powder burns from both outside and inside surfaces. Varying the diameter and length of grain and the diameter of the perforation gives a large factor of con- trol over the burning. Modern dense powders are not handicapped by the limitations of the rifle as were the earlier bulk powders. Rifles are now constructed with much stronger breech actions. The barrels are now made of harder steel of high tensile strength and capable of standing high pressures. Pressures are now limited only by the strength of the brass cartridge case, which may be placed at a limit of 70,000 pounds in rifles having the ordinary commercial or military chamber, and 80,000 pounds in rifles constructed with perfectly fitting chambers and perfected firing pins designed for high pressures. Dense powders, as previously noted, are divided into nitroglycerine and nitrocellulose types, and the latter type into regular and progres- sive burning types. Nitroglycerine powders are the older and are inferior to nitrocellulose for most purposes. Their chief fault lies in the high temperatures at which they burn, and their chief advan- tage in the even velocities which they give. Another serious fault is that they are not as stable as the more modern nitrocellulose powders, and this point is especially noticeable in Arctic and Tropical regions. They are also erratic when burning at pressures exceeding 43,000 to 45,000 pounds. Their good features are that in certain cartridges of medium power, when no effort is made to get very high velocities, they develop 1500 pounds lower pressure than with nitrocellulose powders used for equal velocities, and do this with one to one and one-half grains smaller charge. They also ignite a shade easier than the nitrocellulose brands. The greatest handicap under which nitro- glycerine powders labor is the limit of velocities obtainable. I do not know of a cartridge loaded with a nitroglycerine powder that will develop more than 2100 or 2200 feet velocity without incurring pressures so high that erosion immediately becomes too serious to overlook. In this nitrocellulose powders demonstrate one great superiority, giving velocities of 3000 to 3200 feet per second at pressures of 55,000 to 60,000 pounds, and still give no great trouble MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 307 from erosion. The temperature developed at these extreme pressures is still far below that generated by nitroglycerine powders burning at a pressure of only 40,000 pounds. The minor objections (they can hardly be termed faults) to nitro- cellulose powders are that they require slightly larger charges than nitroglycerine powders, and that the pressures run slightly higher in a few instances. In my opinion the cost of these increased charges is offset many times over by the saving in the wear on the rifle barrel, while the- insignificant increase in pressures amounts to nothing with the nickel steel barrels and locking lugs of today. If one uses only the best of primers with these powders, like the United States Cartridge Co. No. 8, and the United States Government primer no trouble with ignition will be noticed. The newer types, the progres- sive powders, have all the good points of the type, but develop greatly increased velocities with no appreciable increase in pressures. In addition cleaning is easier when they are used, and there is less erosion. Take for example Du Pont No. 16 powder in the .32 Winchester special cartridge. A charge of 32.5 grains weight of powder gives a velocity of 2225 feet per second, with a pressure of less than 36,000 pounds, and the erosive effects are so small that the life of the barrel is practi- cally limitless. There is no, metal fouling, and cleaning is a very simple proposition if any of the powder solvent oils are used. COMPRESSING SMOKELESS POWDERS A warning spread broadcast in the early days of smokeless powder by the makers of bulk powders was, " Never compress a charge." So thoroughly was this doctrine impressed on the minds of riflemen that I hear it echoed from many sources today. A little explanation will clear up the situation, and show that in part the warning is sound, and in part it is false. Such clearing up is necessary because many of the charges recommended in the preceding chapter fill the shells so full that some compression is necessary to permit the bullets to be seated. The facts are that the actual compression of smokeless powder, bulk and dense, does no harm. What did cause the trouble was that the soft grains of bulk powders crumbled to dust when kept under com- pression more than a few days by the bullets. Such dust burns at tremendously increased speed, and runs up the chamber pressure above the margin of safety. This " margin of safety " was not high in the days of .44-40, .38-56, and .45-70 black-powder rifles with 308 THE AMERICAN RIFLE soft-steel barrels and lead bullets. A charge which does not overflow the shell, if tapped several times, should permit sufficient compression for seating the bullet without alarming increase in pressure. The majority of dense powders are so hard that the grains will not crumble even when retained under pressure for a long time, hence such powders may be loaded tightly in shells without any change result- ing by reason of the packing. Compression does no harm to such powders as the entire series of the Du Pont military and improved military powders, the W. A. .30-caliber, HiVel, and others. Sharp- shooter powder should never be compressed. These powders ignite and burn slowly at the start, allowing the bullet time to move from the shell before the height of the pressure wave is reached. Here it is necessary to call attention to some exceptions to the general rule. In the beginning of this chapter it was pointed out that every powder was given certain special treatments to give it peculiar properties of its own. As a result, certain powders are rendered so quick and violent in action under conditions other than those for which they were designed, that they must have air space in the shell for safety. Sharpshooter is one such, Bull's-eye, Unique, Pistol Powder No. 3, Rifle Powder No. 75, and in some instances Lightning, are others. Some of these powders demand air space be- cause of high potential strength and others because they burn exceed- ingly fast, reaching their maximum pressure in the chamber of the rifle. Caution must be exercised against compressing them, and it may be added that they give proper and normal results only when loaded with greater or less air space. CHANGING BULLETS There are many cartridges on the market which have much merit, but which were designed just before many of the more important recent improvements and advancements became settled facts. Owners of rifles fqr these cartridges continually manifest a desire to bring their shooting up to present standards, so far as possible, by modifica- tions of powder charge and bullet. I will make no effort to discuss this almost limitless subject at length here, but will simply point out that powder and bullets correct for every American cartridge in common use today are mentioned and described in the preceding chapter, where the reader will find the proper charge for each bullet, together w 7 ith the velocity and pressure generated. From the point of view of the powder used, care must be taken to select the powder MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 309 in each case that will burn completely at the pressure required to drive the bullet at the desired velocity. Great care must be taken to select a powder suited to the resistance offered by the exact bullet used. For instance, in the Krag rifle the regular 220-grain bullet gives more resistance, owing to long bearing surface and weight, and if the 150-grain bullet is used the powder must be the quick burning No. 21, No. 16, or No. 18, rather than the old standard W. A. which cannot possibly burn completely behind this bullet. Whenever a new bullet is to be loaded in any cartridge full attention should be given to all the factors involved, including weight, hardness, bearing surface, lubrication, and other points. MEASURING MODERN RIFLE POWDERS Owing to the shape and size of grain of many smokeless powders, they cannot be measured accurately enough for best, or even safe, results with scoops or the Ideal measure. Some, it is true, can be measured satisfactorily; others can be measured in light and medium charges, but should be weighed in maximum charges ; while still others cannot be measured at all. In general, bulk powders can be measured, while dense powders should be weighed, though there are exceptions to this rule. It is pretty safe to say that no rifleman who loads dense powders can get satisfactory results without a pair of scales for use at least to check his measuring. Weighing always should be done when great accuracy is desired, when extreme velocities are to be obtained, and when the rifleman is experimenting; also for all coarse grained powders, although some finer ones can be measured. The extent of the error or variation in charge that is permissible when ordinary pressures and velocities are obtained, is about one- half grain. This, however, forms a larger proportion of a small charge than of a large one, and may produce larger target errors. When high pressures and velocities are to be obtained the extent of the error should be limited to one-fifth of a grain, and such limitation calls for careful weighing. A variation of one-half grain in the powder charge of the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge has been observed to cause an error of one inch per 100 yards of range, that is an error of ten inches at 1000 yards. The Ideal powder measure will permit of such an error with Du Pont No. 20 powder, hence ammunition with measured powder charges will be less accurate to this extent than ammunition with powder accurately hand weighed. The equivalent table given in the next chapter comparing bulk 3 io THE AMERICAN RIFLE measure as measured with the Ideal measure with actual weight of the charge is as accurate as it can be made, but is subject to un- avoidable errors. For instance, the stampings of the marks on the slides of the Ideal measure often vary slightly. Of fine grained powders in small loads, this table will enable a careful person to throw charges from the measure that will be accurate to within one-fourth grain. With the coarser grained dense, powders the most careful setting of the measure in connection with the table can- not be depended upon to within 3 to 5 grains. It is impossible, except by chance, to set the measure successfully for the same charge twice. The Ideal measure, however, if set carefully and adjusted by checking with scales, will throw most powders accurately to within half a grain. The method of using this measure i:i connection with scales, and instructions for weighing powder with scales, are given in the next chapter. Dip measures or scoops can be used with fair satisfaction for the bulk powders if handled carefully. If jarred, they must always re- ceive a blow of exactly the same weight in the same direction. It is possible to vary the contents of a 40-grain scoop as much as five to ten grains simply by filling without jarring, or by jarring. Scoops and measures for smokeless powder should always be checked with scales. Any rifleman who does not own a pair of his own should request the nearest druggist to verify the measure he uses with the weight of the powder to be measured. Suitable scales for measuring powder are described in the next chapter. The powders that should always be weighed are the Du Pont powders Nos. 10, 13, 15, 19, and 20, and Hercules HiVel. Pistol Powder No. 3, Bull's-eye, and other similar powders measure evenly once the measure is set for them, but they are so concentrated that a slight error in the charge is magnified, consequently the measure should be checked with scales frequently. Powders that can be measured with satisfaction are Du Pont Nos. 1, 75, 80, and Schuetzen. It will be noted that these powders are of the short grained, bulk type. The Ideal measure slide screw will not hold the slides from move- ment with certainty. Charges therefore should be tested on scales every hundred rounds to detect movement and variation. To get some of the larger charges that are recommended in the foregoing chapter into their shells considerably more compacting can be ob- tained without compression by dropping the powder in from some MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 311 distance. A loading tube 6 to. 12 inches long should be used for this purpose. IDENTIFICATION OF POWDERS It is best not to try to identify powders offhand by their appear- ance. To do so may result in trouble, and perhaps even in danger. The grains of some of the more modern powders are almost identical in shape and size, and even attempts to identify them by measure- ment of the grain by a micrometer caliper is by no means certain. It is best to depend on canister labels, and in order that no mistake may arise it has been my habit for some years always to paste a slip of blank paper over the label on a can as soon as I empty it, so that if I happen to use that can for powder again I will not make any mistake. It does not pay to take any chances with powder, and the rifleman should cultivate careful methods from the start when handling them. It is possible to load double charges of powder in some shells with- out the error being observed. In some instances this will result only in wild shooting, with perhaps leading or metal fouling of the barrel. In other cases it will result in developing excessive pressures, and may even burst the rifle. Particular care should be taken in this connection when the following powders are used: Sharpshooter, Bull's-eye, Pistol No. 3, Unique, Lightning, and Du Pont No. 75. POWDERS FOR REDUCED LOADS in selecting a powder for a lighter load than the standard in any rifle and cartridge, the governing principles are to get a powder that burns completely within the barrel length at the required pressure, and that otherwise conforms to the laws as explained in previous pages. However, numerous special factors must be taken into con- sideration. For light loads, particularly in high power rifles, Du Pont No. 75 and 80 powders will prove the best in a majority of cases. For mid-range loads with gas-check or jacketed bullets the range of selection is wider, and includes Sharpshooter, Lightning, and Du Pont Nos. 80, 21, and 18, and possibly others. Accuracy is the prime requisite, and tests and experiments are the only means of learning about this. One rifle may handle a load that another will not. Barrels also vary. Poor burning is to be avoided because it leaves unburned powder in the barrel, chamber, and action that will give fouling trouble and prevent the accurate seating of the cartridge. It is possible, how- 3 i2 THE AMERICAN RIFLE ever, in some cases to get accuracy from charges that do not burn completely. For instance Du Pont No. 18 powder in the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge will not burn completely in charges of 20 to 25 grains, but will shoot with exceeding accuracy with proper bullets. Even No. 21 in charges of the same weight gives good results in this and similar cartridges. When other things are equal, preference should be given to nitro- cellulose powders over nitroglycerine ones. Many claim that in re- duced charges, and at less than extreme pressures, these powders do not erode barrels any more than those of milder type, but my personal experience does not lead to such conclusions. The powder charges recommended in the Ideal Handbook for short-range, reduced loads in high-power rifles are in the main correct, but in some instances those recommended for reduced charges are impracticable and in- accurate because too heavy for the bullets indicated. In the preced- ing chapter I have given many reduced charges for various cartridges that have been tried in a number of rifles for that cartridge and found satisfactory. In auto-loading rifle cartridges Sharpshooter and other similar powders are often loaded with compressed charges. Such loading is permissible and safe because the breech of an auto- loading rifle instantly blows back when the pressure mounts to a cer- tain point. This is a feature of the normal functioning of such rifles. SHORT AND LONG BARRELS The length of barrel of the rifle, as has been pointed out from various angles, has much bearing on the shooting of its cartridge. This matter is not generally understood. For instance, the normal or standard velocity with the Krag rifle with its standard .30-40-220 cartridge is 2000 feet per second, the rifle having a 30-inch barrel. With the Krag carbine, the barrel of which is only 22 inches long, the velocity falls off 80 feet. The shortening of some barrels, notably the Ross .280, has even more effect than this. Such decrease in velocity means an increase in trajectory and bullet drop. More than this, it may be accompanied by other evils. When the barrel length is shortened or lengthened, it is well to examine the powder charge to see if a change should not be made in it also to obtain the best results. Shortening the barrel may not only reduce the velocity, but the powder may fail to burn completely, and this may bring inaccuracy. MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 313 I once heard of a man who cut down the 28-inch barrel of a Ross .280 rifle to 22 inches, whereupon the standard .280 Ross cartridge, loaded with Du Pont No. 10 powder developed nowhere near the normal 3050 feet velocity, gave poor accuracy, and left much hard, unburned powder in the barrel and chamber. The use of a quicker burning powder, Du Pont No. 20, partly restored the velocity but not the accuracy. No. 15, however, almost completely restored both. Applying this same principle to the Krag again, the maximum velocity of which the .30-inch barrel is capable will probably be secured with Du Pont No. 16 powder, while the maximum velocity of which the 22-inch carbine barrel is capable will probably be secured with Du Pont No. 18. Many riflemen must face this condition in respect to other calibers, particularly those who use cartridges of the same caliber loaded for both revolver and rifle, and those who use short- barreled carbines. A carbine may perform very poorly with the usual commercial ammunition, but its shooting usually can be greatly improved by selecting the proper grade and amount of powder for its barrel length. DIFFERENT LOTS OF THE SAME POWDER Every powder user has noticed the manufacturers' references to " lots " of powder, and many may have noted that slightly varying charges of different lots are recommended. For instance, one lot of Du Pont No. 20 may give the standard muzzle velocity of 2700 feet in the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge with a charge of 46 grains, and another may require 48 grains, while a third may give it with 44 grains. Smokeless powder is made in lots of the capacity of the equipment of the powder mill. Two thousand pounds used to be the average at the Du Pont works, but this has now been increased to take care of the necessary war output, to 50,000 pounds. Due to any one or more of a hundred variations that are possible in in- gredients and in processes, two different lots may come out, showing slightly varying density or rate of burning. Each lot is tested by fir- ing, and its actual performance in different rifles is made a matter of record. Within each lot variation is impossible, for all of every lot is blended, as the term goes, by spilling it from the top of high towers to piles below. The individual does not need to concern him- self much about varying lots of powder, for the manufacturers sell to the trade only such lots as conform to the standard for that par- 314 THE AMERICAN RIFLE ticular powder. Other lots are used by the cartridge loading com- panies who know how to allow for the difference in the density and burning. DIFFERENT KINDS OF COMMERCIAL POWDERS We now come to a consideration of each of the various kinds of powder commonly used in American rifles. On the following pages will be found a description of each kind of powder, its characteristics, and the uses to which it is best adapted. DU PONT MILITARY RIFLE POWDER NO. 20 Also known as " 1909 Military Powder " and " Government Pyro, .30 caliber D. G." This history-making rifle powder was the first Fig. 77 Combination rifle and shotgun made for Hon. Theodore Roosevelt by Fred Adolph. Top barrel 20 gauge shotgun, lower barrel .25-35 W. C. F. of the nitrocellulose type to give unquestioned satisfactory service. It was developed during 1908 and 1909 by E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co. At that time nitroglycerine powders were standard in spite of their erosive properties, the nitrocellulose powders still being in a somewhat debatable stage, owing to the fact that no stabilizer had been introduced into their composition. The 1909 Military powder, as No. 20 was then called, showed American riflemen what an ideal powder should be, and started the demand for the still greater im- provements that have been so abundantly met in the years since its introduction. No. 20 is a dense nitrocellulose powder of the regular burning type, with shiny black tubular grains .085 inch long and .03 inch in diameter. It was developed specifically for use in the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge to replace the unstable " Rose-aniline " pyro MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 315 powder of a pink color which the Government had been using in an effort to get away from the evils of nitroglycerine. No. 20 is adapted for use in cartridges of .30 caliber and smaller, and even in some .35 and .40 caliber cartridges, notably the .405 W. C. F. It has a wide range of usefulness among both sporting and military cartridges of medium power and capacity. Its normal burn- ing pressure is 45,000 to 50,000 pounds. It will burn fairly well at 55,000 pounds without developing much trouble, and at pressures con- siderably lower than 40,000 pounds in some cartridges, notably the steeply tapered bottle-neck class. The velocities developed in this powder primarily are those of the 2700 foot class with 150-grain bullet in the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge. In doing this the powder is working under the exact conditions for which it was de- signed, and it works to best advantage. In many other cartridges, however, it develops their standard velocities in a very satisfactory manner, such as the 7 mm. Mauser, .25 Remington auto-loading, and .22 high-power Savage. No. 20 is in the same series as Du Pont No. 10 and No. 21, occupy- ing a position midway between them as to burning speed. All three powders are of the same composition, and differ only in size of grain. As soon as No. 20 reached the general market it displaced nitroglycerine powders entirely among careful riflemen who loaded their own am- munition, and of course entirely displaced the original and inferior nitrocellulose without stabilizer, the manufacture of which has been discontinued. It educated riflemen to the advantages of nitro- cellulose powders and started them to demand it, and it also taught powdermakers how to proceed to secure the variety of excellent powders that have since been brought out. An advantage of No. 20 is that it develops extreme accuracy at 2700 feet velocity with 150-grain bullet in the Springfield and Enfield rifles. Before this powder was brought out no such accuracy was known. It is not suited for securing the increased velocities over the standard that are now possible with the progressive burning powders. While it can be measured by the Ideal powder measure and otherwise, charges should be weighed where great accuracy is desired. The variation in weight of charge secured by measuring are not great enough to cause serious inaccuracy, nor to develop pressures lower or higher than permissible limits for good and safe results. It burns at a low temperature, ignites readily, and leaves a residue that is easily removed with proper solvents. Reduced charges 316 THE AMERICAN RIFLE cannot be loaded with No. 20, nor can any but metal jacketed bullets be used with it. DU PONT MILITARY RIFLE POWDER NO. 21 After Du Pont No. 20 powder proved to be so successful in the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge, and other cartridges of a similar nature, there was a great demand for a nitrocellulose powder that would burn at the proper rate for small-bore sporting cartridges of limited shell capacity like the .30-30, .32 Special, and .25-35. This demand was brought to a head by the introduction of the .22 Savage High Power cartridge and rifle, in the firing of which barrels some- Fig. 78 Double barrelled elephant rifle with German telescope sight, made by Fred Adolph times lasted only about 300 rounds before the bore was badly eroded when nitroglycerine powders were used. No. 21 is a dense nitrocellulose powder of the regular burning type with the usual tubular, perforated, black, graphited grains .04 inch long and .03 inch thick. In composition it is identical with No. 20 and No. 10, but is the quickest burning of the three, therefore it will burn at lower pressures than the others. It was developed during 1913, and put on the general market in 1914. This powder has a very wide range. Its best burning takes place at 36,000 to 41,000 pounds pressure to the square inch, but it will burn with fair satis- faction at higher and lower pressures. It develops standard velocities in all the 2000 foot seconds cartridges, including the .25-35, .30-30, .303 Savage, and .7,2 Special, gives 2800 feet velocity in the .22 Savage High Power, and 3000 feet in the .250-3000 Savage cartridge. In MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 317 addition it may be used in emergencies in the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge, the .30-40 cartridge, and others of similar size and power, and it may be used with considerable satisfaction for mid-range loads behind gas-check or metal-cased bullets giving 1400 to 2000 feet velocity. For the latter purpose it provides a nitrocellulose substitute for the erosive nitroglycerine powders formerly recommended, though in such loading is perhaps not always quite as good as the Du Pont No. 18. The advantages of No. 21 are that it gives great accuracy, is easy to clean, burns at low temperature, measures so well in the Ideal measure that while weighing is still an advantage charges can be secured by measuring with much satisfaction. It is the most flexible of the regular burning nitrocellulose powders, that is to say, it can be used with a greater range of pressures, and it may be used in the greatest number of cartridges. No. 21 greatly resembles No. 18 in grain appearance, hence care is necessary to avoid getting the two mixed. This is doubly important because the charges of each powder are by no means the same for identical cartridges. Those using No. 21 should confine themselves to the standard velocities. To increase charges is to invite trouble, and besides it is unnecessary because where a quick burning powder is needed to give ultra-high velocities Du Pont No. 18 will work better. DU PONT MILITARY RIFLE POWDER NO. 10 When the Ross Rifle Company of Quebec developed the .280 cartridge they found that its resulting velocity was limited by the nature of the burning of all powders then available. The shell is of very large capacity, and is steeply bottle-necked, both factors making for intensity of burning of powder in full charges. What was needed was slower burning powder possessing the non-erosive and other good qualities of Du Pont No. 20. Accordingly No. 10 was developed specially for the .280 Ross cartridge, and results at once justified the effort. Velocities up to 3100 feet at the muzzle were secured with the 143-grain bullet, and 2700 feet with the 180-grain bullet. So accurate was the new powder that the list of matches it won stands today almost unrivaled. No. 10 is a dense nitrocellulose powder of the regular burning type with tubular granulation .12 inch long by .033 inch thick. It will be noted that these grains are half again as long as those of the Du Pont No. 20 powder. They are the longest grains made in any 3 i8 THE AMERICAN RIFLE '.. nitrocellulose powder intended for rifles. The composition of No. io is the same as that of Nos. 20 and 21, with which it forms a series, occupying the position of the slowest burning. In fact it is the slowest burning of all dense powders. It was in 1910 that this powder was first manufactured, but not until 1912 was it placed on the market in cans. The pressures required to burn it properly are 52,000 to 57,000 pounds. It will not burn properly at lower pressure, although it will stand considerably higher ones without trouble. Its use, therefore, is restricted to the most modern of cartridges and rifles which develop and safely stand pressures up to 60,000 pounds. Until the introduction of the Newton series of cartridges, the .280 Ross was the only cartridge in which it could be used with success. In the .256 Newton it has proved to give good results, developing a velocity of about 2850 feet. It may also be used in the .30 Newton cartridge. No. -io should aways be loaded by weight because the grains are too large to pass through any measure with accuracy. Only metal- jacketed bullets can be used with it. I do not look for this powder to remain in general use much longer. Whatever is required of it can be done better by the modern progressive powders such as the Du Pont Nos. 13 and 15. These powders develop the same velocity as No. 10 with less pressure, or higher velocities with equal pressure. DU PONT IMPROVED MILITARY RIFLE POWDER NO. 15 This was the first of the new series of powders put on the market — the first progressive burning, smokeless, rifle powder ■ — and it was this powder which opened the eyes of riflemen all over the world to the possibilities of improvement along the lines of increasing bullet veloci- ties without increasing pressures. No. 15 is a dense, progressive burning, nitrocellulose powder, with the usual black tubular grain, measuring .085 inch long by .035 inch in diameter. It looks very much like Du Pont No. 20, although the grains are slightly thicker. Its resemblance to other members of the pro- gressive burning series is even closer, and riflemen should be careful to avoid confusing it with them should it become separated from its regu- lar canister. It was issued to the trade in the autumn of 1914, but did not become generally known until 191 5. Its origin is very interesting. A special experimental cartridge was designed for a foreign government, with new features from primer to bullet. None of the existing powders were Fig. 75 Grains of modern rifle powders, greatly enlarged 1. Du Pont Improved Military Rifle Powder No. 13 2. Du Pont Improved Military Rifle Powder No. 15 3. Du Pont Improved Military Rifle Powder No. 16 319 320 THE AMERICAN RIFLE considered satisfactory for use in it since they could not be expected to give results superior to those which they gave in well known cartridges, hence a new powder with hitherto unknown qualities was required. The cartridge was of .30-caliber with a shell resembling the .30-caliber Model 1906, and carried a pointed bullet weighing 180 grains. The rifle barrel was 30 inches long. This cartridge with the new powder that was designed for it proved to give a velocity of 2800 feet at the muzzle, with a pressure of 55,000 pounds. The best previous similar result achieved in a practical way was about 2500 feet muzzle velocity in the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge with similar pressure. At once the new powder was tried in various older cartridges, with the results that the now famous 2925 foot muzzle velocity load with this powder was found to be just as practical as the regular standard load. No. 15 is adapted for use in all cartridges of .30 caliber or smaller which use shells of large powder capacity, and does its best work with pointed bullets. Its burning pressure is 50,000 to 55,000 pounds, though it will stand more than this without becoming erratic. Its chief advantage is that in a number of cartridges it will develop 100 to 300 feet more velocity than can be obtained with the regular burning powders. In relation to other powders No. 15 occupies a position which in a sense is midway between Du Pont No. 13 and Du Pont No. 16, though both these latter are slightly improved in their composition. It practically takes the place of both Du Pont No. 10 and Du Pont No. 20 of the regular burning types. In all cartridges and rifles to which its nature is suited it gives the usual nitrocellulose accuracy. No. 15 cannot be measured accurately and charges must be weighed. Its disadvantages are that the weight of charge, and hence expense, is a little more than with some older powders, that it ignites a little harder, it gives a big muzzle flash at night, and it can be used only in a limited number of cartridges. The recoil it produces is quite different from that given by regular burning powders. It does not seem to be less in amount, but is exerted in a different direction. It also seems to give a different flip to the bar- rel, and sight elevations with it will be found considerably below those obtained with regular burning powders in equivalent loads. Only metal-cased bullets can be used with No. 15, and only full charges of powder. It burns too slow for use in reduced loads. MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 321 DU PONT IMPROVED MILITARY RIFLE POWDER NO. l8 When Du Pont No. 15 powder had demonstrated the possibilities of a progressive burning smokeless powder by giving more than 2900 feet velocity in the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge, a call immediately arose for a similar powder that would burn correctly in cartridges of more limited powder capacity. No. 15 burns so slowly that it can be used only where the charge is big, especially in the smaller bores. This second progressive burning nitrocellulose powder was therefore de- veloped in 191 5, and first marketed during the latter months of that year. The grains are .045 inch long and .03 inch in diameter (a very short cut), and of course are of the usual tubular shape. In the size of grain No. 18 greatly resembles the regular burning No. 21 powder, and it is intended to replace that excellent one in many cartridges. In de- signing No. 18 the makers had in mind particularly the requirements of such cartridges as the .25-35 an( l -S ^ - It is in these and similar cartridges, therefore, where the best results from its use may be ex- pected. It burns best at pressures from 33,000 to 38,000 pounds. After numerous tests of No. 18 had been made it proved to have a great deal more flexibility than either No. 21 or No. 15. At pressures of 45,000 and even 50,000 pounds it does not become erratic, while at pressures as low as 20,000 pounds it still burns in a fairly satisfactory manner. This enlarges the field of its usefulness so as to take in the .30-40 cartridge, and it can even be used in the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge. It is also suitable for reduced loads, and can be used with gas-check bullets. The velocities developed with No. 18 are 100 to 350 feet higher than standard in a big range of medium hunting cartridges. As related to other powders, it is the quickest burning progressive powder that we have. The special advantages of No. 18 are the quick burning (good in small shells and short barrels), the accuracy that it gives, the low temperature at which it burns, and consequent absence of erosive action in the bore, the wide range of cartridges in which it may be used, possibility of using it in reduced loads,, and the accuracy possible in measured charges. Weighing is useful as a check, but the Ideal meas- ure will throw charges very close to what is required, especially for the lighter loads. The limitations of No. 18 are that care must be exercised when the charges used are close to the maximum. On account of its quick burn- ing, abuse of it by overloading may cause very high pressures, which, 322 THE AMERICAN RIFLE though regular, may still be dangerous in some of the older hunting rifles. Attempts should not be made to use it steadily in place of the slower burning progressives in cartridges of the .30-40 class and larger. Larger proportionate charges of No. 18 may be used in shells of slight or long taper, and in larger bores than in cartridges where the opposite pertains. DU PONT IMPROVED MILITARY RIFLE POWDER NO. l6 The history of all other progressive powders is involved in the mak- ing of this one, and in it is comprised all progress along this line that so far has been taught the makers. It is the latest, most modern progressive rifle powder. Perhaps from its performances we may get some idea of what may be expected of the rifle powders of the future. No. 16 in type is a progressive burning nitrocellulose powder with almost the same size grains as No. 15, though slightly less in diameter. It was first put on the market early in 1917, though a preliminary lot was distributed among expert riflemen during 1916. This time the manufacturers worked to perfect a progressive powder suited to a wide range of cartridges and conditions, rather than to one particular cartridge or type of cartridge. As a result No. 16 is the most flexible dense powder, if not the most flexible of all modern powders, and more nearly approaches the universal powder than any made since black powder days. Its best burning pressure lies between 30,000 and 50,000 pounds, though within these limits no one seems to have established a point at which it does better than at others. In consequence of these capaci- ties No. 16 is suited to a wide range of cartridges and rifles, from .22 Savage high power, through the various .30 calibers, to the .405 Winchester. It has also been officially adopted as the powder for small arms by the British war office. Many of the cartridges in which it does good work, on account of being straight shells or for other rea- sons, never before have been able to use a dense powder with more than fair satisfaction. The velocities that can be developed in all these cartridges with No. 16 are the highest ever known. For instance 3250 feet can be ob- tained in the .250-3000 Savage cartridge, and 3000 feet in the Spring- field with 150-grain bullet. Standard velocities can be secured, if desired, by reducing the charge without any trouble resulting. All of these loads develop accuracy equal to any on record. No. 16 in MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 323 relation to other powders of its type, stands between the quick burning No. 18, and the slow burning No. 13. In respect to No. 15 it is quicker. Its advantages, summed up, are that it is extremely accurate, burns at very low temperature, ignites easily, and is very widely useful. It can be used to speed up and transform many otherwise inefficient car- tridges. A feature not to be overlooked is that its residue seems to clean out of barrels easier than that of any other smokeless powder. This feature is so marked that every one using the powder has noted it. Lack of erosive properties, with this lack of corrosive nature of the residue, permit barrels to be fired more than 20,000 rounds with No. 16 without their accuracy having deteriorated enough to be seri- ous. In fact this powder causes only about 60 per cent, of the erosion caused by even as cool burning a powder as No. 20. No. 16 measures Fig. 79 Krag rifle remodelled into a sporting arm by Fred Adolph fairly well. In charges intended to give standard velocities the Ideal powder measure can be relied upon to throw them with sufficient exact- ness and uniformity for ordinary work if the setting of the measure is checked by the scales. When charges giving extreme velocity are used each charge should be weighed. DU PONT IMPROVED MILITARY RIFLE POWDER NO. I3 Although No. 13 is not generally on the market at the time this is being written, yet I want to include a description because no other powder can be used to secure equal results in the .256 Newton car- tridge, and in some similar cartridges. This powder was developed during 1917, and properly can be said to be an outgrowth of No. 16 powder. It has about the same composition, and is intended to take up where that powder leaves off. No. 13 is a dense, nitrocellulose, progressive burning powder, with tubular grains about .08 inch long and .04 inch in diameter. The grains vary much in measurement, owing to their drying crooked, and 324 THE AMERICAN RIFLE to edges turned and flared. In appearance No. 13 greatly resembles No. 15. The history of No. 13 is a story of numerous experiments with No. 10, and No. 15 in the Newton series of cartridges, and incidentally in the Ross .280. The peculiar conditions to be met included a required ultra high velocity in each case, a very large charge of powder in a big shell with sharply restricted neck and small bore. The powder needed should be of the progressive burning type, and should burn slower than No. 16. The burning of No. 13, designed with these con- ditions in view, is normal between 50,000 and 55,000 pounds. It will burn satisfactorily at higher pressure, but not at much lower. With normal pressures velocities of 2975 feet per second are obtained in the .256 Newton rifle with 24-inch barrel, upwards of 3300 feet in the .280 Ross with 28-inch barrel, and 3225 feet in the .30 Newton with .30-inch barrel. To bring out more clearly the capacities and limitations of No. 13, certain peculiarities of these results should be noted. The .256 Newton has a smaller powder capacity than the other two cartridges named, hence must use a smaller charge. In- creasing the barrel length of this rifle to 30 inches brings no appreciable increase in velocity, proving that the entire charge burns in the 24-inch barrel. In the .280 Ross a 24-inch barrel with maximum charge of No. 13 that can be put in this big shell, gives only about 2990 feet, while in a 28-inch barrel the same charge gives 3300 feet velocity. This shows that the larger charge is required for best burning under .280 conditions, and that longer barrels than 24 inches are required to realize the full potential force. No. 13 is one of the powder series which includes Nos. 15, 18, and 16, but is more closely related to the latter powder than the others. It is the slowest burning of the four. It differs from No. 16, however, in being restricted in usefulness to the few cartridges of large powder capacity such as those above described. The grains are a little too coarse for uniformity in measuring. This, in connection with the fact that all the charges are maximum ones, makes the weighing of each charge imperative. No. 13 should not be used in an effort to secure lower than standard velocities, since the charge required would be considerably less than the maximum, and the pressure far lower, hence poor burning would surely result with consequent falling off in accuracy and other troubles. MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 325 HERCULES W. A. .30-CALIBER POWDER What 1909 military powder did in assisting the development of the Springfield rifle between 1906 and 1909, this .30-caliber powder did in even greater degree for the Krag rifle between 1900 and 1904. The fact that it is obsolete now should not detract from the credit due it for its good work in past days. W. A. is a dense, 30 per cent., nitroglycerine powder with grains about .08 inch in diameter by .04 to .05 inch long. They are perforated, forming thick washers in shape, are graphited, and are gray-black in color. The .30-40 Krag cartridge when it first came out was loaded with a special black powder experimentally, but the excessive fouling proved this powder impracticable. Then it was loaded with various foreign cordite powders, and finally with Peyton smokeless, but all these pow- ders were not perforated, nor were they graphited. Their burning temperature was excessively high, their pressures were erratic and un- controllable, and they gave generally inaccurate results. The W. A. powder, so named from the two chemists who developed it, Mr. Whistler and Mr. Aspinwall, was graphited and perforated, and immediately gave results not before approached in the .30-40 car- tridge for which it was designed. It at once replaced the older pow- ders. During the first two years of its use it was badly handicapped by inferior bullets, and not until 1903 when proper bullets of at least .308 inch in diameter were made for the .30-40 Krag cartridge did this powder begin to show its real possibilities. From then on until 1907 it won all the international rifle matches, and it remained the best dense smokeless powder until the introduction of stable nitrocellulose pow- der during the period between 1906 and 1909. The correct burning pressure of W. A. is 34,000 to 39,000 pounds to the square inch. Below these pressures it burns incompletely and erratically ; above them it reacts strongly to the pressures and increases excessively in temperature of burning. At its normal pressures it de- velops muzzle velocities of about 2000 feet in the .30-40 Krag car- tridge with the standard 220-grain bullet. It is not suitable for use with any of the lighter bullets in this cartridge, nor for others without metal jackets or with less bearing surface, nor with charges that vary much from the Krag standard. It can be used, however, in several other cartridges similar to the Krag, such as the .33 W. C. F., and .35 W. C. F. Model 1895, with long, heavy bullets, and with shells of about the same powder capacity. 326 THE AMERICAN RIFLE W. A. in series is one of four nitroglycerine powders that have been widely used, the other three being Lightning, Sharpshooter, and HiVel. Of these it is quicker burning than HiVel, but slower than the other two. Its place in the development of modern rifle powders is that of the pioneer, and its purposes today are better served in the .30-40 as well as other cartridges by the more modern nitrocellulose powders. The advantage of W. A. was that it was accurate in long barrels with heavy bullets. A low weight of charge was required. Viewed Fig. 80 Double barrelled elephant rifle made by Fred Adolph from the present day angle, W. A. is inflexible (can be used in a few cartridges and with no variation in loading), it burns hot and erodes the barrel seriously, develops only a low velocity, and is not capable of giving the accuracy of the more modern powders. Krag rifles fired with nothing but W. A. begin to show inaccuracies that can be noticed by an expert rifleman after about 1000 rounds have been fired from them, and the accuracy is seriously impaired after about 1700 rounds. HERCULES LIGHTNING POWDER This is a dense powder of wide usefulness, and with but one bad fault — its hot burning and erosive effect on the barrels. It is of the nitroglycerine type, containing 30 per cent, of that explosive, and is MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 327 made in two grain sizes called No. 1 and No. 2. As the grains come from the dies they are cut .1 inch in diameter by .015 inch long for No. 2, and .08 inch in diameter by .05 inch long for No. 1. In drying these grains contract a little, and warp much, so that the grains of the powder on the market vary greatly. These grains are of the perforated tube variety but are cut so short that they resemble washers rather than tubes. The correct burning pressure for Lightning is 32,000 to 37,000 pounds per square inch. It was designed about 1903 in answer to a demand for a dense smokeless powder that would make possible high-power, hunting cartridges somewhat smaller than the .30-40 Krag, such as the .30-30, .303 Savage, and .25-35. In this type of cartridges it de- veloped velocities about 2000 feet per second. Later on experiments showed that it was excellent for cartridges of the .30-40, 7 mm. and 8 mm. class when they were loaded with lighter bullets. Still later Lightning proved extremely useful for mid-range loads in all high power cartridges, when used with either metal-jacketed bullets, or alloy bullets with copper gas-checks on the base to protect the base of the bullet from being fused by the hot powder gases. The advantages of Lightning are clean burning, great accuracy, more than fair stability except under extremes of heat and cold, light weight of charges required, and good measuring quality. The Ideal measure cuts a few grains, but throws charges with pretty satisfactory exactness. It develops standard velocities in the .30-30 and similar cartridges with slightly lower pressure than the equivalent charge of nitrocellulose powder. The disadvantages are, first, the hot, eroding gases generated. Any rifle using this powder for a thousand shots is bound to show typical erosion or washing away of the lands just in front of the chamber. Lightning reacts quickly to slight overloading, as well as to heat. Thus if forced to burn behind a cartridge that normally would require a pres- sure of say, 40,000 to 50,000 pounds, the nature of the powder is such that the pressures might run up to 60,000 to 70,000 pounds, or even more, which would be dangerous. When ammunition is loaded with Lightning for use in the tropics, a few grains should always be de- ducted from the regular charge. Great care should be exercised by any one loading Lightning to check the powder measure with scales whenever the charges used pass the mid-range amount, or when heavier or harder bullets than the standard are used. In series, Lightning classes with Sharpshooter, the quicker burning 328 THE AMERICAN RIFLE nitroglycerine powder, and with W. A. and HiVel, both slower burners. In development it belongs strictly to the nitroglycerine period, and any results that it gives are duplicated or excelled by the proper nitrocellu- lose powder of more modern introduction. Today there is little more justification for loading .22 Savage High-Power, .30-30, .303 Savage, .2,2 Special, and other such cartridges with Lightning, than there is in loading the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge with HiVel, when No. 20 and the newer powders are available. Lightning is far better suited for mid-range charges, where pressure is minimum, than for full power charges. HERCULES SHARPSHOOTER POWDER This powder was introduced to give modern smokeless powder re- sults in a diversified group of cartridges in which W. A. and Light- ning would not burn properly. In some of them it achieved excellent velocities; in others little improvement over the black powder stand- ards was obtained. Sharpshooter is a dense, nitroglycerine type of powder, with two sizes of grain, measuring about .08 inch in diameter by .01 and .015 inch thick, respectively. It will be noticed that this is a very fine powder which burns at great speed. It contains 40 per cent, of nitro- glycerine, which, together with the quick burning, makes it the most virulent eroding powder manufactured. The grains are graphited and perforated, hence look like black washers. The date of introduc- tion w r as about 1903. The manufacturers probably had the conditions of the 45-70 cartridge as much in mind as those of any other when they formulated Sharpshooter, but it was intended for use in all car- tridges which gave little bullet or neck resistance. Quick burning was one essential, ease of complete ignition another. In consequence Sharp- shooter burns well, and gives accurate results in .45-70, .38-55, .32-40, .38-40 and many other such cartridges. The burning pressure re- quired is 26,000 to 31,000 pounds. It will not burn well at much be- low this pressure, and above it it becomes very erratic and dangerous. It has been much recommended for reduced loads in high power rifles, even in .22 Savage High Power, and .250-3000 Savage. In such load- ing it gives accurate results, but it is so destructive that its advantages are entirely outweighed. It is the powder considered best for auto- matic rifles, particularly those of the blow-back type of action. Dur- ing recent years several of the cartridge loading cartridges have used it extensively in the so called " High Velocity, Low Pressure " car- 4^ «|^ * % 1 A ^' • , fif 4 l^* 1 Fig. 7SA Grains of modern rifle powders, greatly enlarged 1. Dn Pont Military Rifle Powder No. 21 2. Dn Pont No. I Rifle Smokeless 3. Dn Pont Sporting Rifle Powder No. 8o 32Q 330 THE AMERICAN RIFLE tridges for rifles of the black-powcler class, and for the real high- velocity ammunition of the same size cartridges. It is not the proper powder for the latter. The velocities developed with the usual Sharpshooter loading are the standard for black powder. The High Velocity loading gives 1600 to 1970 feet at the muzzle, varying with different cartridges and bul- lets. In general the powder is not suitable for developing more than standard black-powder velocities, owing to excessive reaction to slight increase in pressure, and to excessively hot burning. In series Sharpshooter classes with W. A., Lightning, and HiVel, and is the quickest burning of the four. In development it is years behind any nitrocellulose powder. If its manufacture were to cease its place could be filled by other existing powders without any loss whatever except for the gap between the quick burning No. 80, and the slower burning No. 18. At this point there is room for another nitrocellulose powder. The advantages of Sharpshooter are so many that one cannot help wishing that it did not have such serious faults. It is highly con- centrated and takes a low weight of charge. It is impervious to moisture from the air. It is extremely accurate. It burns well in straight shells, and develops the maximum effect from the minimum of shell space. In short, when used without regard to erosion it is a valuable powder. _ This erosion, however, is most serious in small bores and least serious in large bores. It shows very little erosion in the 45-70 rifle. In very small rifles, like the .25-20, it causes other trou- bles probably from an intensely acid residue which occurs in these small bores where the powder charge does not so fully dilute the extremely acid product from the combustion of the primer. The charges measure out very uniformly in the Ideal powder measure or otherwise, but in anything like full loads for any cartridge they should be checked by weighing to assure against overloading. Caution is nec- essary in attempting to identify Sharpshooter by the appearance of the grains alone, as there is very little difference in appearance between it and the smaller cut of Lightning, and a charge of the latter which would be correct would be a heavy overload for Sharpshooter. HERCULES HIVEL POWDER This is also known as Du Pont Military Rifle Powder No. 19, and as " 1908 Military." It was formerly made by the Du Pont Com- pany, but they have now discontinued its manufacture, and the Her- MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 331 cules Powder Company are the only firm manufacturing it at the pres- ent time. It is a special powder formulated for the .30-caliber, Model 1903, and .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridges, in which it failed to give complete satisfaction because of its erosive qualities. HiVel is a dense nitroglycerine powder, with 15 per cent, of that ex- plosive. The grains measure about .09-inch in diameter by about .05 inch long, and are perforated and graphited. It is the most recent addition to the series comprising Lightning, Sharpshooter, and W. A., and the slowest burning of the four. It never was widely used, although a few military target riflemen preferred it because of its extreme accuracy in the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge, particularly with the 180-grain bullet. HiVel was developed in 1908 under the name of " 1908 Military Powder," to fill a demand for a slower burning powder than W. A. for use in the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge. In that year the efforts of the Du Pont Company to produce a suitable powder for this new cartridge were conducted along both nitroglycerine and nitro- cellulose lines at the same time, with the result that the nitroglycerine 1908 powder was first produced, to be quickly followed and entirely displaced by the 1909 Military of nitrocellulose type, the name of which has since been changed to Du Pont No. 20. HiVel burns best at a pressure of 42,000 to 47,000 pounds. It de- velops standard velocities in a few cartridges having fairly large pow- der capacity, such as the .30 Model 1903, .30 Model 1906, .35 Win- chester Model 1895, .^t, Winchester, and a few others, but is not suitable for getting increased velocities owing to the extreme erosion de- veloped. Its accuracy is splendid, although no better than the proper loads of nitrocellulose powders. Long-range riflemen used to use it with great success by changing the barrels of their rifles after every 500 rounds or so. Wlien loaded to give standard velocities it develops from 1000 to 1500 pounds less pressure than the corresponding regular burning nitrocellulose powders. It ignites easily and uniformly, and the residue is easily cleaned from the bore. The charges should always be weighed. It will not measure uni- formly in the Ideal powder measure or otherwise. I should like to cau- tion any rifleman against attempting to use this powder in any of the ultra high-velocity cartridges such as the Newton series, and the .280 Ross, since any charge that will develop normal velocities in these arms, or even burn the powder properly behind their bullets, will im- pair the barrels through erosion in a very few rounds. 