LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 
 
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 &wJ~£tep(ffi !ftt- 
 
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 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
"American Forests." 
 
 ByProLP.P.Schotzka, 
 
 6 
 
 . 
 
 Author and Proprietor, -< 
 
 No. 6n Twenty- fifth Avenue South. 
 Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1887, by 
 
 P. P. SCHOTZKA, 
 
 In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 A conntry without a tree on her face, 
 Is to be compared to an empty space. 
 
 Their alarming disappearance and the fact that they are mostly given 
 up to unscientific management convinces the author of this treatise of the 
 fate, which sooner or later, must befall our once so magnificient primeval 
 forests and urges him with earnest desire to do his part towards preventing 
 the approaching calamity. 
 
 Seventeen years ago he sent a memorial to Congress, calling attention 
 to the importance of forests and the necessity that the government should 
 take the subject in hand and prevent their wanton destruction, and although 
 his efforts were unavailing, also his lectures upon the same subject in after 
 years, he still adhears to his ideas and is convinced that it is the duty of 
 every citizen to pay more attention to a subject, the importance of which 
 has been up to the present time so inexcusably neglected. 
 
 The author of this book understands the management and culture of 
 forests, as he has received a thorough education thereof in one of the best 
 academies of forestry in Germany, and added to this a vast amount of prac- 
 tical knowledge during many years of actual service. Thousands of trees 
 which have been planted under his direct supervision bear testimony that 
 the task of replacing partly destroyed forests can be successfully accom- 
 plished. The condition and management of our old forests must implore 
 every citizen that under the present system their existence is endangered, 
 since their mission is unappreciated, and their usefulness and absolute 
 necessity unacknowledged. But the time is coming when the consequences 
 
of the present management -will be apparent to all, and the punishment 
 merited for their ruthless destruction be meted out. Then the proverb, 
 "Want and necessity generally grade the road for the better" is verified, as 
 then the teachings in regard to their value will receive the attention of all; 
 but then it will be too late! Nature will not change her laws. The same 
 consequences which accrued after the destruction of forests in other coun- 
 tries must follow in our own. This is a lesson for us. As a people it be- 
 hooves us then to examine the matter thoroughly, to acquaint ourselves 
 with the true condition of our forests and learn their sufficiency and de- 
 ficiency for present and future demands. 
 
 In the following pages the author endeavors to publish such facts, 
 make explanations and lay down such rules as he considers most essential 
 for a better system of management, and which shall lead to a more thor- 
 ough appreciation of the benefits of forests, and he cherishes the hope that 
 everybody who loves his country may, while reading this treatise, have a 
 due appreciation of the writers earnest desire and efforts to serve the 
 country. 
 
 Any informatian upon the subject will be cheerfully given, and correc- 
 tions and additional facts for the following editions thankfully received by 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 Agriculture*, horticulture and arboriculture are all parts of one great 
 . hole, namely : cultivation of the soil, and its various productions upon 
 which the prosperity and existence of mankind depends. 
 
 Agriculture leads the van of this three-fold group, being the funda- ' 
 mental element of wealth and national advancement. Fertility of soil, 
 variety of climate and wise selection of grains and plants, combined with 
 energy, enterprise, skill and industry on the part of the inhabitants are 
 sure guaranty of the prosperity of any country. 
 
 The farmer limits his efforts to the cultivation of those crops which are 
 the best adapted to the soil and climate of his region. The gardener must 
 know the entire list of vegetables, fruits and flowers without reference 
 to latitude or longitude, and consequently their growing and cultivation 
 must be more or less scientific. The attempt of scientific development oi 
 the husbandmans art in many of its branches dates back only half a cen- 
 tury. Previous, both agriculture and horticulture have been conducted 
 upon the "Virgillian System;" adherence to blind custom rather than by 
 intelligent investigation and judicious experiments. 
 
 The first book in the English language which treats of the relations oi 
 agriculture and chemistry was published in 1795, and its teachings, though 
 containing some truths, are absurd when viewed in the light of present 
 attainments. No accurate analysis of vegetable life and structural develop- 
 ments was made until the year 1810, and as late as 1838 the Goettingen 
 Academy offered a prize for a satisfactory answer to the question, "Whether 
 the ingredients found in the ashes of vegetables are essential to growth." 
 The last half century has placed agriculture upon a true scientific basis, 
 and since then the advance has been simply wonderful. 
 
 But it is a startling fact that one of the most essential factors in secur- 
 ing these achievements has been almost, if not wholly ignored. Science, 60 
 
active ana aggressive in particular directions, turned its face from one that 
 would lead it to most valuable results. 
 
 The question as to what effect the forests have upon the cultivation o.t 
 soil, the quantity and quality of its products, and upon the health and com- 
 forts of the inhabitants is scarcely suspected. 
 
 The Bureau of Agriculture at Washington has made some efforts in the 
 direction of preserving the present area and extending the forest culture. 
 The secretary of Interior has attempted to prevent the wanton destruction 
 of growing timber on the public domain, and uiged new settlers upon the 
 open prairie to plant trees. But all this was more of an experiment, empiri- 
 cally, that is, not scientifically, with only incidental, one might say, acci- 
 dental reference to the well known and established laws of nature. 
 
 The time has certainly arrived for full and intelligent consideration 
 of this subject, and if the eyes of the nation are opened to its vital impor- 
 tance, the people will demand proper attention to it, as it is a well estab- 
 lished faet that the forests of a country should cover from one quarter to 
 one third of its whole area, if that country shall be healthful and its climate 
 salubrious, fulfilling all the conditions under which agriculture maybe suc- 
 cessful. The extent, location and distribution of forests must also be taken 
 in careful consideration. Every state and territory, every county and town- 
 ship should have its due proportion, if the utmost benefit to the entire 
 nation is intended. In this we are all interested, as money can build and 
 beautify a castle but cannot create a grand and majestic tree. 
 
 In Europe this has become of such importance that the governments 
 have assumed control of the forests and established special bureaus in 
 charge of competent officers, who after long and thorough apprenticeship, 
 have graduated in the science of forestry. Thereby the forests lu.ve been 
 made the means of promoting the health and fertility of the country, and a 
 source of increased revenue to the government. The United States needs 
 similar legislation. An intelligent oversight and authoratitive control by 
 competent men may secure us the benefits to be derived from a proper 
 management of the timber, yet within the control of the government. 
 
 Equal causes produce equal results or equal consequences. 
 
 This is the undisputable law of nature, approved in all ages and shown 
 by the history of every nation as well as every individual. The statesman 
 therefore, as well as the political economist, in fact every wise and intellec- 
 tual business man, bases his calculations upon the truth of the above law. 
 It is therefore a wise practice and policy to consult in new undertakings, 
 those who perfectly understand the subject and be guided by their advice, 
 especially in the culture of trees. 
 
 The population of the United States have so far enjoyed, even if not 
 generally appreciated, such a surplus and abundance of forests and their 
 
products, that a thoughtless and reckless destruction of them has by no 
 means and under no circumstances been considered rts anything improper. 
 
 Farsighted men have formed the "American Forestry Congress" and 
 every citizen who has the welfare and p osperity of the country at heart 
 should thank that body for their laborious task, viz : "That the care of the 
 forests of the country should be placed in the hands of the government, and 
 where practicable, in the hands of the state governments, so that their total 
 destruction and thereby the diminishing of agriculture, health and com- 
 merce may be prevented." 
 
 Let us not think that the country has a sufficient area stocked with 
 forest trees, but let us remember the time needed for their development and 
 also follow the rule by which Europe is guided : "That a careless treat- 
 ment of the forests can lead in a few years to such a condition of the same, 
 .hat the best forester cannot relieve them during a century." 
 
AMERICAN FORESTS. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 CONSEQUENCES OP DEFORESTING. 
 
 The dangers arising from destruction of forests are not exaggerated, if 
 compared with the descriptions of ancient historians and the researches of 
 travelers of a later date. 
 
 Robin, Peron, La Perouse and others have graphically described the 
 fearful consequences which have followed such wholesale destructions on 
 the Island of Trinidad, Martinigue, St. Domingo, Mauritius and other 
 places. Instead of the luxurious vegetation which once abounded, result- 
 ing from the warm, moist and voluptuous climate, are now only seen naked 
 recks and bare hills. The dewdrops, fogs and refreshing showers have 
 given place to hurricanes and cyclones. • 
 
 Phcenicea and other provinces of Asia and Africa, once the graneries 
 of Europe and inhabited by a prosperous and happy population, are now 
 little more than arid deserts. Their glory has departed together with their 
 forests. Chouseul Goufher vainly searched the dominion of ancient Troy 
 for the Scamander River; its bed had dried up after destruction of forests. 
 
 With the diminishing of forests in Spain, the water supply has been 
 reduced, while in Italy the climate has become colder. 
 
 Australia furnishes another example and the Government, recognizing 
 the cause, is taking steps to apply a remedy by tree planting. 
 
 The valley of the Durance, in the southern part of France, is endanger- 
 ed of becoming a stonefield for the same reason ; the growth of Olives and 
 Grapevines being retarded for want of shelter and moisture. 
 
 Switzerland gives numerous similar examples. * 
 
 In Iceland agriculture was no longer successful after the departure of 
 forests and the steppes of Russia, which were formerly fertile, are now 
 deserts. 
 
 But on the other hand the cultivation of trees in Scotland, France and 
 other countries plainly shows the great blessings which forests are. 
 
 Egvpt has a perceptible increase of rainfall, since trees have been plant- 
 ed on a large scale. Those facts need no comment and all arguments to 
 
 the contrary must faili 
 
 —10— 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 CAUSES OP THE DECREASE OP OUR FORESTS. 
 
 WHAT CAUSES REDUCED OUR PRIMEVAL FORESTS TO THEIR PRES- 
 ENT NARROW LIMITS. 
 
 Ignorance, carlessness, selfishness and the idea that so vast a forest 
 area could ever be exhausted or perceptibly diminished in size, have 
 been the main causes of their destruction. 
 
 The weapons used have been the axe of the woodman and fire; es- 
 pecially the latter, as the work of the former, was, formerly hardly visible. 
 The savage Indian done his part toward the burning of forests; he started 
 the fire carlessly, and at other times to drive the game from certain wood- 
 ed districts. Control over the elements having been entirely lost, va.sl 
 areas have been swept away, filling even the souls ot the savages with ter- 
 ror. Laterly, the squatter has set fires in order to clear tracts of land foT 
 agricultural purposes and as the soil has not yielded the expected returns; 
 he left. 
 
 The lawful settler imitated the squatter in order to dispose of a super- 
 abundance of wood. 
 
 As immigration has increased from year to year, the war against the. 
 forests has been continued in a degree proportionate to the growth of tho 
 population. The gigantic old trees are gone, after having withstood the 
 winds and storms of centuries. 
 
 If this clearing had been conducted with wise and correct principles, it 
 would have been perfectly proper, as it was necessary to make place for 
 farms and the building of towns and cities. But if some tracts of forrests 
 had been spared, what a blessing they would be to those who are now 
 settling upon the naked prairie. Cities and towns have arisen from the 
 ashes of the forests, great industries have been developed, the demand for 
 
 —11— 
 
wood has increased in all directions, and it has been taken, wherever most 
 plentiful and easily to be obtained. 
 
 The late war caused terrible havoc among the forests, as in many parts 
 of the country they were cut down by the armies to prevent the possibility 
 of surprise by the enemy, and fires were set to cover the rear of retreating 
 enemies and to serve as obstacles to the pursuing troops, and great fires 
 like those at Chicago and Boston, have destroyed whole townships of for- 
 rest. 
 
 But let the causes of destruction be what they may, it is an undisputed 
 fact that they were made in many cases on a basis altogether too 
 broad, and that the prosperity of many states is on that account lessened. 
 Trees grow very slowly and if cut too rapid their number will be gradual- 
 ly diminished, and they must finally disappear altogether, wherever this 
 process is continued. If left to the sole care of nature for a period of one 
 thousand years, she would in that length of time hardly be able to erase 
 the footprints of human's attack by replacing the forests to their original 
 condition. 
 
 The government still holds in possession extensive tracts of land which 
 are mainly covered by forests, but to expect that the whole country could 
 be supplied with wood from those alone is an illusion, the fallacy of which 
 it would not take long to prove. 
 
 Upon the farmer and land owner rests the necessity and duty for the 
 planting of trees and the renewing of forests, by devoting a certain por- 
 tion of land to their culture. It is the duty of the government, as well as 
 of state governments, to support the farmer in this undertaking in every 
 possible way, and protect him by wise and effective laws and by actual as- 
 sistance, such as instructing him in forest culture, exempting Ins forest 
 land from taxation and by the most stringent laws in regard to prairie and 
 forest fires. A beginning in this direction has been made, even if only up- 
 on a small scale, by different states, and their good example should be fol- 
 lowed by all states and the government. 
 
 —12— 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 FORESTS JN THEIR PRESENT AND FUTURE STATE. 
 
 In chapter I are shown the benefits derived from forests and also the 
 consequences which have followed their destruction or even the rendering 
 of their extent too small as compared with the area of a country. What an 
 erroneous idea predominates in regard to the extent and inexhaustability of 
 the forests of this country, will now be considered and for a more correct 
 understanding of the subject, the forests will be devided into five classes. 
 
 1. Extensive areas, covered with trees, called "Second or Third 
 growth." The entire or almost entire disappearance of this kind of forests 
 is naturally and unavoidably a question of the near future. Each order, 
 family and species of trees has a time when it comes to maturity, after which 
 it must die. If the deciduous trees have been cut down before reaching 
 their maturity, the stumps or roots will send fourth new shoots which will 
 in turn grow into trees, and until the original stump has reached maturity 
 of the first tree cut down, no matter how often these shoots may be cut, 
 others will grow to take their places. But just, or at least nearly as soon 
 as the stump has arrived at maturity, the formation of young shoots at once 
 ceases and parent and offspring die together. The absurdity that cutting of 
 succesive growths can be carried on for an unlimited period is fully appar- 
 ent. It is not in unison with the workings of nature, consequently these 
 forests will disappear. 
 
 2. Another class will occupy our attention, namely : those whose ranks 
 are being annually thinned to supply our every day wants for timber and 
 fuel. Their roots and stumps when not too old naturally send fourth new 
 shoots, but very seldom do they grow to any size, as the cattle which are 
 constantly grazing in these woods eat up all the young sprouts, <is fast as 
 they appear above the stumps and ground, and by their continual tramping 
 over the ground, render it very hard, while at the same time owing to the 
 scattered condition of trees, the winds are constantly blowing away the few 
 
 —13— 
 
leaves, which would otherwise remain as the only natural fertilizer. 
 
 3. Another large forest area consists of portions of woodland situated 
 in swamps and marshes. These frequently present the appearance of prim- 
 eval forests, on account of a few large trees which grow there on little eleva- 
 tions while by far the larger part, they are worthless shrubs. On clos^ ex- 
 amination we find that even the larger trees have trunks which are decayed 
 within and are therefore of little value excej)t for fuel. A sudden drain- 
 age of such places would inevitably cause the death of all trees there sit- 
 uated as they have not formed latge roots, but only such as would reach 
 the waters surface, and consequently would not receive enough nourishment 
 but should the drainage be earefully and gradually done, the roots would 
 find their way deeper into the earth while searching for moisture, and at 
 the same time the area will be greatly improved, as the organic deposits 
 are often a yard in thickness, but are not in a condition to be digested by the 
 roots of trees while under water, owing to an excess of moisture. Where 
 drainage is possible, these forests must make room for meadows, and be 
 sides forests to fulfil their mission in regard to climate, moisture, &c. should 
 be situated on hig'a land instead of in swamps, where their effect will be 
 damaging to the surrounding country. ^ 
 
 4. The extensive regions covered with evergreen forests of spruce 
 and pine, from which have come in times past, and whence still we receive 
 our supplies of that invaluable article, "pine lumber." While walking 
 through the ranks of those once beautiful forests, the forester's heart is fill- 
 ed with "-rief at seeing the unsystematic and unappreciated manner in 
 which these grand gifts of nature have been treated. Those forests should 
 have been divided into squares by roads or avenues when first openings were 
 made in them, which roads should have been kept clear of rubbish and 
 hio-h grass, to prevent, in a measure, the spread of fires, which have at dif- 
 ferent times, done such damage there, and have destroyed a vast amount of 
 property. In five or ten years the fine forests, at least those in the settled 
 portions, will belong to the things of the past. 
 
 5. The last class consists of those fine forests where as many healthy 
 timber trees stand and grow as the condition of the soil and the best man- 
 agement can produce, such as will readily yield from seventy to eighty 
 cords of wood to the acre, at the age of eighty years. In large forests 
 which have been left untouched are usually found large openings which 
 have existed either from the beginning, or have been made by trees that 
 fell from old age, to make room for others which will rise to take their 
 places. It is evident from the law of nature, that by no means can all the 
 trees in these forests be healthy. Same old feeble and decaying trunks re- 
 
 —14— 
 
main standing, being assisted by thrifty trees in their immediate vicinity. 
 When these at last give way, in their fall to the earth, they must crush 
 many of the young trees, leaving them behind in a more or less unhealthy 
 state. If these forests could be left untouched, they would certainlj take 
 care of themselves, as nature always heals the wounds she makes. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FORESTS SERVE AS NATURES AGENTS TO FULFIL HER PLANK. 
 
 If we observe nature with the eye of experience and knowing her eter- 
 nal and unchanging laws and see how the links in her chain fit one into the 
 other ; how the presence of each and every one is necessary to the whole 
 system, we come to the conclusion that she needs for her use in her great 
 laboratory all created things, great, small, solid, liquid or gaseous, veget- 
 able, animal and mineral, and that they must be there for her service at the 
 proper moment so that she may be enabled by means of those agencies to 
 accomplish all her plans. For we know that what she connot produce 
 now, she will in a thousand or million years if her agents are not disturbed. 
 Forests are living bodies, composed of separate existences, each forming a 
 minature chemical labaratory of itself and therefore nature's most necea. 
 sary and useful servants and serve as agents in carrying out her plans. 
 
 1. Forests beautify the earth and improve the character of its inhab- 
 itants. That man is influenced by his surroundings is* well known and in 
 the present case how easy it is to note the difference between the dark, and 
 meloneholy expression of individuals who have been grown up among 
 somber pines, and the cheerful, smiling countenances of those whose youth 
 has been spent in bright, deciduous forests. 
 
 2. Forests help to sustain the relative proportion of the component 
 properties of atmospheric air and purify it from unhealthy substances o,nd 
 obnoxious gases, since they inhale the carbonic acid gas, which has been 
 exhaled by the animal creation, and exhale, instead, oxigen, absolutely 
 necessary for animal existence, and most assuredly do they also absorb 
 great quantities of the unhealthy matter contained in the atmospheric air, 
 otherwise people living in forests would not be so healthy. 
 
 3. Extensive forests prevent sudden and extreme changes in teinpcratur 
 of the adjacent open country, as the air under the sheltering tree tops can- 
 not be affected by heat or cold, like that in the unsheltered area. We 
 
 —16— 
 
therefore have inclose proximity to each other, two bodies of air, different 
 in temperature, and for that reason, also differing in weight. There will 
 then be a constant exchange going on between the air of the protected 
 woodlands and that in open fields, since the warmer, light air will be forc- 
 ed continually to take those places which are deserted by the colder and 
 heavier air. This change goes on until the air in both sections is so inter- 
 mingled as to possess the same temperature and consequently the same 
 specific gravity. 
 
 4. Abundant forests effect climate by regulating the moisture and 
 electricity of the atmosphere, and in so doing, preventing protracted 
 drought, or a superabundance of rain, and hindering those fearful elec- 
 tric tempests which are the curse of sparcely wooded countries. In most 
 parts of the United States the yearly rain-fall, could it be evenly distribut- 
 ed throughout the seasons, is amply sufficient to supply all the needs of the 
 animal and vegetable creation. The forests serve as reservoirs for the sur- 
 plus water, for it is well known that owing to the slow evaporation of 
 water under the shelter of trees, the air coming therefrom is always moist, 
 even when that in the open field is dry. For this reason, more delicate 
 and finer crops can be raised in the vicinity of forests than in exposed 
 places, since some times in the long intervals between rainfall, this mois- 
 ture-laden air is constantly refreshing the suffering plants, which otherwise 
 wither away. Trees, and especially large forests, are continually drawing 
 to themselves the electricity contained in the air and clouds, and conduct- 
 ing it to the earth, thus stopping undue accumulation and rendering less 
 liable tearful electric storms. It follows as a natural consequence that for- 
 ests supply the springs, rivers and brooks with water, prevent the washing 
 of the soil from fields, and hinder those heavy floods, which in late years 
 are of so frequent occurance. 
 
 5. The forests serve as a protection against grasshoppers, as in the 
 shade of trees their eggs cannot be hatched, since they need the open, dry 
 prairie. Prof. Marsh, in the Manual of Minnesota Forester association' 
 says: '-It is only since the felling of the forests of Asia Minor and Cyrene' 
 that the locust has become so fearfully destructive in those countries." 
 
 6. Forests supply us with fuel and material for building and other 
 purposes. Their value in this direction can hardly be estimated, but the 
 carlessness with which the American people regard this, is conclusive evi- 
 dence that they have but little thought of the intrinsic value of forests at 
 the present time. 
 
 7. In a paper read before the Public Health Association, Dr. Geo. L. 
 Andrew reached the conclusion: "That forests and tree belts are of un- 
 doubted value in preventing the dissemination of malaria," and, "that 
 trees are of a positive sanitary value." 
 
 —17— 
 
8. The forests formerly supplied us with game and fur-bearing an- 
 imals, but they are gradually becoming less, as the forests are yearly reduc- 
 ed in extent imitations are substituted for real fur. 
 
 9. The forest furnishes many more useful and important articles, viz: 
 Bark, for tanning and medical purposes, turpentine, resin, wild honey, nuts 
 of all kinds, roots, herbs and blossoms for medical use, &c. 
 
 Here then, we have two pictures. In the one we look in the future 
 and see wide-spread desolation, an extended, treeless country, visited by 
 destructive storms, by severe droughts, with its streams dried up. In the 
 other, we see a charming landscape, a rich tertile country, a population en- 
 joying all the blessings which flow from peace and plenty, ^nd so we must 
 admit the necessity of commencing this great enterprise at once, and pros- 
 ecuting it with vigor. 
 
 —18- 
 
CHAPTER Y. 
 
 TREATMENT OP FORESTS SO FAR NOT DESTRUCTED. 
 
 Forests, which have from some reason or other, so for escaped de- 
 struction, may be classified in the following order: 
 
 1. Groves of trees of nearly uniform growth, a portion of them old 
 and decaying, partly young and slim, but equaling the older trees in height, 
 and where, since there is no undergrowth, free entrance is given to the rays 
 of the sun and to the wind. 
 
 2. Groves of trees of second or third growth. These are found quite 
 thrifty on rich soils, with a considerable amount of undergrowth, most of 
 them being slender and of small dimensions, so that easy access is given 
 to the sun and wind. Here as the leaves are being continually blown 
 away, the soil is year by year growing poorer. 
 
 3. Evergreen trees interspersed with an undergrowth of smaller trees 
 and shrubs. 
 
 4. Lines of trees along the banks of rivers, partly decayed, but of 
 second growth, where they have been of easy access to farmers. 
 
 5. Scattered, low, scrubby trees, growing upon hills and mountains 
 among which are often found bare spots, sometimes of the size of a half 
 acre. These yield but little profit to the owner, but still they are scaled 
 and recorded as forests, in the census. 
 
 6. Pine forests, into which great inroads have been made, and where 
 the bare places produce only a few shrubs of a deciduous nature, the seeds 
 of which have been blown and carried on from distant forests, and being 
 stopped in their flight by the pines, have been deposited until an opportu- 
 nity for germination was given them, which took place as soon as the orig- 
 inal trees had been cut down. 
 
 —ID— 
 
a. FORESTS OP THE FIRST CLASS. 
 
 The soil, where these forests are growing is gradually losing its pro- 
 ductive qualities, and the old trees are rapidly becoming poor and of little 
 value. Before commencing to plant trees on any new acre is, cut down the 
 old trees, and those which are apparently making no increase in growth, 
 and leaving the young and thrifty standing, but in not so large a number 
 as to shade the ground too much. Plant over the whole extent, the same 
 as if no trees were left, so that in the future the undergrowth may be ser- 
 viceable for fuel. For the overgrowth, use such trees as to not give too 
 dense a shade, taking care in planting them among those which are intend. 
 ed for fire wood, to set them at proper distances from each other. The best 
 trees to use for timber or overwood, in such cases are Red, White and Burr 
 Oak, Elm, Hackberry, Black, and White Walnut, White Birch and the 
 Larch, (limited). The best trees for the undergrowth are such as will 
 thrive well when shaded, and will sprout out again readily from the stump, 
 after being cut off. Of these may be named : White Beech, Hophornbeam, 
 Ironwood, Elm, Ash and Maple; also Linden, but this latter tree only 
 where shading of the ground is the main object to be attained, as the wood 
 is of little value for fuel. 
 
 After newlv planted trees have reached the age of twenty or thirty 
 years, some can be selected for timber and the rest cut down. Care must 
 be taken to cut as close to the ground as possible, so that the new shoots 
 may come out close to the roots. If any of the original trees have reached 
 maturity by this time, or are not gaining in size, they should also be cut 
 down, and some of those which have been planted, left standing to fill their 
 places. Such a forest should be so managed as to have the timber trees of 
 all ages, so that it is not necessary to cut too many at one time. The fol- 
 lowing will be a guide as to how many of the trees be left standing: 
 
 An average tree, growing singly, will cover with its branches at the 
 age of one hundred and twenty years, 226 square feet; when ninety years 
 old, 132 square feet; at thirty, 64 square feet; at five years, 20 square feet; 
 so that one hundred and ninety-two trees at the age of 120 years, will 
 cover just an acre, while it will take three hundred and thirty 90-year-old 
 trees, or 680 of an age of 30, to cover the same ground. These are suppos- 
 ed to be all grown as single trees, and having full growth, blanches and 
 their tips just touching. As a rule, not more than three-tenths of the area 
 should be covered by the branches of the overgrowth, when thirty years of 
 age, and about one-half when the most of the trees have come to maturity. 
 It should be mentioned, however, that the large timber trees may be and 
 indeed should be pruned, and that the undergrowth, when too much crowd- 
 ed, should be thinned out. 
 
 —20— 
 
In mountainous regions, an entire cutting down of trees is dangerous, 
 since the replacing of them by planting is very difficult, if not entirely im- 
 possible. In such places the method just mentioned is the most advisable, 
 as, should the place be totally cleared, the soil 'will be washed away, and 
 the burning sun will kill ail vegetation. In such exposed situations, it is 
 sometimes necessary to adopt the plan of cutting down only the matured 
 trees, after enough young plants have sprung from the seed to abundantly 
 supply their places. 
 
 Forests growing upon quick-sands must be very carefully handled, so 
 that the wind may not have an opportunity to sweep through them. The 
 shores of Lake Michigan furnish examples of the harm which may be done 
 by the quick-sand, when set at liberty. Under all circumstances the rule 
 holds good, that the ground should be kept well covered and shaded, and 
 the more strictly this rule is observed, the more will the soil improve, the 
 better a,nd more rapid will be the growth of the trees, and consequently the 
 financial returns from land. 
 
 In the selection of trees to leave standing for timber, we should in gen- 
 eral take such as have grown up from the seed, or having been planted as 
 single trees, only allowing some of the second growth in places, where there 
 are none of the former. In this case the only alternative is to let some of 
 the second growth trees grow until they bear seed, from which other trees 
 may be propagated to supply the place of the inferior ones. 
 
 b. FCEESTS OF THE SECOND CLASS. 
 
 This class of forest is called the "Low Forest." It depends solely for 
 reproduction upon shoots which start from the stumps of such trees as have 
 been cut down, and all trees must be cut down as soon as the proper time 
 comes for so doing has arrived, which should be by the fortieth year of 
 their age, but can be done much sooner with some varieties. 
 
 It is evident that the power of reproduction in this way cannot be 
 everlasting; and if then their continuance is expected and desired, they 
 need human aid. Since the largest portion of the forests in the settled part 
 of this country is of this class, their disappearance is only a question of the 
 near future. A tree over forty years of age is too old to be expected to 
 produce sprouts from the sleeping eyes of the stumps, or the top ends of 
 the roots, or at least they will be weak and thin. But if the trees are cut 
 at the age of from twenty to thirty years, an abundance of strong and 
 healthy sprouts will at once start forth, promising and yielding a rich har- 
 vest. 
 
 There is a certain age at which it is most profitable to harvest the 
 trees of both the "high and low forests," which has in other countries prov- 
 ed cost favorable in the case of different species. Willows, for baskets, 
 etc., may be cut at periods ranging from one to two years. Locust, for 
 
 —21— 
 
poles to support grape-vines, &c, and Hickory, for hoop-poles, may be cut 
 at a period varying from three to five years. Willows in pastures and 
 such as are used for head cuttings upon large trunks, may be cut once in 
 five years, and all kinds of wild shrubs will produce the most wood when 
 cut every tenth year. 
 
 Where the bark is used for tanning, it is best to cut White Oak once 
 in fifteen years. The cutting must be done during April or May, and the 
 branches and tops removed at once, to prevent the breaking down of the 
 young shoots, which will soon make their appearance. 
 
 Willows which form trees, the so called Crake Willows, Birches, Al- 
 ders, Aspen, &c, might also be cut at the age of fifteen years, especially 
 in places where the soil is thin. Either of the species which we have men- 
 tioned, as being available every fifteen years, may be left until the twen- 
 tieth, together with the Maple, Elm, Ash and Hophornbeam. All of the 
 last mentioned, may be reserved to be cut once in twenty-five years. 
 
 The most suitable age for the cutting of all the most valuable species 
 within the low forests for cordwood and many other purposes for which 
 they are used, is at thirty years, and any trees which will be cut at that 
 age may be left for five years longer, or until thirty-five years old, the 
 Birch excepted. 
 
 The only trees which it is advisable to leave to the age of forty years, 
 are the Oak, Red Beech, Elm, Ash, Maple, Alder and Linden ; and these 
 only in cold, mountainous regions. The more rigorous the climate, the 
 greater the age to which low forest trees may be left standing. 
 