332 THE AMERICAN RIFLE DU PONT NO. I RIFLE SMOKELESS POWDER This was the first bulk smokeless rifle powder produced in America, and is still widely used. It has numerous good qualities, and no serious faults. Its shortcomings are those of lack of capacity. No. i is a true bulk-for-bulk nitrocellulose powder with fibrous, irregular Du Pont No. I Rifle Smokeless. Four hundred times actual size grains screened through a 16-to-the-inch mesh, and caught on a 26-to- the-inch mesh, which makes it a rather coarse granulation. The color is slightly smoky or dirty white. It was developed about 1898 and was designed for replacing black powder in the then long list of black- MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 333 powder cartridges ranging from .25 caliber up to .50 caliber. It was successful in these cartridges, and during later years to some extent also in reduced charges for high-power rifles. The burning pres- sure is 20,000 to 25,000 pounds. The velocities developed by No. 1 are those which are standard for black powder. It gives no increase. The aim of the designers was to get a clean burning, smokeless powder that would occupy the same powder space as the regular black-powder charges. Increasing the charge gives slight increase in velocities, but brings certain troubles which make the effort not worth while. No. 1 was produced before No. 75, which is of a somewhat similar composition, and long before No. 80, which, using many of the same ingredients, is more condensed, quicker burning, and more moisture resisting. The one outstanding advantage of No. 1 at the time that it was introduced was the smokeless feature. A hunter could fire shot after shot from a repeating rifle without the smoke obscuring his game as it would do with black powder. It could be used in a great many cartridges, gave excellent accuracy, burned at a low temperature, meas- ured well, and used a low weight of charge. Against these ad- vantages was the necessity for a tighter fitting bullet than with black powder, for smokeless powder cleaning, and for special smokeless primers. A caution necessary in the use of No. I is that charges compressed in the shell should be fired within a few days after loading. If left longer the soft grains will crumble under the bullet pressure, and in this fine condition the powder will burn much faster, and develop pressures much higher than normal. The powder in cans and in the cartridges after loading, with any sized charges, should be protected from moist air, as the grains absorb moisture readily. DU PONT SCHUETZEN POWDER This is a true " bulk-for-bulk," smokeless rifle powder, in that charges for any cartridge occupy the same shell space as charges of black powder. It is of a nitrocellulose composition, with large grains of a light reddish brown color resembling very fine gravel. In the manufacture the grains are screened through a 1 5-to-the-inch mesh, and caught on a 25-mesh screen. Schuetzen was issued to the trade in 1909, and was designed spe- cially for fine target shooting in Schuetzen rifles of .32-40 and .38-55 caliber. It burns at a pressure of 22,000 to 26,000 pounds to the square 334 THE AMERICAN RIFLE inch, and develops approximately the same velocities as black powder. No other powder is more accurate than this when it is loaded under the conditions intended, and especially when the bullet is seated in the rifling' ahead of the shell, or in the breech-muzzle loading rifles. Schuetzen burns coolly, and its residue is easily cleaned from the bore, though smokeless powder methods are required. It measures with the greatest accuracy so that there is little advantage in weighing the charges. Its use is limited to the two cartridges named, and to a few others with straight shells. I have found it excellent in the .25-20 single-shot cartridge with metal- jacketed bullet. It should be used only in full charges as it burns too slowly for reduced loads. It is also too much subject to moisture absorption, "and to effects from dirt in the shells, for satisfactory use in loaded cartridges that are to be kept some time before firing. For almost all purposes, except Schuetzen shooting on the range, No. 80 is a better powder. DU PONT GALLERY RIFLE POWDER NO. 75 This powder was formerly known as " Marksman." In many re- spects it has been, and still is, one of the most important and valuable of our modern rifle powders. It never has brought about entire re- designing of rifles, as No. 20 has done, but it has served exceedingly well to make a great many otherwise highly specialized rifles more widely useful. No. 75 is a nitrocellulose powder classed as "bulk," though it is considerably more concentrated than the true " bulk-for-bulk," smoke- less powders. The grains are fibrous, irregular in shape and size, with all the corners rounded off to make them flow more freely and easily in powder measures. They are of a size that goes through the 26-to-the-inch mesh screen, but not through the 60 mesh, which makes a fine grained powder. The color is steel gray. This powder was designed about 1904 for the .30-40 Krag rifle in reduced charges. The Army and Navy at that time had encountered difficulties in accomplishing the desired amount of target practice with full service ammunition, and no suitable powder was available that could be used with success for loading or reloading these cartridges with an eco- nomical charge good for ranges up to or beyond 200 yards. The Laflin and Rand Powder Company then designed this powder, making it of a nature to ignite and burn properly when loaded in small charges in large shells, and to do this without fusing the base of the bullets, which were of lead allov. MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 335 Experiments soon showed that " Marksman," as it was then called, worked equally well in a wide range of cartridges, notably the .25-20, .25-35, •3 (y ~3°} an d .30 Model 1906, and later on in the .22 Savage High Power, .250-3000 Savage, .280 Ross, and even in the Newton series of cartridges. In all these cartridges, however, it fills just the one purpose, that of giving bullet velocities of from 800 to 1600 feet. Naturally it is less useful in the small cartridges than in the larger ones because it closely approximates standard results in the small ones. The burning pressure is 10,000 to 15,000 pounds. It will burn with fair satisfaction in proper rifles at 5000 pounds less than the average of these figures, and at several thousand higher. In the .30-40, for instance, with a bullet weighing 175 grains, a charge of about 11 grains will give a velocity of about 1200 feet, which for target pur- poses reproduces the .32-40 black-powder cartridge. I have used 15 grains in the .30-40, and 17 grains in the .30 Model 1906 cartridges, both with the 150-grain, pointed, full- jacketed, service bullet, with excellent results and the finest accuracy. These loads must develop 1600 to 1700 feet velocity. No. 80 is a somewhat similar powder, though of a different com- position, and slightly less concentrated. No. 1 differs still more, and is much less concentrated. Of these three it is the quickest burning. The advantages of No. 75 are that in proper charges it does not fuse alloy or lead bullets, it is very accurate, requires a low weight of charge, has no eroding effect on the barrel, cleans out easily, meas- ures with great uniformity in the Ideal measure, and ignites well even when the charge occupies only a small part of the shell space. The disadvantages are that it is susceptible to moisture, and cannot be used for full charges to get standard velocities. Riflemen should load their reduced charges with No. 75 not very long before using them, and should clean their shells. Loaded ammunition left in shells, espe- cially if the shells are dirty inside, is liable to deteriorate in such a way as to become inaccurate at least. No. 75 should not be used in ex- tremely light charges for gallery ammunition, nor in charges of its own class where No. 80 is indicated on account of its resistance to moisture. DU PONT SPORTING RIFLE POWDER NO. 80 For a long time after No. 1 was developed no advance was made in the bulk class of powders, with the result that certain nitroglycerine brands, such as Sharpshooter, came into general use in black-powder cartridges. No. 80 is a bulk nitrocellulose which was developed in 1914 23 6 THE AMERICAN RIFLE to take this place. The grains are fibrous, irregular in shape, and are screened through a 24-to-the-inch mesh, and caught on a 56 mesh, and are buff in color. No. 80 was designed for use in all the older class of low-power rifles in which black powder could be used, and works well with plain lead, gas-check, and metal- jacketed bullets. After it had been on the market for some time experiments showed that it gave excellent results in revolver and automatic pistol cartridges, and in automatic rifle cartridges. It also proved to be very serviceable and accurate in reduced charges in high-power cartridges for all sizes from .22 Savage High Power up to .30 Newton and .405 Winchester. The correct burning pressure is 14,000 to 19,000 pounds, but it will burn with fair satisfaction at much lower pressures. At higher pres- sures it reacts to some extent, and develops a temporary excess of pressure near the head of the shell. The velocities developed are any- thing desired within a few hundred feet of the standard for black pow- der. Thus it will give lower velocities with reduced loading, standard velocities with charges as recommended on the canister, and with larger charges, will give the " high velocities " required in the .38-40, .44-40, .32-40, and .38-55 cartridges of that designation. It de- velops all the velocity that gas check bullets will stand, and can be substituted for Sharpshooter with advantage in all medium and small sized shells at least. No. 80 burns slower than No. 75, and faster than No. I. In point of development it is a long way ahead of either of these, and should replace them in all loading except that of No. 75 behind plain, lead-alloy bullets. The advantages of No. 80 are great accuracy, easily removed residue, ease of measuring (there is no necessity of weighing charges), ease of ignition, great flexibility (it will work well in almost all car- tridges), resistance to moisture absorption and the effects of dirt in shells, and cool burning. It ignites readily even when the charge used occupies only a small part of the shell space. It can be loaded into dirty shells without deteriorating within a short time. Its cool burning prevents the fusing of lead bullets, and prevents damage to rifle bar- rels. Certain disadvantages, however, must be guarded against. While it is classed as bulk powder, it cannot be loaded bulk-for-bulk with black powder. The correct charge is stated below for each cartridge in so many grains, and this bulk can be secured with the Ideal measure or otherwise by the use of the equivalent table given in the next chapter. In many cases the recommended charges practically fill the shell, and in MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 337 a few cases must be jarred or tamped to permit the seating of the bullet. Compression apparently does no harm, but should be avoided if the charge can be gotten in the shell by jarring. The following is a list of charges of No. 80, giving standard veloci- ties in the cartridges stated : Cartridge .22-13 .22-15 .25-20 .25-20 .25-21 .25-21 •25-25 •25-25 .32-20 .32-20 .32-40 .38-40 •38-55 .44-40 .44-40 •45-70 •45-00 •45-^90 .32-20 .38-40 .44-40 Winchester S. S Stevens Repeater , Single Shot Stevens S. S. . . Stevens S. S. Stevens S. S. Stevens S. S. Winchester Winchester H Winchester . Winchester . Winchester . Winchester . Winchester . Winchester H Winchester . Winchester . V. V. Bullet, grains 45 lead 60 lead 86 lead 86 lead 86 lead 86 jacketed 86 jacketed 86 lead 100 lead 100 jacketed 165 jacketed 180 jacketed 255 jacketed 2CO jacketed 200 lead 300 jacketed 300 jacketed 300 lead FOR USE IN REVOLVERS 100 lead 180 lead 200 lead Weight of charge, grains 4-3 6. 7- 6.8 7-5 8.8 9- 8. 8.6 12. 13-2 14.9 16.4 17- 15-7 31- 31.2 29.7 7-5 16.3 18.2 When used in large charges, a limit is reached in each cartridge past which the head pressure in the chamber becomes too much for the shell, expanding and tightening it, though the chamber and barrel pressures may be lower than normal for the velocity developed. Riflemen should load up to this limit, but not beyond it. For instance, in the .45-70 cartridge with the 330-grain bullet of nearly pure lead, a charge of 28 grains will upset the head of the shell, while one of 26 grains does not. CHAPTER XIII RELOADING AMMUNITION \X 7HEN a center-fire cartridge is fired in a rifle there remains the ' * case or shell, almost as good as new, and worth practically half the cost of the cartridge ; that is, to say from one to three cents. Primers, powder, and bullets can be purchased, and this shell can be reloaded many times with a resultant great reduction in one's ammuni- tion bill. From an economical standpoint it of course depends upon how one wishes to spend one's spare time, and how much one's time is worth. In a great many cases the rifleman will find that reloaded ammuni- tion is more satisfactory than the factory product, because it is possible for him to vary it slightly to suit exactly the peculiarities of his own rifle, and also because he can make up special loads that are not handled by the factories. The factory must manufacture a certain cartridge so that it will fit every rifle of that caliber, and this cartridge must be perfectly safe in all these rifles, despite rusted barrels and worn actions. The rifleman can use the shells which have been fired in his own rifle and fully expanded to fit the chamber perfectly, this in itself contribut- ing to better accuracy. He can use a bullet which just fits to the bottom of the grooves in his particular barrel, and if he so desires, and his rifle is in A I condition he can load the cartridge a little heavier than the factory loads and still have a plentiful margin of safety, although in this latter respect he must have a knowledge of powders and pressures, and know exactly what he is doing. An acquaintance with thousands of riflemen throughout our country enables me to assert that very few of them load their own ammuni- tion. Considering the advantages which accrue from the proper re- loading of ammunition, the several reasons for this should be consid- ered. First, American factory ammunition loaded by any of our four largest ammunition factories, Winchester, U. M. C, United States, and Peters, is so good that it really cannot be adversely criticised. Considering that the factory must cater to every rifle, and every rifle- man, it is impossible for them to do better. Factory ammunition in an accurate, well-designed rifle will shoot better than the rifleman can hold 338 RELOADING AMMUNITION 339 nine times out of ten. Second, the hunter and sportsman fires com- paratively few shots, and his yearly ammunition bill is not a serious item. Third, the military rifle shot fires probably ten times as much ammunition yearly as any other class of shooters, but his ammunition is usually largely provided by the Government. Fourth, a great num- ber of riflemen have tried reloading and given it up as unsatisfactory, principally, I think, because they have failed to obtain and use properly all the tools necessary, and because they have adopted needlessly com- plicated methods. For example, muzzle resizing chambers, shell-ex- panding chambers, and powder measures are always sold by the manu- facturers of reloading tools as " extras." In fact some manufacturers do not make them at all. As a matter of fact they should not be advertised as extras, and a set of tools should never be sold without them because they are an absolutely essential part of the equipment if satisfactory reloading is to be accomplished. Similiarly, if bullets are to be moulded, a mould alone will not suffice ; a dipper, and a lubricating and sizing machine are essential. Where one tries to economize, or through lack of knowledge buys less than a complete outfit, he is doomed to failure. It is to the rifle crank that reloading will especially appeal. He will find that he will be able to produce more accurate target ammunition, more powerful hunting ammunition, and find reduced loads for his high-power rifles, none of which he can purchase ready loaded from the factories. His yearly ammunition bill will be just about cut in half. Moreover, he will learn lessons in ballistics, and acquire an intimate knowledge of his weapon which can hardly be attained if he confines himself to factory ammunition. Reloading ammunition cer- tainly pays in every way, and it is therefore intended to give herein detail methods by which absolutely satisfactory results can be at- tained. We will describe first the simplest case of reloading, that is where one takes shells which have been fired in his rifle and reloads them with smokeless powder and a jacketed bullet, the bullet being purchased ready made. We will say that we have on hand 100 empty shells which have been fired in our rifle, and we wish to reload them. Let us also say that our rifle is a United States magazine rifle, Model of 1903, using the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge, and that we wish to reload the shells with a load particularly suited to big game shooting. First, we must have certain tools and materials as an initial outlay. One will need the following tools : 34o THE AMERICAN RIFLE i Ideal No. 10 special reloading tool with double adjustable chamber for the .30-caliber model 1906 cartridge. 1 muzzle resizer for above tool to resize the necks of the shells so that they are slightly below .308-inch diameter inside. 1 shell expander chamber for above tool to expand the inside of the neck of the shell to just .308 inch. I Ideal universal powder measure No. 5, with drop tube for .30 caliber up. He will also require the following materials : Primers, either U. M. C. No. 9, United States Cartridge Co. No. 8, or the United States Government standard service rifle primer. Best purchased in lots of 1000. Several cans, holding one pound each, of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 15. One hundred or more 180-grain, 30-caliber umbrella, metal-cased, pointed bullets manufactured by the Remington Arms-U. M. C. Co. We are now ready to proceed as follows : First we will assume that the fired shells have been well taken care of, that they have not been allowed to get wet or dirty, that they have not been injured or mashed out of shape, and that they are not so old that they have become corroded inside. We must now decap, or remove the old fired primers from these shells. Screw the double adjustable chamber into the handle of the reloading tool, and insert in the chamber the primer extracting plug which comes with the tool. Screw up, or unscrew, the chamber in the tool until the needle in the point of the plug comes only about %o inch above the surface of the tool ; that is, the surface inside the jaws of the tool. Now remove the plug from the tool, and insert it point first in a shell, taking care that the needle enters the flash hole at the base of the shell inside. One can feel it enter here, and soon acquires dexterity in getting it in the hole instantly each time. It is of course essential that it enter the hole, because if it does not it will not eject the old primer, and if one closes the tool with the needle not in the flash hole the needle will probably be broken or bent. Now hold- ing the plug in the shell, insert both in the chamber of the tool and close the handle and press gently. No effort is required. The old primer will be forced out of the shell. Extract the primers from all the shells, then rub the plug off with an oily cloth, and put it away. The shells when fired in the rifle have been so expanded at the neck that they will not hold the bullet's friction tight as is necessary. Con- sequently they must be resized at the neck. Now all brass rifle shells are drawn in manufacture, not turned on a lathe. As a consequence they are not of equal thickness, nor is one particular shell of equal thickness on all sides. It follows that if we simply decrease their di- ameter at the neck by forcing each into a die we will get uniform diameter outside, but not inside, where we desire it in order to have each bullet securely and uniformly held in the shell. It is therefore RELOADING AMMUNITION 34i Shell Expander Chambet For Ideal Reloading Tools _ Fig. 81 Ideal tools required for efficient reloading necessary first to force the neck of each shell into the muzzle resizer so as to decrease its diameter inside below that required, and then expand each shell inside by forcing it into the shell expander chamber so that each shall have a uniform diameter inside the neck. The bullet which we are using is .30825 inch in diameter, and if we enlarge the resized shell to .308 inch inside the neck we will have just the correct size to hold the bullet friction tight' in the shell. As a dry shell is liable to stick in the muzzle resizer, we first go over all our shells and wipe them off with a slightly oily rag. Do not use too much oil, just enough to make the shell look shiny without appearing oily. Next, remove the double adjustable chamber from the reloading tool and insert in its place the muzzle resizer. Screw the muzzle resizer up gradually, trying a shell in it until you find that the shell is resized just up to the shoulder at the base of the neck but no further. No particular effort should be required to close the handles of the tool, just a firm pressure, but a little tug will usually be found necessary to open the handles. This resizes the necks of the shells so that they are slightly under .308 inch inside. Next, remove the muzzle resizer and insert the shell-expander chamber in its place. Insert a shell and close the handle, so adjusting the plug inside the chamber that when the tool is closed the plug passes through, or almost through, the neck of the shell into the enlarged portion of the shell inside. Then run all the shells through this chamber, expanding them to an accurate .308 inch inside. During this process it may be necessary to unscrew the ex- pander plug entirely out of the chamber occasionally, and wipe it off with the oily rag to prevent the shells sticking unduly. 342 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Next we have to insert new primers in the shells. Take the top of a cardboard box and empty about ioo primers into it, as they are much easier picked up in such a container than in the original box. Insert a shell in the priming hole in the reloading tool, which is the hole just alongside the one which the various chambers screw into. Take a primer in the fingers and lay it on top of the primer pocket of the shell. Gently close the tool so that the primer inserting plug rests on the primer. Easily, and without undue force, complete the closing of the tool until the primer is forced to the bottom of the primer pocket. Take particular pains that it is forced clear to the bottom of the pocket, as, if it is not, a missfire may result with that particular cartridge. No particular effort is required to insert and seat the primer, one will acquire considerable skill at it in a minute or two. Treat all the shells in this manner. Now we come to the operation of loading the powder into the shells. First of all, if you are smoking, quit it. Do not have any fire around. Take a time when you will not be disturbed by other people, and keep your wits about you. When you once get started the principal things you must look out for are getting two charges of powder in one shell, or overlooking a shell and not getting any powder in it, and also seeing that no grains of powder are spilled, but that the entire charge gets in the shell. First, you must adjust your powder measure to throw the charge desired. The powder measure is graduated for grains of black powder, not smokeless. Every smokeless powder has its own particular bulk in relation to its weight. When we speak of grains of smokeless powder we always mean grains by weight. The table given herewith shows how the powder measure should be set to throw a certain weight of all makes of smokeless pow- der. The powder measure should be very carefully set according to the table, and in the manner set forth in the directions which ac- company the measure. In this case we will say that we wish to load in our .30-caliber, Model 1906 shell 51.5 grains by weight of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 15, which will give to the 180-grain bullet a velocity of 2651 feet per second measured at a range of 78 feet, which approximates a muzzle Fig. 82 Ideal universal powder measure No. 5 RELOADING AMMUNITION 343 velocity of 2700 feet per second. The breech pressure will be about 56,000 pounds to the square inch. Referring to the table we will see that in order that the powder measure shall throw 51.5 grains of Du Pont No. 15 powder it must be set at 58 grains, black-powder measure. After you have set the measure in this manner go all over the calculation from start to finish again, checking it up. You cannot BE TOO CAREFUL IN THIS, A GRAIN OR TWO OVER WOULD GIVE YOU DANGEROUS PRESSURES. It is easiest to work with the powder measure clamped to a stand- ard or small shelf so that the end of the tube shall come four or five inches above the table or bench. The shells should be arranged on the bench in regular order, ten in a row to the left of the end of the tube, muzzle up. Now open a can of powder, and fill the reservoir of the measure almost to the top. Thereafter fill it up every few minutes so as to always keep it over half full. Take a shell with the left hand, place the muzzle under and against the opening of the loading tube, COMPARATIVE TABLE OF WEIGHT AND BULK OF " DUPONT IMPROVED MILITARY RIFLE POWDER NO. 16 " WITH BLACK POWDER This table does not compare the strength of Du Pont improved military rifle powder No. 16 with black powder, but is given here to enable shooters using the Ideal universal powder measure to have handy a table for setting same when loading this powder. By setting the measure slide at the proper figure in the left-hand column, the desired charge of improved military rifle powder No. 16, shown in the right hand column, will be thrown in actual grains weight. Set Weight Set Weight measure charge measure charge at desired at desired 20 17 36 30.4 22 18.6 38 32.2 24 20.6 " DE " 40 33-9 26 22.3 Slides 42 35-5 28 23.8 44 37-3 30 25-3 46 39-2 32 27.0 48 40.8 34 28.7 5o 42.7 30 28.6 60 54-1 35 32.7 65 59 40 37-9 "DEF" 70 64 45 41-3 Slides 75 68.6 50 46 80 73-2 55 50 Note: Du Pont improved military rifle powder No. 13 will not measure ac- curately through powder measures. This powder should always be weighed. and turn down the handle, thus emptying the charge from the measure into the shell. Holding the shell there, give the little knocker on the front of the measure one little flick upward so that it strikes the upper 344 THE AMERICAN RIFLE E ~ w Q ^m Ops few M 3<2 ■* O O "O s b« £ g « > — ■" ||,| I ^ ■" O C u .a >.£p'5 £ > ft.a 2 o +* b S o h -H bo ^ £ £ t3 ~ few £- J3 Is COS *3 £ O en ■> O rt ,C bo .DO, O >-" ■S 3 u 2 tu-r. S bo > <-> "^ s! tnjd^G 3 £ s* J- bo o m nS'O " m g 3 £ £ Ji= o «* o ^^ js o.cn £ £ g-g ^<3SQ"3cuO'* !{ij:*ir.t a Eg ■ hPh E- rt 7h •"•5 b0 2 3^13 3 v o -v S"« ., £ « fc m - ?l ^ bo^-Stti J?o .31;! -"boS^ibOtnCrt' UUC 4) U b 1) r< u HH St- 3Ho g> S ! TAe number in front of the dif- ferent powders designates the col- umn in the table for that powder. Names of Powders j Graduations on measures and for black powder only. 2 No. i Rifle (Du Pont). 2 Schuetzen (Du Pont). 2 E. C. (Hercules). 3 Du Pont Gallery Rifle No. 75- 4 Unique (Hercules). 5 Sharpshooter (Hercules). 6 Lightning (Hercules). 7 W. A. 30 cal. (Hercules). 7 King's Semi-Smokeless. 8 Du Pont Military Rifle No. 20. 9 Ballistite (Du Pont). 10 Empire (Du Pont). 10 Schultze (Du Pont.) 10 Smokeless Shotgun (Du Pont). 10 Mullerite. 10 Dead Shot. 11 Infallible (Hercules). 12 Bull's-eye (Hercules) (disc form). 12 R. S. Q. (Du Pont). 13 Du Pont Military Rifle Powder No. 21. 14 King's Smokeless Rifle Nos. 2, 3, and 4. 15 King's Smokeless Shotgun. 15 Robin Hood. 16 Du Pont Sporting Rifle Powder No. 80. 17 Walsrode H. P. Military. iS Walsrode for Black Powder Rifles. 19 Walsrode Green. 20 Walsrode Gray. si Wolf. 22 Du Pont Military Rifle No. 10. 23 Du Pont Military Rifle No. 19. 23 HiVeL Rifle (Hercules). 24 Du Pont Military Rifle Powder No. 18. 25 Du Pont Military Rifle Powder No. 15. • • • . ' ■ -' ■, m - • • . m xn ^> m u ' , M N fj « COfO't^ - ^' ^m uiu, m in.n a N N m •<*• in invo ^ t^co o\ 10 in »n mm 1- -c a M to •* ■* mvo t^ t^oo 0\ „; . • . in in mm O ' . cn 0) font^'t-t^m • . M in in mm m m a * (N tOfO-^-Tf-in^Ovn t^w „5 • ■ •o\^J-^t^'MOO'j- 10 • . n Irfi-in >n\o t^ t^ in mm m m mm 1- - a " N « m tj- -T in mvo vo i^ . in in in m in * . -i in Nnto*in"-.*>ON ci ro ro ^ -^- 10 io>o *0 M f^ fOrOfO't'ti ri ro ro ^ -^- in u~,%o r-» ro "^ tJ- in mVO t^. tN.00 tofo "t mvo ^O t^OO CO ) ^ Tf mvo O ts.ee 00 a M N rofOTj-in mvovo t^C30 O " N to n ■* ■* ■* w in^o IN W tO CO fO -^ -^ ID lO H 0) rororO't^i r-l m rf »o\o r^.00 0\ O •-< f^ ro 1 saans 'H'^a RELOADING AMMUNITION 345 OT " • • n tNVO n cm Os ■* w oa'tN cm h mNTi-Hoomir cn iN,mmMoooo rj-oi pooi oi h ^ *2 . . ^06 d pi' 4 m in. os ~ -m" ^-sdoo 6 >- po m noo d c^i Cn o -^-oo en tN i- vo « m os -too po *«*• "*■ Tf m mvo ^iKN in. oo co M ^3 HM^^ojOl^conPOn^fOt^'t CO fOVO ^- VO OS . po tj- ■* m mm oj • • M -• po tN m vo O m os -tvo po in h- vo •-« po Tf ^r m m m\o vo in tNCO CO Os uj • • cm rtoo -t in »oo\hco tN cm -^ co in tNCO cm N PI PCCO >OCO VO pi M "j »* . . f^ OS O >-> co mvo* tN Os -« cm rt to tNCO 6 m n4»oN tT-00 M -^00 M vo O TfCO CM vo O po po -■*■ rt- tJ- in mvo vo vo tN. tNCO ^ in to m m in in m, in mmm mm xniTiinm^nxnmmvnmxn "j M in in -^J- Tf mvO tN tNCO 0\OOHf|rrtTt mvo InCO CO o VOCO Ca- poioI-nOn- POirtNOs ^ 1 W (MM OIPOPOPOPOPO ^ inmm m.o in mm mm m ,o^ m m mm mm mm m "i ^ OS O Vo'cO* Os 6 M ro mvo In, OS O •-• PO *4-\o tN00 O h n4 CO >- moo •- moo >- moo - moo M fO fO ro 't Tf ^- in ir, mvo vo VO ^ in m in m »n to m in m m in in in in xn xn xn m vn m H ^o- xn xn xnxr. - ^ 00* 90* t**co Os — CM Tj- "^MD 00 Os ~ - pi po invo 00 Os O pi po CO h -tNO -^I-Km *^-00 (M moo cm POcoco-^Tj-Ttmin mvo vo vo IV) y* • • KfO tf >H fO-\oO0 -"t^l NfO VON OWO m •- CO *2 . . CO Os ~ "l -4-\d CO Os O* - NO 1 - POintNOs*- povo oc c pi ci i-«CM CM CI CM CIcOPOpOpOtIt!- CK •m mm m in in mm m mm mininimn xn m xn m »-t tNCO VO InCO O h (vj ^- m^O KO\0 >-< Pn ^ m In.00 0\ o p-i vo OS pi inCO M m Os pi vC Os povo ci pi co co co "3- - TfOO co ^f Tf ^ m mvo vo tN tN, tN.cc co . m m mm m mm m mm m mm m m xnxnmxnxnxnxnxnmxr,m ^ OO KCsO ^i i-ir, IN.CO O n fO mvo CO O - 1 po -t^O CO Os -1-00 «- mOscotN- m On PO tN - co PO Tt- T "^ m mvo vc vo tN tN-CC >0 ^m mm lommmmmiom in m in in m mm (-< co Os woo o h n i- i.o woo o m m *^- m km o »- po ^^O Os covo O TT In, >- m Os ci VO Os co pi co co *3- t tj- m m mvo vo vc tN • m m INCO Os pi Tj-vOOO m pj PO ■+ mo InCO Os xnxn mm mm *a- U\q Vn mvo tN.00 OS -" M po ^ m in.00 Os O ►-. Pl ro Tf m\0 00 co moo ►"« -^vo os ci m in. o covo CM M cm co co co po tJ- tJ- tJ- m, m m> . m mmmmm in m in m in m m m in m m m m m <*> u vo vO Tf m\o MD tNCO Os O *•* "i ntm mvo t^.00 Cso >- r ' tN os - co moo o cm" ti-vc co - co i-h >-iCM(M CM CMCOPOPOCOCOTt-' , t v_J •m mmm mmmmm mmm mm m ■M »-» mvo ■* mvo woo Os O « ^ pi po Tf mvo in.oo os o •- pi ^ Os ^ co m tN o pi Tj-vc Os - cove m ci CM c-i M POcocOCOCOTJ■ , ^- , 3■ >2 r ^ o H C7 , a , c^o*o^c^crcrcr , crc H crCTcrcrcrcrcrc H c-rj-^ *<*■ m O N ^VO 00 O d -^-vo CO O M -^-VO CO O M ^"VO 00 O ccrccccrcrccjcrc'O'c" (UCU. is the average center of the group. C*\ ^*^\^r\ First we must determine the center of ^^^ ^-^ V-y^-v impact, and then measure the distance \~j ,<,6 ° ~^\ \^_y of the center of each shot hole from it, ^ /^~ > i" > ^ ' and then take the average. To find the \ ^■"'X J / center of impact we must first find the N / horizontal center line, and the vertical v ^ f~\''' center line passing through the group, ~V-/ and where these two lines cross will be . lg ' 9 , r . Showing the method of meas- tne center ot impact. uring a group of shots to de- Suppose our rifle and ammunition termine the size of a circle which , r 1 ^ p j 1 -11 will contain the centers of all has nred the group ot ten shots, lllus- t h e s h Q t holes. trated in Fig. 99. We must first find the mean vertical deviation. With a square draw a horizontal line through the center of the lowest shot on the target. All the shots on the target are then numbered consecutively, starting with the highest above this base line. The distance from the base line to the center of each shot is then measured in inches and hundredths of an inch on perpendiculars to the base line on these centers. The total of all these distances (there will be nine of them, because the shot which the base line passes through has no measurement) are then added and divided by the number of shots on the target (ten in this instance). The dividend then represents the distance from the base line of a parallel line that is the mean vertical center of the group. This vertical center line is then drawn on the target, parallel to the bottom base line. Now draw a vertical line at right angles to the vertical base line (horizontal line at bottom of group) passing through the center of the left-hand shot of the group. From this line measure the horizontal distance to the centers of each of the shots on the target, and divide the sum of these measurements by the total number of shots in the group. This dividend represents the distance from the horizontal base line of a parallel line that is the mean horizontal center of the group. Where the mean vertical center line, and the mean horizontal center line cross each other is the center of the group, or the " cen- ter of impact." It is indicated in Fig. 99 by a cross, the continua- 430 THE AMERICAN RIFLE o © © — 0- © Fig. 99 Method of computing the mean radius of a group Number of shot Vertical deviation Horizontal deviation Absolute deviation I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO 2.70 inches 1.70 inches 1.63 inches 1.65 inches 1.40 inches 1.30 inches 1.20 inches .90 inch .70 inch 2.00 inches 2.47 inches 3.60 inches 1.38 inches .78 inch 1.54 inches 1.88 inches 2. 10 inches 1.50 inches 1.28 inches 2.22 inches 1.80 inches 1.63 inches .25 inch .36 inch .58 inch ■55 inch .62 inch 1.32 inches Mean 11.318 inches 1.860 inches .926 inch Mean radius .926 inch. Cross indicates center of impact tion of the two center lines being omitted for the sake of clearness. Note that the vertical base and vertical center lines are drawn on the target as horizontal lines, and the horizontal base and horizontal center lines are drawn as vertical lines. Now measure the distance from the center of impact to the center of each shot hole, and add these measurements together, and divide by the number of shots in the group. The result will be the mean TARGET MEASUREMENT 431 radius, or mean absolute deviation of the group. The smaller the radius, of course, the better the group. In testing ammunition at long range, as, for example, the tests held in the United States for the purpose of determining the most accurate ammunition for the national matches, the mean vertical deviation only is taken by measuring the distance of each shot from the vertical center line on perpendiculars to that line. This is done because at long range the variation due to the wind would make a considerable horizontal deviation of the various shots of the group, and this would not be con- stant for the various lots of ammunition tested. At 1000 yards these ammunition tests are fired on the regular 1000- yard target which is 12 feet long and 6. feet high. The various boards conducting these tests have made it a rule to assign an arbitrary meas- urement of 72 inches for every shot fired which does not hit the target. CHAPTER XXII ADJUSTMENTS AND REPAIRS Adjusting trigger pulls. Rebluing a rifle barrel. Repolishing rifle stocks. Repairing broken stocks. Checking stocks. Extracting broken shells. Remov- ing stuck cleaning rods and patches. Measuring the bore of the rifle. How to make a sulphur mould. Muzzle wear. ADJUSTING TRIGGER PULLS GOOD marksmanship depends to a great extent upon the perfect control of the trigger. The pull of the trigger must be such that the rifleman can always tell just how much pressure he must exert to discharge the rifle, and it must always be constant. As the rifles come from the factory very little has been done in the way of adjusting the pulls, except on Winchester and government arms. Winchester arms, however, while having good, clean pulls, almost invariably have trigger pulls much heavier than is desirable, and occasionally a government arm is found that has a pull which needs smoothing up. Rifles intended for target shooting exclusively usually have set trig- gers. These consist of two triggers. Pulling the rear trigger sets the front trigger, and the front trigger then pulls off clean with a couple of ounces pressure. If the rear trigger be not set, the front trigger acts as a regular trigger. Between the two triggers there is a small set screw, and by turning up or loosening this the set trigger can be made to pull off at any weight. This form of trigger requires no special explanation. The plain trigger is the one almost invariably seen on military and sporting rifles. An experience in many years of rifle shooting has taught us that the best pull for such a trigger is one that requires from 2% to 3% pounds pressure to release the hammer or cocking piece and discharge the rifle. Also this pull should be clean and sharp. That is to say, there should be no drag, grate, or movement to the trigger before the rifle is discharged. The trigger should stand absolutely immovable until the requisite pressure is exerted, and then it should give away all at once, the rifle going off, something like the breaking of a thin rod of glass. There are two forms of plain-trigger pull, which we may call the 432 ADJUSTMENTS AND REPAIRS 433 sporting-rifle pull, and the bolt-action pull. With the former the trig- ger may be either pressed against the hammer or sear by a spring, and be practically immovable all the time until the requisite pressure has been placed upon it, or it may be loosely hung in the guard, and when the pressure is first applied by the trigger finger the trigger at once moves back against the sear or hammer, and thereafter is immovable until the full pressure has been exerted. The bolt-action pull is slightly different from this. There is first of all a safety pull or movement to the trigger. When force is first applied to the trigger by the finger the trigger moves to the rear from Ys to li inch upon the exerting of a pressure of about 1V2 pounds, and thereafter is stationary. Then it takes several more pounds pressure upon this stationary trigger to fire the rifle. The principal difference between the sporting-rifle pull, and the bolt-action pull is that with the first named the trigger is practically stationary from the time that the first ounce of pressure is applied until the rifle is discharged, and with the second named the trigger first moves to the rear a little before the real trigger pull starts. It takes a little time for one used to the sporting pull to become accustomed to the bolt-action pull, but after it is mastered one is practically as good as the other. The rifleman using the bolt-action pull simply gets used to grasping the trigger at once with sufficient pressure to take up all the safety pull and move the trigger to the rear, and thereafter the pull of the two are exactly the same. As the rifle comes from the factory the pull may need either lightening, or smoothing off to eliminate creep, or both. An examina- tion of the mechanics of all triggers will show that there are but two parts concerned in the pull, the sear, and the notch in the hammer, or nose, of the cocking piece. The mainspring is kept compressed by the sear bearing against the notch or nose. When the sear is dragged away from this notch or nose the mainspring causes the hammer or firing pin to fly forward. The weight of the pull depends upon the angle at which these two surfaces come together, and the drag or creep depends upon the depth to which the sear enters the notch in the trigger or bears against the nose of the cocking piece. To lighten a trigger pull and eliminate a drag or creep, certain things are needed. Several sheets of fine emery paper, a small, thin slip of oil stone, a little lubricating oil, and a small spring scales like the scales used by the fisherman for weighing fish, which will weigh as close as a quarter pound. To weigh a trigger pull, place the hook of 434 THE AMERICAN RIFLE the scales over the trigger, exerting the pull in the same direction that the trigger ringer will act in pulling the trigger. Apply tension grad- ually, keeping the eye on the graduations on the scale, and noticing at what weight the sear releases the hammer or cocking piece. This gives the weight of the trigger pull. If it is desired simply to lighten the pull, examine the surfaces of the sear and notch or cocking piece carefully. It will be noticed that they come together something like the surfaces A-B in Fig. ioo. In order for the sear to release the hammer or cocking piece it is necessary for it to act against the tension of the mainspring. Now if these two surfaces be ground off so as to come together on the lines C-D, not so much pressure will have to be exerted against the force of the mainspring and the pull will be lighter. Dis- mount the various parts and proceed gradually and carefully to grind off the two surfaces to conform to the angle C-D, being sure to keep the grinding level, and not to grind one side more than the other. Go very slow, and assemble the parts often and try the pull with the scales. Sometimes as many as five or six light strokes on the oil stone will make a great difference in the pull, and the whole secret of the thing is to grind very carefully, and try the pull very often. Usually very little grinding is necessary to lighten the pull to the desired amount, and also usually the novice grinds off entirely too much at the first attempt, and spoils one of the parts and has to send to the factory for other parts. Remember to go very slow, and try often. To eliminate the creep or drag, it * is necessary either to polish the two surfaces of the sear and notch or nose so that they slide smoothly over each other, or else so to grind the two parts that they slide a shorter • distance before the release comes. B Polish the two surfaces with the Flg - Ior - , ,, ,.« ,, r ,, Polish the surfaces on the line emery cloth until they are perfectly A _ B where they bear aga j nst smooth, like glass, but do not attempt each other. If this does not give • j ,, , r Tf ,, • i the desired result, start very care- to grind at all at first. If this does fully and slowly t0 grind down not eliminate the creep, then the two the upper surface of the sear on _ , ,1 , ,« ,, the line C — D, assembling the parts must be so ground that they parts and testing f reqU ently. ADJUSTMENTS AND REPAIRS 435 have a shorter distance to slide over one another. Do not in any case attempt to lessen the width of the notch in a hammer, as this will al- most always simply result in the hammer sticking in the half-cock notch when the trigger is pulled, instead of falling all the way and driving the firing pin forward. Instead, work on the sear, so grinding it that it will not enter quite so far into the notch, or project up against the cocking piece. On a bolt-action rifle, first polish the surfaces of the sear and cocking piece where they bear against one another, being careful not to wear them, nor to alter the angle at which they bear against each other. If this does not improve the pull to the desired extent, com- mence very carefully and slowly grinding off the top of the sear so that it does not project up so far and engage so much of the cocking piece, but go very slowly, and put the parts together and try often. In this way the pull can be refined to the desired point. See Fig. 101. REBLUING A RIFLE BARREL One often wishes to reblue the barrel of a rifle which has become worn, or which has been cut with slots and screw holes for various sights or telescope sight mountings, and it is desired to hide these cuts or holes. To fill in old screw holes, obtain well fitting screws of the same pitch of thread as the holes in the barrel. File off the points of these screws so that they have square points. Carefully clean all oil out of the screw holes in the barrel, and also off the screws. Screw these screws tightly into the holes, and then cut them off either with a file or hack saw, so as to leave not over %4 of an inch of screw project- ing above the surface of the barrel. If using a hack saw for this pur- pose be sure to use the saw only in such a direction as to tighten the screw and not to loosen it. Now, using a light hammer with a small round point or pene, hammer the ends of the screws down smooth with the surface of the barrel so as to make a tight joint, and a smooth sur- face that one will not be able to detect after the bluing has been done. Next you must have some bluing or browning solution prepared. Have this done by some first-class druggist, and tell him what you wish the solution for, as the promiscuous sale of some of the ingredi- ents is prohibited in most States. Spirit of nitre 3 drams Tincture of iron 3 drams Sulphur 1 dram Blue vitrol 2 drams Corrosive sublimate 1 dram Nitric acid V2 dram 436 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Copperas i dram Distilled water 12 ounces Have it put in a colored glass bottle a week or two before you want to use it, and be sure to label it " poison." All the old finish, bluing, and rust spots on the barrel must now be removed by scouring it with emery cloth and steel wool. Oil the bar- rel well inside with heavy grease like cosmic or any thick gun grease, and plug up both the breech and muzzle with strong wooden plugs which project out of both the breech and muzzle two or three inches. These plugs are to serve two purposes : first, to prevent the bluing so- lution from getting into the bore and rusting it ; and, second, to han- dle the barrel with during the bluing process. Both plugs should be well saturated with oil where they enter the bore. One must get absolutely every bit of the oil off the outside surface of the barrel, and then neither the hands nor any oily thing must touch the barrel during the treatment. To get all the oil off it is best to wash the exterior over with a solution of lime and water about as thick as thin cream. Let this dry on, and then remove with clean, dry cloths that are perfectly free from any oil. Woolen rags should not be used as they are of an oily nature. Now apply the bluing solution by means of a swab made by folding up an old, clean piece of canton flannel to about 6 thicknesses, and holding this in a split stick or clothes pin. Keep the solution well stirred up, and above all keep it away from the clothes and hands as it will burn badly. Go over the barrel with long strokes from one end to the other. Set the barrel away for 24 hours in a rather damp place, not a steam-heated house, and then wipe off the rust or residue with a clean rag large enough so as not to touch the barrel with the bare hands or fingers. Of course the rag should not have a trace of oil on it. Then apply another coat of the bluing solution, applying a coat each day, after wiping off the rust of the past 24 hours. The number of such treatments necessary will depend upon the amount of moisture in the air, and the character of the steel. Ordinary steel and a damp climate will require about 6 treatments on 6 successive days. Nickel steel will require about 12 treatments unless it is very damp. A non- corrosive steel like " Poldi anti-corro " may require as many as 30 treatments to get on the required coat of rust. Wipe off the free rust only each day ; that is, only the loose rust, but not all the color. Wipe evenly and gently, or the surface may look patchy. The thing is to ADJUSTMENTS AND REPAIRS 437 continue applying the solution, and allowing the rust to form, until the color desired is acquired, usually a rich dark brown. At last, when this color is acquired, wash the barrel very thoroughly with boiling water to remove all further rusting action. Do not be afraid to use plenty of boiling water. Then go over it evenly and gently with soft, dry cloths until the surface is bone dry. Now while the metal is still hot, and the surface dry, apply liberal quantities of linseed oil with woolen cloths, covering the barrel evenly with long, gentle strokes, and gentle pressure. It is quite easy to remove the bluing in spots by hard rubbing at this stage. Watch the barrel for a few days to see if further rust action takes place. Should it do so, at once wipe off the oil and apply more boiling water, dry carefully, and again apply the linseed oil. Future appli- cations of the linseed oil will help to deepen the color and prevent rust. Do not slight any of the operations. REPOLISHING RIFLE STOCKS The ordinary stock on the straight American factory rifle is not pol- ished. It is simply varnished. Some high-grade stocks are likewise varnished with a glass-like finish. A varnished stock is an abomina- tion. It looks well when new, but a few weeks of field service covers it with scratches which cannot be obliterated by any amount of rub- bing with oil. And when the varnish is worn off such a stock it absorbs water and warps badly. The best stocks are finished or polished simply by repeated rubbings in of raw linseed oil, this finish being given the trade name of '• dull London oil finish." Well done in this manner, the stock shows its grain beautifully, has a dull, rich, velvet-like sur- face which persists, resists dampness splendidly, and if it becomes scratched the scratches can be almost entirely obliterated by a rubbing with raw linseed oil. This is the finish which all stocks and forearms should have. It is an easy matter for any one to repolish a stock in this manner, and it adds much to the appearance and serviceability of the rifle. Go to a paint and oil shop and purchase half a pint of varnish remover, and a pint of raw linseed oil. Also get several sheets of medium, fine, and very fine sandpaper. Remove the stock and forearm from the rifle, and take off butt-plate and all metal parts. With a brush or cloth wet the stock all over with the varnish remover, and let it soak in for half an hour, then rub off. One or two applications of this will suf- fice to remove all the varnish. Then scrub the surface of the wood 438 THE AMERICAN RIFLE all over with water, wetting it thoroughly. This will raise the grain of the stock, making it look " fuzzy." The wood 'should then be dried quickly by holding it over a stove, or passing it over a lamp. This will help to raise the grain still further. Then sandpaper off the raised grain or " fuzziness," using the medium-grade sandpaper. Repeat this process of wetting, drying, and sandpapering four or five times, the last time or two using the fine and very fine sandpaper for the polish- ing. The object of this is to get a permanent, very smooth, velvety surface on which the grain will not raise up when the wood becomes wet. When you can no longer raise the grain by wetting the wood and drying, dry it thoroughly, give it a fine polish with the very fine sandpaper, and set the stock away over night in a dry place. We are now ready for the oil finish. Pour about a teaspoonful of raw linseed oil on the surface of the wood, and polish it with the palm of the bare hand, rubbing the oil well into the wood, and continuing the rubbing without stopping until the oil is all rubbed in, and the wood becomes dry and warm from the friction. Repeat this rubbing with oil time after time on every part of the stock and forearm until the finish desired is attained. The excellent finish seen on very expensive stocks is attained in this manner, sometimes as many as thirty or forty coats of oil being rubbed in by hand. Once the stock and forearm have been polished in this manner all they will need to keep them in perfect condition and appearance is an occasional polish with the raw linseed oil. This should be done every time the rifle gets wet with rain or perspiration. The checked portion of the stock and forearm, and the cuts into which the metal work of the receiver and barrel fits, can be polished by oiling with a tooth brush. Do not rub hard enough on the checking to dull it. Before assembling the stock and forearm to the rifle, it is well to coat the cuts which the tang and guard fit into, the surface of the wood under the butt plate, and the inside of the forearm with beeswax or some very heavy grease like Winchester gun grease or Corol. W'alnut has become so expensive and scarce lately that many ordinary stocks are now made of other woods. These may require the application of a dark walnut stain before the oil is applied. REPAIRING BROKEN STOCKS Stocks sometimes break at the grip. This nearly always occurs as a result of an accident on a hunting trip, and if the trip is not to be spoiled the stock must be mended with the materials at hand. If one has any large nails file off the heads of a couple and point each end ADJUSTMENTS AND REPAIRS 439 sharply. Use them as dowel pins, inserting one end in the grip por- tion above the break, and the other end in the main portion of the stock, drilling holes for them with an awl or gimlet. The pins should run lengthwise with the grip. Press and drive the two portions of the stock together. If you have any canoe glue along, this may be used also. Next take two common table knives from the kitchen outfit, remove the wooden handles, and file off the guards on one side. With a pen- knife cut a shallow recess on each side of the grip so as to sink the knives into the surface of the wood so that their surface which has had the guard filed off shall lie flush with the surface of the wood. Then tightly wrap the whole grip over the knives and for quite a distance above, below, and over the break preferably with copper wire, or fish line. Or a piece of raw-hide can be soaked in water until it becomes supple, wrapped tightly around the grip, and strongly sewed, allowing it to dry in place and tighten. This will make a strong, stiff repair, and the rifle will be serviceable again. Many of the explorers and trappers of the Old West used to wrap their stocks in several thicknesses of green raw-hide, tightly sewed and laced on. When this covering dried it became as hard as iron, and very tight, and it made the stock practically unbreakable. Every hunting outfit except the very lightest should include a file, a small tool handle containing awls, gimlet, screw-driver, etc., a coil of copper wire, and a small box of assorted nails and rivets. These will come in handy for many differ- ent repairs. Of course every outfit has a knife and whetstone. CHECKING STOCKS The rifleman may sometime wish to check a rifle stock. He may have a perfectly plain factory rifle with plain stock, and the checking will improve the looks greatly, and at the same time make the grip more secure. Or it may be that he is remodelling a military arm into a sporting rifle. The operation of checking a stock or forearm is not so difficult as it would seem, any one who will take a little pains, care, and time can master it. Xo special skill is required other than a good eye and a little practice. The following methods of checking I have evolved myself, and they have worked so well that my third attempt was practically as good as the factory product. The only tools neces- sary are a checking tool shown in Fig. 102, a small jeweler's file, and a flexible ruler such as a piece of steel tape or celluloid. My own checking tool was made from a square rod of tool steel Vs inch square. One end was heated and bent to the shape shown, the teeth cut in with 440 THE AMERICAN RIFLE a file, and then tempered. A cartridge shell was fitted to the other end as a handle. The small jeweler's file should have a sharp edge (the half-round pattern does very well), and is for cleaning up the corners of the checking where it is difficult to reach it with the check- ing tool. Make the teeth on the checking tool the correct size for a medium-size diamond such as is seen in Winchester stocks. A small diamond is too trying on the eyes to cut, and a large diamond shows all the mistakes of the amateur. Practice on several odd pieces of walnut or similar wood before trying to check a stock. It takes a couple of hours to become fairly proficient at cutting the lines straight, of even depth, and of even slope on each side. Rule the first line in either direction with pencil and flexible ruler, taking care that the two lines make the correct angle with each other so as to get a properly shaped diamond. Grasp the tool with the index finger lying just above the curve. Tilt the tool a' little to the right so that only one set of teeth will cut at first, and cut the first line, following the pencil line with great care, and making the first cut merely a scratch. Then deepen this scratch just a little with succeeding cuts. It is important that the first scratch be exactly right as the tool will afterwards follow that, and if it be crooked the final cut will be crooked. If you get the first scratch crooked it is very difficult to straighten it. The motion of cutting with the tool is similar to that of filing. When the first groove is about half cut it acts as a guide for the next. Go on with the cutting but gradually lean the tool over to the left so that it will begin to cut a groove on the left of the first groove. Do not cut any groove to its full depth at first as you are tilting the tool all the time in cutting one groove after another and you would not finish them up with an even slope on each side. Cut all the grooves first to about half the depth required, then go over the work again, this time holding the tool straight up and down so that both sets of teeth cut evenly, and cut each groove to the required depth. When you can make fairly perfect diamonds and border on a piece of wood, working on both a flat and rounded surface, you are ready to undertake the actual operation on a rifle. Remove the stock and forearm from the rifle, and remove the butt plate and all metal or rubber parts. If the wood has been polished or oiled, remove the oil with a varnish remover, wash the stock, smooth it down with very fine sandpaper, until you get a smooth surface of plain walnut without any polish. Start on the forearm first, as it is much easier than the grip of the ADJUSTMENTS AND REPAIRS 44i } [ Fig. leu / Fig. 104 VI Fig. 105 Fig. 106 stock. With the flexihle ruler lay off the outline of the checking you desire in pencil lines. Be sure that this outline is so laid off that the resulting diamonds of the check will be of the correct proportions. The tendency of the amateur is to make them too square. The border of your pattern should be a single pencil line which is cut into a double line with the checking tool. The diamonds are to be cut only up to the inside of the two border lines. This makes the very neat border seen on Winchester stocks. Fig. 103 shows the first pencil outline. Cut that portion of this outline into a double line as shown by the full lines in Fig. 104 first, but do not cut that portion of the border shown by dotted lines at all at first. Next, prolong the inside, single, full, border line on either side of the forearm at the rear until they cross as shown at A in Fig. 105. Then proceed to cut lines parallel to these, and the diamonds will start to form at A and develop from there outward as each parallel line is cut. The first two lines to cross each other are the guide lines. This procedure insures getting per- fect diamonds throughout the whole work and you do not have two lines forced too close together. When you have finished cutting the diamonds in the space B, Fig. 105, cut the border lines adjacent 442 THE AMERICAN RIFLE thereto indicated by the dotted lines. Similarly when the diamonds approach the clotted lines representing the forward border lines, cut those lines. The border represented by the dotted lines must be dependent for its exact location upon the diamonds adjacent thereto, otherwise the two may not meet exactly, or the lines may not come out parallel, either of which will make a poor looking job. All this seems a little ambiguous in print, but as the work progresses one will easily understand it. You will find it difficult to reach with the checking tool into the ex- treme triangular corners of the patterns. These should be dressed out carefully with the point of the file. In checking the pistol grip the procedure should be slightly different. Here you should lay out and cut all the double border lines first. Then cut one diamond line across the entire middle of the pattern by pro- longing one of the inside border lines as shown in Fig. 107. Then cut lines parallel to this one over the entire pattern. Then prolong the other inside border line in the opposite direction as shown in Fig. 108, and complete the diamond lines in this direction, thus finish- ing the checking. You will find it difficult at first to cut the lines exactly parallel when working over a curved or rounded surface. They will tend to curve off in one direction. You must watch this closely, constantly lining up the work with your eye, and making the small, almost infinitesimal allowances and corrections which will prevent this. Do not cut the grooves quite as deep as desired at first, and be careful that your tool does not slip, especially at the end of a groove, and when approaching the border. Try to get the grooves of a uniform depth. Having completed the checking almost deep enough, brush out all dust from the diamonds with a tooth brush, and give the checked sur- face a slight coat of oil. When this oil has dried all the irregularities ADJUSTMENTS AND REPAIRS 443 in the checking will be clearly seen. If you have done your work carefully these irregularities will only be in the depth of certain parts of the checking, and the size of the tops of the diamonds. With the checking tool go over again all the shallow places until all is uniform, and with the small file dress up all the corners, and ends of lines, and your checking is complete. EXTRACTING BROKEN SHELLS Once in a great while a shell will break in the neck or body upon being fired, and, parting, the forward portion will be carried up into the rifling, or into the neck of the chamber, and be so firmly lodged there that it defies all ordinary attempts to remove it. The base of the shell, with the head attached, is of course easily extracted in the ordinary manner. This trouble is much more liable to occur with straight or straight-taper shells like the .32-40, .38-55, and .45-70 than with the modern bottle-necked shells using smokeless powder. And it is also more liable to occur with old shells that have been loaded for a number of years than with new cartridges. When any- thing happens to a smokeless powder cartridge having a bottle-necked shell, it is almost always a longitudinal crack at the neck, the shell practically never being broken in two pieces, and this occasions little trouble. Trouble is found mostly with old .45-70 cartridges that have been in store many years, the shells having become corroded around where the base of the bullet meets the powder, and when fired the bullet pulls the shell apart and takes the forward portion with it up into the throat of the chamber, or even into the rifling. Of course when this happens the rifle is temporarily useless. Both the Ideal Manufacturing Company, and the Marble Arms and Mfg. Company make little broken-shell extractors designed to extract broken shells. These are little steel tools shaped somewhat like a cartridge shell, having the same head so that they can be operated by the bolt or breech-block of the rifle, and extracted in the ordinary manner. When inserted in the chamber they slip inside the broken shell. The rifle is closed and they wedge fast to the shell, and when the rifle is opened the broken piece extracts with them. With the Ideal extractor, when it is inserted in the chamber the barrel should be pointed downward in a vertical position, and the muzzle pounded lightly on the floor once or twice to cause the little steel ball inside the extractor to run down and force the extractor to grip the broken shell. If the shell sticks very tightly it may be necessary to assist 444 THE AMERICAN RIFLE the bolt in withdrawing the shell by inserting the cleaning rod from the muzzle, and striking the end of the rod with a hammer while force is being applied to the action to open it. Fig. 109 The Ideal broken shell extractor The Marble broken shell extractor These extractors work very well when the broken shell has lodged in the chamber or in the throat of the chamber, but of course they will not act at all when the broken portion has been carried up into the rifling. The Ordnance Department of the Army furnish a little broken shell extractor to force out pieces of shell which have been carried up into the rifling. It consists simply of a small cylindrical piece of steel which perfectly fits the bore of the rifle, having lands on it which correspond to the grooves of the rifle, so that when it is inserted in the bore it fully fills the bore everywhere. This is inserted in the muzzle of the rifle, and pushed down on to the broken shell with the cleaning rod. A few blows on the cleaning rod then suffice to drive both the broken piece and the extractor out at the breech. This ex- tractor is made only for the .30-caliber, government arms with the regular 4-groove government standard of rifling, and cannot be used in any other rifles. If a portion of the shell should be carried up into the rifling and stick there, procure a short piece of brass rod, such as a piece filed off the end of the cleaning rod. Upset it slightly by pounding it on one end with a hammer until it is just about the size of the bore to the bottom of the rifling, and flat and square cornered on the pounded end. A tap with, the hammer will suffice to drive this brass plug into the bore at the muzzle, it taking the impression of the grooves of the ADJUSTMENTS AND REPAIRS 445 rifling, and fitting the bore perfectly. It can then be driven down on top of the piece of broken shell