 As to the time of the year for cutting these forests, opinions greatly 
 differ. Some maintain that it shoi.ld be done while they are in the sap, 
 and others recommending the winter cut. Experience has shown that the 
 latter part of the winter is the best time, because in this case the cut on the 
 stump is not exposed to the heaviest frosts, and at the same time has a lit- 
 tle chance to heal before the sap begins to flow. In places which are 
 sheltered and where the winters are not very severe, they may be cut with- 
 out danger to the new growth at any time from the beginning of December 
 to the end of February, except in localities where late frosts endanger the 
 young shoots the cutting should be done in the sap to delay the young 
 sprouts. This only takes place in low, swampy situations. 
 
 The reproducing power ofihe tree stumps within the "low forest," 
 will cease upon the arrival at a certain age. To keep up these forests, re- 
 sort to one of the following methods of procedure: On bare spots of 
 ground, use young, growing trees, which have attained a thickness of from 
 two to three inches for planting. Cut the roots of these trees from th 
 side, farthest from the bare spots and then bend the trees to the ground, 
 cutting off all branches from their under sides, fasten their trunks and the 
 
 —22— 
 
single brancnes tirmiy to the ground, covering all branches with eartn 
 within a few inches of their tops, and leave nature to finish the work. The 
 place should not be disturbed for at least three years, when there will be 
 an abundance of young growth . If it is very difficult to cut off the roots 
 upon one side of the tree, cut the trunks half through at a distance of 
 about one foot above the ground, and bend them to the earth in the man- 
 ner first described 
 
 2. Use plants larger than those of one year's growth from the stumps, 
 and by cutting down a portion of the grove at a time, plant that place over 
 with them, setting them four feet apart each way, and in commencing to 
 cut down, take good care that the newly planted trees have enough shelter 
 against the sun, and still t.re not too much shaded by the surrounding 
 woods. Continue this process from time to time, until the whole grove is 
 renewed. If this is intended for a u low forest," the first cutting of the 
 young trees may be done in fifteen years, but if "high forest" is de- 
 sired, they must be allowed to grow on until signs of maturity make their 
 appearance. 
 
 3. In case no plants can be obtained, seed the place; distributing the 
 seed in about the same places as we should set the plants if we had them. 
 Should the ground be covered with sod or other such material, take out 
 thick pieces, and turning them grass side down, drop seed in each place, 
 distributing it over the whole surface, so that when in the future, plants 
 have to be set out in their places, those left in the original spot are not in- 
 jured. In case the ground is not covered with sod, loosen the soil before 
 dropping seed. The young plants should be closely watched, so that they 
 may not be overgrown by weeds, or become too much crowded. Cattle 
 should not be allowed upon the ground until the plants have grown. The 
 outer edges should be very thickly planted, that the wind may be kept 
 from blowing away the leaves and the carbonic acid. If some trees, which 
 are naturally of slow growth, should die, fill their places by others of the 
 same size, or if smaller, of faster growing species, so that their growth may 
 soon become equal to that of those around them, and no openings be left 
 for the entrance of the rays of the sun or the wind. 
 
 C. FORESTS OP THE THIRD CLASS. 
 
 If enough trees are left to supply seed for the ground by the next good 
 seed year, loosen the earth beneath the seed-bearing trees, to prepare it for 
 the reception of the seed, and then look out for the necessary cover. At 
 the same time, clear away the under-growing shrubbery, enough to let in a 
 sufficiency of air and light. As soon as enough young trees are grown up, 
 cut the old and look to the proper distribution of the young plants over the 
 whole ground, which shall be covered by forest growth. 
 
 —23— 
 
d. FORESTS OF THE FOURTH CLASS. 
 
 The management of these strips is quite easy and the retaining of 
 them is of very great importance. During heavy rains, or at the sudden 
 melting of the snow in the spring, the rivers rise rapidly and overflow their 
 banks, washing away the soil from them, and sometimes changing their 
 very beds, if there is nothing to prevent them. 
 
 The roots of such trees as grow along river banks are great preventa- 
 tives to such occurrences, or at least hinder the waters from washing away 
 the soil to a great extent. It is therefore needful to keep along- the banks 
 a continual growth of such trees as take deep roots, and to replace the old 
 by voung, before the former come to full maturity. The waters of rivers 
 usually carry along in their current much of the seed of forest trees which 
 has ripened upon their banks at one place and deposit it at other points 
 further down. It is afterwards considerably scattered about by the wind, 
 when the ground has become dry. It sprouts, and the places where it is 
 deposited are soon covered with a growth of young trees. 
 
 e. FORESTS OF THE FIFTH CLASS. 
 
 The soil in places, covered by these forests is in general quite poor in 
 quality from the nature of the case, since the few miserable trees which are 
 with difficulty growing, can give but little hinderance to the free access of 
 jun and wind. If the right attention had been given them, and the work 
 of nature assisted instead of being neglected and abused, reward awaited 
 the owner, who, by following a course guided only by blindeness, has now 
 a lot of nearly worthless land. Such land might have considerable value if 
 it had been cleared for the raising of farm crops in due time, but in its 
 present exhausted condition, it has none worthy of mention. A gradual 
 improvement of such places, by planting them thickly with those kinds of 
 trees which grow readily and rapidly, such as Aspen, Poplar, Cottonwood 
 and the like, and cutting them down so that they may be renewed at such 
 intervals, is the best course to pursue. The soil when so improved, may be 
 planted afterwards with trees more valuable. 
 
 f. FORESTS OF THE SEXTH CLASS. 
 
 Those areas of forests contain such large tracts of land that they can- 
 not be easily handled by any one man, or even by a small community. 
 They generally belong to the state or government and must be managed on 
 a broader basis than those which we have so far considered, if it is the in- 
 tention that they remain permanent forests. It requires a full and syste- 
 matic division of the territory according to the classification of the different 
 kinds of soil, the quantity and quality of the standing timber, the facilities 
 for its transportation, and the denominating and selection of such as shall 
 
 —24— 
 
grow there in future. In carrying out this plan a careful survey must be 
 made of all the different grades of soil comprised in the area with particu- 
 lar reference to timbei culture. The forests which at present are standing 
 must be classified and an accurate description of the timber made, as to. its 
 age, quantity, quality, annual increase in growth, and all rivers running 
 through them, adjoining cities, villages, railroad stations, &c, must be locat- 
 ed and then replanted anew accordingly. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 TREATMENT OP FORESTS IN THIS AND OTHER COUNTRIES. 
 
 The inhabitants of Germany in oldentimes esteemed forests most high- 
 ly, not for the timber and fuel, but for the protection which they afforded 
 them against enemies, as hunting places, as places in which to worship and 
 offer sacrifices to their God, and finally as their homes. Of the danger 
 connected with attacking them in their safe asylums, the usually victorious 
 Romans had ample proof at the bloody battle in the Teutoburger Wald, 
 where they were met by the Germans under the leadership of the great hero 
 Herman. In those times the forests, like the air find water, belonged to all 
 people in common. Whoever cleared any part of them for a field or mea- 
 dow became by that act owner of that property and in this manner origin- 
 ated land ownership in Germany. Such a practice exists even up to the 
 present day in some parts of South America. Later on this land-ownership 
 was extended to larger tracts of woodland and the freemen, and more es- 
 pecially the nobles, took into their possession large areas of forests, which 
 were situated near their farms and so became their owners. 
 
 The French Emperors also took possession of extensive forests and the 
 officers of King Charles the Great were required to give an annual account 
 of the condition of the forests in his dominions, and he gave rules to his 
 subjects in regard to their management, which ordinances were promulgated 
 under the title : "Capitulare Carolis Magni de Villis." In order to preserve 
 the forests against law breakers, he appointed two classes of overseers. 
 Those of the first class were denominated "Wood, Game and Forest Counts" 
 and were officers of authority, ranking among the nobles. The second class 
 consisted of freemen, called "Wood Messengers." The duty of both was to 
 look after the game, and to take a general oversight of the forests. 
 
 The little value of wood in Germany, as late as the twelfth century ia 
 shown by an ordinance which appeared in the Cloister Mauermunster about 
 
 —26— 
 
the year 1144, in reference to the burning of charcoal. Whoever de- 
 sired to burn it in his forests, was obliged to pay for the permit, at Easter 
 of each year, one hen aDd five eggs to the Cloister. In consideration of 
 this, he was allowed to use as much wood as he desired for one charcoal 
 kiln, and to take it in whatever place he chose; and not only was he per- 
 mitted to use it for charcoal burning and fuel, but also for building pur- 
 poses. But for the last mentioned purpose, he was required to consult the 
 game keeper. But notwithstanding the great extent of the forests at that 
 time, and the small value of wood, any person found guilty of wantonly 
 destroying them, was subject to the most severe punishment. So a law 
 was enacted, that, whoever set fire to the forests, should be bound hand 
 and foot, and drawn three times through the fire; this being considered an 
 expiration of his crime, should he survive. As late as the beginning of the 
 sixteenth century, the German forests were in the main only important to 
 their owners as hunting grounds. The wood had still very little value, ex- 
 cepting in those places where mining and ship-building were carried on. 
 At this time the first "Forest Orders" were given: not with the expectation 
 of any revenue being derived from the forests, but merely as a preventative 
 against their destruction. After the thirty years's war, and the Weatpha- 
 lien treaty in 1648, everything was changed. The great expense which 
 had accompanied so lasting a war, had, as a natural consequence, brought 
 much financial embarrassment upon the country. Besource was at once 
 had to the forests as means of revenue, and more rational and economical 
 management of them agreed upon. But the executors of the orders were 
 entirely ignorant of forest culture, and having mostly just returned from 
 the battle fields, paid more attention to hunting than to the culture of 
 trees and managemet of the forest. 
 
 During the latter part of the eighteenth century however, from gross 
 carlessness in their management, and more particularly on account of the 
 large increase in population and industries, and the turning over of large 
 tracts into fields, the forests had disappeared to an alarming extent and 
 the scarcity of wood was felt. 
 
 Political economists, supported by Frederick the Great, began to 
 adopt measures to avert the impending calamity. Their attention was not 
 only given to the government forests, but also by state regulation to pri- 
 vate woods. 
 
 The forests had another important mission in the household of nature, 
 besides the production of wood. That the government forests should not 
 be managed solely with the aim of deriving direct financial benefit there- 
 from, that a certain portion of the country should be given up to forests, 
 and their care intrusted to some one who should manage them in a manner 
 conducive to the best interests of the country. Further, and for that pur- 
 
 —27— 
 
pose, a forest training school was established for the education of men who 
 intended to serve as government forest officers. 
 
 The state forests were accordingly surveyed, valued in regard to soil 
 and quality of timber on hand, the annual growth of the same being ascer- 
 tained and divided into blocks, and the whole area again into iorest dis- 
 tricts of convenient size, to be managable by one head officer, as district 
 officer. Each officer of a district was provided with a description of it, as 
 to the quality and properties of the soil, with reference to tree culture and 
 with charts; one showing its outside limits and other necessary effects of 
 his area; another, the different kinds of wood, in colors and their age at 
 the present time, and finally, one which showed the condition in which that 
 part of the forest may be expected to be after, say forty years from date. 
 Besides this was shown the quantity to be cut annually and brought upon 
 the market, which consists of an amount equal to that which the area gains 
 annually by growth, if the forest be managed after the plan of the head 
 department. Comparatively speaking, the interest, (yearly growth) only, 
 was to be used, the capital remaining intact for the benefit of future gen- 
 erations as well as for the present. 
 
 In carrying out the work above described, it is evident that a vast 
 amount of knowledge, practical and theoretical, is required, and that all 
 the benefits to be gained from properly managed forests, cannot be realiz- 
 ed, if their care be left entirely to private individuals. 
 
 France sold her forests to private individuals, and her people are yet 
 suffering from this act. She pursued the policy that all trade and busi- 
 ness is most profitable and safest in private hands, not considering that the 
 care of forests is of an entirely different nature from any other business. 
 Germany, on the other hand, guarded her forests and succeeded in saving 
 them and at the present day the Germans hold them in the highest estima- 
 tion, having inherited this reverence from their ancesters. 
 
 The following are the causes which have resulted in the preservation 
 and maintenance of the German forests: 
 
 1. The economical use which was made of them. 
 
 2. The continuous passing of laws by the government in regard to 
 forests and their uses, and their strict enforcement. 
 
 3. The replacing of trees which had been cut down, and the turning 
 of such fields into forests as had proved to be unfit for agriculture. 
 
 4. The excellent forest police order and the strict guard which waa 
 kept against fire. 
 
 5. The government control of the private, church and domain forests. 
 
 6. The preventing of the pasturing of cattle and sheep among the 
 young growth of trees. 
 
7. And last but not least, for the reason that so large an area was 
 under the direct administration of the government, as government forests. 
 
 Naturally the question arises : "Has anything of a like nature, and 
 tending toward the same ends ever been done in the United States?" No. 
 
 How long shall this continue? The boasting remark is made: "As 
 the demand increases and the supply be lacking, this thoroughly alive and 
 intelligent people will find means and pass laws to replace the forest." 
 But the building of a railroad, factory, or any other work of great magni- 
 tude which lays in human power to accomplish, is a different matter from 
 the growing of forests, since trees cannot be made to follow human law in 
 their development, but will grow but slowly in conformity of the decree of 
 nature. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 PREPARING SOILS FOR SEEDS OP FORESTS. 
 
 The more thoroughly and carefully the soil is worked, the better will 
 be the growth of all productions of the farm and garden, and the more 
 beautiful will be the harvest. But what is of such great necessity on the 
 farm and in the garden, is a curse to the forest. 
 
 It was for a long time claimed by many so called authorities on forest 
 culture that the same system, which was useful to follow in one case, must 
 be of advantage in the other, and the thorough working of the soil for the 
 reception of the seeds of forest trees was practiced the same as for other 
 crops. But after many failures in places so worked, from the rapid dry- 
 ing up of the soil thus loosened, and the consequently drying up of the 
 thinly covered seeds, as soon as they had sprouted and before they had re- 
 ceived a sufficient amount of moisture to enable them to send forth their 
 roots, this custom of working the soil was abandoned and declared not 
 practical. Furthermore, the forester has to deal with localities, where the 
 loosening of the soil renders it almost certain to be washed away, together 
 with the seed which has been planted, and in other places neither the plow 
 nor the harrow could be used at all. The foresters in Europe long ago 
 gave up the practice of seeding the whole area upon which a forest was to 
 be grown, but adopted the more rational system of raising the plants in a 
 nursery or in so-called seed-beds at such parts of the forest as they should 
 be needed when the trees which were growing, should be cut down. By 
 this means the young trees have a few years start. The great advantage of 
 the method when compared with seeding the whole place can readily be 
 seen. 
 
 Since it will be quite a long time before any return can be realized 
 from the money invested, we should practice as much economy as possible 
 without defeating our main object of gaining a good yield. As most of the 
 
 —30— 
 
plants grow very slowly in their infancy, it will therefore take several years 
 before they cover the ground and stop the entrance of the scorching rays of 
 the sun and the wind. The deeply loosened soil will have sent to the uni- 
 verse a large amount of organic deposits before the roots of the young 
 plants can make much use of them. But if we first plant in the nursery 
 and then in transplanting, only loosen the soil just enough for the purpose 
 of setting and starting them well, we cause thereby a covering of the 
 ground more quickly by some two or three years and at the same time pre- 
 vent the growth of weeds, which are always showing themselves where the 
 soil has been worked. 
 
 If we plant some fine, small seed of forest trees in well loosened soil, 
 the action of the frost may do great injury in drawing the young plants, as 
 we can see in the case of our winter wheat. 
 
 The loosening and preparing of the ground in places where we are 
 obliged to use the method of seeding instead of planting, should only be so 
 much as to enable the seed to have a good bed and a fit place for its fu- 
 ture growth. Different systems must be used for different localities, which 
 must be left to the judgement of the tree cultivator. Of course ground 
 which never before has been broken, must be enough cultivated to give the 
 soil the necessary sweetness. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 SELECTION OF SEEDS. 
 
 Should the farmer be able to gather his own seed, he should observe 
 the following rules : 
 
 1. Seed should only be taken from well matured, well shaped and 
 healthy trees, as when obtained from others it is either of poor quaility or 
 worthless. 
 
 2. Those trees which stand singly produce the best seed. 
 
 I 3. Since the first seed which drops is usually affected by worms, or is 
 for some other reason unfit for use, it should be picked up before the good 
 and well ripened begins to fall, that the two may not be mixed, while 
 again the last dropping seed is generally of an inferior quality. 
 
 4. All seeds should be dried sufficiently to prevent heating; therefore 
 the sweating process is necessary before they are stored away, but great 
 pains should be taken to avoid burning them, which may be prevented by 
 repeatedly turning them over. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 ADVANTAGES OF A NURSERY. 
 
 The advantages of starting the plants in your own nursery: 
 
 1. We can take better care of them upon a small bed than when 
 scattered over many acres, by weeding, watering and sheltering them from 
 hostile influences, and therefore the plants will be stronger and healthier 
 and consequently better able to overcome the often unfavorable conditions 
 under which they must grow on the open prairie, than those which are 
 weak and sickly, and have been crippled in the germ. 
 
 2. In transplanting we can give to each plant the required room and. 
 good soil, and keep them better protected from the heat of the sun. 
 
 3. We have the use of a large area for the production of other crops, 
 while the young trees are growing in this small space. 
 
 4. By planting in this manner we shall have greater certainty of suc- 
 cess than in seeding on a large scale, and it the trees are small when trans- 
 planted and set out in land very near their original bed, failure is almost 
 impossible. 
 
 Has the nursery been well cared for during the second year, as much 
 ground sown to nursery as in the first year, and so on yearly, enough plants 
 for setting out on five acres of ground each year, until the whole forty acres 
 are covered by the young forest can be obtained. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 KESULTS PROM INCREASE OP POPULATION. 
 
 What influence will the increase of population, development of indus- 
 tries, the extensive mining of mineral and coal and finally the yearly build- 
 ing of railroads, and thereby increase of traffic and commerce have upon 
 the future requirements of the forests? 
 
 As activity in every branch of trade depends upon and is more or less 
 guided by existing conditions, so also should the manufacturing wood pro- 
 ducts. The forester in reference to the requirements of the time or market 
 will adopt a course more in harmony with our progressive age and the un- 
 folding history of the human race. 
 
 The chief points for consideration's the rapid increase of population, 
 the fast developing industries, the discovery and mining of unlimited quan- 
 tities of coal and the unparalled building and extension of railroads, conse- 
 quently increase of traffic and commerce. 
 
 The increase of population is a well known fact, and as a necessary 
 consequence, the consumption of wood is growing every day. Owing to 
 the abundant supply of coal, the consumption of wood for fuel must of 
 course in a certain degree diminish and prices become lower, and the for- 
 ester, or so long as there is no forester, the farmer must be guided by this 
 fact in managing his forests, to plant such trees as at maturity will have a 
 value in the markets. Steam furnishes a great motive power for the ma- 
 chinery, and were it possible to make use of wood alone in supplying and 
 feeding this great motor, it is evident the time would have already arrived 
 where not a stick would be left in the country and therefore the great im- 
 portance of coal cannot be over estimated. 
 
 The extensive use of wood in the preparation of charcoal will in the 
 future be greatly diminished, since coke will take its place, except in 
 
 —34— 
 
places where wood is very abundant and cheap, and charloal cannot be uti- 
 lized near wh'ere it was made. 
 
 It is by all means probable that hereafter the owner of woods and the 
 tree cultivator will attend to the production of timber as alone profitable, 
 and only of such timber which is liable to fail soonest, namely, spruce and 
 pine* 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 PRODUCTION OF TIMBER. 
 
 To produce valuable timber we must understand how to do it. The 
 farmer, upon whom so much depends, usually raises on his land the wood 
 which he may need for many mechanical purposes and for fuel. Those 
 purposes are widely different in their nature and kind, and so must also be 
 their woods planted and cultured. The new forests, to meet the require- 
 ments of the future, should be of a different nature from those at present 
 existing. The trees should be all straight, with trunks like candles, with- 
 out branches until reaching a point at least fifty feet from the ground when 
 matured, so as to give from 90 to 95 per cent, of their wood for timber. 
 
 Two possibilities must be taken into consideration. Whether we have 
 to deal with forests which are already in existence, or to plant new ones; 
 and the following suggestions are given for the benefit of those who are 
 unacquainted as to soil, situation, moisture, climate, &c. 
 
 Instructions and directions: On entering a tract of land of 160 acres, 
 with the intention of devoting one-fourth, (40 acres) to forest culture, 
 first examine and from it select that portion most unfit for tilling and 
 divide the remainder to the best advantage for the various crops, which it 
 is desirable should be raised upon it. 
 
 The condition of the vegetation and the degree of luxurience in its 
 growth, or the greenness of the sod, and the nature of the ground, whether 
 even or broken, will serve as guides in the examination, and determine as 
 to the place of the grove. If there is no difference of quality in the soil, a 
 place should be chosen where the trees, when growing, may afford a shelter 
 to crops against the prevailing winds. The leaning of single standing 
 trees, to one or the other part of the horizon, will aid us in arriving at a 
 coDclusion in regard to this point. In order to be successful, a knowledge 
 of the varieties of soil and change of climate is essential, which can be ob- 
 tained by observing the growing upon your neighbor's land. The next 
 
 — 3G— 
 
thing is the preparation of a strip of land, in the most sheltered part, and 
 if possible, near the water, as a nursery for the production and starting of the 
 plants required. The following spring, having obtained some good seed, 
 plant it there in rows like peas or beans. If the seeds are large, they must 
 be covered to a considerable depth, but if small, but lightly. Acorns 
 should be covered to a depth of from three to four inches, and other nuts 
 three inches. Maple and Ash seed, over half an inch, and in general small 
 seeds a little more than their thickness. It is very important that the 
 earth should be pushed down quite heavily upon the seed which has been 
 planted, with the back of an iron rake or like instrument, that a drill may 
 be kept over it, sunk a little below the surface of the ground, for the bet- 
 ter retaining of the moisture. 
 
 The seeding should be done early in the spring and the young plants 
 shaded from the sun, especially Spruce and White Spruce, but the shade 
 should be gradually diminished as the plants grow older and less delicate, 
 that they may become used to their future situation. Since the trees raised 
 in the nursery should be transplanted when two years old, they may be, 
 especially the Evergreens, planted quite thickly in the seed bed. 
 
 Yellow Pine and European Larch need very little if any shading. Af- 
 ter the seed has been sown, it is only necessary to keep down the weeds 
 and water the ground when very dry. The watering should be done in the 
 morning, not very frequently, but thoroughly. If the seed has been good 
 and the watering not neglected, at least during the period of germination, 
 plants thus raised will thrive much better than those brought from other 
 places, which latter suffer from exposure to the sun and wind, and besides, 
 have in general, been raised in a different soil and climate from that in 
 which they must exist in future. It is important that the seed drills 
 should be situated upon level ground, so that the • seeds may not be liable 
 to be laid bare or washed out by the rain. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 MATTERS TO BE CONSIDERED IN FORESTRY. 
 
 The recommendation to keep the land upon which forests grow, pro- 
 tected from the sun and wind, is based both upon science and experience. 
 Many, who are in other respects, very practical farmers, are always thin- 
 ning out their groves and cutting oif branches as high up as they can reach, 
 claiming that trees grow much better when thus exposed to atmospheric 
 influences than when too much shaded. 
 
 Farmers who use lime upon their fields for any great length of time 
 for fertilizing purposes are doing to those fields very nearly the same thing, 
 as these others just mentioned, are doing to their forests in thinning them 
 out and allowing too much sun and air to enter. It is a property of lime 
 to decompose vegetable and animal matter contained in the soil, and pre- 
 pare them for immediate digestion for plants; in other words, it prepares 
 food for plants much more quickly than the tooth of time, the atmosphere, 
 would accomplish the same result. The growth of plants is therefore 
 much more rapid when lime is made use of as a dressing, but can the fact 
 be disputed by any reasonable-minded individual, that there must be a 
 correspondingly rapid exhaustion of the soil? Hence we have an explana 
 tion of the old saying: "Lime makes rich fathers, but poor children." 
 
 Something similar takes place in the forest when the earth has been 
 suddenly exposed to the influence of the sun and the oxygen of the atmos- 
 phere. The decay of the organic deposits is hastened, and so long as this 
 takes place and the supply lasts, the trees will grow with increased vigor, 
 but when these are exhausted, there will be an immediate reaction ; they 
 will become stunted. 
 
 Frequently the farmer, misled by the luxurient growth of forest trees, 
 cuts them down and turns the woodlands into cultivated fields, only to 
 ftnd hi* cj^tfldcnce betrayed and hones futile, when, after a few years, the 
 
 — 8S— 
 
vegetable deposits left by the trees, having been used up, these fields re- 
 fuse to yield the expected returns, since the soil is only adapted to the 
 production of trees, and that only so long as they themselves kept it in 
 proper condition for that purpose. It is therefore necessary to thoroughly 
 examine the soil before such a radical change is made and to give to the 
 field what belongs to the field, and to the forest what belongs to the forest 
 Large areas of forest have the same influence upon the moisture of the 
 atmosphere as a large area of water surface, since both keep the suft-ound- 
 ing air moist. Small groves cannot retain this moisture as well as large 
 forests, and it is therefore profitable for farmers to associate themselves to- 
 gether so that their tracts of forest may lie contiguous on the section line. 
 Thus for instance, six farmers might agree to each have forty acres along 
 the northern limits of their farms, for forest growth, in which case they 
 will all have a fine shelter against the north winds, as well as a solid piece 
 of forest, consisting of 240 acres. Again, if those occupying the opposite 
 section should do the same thing, all will not only have protection from 
 the north winds, but also those dwelling on the north will get moist air 
 from the forests of their neighbors on the south, instead of having their 
 crops damaged by those dry winds which usually blow in the months of 
 July and August. 
 
 — ijy— 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 SELECTION OF TREES. 
 
 The soil necessary for the growth of trees, and different other matters 
 pertaining to it, must be earnestly considered to avoid expensive experi- 
 ments. In selecting trees for any locality, observe -what species are already 
 growing there, either by new planting or by natural process. The follow- 
 ing trees have stood the test and will serve the purpose for which they are 
 intended, as forming the forests of the future : 
 
 a. DECIDUOUS OR SUMMERGREEN. 
 
 English Name. 
 White Oak. 
 Burr Oak. 
 Swamp white Oak. 
 Black Oak. 
 Scarlet Oak. 
 Red Oak. 
 
 Hickory, scaly bark. 
 Hickory, white. 
 Hickory, red or pignut. 
 Hickory, bitternut. 
 Walnut, black. 
 Butternut. 
 Maple, sugar. 
 Maple, soft 
 Ash, white. 
 Ash, black. 
 Ash, blue. 
 Elm, white. 
 Elm, red or slippery. 
 
 Botanical Name. 
 Quercus alba. 
 Quercus macrocarpa. 
 Quercus bicolor. 
 Quercus tinctoria. 
 Quercus coccinea. 
 Quercus rubra. 
 Carya alba. 
 Carya tomentosa. 
 Carya porcina. 
 Carya amara. 
 Juglans nigra. 
 Juglans cinerea. 
 Acer saccharinum. 
 Acer platanoides. 
 Fraxinus alba Americana. 
 Fraxinus sambucifolia. 
 Fraxinus gaadrangulata. 
 Ulmus Americana. 
 Ulmus ful7«v. 
 —40— 
 
Linden or basswood. 
 
 Hackberry. 
 
 Beech, red. 
 
 Beach, white, (hoophornbeam.) 
 
 Locust, yellow, and varieties. 
 
 White Birch. 
 
 Black Birch. 
 
 Red Birch. 
 
 Alder, common. 
 
 Chesnut, eatable fruit. 
 
 Platanus or white wood, 
 
 also Sycamore. 
 
 b. 
 
 English Name. 
 Spruce, Norway. 
 White Spruce. 
 Spruce of Rocky mountain. 
 Pine, southern yellow. 
 Pine, black Austrian. 
 Pine, Scotch. 
 Pine, Weymoth or whit J. 
 Larch, European. 
 Red Cedar. 
 
 Tilia Americana. 
 
 Celtis occidentalis crassifolia. 
 
 Fagus sylvatica and ferruginea. 
 
 Carpinus, Americana or betula alba. 
 
 Acacia robiniana. 
 
 Betula alba. 
 
 Betula lenta. 
 
 Betula rubra. 
 
 Alnus communis or glabra,. 
 
 Castanea vesca. 
 
 r Platanus occidentals. 
 
 EVERGREENS OR CONIFERS. 
 
 Botanical Name. 
 Abies excels*. 
 Abies alba. 
 Picea nobilis. 
 Pinus australis. 
 Pinus nigra Austriac*. 
 Pinus Sylvestris. 
 Pinus strobus. 
 Pinus larix Europaea. 
 Juniperus virginiana. 
 
 The requirements and propagation of the aforenamed trees art?: 
 
 The White Oak. This tree has a wide distribution and grows to a 
 great size, attaining under favorable conditions a height of 100 feet, and 
 remains green for centuries, but it will become hollow in old age. Trees 
 from three to four feet in diameter are not rare. It exists and grows in 
 great varieties of soil and situations, but with very different results. It 
 prefers situations at or near the foot of hills, and for radid growth a rich 
 loose loomy soil and a deep subsoil, but does quite well in that which is 
 sandy and mixed with organic matter if moist and not shallow. In thin 
 soil or on high mountains, it never reaches perfection, but grows hollow 
 and the top dies. 
 
 The Burr Oak. This tree differs very little in its requirements and 
 usefulness from the former, but will grow quite well on the edges of swamps 
 yet it does not attain the dimensions of the preceeding. 
 
 The Swamp White Oak. Forms quite a tall tree and prefers low 
 ground. It must be cultivated as explained by the White and Burr Oak. 
 
 The Black Oak. Is a fast growing but short lived tree, producing a 
 mass of branches which soon die from below. It does well in a crowded 
 condition. It grows on rich and poor soil, but of course with different 
 
 -41— 
 
results. It must be cultivated in the same manner as the two species first 
 mentioned. 
 
 Scarlet Oak. This tree grows in moist soils, but as it does not attain a 
 large size, therefore its culture should be limited to the above named 
 localities. 
 