with the cleaning rod, and the broken shell and piece of brass driven out at the breech. On a hunting trip I always carry a broken shell extractor in the recess in the butt of the rifle. If the rifle has no trap in the butt- plate, the butt-plate can be removed, a small hole bored in the butt and the broken shell extractor placed therein, running in some melted beeswax around it to keep it from rattling and rusting. Also I always carry a short piece of brass rod about one-quarter inch in diameter and five inches long. This comes in handy for knocking front sights in and out of their slot, for driving nails out of shoes, etc., and a short piece can always be cut off for extracting broken shells. The breaking of shells in this manner is very infrequent indeed in these days. In fact in all my experience I have only seen one case of it, and that was nineteen years ago with a .45-caliber Springfield rifle using black powder. High-power cartridges which have been in store for a long time frequently break longitudinally at the neck, but this causes no trouble at all. Ammunition which is known to do this, however, should not be used, as the chamber will ultimately become badly gas cut from repeated splitting of shells. REMOVING STUCK CLEANING RODS AND PATCHES It often happens that, in the process of cleaning the rifle, the clean- ing rod and patch become stuck in the bore, and cannot be forced out. This is almost always the result of carelessness, and is caused by using too thick a patch, or a patch of poor material which the rod punctures. Patches should be carefully cut to the correct size, and should be of good material, preferably of canton flannel, or of any thick flannel. It will add to the absorbing qualities of the material if it be thoroughly soaked in water several times and hung up to dry without wringing out. Do not use pieces of old underclothing, or other poor and thin material which the tip of the cleaning rod is apt to tear or penetrate. The patch should be of such a size that it re- quires approximately five pounds pressure to push and pull, it through the bore. It should go through easily without force. If it happens that a cleaning rod becomes stuck in the bore do not attempt to use force to pull or drive it out. By doing so one is very liable to injure either the bore or rod, probably both. Instead, at once pour some thin lubricating oil in at the muzzle of the bore, standing 446 THE AMERICAN RIFLE the rifle up and letting the stuck patch get thoroughly soaked with oil. Then after about an hour's soaking from the muzzle reverse the rifle and pour the oil in from the breech, and let the patch soak again in this position. Both the patch and the entire bore thus become soaked and lubricated. After this the cleaning rod and patch can usually be easily pushed or pulled out of the bore. If, however, they should still stick tightly it will be necessary completely to dismount the barrel, taking off the forearm. Place the barrel above a gas or oil stove and heat it, being careful however not to heat it hot enough to injure it or the bluing. It is not necessary to heat it very hot. Three or four minutes in the flame of a small gas burner, or a small oil stove will suffice. This heat expands the bore slightly, and slightly chars the patch, and it can then be readily pushed out. Never attempt to use a patch which seems to start tightly into the bore. Pull it out, discard it, and use slightly smaller pieces. Re- member that when you are using ammonia for cleaning, and are drying the ammonia out of the bore, the second and third dry patches that you use after the ammonia patches, or the ammonia soaking, should be quite a little smaller than the others or they will stick. By using these precautions, always using good flannel, and taking care as to the size of the patches, I have never had a rod stuck in the rifle, but I have often been called upon to remove rods and patches which novices have managed to get securely stuck through lack of knowledge as to the precautions to be taken. MEASURING THE BORE OF THE RIFLE Throughout this work the "groove diameter" of the bore has been frequently referred to, meaning the diameter of the inside of the bar- rel, measuring from the bottom of one groove to the bottom of the opposite groove. This diameter is quite important when working up an accurate load for a rifle, because it indicates the exact size and fit of the bullet which will do the best work as a rule. The groove diameter of a barrel varies considerably, even in rifles chambered for the same cartridge. This is due chiefly to speed of manufacture, and wear of drills and cutters. I have measured a number of .30-caliber barrels which had measurements running all the way from .308 to .311 inch, the standard being .308 inch. It is always desirable to find out the exact diameter by actually measuring the bore, and not to trust too implicitly that it is exact standard. ADJUSTMENTS AND REPAIRS 447 In selecting a barrel one of the things we should look for is evenness of bore. The bore should have no tight or loose places. A rifle will do its best work if it is a perfect cylinder from breech to muzzle, not of course taking into consideration the grooves. Some riflemen think that a very slight taper from breech to muzzle, tighter at the muzzle than breech, is even better than a straight cylinder, and at least it can do no harm if it is not too pronounced. Such taper, except in Pope muzzle-loading barrels, is always accidental ; all our barrels being designed to be a true cylinder. To determine the size and evenness of the bore it is necessary to push a lead bullet through it, and then to measure that bullet with a micrometer caliper which reads to thousandths of an inch or finer. For this purpose a soft lead bullet is best, and it should fit the bore rather tightly. For the .30-caliber a lead bullet for the .32-20 cart- ridge does excellently, as it is .003 larger than the standard .30-caliber size, and is made of almost pure lead. The barrel should first be well cleaned, and then lubricated with a thin oil like "3 in 1" or sew- ing machine oil. The bullet is then inserted point first into the cham- ber, and very carefully seated in the rifling a little ahead of the chamber. Then place the rifle in a very heavy vise, like a carpenter's wood vise, fastened to a heavy bench. Take a strong cleaning rod almost the diameter of the bore, and with a powerful, but very steady pressure, push the bullet through the bore w r ith one motion, noting the pressure which it takes to send it through. After a little practice one can tell by the pressure whether there are any tight or loose places in the bore. As the bullet emerges from the muzzle, catch it carefully so that it will not be in the least deformed, and measure it carefully with the micrometer, measuring the maximum diameter where the bullet has fitted down into the grooves. This will give the groove diameter of the barrel, usually the diameter near the muzzle. To obtain the diameter at the muzzle and breech insert a bullet into either end just a little way, place the end of the cleaning rod against it, and give the rod a sharp blow with a hammer so as to fully expand the bullet to fit the rifling at this point, but not to drive it far forward. Then insert the cleaning rod at the opposite end of the bore and carefully push out the bullet, and measure it. To determine whether the bore is choked or not, force a bullet through in one direction and note the force and feeling, and then reverse and force one through in the opposite direction. All this takes a little 448 THE AMERICAN RIFLE skill, but it is easily learned. The main thing is to see that the bullet is not deformed as it leaves the bore. A little fall, or jam will con- siderably alter the dimensions of a soft lead bullet. In using a micrometer caliper do not use any force in screwing it up. The tool usually has a ratchet click to the screw handle, and the correct pressure is being applied to the screw to give the right read- ing when this ratchet has clicked once or twice. Before starting in to measure, standardize the micrometer by measuring something of known diameter. The .30-caliber, 150-grain, United States service bullet, for example, should measure just about .30825 inch. HOW TO MAKE A SULPHUR MOULD It often happens that one wishes to measure the chamber of his rifle to determine its exact size and dimensions, and to determine how these compare with the measurements of the cartridge and bullet. The best method of doing this is to make a sulphur mould of the chamber, and then measure the mould with a pair of micrometer calipers reading to thousandths of an inch. First, wipe the bore of the rifle, and the chamber as well, perfectly dry and clean, using gasoline and then dry patches. If any metal fouling is present, use the regular metal fouling solution. Then run through a patch saturated with kerosene until there is a thin coating of this oil covering all portions of the bore and chamber. Next, melt powdered sulphur in an iron dish with a lip of some kind from which a small, thin stream can be poured. This is best done over a gas flame or alcohol lamp. Have at hand a cover of some kind for the dish so that the flame can be smothered in case the sulphur catches fire. Put a tight wooden plug in the bore of the rifle just ahead of the chamber. Then pour the fluid sulphur into the chamber from the breech. As the sulphur cools a hole will form in the center. Keep on pouring slowly until this hole is filled up. Allow it to stand a short time to cool and solidify, then push it out carefully by means of a cleaning rod inserted from the muzzle. It may start rather hard at first, in which case try a few very light taps on the cleaning rod with a ham- mer, being careful not to hurt the mould. The mould will make a perfect cast of the chamber, and the shape and measurements of the chamber can be determined from it. A sulphur mould will not change for the first 48 hours after it is taken out, but after that you may expect it to shrink about .001 inch, and the surface will change until it has a rough appearance. ADJUSTMENTS AND REPAIRS 449 MUZZLE- WEAR We have always believed that muzzle wear caused by the friction of the cleaning rod against the muzzle of the rifle when cleaning from the muzzle ruined the accuracy of the rifle. To determine the truth in this matter the following experiment was undertaken. The shoot- ing was at 100 yards with muzzle and elbow rest. The groups were ten shots each. The rifle was a .30-40 Winchester single shot with a 30-inch, No. 3 round barrel. The groove diameter of the barrel was .3082 inches. The rifle was sighted with a Winchester A5 telescope sight. The mountings of this sight are such a distance apart that one minute on the mounting actually equals an adjustment of only half a minute of angle ; that is, raising the elevation from 80 to 82 minutes with those mountings raises the point of impact 1 inch at 100 yards. This should be understood in order to comprehend the results. Groups Nos. 1, 2, and 3 were fired with the muzzle in perfect, normal condition with three different makes of ammunition, all being the high-power ammunition with 220-grain, soft-point bullet. The size of these groups is given in the tabulation below, both the mean radius, and the diameter of the circle which will contain the center of all the shot holes (group measure) being given. The muzzle was then slightly deformed (worn), to approximate as nearly as possible long- continued muzzle wear with the cleaning rod. The enlargement was done with a very fine rat-tail file and afterwards smoothed off with a whetstone, the muzzle being enlarged unevenly so that at the bottom of the bore at the muzzle the enlargement was .006 inch measuring from the top of the lands, while at the top of the bore the enlargement was only .002 inch. Groups Nos. 4, 5, and 6 were then shot with identical conditions as to weather, rest, sight adjustment, point of aim, and ammunition. The ammunition used in Groups 1 and 4, 2 and 5, 3, and 6 were the same from the same box of 20 rounds pur- chased fresh from the factories for this purpose. In the tabulation elevation and windage readings have been corrected to bring the center of impact to the point of aim so that these readings will show the relative difference in points of impact, bearing in mind that one minute in the table is equal to half an inch at 100 yards as explained above. 450 THE AMERICAN RIFLE MUZZLE WEAR TEST. GROUPS FIRED AT ioo YARDS Group No. Mean radius, inches Group measure, inches Elevation, 1/2 minute Windage, V> minute I .982 4.20 72.5 91. (a) 2 1. 183 3-30 80.4 9i. (b) 3 .852 3-8o S3- 93- (c) 4 .630 2.82 S3- 95-5 5 .620 1-75 80.5 94-5 6 .691 1.70 75- 94. 7 .486 1-33 84. 95-5 (a) 8 shots of this group measure 2.18 inches. (b) 8 shots of this group measure 2.59 inches. (c) 9 shots of this group measure 1.90 inches. Groups shot from commercial rifles are almost always considerably enlarged by one, or usually two off shots as explained in the chapter on Accuracy. Groups Nos. I, 2, and 3 should be scanned carefully by those who use sights on their hunting rifles which are not adjustable for eleva- tion. These were shot from a heavy No. 3 barrel, which is almost twice as thick as the barrels usually seen on repeating rifles. Not- withstanding this, if we take the first make of ammunition used in Group No. 1 as a standard, we will see that No. 2 make shot 4 inches lower at 100 yards, and No. 3 make 5.25 inches lower and 1 inch to the left. Moreover, although not shown in the tabulation, the first make of ammunition shot iM inches higher on this day than what may be called its normal elevation. It will be seen that after the muzzle of this rifle was deformed it grouped its shots on an average 1.33 inches to the left of where it grouped them before when the muzzle was perfect. With one make of ammunition it shot 5.25 inches lower after deforming than before. With the second lot of ammunition the elevation was practically the same after as before, and with the third lot the rifle shot its group 4 inches higher on the target after deformation than it did before. No attempt is made to explain these differences. The test was made with extreme care, the results checked up many times, and it can be relied on. It will be noticed that the rifle shot smaller groups in every case after the muzzle was deformed than when it had a perfect muzzle. This is merely a coincidence and does not of itself prove anything except that deforming the muzzle does not destroy the accuracy of the rifle. It does, however, entirely change the normal sighting of the rifle. This is in line with the experiments of Dr. Mann, he having found practically the same thing. If the rifleman cleans his rifle from the muzzle, and does not take care that the cleaning rod does not rub ADJUSTMENTS AND REPAIRS 451 the muzzle in doing so, the muzzle will become worn very gradually, and the normal sighting will change gradually, necessitating a change in sight adjustment. The target shot can easily keep track of such changes, but the hunter who cleans his repeating rifle from the muzzle should occasionally target his rifle so as to keep track of the changes and have his arm always correctly sighted. I want to call particular attention to Group No. 7 in the above tabu- lation. I had at the range on the day on which these experiments were ' JIM:', Fig. no Group No. 7. Ten shots at too yards, muzzle rest. .30-40 Winchester single- shot rifle. Telescope sight. Winchester 220-grain soft-point, factory ammuni- tion. Fired from the rifle after the muzzle had been deformed. Group meas- ures 1.33 inches. Mean absolute deviation .486 inch. conducted a box of old Winchester, 220-grain, soft-point, factory ammunition that was purchased seven years before in a gun store in Philadelphia. Since then that box had travelled all over British Co- lumbia on a pack horse, went to the Philippines and stayed there two years in the tropical heat and dampness, and came back and has been kicking around my workshop in various localities in the United States ever since. It occurred to me that it would be interesting to see what it would do, as the test would represent the accuracy that a hunter could expect from an old muzzle-worn rifle and the kind of ammuni- tion he would probably get in some little backwood settlement store. The results were most surprising. The actual target is shown here- with full size (Fig. no). It is certainly a triumph for the American 452 THE AMERICAN RIFLE rifle and ammunition, especially when it is considered that the rifle it was made with is an ordinary stock model and cost the writer the sum of $15 without sights. It will be noticed that in this test five of the shells on being fired split at the neck. This is almost always the case with very old ammunition where the bullet is not crimped in the shell, but is retained in the shell by originally having the shell con- siderably smaller than the bullet and then forcing the bullet in in loading, as was done with this particular ammunition in loading at that particular time. The brass at the neck is thus under considerable tension all the time, and after two or three years it gets "tired" and when some unusual strain comes it breaks. All government ammuni- tion now has the bullet crimped into the shell instead of having it pressed into a much smaller shell to hold it tight and waterproof. The rifle with which these tests were made has been in my pos- session since the spring of 1906. It has been fired many thousands of rounds with all kinds of ammunition. On account of its accuracy it has been one of the principal testing rifles, and many experiments have been conducted with it. The barrel is one of those that one gets by accident once in a lifetime. After all this use I can see no wear in the barrel at all, and the rifle is just as good as the day it was purchased. After this experiment the barrel was cut off to 27 inches and the. muzzle trued up. If anything, shortening the barrel these three inches increased the accuracv. PART II PRACTICAL RIFLE SHOOTING CHAPTER XXIII THE A B C OF MARKSMANSHIP RIFLE shooting is almost entirely a matter of intelligent practice. Practice alone, without head work, will not get one very far. To illustrate, take the case of the man who made the highest score in the course in rifle shooting of the 10,000 men attending the Platts- burg training camp of 191 6. He was a man of about thirty years of age, and had never fired a rifle before in his life. He had only about four days of preliminary instruction, perhaps two hours a day, before going on the range, but he stated that he paid particular atten- tion to the instructions of his officers, and tried to follow them as closely as possible. On the other hand, in my work in the Army I often come across men of a rather low order of intelligence whom no amount of practice will teach to shoot, chiefly because they have never learned how to use their brains. Any man of ordinary intelli- gence, who is not physically handicapped, can become a good shot. To become an expert shot requires both a good body and a good brain. Most persons have the idea that eyesight is the important factor. Fair eyesight is of course essential, and may be obtained either naturally or by the aid of well-fitted glasses. There are five essentials which must be attained in order that one may be able to shoot accurately. All instruction in rifle shooting is aimed at perfecting one's knowledge and execution of these five essen- tials. These are as follows : 1. Aiming. One must be able to aim consistently, aiming each shot exactly the same. This requires the training of the eye in the correct alignment of the sights and target until the view or picture that they form becomes so indelibly impressed upon the retina of the eye that whenever the aim is the least bit incorrect it will be noticed at once. 2. Holding. One must be able to hold the rifle steadily in the various firing positions. First, a good, well-balanced position must be learned, and then this must be practiced until it becomes perfectly natural, and one acquires steadiness in it. Usually this takes longer to learn than the other essentials. 455 456 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 3. Trigger squeeze. It matters little how accurately one aims, and how steadily one holds, if, just as the rifle is discharged, one gives a convulsive jerk to the trigger which deranges both aim and hold. The trigger must be squeezed so that the rifle is not disturbed, does not move a particle, before the recoil comes. 4. Calling the shot. Literally calling to the coach the exact spot where one's sights were aligned on the target at the instant that the rifle went off. Of course one tries to hold steadily, but absolute steadiness is beyond the ability of most riflemen. The sights bob around a little with the best of us. We must catch with our eye the exact place on the target where the sights were aligned at the instant that the recoil blots out clear vision. This spot is where we expect the shot to strike. If the shot does not strike close to the point of call it shows that there is something the matter with either rifle, ammunition, or sight adjustment. If one has a good rifle and ammunition it indi- cates that a change in the sight adjustment is necessary. 5. Sight adjustment. The sights of the rifle must be adjusted so that the bullet will strike close to where one aims. Owing to factors which will be discussed later, almost all men require slightly different sight adjustment. Thus a rifle sighted in by one man is by no means correctly sighted for others, and rifles sighted in at the factory are never more than approximately correct. One must be able to' adjust his sights so that the bullet will strike where his rifle is aimed ; that is, where the shot was called. Finally, one must learn to co-ordinate all these five essentials. He must learn to aim accurately, and at the same time hold the rifle steadily. While he is doing this he must be gradually increasing the pressure on the trigger, so that when the aim seems best, and the hold the steadiest, he can squeeze on the trigger the last ounce or so of pressure which will discharge the rifle. And while doing this he must not forget to catch the point where the sights were aligned at the instant that the rifle goes off. He must learn to concentrate his mind, and every bit of his will power on doing these four things, and doing them perfectly. The secrets of good shooting are: 1. Know your rifle. Get a good rifle and stick to it. Do not be changing your rifle all the time. Never change to a new arm until you know the old one as perfectly as it is possible to know it. There is a very true saying, " Beware of the man with one rifle." 2. Pay the closest attention to every little detail. THE A B C OF MARKSMANSHIP 457 3. Be careful. Lots of good scores are spoiled, and lots of game escapes, through carelessness alone. 4. Be accurate. You are handling an instrument of precision, but it will not avail you if you be not accurate yourself. 5. Don't get excited. An excited man cannot hold a rifle steadily, nor will his aim be accurate. Excitement usually comes from a lack of confidence ; that is, from a lack of practice. 6. Go slow. Especially at first, go slow. Many men who have been shooting for years will never make really good shots because they do things so fast, or so impulsively, that they do not get the required steadiness or accuracy. Do not attempt rapid fire until you have mastered the slow fire. Skill in slow fire never makes a man a poor rapid-fire shot ; it is lack of practice in rapid fire. Some men soon acquire a remarkable ability to shoot the rifle, but it must be remembered that to be really expert one must have his lessons so drilled into him that even when excited he will still continue to shoot well. This means that one must practice until shooting be- comes second nature before he can really call himself expert. In every case where anything important is at stake in rifle shooting there will be a certain amount of excitement, physical exertion, and neces- sity for speed. Let the novice not think that because he has made a score which equals the record he is an expert. Let him try to dupli- cate his work after a hard climb up a steep mountain when a moun- tain sheep suddenly leaps up and is about to disappear over a ledge. Or again, on the battlefield, when he must beat the other fellow to it with a perfectly placed bullet or go under. Most beginners can be- come good shots after several weeks of daily intelligent practice. To. become a real expert requires years of practice, study, and ex- perience. If it were not so the game would not be worth the candle. CHAPTER XXIV AIMING BY aiming we mean the accurate pointing of the rifle at the bull's-eye, or at the game, or enemy we wish to hit. Aiming consists in getting the rear sight, the front sight, and the object we wish to hit all in the same line. It is a delicate operation, and requires lots of care and attention to the little details. With some men it is first nec- essary that the eye be educated to seeing finely and accurately. It is more like threading a needle than driving a nail. At the start one should appreciate the necessity of care and ac- curacy in the alignment of the front and rear sights. Suppose these sights are placed 24 inches apart, then an error or Moo inch in aligning them will cause a deviation in where the bullet strikes of I inch at 100 yards, 2 inches at 200 yards, 5 inches at 500 yards, and so on. It is only an eye well trained to see and appreciate small distances that can see an error as small as Moo inch. The untrained man will hardly appreciate an error of twice this size, which would mean an error of four inches at 200 yards. The methods of aligning open and peep sights are slightly different and will be described separately. MM Fig. 112 Fig. in Alignment of open sights in aiming Alignment of open rear, and ivory or at a target gold bead front sight when aiming at game The best form of open sight is one which has a " U " shaped notch. In bringing such sights into line the top of the front sight should appear in the middle of the " U," and also with its top surface just even with the top of the U notch, as shown in Figs. 11 1 and 112. Fig. 113 shows some of the more common errors of aligning, and the results which will ensue. A very common error is the drawing of the front sight down too fine in the notch. If the sights are adjusted 458 AIMING 459 to strike center when the front sight is held at the standard height, this drawing fine will result in a low shot. If the rifleman, through a misconception, adjusts his sights so as to strike center when the front sight is drawn down fine in the notch, his shots will be apt to string up and down on the target, and he will get many misses under BULLET STRIKES LOW BULLET STRIKES HIGH BULLET STRIKES TO LETT BULLET STRIKES TO RIGHT RIFLE LEANED OR CANTED TO Rl&HT. BULLET STRIKES LOW, AND A LITTLE Rl&HT. Fig. 113 Showing errors of aim, and the result and over, particularly in changes of light. One can see very well to measure the correct amount of front sight seen in the notch by lining the top surface up with the top of the " U," but if he tries to draw fine it will always be merely an estimate as to whether he has drawn down fine enough, or too fine, or not fine enough. Estimation is, just another word for guess-work. With the peep sight one should see the top of the front sight in the center of the peep-hole or aperture. This is the only correct 460 THE AMERICAN RIFLE method. An aperture always has more light at its center than near the edges, also an aperture acts as an orthoptic, and clears the vision of things seen through its center, making all seem in perfect focus. Then too, the human eye has a natural aptitude for centering objects, and if allowed to exercise this aptitude it can place the top of that front sight extremely accurately in the middle of the peep-hole. In learning to align peep sights too much time should not be devoted to practicing the perfect centering of the tip of the front sight in the center of the aperture, because it teaches a bad fault, that of paying too much attention to the peep sight. Many men complain that they cannot use the peep sight. This is entirely because they pay too A B Fig. 114 Alignment of peep sights in aiming A — Vernier target peep sight, or Lyman peep with detachable cup disc. B — Lyman peep sight aligned on game. much attention to the peep sight ; too much attention to centering. Do not look at the peep sight, look through it. Pay attention only to the front sight. Aim as though you were aiming a shotgun which had but one sight at the muzzle. The eye will soon learn to center the front sight in the peep, and will do it accurately and the same each time without burdening the mind with it. This method also gives better vision, as no attempt is made to focus on the rear sight. No matter how much the peep sight blurrs it will still be accurate, as the eye will pick out the center of the blurr. Fig. 1 14 shows the method of aligning peep sights. In shooting at a bull's-eye target, with either open or peep sights, the line of aim should strike the target slightly below the bull's-eye. AIMING 461 That is to say, the top of the front sight should be held slightly be- low the bull's-eye so that a small strip of the white target is seen between the top of the front sight and the bottom of the bull's-eye. The reason for this is that both the front sight and bull's-eye are black, and if, in aiming, the front sight were allowed or made to touch the bull's-eye, or effort was made to aim at the center of the bull's-eye, the front sight and bull's-eye would blend, and at the distance one could not see whether the front sight was being held in line with the center, the top, or the bottom of the bull. Experience has shown that if one attempts to " touch " the bull's-eye with the front sight, the shots will string up and down on the target. So instead we aim slightly below the bull, and the sights are so adjusted that when aim is taken thus the rifle will shoot a trifle high, and the bullet will strike the center of the bull. In aligning the sights thus, care must be taken always to see the same amount of white target between the top of the front sight and the bottom of the bull's-eye. After a little bit one becomes accustomed to aiming thus, and can always take just about the same amount of white. In shooting at game or at an enemy a slightly different alignment fs advisable. In such cases it is best to hold the alignment just where it is desired the shot should strike. That is, hold the top of the front sight just touching the point you wish to strike. The sights are then so adjusted that the bullet hits the exact point of aim. Fig. 114-B shows the Lyman peep sight aligned on the shoulder of a goat. These cuts should be studied carefully, and one should repeatedly aim the rifle from a rest until he becomes thoroughly accustomed to the appearance of correctly aligned sights. The object is so thor- oughly to impress on the retina of the eye the " picture " of the sights and target correctly aligned that the memory of it will persist, and if, when one aims, there is any error present, that error will stand out and make itself at once manifest. Accurate aiming consists simply in being able to reproduce exactly the same each time the picture of the two sights and the target. It is absolutely essential for accurate aiming that the eye be held steadily in the line of sight. If the eye " bobs " around in and out of the correct line, the sights and target can never be lined up per- fectly. For this reason it is always necessary to press the cheek hard against the side of the butt-stock, just in rear of the comb, so that the eye is exactly in the line of sight. One soon learns the exact spot on the stock to press against, and can thus catch the aim very quickly. 462 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Here is where a well-fitting stock pays for itself, placing the cheek and eye in exactly the correct position without any strain. Be care- ful not to crane the head over the stock, because the rise of the rifle in recoil would probably give one a severe thump in the face. If the cheek be tightly pressed against the side, the head moves back with the recoil, and moreover the check itself helps considerably in the steady holding of the rifle. THE AIMING BAR The aiming bar is a device used to teach the recruit the correct method of aligning the sights and target. It is very easily made, and Fig. 115 Aiming bar is quite useful in instructing the novice. Procure a "2x4"; that is, a piece of wood 2 inches by 4 inches by 10 to 14 feet long. Con- struct legs for this like a saw-horse, so that the upper surface (2-inch side) will be about 42 inches above the ground or floor, legs to come about 2 feet from the ends of the " 2 x 4." Procure some sheet metal (tin, galvanized iron, or brass) and nail a small plate on either end of the bar, with a portion about 2 inches wide by 3 inches high ex- tending above the bar as shown in Fig. 115. The plate at the end AIMING 463 of the bar towards the eye is to have a very small peep-hole drilled in its center ; that is, in the center of the rectangular portion extending above the bar. This hole should be just a trifle larger than a pin hole. The plate at the other end has a small paper target pasted on it, so that the target faces inward, and can be seen when the eye is applied to the peep-hole on the other plate. Now make two trans- verse saw-cuts with a thin saw about i-inch deep on the upper surface of the bar, the first cut to be the same distance in front of the peep- hole plate that the rear sight on the rifle normally is in front of the eye in aiming. The other saw-cut is located a distance in front of the first equal to the sight radius; that is, the distance between the front and rear sights on the rifle. Cut out of the sheet metal two pieces exactly like the sights of the rifle ; that is, so that they will appear the same shape and size as the sights when viewed from the rear. Leave a broad base to each so that they can be inserted in the saw-cuts. Place these sights in the saw'-cuts, lightly securing them with small wedges if necessary. Place the eye at the peep plate and look at the target. Move the sights in the saw-cuts until they and the target appear in perfect alignment, and practically duplicate the view as seen through the sights on a rifle when aiming. It will be noticed that the peep plate at the rear end of the bar keeps the eye in the correct line of sight, so that the sights and target can be seen only in perfect alignment. The bar is to be set up so that the eye-end projects over the top of a steady table. The recruit sits down in a chair drawn up to the table so that he faces the peep plate, closes his fists, and placing one on top of the other, rests his" chin in the up- permost fist so that his eye comes close to the peep-hole. He then looks through the peep hole and sees the sights correctly aligned. The fists keep the eye steady in the correct position to see through the peep. The instructor points out to him the correct alignment, and keeps the recruit at it until he has impressed on the retina of his eye a memory of the picture of the sights and target as they should appear. Afterwards the instructor may move either or both of the sights slightly so as to show to the recruit the various errors of aim. This device is excellent for teaching men all the principles of aiming, as they can comprehend the salient features very readily, and it is impossible for them to see the sights aligned other than as the in- structor wishes. 464 THE AMERICAN RIFLE AN AIMING EXERCISE Construct the sides only of a wood box about 12 inches wide, 16 inches long, and 9 inches high, as shown in Fig. 116. On top of either end cut notches as shown, so that the forearm and barrel of the rifle can be placed therein and lightly secured with wooden wedges. Box should be so made that when it is placed on top of a table the rifle will rest secure in it, and the barrel of the rifle will Fig. 116 Rifle rest box, and cardboard disc for aiming exercise be approximately horizontal, with line of sight about 12 inches above the surface of the table. Set up a solid table with box and rifle on it at one end of a room. On the opposite wall of the room, in a well-lighted position, pin up a sheet of plain paper (wrapping paper) about 2 feet square, so that the rifle is sighted approximately near the center of the sheet. Provide a circular disc of white cardboard (see Fig. 116) about 3 inches in diameter, fastened on the end of a stick about 8 inches long. Paint a small bull's-eye in the center of the cardboard disc, and in the center of the bull's-eye make a pin hole. The rifleman sits at the table behind the rifle, places his closed fists on the table, one on top of the other, chin resting in upper fist, so that AIMING 465 his eye comes in the line of sight of the rifle. The rifle must not be touched by the cheek or hands, or it will be thrown out of alignment. The fists assist in keeping the eye steadily in the line of sight. The rifleman then looks through the sights of the rifle at the sheet of paper on the opposite wall. An assistant alongside the sheet holds the bull's-eye disc against the sheet so that it appears like a target against the sheet background. Aiming through the sights, the rifle- man directs the assistant to raise, lower, move to the right or left, the bull's-eye disc until it appears absolutely correct in the line of sight, the rifle remaining immovable throughout the whole test. When everything appears correct, he orders the assistant to " mark it." The assistant, holding the bull's-eye disc steadily against the paper, inserts a pin or sharp pencil point through the small hole in the center of the bull's-eye, making a mark or dot on the sheet of paper, and then removes the disc from its position. This is repeated any desired number of times, the rifleman being careful not to disturb the rifle, and it results in a number of small dots on the sheet, or a " group " of dots. The dispersion of this group indicates the accuracy of aim. The same sheet of paper may be used for a large number of trials, care being taken to move the rifle slightly between each series so that the group will not come in exactly the same place. This exercise is in general use in the Army in teaching men to aim, and particularly to determine if, after preliminary explanation and instruction, they know how to aim, and if they take exactly the same aim each time. It may also be used to determine the accuracy of aim with a certain type of sight, or two rifles equipped with different types of sights may thus be tested for the purpose of determining the relative accuracy of aim with each type. If a standard distance be- tween rifle and sheet of paper be established, the sheets containing groups can be kept as a record of the relative accuracy of a large number of sights of various types. By using a naturally painted picture of an animal in its native surroundings instead of the bull's-eye disc, and a pin hole through the animal's heart, one can determine the accuracy of aim, and the suitability of a certain sight in game shoot- ing. In fact, this exercise has many possibilities connected with it. Note. To obtain comparative results a distance of at least 30 feet is required between rifle and sbeet of paper, as at less distances a good marksman, using almost any sigbt, sbould place almost all the dots in the same spot. CHAPTER XXV HOLDING AND THE FIRING POSITIONS THE greatest difficulty that the novice will encounter at the start of his rifle practice will be the steady holding of his rifle. When he first attempts it, he will tremble and shake, the rifle will bob all around so that it will seem almost impossible to hold the line of sight on the target long enough to pull the trigger. The novice should not permit himself to become discouraged at the start. It should be remembered that whenever one performs an unfamiliar movement or exertion he will be unsteady and will tremble. The muscles are not educated or trained for that particular act, and the unaccustomed strain causes trouble and makes the nice co-ordination necessary for a finished movement impossible. The remedy is to practice the vari- ous positions until one becomes thoroughly accustomed to them, and until the muscles are trained and hardened for use in that particular manner. Learning a good position is very necessary at the start. No one can hold steadily in an awkward, cramped position. Particular at- tention should be paid to the balance. For example, one can stand erect, feet slightly apart, body equally balanced, for a considerable time practically motionless. But let him lean a little forward so as to destroy the balance, and every muscle is put to a strain. In a few seconds he will begin to sway, shake, and tremble. Therefore in all positions one should take care to maintain a balance, and see that no muscle or portion of the body is under strain. Of course certain exertions, such as holding the rifle up to the shoulder, may be in the nature of a strain at first, but through practice soon become an exercise that can be easily performed. There are four positions which are prescribed for military rifle shooting — the standing, sitting, kneeling, and prone. The sportsman will do most of his firing in the standing position, but occasionally will find it advantageous or necessary to assume one of the other po- sitions. In these positions the rifle may be held, either without any artificial support, that is, " off-hand," or it may be rested on some object, such as the crest of an intrenchment, a sand-bag, a log, a rock, 466 HOLDING AND FIRING POSITIONS 467 against a tree, or the side of a building. Advantage can always be taken of an object to rest the rifle on in combat firing, in warfare, and in hunting, but in competitive rifle shooting, and in the various military rifle practice courses, artificial rests are not permitted unless specially prescribed. The novice should always first learn to hold the rifle offhand, and we will therefore first consider these four prescribed positions with the rifle held without artificial support. Attention is particularly invited to the illustrations of the various positions, which have been posed with great care. They show the positions exactly as they are assumed by practically every rifleman of prominence in the United States. This lesson of experience should not be disregarded. Imitate the positions as closely as you can. Pay at- tention to all the little details. Remember that it is by close attention to the little details, and by practice and headwork alone, that you will learn to excel with the rifle. THE STANDING POSITION This is a very important position to the sportsman as it is the posi- tion in which he will do 90 per cent, of his firing at game. It has fallen into disuse to a certain extent in military rifle shooting, but nevertheless it is important that it should be well learned by every soldier as it will be often necessary to use it in close-range firing, in brush fighting, in surprises, at night, in fighting in high grass, and in clearing out trenches. It is the position for quick work at short range, and for snap shooting. It is not a steady position for long range, and generally will not be used for shooting at ranges over 200 yards, nor when time permits a steadier position to be assumed. It is the hardest position of all to excel in, but a good rifleman should be able to hit his man, or a big game animal, every time at 200 yards when he is not unsteady from fatigue or recent exertion. Face to the right at an angle of about 55 degrees from the target (see illustration), with the feet about 12 inches apart, weight of the body resting equally on each foot, body erect and well balanced. Raise the rifle to the aiming position, pointing it as nearly as possible at the target as you do so. As you place the rifle to the shoulder lean a very little backward, just enough to keep that nice balance which raising and extending the rifle out in front of you has momentarily destroyed. Do not lean forward at all as the trap shooter does, and do not lean back too much. Study the illustration. The butt of the rifle is as nearly in the hollow of the shoulder as the conformation of the rifle- 468 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Fig. 117 Standing position, half-arm extension. The best standing position when rapid fire is necessary, and the correct offhand position far the sportsman man will permit. With most men it will rest partly in the hollow of the shoulder and partly on the deltoid muscle of the right upper arm. Grasp the small of the stock firmly with the right hand, which should do more than two-thirds of the work of holding the rifle up and press- ing it against the shoulder. Place the tip of the fore finger against the trigger so that the trigger rests in the first joint of the finger. The left hand grasps the forearm at a point from 10 to 14 inches in front of the trigger guard, depending upon the length of arms and breadth of shoulders. The forearm should rest well down in the palm of the left hand, not up on the fingers, and the fingers should be curled over the forearm, and should grasp firmly but without effort. The left elbow should be almost under the rifle, never way off to the left which is a very common fault. If the left elbow cannot easily be held almost HOLDING AND FIRING POSITIONS 469 under the rifle it is usually a sign that one is facing too much towards the target, face a little bit more to the right. The left hand, grasping in this manner, is to do almost all of the steadying and directing of the rifle, and but very little of the supporting of it. The right elbow should be raised so that the right upper arm is a little above the horizontal, and so that the head can be moved to the right to bring the eye into the line of sight, and the cheek will rest firmly, squarely, and comfortably against the left side of the butt-stock. The cheek presses against the stock, and assists quite a little in hold- ing the rifle steady. By thus pressing the cheek to the right against the stock the right eye is forced into, and held steadily in the line of sight. Under no circumstances should the head be craned over the butt-stock to get the eye into the line of sight, as the rifle will jump up slightly when it recoils, and the nose or cheek will receive a severe blow. If the cheek be pressed against the stock as directed, the whole head, neck, and shoulders will move backward with the recoil, and the kick will not be felt. Holding the rifle thus, take up all the creep in the trigger, and place on it as much finger pressure as you dare, but without discharging the rifle. Take a deep breath and let it out until the lungs are once more normal, get the eye and the two sights exactly in alignment, and hold- ing them thus bring the alignment up on to the target, trying to hold it steadily just below the bull's-eye. Very few men will be able to hold the sights steadily below the bull's-eye, but the sights will seem to bob and wander all over the target. With considerable practice one gets to be able to restrict the wobble to the vicinity of the bull's-eye. Now watch carefully, and try to" press the last final ounce on the trigger just as the front sight seems to pass under the bull's-eye in one of its gyrations. Receive the recoil by letting the whole body sway backward on the hips, and the recoil will not be felt. Do not exert yourself in trying to hold the butt hard against the shoulder to take the recoil. It should only be held snugly, as any undue effort will produce tremor. To avoid an unpleasant kick the novice should pay attention to pressing the cheek against the side of the stock, should keep his right thumb on the right side of the rifle, or on top of the tang so that it will not strike him in the mouth, should grasp the upper portion of the forearm firmly with the fingers of the left hand, and should be sure that the butt-plate is far enough in the hollow of the shoulder so that it will not slip out when the recoil comes. In rapid fire in the standing position, do not take the butt of the 470 THE AMERICAN RIFLE rifle from the shoulder between shots, but let go of the small of the stock with the right hand, holding the rifle hard against the shoulder and steadily in place with the left hand. With a bolt-action rifle, grasp the bolt handle with the right hand, and pull the bolt back hard and quick, moving the face slightly to the left to avoid contact with the bolt. Slam the bolt shut again, regrasp the small of the stock with the right hand, and release the hard pulling back with the left hand. At once take up the safety pull of the trigger with the right forefinger, and start the new aim. Do not be afraid to slam the bolt open and shut hard and fast. You cannot injure the bolt in this manner to save your life, and it makes the movement much quicker and surer, and insures against jams through failure completely to function the bolt. To operate a lever-action rifle in rapid fire, proceed exactly the same as regards the left hand. The three last fingers of the right hand being inside the finger lever, let go the thumb grasp of the right thumb over the small of the stock, move the trigger finger a little forward in the trigger guard, and quickly throw down the lever to its fullest ex- tent of travel. At once pull the lever smartly back against the grip, regrasp with the right thumb over the small of the stock, and start the pressure on the trigger with the forefinger, let up on the back pres- sure of the left hand, grasp hard and pull back with the right hand, and start the new aim. The sportsman and the military rifleman should avoid the various standing positions with the left elbow against the side or hip, and with the rifle balanced on the finger tips, etc. These positions are designed solely for making big scores on the bull's-eye target in slow fire, as in Schuetzen contests. It is impossible to assume them quickly for snap shooting, or to use them for rapid magazine fire. They are of no use in the field, and have no place in either practical or military rifle shoot- ing. The position described may be called the " hunter's position," and is the only one suitable for quick work and for moving objects. THE SITTING POSITION This is a very steady position, and an excellent one for rapid fire, and for shooting down hill. It is quickly assumed, and where one is not called upon for a very quick snap shot it would be well to assume it wherever possible, that is where vegetation, etc., does not prohibit, and where the ground does not slope upward. Sit down, facing to the right at an angle of about 35 degrees from the target. The left heel should be so placed that the left knee and HOLDING AND FIRING POSITIONS 471 thigh almost face the target, and the right heel so that when the left elbow is placed on the left knee the right knee comes in the correct place to rest the right elbow on easily. Both heels should rest in small holes in the ground, or against some slight irregularity on the ground, The standard sitting position. There should be slight holes in the ground in which to rest the heels so that not only will they not slip, but will not have any feeling that they might possibly slip. The heels must feel secure, or the position will not be very steady. A little practice will show one just how far the heels should be extended to the front, and how much the knees should be bent. The right knee should be slightly higher than the left. In aiming, first adjust the gun-sling, and use it as described under the prone position. It is a great help to steady holding. The elbows must be placed on the knees, and if the knees are not in just the right 472 THE AMERICAN RIFLE position for this it shows that something is wrong with the position. If the point of the elbow be allowed to extend about an inch beyond the knee cap, a position will usually be found in which the elbow seems to stick naturally tight to the knee. To aim a little to the right or left, shift the buttocks on the ground ; to aim higher draw the feet in, thus raising the knees. Fig. 119 Sitting position, legs crossed. A good position when the buttocks can be placed in a slight depression, getting the feet a trifle higher than the but- tocks. A similar position may be assumed with the legs crossed just above the ankles. This will be found advantageous if secure holes cannot be found or made for the heels. Also the legs may be crossed and the legs separated, each calf resting on the inside of the opposite foot, tailor fashion. This latter position is very steady, but it is hard for most men to assume it unless the ground slopes upward slightly, or HOLDING AND FIRING POSITIONS 473 unless one can find a slight hole or depression to sit in, thus elevating the feet slightly above the buttocks, and raising the knees. If ground suitable for this variation of the sitting position can be obtained, it is almost as steady as the prone position. THE KNEELING TOSITION This position can be very quickly assumed, and it can often be used with advantage as it is steadier than the standing position, and in a Fig. 120 The standard kneeling position majority of cases it raises the rifle to the height necessary to see over tall grass or inequalities in the ground. Whether the rifleman can assume it successfully enough to be able to do good work in it depends upon whether or not his right knee is limber enough to permit him to sit comfortably on the right heel. As a rule I do not favor this posi- 474 THE AMERICAN RIFLE tion very much as it is not as steady as the sitting position, and only slightly steadier than the standing position. Often, and particularly in a stiff breeze, it is very difficult to control a slight horizontal sway- ing of the rifle. Half face to the right, carry the right toe about a foot to the left rear of the left heel, kneel on the right knee, sitting back on the right heel. Adjust the gun-sling for firing as explained for the prone posi- tion. Aim with the left elbow resting on the point of the left knee, the point of the elbow a little beyond the knee cap, and the knee point- ing towards the target. Hold the right elbow a little farther to the front than in the other positions. Be sure that the butt of the rifle is well into the hollow of the shoulder, as there is a tendency to hold it too far out on the right upper arm in this position. Holding the butt out on the upper arm not only makes one crane the head over the stock in aiming, thus increasing the probability of a blow on the mouth or nose in recoil, but also the recoil is apt to turn one half-way around, and make rapid firing difficult or slow. Study the illustration of this position very carefully. (See Fig. 120.) The instep of the right foot may be rested flat on the ground, the buttocks coming on the lower part of the heel; or by resting the right side of the foot on the ground, toe pointing to the front, one may sit very steadily on the left side of the right foot. These positions can be assumed only by very limber men, but they make the position quite a little steadier. Remember to lean well forward, and always to rest the left elbow on the knee, as unless this elbow is so rested the position is no steadier than the standing position. THE PRONE POSITION This is the most important of all the positions to the military rifleman, and it should also be completely mastered by the sportsman, as it is the steadiest of all the offhand positions. It is the position in which all the long-range world's records have been made. It is also the easiest position for one to learn to excel in, as any one with good physique can, under a skilled instructor, learn to hold his rifle practically immo- bile in a very few days. Yet, like all other positions, it takes practice to learn it, particularly so because the posture is so strange, and it is intensely uncomfortable when first assumed. But unlike the other positions it does not differ in the slightest with the conformation of the man. There is but one way to assume it. One cannot depart from HOLDING AND FIRING POSITIONS 475 the standard position in the slightest -without sacrificing steadiness. The position must be carefully studied by the novice, and all the little details perfected, as every one of them are essential. The use of the gun-sling exactly as described is absolutely necessary, and the details of its adjustment and use are therefore gone into as a part of this position. The three illustrations herewith, illustrating the prone posi- tion, should be studied most carefully. 0= i (3 CLAW HOOK OtT-All.4 0<> kACIMO Fig. 121 Gun-sling for sporting rifle — Whelen pattern. The swivels are the type used for the butt swivel on the Winchester Model 1895 musket We shall be obliged to digress here a little and describe the gun-sling. The military gun-sling on the Model 1903 rifle is constructed with a view to its use for both carrying the rifle, and as an aid to steady hold- ing. All gun-slings should be modelled on about the same plan. Those usually seen on sporting rifles are absolutely worthless for any- thing except slinging the rifle over the shoulder, and not very good for that. Some years ago I designed a gun-sling for sporting use, which is illustrated in Fig. 121. The cut rather fully describes it. It has the loop for firing, which is intended to be adjusted to fit the owner of the rifle, and a tail piece to lengthen out for either firing or carrying the rifle. It has swivels which do not turn and get the sling tangled up all the time, neither do they rattle in the presence of game, as almost all sporting rifle gun-slings do. The sporting rifle manufacturers almost invariably place the swivels incorrectly. The front swivel should be placed out well towards the 476 THE AMERICAN RIFLE end of the forearm, not near its center. On a tubular magazine re- peater, like the Winchester, the front swivel can be attached to the metal forearm tip. The butt swivel should be placed on the under side of the butt stock, about 2Y2 inches from the toe of the butt-plate, not half-way between the toe and the guard as is usually done. The following is the proper method of adjusting the military gun- sling as provided for the Model 1903 rifle, and also sufficiently de- VHSHHHHBB Fig. 122 Springfield sportng rifle with Whelen gun-sling adjusted for firing scribes the adjustment of my own model sling. The two principal parts of the gun-sling are the long strap, which forms the loop ; and the short strap, which extends from the end of the loop down through the butt swivel, and back under the barrel, hooking into the long strap. For military drill and ordinary carrying, the short strap is kept hooked up tight, so that the entire sling is taut between the two sling swivels. When thus adjusted the long strap should be hooked up so that a loop is formed which extends from the lower band swivel (forearm swivel) down to a point opposite or immediately under the comb of the stock; that is, the loop, when pulled tight under and parallel to the stock, should extend as far back as the comb of the stock. This is the right length loop for the average man with the Model 1903 rifle. (W r ith sporting rifles this measurement will not always be correct, and the sling should be tested in the prone position for correct length of loop.) Stout men, or those having very short arms, need a loop adjustment an inch or two longer than this. It is a mistake to have the loop too long, as the pressure which holds the rifle steady cannot be exerted with a long, loose sling. The sling is to be habitually kept hooked up taut, with the loop adjusted to this length, except for firing, and when it is desired to sling the rifle over the shoulder. HOLDING AND FIRING POSITIONS 477 To adjust the gun-sling for firing, unhook the short strap from the long strap, and stretch the sling out without altering the length of the loop (which should never be changed), and hook up the short strap Fig. 123 Placing the sling on the arm on itself, placing the teeth of the hook through one of the pair of holes about 6 inches below the metal loop which connects the long and short straps. When the sling is adjusted to the arm, and the firing position assumed, the short strap should always be loose, without any tension. Tension here will cause the rifle to be canted, and the posi- tion to be unsteady. The loop of the sling is to be adjusted to the left upper arm above 478 THE AMERICAN RIFLE the swelling of the triceps muscle; that is, about an inch under the arm-pit. To keep the sling this high up on the arm it is sometimes necessary to sew a short piece of quarter-inch rope on the inside of the sleeve of the shirt or shooting blouse so as to form a ridge which will keep the sling from slipping down. Under no circumstances should the sling be allowed to slip down to a point just above the elbow. This is a very common fault seen among beginners. In fact, among the expert shots at the national matches it is always taken as the sign of the beginner. The sling must be kept high up on the upper* arm if the best results are to be derived from its use. It is best to place the sling on the left arm before lying down. With the rifle pointing to the front, barrel up, carry the left hand from the left of the rifle through between the rifle and the entire sling, and then back again through the loop (see Fig. 123) ; slip the loop high up around the left arm, and pull down one of the sling keepers to retain the loop in place on the arm. By placing the arm through the loop in this manner, when the firing position is assumed the flat of the strap, and not the edge, will bear against the left wrist. Now we come to the assuming of the prone position. Standing on the ground from which one is to fire, select a smooth, level place on which to lie, and estimate the spot where the right elbow will come when lying down. Place the heel of the boot on this spot and spin around several times on the heel, thus making a hole in the ground about an inch deep and three inches in diameter. This hole is for the right elbow to rest in when aiming. A hole is not absolutely necessary, but it adds to the security of the position, and is a help in rapid fire as it does away with any tendency of the right elbow to slip outward. A small hole for the left elbow also will help, but these holes must be in exactly the right place, or they are of more harm than good. The position must determine where the holes are to come, not the holes the position. Almost every novice makes the mistake of lying down facing the target. This is absolutely wrong, as also is facing only a little to the right. One should face a full 60 degrees to the right of the target when lying dozvn, and should spread the legs wide apart so as to per- mit the entire abdomen to rest flat on the ground (see Figs. 127 and 128). With the sling around the left upper arm, carry the left hand up on the left side of the sling, and then grasp the forearm just in rear of the forearm sling swivel. The knuckle of the left forefinger should almost touch the lower band swivel (except for men with very HOLDING AND FIRING POSITIONS 479 short arms who will have to grasp the forearm farther to the rear). In this position the sling, starting from the forearm swivel, passes to the right of the left wrist, and then around the left upper arm. That portion of the sling between the loop and the butt swivel is loose. Place the left elbow in the hole in the ground made for it. Raise i • ' 5 Fig. 124 The prone position. Getting into position with tight gun-sling the butt of the rifle to the shoulder and assume the firing position. Right here probably most" men will find it impossible to get the butt up to the shoulder — the sling seems too tight. Do not loosen the sling. Raise the right shoulder and roll over slightly on the left side. Now the butt can be shoved into the hollow of the shoulder with the right hand (see Fig. 124). Then roll back into the firing position, and the rifle will be found to be clamped in position pointing at the target. Please notice that this position will probably be intensely uncomfort- able to the recruit at first. He can hardly bear it for more than 15 or 20 seconds at a time. It seems particularly to strain the left wrist. It must be persisted in, however, and not changed in the slightest. Three or four days' practice, half an hour a day, will overcome this, and after the first week one will be able to lie comfortably for long enough to fire 20 or more shots, slow fire. It is astonishing how soon 480 THE AMERICAN RIFLE one becomes accustomed to what seems at first an intensely 'uncom- fortable, unnatural position, and how naturally the old hand assumes this position. Now let us examine this firing position in detail. Pay particular attention, because all this is very important. The left elbow should be Fig. 125 The prone position, right side, showing the correct method of using the gun-sling almost directly under the rifle. A perpendicular dropped from the left side of the forearm should strike the right side of the left elbow. The sling, starting from the forearm swivel, should pass to the right of the left wrist, and then around the upper portion of the left upper arm as before described. The loop should have about 50 pounds ten- sion placed on it by the left arm, and this tension should be as nearly equal for every shot as the rifleman can make it. The short strap should be loose without any tension on it. The forearm should rest well down in the palm of the left hand. Spread the fingers straight out, flattening the palm, and let the rifle rest on the flattened palm alone, moving the palm a little to one side or the other until the rear sight stands up straight without any cant or lean to the rifle. Now close the thumb and forefingers firmly over the top edge of the fore- arm, but so that they will not interfere with the line of sight. This HOLDING AND FIRING POSITIONS 481 is the proper hold for the left hand. If the rifle be held off the palm of the left hand, and be supported by the fingers, each joint and muscle of each finger will tremble slightly, and the position will be unsteady ; so too, if some muscle has to be constantly at work to overcome a tendency to cant. The theory of this position is that the rifle is sup- ported by the bones of the forearm, which are bound to the rifle and J. Ig,. J.