 Hickory, scaly bark. This tree is easily satisfied with the soil, if it 
 is only deep, and for the production of nuts, a rich soil should not be se- 
 lected. Trees growing in a forest in a crowded condition are not likely to 
 bear fruit; they should stand singly to give them the room needed for this 
 purpose. They grow to a large size if on proper soil, and if timber is the 
 aim, should be crowded to make them grow tall instead of spreading, and 
 with branchless trunks. The cultivation is a little difficult, as the nuts re- 
 fuse to sprout when planted. The best results may be expected if they 
 are planted in a nursery close together, soon alter they fall in October, 
 three inches deep and covered with a layer of leaves a few inches thick 
 and transplanted the second year, wherever wanted, as later the top root 
 is too long and difficult to handle. Great care must be taken that this 
 root is set to its full length in the earth, without allowing it to bend in the 
 least. However, in places where the ground remains moist in the summer, 
 much larger trees can be transplanted and their top roots cut off during the 
 process, without doing any particular damage, but in dry places this prac- 
 tice must not be followed. 
 
 White Hickory. This tree grows best and supplies the best wood if 
 planted on high and quite dry places, among other trees. It does not at- 
 tain the dimensions of the former, either in height or thickness. Plant the 
 same as above and transplant among other trees. 
 
 Red Hickory, and Bitternut Hickory. Both the above are less val- 
 uable, do not grow to great thickness, and may be sprinkled among other 
 trees in a forest, where they keep up in height to them. They do not form 
 large tops when crowded and can grow quite close together. 
 
 Black Walnut. In order to have fine, branchless trunks, the 
 young trees should be planted quite close together, about four feet 
 apart each way. It is no use to try to raise them on poor soil, as they 
 will not repay the labor unless planted in a rich, deep calcareous loam 
 which contains an abundance of vegetable muck, (humus). In low lands, 
 where soil has been washed in, they will grow to a height of from eighty 
 to one hundred feet, with from fifty to seventy teet of branchless trunks.. 
 They will also grow with other trees on high ground, after these have de- 
 posited enough organic matter, and the subsoil is good and dee}). The tim- 
 ber of those growing on high land is harder than that of others, as being 
 closer grained, but the time of harvesting them is delayed, provided a cer- 
 tain thickness of trunk is desired, as they grow but slowly. They will 
 
 —42— 
 
reach an age of eighty years in perfect health, but after that will begin to 
 lose their vigor. 
 
 The Black "Walnut, as well as the Butternut, can be transplanted when 
 six inches in diameter for ornamental trees, but as their folliage is rather 
 thin, especially as they approach maturity, and they do not live to a great 
 age, they are not very desirable for shade, besides both are great cross- 
 feeders and their leaves injure the grass where they fall, so that cattle 
 will not eat it. They should not be planted around houses or in pastures. 
 If it is desired to raise them for their nuts they may be set in the rear of 
 
 houses or in barn-yards. 
 
 Butternut or White Walnut, is not so valuable a tree as the foregoing,. 
 
 nor does it grow to so great a height. It grows best on river banks, but 
 does quite well on higher ground. When standing alone, it occupies a 
 large space with its wide-spreading branches. All the nut-bearing trees 
 which we have described, have compound leaves which very nearly resem- 
 ble those of the Ash. If the seeds (nuts) are kept in the house during the 
 winter, they become too dry and refuse to sprout or germinate when plant- 
 ed. The best way to preserve them is to put them in sand in the cellar, or 
 cover them with leaves in the open ground. Mice and squirrels must be 
 kept away. The uncertainty of their germinating makes it advisable to 
 plant them in the nursery and transplant them when two years old. 
 
 Sugar, or Hard Maple. This is the best known tree in the 
 country where it grows, and deserves its prestige fully, not only for the 
 sugar obtained from it, but for its fine wood. Maple sugar is too well known 
 to need any description, as is also the value of its wood for fuel, to most 
 people, as it commands the highest price in the market. The timber is 
 much used for cabinet work, and for this purpose the trees should be 
 cut down below the stumps, since the lower part is often of more value 
 than all the rest of the tree, on account of its beautiful speckles, or s^ota,. 
 so desirable for ornamenting furniture, &c. 
 
 The Sugar Maple grows best in low lands, but will do very well on. 
 
 mountains, and as it gives an abundant shade and a great mass of leaves, 
 which decay rapidly, it improves the soil greatly and prepares a good bed 
 for its followers. The young plants thrive better when shaded, but as such 
 shade cannot be had upon a large area, it is best, as a rule to start them in 
 a nursery and not to transplant till they are two years old. The seed 
 ripens at the end of September and during October, and can be gathered 
 easily. If it is to be saved until sjiring, it may be collected, and, after be- 
 ing turned over to keep it from sweating or heating in the beginning, 
 hurried in moist sand with which well mixed it must be planted early in 
 the spring. If preserved in the house great care should be taken to avoid 
 
 too much drying. It retains its germinating qualities for two years, if well 
 treated. 
 
 —43— 
 
The maple family does well upon mountains where the soil is loose 
 
 and mixed with stones. Forests composed wholly of these trees are only 
 
 to be found upon rich soils, but they will greatly advantage other kinds 
 
 with their foliage, if sprinkled among them. They will not flourish near 
 
 the ocean. 
 
 Soft Maple. This tree is very easily raised and of rapid growth. 
 
 It spreads more into branches than the former, and the wood is inferior, 
 but must be cultivated in the same manner. The seed ripens in June 
 and drops off. Forests composed wholly of these trees are not desirable, 
 as they are veey easily broken down by the wind, which destroys their 
 value and makes their culture of little use under such circumstances; nei- 
 ther should they be planted with the Sugar Maple as their growth is twice 
 
 as rapid. 
 
 The general rule with Maples, Ash, and even Elms, is to plant them 
 in the ri°b.t soil or they will not do well, as they are more particular in 
 this direction than other trees, with probably the exception of the Soft 
 Map'.e, which seed ripens in June and which grows on almost any soil. 
 
 White Ash. This tree flourishes only in places where there is an 
 abundance of moisture but not too much, as it will not grow in swamps or 
 marshes. But along the banks of rivers and upon soil which has been 
 washed in, it thrives in a wonderful manner, while it does poorly on higher 
 places especially on the south side of hills. In a crowded condition it 
 forms a trunk clear of branches almost to the very top, and becomes a val- 
 uable tree ; if plenty of room is given for spreading it makes %. fine shade tree. 
 
 Black Ash. This tree is called by some, Water Ash, as it is* generally 
 found growing in swampy places, where it does well, but the water must 
 not be entirely stagnant, but must have some chance to run off, and the wet 
 condition of the place must have originated from springs, which can be de- 
 tected in some higher places. As such localities generally derive their 
 swampy nature from the condition of the soil, which lets the water 
 through very slowly, a drainage can easily be effected and the soil made 
 fit for more valuable purposes. Culture with spruce would be advisable 
 if it were not for the late and early frosts which occur in such wet places. 
 
 Blue Ash. This is a valuable tree and grows quite well in dryer sit- 
 uations than the White Ash ; forms a fine tree and furnishes good timber. 
 Seed of all Ash varieties mentioned, ripens late in the fall and is quite 
 hard to gather, best to cut down some trees for that purpose. Expose it 
 to the frost, otherwise the young plants will make their appearance the 
 second year after seeding. 
 
 White Elm is a tree highly esteemed both for ornament and shade, as 
 •well as for the forest. It can be trimmed to grow in the most beautiful 
 shapes like pillars supporting arches. It is therefore most desirable for 
 
 —44- 
 
planting along the sides of streets and roads. When Elm trees grow 
 crowded together in the forests they form long, branchless trunks, of which 
 the upper end is of nearly the same diameter as the lower. But when thus 
 situated, they do not grow to as large a diameter, as when standing singly. 
 They thrive in rich, moist, loose soil, but prefer one which is rich and 
 loamy, near rivers, although on poorer land they grow quite well. They 
 prefer the sunny, or southerly side of a hill, and are more at home in a 
 warm climate than upon the cold western prairies; still their degree of 
 hardiness is sufficient for enduring the existing temperature. They do not 
 flourish well on the sea shoie. 
 
 The seed ripens in May and June and drops at maturity. If sown as 
 soon as ripe and attention is paid to watering, the plants will grow enough 
 the same season to overcome the severity of the winter temperature, but if 
 saved until the next spring it must be well spread in an airy loft, and turn- 
 ed often until dry, after which it should be put into bags and hung up in 
 a cool, shady place. Its germinating power lasts only one year. In very 
 cold climates it is surest to sow in autumn and cover with a thin layer of 
 leaves or other protecting- material until spring. The small seeds should 
 only be put into the seed bed together with earth. 
 
 The best course to pursue and a method which is cheapest and safest for 
 all private indivuals, is to plant it in a nursery from which the young trees 
 may be afterwards carried to the places in which they are finally to grow, 
 excepting wherever the forests are to be renewed directly from trees which 
 are left standing for seed and as a protection of the young plants against 
 atmospheric influenees, of which we shall speak hereafter. 
 
 Red, or Slippery Elm. This tree is a rapid grower in rich, loamy 
 soil. It is a coarse and straggling tree when standing alone, but gains ma- 
 terial fast in crowded forests if in proper soil. The timber is coarse as the 
 appearance of the tree itself, but is quite durable, and posts made out of it 
 if charred by fire at the part which is to be set in the ground, and a foot 
 above, will last for a long time. The bark is used for medical purposes" 
 and many trees are spoiled by those who strip it off in the spring,. The 
 culture is easy and the same as that of White Elm. 
 
 Linden, or Basswood. As an ornamental or shade tree, the Linden 
 takes the front rank, but forests should never be entirely composed of it; 
 still, when sprinkled among other species which have thin foliage, it is an 
 excellent means of keeping the ground shaded. The seed ripens in Oc- 
 tober, and falls off soon after, although part of it remains on the branches 
 all winter. It requires the same treatment as Maple seed. The Linden is 
 very easy to cultivate, and hardy. It prefers a low situation, but grows in 
 almost any soil. The seed should be soaked for forty-eight hours in hot 
 water before sowing* There are several varieties of Linden, but they all 
 
 —45— 
 
require the same treatment. In Europe they have two distinct kinds, call- 
 ed the Summer and Winter Linden; the latter growing on high mountains 
 and forming, in Russia, a lofty tree. It deserves as good a place in our 
 forests as any other tree. 
 
 Hackberry. Mention is made of this tree because it is a native and 
 •quite common in our remaining forests, and not on account of its useful- 
 ness, since it possesses very little value, and so much the less, as it requires 
 a soil where much better trees can grow. 
 
 Red Beech. The Beech is the tree best fitted to grow on mountains, 
 but thrives best on those of middling height in temperate climates. It does 
 not require so deep a soil as the White or Burr Oak, but is hardly ever found 
 in sandy soil, unless this is at the same time very rich, prefer- 
 in" - that which is composed of basalt, graywake and clay slate. The 
 seed of the Beech like that of the Oak, ripens in October, and can be gath- 
 ered only on sunny days when the air is dry, as, like the Chestnut, it 
 does not drop when the air is moist. It can be preserved during the win- 
 ter in boxes of dry board or saw-dust, and should be sown in the nursery 
 early in the spring and the plants well shaded, as this tree likes shade 
 when young. 
 
 White Beech. While the trunk of the Red Beech has a smooth cyl- 
 indrical form, the White Beech, or Hophornbeam, has one which is un- 
 even and very much turned and twisted. It grows in almost any kind of 
 soil, but prefers low, rich land. Swamps, and hot, sandy soils are de- 
 tested by it; neither will it thrive on high mountains. 
 
 The ripening and treatment of the seed is the same as that of the Ash, 
 except that it can be more easily obtained. As it is hard to clean it on ac- 
 count of the long seed-wings attached to it, the best way is to thresh it 
 with flails and winnow it like beans. It lies in the ground a year before 
 sprouting. 
 
 Locust in varieties. The common, or yellowish green Locust is the 
 *most common. It grows to a considerable height, with a diameter of 
 trunk, at a point three feet from the ground, of from two to three feet, but 
 it will generally be cut down when fit for railroad ties or even fence posts. 
 It thrives best in a rich sandy soil or loam, but will grow in the poorest 
 and dryest, although very slowly. 
 
 The Locust is generally considered an ornamental, rather than a shade 
 tree, and on account of the beautiful fragrance of its blossoms, which ap- 
 pear in bunches, like grapes, is a desirable tree to plant near residences. 
 We generally find it along country roads and upon dry ridges. It has the 
 bad habit of sending suckers from its roots all over the ground and is haul 
 to handle, on account of its thorny or prickly branches. Of late the borer 
 is attacking it extensively and injuring its growth as well as the value of 
 
 —46— 
 
the timber. If grown among other trees their attacks may be diminished 
 and probably entirely destroyed. 
 
 The seed ripens late in autumn and remains for a long time on the 
 tree, sometimes during the whole winter. In some places where it grows 
 we can find a plenty of young plants, and if the seed is sown in early 
 spring, after saturating it for forty-eight hours in cow-juice, the plants are 
 ready for setting out the spring thereafter. 
 
 White Birch. This tree is very valuable, for the fact alone that it will 
 grow where few others will do well, but it has the peculiarity of not thriv- 
 ing in a soil formed of limestone or basalt, which is suited to so many 
 species; otherwise it will grow in the poorest soil as well as the richest, 
 but of course with different results. On high mountains and in pure sand, 
 it grows better than any other tree. In stiff clay, however, it will not grow. 
 White Birch trees will form forests by themselves, but as their foliao-e is 
 thin, they do not improve the soil upon which they grow, and besides, their 
 leaves do not easily decay, and being light are blown away by the wind. 
 
 The ripening of the seed is very uneven, as the process continues 
 through the months of August, September and October. It falls off as 
 soon as ripe. The cylinders which contain it, fall to pieces, or part into 
 single seeds immediately thereafter and must therefore be watched. After 
 it has been'well dried it should be rubbed between the hands and sifted. 
 It heats easily, therefore it must be spread out thinly on the floor while be- 
 ing dried. It is good for two years, but it is best to sow it the same fall 
 in which it is obtained. 
 
 Black Birch. This variety seeks a more moist soil, along the banks 
 of rivers, but otherwise is the same as White Birch. 
 
 Red Birch prefers the same localities as the foregoing: culture the 
 same, also. 
 
 Common Alder. This tree requires a loose, moist, rich soil, with a 
 low, sheltered and warm situation. It grows well in marshes and swamps, 
 when these are not covered with stagnant water, and even flourishes al- 
 though the roots may extend somewhat into running water. It produces an 
 abundance of wood, if rightly treated. If it is cut down close to the roots, 
 they will send out a multitude of young shoots, and the cutting can be re- 
 peated every fifteen years, the mother stump being able to send out new 
 shoots for a longer time than any other of which we have knowledge. The 
 cutting should be done in the winter, as the stump is loosened too much 
 by the operation if the ground is not frozen. But if the marshes and 
 swamps could be drained and converted into good land, it would not be 
 profitable for the Alder alone to flourish there. It is a fact, however, that 
 these trees, after they are well started, will naturally make the soil sweet- 
 er and even fit it for the production of more valuable wood. 
 
 —47— 
 
The seed ripens in November and falls off in December, and in gen- 
 eral, as the trees grow near running water, it can be fished out in the spring 
 at places in the stream where obstacles on the surface have prevented its 
 floating away. It must be sown as soon as dry. 
 