^.^7 Prone position, showing manner of using the gun-sling. View from left side to the ground by the sling and the weight of the body. There is thus one solid, firm support, and the muscles and joints, with all their tremors, are eliminated entirely. The right elbow should rest firmly on the ground, and if one has time a hole should be dug for it, but this hole must be in just the right place. Regard the two upper arms and the front of the chest as the three legs of a tripod. If these legs are too far apart, or too close together, the tripod will be unsteady. There is just one position for them. As a rule the novice has a tendency to spread the elbows too far apart, and to hug the ground too closely. The right hand grasps the small of the stock only lightly, right thumb on top of, and a little to the left of the upper tang, right forefinger on the trigger, other fin- 482 THE AMERICAN RIFLE gers grasping the small of the stock a little farther to the rear than in the other positions. Press the right cheek hard against the left side of the butt-stock, head a little farther forward than in the other firing positions. Don't worry about receiver sights or cocking pieces striking Fig. 127 The prone position from above, showing the angle at which to lie, and the posi- tion of the legs the eye, because when the rifle recoils it is only going to come back about an inch if it is correctly held, but if the rifle is equipped with a peep sight on the tang one must be careful to keep the eye at least 2 inches from it or there is liability of the eye being struck by the sight. The butt rests where the tendon of the pectoralis major and the deltoid muscle seem to join, which is a little below and to the right of the true hollow of the shoulder. The novice should be very careful to get this position exactly correct the first few days he practices it. Work at HOLDING AND FIRING POSITIONS 483 first for accuracy of position only. It is not nearly as complicated as it sounds on paper, but a good coach is a great help in getting it correct. Now for the advantages of this position. If it is assumed exactly as prescribed, and is practiced for half an hour a day for a week, pay- Fig. 128 The prone position, showing method of using the gun-sling. Sketch on target above shows the angle at which to lie in relation to the line of fire ing .particular attention to all the little details as here described, at the end of that time one will find that he can place the sights of the rifle on the target and hold them there steadily, sights aligned just below the bull's-eye, exactly as though the rifle were in a vise. There will be no visible tremor to the rifle. Think what this means ? It means good shooting and big scores. Also it will be found that the tight hold takes up all the recoil. The recoil is not felt by the shoulder at all, but is apparently distributed all over the body. As far as the recoil 4 8 4 THE AMERICAN RIFLE is concerned one can fire a hundred shots in this position without the shoulder feeling it. Moreover, if one is shaky, either from recent exertion or from nervousness, it apparently makes little difference, as the tight hold prevents all trembling. In other words, the novice who learns this position suddenly finds that he can hold in it as steadily as the old seasoned shot. In rapid fire in the prone position, with a bolt-action rifle, keep both elbows on the ground all the time. If possible, be sure to have a deep hole for the right elbow to rest in, as it helps a lot. Keeping the right elbow in this hole, as soon as a shot is fired, reach forward with the right hand and grasp the bolt handle ; jerk the bolt handle up, and pull it hard and smartly to the rear; as the bolt comes to the rear, at the same time force the left hand over to the right and low, keeping both elbows in their position on the ground, or in their holes all the time. When the bolt is fully drawn to the rear the muzzle of the rifle should be 'way over to the right, and almost touching the ground. Close the bolt quickly, smartly, and with force, and at the same time bring the left hand up and to the left, raising the muzzle of the rifle so that it again points at the target. A little practice at this will enable one to do it with astonishing rapidity, the sights coming back on to the target so that very little rectification of the aim for succeeding shots is neces- sary. Firing in this manner with military rifle I have often been able to make six hits in 12 seconds on the silhouette of a man lying prone at 200 yards. GENERAL RULES FOR ALL POSITIONS Before starting to hold, take a deep breath, then exhale this breath, and let the lungs become normal before starting to aim and hold. The breath must of course be held while the aim and hold are being per- fected, and one can hold the breath with very much less effort if a deep breath be taken just before. Press the cheek hard against the left side of the butt-stock. The cheek assists almost as much in holding as either of the hands. Do not lean the face, nose, or mouth over the stock in rear of the comb, and keep the thumb away from the left side of the small of the stock. If you violate this rule a bloody nose or cut mouth may result with a rifle of heavy recoil, while if you pay attention to it, and press the cheek hard against the stock, not trying to resist the recoil, but letting the body yield and sway with it, the recoil will never bother you in the slightest. HOLDING AND FIRING POSITIONS 485 Do not cant the rifle. Keep it plumb. If you lean it to one side or the other the bullet will strike in the direction of the lean or cant. Let the forearm of the rifle rest well down in the palm of the left hand. Remember that the muscles and joints are what tremble, and the fewer of them involved in any position the steadier will that posi- Fig. 129 Prone position with sandbag rest, showing normal position, and the use of the gun-sling. Only the back of the left hand rests on the sandbag tion be. Count the joints and muscles in the thumb and fingers of your left hand. Keep the left elbow well under the rifle. If you want to support anything you place the prop straight under it, not at an angle. Remember to keep your balance. Do not lean way forward, or way back, or your body will tremble and sway. CHAPTER XXVI TRIGGER PULL IT matters not how carefully the aim is taken, or how steadily the rifle is held, if, at the instant of discharging the rifle, the aim and hold are deranged by the convulsive jerk at the trigger. The trigger must release the sear from the sear notch without the least movement of the rifle, or the bullet will not fly true to the point at which it was aimed the instant before the trigger was pulled. As one concentrates his whole will power on holding steadily and aiming accurately, the body becomes immovable, frozen, as it were. It is then quite difficult to transfer the will power to the trigger finger, and to press it so as to discharge the rifle, because the finger will be found to be " frozen " also. The tendency with the untrained men is instantly to relax on the hold and aim, and give a jerk or tug at the trigger. The tendency to do this must be constantly repressed. The matter of learning how to pull the trigger without aiming and holding at the same time is a very simple matter, but the co-ordinating of the trigger pull with the aim and hold so as to insure a perfect let-off, and at the same time maintaining the aim and hold to the very end, is a matter which requires considerable practice. In fact, an expert rifleman realizes that he must keep at practicing this all the time if he would maintain his ability to shoot accurately. We find on American rifles three kinds of trigger pulls. First there is the old-fashioned, " clean " pull seen on the best single-shot rifles, and on the Winchester repeating rifles. When the trigger is pressed it appears to be immovable until the required amount of pressure has been applied to cause the hammer to fall. Then it gives away all at once, something like the breaking of a small glass rod. This is the best type of trigger pull. With it one soon learns how much pressure he may place on the trigger without danger of firing the rifle. That is, he learns to place all but an ounce or so of the necessary pressure to dis- charge the piece on the trigger as soon as he starts to aim and hold. Then, just as the aim seems the most accurate, and the hold the stead- iest, he very carefully squeezes on this last ounce or so of pressure which discharges the rifle without any movement of the piece. Trig- TRIGGER PULL 487 gers of this type when they come from the manufacturers pull off on an applied pressure of from five to seven pounds. This is entirely too heavy for accurate work. However, they are capable of being eased up to about 3 pounds, which is the correct weight for all-around rifle shooting. See Chapter XXII for instructions regarding the adjusting of trigger pulls. Triggers of the bolt-action type are slightly different. When cor- Fig. 130 Prone position with sandbag rest, showing the " razor strop " method of hold- ing the gun-sling. A good position for deliberate slow fire, but not satisfactory for rapid fire rectly adjusted there is a safety or preliminary pull, during which the trigger moves back about % inch against the tension of the sear spring. This safety pull is absolutely necessary for the safety of the rifle, pre- venting premature discharge, and should never be eliminated. As a rule it takes about one and one-half pounds pressure on the trigger to take it up. After it has been taken up, and the trigger has moved slightly to the rear, the remainder of the pull is clean, as in the case just described, and the trigger pulls off with a total pressure of about 3^ pounds. In pulling a trigger of this kind one must be careful to at once take up the safety pull as soon as the rifle is placed to the shoulder. That is, learn to place enough pressure on the trigger as soon as the finger touches it, to make it move slightly to the rear against the pres- 488 THE AMERICAN RIFLE sure of the sear spring, and then start the trigger pull proper, as in the first case. One can soon become accustomed to a trigger of this kind, but it never satisfies one as well as the straight, clean pull, especially in rapid fire. With recruits in the Army it has been found that the larger percentage of failures to make good scores in rapid fire is due to not taking up the safety pull at all, but when the aim seems right, pulling the trigger the whole way back with one motion or jerk. This must be specially guarded against. • Fig. 131 Firing from a prone trench The third type of trigger pull is that usually seen on self-loading rifles, and the modern type of hammerless repeating rifles. The trigger moves back quite a little before the rifle is finally discharged, but too often this movement is attended with a rough " drag," consisting of a series of jumps and catches, so that one can scarcely ever tell when he has applied the right amount of pressure. Moreover, the number of little jumps and catches to this preliminary movement of the trigger will differ according to whether the taking up movement is made fast or slow, so that one can never learn whether he has surely taken them all up or not. The consequence is that one never dares place as much preliminary pressure on such a trigger as with the first two types, and more pressure must remain to be squeezed on when the aim and hold are perfected. This leaves a larger chance for a jerk and derangement at the vital instant of discharge. Also such a trigger is liable to pro- duce flinching, as a decided jump to the trigger when pressure is applied under high concentration of will power is liable to make one jump. First-class accuracy of shooting can never be attained with such a TRIGGER PULL 489 trigger, and this is just one reason more why such weapons are only fit for short-range work. One is not a finished marksman until this detail of trigger pull is learned so well that it is done instinctively and correctly, even in rapid fire or under excitement. Jerking the trigger and flinching can only be cured by learning to concentrate absolutely every atom of will power on holding, aiming, and trigger pull, so that there is no room in the brain or nervous system to permit of the forming of the act of jerking or flinching. It is all a matter of practice and concentration. -Fig. 132 Firing from a standing trench CHAPTER XXVII CALLING THE SHOT VERY few men indeed can hold with absolute steadiness except in the prone position. There will be a certain tremor, and the sights, instead of resting steadily just under the bull's-eye, will seem to travel around over the face of the target as one aims. The rifleman endeavors to pull the trigger just as the sights drift under the bull's-eye. The measure of success which he attains in this depends upon his skill. Therefore the sights are not always absolutely correctly aligned on the target as shown in the plates illustrating the method of aligning sights and target. Now it is obvious that the bullet should strike at, or close to, the point on the target at which the sights were aligned at the instant of discharge. If the bullet does this it is a sign that the rifle is correctly sighted for the individual who is using it. If, after several trials, it is found that the bullet does not strike close to where the sights are aligned at the instant of discharge, but on the other hand strikes some distance off in a certain direction, then it is evident that the sights re- quire adjustment. A rifle should shoot where it is aimed, or, to put it in the language of an old mountaineer, " she should shoot where she looks." In order to be able to adjust our sights to make the rifle hit close to where it is aimed it is evident that we must know where the sights were aligned at the instant that the rifle was discharged. To know this we must catch with our eye the exact spot on the target where the aim is at the instant before the recoil of the rifle blots out a clear vision of the sights and target. This catching of the aim at this instant is what is termed " calling the shot." The term comes from the practice in team shooting. The coach sat alongside of the pair of riflemen at the firing point, and advised them as to their shooting. As each man fired he " called his shot " to the coach; that is, he told the coach just where he expected his shot to strike before it was marked. Calling the shot is not hard to learn. One has simply to keep his mind on it, to watch the line of sight as it trembles, and travels over the surface of the target, and to catch with the eye and retain the memory 490 CALLING THE SHOT 491 of the last spot where he saw his sights pointed just before the rifle went off. Thus in Fig. 1 34 the sights were aligned high and to the right, and the bullet should strike the target near to this spot. Of course the bullet will scarcely ever strike the exact spot called, because no rifle is absolutely accurate, nor can one see with absolute accuracy at a great distance. But one should be able to call his shots within about 4 inches at 200 yards, 10 inches at 500 yards, or 20 inches at 1000 yards. CHAPTER XXVIII SIGHT ADJUSTMENT ONE cannot do accurate shooting unless his sights are correctly set. Therefore the matter of sight adjustment is one of the essentials to good shooting. The rear sight must be so adjusted for target practice that if one aims just below the bull's-eye as directed in the chapter on aiming, his shot will strike near the center of the bull's-eye. Military rifles have engraved on the sight leaf the position that the leaf should be placed in for every hundred yards of range. Sporting rifles have the sights approximately set for a certain dis- tance, usually 50 or 200 yards, when the sight is at its lowest eleva- tion. An untried rifle cannot always be relied upon to shoot into the bull's-eye with the sights set at the exact range. For example, on a calm day at 500 yards, one cannot always take a new rifle, and set the sights at 500 yards elevation, and at zero for wind, and be sure that a correctly aimed and pulled shot will strike the bull's-eye. Indeed the bullet may hit the target two or three feet off in any direction from the bull. Often the manufacturer tries to set the sights correctly for ele- vation and zero before they leave the shop. In many factories and arsenals a large number of skilled marksmen are employed on this work. But it must be remembered that these rifles are tested and the sights set under a certain condition only, and there are a great many things which influence the shooting of the rifle and the flight of the bullet, and hence make a change in sight setting necessary. Little dif- ferences in ammunition, wind, light, temperature, humidity, altitude, condition of the bore, and individual methods of aiming and holding all have their influence on the sighting necessary for a certain rifle. Moreover, owing to individual peculiarities of aiming and holding, two men, both good shots, may have to set the sights of the same rifle quite differently for both elevation and windage in order that their shots may strike where they aim them. In Part I of this work stress has been laid upon the necessity of having the rifle equipped with sights which are readily adjustable for both elevation and windage, and which have positive readings by means of scales so that the exact adjustment can be read and recorded. It 492 SIGHT ADJUSTMENT 493 is not possible to do good shooting, except at short ranges, unless such sights are used. Non-adjustable sights may be all right for a particular lot of ammmunition, and a particular condition of the weather. But let one change his ammunition, or let the weather change considerably, and the rifle no longer shoots where it is aimed. A change of sight adjust- Fig. 133 Firing around a building or tree — standing ment becomes necessary, and the only way to get it with crude, non- adjustable sights is to alter their attachment to the barrel, or to file or alter them in some way. A continuation of this is, of course, impos- sible. Therefore we will here take it for granted that one has his rifle equipped with a satisfactory rear sight like those on our military rifles, or the Lyman Nos. 48 and 103 rear sights, or other similar rear sights having positive adjustments for both elevation and windage, as well as proper scales for reading and recording. 494 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Suppose we are shooting our rifle for the first time at a certain range. For the sake of simplicity we will say that the range is 200 yards, because that is usually the shortest range that the modern mili- tary and high-power rifle is sighted for. If we are using a military rifle we set the sights at the 200-yard mark for the first shot, and if we are using a sporting rifle we place the sights as low as they will go for the first shot, taking it for granted that this is approximately the cor- rect setting for 200-yards range. Our object is to get the sights so adjusted that the bullet will strike close to where it is aimed on the target 200 yards away. Let us say that we fire the first shot, and just the instant before the rifle goes off we notice that the sights were aligned, not just under the bull's-eye as we would like to have them, but at about a foot off the bull's-eye at 2 o'clock. 1 Fig. 134 shows the sights aligned on the target as they were the instant before discharge. It is evident, therefore, that we should expect the shot to strike the target a few inches above the point where the shot was thus called. But when the shot is marked we see that it has struck just below the bull's-eye, or at 6 o'clock, as indicated by the small round mark just below the bull's-eye on the target in Fig. 134. In other words, our shot has struck about 12 inches below, and 12 inches to the left of the spot where we called it. (We estimate this distance of 12 inches each way from our knowledge that the target is 4 feet wide and 6 feet high, and the bull's-eye is 8 inches in diameter.) Let us try just one more shot to be sure before we start to adjust the sights. This time we get our shot off just right with the front sight just under the bull's-eye, and were our rifle correctly sighted we would expect a bull's- eye. But when the target is marked we see that our shot has struck about eight inches out from the edge of the bull's-eye at 7 130 o'clock. Again it seems that the rifle is shooting about 12 inches to the left, and 12 inches low from where it is aimed. Our problem is, therefore, so to move or adjust our sights as to make the rifle shoot where it is aimed. That is, we must raise our elevation to cause the shot to strike higher, and we must move the wind gauge to the right to cause the shot to strike farther to the right. Right here we come across the most important rule of sight adjustment which every rifleman should remember. MOVE YOUR REAR SIGHT IN THE DIRECTION IN WHICH YOU WISH YOUR shot to strike. That is, if you want your shot to strike higher, 1 For convenience in describing the location of hits on a target the rifleman divides the face of the target up like the face of a clock. Thus a hit at 12 o'clock is one directly above the bull's-eye, and a hit at 3 o'clock is one to the right of the bull, the bull's-eye being considered the center of the clock face. SIGHT ADJUSTMENT 495 raise your rear sight ; if you want your shot to strike to the right move the sight to the right by means of the wind gauge. Now we are confronted with another problem. How much shall we move the sight to give just about 12 inches correction in each direction ? Fig. 135 Firing around a building or tree — kneeling There is no use in doing this by guess work, moving it perhaps too far, and not discovering this until we have fired a couple of more shots. Ammunition costs money, or we may be shooting in a match where errors in sight adjustment mean many points in the score. If we refer to the tables at the end of Chapter VIII we will there find the information necessary to correct to just the right amount. For ex- ample, if we are using the Model 1903 rifle with the sights set at 200 yards and zero for windage, we see from the table that 5.44 inches is the correction corresponding to a change in elevation of 100 yards when shooting at 200 yards. Twice 5.44 is 10.88 inches, which is ap- proximately 12 inches (close enough for this purpose). We therefore elevate our sight 200 yards, or from 200 to 400 yards, and our next 496 THE AMERICAN RIFLE shot will, strike approximately 12 inches higher in relation to the point of aim than did the last one. For our windage we see from the Windage Correction Table that a point of adjustment on the wind- gauge scale is equivalent to a movement of 8 inches at 200 yards. Therefore a movement of a point and a half right will give us our required 12 inches correction. To sum up, for our first two shots which struck 12 inches low and 12 inches to the left, our sights were adjusted at 200 yards elevation, and zero for windage. We now ad- Just our sights to 400 yards elevation and 1% points right windage, and our rifle should strike where it is aimed at 200 yards. Now take the same case exactly, but suppose that the rifle is equipped with the Lyman No. 48 rear sight. This sight has micrometer adjust- ments reading to minutes of angle, as explained in Chapter VII. One ininute adjustment is equivalent to a change in point of impact of 1 jnch for every hundred yards of range. At 200 yards 1 minute will change the point of impact 2 inches. Therefore we simply raise the elevation 6 minutes, equals 12 inches, and move the wind gauge 6 minutes or clicks to the right, equals 12 inches. This shows the con- venience and simplicity of working with a sight which reads to minutes of angle. Suppose on the other hand that we are using a Savage Model 1899 rifle, caliber .250-3000 Savage, equipped with a Lyman No. 30^ rear sight. With this sight we can calculate from the tables at the end of Chapter VIII that one point of elevation will change the point of impact 6.15 inches per every hundred yards of range, and one point on the wind gauge will similarly change the point of impact 2.46 inches. There is frequently a tendency on the part of the novice to aim off to one side, or high, or low, to correct errors in sighting. For example, if the shot strikes to the right of the bull's-eye, the novice will often aim the next shot to the left of the bull in hopes of striking it. In target practice this is absolutely wrong, and should never be per- mitted. While one may get a good score once in a while by this method, there is too much memory and guess work about it. No good shot uses this method, and a rifleman working in this manner would never be tolerated on a rifle team. In target shooting one should make it an invariable rule always to aim normally, with the top of the front sight just below the bull's-eye, and then change the adjustment of the sights to bring the center of impact to the point of call. The bullet will seldom strike exactly where the shot is called, because no rifle is absolutely accurate, nor can one call his shot exactly. A SIGHT ADJUSTMENT 497 good rifle is accurate enough to group its shots within a 10-inch circle at 500 yards, and in practice it has been found that expert riflemen can call their shots to within five inches of where they hit at this range and proportionately at other distances. The following rules and tables of sight adjustment pertain to the United States rifle, Model of 1903, when used with the regular Model 1906 service ammunition. Those portions printed in italics should be memorized by the military rifleman. RULES AND TABLE OF SIGHT ADJUSTMENT United States Rifle, Model of 1903. i. Move your sight in the direction that yon wish your rifle to hit. That is, if you want your rifle to hit higher, raise your elevation. If you want it to hit to the right turn the wind-gauge screw so that the movable base moves to the right. 2. The numbers on the elevation scale on the sight leaf refer to the marks or lines belozv the numbers ; for example, the figure 5 is above the 500 yard line. To set the sight at 550 yards, the index line (on either side of the corners of the triangle for the open sight, or on either side of the peep hole for the peep sight) must be clamped just half way between the " 5 line " on the right side of the leaf, and the " 6 line " on the left side. 3. The smallest marks or graduations on the wind-gauge scale are called " points." For convenience the line indicating each third point is made longer than the others. When the wind gauge is set at zero, the two zero marks on the fixed base are in line with the point lines at either end of the wind-gauge scale. When the wind-gauge is set at " 1 point right " the movable base has been moved to the right so that the second line on the right side of the scale is in coincidence with the index or zero line on the right of the fixed base. 4. The sight must be set with the utmost accuracy. Look at it care- fully in a shaded light, and see that it is not even a, hair's-breadth off the reading desired. ELEVATION TABLE change of 25 yards in elevation moves the shot change of 25 yards in elevation moves the shot change of 25 yards in elevation moves the shot change of 25 yards in elevation moves the shot change of 25 yards in elevation moves the shot change of 25 yards in elevation moves the shot change of 25 yards in elevation moves the shot change of 25 yards in elevation moves the shot At 100 yards a At 200 yards a At 300 yards a At 400 yards a At 500 yards a At 600 yards a At 700 yards a At 800 yards a •7 inches. 1.6 inches. 2.8 inches. 4-3 inches. 6.2 inches. 8.6 inches. 11.6 inches. 15-4 inches. 498 THE AMERICAN RIFLE At 900 yards a change of 25 yards in elevation moves the shot 19.9 inches. At 1000 yards a change of 25 yards in elevation moves the shot 25.1 inches. A convenient elevation rule to remember is : A change of 100 yards in the elevation used at any range alters the point of impact a distance equal to the number of inches contained in the square of the range. For example : At 500 yards, changing the elevation 100 yards changes the point of impact 25 inches (5 X 5 — 25.) WINDGAUGE TABLE At 100 yards a change of 1 point on windgauge moves the shot 4 inches. At 200 yards a change of 1 point on windgauge moves the shot 8 inches. At 300 yards a change of 1 point on windgauge moves the shot 12 inches. At 400 yards a change of 1 point on windgauge moves the shot 16 inches. At 500 yards a change of 1 point on windgauge moves the shot 20 inches. At 600 yards a change of 1 point on windgauge moves the shot 24 inches. At 700 yards a change of 1 point on windgauge moves the shot 28 inches. At 800 yards a change of 1 point on windgauge moves the shot 32 inches. At 900 yards a change of 1 point on windgauge moves the shot 36 inches. At 1000 yards a change of 1 point on windgauge moves the shot 40 inches. A convenient wind-gauge rule which all should memorize is : Moving the zvind gauge 1 point moves the shot 4 inches on the target for every hundred yards of range. For example, 100 yards, 4 inches; 200 yards, 8 inches ; 560 yards, 20 inches. GALLERY PRACTICE SIGHT ADJUSTMENT In gallery practice, either with the .22 caliber United States gallery practice rifle, or with the regular Model 1903 service rifle, the most practical rule is : At 25 yards 1 point on the wind-gauge scale equals 1 inch on the target. Changing the elevation a distance equal to one point has a similar value. THE MICROMETER SIGHT ADJUSTER Expert military riflemen seldom rely upon their fingers and eyes to set their sights for ranges over 500 yards. There is a little too much guess work about it to produce the very best results in competitive shooting. Instead they use a little instrument called a " micrometer sight adjuster." This snaps on the leaf and slide of the sight, and con- tains the regular micrometer screw system and scale of adjustments. One minute on this instrument makes an adjustment equivalent to a change in point of impact of 1 inch for every hundred of yards range. Suppose one is shooting at 600 yards, and his shots are striking 12 inches below the center of the bull's-eye. Snap the micrometer on the sight and run it up 2 minutes, and the elevation will be exactly correct. SIGHT ADJUSTMENT 499 With this sight adjuster the rifleman makes his readings minutes of angle instead of yards. Thus for 600 yards his normal elevation will be " 20 minutes " instead of, say, 625 yards. This instrument thus enables him to adjust his sight to inches on the target, and eliminates all guess work. This considerably increases the accuracy, and the size of the scores at long range. At 800 and 1000 yards the rifleman adjusting his sights by hand and eye alone is hopelessly handicapped against the man using the micrometer sight adjuster. With this sight adjuster and the Model 1903 rifle, using .30-caliber Model 1906 service ammunition, it has been found that the amount necessary to raise the elevation from one range to another is approximately as follows : From 200 to 300 yards raise 3 minutes. From 300 to 500 yards raise 7.7 minutes. From 500 to 600 yards raise 4.3 minutes. From 600 to 800 yards raise 12 minutes. From 800 to 900 yards raise 7 minutes. From 900 to 1000 yards raise 8 minutes. SIGHT ADJUSTMENT OF HUNTING RIFLES All the foregoing pertains to sight adjustment of a rifle intended for target shooting on a bull's-eye target. With a rifle intended for game shooting it is not correct to adjust the sights so that the bull's-eye will be struck in the center when aim is taken at, or a little below, the bottom of the bull's-eye. Instead we should adjust the sights on such a rifle so that the bullet will hit the point aimed at. If the rifle is sighted in for hunting purposes on a bull's-eye target it is best to aim as one normally would on that target; that is, just below the bottom of the bull's-eye, but so adjust the sights that the bullet will strike at or near the bottom of the bull's-eye ; that is, near the point of aim. Or the hunting rifle may be sighted in on a large, round, mouse-colored target, aim being taken at the center of the target, and sights adjusted until the bullets strike at the center. For 200 yards this target should be about 2 feet in diameter. With a hunting rifle it is best to adjust the sights accurately for sev- eral ranges. First there should be a " point blank adjustment " say for 15 yards, so that one can aim, for example, at the head of a grouse at this short range, and be sure of decapitating it. Next the sight adjust- ment should be found for the " big game range," the sights being ad- justed for that range at which the highest point in the trajectory does not raise over 4 inches. For a rifle of around 2000 feet per second velocity this would be about 150 yards, and for rifles around 2700 feet 5 oo THE AMERICAN RIFLE per second velocity, 200 yards. With sights adjusted for this range one does not have to stop to estimate the range for all medium or close shots as the trajectory will not carry the bullet under or over an eight-inch circle representing the vital portion of a big game animal. Then the rifle should also be sighted in for longer ranges, say up to 400 yards, for long range shots at game, in which cases it will be necessary to estimate the range. In most cases it is impractical to adjust sights in shooting at game un- less the game is at a distance and undisturbed. It is best, if the game is beyond the big game range, to which the sights are set, to hold a little higher on the animal, say hold almost up to the back bone. One should never try to hold the front sight higher in the rear sight as this is the worst kind of a guess. So, too, it will in almost all cases be impractical to adjust the wind gauge for winds. Instead it is best to hold off just slightly for wind. If the wind is slight do not allow for it. If it is a moderate wind try to hold off about 8 inches for it at a range of 200 yards. If it is a very strong wind at this range hold on the windy side of the animal. Make no allowance for wind at ranges less than 200 yards with high-power rifles as there is very little devi- ation. The advantage of adjustable sights on hunting rifles lies not so much in the ability to adjust them under hunting conditions, as in the ability to adjust the sights exactly correct for the various distances, both for elevation and windage, and to do this with the minimum amount of ammunition. Also the ability to make small changes in the sight ad- justment which may be found necessary on account of changes in ammunition, changes in altitude, and changes in temperature. A good adjustable sight, like the No. 48 or No. 103 Lyman, will pay for itself in the time and ammunition expended in the first sighting in of the rifle. CHAPTER XXIX POSITION AND AIMING DRILLS THE Small Arms Firing Manual " of the Army prescribes that the preliminary practice of organizations before starting the regular season's course of target practice on the rifle range shall include posi- tion and aiming drills. These drills are intended to teach the correct firing positions, to develop the muscles used in holding the rifle, to accustom one to the handling and manipulation of the rifle, to give practice in aiming, trigger squeeze, and calling the shot. They form a part of the daily instruction of all organizations for about a month prior to their going on the rifle range. The young soldier is prone to look upon these drills as very much of a bore, but the old and experi- enced shot realizes their value in putting one in the best condition for shooting, and in keeping him in this condition. No man who is really expert with the rifle neglects to practice these exercises regularly every day, and particularly for a month or so prior to, and during, the range practice season. I have seen members of the national match teams, comprising the best shots in the world, spending hour after hour at these drills, snapping their rifles at miniature targets, going through all the move- ments, and using every bit as much care as though they were actually shooting in an important match. I have seen skilled shots sitting on a bed practicing inserting clips of dummy cartridges into the magazine of the rifle in order to develop and retain the skill which will insure that there will be no hitch of loss of time in this operation on the rifle range. I have seen men practicing rapid fire at a small target, immediately above which was a clock with the hour and minute hands removed, and a big tin second hand placed on it to give the correct time. I have practiced all these exercises myself, practically all the time for the past twenty years, and only thus have I been able to keep in shape for shoot- ing all the time. The competition in rifle shooting is so keen among exports that they realize that they can neglect nothing which will im- prove their shooting, and keep them in form. A number of position and aiming drills are prescribed in the " Small 501 502 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Arms Firing Manual," but the most important ones are what are called the " trigger pull exercises." In these exercises miniature targets are used, and are placed either against the wall of the barracks, or arranged outdoors at a short range, so as to be at approximately the height of the man's eye when he aims in the various firing positions. The soldier assumes one of the firing positions, aims at the target, and fires with the empty rifle. In these exercises he uses all the care, and pays at- tention to all the little details, of position, breathing, holding, aiming, trigger squeeze, and calling the shot that he would if he were actually shooting in an important match or in record practice on the range with ball ammunition. The careful practice of these exercises in each of the firing positions for 15 minutes daily will do wonders in teaching one to shoot, and in getting one into shooting condition and keeping him there. The rifleman or sportsman will find that a few minutes a day prac- tice in his own room will do wonders in making him thoroughly ex- pert in the handling of his rifle, and the novice will find that it will give him just that practice that he needs in holding, aiming, and trigger squeeze. The following suggestions regarding these drills will be found useful : The target should subtend the same visual angle that it does in outdoor practice. For example, at 100 yards a target 2 feet square with a 5-inch bull's-eye is very satisfactory. Therefore for position and aiming drill, if the distance from the firer to the aiming target be 5 yards, the target should be one-twentieth of this size. Such a tar- get should be made of a yellow paper, similar to wrapping paper, so that it will have the same appearance as the regular range target. In this way the rifleman in aiming will have almost exactly the same picture in his eye as he would on the outdoor range, and uniformity in aiming will result. Such targets should be suspended from the wall, in a well-lighted place, so that they are at the height of the rifleman's eye when he assumes the firing position. The sportsman who has but one small room in which to practice, and who will desire to do most of his practice in the standing position, can get along very well with a small target made on thin, almost transparent paper, and pasted on the window pane. Such a target may be either a bull's-eye target, or it may be the silhouette of an animal, a deer, for example. A figure of a deer for use on a window pane at 3 yards should be about 1 inch long by half an inch high. The sights should be adjusted to that range which the practice is to POSITION AND AIMING DRILLS 503 simulate. The rifle is to be snapped at the target without ammuni- tion. It does no harm at all to snap a bolt-action rifle. With a lever- action rifle it is best to introduce a small piece of rubber pencil eraser between the hammer and the firing pin for the hammer to strike on. The standing and kneeling positions should be assumed the same as outdoors. In the sitting position the heels can be made secure by tacking small cleats to the floor in the correct position, or use a large door mat, large enough to both sit on and rest the heels on. In the prone position use a blanket folded to about four thicknesses to rest the elbows on. Play the game fair. Use all the skill you are capable of to get a steady position, an accurate aim, and a clean trigger squeeze. Posi- tion and aiming drills carelessly performed are worse than useless. They teach bad habits, and are a positive detriment to good shooting. Hold the rifle as though you expected it to recoil; that is, as though it was loaded with a ball cartridge. In practicing for target shooting hold yourself down to the same time limit you would have in competitions, and fire the same number of consecutive shots that would be required in a match. In practicing for game shooting fire slowly at first until you attain the skill to call a bull eight times out of ten, then speed your firing up to that point where you can get a good hold, good aim, and good trigger squeeze in two seconds after placing the rifle to the shoulder. Rapid fire should be practiced also, with a view to perfecting one- self in both manipulation of the rifle, and quick aiming and trigger work. For such practice it is best to use dummy cartridges, as the feel of the working of the action is usually quite different with an empty rifle. Dummy cartridges can easily be made by taking empty shells, leaving the old primers in the shells, resizing the neck of the shells, and seating bullets. The powder is of course omitted. To distinguish such cartridges from ball ammunition, rub the shells with a little mercury which will turn them silver color. In using dummies place a folded blanket on the ground where the dummies will fall when ejected. This will save the dummies from becoming badly de- formed. Dummy cartridges may also be used to practice the rapid refilling of the magazine, a most important matter, particularly to the military rifleman. There is almost no limit to the amount of good practice one can get in his own room. After becoming skilled in the standard firing 504 THE AMERICAN RIFLE positions vary the positions slightly as one would have to in the field for quick shots where the level and precise footing could not always be looked after. A small moving target can be arranged to run along the window-sill, and this target can even be made to bound up and down like a deer. Also one can learn to shoot left handed. Remember that all this practice is of no good unless the rifleman takes all the pains that he is capable of with each and every shot, just as though his life depended upon that very shot. CHAPTER XXX GALLERY SHOOTING AFTER the beginner has learned the lessons of aiming, holding, and trigger squeeze, the next logical step is to gallery practice. By gallery practice is meant shooting at short range, either indoors or outdoors, with reduced charges or with .22-caliber rifles. In such practice one may gain experience and adeptness in aiming, holding, trigger squeeze, calling the shot, and sight adjustment, and more particularly in the proper co-ordination of all these. Moreover, gallery shooting is interesting work, and if the element of competi- tion be introduced it is a keen sport. Gallery shooting is not only valuable for the beginner, but the expert shot realizes its value in keeping in shooting form, particularly during the winter months when the weather is too inclement for shooting outdoors with any degree of comfort. Practically every expert in the country who is actively competing now realizes the value of gallery work, and keeps it up all winter long. . J There is almost no limit to the variety which may be introduced into work in the gallery. Not only slow fire, but rapid fire, and fire, on moving targets may be introduced. One may have the ordinary, black and white targets, or the targets may be painted a neutral color, to simulate game in its native environments. In fact gallery shoot- ing can be made practically the same as outdoor or field shooting except that of course weather conditions will always be the same and one cannot gain experience in making allowance for these. Gallery shooting is the same as outdoor shooting with the expense, recoil, noise, and weather conditions eliminated. A few years ago the galleries commonly seen were those at places of amusement where one shot at iron targets at very short range with .22-caliber repeating rifles. One gained considerable amusement but very little practical experience. Of late years gallery practice has taken great strides due to the encouragement given to it by the War Department and by the National Rifle Association. Thousands of rifle clubs have sprung up all over the country, and these clubs almost invariably have indoor ranges which they use in the winter 50s 506 THE AMERICAN RIFLE time in conjunction with the outdoor range in the summer. Compe- titions by mail are now arranged among the various teams, and several leagues are in operation with very keen competition. The shoot- ing conditions in these clubs simulate very closely outdoor military shooting. A number of the Schuetzen societies also have gallery competitions in the winter time, and several of these clubs in New York City have held annual competitions for the past twenty years. Fig. 136 An extemporized gallery range used at the Plattsburg Training Camp, 1916. The targets are tacked on boards hung from a wire fence. A railroad embank- ment acts as the bullet stop In fact there are clubs operating indoor galleries in almost all large cities, and the rifleman can gain much profit and experience in join- ing one of these clubs and entering the competitions. The name and address of the secretary of the nearest club can always be obtained by addressing the Secretary, National Rifle Association, Washington, D. C. It is also entirely practical for the individual rifleman to construct a gallery of his own wherein he can obtain all the practice he desires. Such a gallery need not be an elaborate affair. If one does not care about shooting at night time he can rig up a short range anywhere outdoors, a big packing box filled with sand being used as a bullet stop, and the paper targets simply being tacked on the box. The usual range is 25 yards. Ranges shorter than 50 feet are not very GALLERY SHOOTING 507 satisfactory. If it is desired to shoot in inclement weather some sort of shelter should be arranged. One might fire out of a window or door, or if the cellar of the house be large enough a range can be made therein, the targets being illuminated by lights arranged as will be explained afterwards. If the cellar be not long enough it is some- times possible to extend the range out the cellar window, or to dig a trench outdoors leading from an opening in the cellar wall. A trench two feet wide and two feet deep is large enough as it is only neces- sary to give room for the flight of the bullets, and for the placing of n ^1,27— • ; I COVEMD TRIM*. tt'WUC.U'MP T ELECTRIC OR •ccmiNC u*ht Fig. 137 Gallery range in cellar with covered trench dug in yard or garden to obtain the required distance to the target. The target is placed at the end of the trench. Target may be arranged so as to be operated from firing point by wire cable, cord, and wheel if desired as shown in Fig. 139. the targets at the end of the trench. Using his ingenuity the rifleman can rig up a gallery range almost anywhere. Galleries for rifle clubs are more elaborate affairs. These are usually placed in the cellar, or on the roof of some large building. A number of targets and firing points are arranged. The targets are usually supported on clamps hung on wires and so arranged that they can be run on the wires down to the butt for firing or pulled back to the firing point for marking or for changing targets by means of a wheel and handle at the firing point. The illustrations accompanying this chapter give the details of such a range, and there are several firms who make a business of equipping such ranges whose names can always be had by addressing the Secretary, National Rifle Associa- tion. With such galleries it is not necessary to have any markers at the targets. The target is placed in its clamp at the firing point, and the wheel turned until the target travels along the wire down to the butt. Here it rests against the bullet stop. Bullet stops may be constructed of steel plates set at an angle of 45 degrees so that the bullets striking the plates are deflected down into a box of sand below the plate. Or a box filled with sand may be placed back of the targets, 5o8 THE AMERICAN RIFLE the wood facing of the box being replaced as it is shot away. Instead of sand the box may be filled with chunks of wood which is perhaps cleaner. A small telescope is rigged up on supports at the firing point, and as the rifleman fires each shot he looks through the telescope and sees where his shot has struck. After firing ten shots he reels his target back to the firing point and replaces it with a fresh target. When the target is in position for firing against the bullet stop it is GALLERY RANGE FOR S6 TO 75 fEET. TARffETi AT LEAST 36 INCMts APART. flWl sectional. view of firing point Fig. 138 Gallery range with travelling target. Side view (sectional) showing construction illuminated by a series of lights and reflectors placed several feet in front of the target, and either above or below it as shown in the draw- ings. These lights may be electric, gas, oil, or acetylene. As the target is always at a certain height large benches are often provided at the firing point on which the rifleman can lie or kneel when firing in the prone or kneeling positions, thus bringing his rifle always ap- proximately at the height of the target. The firing points on such ranges are always in semi-darkness, the rifle sights appearing as though silhouetted against the illuminated target, and very clear aim can be obtained in this manner. In many of the large National Guard armories in this country there are gallery ranges as long as 100 yards. In fact one armory at least GALLERY SHOOTING 509 has a 200-yard gallery range. Such ranges are often constructed exactly like outdoor ranges, with shelters below the targets at the butts from which the markers mark the targets, and telephone connec- tion between firing point and targets. A large variety of targets are used in gallery shooting. As a rule the black bull's-eye of the gallery target should be slightly larger in SfcAR VIE.W OF flBINff POINT Fig. 138a Gallery range with travelling target. View of back of firing point partition proportion to the range than is the case with the outdoor target. Gallery targets are usually printed on light cardboard. The rifles usually seen at the ordinary shooting galleries at pleasure resorts are the Winchester and Remington repeaters for the .22-short cartridge. These rifles are greatly handicapped by being equipped only with the ordinary factory open sights. One could do much better shooting with them were they provided with good adjustable peep sights with large cup discs. But these rifles are too light and small for the full-grown man, and the best results cannot be attained with them. The gallery rifle used in the United States Army is known as the United States gallery rifle, caliber .22. In appearance, weight, and operation it is exactly the same as the United States rifle, Model 1903, 510 THE AMERICAN RIFLE but the barrel is bored and rifled for the .22-short cartridge. This cartridge is not loaded directly into the chamber, but into a holder. The holder is of steel, and has the same general shape and appear- ance as the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge. This holder contains a chamber for the cartridge, and a firing pin. Five holders can be inserted into the magazine of the rifle in exactly the same manner as cartridges are inserted into the magazine of the Model 1903 rifle. The striker of the rifle hits the firing pin of the holder which fires the cartridge. The .22-caliber bullet travels a slight distance through the holder before it leaves it, and jumps into the barrel. This arrange- ment makes the operation of loading the holders and working the bolt exactly the same as in the regular military arm, which was the result desired. These rifles when new shoot very well, although they cannot be compared in accuracy with a good .22-caliber rifle chambered in the regular manner. They need a great deal of attention to keep them in good condition. Both the holders and the barrel must be kept very clean, and care must be taken that the muzzles of the holders are not injured or deformed when ejected from the rifle, particularly in rapid fire. Some holders will be found which do not shoot accurately, and these should be laid to one side and not used. By far the best rifles for gallery shooting, and this includes all shooting up to 100 yards on sheltered ranges, are the heavy Win- chester and Stevens single-shot rifles chambered for either the .22- short, or the .22-long rifle cartridges. The .22-short is as good as the .22-long rifle up to 25 yards, but it is not suited for longer ranges. A rifle for the .22-short cartridge should be rifled and chambered for that cartridge alone. The continued use of the .22-short cartridge in a rifle chambered for the .22-long rifle cartridge will soon result in the ruining of the chamber, and the destroying of all accuracy. If one can afford the outlay by far the best outfit is a Pope barrel for the .22-long rifle cartridge fitted to a Winchester single-shot action. Such a rifle should have a full-sized shotgun stock, a trigger pull eased up to 3% pounds, and a forearm which will admit of the attachment of the regular military sling strap in the proper position. The entire rifle should weigh about 9 pounds. The best sights for gallery use on such rifles are either the Lyman No. 104, which should be equipped with a cup disc, or the Winchester type A, 5-power telescope with a No. 2 rear mounting. Both of these sights have adjustments for elevation and windage which read to half minutes of an^le. A half minute is equivalent to Vs inch on the 25- GALLERY SHOOTING 5ii yard target, */i inch on the 50-yard target, and Vi inch on the 100-yard target, and the rifleman will at once see how very convenient such adjustments are. A heavy single-shot rifle chambered for the .22-long rifle cartridge is accurate enough to require adjustments every bit as accurate as this. One may also use his regular hunting rifle for gallery shooting, Fig. 138b Gallery range with travelling targets. View of complete range. Six firing points and thus gain the added advantage which comes from practicing with the same weapon that he will use in the field. If the rifle be of small caliber, from .25 to .35, it will work very well at short range with a reduced load. Data for loading reduced loads are given under each cartridge in Chapter XI. If the gallery be lighted with artificial light it will be found necessary to equip the rear sight with a large cup disc to get the best results, as the ordinary Lyman peep, or open sights, allow too much of the reflected light to come back into the eyes and good definition of the sights and target cannot be had. During the years 1910 and 191 1 I had available for my practice an excellent indoor gallery range which permitted firing up to 100 yards. I did a large amount of firing and experimental work on this range. Most of the work was done with two rifles. One was a Winchester single shot for the .22-long rifle cartridge. This rifle had a 27-inch, No. 3, round barrel, and weighed 9 pounds. It was equipped with gun-sling, set triggers, and a Winchester, type A, 5- power telescope sight. The other rifle was a standard Model 1903 military rifle, equipped with a Lyman No. 48 rear sight, with large cup disc. This rifle was also arranged so that the Winchester telescope sight could be fitted to it. Various kinds of reduced charges were used in the Model 1903 rifle. All the shooting for experimental pur- poses was done from a very steady muzzle and elbow rest, and all shooting was by artificial light. 512 THE AMERICAN RIFLE In the experiments with the .22-caliber rifle it was found that the various makes of .22-ealiber long rifle ammunition differed consider- ably in accuracy. The very best results with this rifle were obtained with a certain lot of Peters .22-long rifle cartridges loaded without crimp, especially for indoor rifle competition. I had obtained 3000 rounds of this lot all loaded on one machine from one lot of semi- smokeless powder, on one day. Other ammunition shot with various degrees, of accuracy. Experiments with other .22-caliber rifles showed conclusively that each rifle had its own peculiarities, and that one rifle would do its best work with one particular lot, or make, of ammunition, and which lot could only be told by experimenting. Another Winchester barrel, to all appearances exactly like my own, did its best work with Winchester crimped ammunition fresh from the factory. The following tabulation shows the results obtained with my rifle with Winchester, U. M. C, and Peters long rifle ammuni- tion. The group measurement is the average of ten consecutive groups of ten shots each. The elevation and windage figures show the cor- rect setting of the No. 2 rear mount, it being remembered that one point on this sight is equivalent to an adjustment of one-half a minute of angle. As the wind gauge is moved to the right the read- ings increase. The groups were measured from center to center of shot holes farthest apart. The height of the cross-hairs of the telescope above the axis of the bore was \Vi inches. TABLE OF SIGHT ADJUSTMENT AND ACCURACY .22 caliber Winchester single-shot rifle. Winchester A5 telescope sight. No. 2 rear mount. .22-caliber long rifle cartridges. Shot from rest. 25 yards 50 yards 100 yards Ammunition W^ . a 0. . u a Oh •75 .90 .60 (3^ 0. u a Oh v c a a 3 • Rem.