 Northern, or White Alder. This tree will in a manner, contrary to 
 the Common Alder, grow on high land and upon lofty mountains, where it 
 sometimes is a forerunner for better kinds which follow, and which would, 
 without this pioneer, not succeed in gaining a foothold at such exposed 
 points. Trees so easily raised deserve more attention than is given them, 
 as they furnish us with the means for gaining our chief ends. 
 
 Chestnuts. The Chestnut requires a medium rich soil, but will not 
 stand a very low tempearture or exposure, and is therefore a tree for warm- 
 er latitudes than the western prairies. The wood is valuable and the nuts 
 well known and appreciated all over the country. These ripen in October 
 and fall off on dry, warm days, and can be found anywhere in the market 
 under the name of Chestnuts. Plant in the spring in a warm situation and 
 transplant among other trees when about a foot high. 
 
 The Sycamore or White Wood. Is also found in warmer climates than 
 the wetsern prairies. It is shade and ornamental as well as a .forest tree, 
 and grows to large dimensions with a fine trunk rising to the height of sixty 
 feet without a branch. The tiee is speckled on account of the scaling off 
 of the bark. The leaves and seeds hang on long pedicles, the seed forming 
 a prickly ball which ripens in October. The tree grows rapidly and is 
 easily cultured. It prefers moist places along running streams, but is 
 sometimes seen standing alone in fields and doing well. 
 
 The Tulip Tree or Yellow Poplar. Like the former this tree flourishes 
 in the Eastern states. It is very stately, with a candle like trunk and 
 growing to a height far above ihe majority of our native trees. It has 
 flowers of the size and shape of a tulip, of a greenish white color. More 
 attention should be paid to its preservation where the soil and climate per- 
 mit its culture. It is the finest tree in the forests of the Eastern states, 
 reaching as it does a height of nearly one hundred feet with an immense 
 diameter, its trunk being without branches for, over seventy feet. It 
 chooses rich bottom lands, but I have seen it on high hills, though not reach- 
 ing the dimensions just specified. The south side of hills should be select- 
 ed fcr its growth and as much shelter as possibe given it from the weather, 
 by other trees. Upon poor soil the top soon dies. The wood is rather 
 light. 
 
 b. EVERGREENS OR CONIFERS. 
 
 The Conifers have only eggs and anthers. The seeds are not covered 
 and for this reason they are styled Gymnospermae or naked seeded plants. 
 We shall divide them into several classes, a. Such as have only one leaf 
 
 —48- 
 
(needle) in a sheath. Among these are the White Spruce and the Norway- 
 Spruce. 
 
 "White Spruce. This tree requires, in order to do well, a deep rich soil 
 and a deep subsoil. It grows far up the sides of mountains, yet not as high 
 as the Noiway Spruce. Like the red Beech it reaches its best and most 
 profitable age at 120 years and keeps in a healthy condition until 160 
 years old. On favorable soils' it will grow to the height of 150 feet and 
 contains more bulk to the same diameter at breast height than the Nor- 
 way Spruce as its trunk is convex. It may be renewed in the same manner 
 as the Red Beech, as long as we have to deal with existing forests of this 
 kind, but as this is not likely we shall only see how it can be raised from 
 the seed. The young trees during the first two years of their exislance will 
 bear to be quite heavily shaded, after which period they need more light, 
 but again, after side branches have formed, they will endure a heavy shad- 
 ing and presure from overgrown wood, and when liberated will revive 
 more fully than any other species of evergreen^under like circumstances. 
 
 As the relative strength and elasticy of the White Spruce is less than 
 that of the Norway Spruce, beams made from it will not support great 
 weights, but it serves excellenty for bearing them when in an upright posi- 
 tion, as in the case of pillars or shipmasts. The lumber made from it is. 
 excellent. We also obtain from it the so called Strassburger turpentine. 
 The seed ripens in September and October and falls off together with the 
 cone, leaving only its axis around which the seed and scales grow upon the 
 tree. It is therefore necessary to watch its ripening and break off the cones 
 before they fall to pieces, or else to spread blankets under the trees upon 
 which it may fall. Six bushels of cones will give one bushel of seed with 
 the seedwings on it. This seed must be spread out very thin on a floor in 
 an airy loft to prevent its heating. The method of its culture will be 
 shown and explained in the following pages. 
 
 Norway Spruce. This is the most useful of all the evergreens, as far 
 as building material is concerned and should receive most willing attention 
 and culture. It is the mountain tree. It likes a damp atmosphere and 
 evaporetes a great amount of moisture. Alexander von Humboldt by ex- 
 periment found that an area well and fully covered by a forest ot these 
 trees evaporate four times as much water as an equal area covered by water 
 itself. Its proper home is on the mountains — more strictly speaking, on 
 their northern sides — the sunny side, being warmer and dryer, which 
 causes too great an evaporation. 
 
 This tree will even grow well on the sea shore, but not in marshes un- 
 der stagnant wrter; still as it sends the roots directly under the surface, it 
 can be made to grow on places quite low and moist when rightly treated 
 and cultivated as described farther on. It will not flourish on hot sand or 
 
 —49— 
 
stiff clay, but is suited with; a soil of medium richness, and when well start- 
 ed will enrich the bottom for its own benefit. In too rich a soil it becomes 
 affected with red rot, and from this cause will soon die, from which arises 
 the idea that it will not live long in this country. 
 
 The seed ripens in October and November and drops from the cones 
 the following spring, and if the weather is fine and warm, during sun-shine 
 in the winter. The collection of the cones can begin in the latter part of 
 November and be continued during the winter. The later this is done, the 
 easier will the seed drop from them if warmed by a hot stove or in the sun 
 on dry days in spring. In Europe they have regular factories where the 
 seed is emptied from the cones. The seed can be left in the cones, in 
 which condition its germinating power will last for seven or eight years, 
 while of the clear seed when well cured, but fifty per cent, will be good at 
 the end of five years. 
 
 Kocky Mountain Spruce. "We would advise the trying of this tree in 
 mountainous places on a squall scale, and if success is promised, it would 
 be a blessing for those parts of the country where other species refuse to 
 grow, and fine timber is scarce. 
 
 i Southern Yellow Pine. It is easy to say, "plant the Yellow Pine," 
 but whether the attempt will be successful, is another question. In low, 
 sandy places it would pay to make a trial, but its culture on a large scale, 
 may prove a means of wasting money, as to knowledge, we have had no 
 experience with it upon our western prairies. Still, as it sends a top root 
 to considerable depth, it may grow well there. As we have heretofore 
 'stated, its timber is in the greatest demand, for which reason we should 
 adopt all possible means for cultivating b, and if it is transplanted from 
 the seed-bed at the age of two years, and three plants set in each place, I 
 am confident of success. 
 
 European Yellow Pine. This depends for its value more than most 
 trees, upon the condition of the place in which it grows, and upon its age, 
 when put to use. It blossoms in May and the seed ripens in eighteen 
 months thereafter, in the month of October, dropping from the cones the 
 following spring. While picking off the ripening cones in winter, we fre- 
 quently find three different kinds ; the ripe ones, the young ones just de- 
 veloping, which will be matured by the following October, and lastly, the 
 old ones, which have shed their seed and closed again. 
 
 The process of procuring the seed is the same as with the Norway 
 Spruce, &c. Instructions relating to its cultivation will be given fur- 
 ther on. 
 
 Black Austrian Pine. Upon the Austrian Pine the needles are from 
 three to five inches long, and cones from two to three inches long. In 
 other respects it is the same as the species just mentioned. 
 
 —50— 
 
The Weymouth, or White Pine. (Needles, five in one sheath 4 cones, 
 spindle shaped.) Should be treated like the Yellow Pine. 
 
 European Larch. This is a summer green tree, but it belongs to the 
 Conifers. It is the tree for the mountain regions, and will grow at an al- 
 titude as high as the Norway Spruce. It flourishes on the heights of the 
 Alps, and in the northern part of Eussia is found in greater abundance 
 than other trees. It is now cultivated in all parts of Germany, either in 
 forests by itself, or sprinkled among Spruce, Yellow Pine and Birch. It 
 not only grows on mountains, whose sunny side it likes the best, but nota- 
 bly in almost any situation, except upon heavy clay or wet soils. But it 
 prefers a deep, fresh and rich sandy loam and lime-stone formation. As 
 the wood is soft and spongy when young, exposure to heavy winds causes 
 it to grow crooked, and it is therefore best to mix with pine trees on low, 
 or level ground, or with spruce on mountains or high hills. 
 
 The seed ripens in October and November, but the cones should not 
 be gathered until February, as it drops from them better if picked late. 
 Two kinds of cones are found upon the tree ; those of a weather-beaten 
 gray color, being the old ones of last year, from which the seed has been 
 emptied. As the resin, adhering to the cones, melts when exposed to high 
 temperatures and thus renders it impossible for them to open and allow 
 the shedding of the seed, we must expose them to a medium temperature 
 until such time as they are fully opened, after which a good shakino- is re- 
 quired before the seed is released. Good seed is dear, and in no case will 
 more than 50 per cent, of it germinate. 
 
 The timber of the Larch differs, according to the situation in which it 
 grows, that from mountains, and from trees growing singly, beino- the 
 best and hardest. In this latter case it differs essentially from the Spruce, 
 whose wood is hardest when growing in dense forests. 
 
 Red, and White Cedar. Of these two varieties the Bed Cedar is the 
 most valuable, and wherever possible, and the soil suitable should be rais- 
 ed and nursed. It prefers a stony, but rich soil near the banks of rivers 
 but will grow, even if slowly, upon hills and in different soils, especially 
 when mixed with other trees of equal growth. Under ordinary circum- 
 stances it is found of a height of from sixty to eighty feet, and of a diam- 
 eter of from two to three feet. It grows quite slowly on poor soils, but on 
 such as are well adapted to it, with considerable rapidity, while it lives 
 and remains sound to a great age. 9 
 
 The White Cedar requires for its growth, nearly the same kinds of 
 soil as the Red; still, it will thrive in marshes, if they have originated by 
 springs. It does well, also, upon hillocks which are quite dry. If the 
 ground around either species just named, is loosened up, to receive the seed 
 we can take an abundance of young plants from the natural growth for 
 
 —51— 
 
further transplanting without any additional expense. During the fall, or 
 autumn the Robins will eat a large amount of seed, and while so doing will 
 let enough drop to seed the places under each tree with half digested seeds 
 eaten before at other places. 
 
 The Common or White Cedar does not attain any great dimensions, and 
 is mainly used when large enough for fence posts and railroad ties. 
 
 The preparation of the soil for forest trees is different in places, where 
 trees h*ee been already grown and have been lately harvested than in an 
 entirely unbroken prairie, as in the first case, it is only necessary to make 
 the holes during the summer and plant in the following spring; while in 
 the second case, the sod should be turned during the tore part of summer 
 and cross plowed and sub-soil plowed in the following spring and a crop 
 raised upon it (potatoes or a like crop preferred.) If potatoes have been 
 raised no plowing in the spring is required as a harrow will smooth the land 
 well enough for the planting of the young plants of forest trees. 
 
 If Spruce is to become the leading timber, it becomes necessary to 
 plant some hardy, deciduous trees between the former, for shelter and pro- 
 tection of the Spruce, which can be cut back when shading too much, and 
 finally when the Spruce needs all the room and protects itself the deciduous 
 trees can be cut off altogether. In case the Spruce is a fauilre, the deciduous 
 trees can remain and form the forest. If the plants are four feet apart each 
 way and every alternate plant is a Spruce, we have the choice above men- 
 tioned. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 MIXED FORESTS. 
 
 The trees of which mention has been made in Chapter XIII are only a 
 small percentage of the many kinds which flourish in this country, but 
 the others are only to be found in limited sections. — — 
 
 For the prairie states they will be sufficient to answer all purposes, 
 and even if the first attempt to cultivate them be failures, the people should 
 not become discouraged. Planting trees on the prairie where they are ex- 
 posed to so many unfavorable and damagaing influences, is a task, the ac- 
 complishment of which requires skill and also the means for doing the 
 work in a manner which shall assure success from the beginning. Besides 
 the power to meet disappointments with courage is requisite, together with 
 a determination to persevere until suceess shall finally be attained. 
 
 Experience is the mother of wisdom. 
 
 It must be conceded that most farmers who come to the prairie and 
 take up land on tree claims have neither experience in the culture of trees, 
 nor even theoretical knowledge of hoW to plant them. It is no wonder 
 then if failure is the result, and as a natural consequence disappointment, 
 followed by a neglect of tree planting and breaking of the contract which 
 has been made with the government. 
 
 The idea of so many tree planters that trees will accommodate them- 
 selves to the soil instead of selecting those kinds for which land and situa- 
 tion are suited, quite often leads to failure. 
 
 For home use the raising ot various kinds of fcaber is without doubt 
 desirable as well as profitable to the farmer, as he can obtain from his own 
 land any kind of timber which he may need. In planting he may take such 
 species as will come to maturity at nearly the same age, or else those from 
 which he may derive a benefit by cutting them down to thin out his grove 
 in the course of its growth, so that the remaining trees may not be over- 
 
 —53— 
 
crowded. In the beginning he must plant so that some trees ot each sort 
 may remain at maturity, or so that while some kinds have disappeared dur- 
 ing the growth of the grove, the sjjecies preferred may remainat the end. 
 Set out the plants four feet apart each way, and in time as they become 
 crowded every alternate row, and in the remaining rows take every second 
 tree, so that they are seperated from each other by a space of eight feet on 
 all sides. The first planting must be done in such a way that the most val- 
 uable species shall remain after the rest have been cut down. In doing 
 this work we must always bear in mind that all kinds of trees are not fitted 
 to grow in the same forest together, but only such as attain nearly the same 
 size and arrive at maturity at nearly the same age. 
 
 The following will do well together : — 
 
 White Oak and Red Beech. Maple, Ash, Elm and White Beech, (hop- 
 hornbeam.) * Norway Spruce and White Fir or Spruce. Yellow Pine and 
 European Larch. Yellow Pine and Norway Spuce. Norway Spruce and 
 Larch, &c. 
 
 It is much better to have forests composed of several kinds of trees as 
 are suited to grow together than to have them made up of but one species, 
 because different kinds draw their nourishment from different substances 
 and places, one deeper from the earth and another from near the surface. 
 It is therefore evident that more trees will flourish upon a given area of 
 land, when so mixed, than when all take their sustainance from the same 
 layer of the soil. 
 
 In the planting of trees in places which they have in the future to oc- 
 cupy, the advise to the farmer is, not to undertake too much at one time. 
 It is better to do well and thoroughly what is done, than to fail of success 
 by overdoing. The planting of five acres in the beginning is a great task 
 for one season. 
 
 Taking for granted that the soil intended for the purpose has been cul- 
 tivated at least the year before and that if possible potatoes have been rais- 
 ed upon it, we can begin tree planting in the Spring as soon as the frost 
 leaves the ground and the ground is dry enough to be worked without 
 packing or sticking. 
 
 The commencement should be made on that side of the designated 
 piece of land which, when the forest shall have grown, will be the most 
 protected from the prevailing winds. Having provided ourselves with a 
 gardenline and a spade we may go out to our work. To save repeated and 
 unnecessary measurements we should have attached to the line at proper 
 intervals strips of red flannel or other material which will show plainly, to 
 mark the places for the trees in the rows when it is stretched out. It is ad- 
 visable that the marks be at 3 distance of two feet from each other, and 
 that the rows be set four feet apart. The rows should run from East to 
 
West, or if the ground is hilly, with the hill. Having taken a number of, 
 plants from the nursery, by undermining the roots, so as not to injure them 
 in the least, and put them into a vessel filled with water, which is thinly 
 mixed with loam, the planting may commence. 
 
 There are several reasons why it is better to set the plants at as small 
 a distance apart as two feet in the rows. In case some should die enough 
 will be left to fill the space, or if several in succession fail, others can be 
 taken from the place where all grew originally, with a ball of earth, so as 
 not to disturb the roots, and the vacant places supplied. But should all 
 the plants grow, it is an easy matter to transplant during the second sjwing, 
 those which are not needed to the adjacent land and thereby enlarge the 
 grove without the necessity of bringing any from a greater distance, even 
 if they are obtainable. 
 
 The planting of small plants. At each mark press the spade into the 
 earth to nearly the full length of the blade and bend it forward and back- 
 ward, then cross the cut, and driving it into the ground, bend it as before* 
 Let an attendant then hold the plant in the opening thus made, to the 
 depth at which it stood in the nursery, or one inch deeper, pull out the 
 spade and bring the soil to the plant with the foot, trampling it down 
 with enough pressure to fasten the roots to the bottom. 
 
 The planting, especially with Evergreens, can be done in another way. 
 The soil may be loosened with an auger, similar to a post-auger, and in the 
 center of the place, a hole may be made with a sharp stick, into which the 
 roots may be set and filled around with earth. In different localities, trees 
 require different treatment. 
 
 Common sense teaches that the way of preparing the soil in the cul- 
 ture of trees on the level prairie must differ from that needful upon moun- 
 tains, or in low, marshy ground. For, while in high and dry places, the 
 aim must be to retain all the moisture and water gained by rain-falls, ex- 
 actly the opposite course must be pursued in localities where there is gen- 
 erally too much water. We must also take into account, both the top soil 
 and the sub-soil on the various places, and by these more especially by the 
 latter, be guided as to how to prepare a bed for the plants as well as what 
 sorts to select. 
 
 Upon high and dry places it sometimes becomes necessary to raise a 
 crop of otherwise valueless shrubs or trees, which grow easily, and do not 
 depend much upon the soil, in order to create some vegetable matter and 
 protection for the benefit of more valuable trees, which shall follow. 
 
 Sumach, Hazel. Blackberry, Birches, vines, etc., all serve as pioneers 
 for better plants. If sucn a growth is present, it must, in planting trees, 
 be carefully preserved and the plants set between the shrubs, disturbing 
 as little as possible, the original growth ; as in such places, without the 
 
 —55— 
 
shelter and protection derived from it, tree culture would be a failure. It 
 is only needful to give the trees newly planted enough air and to keep 
 them from being smothered by the wild brush. 
 
 A naked hill or mountain where the soil is good, should be cultivated 
 by degrees. Starting at the foot it should be plowed around to the extent 
 of the land of which it is desired to make use of. Two furrows being 
 turned against each other, and this process continued, keeping a distance of 
 five feet from one furrow to that of the other, until enough ground has 
 been plowed to accommodate those trees which shall be first planted. 
 
 From the fact that the lower part of the hill or mountain contains the 
 best soil and is least exposed to sun and wind, the trees composing this 
 girdle can be of kinds superior to those which will grow on the more el- 
 evated portion, and as these trees in a short time will have grown enough 
 to afford some shelter, the process of planting can be carried into the 
 higher regions. As two furrows have been drawn together, holes should 
 be made for the tree plants between the two, or if the nature of the soil 
 will allow, the planting can be done by the aid of the spade in the manner 
 before described. 
 
 The plowing should be done in June and the planting in the spring 
 following. If the furrows are made as nearly level as possible, the water 
 will be caught by them and sink into the ground to the roots of the young 
 trees, while the earth which has been thus drawn together, will prevent its 
 quick evaporation. The water will also carry with it to the roots, some of 
 the soluable nourishing substances which are contained in the earth, and 
 the growth of the plants will be promoted. 
 
 On hills which are too much exposed to the sun and contain very 
 poor soil, some easy-growing trees may be planted as shelter for the better 
 kinds. But always see if the soil is deep or shallow, and accordingly se- 
 lect the species of trees. 
 
 Where stagnant water stands, neither grass or trees be of any value. 
 In many cases an entire, or at least a partial drainage can be accomplished, 
 and the soil improved. But as few species will thrive in a sour soil, we 
 must adopt means to improve it and thus insure success. The following is 
 a good way to proceed: 
 
 Starting at the lowest part of the ground, dig a ditch through the mid- 
 dle after which the places for the trees should be marked out on both 
 sides and a flat hill formed at each from earth taken from this ditch. These 
 hills should be separated by a distance of two and one-half feet in rows 
 five feet apart. The top part ol the ditch, or sod, should be laid separately 
 by each hill, for future use. 
 
 The above work should be done during the summer and before the 
 ground freezes up in the fall. After the whole swamp has been divided up 
 
 —56— 
 
in this manner, it is ready for the action of the frost and for planting in 
 the following spring. Spruce plants should be used. 
 
 In each hill make an opening quite wide and deejD, and place in it the 
 Toots of three jjlants, fill with rich soil, pressing it lightly around them 
 with the fingers, then lay the sods which were deposited at each hill, grass- 
 side down, and if early or late frosts do not injure the plants, a beautiful 
 
 growth will be the result. 
 
 There is sometimes found upon the highest mountains, soil which is as 
 
 sour as that just mentioned, but from a different cause. For while in the 
 swamps, the acidity proceeds from too great an abundance of standing 
 water; upon the mountains it is caused by a lack of moisture. The rem- 
 edy is the same as in the first case, but upon the mountains the hills must 
 be made large and covered with stones, and in each hill should be placed 
 five Spruce plants instead of three. But such work is generally too expen- 
 sive and complicated for the farmer to perform unless he is endowed with 
 
 •extraordinary patienecs and energy. 
 
 Sometimes soil is so stony that there is not enough earth to cover the 
 
 roots of the plants, and yet fine forests are produced in these very local- 
 ities, while the land is of no value for anything else. It is not referred to a 
 
 soil composed of gravel. 
 
 In those places, seeding is preferable to planting, as the stones retain 
 
 moisture beneath themselves and also afford shelter to the young plants or 
 
 trees. But not to waste seed, it should be put between the stones with the 
 
 fingers in places where a little good earth can be found, thereby giving to 
 
 •each seed its proper situation and distributing the trees as evenly as when 
 
 trausj)lanted. Put three to four seeds of Yellow or Scotch pine in a place. 
 
 There can be no doubt that newly planted trees derive benefit from 
 
 the cultivation of the soil around them, but it must be confessed that such 
 
 a course is impossible where hundreds and thousands of acres are planted 
 
 in a single year, and therefore the practice is virtually out of the question 
 
 in the general forests, although it may be done in the nursery. 
 
 If the work of transplanting is well done, and only thrifty plants are 
 
 used, it is sufficient to aid them in their growth during the first and second 
 
 summer, by cutting the grass and weeds around them, before they run to 
 
 seeds, and mulching around the foot of the plants with it. Such w r eeds 
 
 shelter the plants against the heat of the sun and drying wind, and should 
 
 not be disturbed, and the material for mulching should be taken at some 
 distance off from the plants. The mulching should be done after a rain, 
 so as to retain the moisture around the trees. The mulching has the effect 
 to keep the ground moist and loose around the trees. If the weeds ;yre al- 
 lowed to grow, they will cover the ground and give some protection to the 
 roots during the winter and some organic deposits favorable to the trees. 
 
 For Evergreens, the seeding of oats or bush beans on the sunny side of 
 the rows is an additional protection rather than the removing of any nat- 
 ural shelter that there already exists. 
 
 —57— 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 DRAINAGE OF FORESTS. 
 
 A large portion of the country is covered by so-called swamps and 
 marshes, which in their present condition, are valueless, and there is little 
 prospect that there will be any change. Their origin is mainly due: 
 
 1. To their low situation. 
 
 2. To a hard sub-soil, through which water cannot pass. 
 
 3. To the stopping of the natural drainage by the tilling up of the 
 beds of streams and rivers. 
 
 As there are many reasons for the existence of swamps, so, many 
 must be the ways of reclaiming them. A survey of the places and the 
 forming of eifective plans for remedying the evils are the first requisites. 
 
 In forest lands, the digging of ditches is sometimes sufficient to effect 
 a good drainage, without sacrificing any of the aera as unculturable land. 
 In some cases if a number of adjacent property owners would associate 
 themselves together and undertake the drainage of their lands, they might 
 find others at a distance whose land were too dry who would gladly assume 
 a part of the cost entailed in doing the work on account of the benefit their 
 fields would derive by the surplus water. If we have succeeded in draining 
 flie water wholly, or in part, from any portion of the land where jjeet has 
 formed, we must not at once plant trees there, but let the mass settle in 
 quality before doing the work. 
 
 Springs sometimes create swamps, even on high plateaus. In such 
 cases, discover the origin of the springs, and by digging ditches with the 
 necessary fall, carry the water away to some convenient point, or if they 
 have their origin within the swamps, cut directly across them and thus ef- 
 fect a drainage. In this way an opportunity is affoided of watering other 
 places which are very dry, and gaining full returns for all which the drain- 
 age has cost us. 
 
 —58— 
 
The soil of a large aera consists of a heavy clay, which cannot be work- 
 ed until very late in the spring. The ground is too cold for the germina- 
 tion of the seed, or to enable the roots to begin their growth. While time 
 is thus lost and the growing season shortened, there is another difficulty 
 with such soils, when long-lasting drought occurs. Then the soil becomes 
 very hard, and when the water has evaporated, it shrinks; large cracks are 
 formed and the roots of the growing crops are not only cut in pieces, but 
 also exposed to the sun and dry winds. The drainage of such a place, by 
 means of either a stone or tile drain, would remove all such hindeiances to 
 the growth of crops. The main point is to allow atmospheric air, (oxygen) 
 to enter the soil and make it more mellow, and consequently, sooner warm 
 and fit for the reception of the seed. It all farms could be managed in ac- 
 cordance with reason and the laws of nature, less complaints would be 
 heard, that the soil of this or that locality was exhausted. There is no ex- 
 haustion, but only a need of more painstaking and the exercise of better- 
 judgement. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 THE THINNING OF FORESTS. 
 
 Important as it is that young trees should grow close together until 
 they have attained a certain age and size, it is just as necessary to aid them 
 by thinning out when crowded. 
 
 There are many reasons why they should at the beginning be closely 
 planted : • 
 
 1. If every piece of land destitute of good vegetation and forest 
 growth, and exposed to the burning rays of the sun and to atmospheric in- 
 fluences, becomes yearly poorer, it must be our aim to give the young trees 
 planted theruepon the needed cover and protection against these influences. 
 The planting must therefore be done thickly, that the area may quickly re- 
 ceive the necessary shade. 
 
 2. Trees closely planted grow in the direction of their height and the 
 lower branches being shaded, will go to decay before their dimensions be- 
 come such as to spoil the trunk and its future value for timber. But by a 
 judicious thinning out the requisite space should be given to each tree. 
 
 In giving to plants the necessary room for their growth, many things 
 must be taken in consideration. To give general rules is difficult as good 
 judgement of the operator is the first and main requisite. In doubtful 
 cases it is better to leave the largest and finest trees and remove the others; 
 but the thinnino- should not be done to such an extent as to leave spots of 
 oround uncovered and exposed to the sun. To avoid this even some poor 
 trees may be suffered to remain. Neither should any branches be cut from 
 those lett standing, not even those that grow very near to the ground, since 
 these are the very ones which keep out the sun and prevent the wind from 
 blowing the leaves away, especially in mountainous i egions. The poorer 
 the soil and the more exposed the place is to atmospheric influences, the 
 -more careful should the thinning out be performed. 
 
 -60— 
 
The greater the uniformity existing among trees, the more they need 
 thinning, especially with such as have been planted, particularly with 
 Spruce. The thicker the trees stand the more carfully must the operation 
 of thinning out be conducted. Where heavy snowfalls occur the process, 
 should be commenced quite early and good judgement exercised to prevent 
 the breaking down of the tops. The more often the thinning is done the 
 better for the forest. In those places where it is desired to raise timber 
 alone, the trees must be kept the thickest. At or near the edge of the wood 
 they should be lefc to grow more closely than at other points, hardly any 
 being removed, as otherwise an entrance will be given to the wind to blow 
 off the leaves, and to the sun to burn up the ground. It is much the best 
 to thin out in the summer, when the closing of the tops and branches can 
 be better observed. 
 
 Deciduous trees should always be cut close to the ground that they 
 may spread again and add to the shading and fertility of the soil by the 
 leaves of the new shoots. 
 
 It may here be mentioned to satisfy those that advocate letting the 
 thinning of young forests to natures care, that nature will perform that duty 
 excellently, and manage it so that a number of the trees would in time 
 make room for themselves and come out of the battle victorious, from the 
 survival of the strongest, but this battle is fought greatly at the expense of" 
 the survivors themselves, since under such circumstances their own growth. 
 is very much retarded. 
 
CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 DAMAGES TO FORESTS. 
 
 So long as forests remain in their natural, primeval state, there is no 
 danger of any damage being done them by insect tribes, even if any exist 
 ■within their boundaries. But as soon as we begin to meddle with them, 
 by cutting down trees, and especially when it becomes needful to replace 
 them by planting, &c, the ravages immediately begin to show. 
 
 Damages By Insects. Insects hardly ever attack a thoroughly healthy 
 tree until they have so increased in numbers, that the sickly specimens 
 cannot furnish them with an adequate supply of food. In a healthy forest, 
 the conditions for their multiplication are not present. In the old forests 
 there is too much shade and moisture and a lack of high temperature fovor 
 able for the hatching of the eggs of insects or from their changing from 
 one state of development to another. 
 
 The millions of hardly visible holes in spruce and pine logs, as well 
 as those of hardwood trees prove the presence of the most destructive of 
 insects the borer, (Bostricus) in alarming numbers. During the months of 
 of April and May, as their swarming time, cut down a large number of 
 trees and let them lie upon the ground until after this is over and the.i peel 
 off the bark. They will in most cases, lay their eggs in these fallen trees 
 and upon peeling off the bark, these, or perhaps the larvae, if already de- 
 veloped, will be exposed to the sun and weather and thus millions of these 
 insects destroyed and hindered from coming to maturity. 
 
 The bark should be burned, as some species lay their eggs in it. The 
 larvae which hatch from the eggs continue the work of destruction and in 
 their turn change into chrysalist within the tree, coming out in the follow- 
 ing spring as full-fledged insects. 
 
 As far as known, each species of tree has insect enemies peculiar to it- 
 self, and if all are not as mischiveous as the borer, any of them will do 
 
 —6a— 
 
more or less damage. Some species of borer work between the wood and 
 bark while others go right to the center of the wood, causing young trees 
 to break down, 
 
 There is another insect in our forests which does its mischief while in 
 the fully developed state, as a beetle, the "wevil," or "curculio, R." In 
 the cultivation of a young growth of Evergreens, this insect appears, but 
 it drops to the ground upon the least danger which may threaten it. Only 
 tra es of its ravages in the bark of the young trees gnawed off just above 
 the ground can be seen, and the sap oozing from the wounds thus made 
 while the perpetrator of the mischief lies on his back just beneath, indulg- 
 ing himself in the fond belief that he is innocent of having done any harm to 
 the tree. The color of the insect is blackish brown, and therefore it is not 
 easy to detect it as it lies upon the earth. It is about the size of the Col- 
 orado beetle, but its body is longer and it has a muzzle, or trunk with 
 which it does its mischief. The only known protection against it, is to lay 
 beside the young plants a little bunch of fresh-broken Spruce branches or 
 bark of the same species as the plants themselves and cover them with sod 
 or stone to keep them in place and shaded. The fresh-smelling resin has 
 more attraction for the beetle than the plants. 
 