-U. M. C. Lesmok. . . . 71 71 69 61V2 62 60 72 76 72 61% 62 59 1-95 2.00 1.30 84 92% 86 J /2 62 61 58 396 4-03 Peters Semi-smokeless 2.61 Further tests showed that freshly loaded ammunition was always superior to ammunition that had been in store for some time, and that there is considerable deterioration in .22-caliber ammunition that has been held in store over one summer. The results obtained with the Model 1903 rifle are shown in the tabulation below. Most of the firing was done at 100 yards, and for comparison the results obtained at that range with the lot of Win- GALLERY SHOOTING 513 chester 150-grain ammunition with full charge selected for use in the national matches during the year 191 1 are given, and also the results with a full-charged load that I was using at that time for game shoot- ing. The sight readings are minutes of angle on the Lyman No. 48 rear sight. TABLE OF SIGHT ADJUSTMENT AND ACCURACY United States rifle, Model of 1903, 100 yards, rest. Ammunition Winchester 150-grain service, 1911 National Match .. 170-grain spitzer soft-point. 46 grains Du Pont No. 20 Ideal bullet No. 308334. 25 grains Hercules Lightning Ideal bullet No. 308241. ioMj grains Du Pont No. 75 Service jacketed spitzer bullet, 17 grains Du Pont No. 75 powder | 11 CHAPTER XXXI EQUIPMENT FOR OUTDOOR RANGE SHOOTING AFTER the beginner has learned the essentials of rifle shooting, has learned to co-ordinate the essentials in position and aiming drills, and has had some experience in gallery shooting, or at short range with a light rifle, he is ready to progress to outdoor-range shoot- ing. Outdoor-range shooting may be called the college course of rifle shooting. It is here that the novice will learn the lessons that fit him to go out into the open with his rifle. It is here that the real science of shooting is developed and practiced. And it is here that we find the sport of rifle shooting most keenly developed. Outdoor- range shooting is essential for every rifleman. Even the expert shot finds it necessary to do considerable practice on the range to keep in form, and to learn and keep track of the peculiarities of his rifle. An outdoor range may consist of anything from an extemporized arrangement consisting of a target nailed to a board, to a complete military range with its pits for markers, target carriers, firing points, telephone communications, etc. The construction of outdoor ranges will be taken up in Chapter XLIII. An outdoor range may be any distance from ioo to 1200 yards, but is seldom less than 200 yards. A certain equipment is necessary for the rifleman who takes up out-door range shooting. The various articles of this equipment are enumerated and discussed here, the list including all the articles neces- sary for the shooting of the expert at both long and short range, and in practice as well as competitions. Not all of them are needed by the sportsman who simply practices outdoors to keep his hand in for the hunting season, nor are all of them always permitted in com- petitions and straight military shooting. Each rifleman can choose those which are necessary for his particular purpose. CLOTHING No special clothing is required for shooting, although if it be military shooting the participants will be required to wear the service uniform, including cartridge belt. Clothing for shooting should be loose and free, particularly around the arms, chest, and upper back. If a coat 5i4 EQUIPMENT FOR OUTDOOR RANGE SHOOTING 515 or blouse be worn, it should be wide across the shoulders and upper back so that it does not bind when one assumes the prone position. It should be such that it will not be injured by lying on the ground. Most riflemen prefer to shoot in a flannel shirt. The elbows should be slightly padded to prevent the point of the elbow becoming sore from contact with the ground in the prone position. Several thick- nesses of flannel, covered by one of chamois skin, is usually sufficient. The novice will usually find it advantageous similarly to pad the right shoulder to protect the shoulder from recoil, but the experienced marks- man will not need this, and for him a covering of the shoulder with a piece of chamois skin to prevent the slipping of the butt plate will suffice. Much padding leads to clumsiness and a poor position. Some men will require a small piece of M-inch rope sewed on the inside of the shirt or coat sleeve. This should be sewed on the inside of the back of the sleeve slightly below the arm pit, and makes a ridge above which the sling loop is placed when shooting prone, prevent- ing the sling from slipping down to the elbow. The neck should be absolutely free, and it is best to open the top button of the collar of the shirt. RIFLES The rifle should be equipped with military or Whelen pattern gun- sling, and with adjustable sights. Before starting to fire, the bore should be carefully wiped free from all oil and grease, and the action should be slightly lubricated with thin oil, like sperm oil. If the shoot- ing is to be on the conventional black and white target, the sights should be blackened. SIGHT BLACK One cannot do good work with sights which glisten or shine. It is always best to blacken them. Sights may be blackened in the smoke of burning camphor, or a kerosene or acetylene lamp or torch, the flame of a candle, or even a match, or in the woods they may be nicely blackened in the smoke of burning pitch pine. Also a liquid sight black can be made as follows : Ivory Black, "B" in Japan, (a black paste procurable from dealers in painters supplies) 5 ounces. Gasolene, 76 test 12 ounces. Add the gasolene little by little to the paste, mixing thoroughly after each addition. If it is found too dry with any gloss whatever there is too much " binder " in the paste ; to correct this, add to the paste a little powdered lamp black, and work up thoroughly with the first portion of gasolene that is added. This mixture will dry on the sights in a few seconds. 516 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Before attempting to blacken the sights, whether with smoke or liquid sight black, always wipe all traces of oil and dirt off of them. Do not blacken the entire rear sight, but only that portion around the peep hole or notch, leaving the elevation and windage scales without black so that they can be easily read. AMMUNITION Ammunition for use on the target range should be kept in some container where they will be kept clean, and away from sand, dirt, and hot sun. The cartridges are usually kept in the cartridge belt, or else in a " dope " or shooting bag. SHOOTING BAG Many riflemen who shoot extensively carry a shooting bag, usually called a " dope " bag, to the range with them. This bag carries all the articles used on the range with the exception of the rifle. A con- venient bag is a small " dress suit case," about 10 inches wide, 14 inches long, and 4 inches deep. Sometimes compartments and loops are made in it for the various articles. A number of dealers in rifleman's supplies import special leather shooting bags from England which are very convenient. mo'bilubricant The users of high-power rifles usually carry a grease called Mobi- lubricant with which to grease their bullets before firing in order to reduce the amount of metal fouling deposited in the bore. (See Chapter XXII.) Mobilubricant can be carried in any small can, but is easiest applied in just the correct amount if contained in a little box called the " Spitzer Greaser " which can he obtained from dealers in riflemen's supplies. SCORE BOOK A score book is absolutely essential if one would learn and re- member anything from his practice. A score book is not, as its name would imply, a book to keep the score alone in. It is intended chiefly to record the weather conditions, the elevation and windage used, the point on the target where the shot was called, and where it struck, and any details regarding rifle, ammunition, and the rifleman himself. It is really a ballistic record. There are a number of good score books on the market such as the " Bull's-eye Score Book," the " Marine Corps Score Book," or one can obtain from the Superintendent of EQUIPMENT FOR OUTDOOR RANGE SHOOTING 517 Public Documents, Washington, D. C, a copy of the official Army score book entitled " Soldier's Handbook of the Rifle and Score Book," by the author of this work. This last book is published in two edi- tions, one for the Model of 1903 rifle, and the other for the Model 19 17 rifle, and is arranged for the course prescribed in the United States Army. Special score books can be arranged for any particular kind of firing or practice. Every score book should have a pencil with it. MICROMETER SIGHT ADJUSTER This little instrument is absolutely essential for the best work at ranges over 500 yards when using the Model 1903 rifle. The hands and eyes alone cannot set the rear sight with a sufficient degree of fineness. It can be obtained from most dealers in riflemen's sup- plies. This instrument is not needed if one is using the No. 48 or 103 Lyman sights, or the Winchester telescope sight with No. 2 rear mounting. TELESCOPE For long-range shooting a high-power telescope is absolutely essential. It is needed to see the mirage which gives the best indi- cation of the wind currents at long range. The power of the telescope should be 20 diameters or over. For seeing the bullet holes in the black portion of the target at 200 yards a power of 40 diameters is necessary. The writer has used for many years with excellent re- sults a glass made by Bardou of Paris, magnifying 33 diameters, which cost $17.50 from Montgomery, Ward & Co., Chicago, in 1903. Sev- eral English firms make excellent rifle-range telescopes, some of them having a device which allows, various powers from 30 to 40 diameters to be used at will. TELESCOPE RESTS The telescope is used mounted alongside of the rifleman as he shoots in the prone position, usually on his right side, and almost parallel to the rifle barrel. To hold it in this position telescope rests are used. The rests hold the focused glass trained on the target. At any time, even when the rifleman is sighting, a slight turn of the head is all that is necessary to give him a view of the target through the telescope. Many elaborate rests have been designed for this purpose, but the best is simply two iron rods, about */4 inch in diameter, and 15 inches long, pointed at the lower end, and with a fork or " U " at the upper end. They are simply stuck in the ground in approximately the cor- 5i8 THE AMERICAN RIFLE rect position, the telescope opened out and placed on them. The telescope is focused on the target, and the rods moved slightly so that the glass stays trained on the target. RIFLE REST This is a small metal fork, somewhat like the telescope rest, but thicker and sturdier. It is placed in the ground just in front of where «-.< — ^^?- tgt-i * ;v--^*»»--'*" '■ y" : . - *~1 JSt" '■"y& !■■-- m" i J? ?■' ' k ^'% **i I ...l-*""- •.' % m e-J^ =^■3^ ' ■•" ■ m% Fig. 139 Firing point equipped for military shooting, showing telescope, rifle, rifle rest, score book, micrometer sight adjuster, and ammunition in position, and holes correctly made in the firing point for the elbows the left hand will be when the rifle is held in the prone position. When one is not shooting the barrel of the rifle is rested in the fork in this rest, and the butt placed on the ground. This keeps the rifle standing straight up, only the toe of the butt touching the ground. The muzzle of the rifle does not get in the dirt. Grass does not wipe EQUIPMENT FOR OUTDOOR RANGE SHOOTING 519 the black off the sights. The hands are left free to handle the score book, ammunition, and sights. The left wrist is not under constant strain from holding the rifle up. Rifle rests can be obtained from any dealer in riflemen's supplies. SHOOTING GLASSES If one's eyes are normal, shooting glasses are of no assistance at all. Rather they are a handicap. If one has to wear glasses to obtain perfect vision, the glasses for shooting purposes should be equipped with " toric " lenses, preferably of amber color. The lenses should be very large, and should be contained in a spectacle frame of rustless metal. The glasses should be so adjusted that when aiming one looks through the lens as far from the rim as pos- sible. Several optical firms make a specialty of shooting glasses for sportsmen. CLEANING MATERIALS As a usual thing the rifle will not require cleaning on the range. It is usually best to defer this until reaching one's home where all the facilities for a thorough cleaning are at hand. However, a rifle using black powder must be cleaned frequently to obtain the best results, also a rifle that has been shot with high-power ammunition will not do good shooting with a reduced load and lead alloy bullet until it has been thoroughly cleaned, so that it may sometimes be necessary to carry cleaning materials in one's range kit. This matter will be discussed in Chapter XLII. CHAPTER XXXII ELEVATION WE have seen in Chapter XVI that a rifle is not always cor- rectly sighted for a given range when the sights are set at the exact elevation as marked on the sights. Also an ordinary sporting rifle is not always correctly sighted for the range it is supposed to be when the rear sight is at its lowest elevation. The conditions which cause these differences may make it necessary to set the rear sight for elevation as much as 150 yards off the mark. That is, if we are shooting at 500 yards, it may be necessary to set the rear sight at 350 yards or at 650 yards in order to strike the bull's-eye with a normal aim. Or if the rifle be a sporting model with ordinary open sights, and supposed to be sighted for 100 yards when the rear sight is placed in its lowest position, it may shoot as much as 7 or 8 inches off the mark. If differences much greater than this are found it is likely that the rifle has suffered some injury. The rifle may have been allowed to fall at some time, thus springing or bending the barrel or sights, or there may be a slight injury or wearing of the rifling at the muzzle. It cannot be too strongly impressed upon the rifleman that he must take the best care of his weapon. Particularly he should never allow it to fall, and he should guard the muzzle and sights carefully. See that the muzzle of the bore receives no wear in the process of cleaning the bore, for if the sharp corners of the lands and grooves at the muzzle are worn or injured there will be a considerable change in where the rifle shoots. A worn muzzle does not necessarily mean an inaccurate rifle, but it does usually mean one which will shoot 'way off from its normal sighting. If the rifle has received anything like fair treatment since it left the factory or arsenal, it should shoot quite close to the mark, provided proper and good ammunition is used. Thus if the rifleman sets his sights at the indicated range, and does his part of holding, aiming, and trigger pull correctly, his first shot will almost surely strike a target the size of the regulation military target at ranges up to 600 yards. He can then make the correction in sight adjustment neces- sary to hit the bull's-eye with the next shot. Once he has found the 520 ELEVATION 521 correct elevation for a certain range he should record it in his score book, together with all the conditions as to ammunition, weather, etc., pertaining when the shot was fired. The correct elevation found for a given range under good and average weather conditioas, with good ammunition, is termed the " normal elevation " for that range. A rifle may slightly change its normal elevation from time to time. A new rifle will change its elevation a little during the firing of the first 100 shots or so, when the bore is losing the polish given to it by the tools with which it was bored and rifled, and taking on the polish it receives from the passage of the bullets through it. Also during this period the rifle is being pounded down to a set position in the stock. It is necessary to see that the guard screws, and other screws fastening the stock and forearm to the action, are kept screwed up very tight. A rifle with a loose stock will shoot all over the landscape. With a military rifle having a long forearm it is necessary to see that the wood under the upper band does not bind the barrel and interfere with its free expansion and lengthening as it heats up from firing. In a dry climate ordinarily no attention is necessary to this, but if the rifle be taken into a very damp climate the stock will swell, and then it will be necessary to dismount the rifle and work down the wood under the upper band with a piece of sandpaper in the groove where the barrel lies. This should not be overdone ; it should be just possible to move the barrel very slightly where the upper band grips it. A black powder rifle usually requires cleaning every five or ten shots to do its best work. A .22-caliber rifle using Lesmok or semi-smoke- less powder should be cleaned after about every 50 rounds. But a high-power smokeless powder rifle should shoot well, and maintain its normal elevation very closely, provided it is not shot fast enough to became abnormally hot, or it is not so roughly bored that it ac- cumulates a large quantity of metal fouling. If a rifle barrel gets very hot it is liable to shoot high and require a reduction in eleva- tion of the rear sight, but it may shoot off in any direction, depend- ing much on the steel of the barrel, and whether the bore has been hammered to straighten it during the process of manufacture. Ordinary heating such as would occur through the firing of 20 shots in 10 minutes, or even one string of rapid fire (firing 10 shots in 1 minute) should make no difference in the normal elevation of a good barrel. If a rifle throws its shots farther and farther from the mark as it heats up from firing at an ordinary rate, if it starts to shoot 522 THE AMERICAN RIFLE higher and higher, or departs in some other direction from its normal, it is usually a sign that either the bore is not straight, or it has been bored crooked at the factory and then hammered to straighten it. A properly bored barrel shot with good ammunition will not accumu- late enough metal fouling during an ordinary day's shooting on the range to cause it to depart from its normal elevation. An accurate rifle, using the best ammunition with weighed powder charges, should hold its elevation to within 3 minutes of angle at ranges up to 1000 yards. That is, at 200 yards the shots should not string up and down more than 6 inches, at 500 yards 15 inches, and at 1000 yards 30 inches. Some rifles will do much better than this. A high-power Pope barrel for the .30-caliber Model 1906 car- tridge will frequently hold its elevation within 1V2 minutes of angle. The elevation is also influenced by atmospheric conditions. Some of these atmospheric conditions which may influence the elevation are as follows : Temperature. On a hot day the rifle will shoot slightly higher, and will require a slightly lower elevation of the rear sight. The reverse pertains on a day colder than normal. Ammunition which has been allowed to lie in the sun on a hot day long enough to get very hot is also liable to shoot high. Barometer. The lower the barometer, the higher the rifle will shoot, and the less will be the elevation required. Low-velocity rifles and black-powder rifles are more influenced by changes in barometer than rifles of very high velocity. Rifles having velocities of 2700 feet per second and over are only influenced about half as much by changes in barometer as rifles with velocities around 2000 feet per second. At high altitudes a rifle will shoot higher and require a lower setting of the rear sight than it does at the sea level. Mirage. Mirage or heat waves apparently make the target dance or simmer. The atmosphere appears to boil, and the target and bull's- eye appear blurred. The blurred bull's-eye looks larger than a sharply defined -bull's-eye seen at times when there is no mkage. In trying to aim the correct distance below the bull's-eye the rifleman naturally aims a little lower on a blurred bull's-eye, hence his shot strikes a little lower on the target. Therefore when mirage is present a slightly higher elevation will usually be necessary. Ordinary mirage does not displace or drift the image of the target. Light. Differences in light make almost no difference when the peep sight is used. If the rifleman be wearing amber-colored glasses and ELEVATION 523 using the peep-sight, changes in light will not make the slightest dif- ference and may be entirely disregarded. With the open sight light sometimes has considerable effect on the elevation on account of the difference in the appearance of the sights in different lights. Differ- ent conditions of light may affect individuals differently, depending much on the strength and vision of the eyes, so that it is impossible to prescribe any exact rule. The light may be very bright, ordinary sunlight, dull, dark, or very dark over the entire range. We may have a target strongly illuminated by sunlight or under the shade of a cloud or some object, and we have bright or shaded sights, and all combinations of these. The effect of light with open sights must be found by each individual for himself, and the best way to do it is to keep a complete record of the light in the score book, so that after a number of scores have been fired the effect of the light can be determined by the elevation used and the place where the shot struck the target in that particular light. The best way to record the light in the score book is, " B-B " equals bright firing point and bright target ; " B-D " equals bright firing point and dull target, etc. Ammunition. Differences in ammunition of course make a large difference in the elevation required. High-power ammunition almost always requires a lower elevation in a certain rifle than do reduced loads. Differences on lots of ammunition to all intents and purposes practically the same sometimes make a change in elevation neces- sary. One can usually rely on all ammunition packed in one original box of 1000 or 1200 rounds at the factory being from one lot and made on one machine on one day. The kind of ammunition, and if possible the date of loading, should always be recorded in the score book, unless one is shooting his entire practice with one lot. Ammuni- tion for the .30-caliber Model 1903 rifle manufactured during peace times is very constant and regular in its elevations, and when using it only very slight changes in elevation will usually be found neces- sary when changing from one lot to another. But if one were to change from this ammunition to another of the same caliber, but made by a private manufacturer, particularly if a different weight bullet is used, the change in elevation required might be considerable. For example, with the .30-40 cartridge fired in a heavy No. 3 barrel which is much less subject to slight changes in elevation from differences of ammunition than is a light military or hunting barrel, and using Winchester, U. M. C, Peters, and U. S. C. Co. ammunition, all loaded with a 220-grain, soft-point bullet, and all said to give a velocity at 524 THE AMERICAN RIFLE the muzzle of 2000 feet per second, it was found that there was a difference in the point of impact between two makes of as much as 5% inches at 100 yards. Winds. Head winds, that is, those blowing from the target towards the firer, require additional elevation. Rear winds require a lower elevation. The effect of these winds at ranges up to 1000 yards is very small, and scarcely ever need be taken into account. Positions. The position assumed by the rifleman influences the elevation considerably. In the prone position with tight gun-sling pulling down on the barrel, the rifle shoots lower than when held in any other way, but probably shoots more consistently if care be taken to get the same amount of tension on the sling each time, and to receive the recoil on the shoulder in the same way. In practice, however, there is very little difference in shooting at a bull's-eye target between the elevation in the prone position and that required for the stand- ing position, because in the latter position one does not hold as steadily, and hence naturally holds a little farther below the bull's-eye with a little more of the white target showing between the top of his front sight and the bottom of his bull's-eye so that he can get a clearer view of the bull's-eye as his sights bob and travel over the surface of the target. When firing with a sand-bag or other rest the rifle shoots higher and requires a lower elevation. These differences depend so much upon the manner in which the rifleman holds, the manner in which he takes up the recoil, and the nature and position of the rest if any is used, that no general rule can be given. In some cases the differences may be so small that they can only be noticed by a very expert rifleman equipped with an exceptionally accurate rifle. Under other conditions that may make two or three feet difference at 500 yards, and proportionately at other ranges. Oil in the bore. In the preceding chapter directions were given to wipe all the oil from the bore before beginning to fire. It is wise to do so. If the bore be heavily coated with a thick grease the first shot is liable to fly high and wild. Light oils like " 3 in 1 " and sperm oil do not have this effect as a rule, and if the bore of a high-power rifle be free from heavy grease the point of impact of the first shot from a clean bore, and of succeeding shots will be practically the same. If the bore of a .22-caliber rifle, or of a black-powder rifle be clean, and even slightly oiled with a light oil the first shot will almost always strike high on the target. As a general rule the elevation is influenced very little by atmos- ELEVATION 525 pheric conditions because a change in one condition is usually ac- companied by an opposite change in some other condition. For example, an increase in temperature is usually accompanied by a certain amount of mirage. Occasionally, however, conditions combine to make a big change in elevation necessary. Suppose that the weather on a certain range has been generally cool, but on a certain day it be- comes very hot, the barometer drops, and a strong rear wind sets in to blow. Such conditions would cause the shot to go way over the top of the target if one were shooting at 1000 yards, using only the normal elevation and not taking into account the changed con- ditions. The normal elevation should always be used for the first shot of a score unless conditions clearly indicate that a change in eleva- tion is desirable. CHAPTER XXXIII ZERO THE " zero " of a rifle is the point at which the wind gauge must be set in order to have a perfectly pulled shot strike in a perpen- dicular line running through the center of the bull's-eye on a day when there is no wind, and when the sun is directly overhead, or else not showing in the sky. This zero should of course coincide with the zero on the wind-gauge scale, but owing to the differences in aiming and holding of the individual, the peculiarities of different rifles, etc., it often varies a little to one side or another. This zero of the rifle is the point from which all windage allowances must be figured. For example, if a certain wind requires an allowance of " I point right " on the wind gauge of the Model 1903 rifle, and the zero of the rifle is a half a point right, then the wind-gauge must be set to read 1% points right. Similarly, if one point left wind is required to allow for the breeze, and the zero is V2 right, the wind gauge must be set at only ^ point left. There are two ways of finding the zero. First, the rifle may be shot on a day when there is no wind blowing, and when the sun is either directly overhead or the sky is overcast, and the reading of the wind gauge which gives shots in or near a perpendicular line through the center of the bull's-eye taken as the zero. This method is the surest, but is open to the objection that on some rifle ranges a day with no wind is very rare. The second method is to shoot the unknown rifle alongside of some good shot who is using a rifle that he knows the zero of, and then comparing the two wind-gauge read- ings. The reason for being so particular about the direction of the sun is that if it be shining on one side of the front sight, the rifle will shoot away from that side. This is even true of a perfectly black military sight, and the difference is considerable if one is using a bead front sight which is tapered or rounded towards the eye. With the black sight on the United States rifle, Model of 1903, if the sun is behind a cloud, and then comes out, lighting up the right side only of the front sight, it requires the wind gauge to be moved about a S26 ZERO 527 quarter of a point to the right to compensate for seeing the right side of the sight more clearly than the left. If the beginner is using the Model 1903 rifle he need not worry about the zero because it will seldom be off more than half a point, and this is not enough to cause him to miss the target. A half a point on the Model 1903 rifle only makes a difference of 10 inches at 500 yards and proportionately at other ranges. His first shot will strike the target, and then he can adjust his sights to the correct setting. The military shot should, however, always learn his zero very ac- curately before he begins rapid fire, because while in slow fire he has a chance to correct his windage after the first or any succeeding shot, in rapid fire he does not have this chance, and if the sights are not set right for wind, not only will the first shot go wrong, but all the others also. For a military rifle 500 yards is the best range at which to determine the zero, and for a hunting rifle, 200 yards. When the rifleman knows the normal elevation and zero of his rifle he is prepared for accurate shooting, for qualification, for com- petition, or he is ready to take that rifle into the field after game. Until these are determined his shooting must be largely experimental, or, as it is termed in the " Small Arms Firing Manual of the Army," " instruction practice." The experienced rifleman, if he is starting the season's practice with a new rifle, shoots it carefully at all ranges, keeping all the while every speck of data most carefully in his score book. In a few days he will be able to determine absolutely his eleva- tions and zero from this data. He then knows his rifle. Some men trust to memory in these matters, but their shooting can never be absolutely relied upon, nor are they ever found among the prize winners in a big match. CHAPTER XXXIV WINDAGE AND WINDS THE wind is the greatest disturbing factor to the flight of the bullet that the rifleman has to contend with. The effect of the wind blowing on the side of a bullet flying through the air is to cause it to travel slightly with the wind. Thus if a wind coming from the shooter's right is blowing on the right side of the bullet, the bullet will drift to the left, and instead of hitting the bull's-eye it will strike over toward the left side of the target. To compensate for this we must either aim to the right or adjust our wind gauge to the right. The target and military shot always uses his wind gauge and never aims off for wind allowance, but there is seldom time for the hunter to do this, and he must aim a little to one side or the other. It remains to be seen just how much to adjust the wind gauge, or how far to one side to hold to allow for a certain velocity and direction of wind. Wind will affect a large bullet more than it will a small one, and it will affect a slow flying one more than it will one flying at high velocity. In the first case the wind has more surface to act against, and in the second case it has more time to act on a bullet at low velocity than on one travelling rapidly, because the slow bullet will be exposed much longer in travelling the same distance. The exact wind allow- ance for the various military cartridges, has been very carefully cal- culated and tables of allowances prepared which are appended to this chapter. No such tables, however, have ever been computed for purely sporting cartridges, but today sporting cartridges so much resemble those used for military purposes that it is usually possible to use one of the military tables, making slight allowances where the velocities or size of the bullet differ considerably. In speaking of the direction of the wind riflemen consider the rifle range as they would the dial of a clock with the target at 12 o'clock and the firing point at 6 o'clock. Thus a wind blowing from the right at exactly right angles to the line of fire would be called a 3 o'clock wind, and a wind blowing straight towards the rifleman would be a 12 o'clock wind. A 3 or 9 o'clock wind has the greatest deviating effect on the bullet because these winds strike the bullet squarely on 528 WINDAGE AND WINDS 529 its side, and this defect decreases as the direction approaches 12 or 6 o'clock, until when the wind is in either of these latter directions it causes no lateral drift to the bullet at all. A 2, 4, 8, or 10 o'clock wind has about seven-eights of the effect on a bullet that a 3 or 9 o'clock wind would, and a 1, 5, 7, or 11 o'clock wind has about half the deviating effect of a 3 or 9 o'clock wind. Winds blowing from 3 or 9 o'clock have exactly the same deviating effect, although of course in exactly opposite directions. Similarly 2, 4, 8, and 10 o'clock winds, and 1, 5, 7, and 11 o'clock winds have each the same deviating effect. The direction of the wind can be told by holding a light string in the fingers and watching in which direction it blows out, by lighting a match, or by a puff of smoke if the wind is very light, by throwing grass into the air and watching the direction in which it is blown. If the wind is fairly strong its direction can instantly be told by facing towards the wind until it seems to whistle equally past both ears ; one will then be facing squarely into the wind. Holding up a wet finger and noting the cold side is another old trick. Estimation of the velocity of the wind will always remain largely a matter of guess work because no instruments or flags with which to measure it are allowed on the rifle range in military rifle shooting, and even if it were possible to have an anemometer alongside one while firing it would give only the velocity of the wind at the firing point, whereas the bullet is most effected by the wind directly in front of the target. What appears to be a very steady wind is in reality constantly varying from 3 to 6 miles per hour, and is seldom the same at any point, over a range of several hundred yards. Much can be learned by experience, and some few men become almost uncanny in their ability to estimate wind velocity. To say that a certain coach or shot is a good " wind doper " is to pay a high compliment. The velocity of the wind is measured in miles per hour. A wind blowing at 2 miles per hour is probably the lightest wind that will make itself manifest to the ordinary man. Up to 5 miles per hour one would call a wind gentle or light. From 5 to 10 miles per hour it becomes a nice breeze. From 10 to 15 miles is a stiff breeze. Fifteen to 20 miles per hour is a very strong wind, while anything over 20 miles per hour is in the nature of a gale, and it is hardly worth trying to shoot. Estimating the wind in this way the target shot or military rifleman will come close enough to it so that if he sets his wind-gauge in accordance with the tables he will be sure to get the first shot on the target, and usually pretty nearly correct for the wind. He can 530 THE AMERICAN RIFLE then make the corrections necessary to carry his point of impact into the bull's-eye. In the case of military rifle shooting with the .30- caliber Model 1903 rifle, suppose the wind is blowing from 3 o'clock, a rather stiff breeze, and the rifleman is about to fire at 500 yards. A stiff breeze is from 10 to 15 miles per hour. Let us estimate this at 12 miles. The rifleman turns to the table of wind allowances for this rifle (Model 1906 ammunition) and using the "3 or 9 o'clock" column, follows it down to the 500 yard space and there looks for a 12-mile wind. The table shows this to require an allowance of i 1 ^ points. He sets the wind-gauge 1% points right from the zero of the rifle, and enough allowance will have been made to insure the first shot hitting the target, in fact it will probably come pretty near strik- ing in a vertical line passing through the bull's-eye. In this case the table has been arranged for the wind-gauge on the United States magazine rifle, Model 1903. On this rifle the smallest division on the wind-gauge, called a " point," has a value of 4 inches per 100 yards. That is to say, moving the wind-gauge one point will move the point of impact four inches at 100 yards and proportionately at other ranges. In the example used above, i 1 ^ points has a value of 30 inches at 500 yards. By carefully recording wind directions, approximate velocities, the allowance one makes on the sight or by holding off, the length of the range, and the exact point where the shot fired under these conditions has struck, and then carefully studying these records, any one can quickly become a fair wind doper. The range at which the big game hunter fires is almost always under 300 yards. With a modern, high-velocity rifle, like one using the .30- caliber, Model 1906 cartridge, it is seldom necessary at a short range like this to make any allowance for the wind. With this cartridge a 3 o'clock wind at 12 miles per hour would require an allowance of only about 9 inches at 300 yards. With the .30-30 rifle and the same wind and range an allowance of about 36 inches. The .30-40- 220 rifle would require about 27 inches, and the .405 W. C. F. about the same as the .30-30. The hardest condition of all for the target and military shot to shoot in is when a " fish-tail " wind is blowing. The direction of the wind is never absolutely constant, it always varies a little bit in the direction from which it comes. What we call a 3 o'clock wind will vary from 2 130 to 3 130 o'clock. If the wind happens to be a stiff one from 12 or 6 o'clock it will shift a little from one side to the other, and often these shifts come so quickly that one cannot see WINDAGE AND WINDS 53i them soon enough to allow for them. In a stiff breeze, 10 to 15 miles per hour, a wind from 6 130 o'clock has enough deviating effect to make necessary quite a little allowance. If one allows for such a wind, and when he is aiming the wind suddenly shifts to 5 130 o'clock, which it can do very easily without the ordinary man being aware of it, the marksman is going to find his shot way over on one side of the TABLE OF WIND ALLOWANCES .30 caliber Model 1898 cartridge (.30-40). 220-grain blunt bullet. Velocity i960 feet per second. Arranged in inches' deflection and points of windage on the Model 1901 rear sight for the .30-caliber United States magazine rifle, Model of 1898 (Krag). Force of wind in miles per hour Number of inches bullet is deflected at target, and number of points on wind gauge necessary to correct Distance By 1,5,7 and 1 1 o'clock winds By 2, 4, 8 and 10 o'clock winds By 3 and 9 o'clock winds Inches deflec- tion Points on wind gauge Inches deflec- tion' Points on wind gauge Inches deflec- tion Points on wind gauge 200 Yards 1 point on wind gauge gives 12 inches cor- rection at target. 4 8 12 16 20 2 4 6 8 IO Vi % 73 % 4 8 12 16 20 Vi % I 1% 1% 5 10 15 20 25 y 2 I iVi 1% 2 500 Yards 1 point = 30 inches 4 8 12 16 20 8 16 24 32 40 % % % I 173 16 32 48 64 80 72 I 1V2 2% 2% 20 40 60 80 100 73 1% 2 2^3 3% 600 Yards 1 point = 36 inches 4 8 12 16 20 11 21 " 31 42 52 73 % 1 1% 1Y2 21 42 62 S3 104 73 1% 1% 2 ] /2 3 26 52 78 104 130 73 1% 2% 3 373 800 Yards 1 point = 48 inches 4 8 12 16 20 19 39 58 77 96 % S A iVe 1% 2 38 77 115 154 192 % 1% 2% 3% 4 48 96 144 192 240 I 2 3 4 5 900 Yards 1 point = 54 inches 4 8 12 16 20 23 45 67 90 112 % 1% 2 45 90 134 179 224 % 173 2% 3% 4?3 56 112 168 224 280 1 2 3 4% 5% 1000 Yards 1 point = 60 inches 4 8 12 16 20 29 58 87 ii5 144 1 lV2 2 2% 58 115 173 230 288 1 2 2% 3% 4% 72 144 216 288 360 1% 2% 3% 4% 6 532 THE AMERICAN RIFLE TABLE OF WIND ALLOWANCES .30 caliber Model 1906 cartridge in United States Model 1903 rifle 150-grain pointed bullet, M. V. 2700 feet per second. Range No. of inches correction at target correspond- Correction in points of windage for blowing i winds rom in m les pel hour 1, 5 7 or 1 1 o'clock 2, 4 , 8 or 10 o'c ock 3 or 9 'clock ing to 1 point of windage on rear sight of U. S. Magazine Rifle, caliber .30, Model 1903. T3 '0 T3 a "0 Pn "S P-i 13 a '0 Ph T3 C 2 "3 S3 '0 Ph 2 O 12 Vi 2 12 y 2 12 y 2 200 Yards 1 point = 8 inches 4 6 8 O Vi 14 16 t8 Vi Vi Vi 4 6 8 Vi Vi 14 16 18 v 2 y 2 y 2 4 6 8 Vi Vi Vi 14 l6 18 y 2 y 2 10 Vi 20 % 10 Vi 20 y 2 10 V2 20 % 2 12 % 2 12 94 2 Vi 12 3 a 300 Yards I point = 12 inches 4 6 8 Vi Vi Vi 14 16 18 4 6 8 Vi Vi 14 16 18 1 1 4 6 8 Vi y 2 y 2 14 16 18 1 1 10 Vi 20 % 10 % 20 1 10 % 20 I a /4 2 Vi 12 % 2 % 12 1% 2 y 4 12 i Mi 500 Yards 1 point =-20 inches 4 6 8 Vi Vi V2 14 16 t8 1 1 4 6 8 % 14 16 18 1% 1% 1% 4 6 8 y 2 1 14 16 18 1% 2 2 1 /4 10 % 20 iVi 10 1 20 2 10 iVi 20 2% 2 Vi 12 1 2 % 12 1% 2 Vi 12 1% 600 Yards I point = 24 inches 4 6 8 Vi V-2 y 2 14 16 18 1 iVi iVi 4 6 8 1 14 16 18 1% 2 2 1 /* 4 6 8 I 1% 14 16 18 2 2 y 2 2% 10 2 % 20 1 1/2 10 1% 20 2 % 10 1% 20 3 Vi 12 1% 2 % 12 2 Vi 2 y 2 12 2 y 2 800 Yards I point = 32 inches 4 6 8 V2 % 14 16 18 1% I 3 /4 2 4 6 8 % 1 1% 14 16 18 2 y 2 3 3% 4 6 8 % 1% 1% 14 16 18 3 3 % 4 10 I 20 2% 10 1% 20 3 % 10 2% 20 4 % 2 Vi 12 1% 2 y 2 12 3 2 y 2 12 31/2 1,000 Yards I point = 40 inches 4 6 8 V-2 s /i iVi 14 16 18 2 2% 2% 4 6 8 1 iy 2 2 14 16 18 3 y 2 4 4 y 2 4 6 8 iv 4 1% 2% 14 16 18 4 4 y 2 10 IV2 20 3 10 2 y 2 20 s 10 2% 20 5 % target, or it may even miss the target. In effect, in this case, he has actually fired with an allowance for a left wind when he should have had an allowance for a right wind. If the rifleman be a novice and does not appreciate the fish-tail nature of the wind, he is apt to be all at sea. Such occurrences as this will play hob with a man's score, and there is no way out of it until one learns to use the telescope to judge wind drift which will be explained elsewhere. Firing in a strong fish-tail wind is apt to discourage the novice, and it is better not to attempt target shooting on such a day until one becomes expert. WINDAGE AND WINDS 533 An expert, as a rule, loves such a day because it gives him a chance to show his skill. The expert long-range shot judges slight changes in direction and velocity of the wind by means of the mirage. Mirage is the waves of heat, that bubbling or boiling of the atmosphere, which can be usually seen on a hot summer day. It is almost always present in the summer time, and although often so faint that it cannot be seen with the naked eye it can almost always be distinguished by means of a high-power telescope. A telescope magnifying twenty diameters Fig. 140 A rifleman looking through his telescope and judging the wind by mirage drift or over is good for watching the mirage. If one will set the telescope in a rest and focus it on the target when mirage is present he will notice that the mirage has a decided movement or flow, something like the flow of a stream of water, or of a fog driven by the wind. The direction and velocity of this flow or travel can be seen by watching it carefully through the glass. The least little current of air causes a movement in the mirage. The actual velocity of the wind cannot be told by the mirage alone. For that one must depend on instruments or on observation of flags, or make an estimate as before described. The wind-gauge is set for this estimate in the usual manner, and the telescope set up on its rests alongside the rifle. Just before firing the first shot glance through the telescope and note exactly how the mirage is flowing, and the ap- parent velocity of it. Then fire the first shot, and immediately glance through the telescope again to see if it has changed in the slightest. 534 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Note where the first shot struck the target and if it is not right for wind make the necessary change in the adjustment of the wind gauge. If the second shot is correct for windage try to get every shot off with the mirage flowing exactly the same as it was for that shot. Watch the mirage closely through the glass before and after every shot. When the mirage appears to be running just right shift the eye from the telescope to the rifle sights and fire as soon as possible. Immediately after firing shift the eye back to the telescope to see if, perchance, it has changed, as that would give the reason for an off shot. The mirage may appear to flow steadily to the right or left. It may flow very slowly or very rapidly, and it may change from very slow to very rapid almost instantly. It may boil straight up with- out any lateral movement. When the mirage travels from left to right it of course shows a wind blowing from left to right. When it boils straight up it shows either a wind straight from 6 or 12 o'clock, or else no wind at all. If the mirage be flowing slowly from left to right, for example, and the wind gauge be set for such a flow, and then at the instant of firing the mirage begins to travel very fast in the same direction, if one is shooting at 1000 yards the shot may hit anywhere from 2 to 4 feet to the right of the point of aim. And yet in most cases the change in wind which caused this sudden change in mirage flow cannot be seen or appreciated at the firing point in any way except by watching the mirage through the telescope. It is in fish-tail winds that the watching of the mirage becomes absolutely necessary if a good score is to result at long range. A fish-tail wind is one blowing from head or rear, and constantly shift- ing a little bit from one side to the other. The mirage may be flow- ing steadily to the right with slow movement, then instantly change and flow very fast to the left, then as quickly change again to boil- ing straight up. By watching mirage in a fish-tail wind through the glass for several minutes it will probably be noticed that for the most of the time it flows in a certain direction at a certain velocity. The wind gauge should be set for this flow, and the rifleman should keep his eye at the telescope until he sees that the mirage is running steadily in this manner, and then get his shot off as soon as possible before it has had a chance to change. It is hard to describe this on paper, and yet it is not difficult to learn mirage judgment of the wind. Several days spent on the target range where good shots are firing, watching the mirage through a telescope WINDAGE AND WINDS 535 will make one very fair at it, and a little practice will perfect one in it. One should remember that the mirage always gives the best guide to the deflecting wind, and that when the wind as estimated at the firing point apparently is contrary to the mirage, to depend always on the mirage. Mirage does not show the actual velocity of the wind, nor its exact direction. It shows from which side it is blowing, and it shows very clearly little changes in velocity and deviating power. One precaution should be taken regarding the watching of the mirage through the telescope. The eye will have to be kept at the glass for quite a long time. If one is shooting a 20-shot match at 1000 yards, the eye will have to be at the telescope pretty constantly for almost three quarters of an hour. If the telescope be not focused exactly right a very serious eye strain may result. In focusing a telescope or field glasses, first pull the instrument out to the fullest extent of its draw, and then gradually and very slowly shove the eye- piece in, keeping the eye looking through the glass at the object all the time, and stop the instant that the image appears clear and in good focus. The telescope may appear correctly focused with a considerably shorter distance between object lens and eye-piece than this, but a shorter focus would give eye strain, and the longest draw that can be used with good focus should always be used. CHAPTER XXXV THE SCORE BOOK THE rifleman can never hope to shoot well until he knows his rifle, and he can never learn it thoroughly unless he keeps a record of its shooting. He will fire at many different ranges, under many weather conditions, in several firing positions, and perhaps with different lots and makes of ammunition. No man can keep all these various elevations, windages, and zeros in his head. He must keep a record. The score book is a small book to keep this record in. There are a number of good score books on the market. Among them are the " Bull's-eye Score Book," the " Marine Corps Score Book," and the official publication for the Army entitled " Soldier's Handbook of the Rifle and Score Book." The tatter is published by the Govern- ment Printing Office in two editions, one for the United States rifle, Model of 1903, and the other for the United States rifle, Model of 191 7. While all these score books are intended for military rifle shoot- ing with the military rifle, it is possible to modify them so as to make them suitable for any rifle. The score book should be carefully used, and all the various data recorded, so that at any time the rifleman may be able so to set his sights and fire that he will make a hit with the first shot. Despite its name, the score book is not intended to keep the score alone in. In fact the book has been misnamed. It should be called the " Ballistic Record of the Rifle." The score is the least important thing to note because on all regular rifle ranges there is an official scorer at each firing point who records the official score on a score card. This score card is made out in two parts, duplicates of each other. One part is handed to the rifleman and the other portion is sent to the statistical officer for recording. The score book consists of a number of blank pages ruled and arranged for recording all the data regarding the firing at certain ranges and at certain kinds of fire. The important things to note on the appropriate page or sheet are : 1. The elevation and windage used for each shot. 2. Where each shot is called, that is where the rifleman expects it to strike the target. 536 THE SCORE BOOK 537 3. A mark on the target diagram showing where each shot struck, that is, where it was marked. 4. The wind and weather at the time of firing each shot. 5. Any other important data such as ammunition used, tempera- ture, position, data, location of range, light, character of target, etc. The following instructions pertain to the use of the official score book in military shooting with the military rifle, but they may be modi- fied in any manner desired by the civilian to suit his own particular methods of firing, and for his own rifle, always bearing in mind the general principles, and the results desired, that is, a complete record of the shooting of the rifle, including the personal equation of the man. It will be noticed that the score book contains score sheets for each of the different classes of fire, and for each range. Samples of the various score sheets are shown herewith. Selecting the proper score sheet, just before we go to the firing point we record on it the range, the number of the rifle, the date of loading of the ammunition used (or its make and character), and the weather conditions, noting par- ticularly the direction and approximate velocity of the wind. We then make our calculations for sight adjustment for the first shot, set our sights accordingly, and record the exact sight setting in the columns provided for that purpose. All this should be done a few minutes before it is our turn to fire. On taking one's place at the firing point, look first to see that the wind and weather conditions have not changed. We will now take, for example, the case of a rifleman actually firing at 500 yards with the military rifle, slow fire, on the military target B, and show how he should use and keep his score book. Follow the case carefully on the sample score sheet (Fig. 141). The rifleman, as he comes to the firing point, gives his official score sheet to the scorer, places his ammunition near his right hand where it will not get in the dirt (if it is not in his belt), and adjusts his gun-sling to his arm. He then assumes the correct firing position in a good level place at his firing point where he can see the target clearly, places his score book and pencil near his right hand where he can easily use it without moving around, and, if he is using a telescope, sets it up, focuses it, and ad- justs it on the target. He has previously made the preliminary entries in the score book, so he does not have to take up valuable time to do this now. He looks, however, to see that the weather conditions, par- ticularly the wind, have not changed since he recorded them. We are 538 THE AMERICAN RIFLE N-.l ^ zr" DC CO CJj I j I Of 3 ^> P> CM rO «f LO vO h- OO 52 c* a) v- o u CO a o CO "" .*6T«*vfc ui 110143 «x4o? 'a»^j supposing that he has never fired this rifle before, therefore he has set his sights at " 500 " for elevation, and so recorded it. He estimates the wind at 8 miles per hour from 3 o'clock, and referring to the table of wind allowances (this table will be found in the previous chapter, and should also be contained in the score book), he sees that this will re- quire a correction of 1 point on the rear sight for the Model 1903 rifle, or causes a deflection of 20 inches. If he is using the Model 1903 rifle he records in the column " W. G." the figures " i-R," meaning THE SCORE BOOK 539 one point right wind. If he is using the Model 1917 rifle which has no wind gauge, he records in this column the figures " 20-R," meaning that he will endeavor to hold 20 inches to the right of the center of the bull's-eye. In the column for " Wind '•' he places the figures " 3K8M," meaning 3 o'clock, 8 miles per hour. He loads his rifle and is ready for his first shot. Just as he fires it he is careful to note just where the sights were aligned on the target at the instant that the rifle was dis- charged. That is he " calls his shot." He records this call in the column provided for it. It will be noticed that the squares in this column have cross lines. If the shot is called a " bull," that is, if the sights were aligned absolutely correct at the instant before discharge, the rifleman simply places a dot at the intersection of the cross lines. If he calls his shot at " 3 o'clock " he places the dot on the horizontal line to the right of the intersection, and so on. In this case we will say that he calls his first shot a " bull," and so records it. He now waits until the target is marked. We will say that the first shot is marked a "4" at 7:30 o'clock, just on line with the lower and left hand edges of the bull's-eye. With his sharp pencil the rifleman makes a little circle on the target diagram just where the shot was marked on the target on which he fired, and in this circle he places the figure " 1 " to denote just where the first shot struck the target. Now notice the correction marks on the left hand and top of the target diagram. From these it will be evident that the sight should be given 50 yards more elevation, and the wind gauge moved one-half point more to the right (or with the Model 1917 rifle aim should be taken 10 inches more to the right) in order that the next shot shall strike where it is aimed or called. Or instead of making corrections in this way the correction may be calculated from a table of sight adjustments prepared as de- scribed in a previous chapter. The rifleman makes these corrections in his sight setting and records them on the line provided for the second shot, and in the proper columns. He then glances again at the wind to see that it has not changed, and fires his second shot. This is also called a " bull " and so recorded in the " Call " column. When this shot is marked it is seen that it has struck near the center of the bull's-eye. It is so marked on the target diagram. The rifle is now sighted correctly, and the rifleman continues to fire with his sights thus adjusted, keeping an eye on the wind just before firing each shot to see that it has not changed. Everything goes all right until the fifth shot, which he accidentally pulls a little to the left, and a little high, and so records it in the " Call " column. Sure enough, when 54Q THE AMERICAN RIFLE Yds Slow Fire ^Jo.ofnfU ' Ammunition )ate_ Place.. X 1 No El* WC W,.iC 11 Vat Remark Wind Light .___ Weather Score . .[ Yds Rapid Fire No of rifle. Anuuiiutim Date . Pfoce ~~ RemarKs ~ Score A, m ,n, Po.nl - W.G_ VVrad. L.ohl WealKer " 100 Yds. Slow FirV Wind.. Lishl.. WutHr No. of rifle Ammimrhm. Dale ..Place.... !_:: Score 100 Yds Rapid Fire Na of rifle Amnimitio Date,. Race. - Remarks - Aiming Point. El«_. W.&_ Wmd . Lijtt WealKer Yds. Slow Fire No of Rifle Ammunition. Date PU» ., ""!"*T"T°"r ri f* No [lev wa WnJ^ J1V«1 Remajlu i(By> 1 I i 4 5 | 6 7 wa 8 9 Light 10 ■ . Score . | Yds. Slow Fire hlU.,*S...W*4 H .(t.r Mo. of rifle Amwumhon Place ((a)) NaFJe, WC vwc altVal Remark 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Light WalW 9 Score. . J Fig. 142 Cuts showing the various score sheets for different classes of fire taken from the official score book in use in the United States Army. Sheets greatly reduced in size this shot is marked it is a " three " at 10.30 o'clock. As this was the rifleman's own fault no change in the sighting of the rifle is necessary. The sixth and seventh shots are pulled correctly and result in bull's- eyes. The eighth shot, however, is a " four " to the right of the bull's- eye. The rifleman wonders at this because he called it a bull, until THE SCORE BOOK 541 he happens to notice that the wind has fallen off slightly, and is not blowing as strongly as it was. Either he failed to look at the wind before he fired, or it changed in its velocity at the instant that he fired. For his ninth shot, therefore, he brings his wind gauge back to " i-R " (one point right, or " 20-R " if he is using the Model 1917 rifle). The ninth shot is another bull's-eye, but the tenth shot was called low, and strikes just below the bull's-eye. The rifleman's total score for the ten shots at 500 yards is 45. The official score sheet, a copy of which the scorer hands to him, should read " 4, 5, 5, 5, 3, 5, 5, 4, 5, 4 — 45," and the leaf in his score book should contain all the data above indicated. This leaf now gives a complete record of the rifleman, the rifle, the ammunition, and the weather, and forms the best sort of a guide for the rifleman when he comes to fire at 500 yards again, or he would refer to it for data if he is to fire at 600 yards, setting his sights just 100 yards higher. With the same rifle and ammunition he should, the next time that he is called upon to fire at 500 yards, be able to set his sights so as to strike the bull's-eye with the first shot, thus eliminating the " four " or " three " at the beginning of his score, which reduces his total score. Any rifleman will also see how important it is in game shooting to make a clean hit with the first shot. As he gains proficiency in prac- tice the poor shots resulting from bad pulls will gradually get fewer and fewer, and he will watch the wind more closely, and not get caught by it as he was on the eighth shot in the score we have just followed so closely. He knows that with the ammunition he is using his normal elevation for 500 yards is " 550 " and not " 500." Also that probably when there is no wind blowing he can set his wind gauge at " zero " and get a shot in a horizontal line running through the cen- ter of the bull's-eye. The slow-fire sheets for other ranges given in Fig. 142, are used in a similar manner. The rapid-fire sheets sufficiently explain themselves. Place a small cross on or below the target diagram to show just where the aim was taken, and record this under " Aiming Point." Record in the column of remarks anything that it is desired to make record of. In recording shots on the diagram of the silhouette targets on the rapid-fire sheets simply place dots for each shot as they are marked from the butts. Notice where the " group " comes and make the necessary corrections for the next score, either in sight ad- justment according to your table of sight corrections, or in the aiming point. 542 THE AMERICAN RIFLE Hauje lOOO Yds Tine to- H »»rt RUle I78IH A„™ UMC IT2jr ■rent. CLu^r^a iu.- [A »l lM5ia<.,O.S.R.rt . Bar Ten H« >lp H., f.P. fi^r Mlrojs No El«». Gill Score Not.a D,'r L R 2*15 77 |ll-3o « F» 3 0) ^ SS Tl i'/g * 1 V - - - - --- SS - a 4 I0.S6 - - - - ,-- 1 1» *4 ^ - - - J s — 2 - */* -S" -- - JD 2 ,- 3 - «% •T — 4- - - 5- ^» 5 - X'/z A - 11.30 - _ - - . 6 71.* iA s - - _ 3 B . — r - *'/« s- - - - J> J> — - 8 - - g~ _-~ 9 - - -S" - _ _ 3 3 - 10 - *'/* «T No B.r w.o Sc« ■ 1 - - D J> *«jt- i i - 2% 4"" It IIJO 26 ^ 10.45 - _ - - — - i£ - i'/g (T 17 1115 i '4 + 1 1.30 - - - - -— 13 - *'/* S" 18 M l% 5" II - - - - ^ H - - s~ 19 II.30 - -T II - - B -B \& - i% .5- 20 H.30 - 6" |ToTAL S1 I Fig- 143 Sheet from the author's score book. Score fired in the Adjutant General's Match, Ohio State Rifle Association, 1909 Fig. 143 shows an exact copy of a score fired by the author at 1000 yards, showing all the data recorded, including the notes as to mirage flow. This sheet is shown exactly as it was made at the firing point, the only change being the inking in of the pencil notations. CHAPTER XXXVI MILITARY RIFLE SHOOTING THE sole purpose of military rifle shooting is to make the soldier a good shot under war conditions. This imposes upon the mili- tary rifleman certain restrictions as to rifle and methods of fire which do not pertain with the civilian. The regulations and system govern- ing military rifle shooting in the United States are laid down in the " Small Arms Firing Manual," United States Army, a copy of which can be had from the Superintendent of Public Documents, Washing- ton, D. C. Following out the general scheme as laid down in this manual, the soldier should be so trained at known distances in the various kinds of fire employed in actual service as to bring his skill as a rifleman up to the capabilities of his weapon, after which he should be trained in firing as a part of a tactical unit so as to use his individual skill to the best advantage on the battle-field. The scheme of instruc- tion is prescribed with a view to attaining these objects. By means of preliminary drills and gallery practice the soldier is trained in the fundamental principles of marksmanship ; by means of range practice he is taught to apply these principles in firing at known distances at clearly defined targets. This training is merely preparatory to combat firing in which individuals learn co-operation, and company command- ers and leaders learn how to obtain the maximum efficiency of fire by a judicious co-ordination of the skill and the efforts of all the indi- viduals of the group or fire unit. In all preliminary practice in range firing the soldier is taught to reduce the size of his shot group as much as possible, and to place the center of the shot group at the center of his target. In combat firing this principle should be utilized in securing superiority of fire. In actual combat individual targets will not, in general, be visible, but if individual shot groups be so combined as to produce a grazing fire uniformly distributed along the hostile line, a large number of hits will necessarily result, and shots which miss will have the approximate value of hits in determining superiority of fire. In a decisive battle success depends on gaining and maintaining superiority of fire. Every effort must be made to gain it early and then to keep it. 543 544 THE AMERICAN RIFLE The course prescribed for the individual soldier in the " Small Arms Firing Manual " is as follows : (a) Nomenclature and care of the rifle. (b) Sighting drills. ( c) Position and aiming drills. (d) Deflection and elevation correction drills. (e) Gallery practice. ( f ) Estimating distance drill. (g) Individual known distance firing, instruction practice. (h) Individual known distance firing, record practice. (i) Long distance practice (for selected shots). ( j) Practice with telescopic sights (for selected men). (k) Instruction combat practice. ( 1 ) Combat practice. (m) Proficiency test in combat practice. Soldiers are graded according to proficiency exhibited in the record practice of the known distance firing as expert riflemen, sharpshooters, marksmen, first-class men, second-class men, and unqualified. The preliminary drills and gallery practice have remained very much the same for a number of years. In general the recruit is first taught the operation and care of his rifle, and the names of its principal parts. He is then taught how to aim, the various firing positions, and the trigger squeeze in much the manner already described in the chapters on these subjects in this work. He is then taught to co-ordinate these in position and aiming drills with empty rifle against targets made to appear similar to, and to subtend, the same visual angle as the targets which he will fire on in known distance and combat practice. During this portion of his practice he is also taught the calling of the shot, and the sight adjustment. In the firing regulations the latter is called " deflection and elevation correction drills." This instruction is then followed by gallery practice. Gallery practice is usually held at 50 or 75 feet with the .22-caliber gallery practice rifle, in the standing, kneel- ing, sitting, and prone positions, and a certain score in each position is required from each soldier before he is permitted to progress to known distance practice on the outdoor range. In infantry companies in the Regular Army the importance of these preliminary drills is thoroughly understood, and no man is permitted to proceed to known distance practice until he has fully mastered the fundamental principles of marksmanship. These preliminary drills usually occupy a full month, eight hours a day, in the regular army. MILITARY RIFLE SHOOTING 545 The prescribed course in known distance practice, or as it is also called, outdoor-range practice, has been changed from time to time, and is liable to change in the future so that it is not laid down in detail here. The reader is referred to the latest edition of the " Small Fig. 144 Shooting with sandbag rest at the 600 yard firing point, showing coaches at work Arms Firing Manual." In general the principles under which this course is drawn up are as follows : The soldier must first learn to shoot accurately, and also he must learn his rifle, its sight adjustment and zero at the various ranges, etc. Therefore it is prescribed that the course shall first consist of slow fire on bull's-eye targets at the various ranges. Next, having learned to shoot accurately, and having some knowledge of the elevations and zeros of his own rifle, the soldier is next introducted to silhouette targets which simulate in appearance an actual enemy. These targets are usually painted a drab or khaki color. Aiming on these is a little different from aiming at a bull's-eye, so the soldier is first given a chance to fire at them in slow fire, each shot being marked as fired. In this way he learns just where to aim at an enemy to stand the greatest chance of hitting him. Next he is taught rapid fire on these silhouette targets, being required to fire ten shots in about one minute at various ranges from 200 to 500 yards. This develops quick aiming, quick trigger squeeze, ability to operate the mechanism of the rifle quickly and certainly, and to load additional clips of cartridges surely and with dispatch, all very necessary attain- 546 THE AMERICAN RIFLE merits of the soldier for combat practice. Having had instruction in all these, almost every shot being fired under a competent coach, the soldier progresses from instruction practice to record practice. Record practice consists of a sort of a test to determine just how much the soldier has learned in his course, and the extent of his skill with the rifle. In record practice coaching is not permitted, and the practice is conducted under all the regulations and requirements attending a regular competition. Record practice is similar to the more im- portant portions of instruction practice, and upon the score made in it depends the final qualification of the soldier as expert rifleman, sharpshooter, marksman, etc. Following this practice certain of the best shots in each company are given additional practice at 800 and 1000 yards and also at these and longer ranges with rifles equipped with telescopic sight. This concludes the individual training of the soldier. In order to stimulate interest in military rifle shooting throughout the country competitions in this form of shooting have been held for many years. In the Regular Army the best shots in each company compete to determine who shall represent the regiment in the division competitions. The winners at the division competitions, usually the highest 15 men, are sent to some central point for the army competi- tions. The 15 winning men at the army competitions comprise the army team and are sent to the national competitions. In each State there are similar competitions to determine the team which shall represent the State at the national competitions. Teams from every State in the Union, from the Infantry and Cavalry of the Regular Army, from the Marine Corps, and from the Navy are sent to the national competitions and here compete against each other for the national trophy and other prizes offered by Congress for both team and individual competitions. The National Rifle Association of America usually hold their annual individual competitions at the same time and place as the national competitions. It is here that one sees the highest development of skill in military rifle shooting. Practically all the best shots in the country are gathered together, the competition is very keen, and the shooting of a very high order. It frequently happens that even at the long range of 1000 yards a large number of competitors will attain the highest possible score, and many ties have to be shot off. It is particularly interesting to note that at these national competi- tions where all the best shots of the country are brought together, that MILITARY RIFLE SHOOTING 547 practically every man shoots with exactly the same system, and uses the same methods. For example, if we were to take moving pictures of a number of expert riflemen in the act of shooting it would be seen that all the movements, positions, and methods would be practically identical in every respect. In other words American military riflemen s^** Fig. 145 View of the target range at Camp Gaillard, Panama Canal Zone, from the 600 yard firing point have developed a system of rifle shooting that is so good that all expert shots use it, and no one has been able to improve on it for a number of years. The author has endeavored to give in these pages this system, the methods used, the manner of aiming, the various po- sitions, the method of operating the rifle, of adjusting the sights, etc., believing that they are the best methods for any riflemen whether they are to be used for military rifle shooting, for civilian practice, or for sportsmen. No one using other methods of his own has yet been able to excel the expert who shoots according to Hoyle. These competitions have considerable value in stimulating interest in military shooting, particularly among the civilian class. The fact, however, must not be lost sight of that military rifle shooting is in- tended to develop the skill of the individual man so as to make him a better shot under battle conditions. This means that the soldier must, through repetition and intelligent practice, be taught to shoot so well that even in battle, when under intense excitement and exertion, he 548 THE AMERICAN RIFLE will shoot well as second nature. It means that he must be trained so that he will never fail to adjust the sights accurately at the range ordered, so that he will never fail to aim accurately at the target ordered, so that he will never fail to squeeze his trigger carefully without the least suspicion of a jerk. All this takes time, repetition, practice. Many a man has gone through a season's course and made Fig. 146 Shooting at 600 yards. Camp Gaillard, Panama Canal Zone a fine score because of his natural talents, but he is far from being a trained military shot — he would go all to pieces under excitement. In military rifle shooting the rifle must be used as issued to troops. It is permitted to blacken the sights, or to ease up on the wood under the upper band if it binds the barrel here and interferes with its free expansion when heated. The trigger pull must be at least three pounds. The United States magazine rifle, model of 1898, now being obsolete, the only arms permitted in regular military shooting are the United States rifles, Models of 1903 and 1917. In competitions it is usually permissible to use a micrometer sight adjuster for adjust- ing the rear sight of the Model 1903 rifle. The use of score books and field glasses, or small portable telescopes such as could reasonably be carried by the soldier, is always permitted and encouraged. Sol- diers must shoot in the regular service uniform, either with blouse or O. D. shirt, and with the regular cartridge belt. In certain combat exercises the full pack may be required. MILITARY RIFLE SHOOTING 549 550 THE AMERICAN RIFLE The recruit will almost always have a good coach to take him through his first year's practice up to his record practice. Army regulations make the company commander responsible for the instruc- tion of his eompany in rifle firing, and this matter of instruction of the new men will always be taken care of in organizations. The civilian who desires to take up military rifle shooting is strongly ad- TARG-ET"B". SOO 8 '600 YAftOS. TARG-ET TV" 200 S 300 YARDS. 3 4 2 2 ; < - - 36" i ; Target C — 8oo and iooo yards Targets used in military rifle shooting. Slow fire vised to join one of the civilian rifle clubs organized in connection with the National Rifle Association, where he will always find fellow members only too willing to coach him and steer him over the rough places. In joining such a club he also gains the advantage of having a government rifle for use, and of getting a certain amount of ammunition free, and anything over this at cost price. MILITARY RIFLE SHOOTING 551 Military rifle shooting is good sport. Almost every one who goes into it to any extent becomes very enthusiastic about it. It offers many returns too. The rifleman who is successful in his organization usually has a chance to go to one of the smaller competitions. Suc- cess there means a State or divisional competition, and from there to the national competitions which usually take about two weeks to compete. Very often international competitions are arranged, and cur teams have often gone abroad and even to South America to com- pete with foreign teams. The sport is a clean, healthy one, there is no taint of commercialism to it, and the rifleman has the satisfaction of knowing that he is excelling in something that will be of direct benefit to himself and to his country. i — ii--+-$p-+-^ &*"- -« TARGET "D" TARGET '0': SILHOUETTE OLIVE DRAB COLOR WITH RED FACE, Targets used in military rifle shooting. Rapid fire CHAPTER XXXVII TEAM SHOOTING THE principal event in rifle competitions in the United States is the national matches which have been held annually. These matches are authorized, and the trophies are awarded by Congress. In these matches teams from the National Guard of every State in the Union, from the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps compete in team matches, and the individuals of the teams also compete in individual matches. Usually the annual matches of the National Rifle Associa- tion are held at the same place as the national matches, and imme- diately precede or follow those matches. The national matches have therefore become the Mecca for the riflemen of the United States, and the competition for places on one of the teams to visit these matches is very keen, as are also the competitions themselves. The principal one of the national matches is the National Team Match, in which compete teams from all States, one from the Infantry of the Regular Army, and one from the Cavalry, one from the Navy, and one from the Marine Corps. The team making the highest score in this match wins the team championship of the United States for that year, the national trophy offered by Congress, and a medal for each member of the team. Teams consist of twelve shooting members, three alternates, a team captain, coach, and spotter. In the National Guard the national match team is usually selected by a very thorough series of competitions within the State. Usually these competitions start in the companies, the men of each company competing for places on the company team. Company teams compete for the championship of the regiment, and from the men so competing the best are chosen for the regimental team. The regimental teams usually then compete in a state competition, and in that competition the best shots are picked to represent the State at the national matches. In the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps a slightly different method of selection usually pertains, a number of men with excellent past record as good shots being gathered together early in the spring, and the team selected from them by a very thorough try out. The competition for places on these teams is so keen,- and such a high order of marks- 552 TEAM SHOOTING 553 manship is necessary that we find men training for these teams all winter in gallery practice, and shooting on the outdoor range prac- tically all summer. An enormous amount of time and thought has been expended on the training of these teams, and a number of systems have evolved, but as far as known none of them have been described on paper for the benefit of teams and riflemen at large. These systems have been rather regarded as secrets, this having been brought about by the keen competition. The author was a member of the United States Army Infantry National Match Team in the years 1903, 1905, 1906, 1907, and 1909, and presents herewith the system finally developed in that team as the best, a system which has resulted in the team making the best all around record of any competing team. There is a system of rifle competitions in the Regular Army which is intended to develop expert shots skilled in all the refinements and niceties of the game, who, upon their return from competitions, will be the better trained to coach the men of their companies or troops to a higher order of marksmanship. Thus the best shot from each company and troop, as developed in the regular practice of the or- ganization, is sent to a rifle competition held in the department where his organization is serving. Here all the representatives compete in an individual competition lasting about six days, and the highest twelve men are sent to the army competitions where they compete for twelve places on the army team. This team itself has no connec- tion whatever with the national matches,' neither does it ever shoot as a team, it being simply the aggregation of the twelve highest men in the army, rifle competition, although as a matter of fact these men are usually sent to the national matches to compete merely as indi- vidual shots and not as a team. From these competitions held an- nually or semi-annually in the Army it is possible to pick a number of very excellent rifle shots on their past records. In January of each year the team captain for the Army Infantry National Match Team is chosen by the War Department, and detailed on this duty, being a senior officer of long and successful experience in team shooting. The captain selects, from their previous records as riflemen, about forty of the best shots in the Infantry who are available, and warns these men that they will be ordered some time in May to some previously designated rifle range to compete for places on the team. The men are advised to start training and practice at once, and to give up smoking. Almost invariably these men start in 554 THE AMERICAN RIFLE with a strenuous program of shooting and physical training. If the army post at which they are stationed does not permit of outdoor shooting the man most probably starts in with gallery practice until such a time as the weather permits him to get on the outdoor range. By the time that May comes the candidates are all in fine shooting form, their muscles and eyes are trained, and their nerves are in first-class shape. About the middle of May these men are all assembled, usually at an army post where there is a first-class rifle range, for their training and for the competition. The team captain has also gathered together all the material for the team, the following list showing about what will be needed. 2 rifles, star gauged, .308-inch groove diameter for every man competing. 30 rifles, star gauged, .308-inch groove diameter for the team to be finally selected. 1 barrack cleaning rod, steel, for each man. 12 telescopes, individual, 33 diameter. 12 telescope rests for individual telescopes. 1 telescope, large, with tripod, 60 diameters. 1 micrometer sight adjuster for each man. 4 score books for each man. Sperm oil. Cosmic grease. Aqua ammonia, 28 per cent, gas. Ammonia persulphate. Ammonia carbonate. Cut flannel patches. Targets and target material. Ammunition. Each candidate is issued two rifles with instructions to use one for slow fire work only, and the other for rapid fire. He also receives a cleaning rod, micrometer sight adjuster, score book, and cleaning material. A telescope and rest are provided for him at the firing point. His name is placed on a box of ammunition and he obtains his cartridges from that box only, thus assuring that his ammunition is always from one lot. The other material and equipment he has to supply himself. The first two or three days of work on the range are used in getting Sufficient quantity for compe- tition and training. TEAM SHOOTING 555 these rifles sighted in at the various ranges. The team captain then starts a competition which has usually consisted of shooting six times through the national match course. This course differs from year to year, and is prescribed in general orders from the War Department. Of late years it has usually consisted of 10 shots slow fire at short, mid, and long ranges, and rapid or surprise fire at short range. While this competition is conducted in strict accordance with all the rules governing competitions (see "Small Arms Firing Manual") yet the competitors are permitted and encouraged to coach each other. Two competitors are usually paired together and shoot together all during the competition. The captain thus not only knows the shooting ability of each man, but gets a good line on his ability as a coach, and on his suitability as a team member. This competition usually requires about a month for its completion, and at the end of that time the fifteen highest men are chosen from the 12 shooting members of the team and the three alternates, and the remaining competitors are ordered back to their stations. The team is then organized and starts in to practice as a team. A shooting order is tentatively determined upon. Men who get along well together are usually paired together, taking care that each pair shall include at least one good coach. It is very important that the first pair to shoot shall include excellent shots because a good start in a match raises the morale of the team, and the other pairs are liable to start off with a rush. The last pair to shoot should be the oldest, and particularly the most reliable and steady men who are not liable to become excited if it requires a bull's-eye on the last shot to win the match. Competition is so close in these matches that the match is frequently not won until the last shot. It should be understood that in a team match each team is assigned to one target, and that they shoot on this target in pairs, two men in a pair, the man on the right shooting first, and the pair alternating shots. Thus a team of twelve men contains six pairs. In this team practice much attention is paid to the correct keeping of scores in the score books. Everything is recorded, particularly on days when the weather conditions differ from normal. The various elevations and windages required with each rifle are compared, so that when one man succeeds in hitting the bull's-eye every man will know just how to set his sights to accomplish the same thing. The whole object is to make as high a score as possible for the team, and not for any individual to make a phenomenally high score. To this 556 THE AMERICAN RIFLE end each member tries to coach his partner to as high a score as possible, at the same time trying to do the best he can himself. In this training the shooting usually consists in firing a number of times through the national match course, although the captain will often have the team shoot extra scores at the most difficult ranges, and at those ranges and classes of fire in which they appear to be weak. About three weeks before leaving the rifle range where the teams have been training for the range where the national competitions are to be held the team will be issued their new rifles, two to each man, and thereafter all practice will be held with these new rifles, so that the rifle of every man will be in its very best shooting condition at the time of the match. A United States rifle, Model of 1903, probably shoots at its very best from its one hundredth to its eight hundredth round, although some rifles will continue to do splendid work for a long time after this. All this time the team is getting shaken down, trained, and becoming skilled so that they can put through an exceptionally good score in any weather condition. Care must be taken not to do too much shoot- ing or there is liability of the team getting stale. An occasional holi- day when there is some form of healthy amusement going on in the vicinity is a mighty good thing. Holidays had better come when the weather conditions are normal, and advantage be taken of abnormal days to do quite a lot of shooting so as to thoroughly learn the dope for such days. In the conduct of the team practice certain things are insisted on: Every team member must do his best to assist his partner, and the other members of the team, and never intentionally lead them astray. Thus men have been thrown off the team for telling their partner that they pulled a certain shot at 5 o'clock when as a matter of fact they knew that they had pulled it dead at 6 o'clock. Such a man has no place on a team. Elevations are always recorded in minutes on the micrometer sight adjuster, and not in yards. In slow fire, when one member of a pair is firing the other member must have his eye at the telescope. Thus he catches any shot which happens to go low and kick up dirt on the butt, or any change in the drift of the mirage. Each man must shoot " according to Hoyle." Such methods as holding off for wind or elevation instead of correcting the sight ad- justment, or of using peculiar positions, or crank methods of adjust- TEAM SHOOTING 557 ing the gun-sling are not tolerated. Drinking and smoking are not permitted. Men must shoot in the service uniform, with either blouse or shirt. Belts must be worn. Each man must have his sights blackened, his sling adjusted, and his sight set before he comes to the firing point so as not to waste valuable time. Score books are always open to the inspection of the team captain and to the man's partner. A uniform system of keeping score books is required. The very best care must be taken of the rifles so that they will do their best work all the time. Members of the team are required to clean their rifles, using the regular metal fouling solution, every afternoon before supper. The rifle must be regularly " doped " so as to render the bore chemically clean, as it has been found that rifles cleaned in this manner every day shoot their best, and maintain their accuracy the longest. Some members occasionally clean their rifles in this manner at noon if they have been doing much shooting, but the experience has been that this is hardly ever necessary. The team is usually ordered to the range where the national match is to be held a week or two before the date for the opening of the matches in order to enable the men to get settled, accustomed to the change in locality, water, etc., and also so that they can get a little practice on the range and become accustomed to the conditions before the matches start. Here the men are camped together, and are messed together. They are required to retire by ten o'clock every night, and in every way their living is made as uniform and healthy as possible. The men's eyes particularly must be watched. They must not be allowed to watch the targets except when they are actually firing or coaching, and they must not read by artificial light or when lying down. The period of team training is now at an end. Everything has been done that was possible to bring up their aggregate shooting ability. Not only has every man had the advantage of the coaching by his partner, himself in all probability an expert shot, but the team coach, picked as the most experienced rifleman in the whole Army who is available, has done his best to work each man up to the limit of his ability. To show the skill demanded in team shooting of this order, it has been demonstrated that a man is of little use on one of the top teams unless he can shoot right along under almost any weather conditions and average scores as follows : 558 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 200 yards offhand 44 points out of 50 600 yards slow fire 48 points out of 50 800 yards slow fire 49 points out of 50 1000 yards slow fire 43 points out of 50 200 yards rapid fire 48 points out of 50 300 yards rapid fire 46 points out of 50 Several days before the date set for the commencement of the National Team Match the names of the twelve men who are actually to shoot in the match are made public. Ordinarily these will be the twelve regular shooting members of the team, although if any one of these is not shooting in good form, or is not physically in good shape, the team captain will not hesitate to put in one of the alternates instead. Thus no alternate knows until the end whether he will have a chance to shoot on the team or not, and no shooting member is absolutely assured of his chance to shoot. This keeps every one keyed up to do his best all the time in practice as well as competition. On the day of the match the shooting members of the team are not allowed to come to the firing point until just before it is their turn to fire, and they are not permitted to know the scores made by mem- bers who precede them until the end of the day's shooting. Also they are told to keep away from all bulletin boards, etc. Thus the mem- bers escape all the nerve-racking excitement which is always present at the firing point. At the proper time, when warned by the team spotter, they slowly wander out from camp to the firing point, taking with them their rifle and equipment, and sit down quietly in rear of the firing point, having only about five minutes to wait until it comes their turn to fire. Each man should thus be able to shoot at his very best. After each day's shooting the team captain gives his team a talk, calling their attention to what has been done so far, what re- mains to be done, and the plans for the next day. The men are en- couraged as much as possible, and should be kept away from com- petitors of the other teams as far as it can be done. Thus everything is subordinated to the one idea of winning the match, of having every man make the best score he is capable of, both for himself, and for his shooting partner. The whole spirit must be team work. CHAPTER XXXVIII REST SHOOTING AND TESTING MACHINE rests and muzzle and elbow rests for the purpose of steadying the rifle during aiming and firing have always been used by small arms factories and arsenals for the purpose of eliminat- ing the human error as far as possible when testing arms and ammuni- tion for accuracy and suitability for use. Individual riflemen have also often used a rest to shoot from when aligning sights, and to test the accuracy of ammunition, and at one time there was a small coterie of riflemen in the Massachusetts Rifle Association who indulged in 200-yard competitive rest shooting at the old Walnut Hill rifle range. But the number of men who have utilized rest shooting for the pur- pose of conducting a serious study of the rifle and its ammunition, and the ballistics of small arms in general, can almost be counted on the fingers of one hand. And yet I know of nothing else which will so thoroughly teach the science of rifle shooting and rifle ballistics, and so clearly demonstrate the truth or fiction of theories as carefully conducted rest shooting. Individual rifle " shooting of the ordinary kind without competition becomes monotonous after a time. One progresses quickly in skill at first, but when he reaches a certain stage further progress comes very slowly. But rest shooting is always in- teresting. There is no limit to the number of experiments that can be conducted, and there is a constant chance for improvement in methods and material. It is the most interesting kind of solitaire with the rifle. I think that Mr. E. A. Leopold of Norristown, Pennsylvania, can be regarded as the originator of the intensive study of the rifle and its ammunition by means of firing from rest. It was he who called to the attention of Dr. F. W. Mann the method of investigating the flight of the bullet by means of tipping bullets fired through paper screens. Dr. Mann spent practically a lifetime in experimental work of this nature, and the results of these experiments up to the year 1909 are set forth in his book " The Bullet's Flight." From 1909 to his death in 1916 Dr. Mann devoted practically all his time to further studies of rifle ballistics, and accomplished wonders in these lines, 559 560 THE AMERICAN RIFLE developing methods which led to an increase in accuracy and velocity above anything that heretofore had been deemed possible. He had just started to compile the results of these latter experiments in a second book when all the work was halted by his sudden death. A large amount of the results of his investigations are incorporated in this work, particularly in Chapter XVII. The riflemen of the world, and science in general, suffered a severe loss when Dr. Mann passed away. Both Mr. Leopold and Dr. Mann were years ahead of their time in their knowledge of rifle ballistics, and to this day science in general, and the various manufacturers and ordnance offices, are just Fig. 148 Mann " V " rest with barrel in position for testing, showing action and rings learning facts which these two riflemen discovered years ago, due almost entirely to their methods of study; that is, intelligent rest shooting. The range on which Dr. Mann conducted his experiments is an object lesson in itself. There is none other like it in the world. It was built on his homestead farm near Milford, Massachusetts. The range was 200 yards long, but bullets could be fired up to 400 yards. For 200 yards the range was entirely covered and protected by a long gallery made of wood, with a shooting house at one end. In this long gallery arrangements were introduced so that paper screens could be quickly and accurately set up at any distance up to 6 inches apart for the entire range, for the purpose of accurately tracing the flight of each bullet. All firing was done from what Dr. Mann called a " V rest." This was a " v "-shaped trough, 30 inches long, and made with absolute accuracy of fine bronze, and weighed 33 pounds. The barrel lay in it in concentric rings, and the stock and action were always removed and replaced with a concentric action screwed on to the rear of the barrel. Thus when the barrel was fired it recoiled straight to the rear, sliding through the " V," and there was not the slightest whip or buckle. For every shot the barrel lay with the axis of its bore absolutely accurately aligned on a point on the 200-yard target, and a corresponding point on all intervening screens, known REST SHOOTING AND TESTING 561 as the " tack hole," so that the line of fire was absolutely uniform from shot to shot, and from year to year. This bronze " V " rest was bolted to a cast iron slab, 16 inches wide and 36 inches long, weighing 180 pounds. This slab rested on a cement pier, and was fastened by 6 stay bolts reaching down 16 inches into the concrete. The founda- tion of this shooting Gibraltar were 2 feet wide, 5 feet long, and reached down several inches into bed rock. The whole structure weighed a little short of 3 tons, and in all the years of its use there was no movement in it at all. As Dr. Mann used to say, this " V " rest always told the truth. It is not possible for us to construct such ranges in these days, Fig. 149 Machine rest used on top of a Mann " V " rest. Sharp rifle in position for testing and indeed it would take almost a lifetime of study before one would be competent to conduct experiments thereon- which would require so much accuracy that they could not be conducted as easily, and at much less expense on a more modest muzzle and elbow rest. With a view to learning the truth as regards certain beliefs and statements of riflemen throughout the world, and also in order to conduct certain experiments which I had always desired to put through, about ten years ago I started rest shooting in a modest way, but it was not until I became associated with Dr. Mann in his work that I learned the capabilities and technique of rest shooting. The in- structions and suggestions given herewith are based on four years experimenting on my own rest and range (which, although very modest in character, proved very efficient), and on writings, experiments, and suggestions of Dr. Mann. When we take up rest shooting for the purpose of test and study our first effort must be directed towards eliminating the human ele- ment and error as far as possible from the shooting. In the results there should stand forth only the error of the rifle and ammunition. The first consideration therefore is the construction of the rest. There are two general types of rest : the machine rest in which the rifle is 562 THE AMERICAN RIFLE firmly held in clamps, and slides on a track when it recoils on firing; and the muzzle and elbow rest in which the rifleman holds the rifle himself, seated at a very firm table, with the muzzle resting on a block, butt against the shoulder, and toe of the stock resting in the left hand which in turn is rested on the table. There has been consider- able discussion as to the relative value of the two types of rest, many claiming that the muzzle and elbow rest does not eliminate the human error. Personally I have always used the muzzle and elbow rest, and the results which I have obtained approximate so closely to the re- sults obtained by Dr. Mann on his " V " rest that I am convinced that for all practical purposes the human error has been eliminated in my case, but it undoubtedly takes considerable practice in rest shooting Fig. 150 Same rest as shown in Fig. 149 used in testing a pistol with such a rest before one can be positively certain that the line of fire is absolutely constant from shot to shot through a long series. The advantages that the muzzle and elbow rest has over the machine rest are cheapness of construction, and adaptability to any rifle with- out adjustment. Before a rifle can be used in a machine rest the forearm must be removed, and rings must be milled accurately for the barrel so that it can be clamped securely in the two mountings. With the muzzle and elbow rest it is possible to approximate very closely the conditions which pertain in shooting offhand by resting the fore- arm only on the rest, and padding the rest with a blanket; but with the machine rest the rifle shoots very differently from what it does when fired offhand. Many riflemen have stated that an expert rifle- man can always equal or exceed the work of the machine rest. I do REST SHOOTING AND TESTING 563 not know what they base their statement on, because a correctly ad- justed and used machine rest certainly does eliminate all human error, and the known human error is present in all offhand and prone work. The machine rest is undoubtedly the best, especially for a man not particularly skilled in rest shooting, but when one has a large number Fig. 151 Mr. Edward C. Crossman shooting from an extemporized muzzle and elbow rest of rifles to test, as was my case, the muzzle and elbow rest is very much more convenient. As stated, a muzzle and elbow rest for serious work should consist of a very heavy and secure table placed at the firing point. The table must be absolutely immovable. In my ease I used a heavy concrete pier to the top of which was bolted a top of 3-inch plank, and the planks could not be moved or shaken at all. The same se- curity can be accomplished by a table constructed with five legs com- posed of timbers 6 inches square sunk at least two feet into the earth, and a top of planks at least two inches thick. The design and dimen- sions of this table are clearly shown in Fig. 152. The top of the table should be about four to six inches higher than a regular table top if one is going to use a regular height chair to shoot from. In- stead of having the muzzle or forearm rest firmly fastened to the 564 THE AMERICAN RIFLE table I found it more convenient to make it with a large box base. This box was then filled with scrap iron to weight it down, and it then stayed practically immovable wherever it was placed on the table. Thus I was able to push the muzzle rest out on the table so that the rifle would rest on it at the muzzle, or I could pull it back slightly towards the rear and use it for a forearm rest. The height of the muzzle rest above the table must be determined experimentally, aiming the rifle at the target, and using that height which will give the best and steadiest position of the rifle, elbows, and hands. If the target at the butts be on the same level as the table this height will be about 10 inches. The rifleman sits on a heavy chair on the left side (facing the target) of the table, and near its rear end, left side towards the target, muzzle or forearm of the rifle resting in the muzzle rest, right hand grasping the small of the stock, breast leaning against the edge of the table so as to make the body steady, butt of the rifle against the shoulder or right upper arm, left hand under the toe of the butt, and grasping the lower portion of the butt-plate. Elevation is secured by humping up, or flattening out the left hand a little as it rests on top of the table and grasps the toe of the stock, and if necessary small planks of wood can be placed on the table under the left hand to build it up more and thus depress the muzzle of the rifle for a lower shot. The rifle is traversed to the right or left by moving the right shoulder to the right or left. If the rest be made to fit one, and a little practice be had in this position, one will very soon come to a realization that he can hold absolutely steady. Accurate use of the rest consists not only in holding steadily, and aiming accurately for each shot, but also of holding exactly the same each time. Each hand must be in exactly the same position for each shot, must hold with exactly the same tension, and the rifle must be held to the right shoulder in the same place and with the same tension. The muzzle or forearm must be rested at exactly the same place each time, and must bear down on the muzzle rest with the same weight for each shot. After you have become accustomed to shooting in this way you can amuse yourself by adopting different positions, or different tensions in your holding, and watching the point of impact on the target vary as you do so. This is one of the beauties of rest shooting, you prove everything for yourself as you go along, and prove it to your absolute satisfaction. Certain accessories are very desirable with the rest. A high power REST SHOOTING AND TESTING 565 telescope fastened to the left edge of the table, set in a rest of its own, and trained and focused on the target, so that when one is shooting the target can be inspected at any time by simply leaning a little to the left and forward, is almost an absolute necessity. One can see then from shot to shot exactly what he is doing. A 33-power telescope is good enough for 100 yards range, but to see bullet holes clearly in the black bull's-eye at 200 yards a clear glass of almost 60 2 INCH PLANK Fig. 152 Details of muzzle and elbow rest table. T^3P flUEO WITH SCSAP IKW t- 5- : M. ?"! ' 1 n ■ ■ J ' ; bf^T _-/;:l I I 1 j l J Side and top views diameters is essential. There should be some kind of a wind and light screen, as the rifleman must be sheltered from the wind or he cannot hold steadily, and his sights must always have a uniform appearance, which means that they must always be in the shade. By far the best arrangement is to build a little house around the rest table. Only a small hole is necessary in front of the table to shoot through, and another small port for the telescope. In fact the cutting off of light from the front will permit metallic sights to appear as a silhouette against the target and hence they can be seen much 5 66 THE AMERICAN RIFLE more clearly and aligned with greater accuracy. The house should be lighted by one window on the back side. The floor should be built around the table and its legs so that the table is not touched at all by the building. Thus any tremor of the house or floor is not transmitted to the table. My own shooting house was thus built, many conveniences such as rifle racks, cleaning bench, shelves, and a stove for cold weather were arranged, and the whole thing constructed of scrap lumber and tar paper at a cost of less than $35. If I were building another one I would build it exactly the same. Gradually there developed a confidence in this range and the results obtained at it which nothing can shake. It is very desirable that the range itself should be on absolutely level ground. Thus targets can be easily arranged for any range, and the erection of screens in the line of fire will not be difficult. A distance of 200 yards is as long as is necessary, and even that distance will seldom be used except for trajectory tests. Most of the experimental work will be conducted at 100 yards. At this range results can be compared as well as at longer ranges. All inaccuracies ,L_ SOU FILLED WITH SCRAP IRON OR Lf AD Fig. 153 Details of muzzle rest. This is placed on top of the forward edge of the table, and can be moved around where desired, its weight keeping it in place. The notches at varying heights for barrel or forearm of the rifle should be lined with heavy felt padding will show up as clearly at 100 yards as at longer distances. With a range of only 100 yards it does not take long to go down to the butt and inspect or change the target, and the telescope of 33 diameters for examining the target from the firing point is not an expensive affair, whereas the 60-power telescope required for really accurate observation at 200 yards costs a large sum. Practically all of my work was done at 100 yards, as will practically all of the work of other experimenters. Now that we have our range built, what are we going to use it for? Some of the uses to which it can be put, and. some of the first experi- REST SHOOTING AND TESTING 567 merits which the novice would do well to conduct, are as follows: One may test an unknown rifle and ammunition for accuracy, and align the sights accurately. This is the most common use of the muzzle and elbow rest. One may test a certain lot of ammunition in a rifle of known accuracy, or an unknown rifle with a known lot of ammunition. The proof of the pudding is in the size of the group. Test for the effect of using Mobilubricant on the bullets. Determine the result of firing the first shot with a clean, oily bore ; a clean, dry bore ; and a fouled bore. Does the rifle shoot higher as it gets hot from firing? What is the effect on the point of impact of resting the rifle at various points on the barrel and forearm, and of various substances used as rests? Shoot the rifle with the barrel rested at the muzzle on a hard plank, and with the forearm rested on a thickly folded blanket, and notice the difference in where the group comes on the target, sights and aiming point remaining the same. Keep a record of thermometer and barometer from day to day, and notice the effect on the point of impact. Determine by a trajectory test on various days whether this is due to velocity or to barrel condition. , Conduct a trajectory test with intermediate screens to determine the exact trajectory of various loads over 100 or 200 yards. Deform the base of the bullets by beveling the base so as to unbalance them, shoot through special paper screens, and by means of the tip of the bullet in the various screens study the bullet's flight, its gyrations and oscillations. Work out various reduced loads, and determine the difference in point of impact between them and the full charge, and calculate and verify the different sight adjustment required. In the above tests alone there is enough work to keep one rifleman busy with one rifle for every Saturday afternoon for a year. There is no limit to the number of experiments that can be conducted, and with each experiment completed the rifleman has gained added knowledge of his arm and of ballistics, and has verified something to his complete satisfaction. In the various tests and experiments the rifleman's ingenuity should be given full opportunity. One experiment will usually suggest an- other. All work should be carefully tabulated and accurately kept. The value of any test or experiment depends upon the accuracy with which it was conducted, and the attention paid to minute details. To this end quite a number of articles and tools are essential. One must have complete sets of reloading tools, scales for weighing powder charges, a supply of the various powders, gas or oil stove and outfit 568 THE AMERICAN RIFLE for moulding bullets, telescopes, micrometer calipers, etc. A small machine shop is very useful, but I have always managed to get along with a few files, vise, whetstone, screw-drivers, drifts, hammer, anvil, etc. In fact when doing most of my experimenting my entire shop for reloading ammunition, making repairs, alterations, etc., was con- tained in a closet 5 feet square in which I did all my work prepara- tory to a visit to the range. The following tests will give the rifleman an idea Of some of the work that can be done on a rifle range equipped with a machine rest or a muzzle and elbow rest. As I have said one test and experiment leads to another, and the rifleman soon finds that he is started on a most interesting game, and one which will tax all his resources and brain. Test 1. Let us say that the subject of our test is a small bore, high- power rifle equipped with sights which will adjust for both elevation and windage to minutes of angle. We will first sight the rifle in at 50 yards to strike in the center of a 3-inch bull's-eye when the sights are aligned at the lower edge of the bull's-eye. After having the sights adjusted to our satisfaction for the regular high-power am- munition, let us fire a group of 10 shots with this ammunition at 50 yards. Note the size of the group and the center of impact as de- scribed in Chapter XXL Now load up a reduced load (attention is called to the data on reduced loads in Chapter XI), and test this load also at 50 yards, using however the same target that you fired on with the full charge, and having the sights adjusted with the cor- rect elevation and windage for the full charge. Be sure to clean the rifle after using the full charge and before using reduced charge as the reduced charge will not shoot accurately in a barrel containing the fouling of the full charge. (Try it and see if it will.) Now you have two groups on your paper target, one fired with full charge, and the other with reduced load, but both fired under the same conditions, and with the same sight adjustment and point of aim. Note the dis- tance in inches between the two. The reduced load will probably strike a few inches lower on the target than did the full charge, and perhaps a little to one side. If the reduced load center of impact is 5 inches below, and I inch to the right of the center of impact, then the correct sight adjustment for the reduced load should be 5 minutes higher, and 1 minute to the left of the full load sight adjustment. Change the sight adjustment accordingly, and fire another group with the reduced charge and see if it strikes fairly near the center of the REST SHOOTING AND TESTING 569 bull. Now one has the sight adjustment for both full charge and reduced loads at 50 yards, has demonstrated how far apart they will strike on the target with the same sight adjustment, and also has a line on the accuracy of both loads at 50 yards. As regards accuracy, one must remember that the error of aim at 50 yards with metallic sights is about half an inch, but that if a telescope sight is used on the rifle this half inch error must be divided roughly by the power of the telescope. Thus with a five-power telescope this error should be only about Via inch. If you have a rifle which is sighted with both metallic sights and telescope, try this out. Shoot 10 groups with metallic sights, and then 10 groups with telescope sight under exactly ISO Ms j j£."* =*** Fig. 154 Showing arrangement of screens, cross lines, and base lines for trajectory as arranged for trajectory test. The small circle indicates the bullet hole through the screens and target, the cross shows the cross lines which form a straight line from muzzle to target, and the small horizontal line is the base line from which the height of trajectory is measured the same conditions, and see whether the average of groups is about 4 Ao inch in favor of the telescope. Test 2. Find the correct sight adjustment for each load up to the limit of your range, and also make an accuracy test at each range to determine the capabilities of the rifle and cartridge at that range. In making an accuracy test do not put too much faith on one group of 10 shots. It may be a lucky group. In making accuracy tests I always tried to fire at least 10 groups of 10 shots each, and then average the result. Let us say that in thus testing out a load at various ranges you find that the sight elevation required for 200 570 THE AMERICAN RIFLE yards is 2.75 minutes above that required for 100 yards. In each case you have carefully measured the centers of impact to arrive at this close figure. This will show that the height of the trajectory of this load at 100 yards, when shooting at 200 yards, is very close to 2.75 inches, although trajectory cannot be determined accurately in this way, but should be determined by a regular trajectory test as described below. Test 3. Suppose you wish to accurately determine the trajectory of a certain load over a range of 200 yards. Let us determine the height of bullet at 50, 100, and 200 yards. First erect frames for paper screens in the line of fire at exactly 50, 100, and 200 yards, but do not place the screens in position yet. Place a high power tele- scopic sight, or the telescope of a transit on the rest so that it will assume the same position as the barrel of the rifle does when fired. Shim up the telescope until the cross-hairs assume the same position on the rest that the axis of the bore of the rifle will. Align this telescope on the center of the 200-yard target and make a cross on the target where the intersection of the cross-hairs come. Now be very careful not to move the telescope until we are through aligning and marking the screens. On your framework at 150 yards place your screen of thin writing paper and looking through the telescope make a cross on this paper where the cross-hairs intersect. Similarly insert the screens at 100 and at 50 yards, and with the telescope place cross lines on them where the cross-hairs intersect. Now these four cross lines on the 200-yard target and on the intermediate screens will be exactly in line with each other, and with the cross wires of the telescope, or the axis of bore of the rifle when it replaces the telescope on the rest. On the 50-yard screen paste a 3-inch black paster about half an inch directly above the intersection of the cross lines as an aiming point. Now remove the telescope from the rest, and place the rifle thereon, sights adjusted for 200 yards. Aim at the small bull's-eye on the 50-yard screen and fire one shot. Leave the screens alone for the present. Go to the 200-yard target and note how much above or below the cross lines on that target the bullet struck. Make your measurements with a carefully graduated rule. I have always used an engineer's triangular boxwood rule. This measurement gives you the base line from which the trajectory must be calculated. If the bullet has struck 6 inches below the cross lines on the 200-yard target the base line for trajectory must be ruled horizontally on each screen, REST SHOOTING AND TESTING 57i on the 150-yard screen 4.5 inches below the cross lines, on the 100-yard screen 3 inches below the cross lines, and on the 50-yard screen 1.5 inches below the cross lines. The distance from this base line for trajectory to the center of the bullet hole through the screen will be the height of trajectory at the distance at which the screen was placed. Fig. 154 explains this very clearly. If much work be done in trajectory tests it is best to plant two heavy posts in position where each screen comes, and fix to them a cross piece, exactly horizontal and about 2 feet below the cross on the paper. When the screens are first set up, and the cross marked on them, drop a perpendicular with string and plumb bob from the Fig. 155 Posts and frame for supporting screens. Screens are supported above by two cords carrying hooks inserted in holes punched in the corners of the paper ; and below are held taut by rubber bands B-B, and similar hooks to those above. Cross on screen is drawn at a determined distance measured perpendicularly from the top of the tack C on the lower cross-piece cross on the screen to the cross-piece below, and drive a nail at the point of the bob in the horizontal cross-piece. Measure this distance very accurately. Thereafter, in setting a screen in position it will not be necessary to determine the location of the cross line on the screen by the tedious process of observation with telescope sight or transit, but the screen can be hung in position and a " T " square placed on the horizontal cross-piece, touching the nail, and a perpendicular meas- ured to the required spot on the screen where the cross lines should 572 THE AMERICAN RIFLE be drawn as shown in Fig. 155. This sketch also shows a convenient arrangement for hanging the screens in position. Test 4. After the rifleman has sighted his rifle in at various ranges for a certain load he may desire to obtain the angles of elevation for that load. In order to obtain a correct table of angles of elevation we must have a zero elevation to work from. The point of impact of a certain load, or its required sight elevation at any range, tells us nothing as regards its trajectory or power unless we know its zero elevation, as a load of very high velocity and low trajectory may actually strike lower on the target at ranges of 200 yards and less, than does a load of lower velocity, due to difference in jump or barrel flip. This zero elevation for any load is easily obtained. Sup- pose the sights on the rifle are 1% inches above the axis of the bore. The bullet of course begins to fall the instant that it leaves the muzzle. Let us say, for example, that a .30-caliber, 220-grain bullet, at 2000 foot-seconds velocity falls one-eighth of an inch in passing over a 12% yard range. We can then sight the rifle in on a 12V2 yard range so that the bullet will strike with its center 1% inches below the point aimed at {i x A inches height of sight, plus %-inch drop of bullet). This reading of the sight will then give us our zero elevation for that load. It is possible to translate the graduations on any sight into minutes of angle as described in Chapter VIII, but it is very much more con- venient to work with a rifle which is equipped with a rear sight reading to minutes of angle. Suppose we have such a rifle, and on aligning its sights at various ranges, and determining its zero elevation, we arrive at the following with a load giving a velocity of 2000 feet per second : Zero elevation sight adjusted at 4 minutes 100 yard elevation sight adjusted at 7 minutes 200 yard elevation sight adjusted at 12 minutes and similarly with the same rifle and a load giving 2600 feet per second we get the following elevations : Zero elevation sight adjusted at 10.5 minutes 100 yard elevation . . sight adjusted at 12.5 minutes 200 yard elevation sight adjusted at 15. minutes If we had the 100-yard elevations alone, or the 200-yard elevations alone for these two loads we might get very much confused because the load of lower velocity actually, in this case, strikes higher on the REST SHOOTING AND TESTING 573 target at both these distances, and the novice might conclude that it had a flatter trajectory, and was more powerful. When we deter- mine the zero elevation, however, and tabulate the various angles of elevation we at once see that the apparent difference is due to the fact that the two loads start from the muzzle at different points dur- ing the movement of the barrel as it vibrates. As a general rule a load of low velocity strikes lower on the target than one of higher velocity, but this exception to the general rule has been taken here to illustrate the point. CHAPTER XXXIX RANGE PRACTICE FOR THE SPORTSMAN HITTING game with the rifle requires both quick and accurate work. Quick work because the animal may be on the move, or if it be standing still there is no telling how long it may stand. Ac- curate work because one's target may be merely the head of an animal appearing over a raise in the ground or through timber, and the vital parts of a big game animal even at 200 yards is a mighty small object to hit. Accuracy in game shooting is every bit as essential as accuracy in target shooting. I have no patience with those manu- facturers and sportsmen who state that any rifle is accurate enough for big game shooting. I believe that the highest degree of accuracy is essential here. In target shooting the smallest object that has to be struck is usually an 8-inch bull's-eye at 300 yards, a 20-inch bull's- eye at 600 yards, or a 36-inch bull's-eye at 1000 yards. The target that the sportsman is called upon to hit is often much smaller than this in proportion to the range. If the target shot miss the bull's-eye his score is merely lowered a point or two. If the sportsman miss his quarry he may be missing the only shot he will get on a trip that has cost him several thousand dollars and a holiday saved up for several years. Moreover, the sportsman must hit his game quickly with the first shot. There are no sighting shots in the game field. This gives us an inkling as to what range practice for the sportsman and hunter should consist of. The rifle must first be learned abso- lutely. Its elevation and zero at various ranges, and in various po- sitions must be determined to a hair's-breadth. Then practice must be started with a view to developing quick and accurate shooting. Our first problem is then to sight the rifle in. Different kinds of rifles intended for different kinds of hunting should be sighted at different ranges. You would not sight a rifle intended for squirrel shooting at the same ranges that you would one intended for big game shooting in an open country. The distances at which various rifles should be sighted in, and their elevations and zeros found is shown in the following table : 574 RANGE PRACTICE FOR THE SPORTSMAN 575 DISTANCES TO WHICH RIFLES SHOULD BE SIGHTED IN YARDS Type of rifle Small game, 1500 feet per second Small game, 2000 feet per second Big game, 1500 feet per second. Big game, 2000 feet per second.. Big game, 2700 feet per second. . Grouse elevation Woods elevation Open ground elevation Other ranges 15 15 15 IS It 40 75 50 100 100 60 125 100 150 200 80. 100. 150. 175- 150. 200. 200. 300. 300. 400. 500. Elevations and zeros should be found at the above ranges in each of the fol- lowing positions : (a) Offhand, (b) Prone with gun-sling, (c) With forearm rest. Grouse elevation. Every rifle intended for hunting should be sighted in at 15 yards so that it will cut off the head of a grouse when the front sight is held just touching the bottom of the head. The rifle can then be used for very accurate work at very short range. Woods elevation. This is the elevation that one should ordinarily use in hunting in thick woods, jungle, etc. It is the correct elevation for practically all Eastern shooting grounds. It allows very accurate work at the ranges at which one will usually fire in this kind of country. Open ground elevation. Intended for ranges rather longer than the ordinary when there is no time accurately to estimate the range. It is the elevation at which one should set his sights when shooting in open country such as that usually found in our West. With a big-game rifle, sights set at this elevation, and aim taken at the vital portion of a large game animal, range unestimated, the vital part will almost certainly be hit at a distance a little greater than the range given, or at any intermediate range. Other ranges. Rifles should also be sighted for these ranges, which include the greatest distance at which each class of rifles can profit- ably be used on the kind of game indicated. This kind of shooting may be termed long-range shooting, and a fairly accurate estimate of the range is necessary. In starting out to target one's rifle it is best first to do so at the various ranges in the " forearm rest " position. A table and chair are provided at the firing point, and a sand bag about 8 inches thick is placed on the table about a foot ahead of the nearest edge of the table. Elbows are rested on the table, back of the left hand is rested on the sand bag, forearm of the rifle is grasped by the left hand in the usual position (see Fig. 155). Determine the sight elevations and zeros at the various ranges as given in the table. This will give one the exact sighting to use when one fires in the field with rifle 576 THE AMERICAN RIFLE rested over a rock or log. For the grouse elevation use a bull's-eye I inch in diameter for the target, and aim with the top of the front sight just touching the lower edge of the bull's-eye. For other ranges use a 3-inch bull's-eye for ranges less than ioo yards, a 5-inch bull at 100 yards, a 10-inch bull at 200 yards, and so on. Hold with a normal sight just below the bottom of the bull's-eye, and sight the rifle so that the shots shall strike, not the middle of the bull, but the Fig. 1 55 Sighting in a hunting rifle with forearm rest lower edge of the bull. That is to say, one wants his hunting rifle to strike close to the point where the tip of the front sight is held, not the width of the bull's-eye above the front sight, as is the case with a rifle intended solely for shooting at a bull's-eye target. Next, do the same thing with the rifle held in the standard military prone position, using the gun-sling exactly as described in Chapter XXV. This is the best position for a very long shot, or a shot which one wishes to make especially sure of, when he has time to assume this position. A little more elevation will usually be required for this position than for the others. Lastly, sight the rifle in at all the various ranges in the " offhand position." The ordinary rifleman will not be able to hold the rifle RANGE PRACTICE FOR THE SPORTSMAN 577 steady enough to obtain accurate results for this purpose in the regu- lar offhand position. With most men it would be necessary to fire several hundred shots at each range and then average the results. This takes too much time. Instead one should assume a position which gives exactly the same results. Such a position can be had as follows : Procure a stout table and chair. Place them at the firing point. Sit down in the chair behind the table, leaning forward with 134 I j. '■■dP 1 If' Fig. 156 Sighting in a hunting rifle with offhand rest the breast resting against the near edge of the table. Aim at the target with the rifle in "the ordinary way, both elbows resting on the table top. Note the location and position of the forearm. Now pile small sand bags around and in front of the forearms in such a way as to firmly support each forearm up as far as the wrist, and at the same time not interfere with the assumption of the regular firing position, elbows rested on the table. This will give a very steady position indeed, and yet the rifle will be held in exactly the same way, with exactly the same tension that it would if fired offhand, and the results on the target will be exactly the same. (See Fig. 156.) In all this shooting endeavor to have the sun behind you, or else directly above. If this is not possible, arrange a sun shade for the firing point so that your eyes and the entire rifle will be in the shade. This is to avoid the sun striking one side of the front sight which would give one a false zero. Days should be chosen when there is 578 THE AMERICAN RIFLE little wind blowing, and when the temperature is about that which one would expect in the hunting country. As for the range, it may be anything from a simple extemporization to a fully equipped military rifle range. The author has often sighted rifles in and practiced on nothing more elaborate than a few boards nailed up at the base of a hill, and the target tacked on the boards. The location of each shot was seen when fired by means of a high- power telescope set up at the firing point, and after every ten shots a trip was made down to the target and the paper target changed for a fresh one. One can make very good targets on plain wrapping paper with a pair of compasses, a little lamp black, and a paint brush. If one is doing much of this work, however, it is best to buy printed targets, or have a printer make a wood cut and print the targets for you. Then the targets can be preserved as a part of the record. After one has sighted in his rifle and learned it thoroughly as described, the next step is practice with a view to developing ability as a game shot. At least four out of five of the shots fired in the game fields will be fired in the offhand, standing position. It is im- portant that we should develop accuracy in this position first. This means lots of slow fire, standing. One hundred yards is a good dis- tance for this practice. It takes lots of practice to make a good offhand shot, practice with special attention to steadiness of position and trigger pull. Wl?en one practices offhand shooting on a target there is a constant tendency to try to adopt some position in which one can hold steadier. There is no doubt that one can hold steadier in the hip rest position, rifle balanced on the thumb and fingers of the left hand Schuetzen style, than he can in the regular offhand position with the left arm extended and left hand grasping the forearm. But Schuetzen positions are of absolutely no use in the hunting field. They are not steady when one has been exerting himself recently, when any considerable wind is blowing, or when one has to shoot in a hurry ; and it is impossible to use these positions for rapid fire. The sportsman and hunter should stick to the regular offhand position as shown in Fig. 117, and learn to shoot well in that position. As one endeavors to hold on the target in the standing offhand position his rifle trembles to a certain extent so that the sights, instead of steadying down under the bull as they do in the prone position when the gun-sling is used, travel and " bob " all over the face of the target. Gradually, as one becomes more skilled in holding steady and hard this traveling, and bobbing of the sights becomes less and slower, RANGE PRACTICE FOR THE SPORTSMAN 579 and is confined to the vicinity of the bull's-eye and just below the bull's-eye. The first second or two of each attempt to hold the rifle will not be very steady, then will come a period of five or ten seconds when the rifle is at its steadiest, and, after that, if the aim be con- tinued one will begin to tremble again from the prolonged effort. At the start of the steady period of holding, the rifleman should begin the steady pressure on the trigger so as to get it down to that point where an extra ounce of pressure will discharge the rifle. Then, when the rifle seems steadiest, and as the sights drift under the bull, try to press the last ounce on the trigger. The rifleman who desires to make a success of shooting must think, and think hard, each time that he fires a shot. He must concentrate every particle of his thought and will power on aiming, holding, trig- ger press, and calling the shot. He must be able to tell exactly what he did each time he pressed the trigger. A skilled offhand shot can call his hit within four or five inches at 200 yards before it is marked at the butts, because he has concentrated and he knows exactly where his sights were aligned at the instant before the recoil caused the rifle to raise in the air and blot out the view of sights and target. There should be no disturbance to the rifle at all during the instant of fire. The rifleman must endeavor to hold hard all through the recoil. Do not let go or relax at the last instant as the trigger is pressed. Try to continue to hold hard and steady all through the recoil, although of course you cannot do it. The natural thing is for the brain to keep the hands, muscles, and shoulder informed as to what the trigger finger is doing, and the instant that the finger presses on the last ounce to telegraph to the hands, shoulder, and muscles, " Look out ! She's going to kick." As a result a flinch occurs. Therefore try your best to avoid this natural tendency, and to divorce all connection through the brain between the trigger finger and the hands, shoulder, and muscles. Concentrate hard on aim, hold, trigger press, and call, so that there is no room for anything else in the brain. Keep the hands, .arms, and shoulder lax ; that is, don't let the muscles tense up and prepare to meet the recoil. The system and shoulder soon becomes accustomed to recoil. Recoil does not bother a trained rifleman a particle. After one has become fairly proficient in this offhand, slow fire shooting, he should gradually put a little speed into it. From the time that the eyes first see the target, try to get the shot off as quickly as possible. Imagine that you are shooting at a deer standing where 580 THE AMERICAN RIFLE the target is, and that you are expecting the deer to run at any instant. You want to get a shot in as soon as possible, but that shot must strike a vital part. Mr. Stewart Edward White, one of the best game shots in the world, has invented a system of target practice for the sportsman which is intended to develop quick shooting of this order, and this system is given herewith. This system, or one similar to it, should be taken up as soon as the rifleman is fairly proficient in slow-fire, offhand work. Do not try to work too fast at first. Never go so fast that you do not get a good aim, and a good trigger press. Get the speed gradually. You will notice that the system is arranged Fig. 157 . Springfield sporting rifle used by Stewart Edward White on first expedition in British East Africa so as to require you to do this if you are to get good scores at it. By keeping at this system, say one afternoon's practice a week, a fair offhand shot is sure to develop into a very quick and sure game shot. It develops the rifleman who makes a clean kill with the first shot. STEWART EDWARD WHITE SYSTEM OF RAPID FIRE RIFLE PRACTICE The object is to develop quick accurate fire, a quick shot, but a sure kill with that shot; the kind of shooting which will give the best results in the game fields. We set up an ordinary military, 200-yard target A at 100 yards. The marksman faces the target, stock of the rifle below the elbow. At the command fire he gets into action and shoots as soon as his judgment dictates. The referee has taken the exact time between the command fire and the report of the rifle, 2H seconds he announces, and jots the figures down. The marksman reloads, stands again with the stock below the elbow, and the process is repeated. At the end of a five-shot string his time runs as follows : 2V2 sec, 2 sec., 2 sec, \Vi sec, 3 sec. — total 11 seconds. Now, and not until now, the marker marks the location and value of the five shots. The marksman has made a bull, three fours, and a three. The scorer refers to this table : RANGE PRACTICE FOR THE SPORTSMAN 58i Time, seconds for 5 single shots Bull's-eye counts 4-ring counts 3-ring counts 2-ring counts 20 5 4 1 3 1 O 19 6 4 1 3 1 O 18 7 4 1 3 1 O 17 8 5 4 O 16 9 6 5 15 10 6 5 O 14 11 7 6 O 13 12 8 7 O 12 13 8 7 II 14 9 8 10 15 10 8 O 1 The idea in counting these alike is that any man ought to keep in the four or three ring in 18 seconds or more, although an 18-second bull is more creditable than a 20-second bull. Under n seconds the bull's-eye counts 14, the four ring 9, and the three ring 8. Therefore the marksman has made a total of 14-9-9-9-8 equals 49 points. Fig. 158 Tap view of Stewart Edward White's Springfield sporting rifle used on his first expedition in British East Africa It would not be fair to count each shot according to its own time rather than according to the aggregate time for firing the string. If this were done a man might prefer to shoot very wildly and rapidly into the " three " ring for three or four shots, and then plant a deliber- ate bull or so to pull up on, or the other way around, as his judgment advised. The scheme proposed insists on consistency. It will also be noted that this table is only for an aggregate of single shots, each started with the stock below the elbow, and not for magazine fire. The same game can be practiced, with the same table, at a deer or other game-shaped target. The target may be natural color against an ordinary background of earth and grass. Shoulder shots count 5, middle shots 4, and the remainder of the animal 2. RAPID FIRE It still remains for the sportsman to develop his ability at maga- zine fire. This is half learned already if the rifleman has been practic- 582 THE AMERICAN RIFLE ing the White system. It is only necessary to learn to operate the mechanism of the rifle quickly and surely, and to get used to the quick recovery from recoil. Always keep the butt of the rifle at the shoulder during rapid magazine fire. Immediately after one has fired a shot, let go with the right hand to operate the rifle, and pull back hard with the left hand so as to pull the butt of the rifle against the shoulder and hold it there as one operates the breech mechanism. Hold the rifle hard in this position with the left hand and quickly and positively operate the rifle with the right hand. Then grasp with the right hand, relax with the left, catch the aim, and start the trigger Fig. 159 Mauser rifle for the .30-caliber Model 1906 cartridge, the property of Mr. Ed- ward C. Crossman. Rifle has a Poldi anti-corro steel barrel. Cuts show the top of the action and the magazine floor plate press. The first time that the sights swing on to the mark you must be all ready to press the last ounce on the trigger. In the sitting position keep both elbows on the knees, or at any rate the left elbow. In the kneeling position keep the left elbow on the left knee. In the prone position, if using a bolt-action rifle, keep both elbows on the ground ; as you pull back the bolt press the barrel RANGE PRACTICE FOR THE SPORTSMAN 583 of the rifle over to the right and low, thus making it easier to operate the bolt. As you close the bolt bring the barrel up and to the left until it is again in line with the target. A little practice at this makes one so adept at it that the sights will come back almost exactly aligned on the bull's-eye after each operation of the bolt. Mr. Edward C. Crossman has arranged a system of magazine target practice based on Mr. White's idea which is excellent for both in- dividual practice and for competition. This system is given here- with, and the rifleman practicing with an idea to increase his ability with the hunting rifle cannot do better than practice it. THE CROSSMAN SYSTEM OF MAGAZINE RAPID FIRE PRACTICE Taking up magazine fire is merely carrying out Mr. White's idea — if one shot, accurately and quickly placed, is good, then five times this number, if they are as well placed and as carefully pressed, would be five times as good under certain circumstances. We alter the table worked out by Mr. White and make it read like this : Time for five shot strings Bull's-eye counts 4-ring counts 3-ring counts 20 seconds 19 seconds 18 seconds 17 seconds 5 5 6 6 4 4 5 5 3 3 3 ■3 For every shot which strikes in the 2-ring, or every miss, deduct 3 points from the total 16 seconds 7 6 3 score. 15 seconds 14 seconds 13 seconds 12 seconds 7 8 9 10 6 7 8 9 3 4 4 4 11 seconds 11 10 5 10 seconds 12" 11 6 9 seconds 8 seconds 13 14 12 13 7 8 7 seconds 15 IS 9 The marksman starts with his rifle held at ready, stock below the elbow, piece locked or at half cock. At the command fire he fires five shots at the target as rapidly as he pleases. The referee takes the time from the command fire to the report of the fifth shot. The score is then calculated from the above table. Note. In the White and Crossman systems it is intended that the military target A with 8-inch bull's-eye should be used for 200 yards, and for shorter ranges the same target reduced proportionately. CHAPTER XL SHOOTING AT MOVING OBJECTS IN shooting at moving objects, such as game in motion, it is of course obvious that aim must be taken in front of the object in order to hit it so as to allow for the movement of the object during the time that it takes the bullet to fly from the rifle to the object. We will suppose that a deer is running at right angles across the line of fire at a range of 200 yards, and that the speed of travel of the deer is five yards per second. It takes a bullet fired from the .30-caliber, 1906 cartridge at a muzzle velocity of 2700 feet per second .243 second to travel 200 yards. During this time the deer will run approximately 4 feet. Theory therefore says that the sights should be aligned ap- proximately 4 feet ahead of the vital part on the deer's shoulder that it is desired to strike at the instant that the bullet leaves the muzzle of the rifle. If the animal is moving across the line of fire at an angle of 45 degrees instead of 90 degrees, the allowance must be just half of this, and proportionately for other angles. The fol- lowing table gives the time of flight in seconds for the .30-40 cartridge, 200-grain bullet, 2000 feet per second, and the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge, 150-grain bullet, at 2700 feet per second. TIME OF FLIGHT Distance, .30—40 cartridge, .30 Model 1906, yards seconds seconds IOO .159 .Il6 2O0 ■337' ■243 30O •537 .384 4. vn \ 1 ^L -* y~~ 01 ! v^ SOCKCT-* — BAIL 8MHINO •TECl FRAME _ «— SOCKFT MHftl t*»LI VI r - w U- CA«U if Fig. 160 Carriage for running deer target, showing construction the ditch, and several inches below the surface of the ground. Next, go to a mechanic and have him build a steel carrier similar to that shown in Fig. 160. The wheels should be about 2 to 3 inches in diameter, with ball bearings, and placed about 15 inches apart. The two sockets in which the sticks which carry the target fit should be about 22 inches apart. Under the carriage is a weight which keeps the target upright. This carriage runs along the taut wire as shown, carrying the silhouette of the deer. The carriage runs in the ditch below the surface of the ground where the bullets will not strike it, but the silhouette of the deer appears above the ground as though it were running along the surface. The deer should be made of some very stiff composition building board such as " Beaver Board," and should be sketched to life size and in running position by an artist, and then cut out. Keep one as a model and you can cut out any number required. Paint the target mouse or khaki color so that it SHOOTING AT MOVING OBJECTS 587 can be just slightly discernible against the background of the range. For motive power an endless braided cord is run through a ball- bearing pulley attached to the post at one end of the trench. At the other end it is given two turns around a bicycle wheel. This bicycle wheel, minus tire, but including the rear portion of the bicycle frame with sprocket wheels, chain, and one pedal, is attached firmly to a framework and stakes or posts so that it will not move. The bicycle and sprocket wheels should be geared as low as possible, otherwise the deer will run too fast. The endless cord, besides going through the pulley, and twice around the wheel, is attached to the carriage carrying the target. When the operator takes a hold of the pedal and revolves the wheel the deer and carriage run from one end to the other of the 30-yard trench. At the end of the trench where the bicycle wheel is set up a butt must be built. This consists of a parapet about 10 feet long, 7 feet high, and 4 feet thick at the top, revetted with a board wall on the side away from the firing point. The operator sits behind this when working the wheel. At the other end of the trench is a screen of some sort — canvas, boards, or brush — behind which the deer disappears or starts. The deer can be started from either end of the trench. It is hidden by either the screen or the butt before it starts to run. Upon a signal from the firing point the operator works the wheel so as to cause the deer to run across the open space at a prearranged speed. The rifleman may fire at any time while the deer is visible. After the run is made the deer is pulled back to the butt, if not already there. The operator then runs up a red danger flag above the butt, notes the hits, if any, on the deer, runs the deer a little way out into the open, steps out and indicates the hits on the deer by means of a disk on a stick, pulls the deer back behind the butt, pastes up the shot holes, and lowers his red danger flag, thus indicating that he is ready for another run. In time the deer target will get badly shot up, and another target will be needed, but the remainder of the material, car- riage, wheel, etc., if cared for, will last for several seasons. A miniature arrangement of this kind can also be operated in a gallery. CHAPTER XLI THE RIFLE IN THE WILDERNESS THE shotgun takes its bearer out into the ploughed fields, and the patches of woods near civilization. But the rifle entices its owner into the wilderness, and the waste spaces of the world far be- yond the marks of the axe, and the sound of the railroad. To the man in whom the primitive virtues and red blood have not entirely been sapped by modern civilization there is scarce a joy comparable with that of wandering in the wilderness, winning one's way unaided, depending upon rifle and axe for food and shelter, feeling his man- hood tested and found fit. There is a lot of difference between an arm most perfect for range work, and one which must stand the gruell- ing test of constant use in the real wilderness. Imagine rain and snow for days with only a flimsy canvas shelter at night, dust storms in the desert, the sweat and humidity of the jungle, the temperatures of the arctic circle. Again the times that one simply must use the butt as an aid in rough mountain work, or when the horse slips in a ford, or the dog sled turns over with the rifle strapped on top, or the canoe gets upset in a rapid with the rifle tied to a thwart by its sling. We must have strength everywhere, and ability to clean easily, in a rifle intended for such work. When you are just dog tired at the end of the day's trail, when there is camp to make, and supper to get, and many another thing to do, there is still that dirty wet rifle to clean. It will be overlooked or slighted unless you have by foresight reduced the operation to its lowest de- nominations. For real wilderness work, for big game hunting and exploring, I like the bolt-action rifle. Its action can be entirely dismounted in an instant without any tools. One wipe over with a dry rag cleans and dries it, and another once over with an oily rag lubricates it and pre- vents rust. The dismounting of the action puts the barrel in the best position to be cleaned quickly from the breech. Such a rifle should have a strong, heavy stock, thick at the grip, its weakest part. It should have the sights well protected, and the working parts should be sharply checked to prevent the slipping of the fingers when numb with cold or 588 THE RIFLE IN THE WILDERNESS 589 enclosed in heavy gloves. On a canoe trip such an arm needs a water- proof case to protect it. Not such a case as one finds in a sporting goods store, but one of waterproof canvas of waterproof silk, unlined, which will not absorb dampness, nor be useless after an upset. The Fig. 161 An American rifleman in northeastern Canada rifle is normally carried in its case, case strapped to a thwart of the canoe. In the far Northwest the Indians invariably carry their rifles in cases up to the very minute when they sight game ; this keeps off the snow and the wet, the perspiring hands which cause rust. On a horse- back trip a heavy leather holster is a necessity. The holster is tied to the saddle by the thongs at pummel and cantel, and hangs on the left side of the saddle, the barrel passing between the two stirrup straps, and the butt coming on the left side of the horse's shoulders, but not up 590 THE AMERICAN RIFLE as high as the withers. It is best protected in this position, and can be quickly snatched out when one dismounts. The cleaning kit must be small, well packed, and so arranged that it will be handy for use. My own kit gives an idea of about what is needed. On the rifle, in recess under butt plate and reached by trap in butt plate : Thong and brush (field cleaner). Pocket oiler. Flannel cleaning patches. Broken shell extractor. In pockets : Spitzer greaser filled with Mobilubricant. Oily chamois skin for wiping off. On the belt only those things needed in a great hurry : 5 rounds of full charged ammunition. 5 rounds of reduced load ammunition. In pack or rucksack, always on person: 15 rounds of full charged ammunition. 15 rounds of reduced load ammunition. In camp duffle, done up handily in a small canvas roll : Jointed cleaning rod. Can of rifle oil. Bottle of ammonia swabbing solution in traveller's bottle. Waterproof bag of flannel patches. Small can of Mobilubricant (extra supply). Small handy screwdriver. Spare firing pin. Several wiping rags. At the close of a hard day's work, when the cleaning of the rifle is in order, spread a piece of canvas on the ground near the fire. Take your rifle and the canvas roll of cleaning materials and sit down. Take out the bolt, and open up the canvas roll. Then go to it. In five minutes you will be through without having to get up, and without your pipe going out. In the wilderness everything will be different from what one has been accustomed to on the rifle range. The target will be on the move, or liable to be any instant. This calls for quick work. But also the THE RIFLE IN THE WILDERNESS S9i target may be practically invisible, in fact it usually is. The untrained eye seldom sees game in the wilderness because of its protective color- ing, and when it is once seen it is like looking at a bull's-eye to see Fig. 162 An American rifleman in Central America what part of it is a little blacker than the rest. And yet in that target you must pick out a certain vital spot, and fire at it with steady hand, clear sight, and careful trigger press or you will miss the whole bloom- ing thing. And you may just have been climbing a five thousand foot mountain as steep as a mansard roof, or running at top speed, and your heart is working like a race-horse, and your muscles all a'tremble. Game shooting is a man's game, and one that takes experience, and yet it is a game that is quickly learned by a good target shot once he has learned the knack of seeing the game. 592 THE AMERICAN RIFLE The man who spends his whole time in the wilderness, the trapper, and hunter, and guide, is seldom a good shot except at short ranges. It takes a lot of target range experience to impress upon one the extreme nicety as regards sight adjustment, aim, and trigger press that are necessary to insure success at long range. But the average sports- man is far worse because he invariably believes that he is a born shot and does not need practice. I have seldom found a sportsman who, in preparation for a big game hunt, has gone out to a rifle range more than once in a season, and the majority of them have not even done that. By far the best game shot is the man who has done a lot of scientific and careful range practice, combined with military rapid fire, and who has hunted enough to have gotten on to the knack of seeing game in its native wilds. If you were going to shoot a rifle match on a certain date, you would, if you could, practice every day. That rifle match may net you a small medal, perhaps a little reputation. But on your fall hunt you leave home with the full knowledge of your friends for the express purpose, let us say, of going on a sheep hunt. The big-horn is the finest trophy that can fall to the rifle of a sportsman these days. Game is getting very scarce, and on a long hunt you may get but one or two shots. This hunt may cost you a thousand dollars. Which is the most im- portant match to train for, the target match of ten shots or so on a black and white target, or the matching of your skill against that big-horn on the mountainside? Why not practice assiduously all the time that you are on your hunt? Firing will scare away the game, but you have unlimited chance for position and aiming drill under every condition of light and target that you will encounter on your trip. Therefore you would do well to get in lots of this snapping practice morning and evening. After a time the handling of your rifle will seem like second nature. It will seem to be a part of you, a part that you can even work effectively in the dark at short range without any aim. There is need of becoming thoroughly familiar with one's weapon, far greater need than any one without wilderness experience would suppose. If one is to be successful in the wilderness with his weapon he must know it so well that he has absolute confidence in it. The mistakes which the tenderfoot makes are at once humorous and pitiful. Here are some that have come to my own attention and that I can vouch for. One sportsman and his guide stalked to within fifty yards of a THE RIFLE IN THE WILDERNESS 593 bull elk. The guide showed the sportsman the elk standing broadside. For almost a minute the sportsman stood looking at the elk, and the guide finally told him to shoot quick before the animal ran, so the sportsman pointed the muzzle of his 405 Winchester into the air, and Fig. 163 The author's pack train in British Columbia working the lever like lightning, threw every cartridge out of the gun without firing a shot. Another sportsman with a guide of my acquaintance was hunting moose with a sporting Springfield. When the moose was jumped the sportsman first unlocked his rifle, then locked it, then (it seemed as though he did it deliberately) got the bolt handle hooked under his waist belt, and when he finally did get ready to fire the moose had vanished after having stood perfectly still in full view for over 30 seconds. 594 THE AMERICAN RIFLE These are cases of buck ague, that is, of extreme excitement, but they are both failures in functioning the rifle, and they come from in- experience and lack of confidence in operating the arm. The skilled shot may get buck ague the first time or' two that he sees game, but it will affect him differently ; he will simply be so excited that he cannot hold the rifle steadily when he aims. It sometimes happens that one has plenty of time for a shot. The game may be feeding and entirely unaware of one's presence. But in the majority of standing shots one does not know at what instant the game is going to start off, and once started it takes a remarkably short time for it to get out of sight, even on open ground. Therefore the majority of shots one will get will be snap shots. I do not mean by this that one should hurry, but in practice for hunting one should get used to pressing the trigger the instant that the sights touch the object the first time, and not waiting until they have swung past and around the object several times and steadied down as in slow-fire, target shooting. To give the novice an idea I should say that four seconds would be about the average of time between the instant that one makes up his mind to fire and raises the rifle, and the report of the shot. In running shooting it may be a little less than this. Get the rifle up to your shoulder and approximately aligned as quickly as you can. Practice throwing it to your shoulder and try to have it come up so that it is almost perfectly aligned when you first look through your sights. Make these movements as quick as lightning, and then slow up, and spend as much time as you dare on steadying down, holding hard, grad- ually increasing the pressure on the trigger, and easily pressing on that last ounce just as the sights first drift on to the vital spot you want to hit. If the game is walking or running through thick timber, don't try to swing with it. You cannot see it well enough and the trees will confuse you. Instead, pick out an open place through which it must pass, aim at that, and the instant that your sights touch the game, fire. Never shoot at the whole animal. That is a very good way to miss it entirely. You must pick out some vital spot and aim to hit that. Game does not always stand broadside on as the artist delights to paint it. In fact in most cases' you will find that it has its south end to you and is bound north at a very good pace. Aim just behind the shoulder for a broadside shot, just at the point of the chest for a head on shot, and just under the tail for a rear shot. Always aim a trifle below the center of the body, particularly in down-hill shots. The tendency in down-hill shots is to overshoot because you see the top of THE RIFLE IN THE WILDERNESS 595 the animal, not because your bullet goes high. On either up or down- hill shots the only distance you want to allow for is the horizontal dis- tance, not the distance on the slope. On most game a shot behind the shoulder often means that the animal will not drop right away, Fig. 164 An American rifleman in the jungle even if shot right through the heart, but may make a wild rush for several hundred yards and then fall dead. If you have made what you think is a good shot on game and it has run right off follow it for a couple of hundred yards to see if it is a case of this kind. If you don't come across the animal in that distance sit down and wait an hour before following further. This gives the animal a chance to stiffen up. If you followed it at once and it was badly wounded it would probably jump up and make off as soon as it heard you, and lead you many miles, whereas if let alone it will probably only go half a mile or so 596 THE AMERICAN RIFLE and then lie down. In a little while it is too stiff and weak to move again. Always fire as though your first shot was the only one you were going to get. Often it is. Try for a clean kill on the first shot. You can take much pride in such a shot, and there is good sportsman- ship in it. It does away with needless suffering. Pattern yourself after the Boer who said to his son: " Here is a cartridge, go fetch me an antelope." But always remember this; after the first shot with which you have tried your level best, work the action fast, and if possible get in another shot right away, and then a third. Shoot as long as the game is in sight or moving, but always get a good aim for each shot. Don't pull them into the landscape. Practice in rapid fire on the military range is excellent practice. I append herewith certain maxims of the still-hunter's craft by Horace Kephart which I think it would be well for all hunters to memorize : i. Hunt one kind of animal at a time, and think of it. 2. Know its strong points and its weak ones. 3. Know where to hunt, and where not to. 4. Choose favorable ground. 5. Consider the animal's daily habits. 6. Know just what to look for. 7. Maneuver according to a definite plan. 8. Work against the wind, or across it. 9. Move noiselessly, and reconnoiter carefully. 10. Try to see the game before it sees you. ri. Keep cool. 12. Never fire at anything until you are absolutely certain that it is not a human being. 13. After firing reload instantly. 14. If you wound an animal, don't follow immediately upcn its track unless you are sure it is shot through the heart. 15. Be patient over ill-luck, and keep on trying. To which I add a couple of words of advice of my own. Turn your back to the wind. Now every animal in a sector of fifteen degrees on either side of the direction in which you face, and for about half a mile in that sector is perfectly aware of your presence unless you are on a very high hill. There is no use in hunting in that sector, the wind has carried your scent to everything. You can crack little sticks and THE RIFLE IN THE WILDERNESS 597 kick up the leaves a little, and brush against the undergrowth and it will not alarm the game unless you make an ungodly racket. Every animal in moving through the woods makes a little noise of this kind. But just cough, or sneeze, or blow your nose, or rattle your rifle, or strike a rock with a piece of steel, or speak above a whisper, and everything within hearing has departed for safer country, and game can hear a sound just about three times as far as you can. And lastly let me add what I think is the most important piece of advice of all. Be alert. CHAPTER XLII THE CLEANING AND CARE OF THE RIFLE THE rifle is a piece of fine mechanism. It must be kept clean, free from rust, and well lubricated if it is to do good work, even pass- able work, and if it is to remain in serviceable condition. The clean- ing and care of the rifle is an important matter which merits the serious consideration of all riflemen. It is worthy of note that practically all inquiries that I have had on this subject have been from riflemen who were not looking for the proper method of cleaning, but rather for a way of restoring a weapon which had become in bad condition through lack of intelligent care. Once a rifle bore is allowed to become rusted and eaten by the acids of fouling there is no way to return it to its former degree of excellence. A rifle may be ruined for accurate work by two days of neglect. On the other hand, a rifle properly cared for should last a rifleman for almost a lifetime of ordinary use if he only care for it properly. The work resolves itself into the cleaning of the bore after firing, the preservation of the bore from rust, the cleaning and lubricating of the working parts, and the care of the exterior of the arm. The cleaning of the bore. With black powder rifles the cleaning of the bore is a simple matter. A wood, steel, or brass cleaning rod is used. The bore is cleaned by means of small patches of flannel or other cloth on the rod. A patch is placed over the chamber or muzzle, centered with the tip of the cleaning rod, and pushed through the bore. It is then worked up and down in the bore, thoroughly swab- bing it. The first patch or two should be wet with water to wash out the black carbon fouling, then should follow a number of dry patches which thoroughly dry and clean the bore, and following these a patch or two saturated with a heavy grease or any oil having a good body which will give an oil coating which keeps away moisture and prevents rust. This is all that is necessary for the ordinary black-powder arm. The smaller the caliber of the rifle, the more thorough this cleaning has to be. With a .22-caliber rifle it is always advisable to clean on the following day. Cleaning should always be done not later than 598 THE CLEANING AND CARE OF THE RIFLE 599 the evening of the day on which the rifle was fired. A rifle should never be left over night without cleaning. While this method of cleaning the bore will suffice for the old rifles using black powder only, such cleaning will positively result in the ruination of the bore of a smokeless powder arm. In the black-powder rifle we had only a neutral carbon fouling. In smokeless powder rifles the fouling deposited by the fired cartridge is of entirely different nature. We must understand the character of this smokeless fouling before we can proceed to intelligently remove it and make the bore chemically clean. Black-powder cartridges require only a weak primer to ignite them, but a much more powerful primer is required to properly ignite smokeless powder. The fouling of smokeless powder of itself is seldom harmful to steel, except that it presents a substance that is liable to retain moisture in contact with the steel of the barrel. When we fire a smokeless cartridge in a rifle we deposit in the bore the fouling of the primer, powder, and possibly some of the metal from the bullet itself. As stated, the fouling of the powder itself would probably do no harm, but the fouling of the primer is extremely acid, and at once gives to the entire fouling a very acid character. Acid in contact with steel means eating and rust. We must neutralize and remove every particle of this acid fouling. An alkali will neutralize acid, therefore for smokeless powder the cleaning solution should always be alkaline in character. It happens also that smokeless fouling is almost always very sticky and tenacious, and it is much more difficult to remove it than black powder fouling. A solution of sal soda in water furnishes an effective alkaline cleaning solution, but unless it is used very hot, almost boiling, it has a little effect in removing the stickiness of the fouling. Experience has shown that a solution of amyl-acetate and acetone in oil works very well as a solvent of sticky smokeless powder and primer fouling. It will dissolve and neutralize both, and can be used cold. The best formula is : Amyl-acetate 2 ounces Acetone 2 ounces Cylinder oil or any gas engine oil having a good body 1 ounce Dissolve the oil in the amyl-acetate, using only as much oil as the acetate will take up, then add the acetone a little at a time with thorough shaking. Or if the rifleman prefers he can use the commercial liquid known as " Hoppe's Powder Solvent No. 9," which is practically the same thing and which is very widely used. The first three or four 600 THE AMERICAN RIFLE cleaning patches should be wet with this solution and the bore scrubbed very thoroughly. Then use dry patches until the bore appears clean and a patch pushed back and forth several times comes out clean. Then oil the bore thoroughly. This cleanser or the hot sal soda solu- tion works very well for smokeless powder rifles of low velocity and using lead bullets, but it should be particularly noted that this method or these solutions are of almost no use at all in cleaning high-power smokeless powder rifles using jacketed bullets. When we introduce the jacketed bullet, and the consequent high pres- sures, with the smokeless powder charge, we greatly complicate mat- ters. We not only have the powder fouling, and the acid primer foul- ing, but we also have the bore practically nickel or copper plated throughout. This metal plating of the bore is called metal fouling. It may consist of a very thin, invisible coating of copper or cupro-nickel from the jackets of the bullets, or it may be so bad that plainly visible lumps of this metal can be seen adhering to the bore of the rifle, par- ticularly near the muzzle, after the bore has been partially cleaned. The difficulty in this class of rifles arises from the fact that this metal foul- ing is distributed throughout the bore, and also has imprisoned under it a large quantity of the acid fouling. Ordinary methods of cleaning have no effect whatever on the metal fouling. The result is that ordi- nary cleaning only removes the powder and primer fouling above this metal fouling. After an ordinary cleaning the bore appears clean to the eye, but if it be placed away for a day or two in this condition it will be noticed that the fouling under the metal fouling has begun to get in its bad work, has begun to rust and eat into the steel. No matter how thoroughly the bore was cleaned by ordinary methods at first, after a day or two the bore will again appear very dirty, or if no attention is given to it for four or five days it will be found full of rust. Many riflemen clean with ordinary methods, clean- ing every day for five or six days after firing. They are only perform- ing much unnecessary labor, and are really only polishing off the rust that appears from day to day. Every particle of rust means so much metal removed from the bore, means small rust holes or pits, means a gradual ruination of the bore. Such lack of intelligent care, no matter how thorough the scrubbing every day, will result in great deterioration of the bore during a single season of steady shooting. It is obvious that the solution of our difficulty it to use some material or liquid that will dissolve the metal fouling, and allow our cleaning solution to get at the acid fouling which is always imprisoned under THE CLEANING AND CARE OF THE RIFLE 60 1 it. Happily we have found that a very strong solution of ammonia will do this, and also that ammonia is a very strong alkali and will neutralize and wash out acid fouling in a very perfect manner. There- fore, with high power rifles using jacketed bullets the only satisfac- tory method of cleaning is to use a strong solution of ammonia first, swabbing or soaking the bore thoroughly in this, then dry the bore thoroughly and clean it with dry patches, and then oil it. This method works excellently, and is so efficient that it should be adapted for all smokeless powder rifles, whether using jacketed or lead bullets, thus simplifying matters by using only one method for all kinds of rifles. We will now go into the details of cleaning a modern rifle. 0X0 TIP OF CLEANING ROD f=!~ J R C m Fig. 165 Correct shape for tip of cleaning rod, and details of construction of muzzle guard Cleaning materials. For the proper cleaning and care of the rifle we need a cleaning rod, a quantity of flannel patches, a wiping rag, a bottle of ammonia solution, and a can of oil. These articles require separate discussion. Cleaning rod. The best cleaning rods are of polished steel. Am- monia attacks brass cleaning rods and makes a dirty mess of the opera- tion of cleaning. Wood rods are apt to carry grit and dirt which acts as an abrasive of the steel, and besides are very prone to break and get stuck in the bore. The rod should be as large as the diameter of the bore of the rifle will permit, as the larger in diameter the rod is the stiffer it is and the less liable is it to break or bend so as to rub the bore. Jointed rods are most convenient for field use, and those intended 602 THE AMERICAN RIFLE for hunting rifles should have joints about 9 inches long so that they will pack well in all forms of packs. Such rods should always have long dowel pins in the joints to make them as stiff as possible. For hard range use, day after day, the solid rod is by far the best. If the rod has a handle it should have a swivel ball bearing so that the rod and patch will turn in use and the patch will follow the rifling in- stead of rubbing square across the grooves and lands. A handle, however, is not necessary, and I prefer a straight steel rod without any handle as such a rod can hardly be held against revolving with the rifling, and with such a rod one takes care not to use too large a patch as he cannot force the patch in without a handle. With a rod without a handle one is less liable to use too large patches which get stuck in the bore. Fig. 165 gives the best shape for the tip of the cleaning rod. A slotted rod should not be used as the patch is liable to run all on one side of the rod, and the uncovered side of the naked rod rubs and wears the bore. Flannel patches. These should be cut from a medium thickness canton flannel. The piece of flannel should first be put through the laundry, or thoroughly soaked in water and hung up to dry several times, before being cut up into patches, as this greatly increases its power to absorb the cleaning solution and oils, and also the dirt in the bore. New canton flannel is almost waterproof. The size of the patch depends upon the size of the tip of the rod, and the size of the bore. For a .22-caliber patch a piece about half an inch square is about cor- rect. For .25 caliber about three-quarters inch, and for .30 caliber and larger about 1 inch. The exact size should be determined by trial, the patch being about correct when it requires a pressure on the handle of the rod of about 5 pounds to force it through the bore after it has once been seated in the bore past the muzzle or chamber. If one is do- ing much shooting it pays to determine the size for a round patch, and then procure a shotgun wad cutter, and cut the patches in quantities with this. Keep the patches in a tin can or waterproof bag so as to keep them dry. In the tropics or other very damp climates always dry the patches before the fire or over the stove before use. Wiping rags. These are for wiping off the exterior of the rifle, breech mechanism, etc. The best are made of bird's-eye linen which absorbs moisture very readily. Have one for wiping off dirt and mois- ture, and another one well oiled with which to give the rifle and action a final rub. For the hunting fields it is very convenient to carry in the pocket an oily piece of chamois skin with which to wipe the rifle off THE CLEANING AND CARE OF THE RIFLE 603 from time to time. Such a rag keeps the rifle in fine condition, pre- serves the finish, and is a great saver of oil. Ammonia swabbing solution. This solution should be made up as follows : Stronger ammonia containing 28 per cent gas 6 ounces Ammonia persulphate 2 § grains Water 4 ounces Any large druggist can make this up, small shops may not have the correct ingredients on hand. One- fourth the above quantity is enough for an individual rifleman to have made up at one time. It should be placed in a bottle a little larger than the full amount of the liquid, and the bottle must have a rubber cork. For rifle range use one of the bottles with patent rubber stopper such as citrate of magnesia is always sold in at drug stores is very convenient. For hunting the best con- tainer is one of the little bottles with red wood cover that Waterman's fountain pen ink is packed in for traveller's use. This bottle has a rubber cork and dropper combined, and is so held in the wood cover by springs that it is not liable to break nor the cork to come out. The bot- tle must be kept tightly corked at all times except for the instant that it is opened to wet the patch. If the solution is exposed to the air it loses its strength very rapidly. For the same reason it should never be kept over two months, but fresh solution should be mixed. Oil. The thin oils usually for sale and so extensively advertised are not satisfactory. They run off the metal and leave spots exposed to the damp air. They have not body enough for either rust protec- tion or lubrication. The best oils are those which have about the same body as sperm oil. Sperm oil is very good and very cheap. Neatsfoot oil is also very good, and in addition you can use it for keeping your leather goods waterproof. I have used Marble's Nitro- solvent Oil for many years with excellent results, but in very cold weather it becomes almost like wax. Any of these oils do splendidly in the bore to protect it from dampness for several days, and also are fine for lubricating the action in all but the coldest weather. In very cold weather the action would either be wiped free from all oil, or a non-f reeze oil like Rem-Oil should be used. When the rifle is put away for a long time no thin oil is safe as a rust preventative. Instead one should use a very thick coating of any of the gun greases such as Winchester gun grease, Corol, Black Diamond gun grease, mercurial ointment, or any of the petroleum jellies that are free from acid. Oil is best carried in a can. Provide a supply of not less than four ounces 604 THE AMERICAN RIFLE per month for hunting trips, double this amount for the tropics. Muzzle guard. If a rifle cannot be dismounted or the breech bolt taken out so that the bore can be cleaned from the breech, it is very- necessary to watch the muzzle very closely while cleaning it to see that the cleaning rod does not rub the corners of the lands and grooves at m m mT Fig. i 66 Cleaning a repeating rifle from the muzzle, showing muzzle guard in use the muzzle and wear them, destroying their sharpness. For this rea- son it is always best to provide a rifle that has to be cleaned from the muzzle with a muzzle guard. This is simply a brass cap which fits over the muzzle of the rifle. It has a hole through it slightly smaller than the bore of the rifle, through which the cleaning rod runs, see Fig. 165. The flannel patch is centered over the muzzle, and the muzzle guard slipped over the rod. Then enter the patch a short dis- THE CLEANING AND CARE OF THE RIFLE 605 tance into the bore with the tip of the rod, slip the muzzle guard down, fitting it over the muzzle of the rifle, and one can then go ahead and scrub the bore as vigorously as he pleases, and there will be no danger of the rod rubbing the muzzle. (See Fig. 166). For cleaning in this manner it is very convenient to first insert in the chamber an empty shell which has had the muzzle plugged with a piece of wood cut off even with the muzzle of the shell. When one shoves the cleaning patch down it then does not enter the chamber, and can be easily pulled back again, scrubbing the barrel back and forth. It is always best to clean from the breech when possible. Re- move the bolt, and place the muzzle of the rifle on a small piece of board or clean chip, or piece of paper on the floor. Wet a patch thor- oughly with the ammonia swabbing solution, center it over the open- ing of the chamber with a finger, then center the patch with the tip of the cleaning rod, push the patch into the bore, a little distance past the chamber, grasp the rod firmly, and push the patch with a steady motion down to the floor, then pull it back until it comes up to the chamber, pushing and pulling it back and forth half a dozen times thoroughly to swab and scrub the bore. (See Fig. 167). Finally push the patch out at the muzzle and discard it. Do the same with four or five other patches wet with the ammonia swabbing solution. It should require about five pounds pressure and pull to send the rod and patch back and forth through the bore. After the bore has been thoroughly swabbed with ammonia it should be scrubbed absolutely dry and clean with dry clean patches. Keep using clean patches until they come out prac- tically clean. The second patch that one uses after the swabbing solu- tion will usually go through very hard, and for this reason this particu- lar patch should be slightly smaller than the others. When a clean patch run back and forth a half a dozen times comes out practically clean the cleaning of the bore has been completed. Hold the breech of the rifle up to the light (sky) and examine the bore from the muzzle to see if it is clean. If it looks bright and clean, with no spots, or flakes of dirt or metal adhering to the bore, it only remains thoroughly to swab the bore with a final patch wet with gun oil or gun grease. If one is cleaning his rifle from the muzzle it will also be necessary to clean out and oilthe chamber. Then the rifle may be placed away with the assurance that it is thoroughly cleaned. All this sounds rather complicated, but in reality, once one has taken the trouble to secure all the material, it is very simple indeed, and need never take over five minutes. It is much easier, and there is very much less 6o6 THE AMERICAN RIFLE labor attached to it, than if one attempts to clean with oil only, or with one of the patent powder solvents. Usually this method of cleaning will be all that is necessary. It is well, however, to examine the rifle about the third day after cleaning. Fig. 167 Cleaning a bolt action rifle from the breech, showing manner of using the clean- ing rod In most cases it will be found that the bore is in fine condition, and the pushing through of a clean flannel patch will bring out only clean oil. If the rifle is being used in the hunting fields the bore should be wiped out and freshly oiled every evening, even although the rifle has not been fired. Metal fouling. The examination of the bore from the muzzle after one has finished cleaning with dry patches is very important. At this time one should look particularly for metal fouling ; that is, the THE CLEANING AND CARE OF THE RIFLE 607 heavy or lumpy metal fouling which is liable to be deposited in high power rifles having velocities over 2200 feet per second. When the bore is viewed from the muzzle this fouling looks like little flakes of metal or lead adhering to the bore, particularly on the top of the lands, for five or six inches down from the muzzle. If any of these lumps or flakes are seen adhering they should be removed at once before bad rust spots develop under them. They are too thick and heavy to be removed by the ammonia swabbing solution. Instead it is necessary to fill the bore with the ammonia metal fouling solution and allow the bore to soak for half an hour when these small flakes of metal fouling will be dissolved, and the bore can then be dried and oiled as before. This ammonia metal fouling solution is made up according to the fol- lowing formula : Ammonia persulphate 1 ounce Ammonia carbonate 200 grains Water 4 ounces Stronger ammonia containing 28 per cent gas 6 ounces Powder the first two ingredients with mortar and pestle, and dis- solve in the water. When all dissolved, add the stronger ammonia. Any large druggist can make up this solution, but the rifleman usually mixes it himself. It is best kept in a large bottle having a rubber stop- per such as the bottle which druggists furnish with citrate of mag- nesia. Keep the bottle tightly corked except when actually using the solution as it loses its strength quickly. Freshly mixed solution is best; never keep it over one month. This solution is perfectly safe to use, provided the following precautions are observed : Never use it in a rifle which is still warm from firing as rust will result almost instantly. Never allow it to dry on the bore, but wash it out and dry the bore thoroughly as soon as you pour it out of the barrel. Do not allow it to spill on the stock of the rifle as it will burn and disfigure the wood. A rubber cork must be provided with which to cork up the breech of the barrel ; cork should be just a trifle larger than the bullet. Seat it in the chamber, plugging the bore tight so that none can leak through into the action. Procure a 2-inch piece of rubber tube just large enough to slip on tight over the muzzle of the rifle. Stand the rifle, muzzle up, in a rack. If you have a long steel cleaning rod slip this into the bore as it will take up a lot of the room inside the bore and very much less solution will be used. In slipping the rod in be sure that you do not loosen the cork in the breech. Slowly and carefully pour 608 THE AMERICAN RIFLE the ammonia metal fouling solution into the bore until it completely fills the barrel, and raises in the rubber tube on the muzzle. (The solu- tion will evaporate a little during use, and if the tube were not present, and the bore simply filled even with the muzzle, a little would evaporate, lowering the high-water mark, and the drying of the bore at the muzzle might result in a little rust at this spot). The solution is white and clear when it is poured in. Allow it to remain in the bore for not over 30 minutes. There is no advantage, but much danger, in letting it re- main longer than this. The solution does almost all its work in the first five minutes. At the end of half an hour pour out the solution. It will be a deep blue color from the copper and nickel that it has dissolved. Immediately push through one flannel patch to remove most of the solution, then scrub the bore with several patches wet with water, then follow with a number of dry, clean patches until the bore is perfectly dry and clean. Then grease the bore thoroughly and the job is finished. All the metal fouling is removed, and the rifle can be put away with perfect safety. I have cleaned rifles in this manner after a long day's shooting, then greased them thoroughly, and placed them away in a dry place, and left them entirely alone for six months. On pushing a patch through such a rifle it comes out covered with clean grease, and the bore is found to be in perfect condition. I always used this method of cleaning with the ammonia metal foul- ing solution during the national matches and other military rifle com- petitions. At the end of the day's shooting, on arriving at my tent, I would take out the bolt of the rifle, place a cork in the breech, and a tube over the muzzle, stand the rifle in the rack, and pour the bore full of the solution from the bottle where I always kept it ready mixed. Then I would wash up and dress for mess, and then pour out the solu- tion, clean and dry the bore in about two minutes, oil it, and the rifle was cleaned most perfectly. A rifle cleaned in this way never " sweats out " afterwards. The cleaning makes the bore chemically clean. I have one Model 1903 rifle which has been fired in competitions and practices over 5,000 rounds, and has always been cleaned in this manner. Just recently I shot twelve consecutive bull's-eyes with it at 600 yards. This method of cleaning with the ammonia metal fouling solution is the best and safest, and I believe that it should always be used with high-power rifles in shooting on rifle ranges. It is, however, not prac- tical in the hunting field. Happily, however, it is a fact that if the bullets be greased with Mobilubricant as described in Chapter XVIII the THE CLEANING AND CARE OF THE RIFLE 609 rifle will not foul with this lumpy, heavy metal fouling, but only with the thin, invisible plating which can be easily removed with the am- monia swabbing solution. Therefore the hunter should grease his bullets with Mobilubricant, should carry a Spitzer greaser filled with Mobilubricant in his pocket, and his kit should contain a jointed steel cleaning rod, a waterproof bag of flannel patches, several wiping rags, the ammonia swabbing solution in a Waterman traveller's bottle made for fountain pen ink, and a can of gun oil. With such an out- fit for the care of the rifle the bore can be kept in perfect condition for years. This entire kit with cleaning material enough for three months weighs a little less than two pounds, and is best kept in a little canvas roll about 9 inches long by 2 inches in diameter. Emergency cleaning. Sometimes it happens that one cannot obtain ammonia for cleaning the bore. If this is so he usually cannot obtain any of the powder solvents or sal soda either. For emergency cleaning a brass wire bristle brush should always be carried. Make a funnel of oiled paper or birch bark, shaped so that it will fit into the chamber of the rifle. Heat a kettle of water to the boiling point. Pour the water through the bore from the breech, and then scrub it thoroughly with the brass brush. Repeat this several times, and then dry the bore and oil it. Repeat this cleaning again daily for four days after firing, but always give the rifle a good bath of the ammonia metal fouling solution when you get back where you can obtain it. In an emergency oil may be made from animals in the following manner. " It is easy to make excellent gun oil from the fat of almost any ani- mal. Rattlesnake oil has more body than almost any other animal oil ; but that of woodchucks, squirrels, 'coons, etc., is good. A fine oil can also be made from the fat of ruffed grouse, or from the marrow of a deer's leg bones. Put the fat on a board and with a sharp knife cut it up fine; then put it in the hot sun light, or warm it gently (do not let it get hot) before a fire; now force the oil through a strong cloth bag by squeezing it. To clarify it so that it will never become viscid, put it in a bottle with a charge of shot (or shavings from the lead of a bullet), cork the bottle up, and stand it where the sun's rays will strike it. A heavy deposit will fall. Repeat, and you will then have an oil equal to that of watchmakers, but with enough body to stay where it is put, rather than running down into the chamber of the gun so as to leave unprotected spots in the barrel. A large squirrel will yield over 610 THE AMERICAN RIFLE an ounce of tried oil, a fat woodchuck nearly a pint, and a bear several gallons — eight gallons of grease have been procured from a big grizzly." — Horace Kephart in " Camping and Woodcraft." Rust. If rust appears in the bore of the rifle it should be removed at once. A very slight superficial rusting will do little harm to a rifle provided it is removed at once, and not allowed to occur again. To remove, polish the bore with a flannel patch thickly coated with Win- chester Rust Remover, or make up a patch of fine steel wool and polish with it. Steel wool is long fine shavings of steel bundled together like cotton waste, and is fine for polishing steel. The polishing with either rust remover or steel wool always results in a very slight wearing away of the surface of the steel, and these materials should be used only when absolutely necessary, and never more than is necessary. If the rifle be properly cleaned, and protected from rust with a good grease or oil there will be no reason whatever for their use as rust will not form. Care of the mechanism. The action and working parts of the rifle must be kept perfectly clean, free from dust, dirt, sand, and dampness, and should be slightly lubricated with oil or graphite. Linen cloths are excellent for cleaning the action and working parts as they absorb all dirt and old oil. A small paint brush also helps to get dirt out of crevices and cracks. Some rifles, particularly the bolt action arms, are so constructed that every part of the action can be taken apart by hand, the various parts wiped off clean, and then wiped with an oily rag before assembling. Such arms are very easy to keep clean. Ordi- narily but little trouble will be experienced with the older arms which can only be taken apart with difficulty, and with the aid of screwdrivers, drift pins, etc. In ordinary use these actions close up so tightly that they accumulate little dirt, but occasionally, as after a sand storm in the desert, or a wetting in a hard rain storm, or a canoe upset, they have to be taken entirely apart and thoroughly cleaned. Chapter IV gives directions for dismounting and assembling the actions of all American rifles. The working parts should not be too heavily cov- ered with oil as the surplus lubricant flowing to the outside will only help to collect dirt. For lubrication it is only necessary to wipe the fric- tion surfaces off with an oily rag. Graphite lubricant is better for the bolt of a bolt action rifle as it does not flow, and stays in place on the bolt where it is needed. The exterior of the rifle. The outside of the rifle should always be kept bright and clean. Moisture in the air, rain, and sweaty hands THE CLEANING AND CARE OF THE RIFLE 611 all tend to produce rust. In the evening, after every day's use, the en- tire outside of the rifle should be wiped off to dry it with a rag, and then all the metal parts should be wiped off with an oily rag, and after this is done, when putting the rifle in its rack, do not handle the metal parts with the bare hand. The stock. The stock ordinarily requires little attention other than to keep it clean and dry by the wiping every evening. After every rain or wetting, and about once a month it should be thoroughly polished with linseed oil by thoroughly coating it with the oil and rubbing it in with the bare hand until all the oil is rubbed in and the stock becomes quite warm. Such treatment will keep the stock in fine condition for all time. Do not use ordinary gun oil on the stock. The gun-sling. Keep the leather gun-sling supple and in good con- dition by oiling it about once a month, either with neatsfoot oil, or with a solution of two parts of ordinary castor oil to one part of alcohol. Thoroughly saturate the leather with the oil, particularly on the rough side, and rub it in well with the hand. Finally leave a rather wet coating of the oil on the surface of the leather to work in and dry. Such treatment will keep the leather soft like a kid glove, and will render it waterproof. Care of arms in cold iveather. In very cold weather a rifle which has been exposed to the cold for any length of time, if then taken into a warm room, as for example a warm cabin, will condense moisture on every portion of it, inside and out. It is practically equivalent to dipping the rifle in water, and the rifle must be taken all apart, thor- oughly dried, oiled, and assembled. Once this has been done the rifle- man will learn in cold weather always to leave his rifle outdoors, or else to warm it so gradually that condensation does not occur. Once, at the conclusion of a long hunting trip in the West, I took a 63 mile stage trip, in zero weather, and then immediately jumped into a warm Pullman car. Fortunately I had had enough experience to know what would happen to my rifle, and an hour after getting into the train, when the rifle had warmed up, I took it out of its case and wiped the bore and exterior dry, and oiled them. On arriving home six days later I took the rifle entirely apart and gave it a thorough cleaning. Every part and piece, except the bore and exterior which had been wiped off in the train, had developed a heavy coating of rust. In very cold weather, below zero, rifles require very little attention to keep them in good shape. There is no moisture in the air at these very low temperatures, and rust does not start. If the bore and action be cleaned and lubri- 612 THE AMERICAN RIFLE cated with a combination oil and powder solvent of the non-freezing variety like " Rem-Oil " (manufactured by the Remington Arms-U. M. C. Co.), the rifle will remain in excellent and serviceable condition in arctic weather. Care of arms in the tropics. I have hunted and explored for a num- ber of years in Panama which is perhaps as damp and warm a country as is found in the world. The dampness is almost beyond belief. It is a very hard climate on firearms. In my house at Culebra I had con- structed a dry closet over the kitchen. In this closet an electric light was always burning, and thus it was kept fairly dry. In cleaning my rifles I always warmed and dried my flannel patches and wiping cloths over the stove first. The rifle was then thoroughly dried before it was oiled. Instead of using oil I always used one of the heavier gun greases on every part except the working portions of the action. I examined the rifles every two weeks, and occasionally found evidences of rust starting, which I quickly checked. In this manner I managed to keep all my arms in good condition during my stay of three years in this climate, except one rifle which I left in a canvas case for some months while I was away on a trip. The canvas absorbed moisture, and on my return I found this arm badly rusted on the outside. In the jungle one perspires most profusely. The perspiration would frequently run down my shirt sleeve and directly into the action of the rifle. In the rainy season the rifle would be wet from rain, water on the vegetation, and perspiration. As a consequence it was absolutely neces- sary to clean and dry the rifle both inside and outside every evening when in the jungle. It was so much easier to do this with a bolt- action rifle, on account of its being possible to dismount the entire breech mechanism without tools in several seconds, that I used only this type of rifle in the jungle. Rifle cases. Cases for the rifle should be of a material which will not absorb moisture. The best are made of very heavy waterproof canvas like Pantasote, and they should not be lined. The worst are those lined with flannel which absorb moisture and cause rust in damp climates, and which are almost impossible to dry out when they get wet. The case should be icinforced with heavy leather over those portions which cover the muzzle, sights, and action to protect them. A good sling strap should be attached. Storage of rifles. If the rifle has to be packed away for a long time the very best and safest method is that used in the United States Army for many years. The rifles are first thoroughly cleaned and dried. THE CLEANING AND CARE OF THE RIFLE 613 They are then very thoroughly coated on every part, inside and out, with Cosmic which is a heavy grease like cosmoline. Winchester gun- grease would do as well. The bore is almost completely filled with this grease, and it is heavily painted on all other parts with a paint brush. The rifles are then packed in arm chests of wood. In these chests the rifles are held by muzzle and butt-plate alone, the muzzles going into a hole bored in a plank at one end of the chest, and the butt-plate into a recess in a plank in the opposite end of the chest. The rifles are packed either 10 or 20 in a chest, and are so well secured therein by the fittings at muzzle and butt that they can be shipped by freight with perfect safety. Rifles thus preserved and packed will keep in perfect condition indefinitely. Rifles packed in this manner have been kept in store in the ordnance depot in Manila, in a very damp climate, for 15 years without the slightest rusting or deterioration. Caution. In conclusion attention is called to the fact that sporting magazines frequently publish articles from men claiming to be riflemen in which the author advises cleaning the bore of the rifle with any of the patent powder solvents, or even with oil alone. A careful read- ing of this chapter will show that such a method in the case of a high- power rifle firing jacketed bullets is no cleaning at all. The bore is not cleaned, it is simply polished. After the first cleaning the bore will start to rust, and this rusting will continue for some days. If the rifle be cleaned again during these days of rusting the cleaning will simply con- sist of polishing off the rust which has accumulated. Each speck of rust takes just so much metal with it, and thus there is a steady deter- ioration of the arm which sooner or later will begin to show results by a decrease in the accuracy, and by a roughening and pitting of the bore. CHAPTER XLIII RIFLE-RANGE CONSTRUCTION WE may classify rifle ranges into extemporized ranges, gallery ranges, and regular outdoor ranges. It is with the latter that this chapter deals ; that is, with a range of 200 yards or over, requiring markers at the butts, and some form of bullet stop to catch wild shots. All such ranges have certain characteristics in common. There is a firing point, usually a level piece of ground marked by stakes ; a pit in which the marker stands when marking the target, and in which the tar- get carrier is placed ; a parapet in front of the pit for the protection of the marker ; and a bullet stop of some sort in rear. The combined para- pet, pit, and bullet stop are usually called the " butts." Sometimes when a large body of water (lake or ocean) lies back of the butts the bullet stop can be omitted. The size and general character of the range will depend upon the number of men who are going to use it, and whether it is to be used for military work requiring long ranges, or by a civilan club which may require a distance up to 200 yards only. In some cases future expan- sion must be considered. Besides these matters we have one other very serious matter to consider in the location of a rifle range, namely the safety. A rifle range is absolutely safe only when all the space in rear of the butts for the extreme range of the rifle is controlled or owned by the range authorities. Such a site can almost never be obtained. In most localities it is not difficult to find ground on which a range can be built which will be safe from all but accidental shots. Thus a bullet stop thrown up immediately behind the targets, and extending 20 feet above them, on a rifle range up to 600 yards, should each 99.99 per cent, of all the shots. Such a bullet stop should be faced with sand or clear earth at as steep a slope as it will stand. For a private club range of 200 yards a bullet stop 10 feet above the targets will usually suffice. Both these cases presuppose that the land in rear is sparsely settled. Neither of them would be safe enough to take a chance on with a city street a few hundred yards in rear. A hill for bullet stop must be quite high to catch ricochets, etc., or if of medium height one may chance it if there be no rocks on the surface to cause 614 RIFLE-RANGE CONSTRUCTION 615 ricochets, and the ground in rear of the target be quite steep. Plough- ing and terracing helps to make a hill safer. It is possible to make a range quite safe by erecting a steel-faced bulkhead a short distance in front of the firing point as shown in Fig. 168. The bulkhead catches all high shots which would go over the bullet stop. SIDE ELEVATION VIEW TOWARDS TARGETS Fig. 168 Safety bulkhead construction A — 1 Prone firing point. B — Kneeling and sitting firing paint. C — Standing firing point. D — Bullet stop filled with sand to catch shots which would ricochet on ground. E — Line connecting eye of man 5 feet tall in firing position with point 2 feet below top of bullet stop at butts. F — Line of normal fire. G — Top of bullet stop behind target pit, or top of hill. H — ■ |-inch steel plate, 4 feet high, on supports of 6" x 6" timbers, placed 50 feet in front of firing point. The location of a rifle range with respect to safety usually involves taking some sort of a chance. The risk should be very small. On one military range which has been in use for about 50 years there is a sand bank bullet stop carried up 20 feet above the top of the targets, and immediately behind them. This range is used up to 600 yards with 50 targets. On an average about 25 shots go over the top of the bullet stop during an entire day's firing, all targets running. By far the larger percentage of these overs are ricochets from the top of the parapet and ground between the firing point and target. A mile and a half in rear of the butts is a country road, but no farm houses in direct 6i6 THE AMERICAN RIFLE line of fire. Once or twice a season a farmer driving along this road will hear a bullet flying overhead. The board of trade in a near-by town looks out that there shall be no injunctions. This is a case where a range is not absolutely safe, but so nearly so that the chance can be taken. Where possible a range should always face the north so that the sun will shine on the targets during the whole day, and not in the BULLET STOP t BUTTS p - - - ; ■ ■; r^^-j D 20ovo rmiNC- point 500 It. FIRING POINT MOID. FIRIN& POINT UO YD. FIRING POINT BOO YD. FIRING POINT I00O YD. FIRING POINT STORS-HOUSCS t wotK-5Mors UMINIGTRATIIN SLOG, ^STATISTICAL. OFFICE. Fig. 169 Layout of rifle range with single butt, and firing points one behind the other eyes of the shooters. If this is not possible, then a military range should face west so that the sun will be on the targets during the morn- ing when most military shooting is done, and for similar reasons the civilian club range had better face the east. As regards layout there are two general types of ranges, those with a single butt, and the firing points one behind the other, and the echelon range where the butts are in echelon, and the firing points all in one straight line. Typical layouts of these two types are shown in Figures 169 and 170. Where the location affords the necessary space in width, and the extra butt construction can be afforded, the echelon system is far preferable. Men can be shooting at each range at the same time. In competitions or the practice of a number of men, when one man is through at a certain range he does not have to wait for every one else RIFLE-RANGE CONSTRUCTION 617 to complete at that range before going back to the longer range, but can start in at the next range right away. Modern butt construction is a simple matter, although one which in- volves quite an amount of labor. The type of butt is always the same. There must be a parapet which adequately protects the marker, there fOOO 10 BUTTS 800 YD BUTTS MOUNTAIN, oct*N, OR LAKC BACK OF BUTTS. bOO ID BUTTS. 500 TO BUTTS. 300 YD BUTTS F1MNG POINT FOR M.I. RAHOES Fig. 170 Layout of target range, butts in echelon, and one continuous firing point must be a target carrier which raises the paper target up over the parapet for firing, and which lowers it into the pit for pasting, the pit must be drained, and it is desirable that there be telephone communi- cation between the firing point and the pit. Fig. 171 shows a number of types on various kinds of ground. The type on the side hill is the most expensive to build. The one with the parapet entirely above the level of the ground is used on land where the water level is high, or where it is swampy. If a bullet stop has to be built, it adds a lot to the cost, of construction. Fig. 172 is a working drawing of a modern target pit, all the measure- ments being given. This is constructed for one of the modern steel target carriers which are very much the best if they can be afforded. The revetment, that is, the wall which holds up the inside wall of the parapet, may be either of stone set in concrete, of concrete, brick, or of 2-inch wood planks with uprights 6 inches square spaced every 3 feet. If of wood the uprights must either be securely anchored back into the parapet, or what is better, braced against a bank on the back side of the pit by cross pieces run across at the top of the pit between the target carriers. 6i8 THE AMERICAN RIFLE SWAMPY GROUND BULLET STOP SURMOUNT tO BY CRIB WORK FILLED WITH ROCK _ JlftOUNO Ll*ff - . ,. — - — USUAL CONSTRUCTION REMOVE ALL ROCK FROM THIS SURFACE HILLSIDE Fig. 171 Showing construction of butts on various sites Fig. 172 Profile of rifle range butt, showing construction. Dimensions correct for com- mercial steel target carrier RIFLE-RANGE CONSTRUCTION 619 Very often one can extemporize material from which to construct the butt. At Culebra, Panama, I built a large rifle range with what material I could pick up on the dump of the Panama Canal. The revetment was made of old railroad ties and old galvanized iron taken from the roofs of old shacks along the railroad. The upright railroad ties were anchored back into the revetment by means of wire cable made by twisting many strands of old telegraph wire and barbed wire. Not- withstanding the fact that many of the ties were rotting when put in place this range has stood for four years, and is still practically as Fig. 173 Butt constructed at Camp Gaillard, Panama Canal Zone, of scrap material. Measurements are correct for U. S. Army wood frame target carrier T T T — Old railroad ties. GI — Old galvanized iron roaring. C — Wire cable made of old telegraph wire. R R — Rocks. S — Sand bags. sound as when new. It was built at a cost of $36, not including the labor of the troops who built it. Fig. 173 shows the design and con- struction, it being fitted for the regular United States Army target car- ried which has a framework of wood. The dimensions show the correct size of the pit for this type of carriage. In all pits the parapet should be at least 5 feet wide on top. Three feet in almost any soil is wide enough to stop any bullet, but the crest just below the targets gets cut away after a time by the bullets, and before a five-foot top is cut away to a dangerous extent the hole will show so clearly that one will be sure to have it repaired. The interior 620 THE AMERICAN RIFLE crest must always be crowned with a layer of sand-bags, that is, with gunny sacks or concrete sacks filled with sand or with dirt free from rocks and pebbles. If this is not done there is always danger of a bullet some time striking the underside of a rock or pebble on the top of the parapet and being deflected down into the pit. I have seen two men killed by accidents of this kind, but such accidents have never occurred on ranges where the crest of the parapet has been crowned with bags filled with sand or clean earth. Where the butts contain a number of target carriers there should always be a latrine in the butt for the use of the markers, and at one Fig. 174 The target butts constructed at Camp Gaillard, Panama Canal Zone, by the au- thor entirely from scrap material end of the butt there should be a small house or shed for the protection of the targets that are being used from day to day. The distance be- tween targets should be not less than four feet for 200 and 300 yards, and not less than six feet for 500 and 600 yards. Each target should be numbered by a large wooden number standing on the front face of the parapet below the target. It is best to place this number a little low if possible so that there will be about a foot of dirt on the parapet visible between the bottom of the target and the top of the number board, otherwise the number boards will be shot away very quickly. If the parapet is not of sufficient height to allow the placing of the numbers below the targets they must be placed above, either on the bullet stop, or on a wire strung along over the targets. For two and three hundred yards the numbers should be 2 to 3 feet high, for 500 and 600 yards 5 feet high, and for 1000 yards eight feet high. If the RIFLE-RANGE CONSTRUCTION 621 background on the board be painted black and the numbers white they can be seen most distinctly. Fig. 175 shows a plan of a butt containing eight targets. The parapet must be such a height with relation to the carriage that there is absolutely no danger of a bullet passing over the top striking any of the metal parts of the carriage and being deflected down into the pit. Examine for this particularly when the range is first built, and again every six months. I have known the whole parapet of a range to settle eight inches in three months and make it absolutely unsafe for this reason. To find the correct height of the parapet, have a target placed in the carriage, and have the target run up to its full height. Go behind the target and sight just under the lower edge of the target at the firing point. The parapet should be brought up to the line joining the lower edge of the target and the firing point. The parapet should also extend at least 7% feet above the bench or plat- ft T A T H A V P N N Fig. 175 Plan of butt for eight targets A-A — Pit. P-P— Parapet. N-N — Numbers. H — Target house, 18x12 feet with doors at each end, roof below parapet top. L — Latrine. S — Steps leading to top of parapet. form on which the markers stand when marking the targets. The little shed roof over a portion of the pit has two uses, it shelters the markers from the hot sun, and from dirt and gravel which occasionally falls into the pit, and it also prevents fools from standing up on the seats and sticking their heads up over the parapet. The very best system of marking the targets is by means of spotters and marking disks arranged at the side of the target. A bull's-eye (5) is signalled by displaying a circular white disk, a four by a red disk, a three by a white disk with a black cross on it, and a two by means of a black disk. Most military ranges are provided with these disks on a pole. There is a disk on each end of the pole, each disk being painted a separate color. When the shot strikes the target, the marker is sup- posed to pull the target which has been fired upon down into the pit, at the same time the target on the opposite carriage rising into the 622 THE AMERICAN RIFLE firing position. The marker notes where the bullet has struck the target which has just been lowered and reaching up with the pole he displays the proper colored disk, placing it with its center over that portion of the upper target where the rifleman has struck the lower target. This system is far from satisfactory. It does not indicate to the rifleman with any surety exactly where he has struck the target, it is slow, and it is very tiring on the marker ; also it requires at least two men to mark a target with any degree of rapidity. Instead, almost all rifle ranges are now arranged with a little framework alongside the target carrier, but below the crest of the parapet. The pole of the marking disk is cut in half, and the halves stuck in the framework as shown in Fig. 176. Normally the disks are set with their edge towards the firing point. When it is desired to indicate the value of a hit it is only necessary for the marker to reach up and give the proper pole a turn so that the proper disk shows with its face towards the firing point. To indicate the exact location of the hit on the target, spotters are provided. These are circular disks of cardboard, 2V2 inches in diameter for 200 yards, 5 inches in diameter for 600 yards, and 8 inches in diameter for 1000 yards. They are painted black on one side and white on the other. The black surface is used to indicate a hit on the white surface of the target, and the white side to indicate a hit in the bull's-eye. Through the center of the spotting disk runs a wire which is hooked into the bullet hole. In marking with this system, but one target is used on a carrier, the rear carriage having a dummy weight attached to it so that the carrier will balance and run smoothly. When the target is struck the marker pulls the target down, takes out the old spotter and pastes up that hole, notes where the bullet has struck, places a spotter in the new bullet hole, runs the target up into place again, and then turns the marking disk at the side of the target so as to display the right signal to the firing point. The signal is allowed to stay in view for about 30 seconds and is then brought back with its edge towards the firing point. At the firing point the scorer sees the large disk displayed alongside the target and records the value of the hit. The rifleman with his telescope or field glasses, or even with his naked eye, sees the spotter sticking in his last bullet hole, and knows to within an inch of where he has struck the target. This is a very satisfactory system, and is the one in use at the national matches. Of course this method cannot be used in rapid fire, the method there being the same as that prescribed in the " Small Arms Firing Manual " of the Army. RIFLE-RANGE CONSTRUCTION 623 The paper target is pasted on a wood frame covered with muslin, the sides of this frame are extended below the square portion to form legs. These legs are stuck in iron holders provided for them in the slid- ing carriages of the target carriers. In order to have the paper target present a good appearance, remain secure on the frame, and have its Fig. 176 Modern method of marking the military target. A " three and disked has just been spotted true shape and dimensions, it is necessary that some pains be taken about pasting it on the frame. The muslin on the frame must be smoothly and tightly tacked on. Certain concerns make target paste, but this is never better, and much more expensive than well-made flour paste. To make flour paste for pasting targets and for sticking on pasters, proceed as follows : Use an ordinary galvanized iron bucket which holds 12 quarts. In this place 2 quarts of flour, and pour in a little cold water gradually, stirring all the time until the flour is all wet and the lumps are broken up, making a rather thin dough. Then pour in boiling water, stirring rapidly. It is necessary that the water be boiling hot, and that the paste be stirred very briskly. Don't fill absolutely up to the top with the boiling water as the paste swells as soon as the boiling water is poured in and the stirring started. Don't make more paste than is needed at one time as it sours in a few days. If it gets too thick at any time it can be thinned down with a little cold water. To keep rats from gnawing the targets, put a tablespoon- 624 THE AMERICAN RIFLE ful of concentrated lye dissolved in a point of water to each 12-quart bucket of paste. To paste the target on the frame, have the target frame with muslin tightly tacked and stretched, on a table provided for this purpose. The top of the table should be just the size of the inside of the frame with an edging around the top but an inch below it, so that when the frame is placed on the table top the muslin will be supported by the top, and the frame setting down over the top will be supported by the edging strip. Using a whitewash brush, put paste thickly but evenly all over the back of the target, and then fold from each end to the center, thus bringing pasted surfaces together, and place the target aside for a few minutes. This will allow the paste to soak into the paper target. Then paste the muslin on the target frame getting the coat on evenly. Now open up the paper target and put it on the frame, getting it started square and brushing out all the wrinkles with a clean white- wash brush. See that all the edges of the target are securely pasted down. When this target dries it will be perfectly smooth and even, and it will stay on in any wind, and in any rain but the very heaviest. Pasters are best provided without any paste at all on them. Square ones are the cheapest, they usually come in perforated sheets like post- age stamps, about an inch square, 100 to a sheet. About 75 per cent. should be white and the other 25 per cent, black. The marker should be provided with a small board about eight inches square, a small can of paste, and a number of pasters. He places a thick coat of paste on the board, and on it places a number of black and white pasters. The paste is placed on the board thick enough to stay wet all the time. When he pastes up a bullet hole he simply slides a paster off the board and sticks it over the bullet hole. He should take pains when pasting around the edge of the bull's-eye to preserve the outline of the bull as perfectly as possible. CHAPTER XLIV THE NATIONAL RIFLE ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA FOR the purpose of promoting skill in military rifle shooting, an art which until that time had remained largely undeveloped, the Na- tional Rifle Association of America was formed November 24, 1871, with General A. E. Burnside as president ; Colonel William C. Church, vice-president; General John B. Woodward, treasurer; and General George W. Wingate, secretary. The Creedmore rifle range, which has been so closely associated with the early history of military rifle shoot- ing in this country, was obtained a year later, purchased by joint contributions from the State of New York, and the boroughs of Brook- lyn and New York City, and' laid out following a visit to the English range at Wimbledon and the Canadian ranges by the committee who had the matter in charge. During the first few years of the National Rifle Association's exist- ence several clubs were former and affiliated with it, and the first meet- ing at the Creedmooor range was held June 21, 1873. In this contest there were entered as contestants most of the New York National Guard organizations, the United States Engineers, and a squad of Reg- ulars from Governor's Island. Affiliated with the N. R. A. at that time was the club known as the Amateur Rifle Club, an organization formed to promote long range shooting. It was this club which ini- tiated the movement which led to the holding of the first international long range rifle match at Creedmore in the fall of 1874. During the quarter century which followed, the National Rifle Asso- ciation continued the work of encouraging rifle practice, but one by one the principal members died, until early in 1900 there was talk of organiz- ing a new association of riflemen. Plans for the new organization were discussed at a convention of riflemen held at the Sea Girt competitions during August and September of that year. Following this convention it was found practical, with the co-operation of the surviving members of the original association, to perfect a reorganization of the parent body, and on December 17, 1900, Brigadier-General Bird W. Spencer of New Jersey was elected president. Upon the reorganization, steps were at once taken to boom rifle prac- tice. Annual competitions were revived, and invitations were sent to 625 626 THE AMERICAN RIFLE foreign countries to participate in a match for the Palma trophy. This trophy, emblematic of the world's championship, was the gift of Ameri- can citizens. The conditions laid down for this match called for 15 shots at 800, 900, and 1000 yards, 36-inch bull's-eye, four ring, 53 inches in diameter, military rifles to be used, conditions which pertain in this match to the present day. The first of these annual competitions was conducted at Sea Girt, New Jersey, August 30 to September 7, 1901, on the occasion of the twenty-ninth annual meeting of the associa- tion. Nine state teams, a team from the United States Marine Corps, a Canadian team to compete in the Palma match, and a team from the Ulster Rifle Association of Ireland to compete in an Irish-American match similar to the Palma, were entered. In addition to these matches there were competitions for several trophies which are familiar to the riflemen of today, including the Wimbledon Cup, the Soldier of Mara- thon, and the Hilton Trophy, the latter two having been donated by the National Rifle Association. In the international matches the Canadian and Irish teams were victorious over the Americans. Cash entry fees were charged in the matches, and part of the money returned as prizes, a practice which obtained in the association until 1917, when cash prizes were abolished. During this meeting plans were set on foot to pursuade Congress to provide a suitable trophy for a national match, in which all the services, as well as the National Guard teams, were to compete annually. On May 21, 1902, Representative Mondell of Wyoming reported from the committee on military affairs of the House of Representatives the bill which resulted in the establishment of the national matches. At the national matches of 1902, held at Sea Girt, New Jersey, from August 29 to September 6, fourteen state teams, two army teams, and a Marine Corps team competed, and there were 6841 entries in the individual matches. Concerning itself with the conduct of the annual matches of the association, and with campaigns to place military arms within the reach of civilians, the National Rifle Association continued its work, and met with marked success. In 1903 a team of American riflemen was sent to England to compete for the Palma trophy won by the Canadians in 1901. This competition resulted in the winning of the match by the American team at Bisley, England, on July 1, 1903, and acted as a great stimulus to rifle practice in this country. Other efforts resulted in adding to the national matches a national individual rifle match, and a national individual pistol match. PRICE LIST OF SUPPLIES SOLD THROUGH THE DIRECTOR OF CIVILIAN MARKSMANSHIP WAR DEPARTMENT Room 1633, Temporary Building No. 5 20th and C Streets NW. Washington, D. C. To Members of the NATIONAL RIFLE ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA IMPORTANT NOTICE EXCISE TAXES ON SALES BY THE MANUFACTURER Under the provisions of sections 605 and 610 of the Revenue Act of 1932 a tax of 10 per cent is imposed on field glasses, rifles, and ammunition sold by the Ordnance Department through the Director of Civilian Marksmanship, except the U. S. rifle, cal. .30, M1917. Spare parts and accessories for rifles and ammunition components are not taxed. The tax, at the rate of 10 per cent, will be computed on the price of the article plus the charge of packing and handling. EFFECTIVE JULY 1, 1932 Subject to change without notice INSTRUCTIONS FOR ORDERING Read all instructions carefully before ordering. If instructions are followed, delays in filling orders will be avoided. (a) The classes of property listed in this price list are sold only to members of the National Rifle Associa- tion through the Director of Civilian Marksman- ship. (&) All orders for the purchase of material listed in this price list must be accompanied by remittance in the form of money order, bank draft, or certified check, made payable to the Director of Civilian Marksmanship, and forwarded direct to his office at Room 1633, Temporary Building No. 5, Twentieth and C Streets NW., Washington, D. G. If prompt ship- ment is desired remittance should be made oy post office or express money order. Shipments of orders accompanied by certified checks or bank drafts must be withheld for sufficient time to permit of collection of such funds. (c) Personal checks are not accepted. (d) Send a separate remittance for each type of rifle and each class of material ordered. (e) As it is impossible for this office to compute the amount of postage on articles shipped, all orders will be shipped by freight or express, charges collect. Purchasers, therefore, will KINDLY STATE THE METHOD OF SHIPMENT DESIRED. Where no instructions are given, method of shipment will be determined by this office. The only exception that can be made is with small orders for spare parts, in which case sufficient POSTAGE STAMPS to pay postage must be forwarded with the order. if) MATERIAL CAN NOT BE SHIPPED BY PARCEL POST COLLECT. (g) The U. S. rifle caliber .30, model 1917, used and repaired, is sold " as is." This rifle has been inspected at the arsenals and is considered serviceable but is not guaranteed in any way. (7i) Always send your N. R. A. MEMBERSHIP CARD FOR THE CURRENT YEAR, PROPERLY SIGNED, with all orders for the purchase of supplies. The card will be returned to you as soon as your order has been approved. (i) All orders must be accompanied by a statement that the material is being purchased for personal use and not for resale. U) Items marked with a star (*) are also available at Benicia Arsenal, California. (7c) When orders are approved, a copy thereof will be mailed to the purchaser for his information. (I) When ordering barrels or receivers provision must be made to have the barrels fitted to the receivers. This can be done locally or at the arsenal. If the fit- ting is to be done by a local gunsmith this office should be so informed at the time the order is placed, other- wise it will be necessary to arrange to have the fitting done at the arsenal. If new barrel is to be assembled to receiver by the arsenal, bolt assembly should accompany the receiver in order that same may be properly adjusted for head space. PLEASE READ ALL INSTRUCTIONS CAREFULLY BEFORE ORDERING 3—9482 B S!! s ! m . bly :..! tyle T (with front ^ fi xed Barrel and receiver7sseZbi"y7serv7ce Barrel and receiver assembly, Nationa Barrel and receiver assembly, sporting 5-A or Pecker telSiT^&^ez^ffiSj ^^ Barrel and receiver assembly, style T 42 . 50 head-space gajestor SESKSLSjS* f bolt )" haViDg Base, rear sight, movable.. Bolt assembly, service (with extractor collar") 243 stvle^TT^ N f tl0nal Match ' s P° r «ng, or ' style T (with extractor collar) 2 7S Bolt mechanism, complete, National" mZZ' 6 " 01 sporting, or style T, with headless firing ntn and reversed safety lock g P n Bolt mechanism, complete, service . r ~ Bushing, guard screw JJ Cap, butt plate " Cap, rear sight slide ^ Catch, floor plate " Cut-off 25 Ejector. ~ 39 Extractor 20 Follower, service 55 Follower, National MatchZZ " " f? Guard, hand, assembly ^ Guard, trigger .'" ' Guard, trigger, sporting Z." """ 2 ' ?j Leaf, rear-sight Lock, bolt-sleeve ZZ 68 Lock, safety, assembly ~ *j? Lock, safety, assembly, reversed.... 47 Mainspring " " ' Nut, stock-screw "...... " ° 5 Pin, bolt-sleeve lock JJJ Pin, butt plate "" - ° 2 Pin, ejector 01 03 ^r srv?p g Vp aSSembly ' Nati o^rMateh7Iporting; Pin, firing, assembly, service ZZZZ or style T or style T, for reversed safety lock c. Pin, floor-plate catch.. ° Pin, front-sight U1 Pin, rear sight joint !JJ Pin, rear sight slide cap.... JJ^ Pin, sear V^ Pin. fixed-stud .. 02 Pin, trigger..... 01 Plate, butt, assembly (without screws) 8 4 mte, butt, assembly, National Match .' .' 87 PLEASE READ ALL INSTRUCTIONS CAREFULLY BEFORE ORDERING 3—9482 INSTRUCTIONS FOR ORDERING Read all instructions carefully before ordering. If instructions are followed, delays in filling orders will be avoided. (a) The classes of property listed in this price list are sold only to members of the National Eifle Associa- tion through the Dirbctor of Civilian Marksman- ship. (6) All orders for the purchase of material listed in this price list must be accompanied by remittance in the form of money order, bank draft, or certified check, made payable to the Director of Civilian Marksmanship, and forwarded direct to bis office at Boom 1633, Temporary Building No. 5, Twentieth and C Streets NW.. "Washington, D. C. If prompt ship- ment is desired remittance should he made hy post office or express money order. Shipments of orders accompanied by certified checks or bank drafts must be inthhrld for sufficient time to permit of collection of such funds, (c) Personal checks are not accepted. (d) Send a separate remittance for each type of rifle and each class of material ordered. (e) As it is impossible for this office to compute the amount of postage on articles shipped, all orders will be shipped bv freight or express, charges collect. Purchasers, therefore, will KINDLY STATE THE METHOD OP SHIPMENT DESIRED. Where no instructions are given, method of shipment will be determined by this office. The only exception that can be made is with small orders for spare parts, in which case sufficient POSTAGE STAMPS to pay postage must be forwarded with the order. (f) MATERIAL CAN NOT BE SHIPPED BY PARCEL POST COLLECT. (ff) The U. S. rifle caliber .30, model 1917, used and repaired, is sold " as is." This rifle has been inspected at the arsenals and is considered serviceable but is not guaranteed in any way. (h) Always send vour N. R. A. MEMBERSHIP CARD FOR THE CURRENT YEAR. PROPERLY SIGNED, with all orders for the purchase of supplies. The card will be returned to you as soon as your order has been approved. (i) All orders must be accompanied by a statement that the material is being purchased for personal use and not for resale. (;) Items marked with a star (*) are also available at Benicia Arsenal, California. (k) When orders are approved, a copy thereof will be mailed to the purchaser for bis information. (I) When ordering barrels or receivers provision must be made to have the barrels fitted to the receivers. This can be done locally or at the arsenal. If the nt- tine is to be done bv a local gunsmith this office should be so informed at the time the order is placed, other- wise it will be necessary to arrange to have the fitting done at the arsenal. If new barrel is to be assembled to receiver by the arsenal, bolt assembly should accompany the receiver in order that same may be properly adjusted ioi head space. PLEASE READ All INSTRUCTIONS CAREFULLY BEFORE OTOERING RIFLES Make separate remittances for these articles. The price of rifles does uot. include the cost of packing unless so stated in the price list. Charges for packing major items are as follows: 1 rifle *1. 35 1 stock -• 1- 35 1 harrel and receiver assembly 1.35 For each additional rifle, or stock, or barrel and receiver assembly in same order, $1 additional. V. S. rifle, cal. .22, M1922M1, N. R. A. (new model cal. .22 Springfield), with target $46.00 Extra magazine for above rifle 1. 56 U. S. rifle, cal. .30, M1903, style T, 28 and 30 inch heavy-service barrel, fitted with model 1922 pistol-grip stock, Winchester hooded front sight, Lyman No. 48 rear sight, Springfield action, weight about 14 pounds 85. 00 Rifle, International Match Target, cal. .30, Mar- tini action (reconditioned) 231.46 (This rifle is fitted with lieavv 31-inch barrel, Swiss front sight, Lyman roar siglit. adjustable sling swivel, adjustable paim rest, sot trigger, combination trigger guard and finger rest and special International Match Target ride stock with two adjustable butt plates.) ♦U.S. rifle, cal. .30, M1903 (Springfield style S, service rifle) 32. 75 U. S. rifle, cal. .30, M1903A1 ( Springfield service rifle with Type C pistol-grip stock) 33.85 U. S. rifle, cal. .30, M1903. Special Target (a reconditioned National Match rifle with type C pistol-grip stock) 35.48 U. S. rifle, cal. .30, M1903, N. M. (National Match Springfield rifle, star-gaged and spe- cially selected, equipped with type C pistol- grip stock) 40. 90 U. S. rifle, cal. .30, M1903, N. M. (National Match Springfield rifle, star-gaged and spe- cially selected, equipped with type B pistol- grip stock, receiver drilled and tapped for the Lyman receiver sight) 40.50 U. S. rifle, cal. .30, M1903, N. R. A., sporting type (sporting type Springfield rifle fitted with Lyman No. 48 rear sight and sporting type pistol-grip stock) 42. 50 *TJ. S. rifle, cal. .30, M1917, new. 20. 00 *TJ. S. rifle, cal. .30, M1917. used 7. 50 ACCESSORIES AND APPENDAGES For method of determining packing charges, see " Spare Parts." Make, separate remittances for the following articles : Rod, cleaning, brass, cal. .22, 5-jointed $0.25 Rod, cleaning, cal. .22, M1922M1 68 Cover, front sight, locking 38 ♦Rod, cleaning, barrack, M1916, cal. .30 40 ♦Rod, cleaning, M1913, with case, complete (jointed), cal. .30 93 'Rod, cleaning, M1916, with case, complete (jointed), cal. .30 1.08 •Oiler and thong case, complete, cal. .30 59 PLEASE READ ALL INSTRUCTIONS CAREFULLY BEFORE ORDERING •Cover, front sight, TJ. S. rifle, M1903 $0.05 ♦Gun sling, M1907, leather 1- 31 *Gun sling, M1917, webbing 1. 16 ♦Holster, pistol, M1916, cal. .45 1-67 ♦Holster, revolver, M1909, cal. .45 1- 43 •Screw driver, rifle 24 Reloading set, for 12-gage shotgun, including recapper and decapper, rammer, and powder measure !• 00 Crimping tool, for 12-gage shotgun 25 Packing charge on above two items 25 MILITARY TARGETS Make separate remittances for these articles. A targets (200 and 300 yards, slow fire), each.... $0.03 B targets (500 and 600 yards, slow fire), 20-inch bull's-eye, each • 05 C targets (800 to 1,000 yards, slow fire), 36-inch bull's-eye, each 14 D targets (200 to 500 yards, rapid fire), prone, silhouette bull's-eye, each 06 L targets, pistol, 5-inch bull's-eye, each 05 E targets, pasteboard, kneeling, M17 (pistol silhouette) 15 Cloth, target, 76-inch, per yard 28 Pasters, target, black, envelope (10,000 per en- velope) 43 Pasters, target, buff, envelope (10,000 per en- velope) 43 SPARE AND SEPARATE PARTS FOR ALL M1903, CAL. .30 (SPRINGFIELD) RIFLES The parts for service rifle only available at Benicia. Make separate remittances for these articles. A standard packing and handling charge of 10 per cent of the list' price will bo made on orders tor spare parts and accessories (oxoi.pt stork, or barrel and roeoiver assembly, for rifles), with a minimum charge of 25 cents for any one order. Band, lower $0. 40 Band, upper 1. 14 Baud, special, with swivel, for sporting type pistol-grip stock and service barrel 1. 30 Band, special, with swivel, for sporting type rifle (also cal. .22 rifle) 72 Band, special, with swivel, for type T rifle 1. 51 Barrel assembly, service (with rear sight fixed base and front sight fixed stud) 7. 10 Barrel assembly. National Match (with rear sight fixed base and front sight fixed stud).... 9.83 Barrel assembly, National Match (without rear sight fixed base, with front sight fixed stud), polished and browned 9. 83 Barrel assembly, sporting (with front sight fixed stud) 11. 90 (Can also be furnished drilled and tapped for front block for Lyman 5-A or Fecker telescope, without extra charge.) PLEASE READ ALL INSTRUCTIONS CAREFULLY BEFORE ORDERING style T (with front sight fixed Barrel as: stud) " ".. .'. 1 $36.50 Barrel and receiver assembly, service 12. 15 Barrel and receiver assembly, National Match.... 15. 83 Barrel and receiver assembly, sporting 17. 90 (Can also be furnished drilled and tapped for front block on barrel and rear block- on receiver, for Lyman 5-A or Feeker telescope, without extra charge.) Barrel and receiver assembly, style T 42. 50 head-space gages for proper assembly of bolt.) Base, rear sight, movable 07 Bolt assembly, service (with extractor collar). ... 2.43 Bolt assembly, National Match, sporting, or style T (with extractor collar) 2.78 Bolt mechanism, complete, National Match, sporting, or style T 0. 01 Bolt mechanism, complete, National Match, sporting, or style T, with headless firing pin and reversed safety lock 6.12 Bolt mechanism, complete, service 5.66 Bushing, guard screw 07 Cap, butt plate 13 Cap, rear sight slide IS Catch, floor plate -25 Cut-off 39 Ejector. 20 Extractor 55 Follower, service 36 Follower, National Hatch 38 Guard, hand, assembly 43 Guard, trigger 2. 20 Guard, trigger, sporting 2.50 Leaf, rear-sight Gs Lock, bolt-sleeve 18 Lock, safety, assembly -43 Lock, safety, assembly, reversed 47 Mainspring ° 5 Nut, stock-screw °4 Pin, bolt-sleeve lock 02 Pin, butt plate °1 Pin, ejector ° 3 Pin, firing, assembly, service 69 Pin, firing, assembly, National Match, sporting, or style T 85 Pin firing, assembly, National Match, sporting, or style T, for reversed safety lock 85 Pin, floor-plate catch 01 Pin, front-sight 01 Pin, rear sight joint 02 Pin, rear sight slide cap • 02 Pin, sear °2 Pin. fixed-stud 01 Plate butt, assembly (without screws) 84 Plate! butt, assembly, National Match 87 PLEASE READ ALL INSTRUCTIONS CAREFULLY BEFORE ORDERING Plate, butt, M1922 (sporting, style T, and cal. ■ 22 > $0.67 Plate, floor g2 Plate, floor, sporting and style T 82 Plunger, cut-off 03 Receiver, service 5. 02 Receiver, National Match 5.50 Receiver, National Match, sporting, and styie T, with screw holes for Lyman No. 48 sight... 6. 00 (Receivers are sold only to competent gunsmiths and members having bead-spare ca^os for proper assembly of bolt and barrel.) Screw, butt plate, large, each.... 04 Screw, butt plate, small, each 02 Screw, butt plate, M1922, each 05 Screw, butt-plate spring 03 Screw, butt-swivel plate 02 Screw, cut-off '. 03 Screw, front sight 02 Screw, guard, front 03 Screw, guard, rear 05 Screw, lower band 02 Screw, rear sight slide binding 03 Screw, rear sight slide cap 02 Screw, rear sight windage assembly 20 Screw, stacking swivel 02 Screw, stock, front (length 1.69 inches) 04 Screw, stock, rear (length 1.77 inches) 04 Screw, upper band 03 Sear 34 Sear, National Match, sporting, or style T 35 Sight, front (blade only) 07 Sight, front complete (front sight, with movable and fixed studs, screw, and pin) 75 (When ordering front sight complete, include pack- ing -a cents, posta-v. one to three sights, 8 cents Send stamps to cover postage.) Sight, rear, assembly (with movable base and without windage screw assembly) 2.24 Sleeve, bolt, assembly 1- 27 Sleeve, bolt 1- ° 6 Sleeve, firing-pin °3 Slide, rear sight, assembly 4S Slide, rear sight drift, No. 6, assembly 19 Slide, rear sight drift No. 7, assembly 19 Slide, rear sight drift, No. 8, assembly 19 Spindle, cut-off oe Spring, bolt-sleeve lock 01 Spring, butt plate 01 Spring, cut-off 01 Spring, floor-plate catch 01 Spring, lower band I 2 Spring, magazine H PLEASE READ ALL INSTRUCTIONS CAREFULLY BEFORE ORDERING Spring, rear sight base ?0. 13 Spring, sear 02 Note — Order stocks bv number stated. The prices on stocks do not- include bolt plates. Packing charge for one stock is $1.35 ; for each additional stock, $1. Stock, assembly, cal. .30, 42-2-51 A (old* style servicer — straight grip) 3 - °5 Stock, assembly, cal. .30, D1836 (pistol grip, type C, new service and National Match) 4.15 Stock, assembly, cal. .30, SA6595 (pistol grip. N. K. A. sporting type, cut for Lyman receiver sight, shotgun-type butt plate) 5.00 Stock, assembly, cal. .30, SA6596 (same as SA 6595, except not cut for Lyman receiver sight) 5 - 00 Stock, assembly, cal. .30, SA6597 (same as SA 6595, except grooved for style T barrel) 5. 00 Stock, assembly, cal. .30, SA6598 (same as SA 6595, except grooved for service or National Match barrel without rear sight fixed base)..- 5.00 Stock, assembly, cal. .30, SA6599 (same as SA 6595, except grooved for service or National Match barrel with rear sight fixed base) 5.00 Stock, assembly, cal. .30, SA6600 (same as SA 6595, except with special shallow barrel groove to be hand fitted to polished service or National Match ban-el without rear sight fixed base) 8.50 Stock, assembly, cal. .30, SA6601 (same as SA6595, except not cut for Lyman receiver sight, with special shallow barrel groove to be hand fitted to polished service or National Match barrel with rear sight fixed base) 8.50 Stock, special International free rifle (for style T rifle, handmade of selected walnut. Full details on request) 79.00 Stop, bolt, assembly 03 Striker 21 Stud, fixed (front sight) 37 Stud, movable, assembly (front sight) 35 Swivel, butt, assembly 26 Swivel, lower band 19 Swivel, stacking 20 Trigger 32 Trigger, National Match 33 SPARE PARTS FOR U. S. RIFLE, CAL. .22, M1922M1, N. R. A. Parts common to the U. S. rifle, cal. .30, M1903, are not listed below. Band, lower $0. 51 Barrel, assembly 10. 50 Barrel and receiver, assembly 16.75 Bolt, assembly (head assembly and handle assembly) 7. 07 Bolt, with firing mechanism, assembly 10.20 Bushing, guard screw 04 Cap, firing pin rod (first M1922) 21 Disk, rear sight aperture, .04-inch peep 40 Ejector 60 PLEASE READ All INSTRUCTIONS CAREFULLY BEFORE ORDERING Extractor $0.46 Guard, trigger 2. 20 Knob, rear sight elevating screw 65 Knob, rear sight lock bolt 25 Knob, rear sight windage screw 15 Latch, bolthead 17 Magazine, assembly. 1, 56 Mainspring 03 Mechanism, firing, assembly 3.04 Pin, bolthead latch 01 Pin, firing, assembly 82 Pin, lower band 01 Pin, retaining ejector 01 Plate, butt, M1922 67 Plate, floor 86 Plunger, bolthead latch 21 Pointer, rear-sight 08 Scale, rear sight windage 08 Screw, rear sight lock bolt spring 04 Screw, rear sight mounting, long 15 Screw, rear sight mounting, short 15 Screw, rear sight pointer 04 Screw, rear sight windage scale 08 Screw, set, rear sight elevating screw knob 04 Screw, set, rear sight windage screw knob 04 Screw, stop, rear sight 04 Sleeve, firing-pin 03 Spring, bolthead latch 01 Spring, ejector. 01 Spring, rear sight click 08 Spring, rear sight lock bolt 08 Spring, retaining, magazine 31 Stock, assembly, cal. .22, D1823 (pistol grip, M1922M1 N. H. A. type, cut for Lyman re- ceiver sight, shotgun-type butt plate) 4.37 Stop, ejector. 40 Striker, assembly 55 GLASSES, FIELD, TYPE EE, N. G. F. Glasses, field, type EE, Naval Gun Factory, magnification 6 degrees, field of view 8 de- grees, with leather carrying case with neck and shoulder straps ; price, including tax, post- age, and insurance (with or without mil. scale) $13.15 AMMUNITION Make separate remittances for these articles. Packing charges : In case lots. 50 cents each case. For each additional case, 15 cents, provided all can be shipped from same arsenal. For less than case lots, 75 cents. •Ball cartridges, cal. .30, model 1906, manufac- tured prior to July 1, 1919 (low grade) : Per case of 1,200 $21.60 Per bandolier of 60 i- 08 (150-grain pointed full metal jacketed cupro- nickel bullet, muzzle velocity 2.700 f.-s.) PLEASE READ ALL INSTRUCTIONS CAREFULLY BEFORE ORDERING 3—0482 •Cartridges, ball, cal. .45, model 1911, for model 1917 revolver, per case of 1,200 $25. 49 •Cartridges, ball, pistol, cal. .45, model 1911, per case of 2,000 42. 48 •Cartridges, ball, cal. .30, Ml, service, 172-gr., 9° boat-tail bullet, gilding metal jacket, ma- chine loaded : Per case of 1,200 36. 82 Per bandolier of 60 rounds 1. 85 •Cartridges, ball, cal. .30, model 1898 (forKrag), 220-gr., round-nose, jacketed bullet: Per case of 1,000 rounds 35.22 Per 100 rounds 3. 53 •Cartridges, ball, cal. .22, short rifle (new stock) : Per case of 10,000 15. 00 Per 1,000 I- 50 This cal. .22 ammunition consists of various lots of manufacture and type of powder, and is in a high state of serviceability. It does not have the noncorrosive primer. AMMUNITION COMPONENTS Make separate remittances for these articles. Packing charges for bullets : For first 500 or less. 75 cents. For each additional 500. 35 cents. (Example : 2.000 bullets, $1.80.) Bullets, cal. .30, 172-gr., 9° boat-tail, gilding metal jacket, per 1,000 $5. 66 Bullets, pistol, cal. .45, per 1,000 4. 96 Packing charges for cartridge cases : For 1,000 or less. 75 cents. For each additional l.tioo or less. 50 cents. (Examples : 1,500, $1.25 ; 2,000, .$1-25 ; 3.000, $1.75.) N. M. cartridge cases, for model 1906 ammuni- tion, unprimed, per 1,000 8. 26 Same, primed, per 1,000 10. 26 Packing charges for cartridge primers : For 1,000 or less, 30 cents. For each additional 1.000 or less, 10 cents. (Examples : 1,500, 40 cents ; 2,00O, 40 cents, etc.) Cartridge primers, cal. .30, per 1,000 1. 30 (Chlorate nonmercurial, for 30-06, Krag and all large sporting cartridges.) Cartridge primers, cal. .45, per 1,000 1. 36 (For cal. .45, Government M1911 auto pistol car- tridges only.) The shipment of powder by express is prohibited by the Interstate Commerce Commission. Packing charges for smokeless powder (all amounts include cost of container) : For 1 pound, 30 cents; 2 pounds, 40 cents: 7 pounds', ::,0 cents: 10 pounds, 80 cents; 15 pounds, $1.00; 25 pounds, $1.25; 50 pounds, $1.75. Smokeless powder for ball cartridges, model 1906, per pound 63 (This powder is of the dense nitrocellulose tvpe and is officially known as " Pyro .30 cal. d. g." and is simi- lar to du Pont Military Powder No. 20 and Hercules No. 30S. It can be used in a variety of cartridges other than the .30 Springfield.) Smokeless powder, 1928M1, IMR 1185 90 (This is a progressive burning nil roeellulnse powder and was use,l in loading tie' 10::s National Match am- munition. Fifty grains will give a muzzle velocity of approximately 2.600 f.-s. with a mean pressure of approximately 43,000 pounds.) Smokeless powder, pistol No. 5 (including con- tainer), per pound 1.59 Smokeless powder, Bull's-eye, for revolver and pistol ammunition (including container), per pound 1% 43 JS-SMOKELESS POWDER MUST BE SHIPPED BY FREIGHT 626 forei tropl can i shots inch* in th was 1 901, tion. Cana Ulste matcl there riflen thon, the "J Cana entry as pi when Du to pr servic On IV the c( bill m the n Augu a Ma indivi C01 associ of ch met v sent ti in 19c Amer great in adc natior Plate, bu .22) Plate, fl< Plate, fl( Plunger, Receivei Receivei Receive] T, wi 1 (Recei members of bolt .' Screw, Screw, Screw, Screw, Screw. Screw Screw Screw Screw Screvs Screv Scre\ Scre^ Sci-e^ Scre^ Sere Sere Sear Seal Sigl Sigl a ( ing Sen Sii Sl( Sl« SI SI S 1 s s s c Address all communications relative to the issuing of equipment to rifle clubs, rifle club qualifications, and reports of rifle clubs, also to the sale of material listed in this price list to the— DIRECTOR OF CIVILIAN MARKSMANSHIP WAR DEPARTMENT Room 1633, Temporary Building No. 5 20th and C Streets NW. Washington, D. C. Address all communications concerning mem- bership, rifle club organization and affiliation, payment of rifle club and membership dues, and subscriptions to the " American Rifleman " to the— NATIONAL RIFLE ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA Barr Building, Farragut Square Washington, D. C. //IT IV Je" 0> * , «**. o^ » -^ ^ ^ \ ^. ■ ... ■ i : ^ % X > ^ /s 1 >, > . •V s ' * . ^ v* ^ "^ * <*> * . I ^L. ^ ' r 'V V* *> "^ ■V 0* -^ **^ ■r 11. 1 ./ <•. * o » v * ^ '^ ^ ^ t ^ * **. v* = 0< ' ^ i -, = LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 019 953 798 2 H ■ MB B BS9