 There are many species of beetles, some of which eat the bark, and 
 others the leaves of the trees, or their seeds, but the damage they do to the 
 large trees, does not compare with that done to young plants, of which they 
 will kill nearly all if left undisturbed. The immense harm done to the 
 forests of Europe by caterpillars shows plainly what we may expect, unless 
 a close watch is kept constantly, and all rubbish left in the forest, careful- 
 ly collected and burned, while pieces of woodland, through which fires 
 have run, if they present a sickly appearance, should be entirely removed. 
 Pine forests are much more subject to attacks from insects than those of 
 deciduous trees, and it is therefore best to mix both kinds together in a 
 forest. 
 
 Damage by Heavy Frosts. Severe cold or frost is hurtful to most 
 kinds of forest trees and even if its injurious effects are not seen at once, 
 their less rapid growth and shortened lives are some of the evil results 
 which the best of soils cannot prevent. Frosts are particularly damaging 
 after trees begin to renew their growth in the spring. The effect of late or 
 early frosts is mostly felt by the Evergreens, as it takes them longer to 
 form new upright shoots than other trees. The planting of entirely hardy, 
 between the less hardy trees will greatly prevent the injurious effects. 
 
 3. Damage by the Sun. The direct rays of the sun are not only 
 dangerous and hurtful to the small seeds just germinating and to the little 
 plants, but also to large trees. If after cutting, the hot sun shines upon the 
 exposed trunks of these which are left, they will become scorched and 
 
 —63— 
 
blighted, the bark will drop off and much harm be the consequence. To> 
 avoid injury being done in this manner, divide the woodlands so that the 
 boundaries of the annual cuts may lead from North to South. Young 
 plants, especially evergreens, must be protected from the sun and from 
 frost by the planting of rapidly growing and hardy plants, which may be 
 cut down after those which they have to protect are able to shelter them- 
 selves. Blight takes place on trees forming orchards from the same cause 
 as in others and therefore the planting with them of some hardy forest trees- 
 which form large tops, but do not shade them too much are recommend- 
 able. 
 
 4. Damages by Wind. The different quarters from which winds blow 
 give the forester little opportunity to protect his forests against their dam- 
 aging influences; he may guard them from injury from the local prevailing 
 winds, but igainst those which sometimes occur, as thunder storms, hurri- 
 canes and cyclones, where the direction from which they may come is un- 
 certain and purely accidental and cannot be determined by any rule protec- 
 tion can hardly be given. 
 
 Those species of woods; where the roots run near the surface and which 
 do not possess a tap root, such as Spruce, Fir and the like, should never be 
 so exposed to receive the direct force of these winds. To avoid this there- 
 should always be planted on the boundries of forests several rows of such 
 trees as drive a good tap root, to break their force to a considerable extent 
 and at least to render the damage much less than it would be without this 
 protection. The recommendation for preserving forests from the attacks 
 of insects by mixing Evergreen with deciduous trees will work well as a 
 preventative against harm being done by heavy winds. 
 
 5. Damage by Snow. Young, or middle aged Pine or Spruce forests,, 
 especially when too much crowded, suffer mostly from snow. The damage 
 is done by its pressing upon and breaking down their tops and branches. 
 This may be successfully prevented by thinning out the young trees or 
 planting at places where heavy snowfalls are of frequent occurence, so that 
 the branches, being further apart, may not offer to the snow so large an 
 aera upon which to settle. 
 
 6. Damages by Water. Damage is done both by standing or stag- 
 nant water, and also by running water. Standing water harms the forest 
 by spoiling the soil and rendering it unfit for the growth of trees, making 
 it sour and converting it into swamps, producing by evaporation, low tem- 
 perature in its vicinity, and occasioning late and early frosts Drainage 
 is the only remedy in such places or filling up, so as to get surface drain- 
 age. 
 
 Running water does harm in many ways. 
 
 1. By washing away the soil and uprooting the trees. 
 
2. By covering the ground with sand .and stones during the period of 
 an overflow. 
 
 3. By keeping the trees too long under water at such a time and 
 thereby killing them. 
 
 4. By freezing over, after a thaw has occasioned it to rise around the 
 trees, and upon falling, leaving ice adhering to them to injure the young 
 wood or perhaps destroy them entirely. 
 
 5. By floating ice. 
 
 The forester may guard against those evils in the following manner: 
 The banks of rivers must be kept well lined with deciduous trees, which 
 should be cut before their weight becomes too great, as otherwise they will 
 fall into the water doing at the same time great damage by tearing and 
 loosening much soil, and stopping the free flow of the water. Willows and 
 common Alders are the trees best adapted to this purpose. The beds of 
 rivers must be kept unobstructed. All obstacles to the free flow of the 
 water removed, and the crooked places straightened. 
 
 Dams must be built in places where caves threaten to stop the 
 water. It must also be borne in mind that places subject to over- 
 flow should not be seeded, but planted with trees. Where floating ice is 
 liable to do damage it is advisable to leave some wood standing a few rods 
 from the banks to keep it within narrow limits. In these places only cut; 
 down the larger trees and leave the smallest standing. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 ROTATION OF SPECIES IN FORESTS. 
 
 Wet and dry places, high mountains and level prairies, cold and warm 
 climates and the difference in soil, furnish conditions under which certain 
 species of plants thrive best, and for this reason often distinct and sharp 
 lines between territories are abounding with certain kinds of trees. It is 
 therefore the task of the forester to give to each tree its proper place, thus 
 following the example set by nature in its distribution of sylvan growth. 
 
 Agriculture and horticulture both teach us that crops of the same 
 kind cannot be profitably raised upon the same land during successive sea- 
 sons, and long ago the rule was adopted by the practical gardner not to 
 plant the same varieties in the same places two years in succession. In the 
 same way we find that notwithstanding, the best of care may be given to 
 the existing kinds of trees, they will after a time, begin to lose their vigor, 
 while new species springing up among them will do well. This change is 
 usually from deciduous trees to Evergreens, or the reverse. 
 
 It must be considered as a hint of nature that a rotation or change 
 from one species to some other is a necessity and as profitable in the case 
 of the forest as that of the cultivated field. With the forests, the periods 
 between the making of such changes are long in proportion as the time 
 before trees arrive at maturity is long, as compared with that between the 
 planting and ripening of field crops. The length of time before the change 
 is necessary, does not in the least degree prove the falsity that after a 
 time — it may be after the lapse or many generations — a change of species 
 
 is required. 
 
 It has been noted in Prance, that a forest reproduces itself with a dif- 
 ferent growth within four hundred years. In our own country, it is seen 
 that, where Pines and Spruces are cut down, their places are taken by de- 
 ciduous trees, but as to how far the necessity exists for a change is not 
 thereby certainly proven, but still it is quite certain that this is a signal 
 given by nature as to what should be done. 
 
 —66— 
 
CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 THE HARVEST. 
 
 The farmer harvests his field crops when ripe and is not in doubt in 
 regard to the proper time, but in the case of the forests it is neither so easy 
 to determine when the right time has arrived, nor at what time it is the 
 most profitable to cut down our wood or timber for the market. 
 
 The time for harvesting forest trees is when their annual growth or 
 gain reaches the average growth or material gain. For example, suppose 
 the last years growth has been 1 J cubic feet per tree and the whole tree 
 measures 50 cubic feet at the age of fifty years, it is plain that the last 
 years growth was far above the average yearly growth, and that to cut that 
 forest down would entail a great loss. It may be further said that if the 
 average and the annual growth are equal it is better to wait a few years be- 
 fore harvesting, or so long as the annual growth may come up to the 
 average. 
 
 The next point as to when to cut the forest is the requirements and 
 conditions of the markets. If logs of a certain dimension are required, for 
 which a much higher price is offered per cubic foot than for those of less 
 size, it may be expedient' to allow the trees to remain stanfling until they 
 arrive at the required dimension, even if their yearly increase is a little be- 
 low the average growth they attained in the past, since the higher prices 
 received for the timber will more than compensate for the loss of gain in 
 growth. Observing the growth of the forest from year to year it is easy to 
 find the yearly gain of trees above or below the average. A very sure sio-n. 
 of maturity is that the tree tops are beginning to round off and the foliao-e 
 to grow thin. An experienced forester can determine whether a forest has 
 reached maturity at a distance from it of five miles: 
 
 To discover the annual growth of a tree without first cutting it down 
 is a matter which requires skill and mathematical knowledge. It may how- 
 
 —37— 
 
ever be determined in the following manner : Cut with a chisel from the 
 tree a portion of the wood, leaving the place cut in the shape of a right 
 angled triangle, sitting upon its base. Upon further smoothing base with 
 the chisel, count and measure the rings annually formed around the axis of 
 the tree. The thickness of these will show whether the yearly growth is 
 increasing or deminishing, and from this knowledge in regard to single 
 trees especially if selected from an acre several of average size and make the 
 cuts on both sides of them, at the same time counting the trees on the acre, 
 learn the annual increse of material on each acre. It can be easily seen 
 that these measurements cannot be made by a carpenters scale ; to do the 
 work properly a magnifying glass is required. Care must be taken not to 
 get deceived in regard to the annual growth by the sometimes indistinct 
 boundaries of the rings. The formation of these rings yearly may be thus 
 explained : (The well known fact that the annual growth takes place be- 
 tween the bark and the growth of former years, and that the bark also has 
 a yearly growth has no moment in the explanation.) 
 
 In Spring the warmth of the sun awakens the tree to new life, the sap 
 rises and consequently vegetation is more rapid than at any other period of 
 the year. The sap flowing through the tree and mingling with the reserve 
 of nourishing material secreted in the pores during the last years growth to 
 give it a fresh start before the leaves have formed, causes the rajnd forming 
 of new cells adjoining those formed during the last autumn. These owing 
 to its more rapid growth are larger and more porous than those formed at 
 that period. The wood therefore must show a difference in texture on the 
 limits of each years growth, and hence the amount of gain is easily seen. 
 But sometimes at the end of July or the beginning of August the rising sap 
 takes another lively start, causing another more rapid growth to the tree 
 and forming other cells out of proportion with those formed either in the 
 Spring or in the latter part of the year, and which may by the inexperienced 
 be taken as another annual limit. On this account a careful scrutiny is re- 
 quired to prevent any mistake being made. It may also happen that 
 drought may set in and stop all growth after which drenching rain may 
 give a new start to vegetation. But this can eesily be determined in the 
 annual rings. 
 
CHAPTER XX. 
 
 THE FUTURE OF THE SOUTHERN FORESTS. 
 
 On the question: "How long the great forests of the South, more es- 
 pecially the most valuable portion, the long-lived pine, last?" the author- 
 ities differ. Recent writers estimate that at the present rate of con- 
 sumption, the Pine supply in Texas will last 250 years; in Louisana, 100 
 years; in Mississippi, 150 years; in Alabama, 90 years; in Georgia, 80 
 years; in Florida, 30 years; in Arkansas, 300 years, and in South Car- 
 olina, 50 years. 
 
 Dr. Mohr estimates that in 1880, 200,000,000 feet of lumber found 
 outlet at Peusacola, 60,000,000 feet at Moline ; 60,000,000 feed at Tas- 
 cagaula; 13,000,000 at New Orleans; 36,000,000 feet from Pearl River at 
 Bay St. Louis; 12,000,0.00 feet by the New Orleans & Chicago railroad 
 and 12,000,000 feet by the Louisville & Nashville railroad. This lumber 
 came from the states of Forida, Mississippi, Alabama, and involved the 
 depletion of a little over 200 square miles of forests in a single year. 
 
 In every state in the South, State Forestry associations should be or- 
 ganized. These would serve the purpose of similar societies in the North- 
 ern states in encouraging the growth and preservation of forest trees, with 
 the additional advantage of advertising the forest resources of the south. 
 
CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 PRUNNING OP TREES. 
 
 Trees, in their natural and undisturbed state which have full room for 
 growth, the proportion between roots and branches is well balanced and 
 developed, but in taking one up, however careful the work may be done, 
 this proportion is more or less changed, and generally confined more to the 
 roots than the branches. It then becomes necessary to restore them. In 
 prunning a tree, keep the sun from shining upon the roots, inspect them 
 and compare them with the branches, and observe how much they have 
 been broken or torn, proceed to cut off all upon which any wounds or 
 bruises are found in the souod wood above the injured part. The cut 
 must be made sloping and on the under side*of the wood, so that it can- 
 not be seen, when the tree is set upright, and will sit directly upon the 
 soil after the tree is planted. The slanting or sloping cut gives more area 
 to the formation of callous, out of which the roots develop. As the callous 
 forms between the bark and wood and the roots grow right out of that in- 
 to the ground, they would have to grow upwards first, if the cut was on the 
 upper side of the root, and then turn and take their natural downward 
 course. 
 
 In prunning roots as well as tops or branches, be very careful not to 
 loosen the bark, since if this is done, no callous can form, and of the 
 branches, a portion will die. If any cut is made with the saw, immediate- 
 ly smooth it with the knife, always cutting from the back toward the cen- 
 ter, or axis of the root or branch. 
 
 Small, young trees need no prunning of either roots or tops, except of 
 such as have a tap root and which are intended to set out as soon as they 
 have reached the required size. After several transplantings to the nursery 
 cut off this root when they are two or three years old, to make the final 
 planting more easily, which, were this not done, could only be accomplish- 
 
 —70— 
 
ed with the greatest difficulty. Such trees will aferwards send their roots 
 deep into the earth, to take the place of the missing top root ana continue 
 to grow well. To this species belong the Oak, Hickory, etc., and if these 
 are transplanted while very young, the top root need not be disturbed. 
 
 In prunning always cut the branches so that there may be left a sleep- 
 ing butt, which can easily be detected, to replace the branch removed. 
 Reference must also be had to the position of the bud, that the branch 
 growing from it may take such a direction as to improve the form of the 
 tree. Of all branches which cross or injure each other, the inferior must 
 be removed, and in cases where two of equal size, growing from a third 
 main branch are crossing each other, cut off that which will injure the 
 shape of the crown the least by its removal. After once beginning to 
 prune in this manner, a person having a good eye and good judgement will 
 soon learn to di-tinguish detects in the shape and how to remedy them. 
 
 If a tree has two leaders which form a fork, cut off the inferior to 
 avoid the splitting of the tree in future. Never let suckers grow up from 
 the bottom of the tree, which injures or kills the tree. 
 
 In this way we may cut off two-thirds of the branches and still pre- 
 serve the original shape of the crown, which should be our chief aim. 
 
CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 PLANTING OP TREES IN CITIES. 
 
 The observer of American Cities and Villages will notice the good 
 taste which many of our citizens possess in decorating the streets and ave- 
 nues with ornamental and shade trees, and in surrounding their residences 
 with emerald green turt and beautiful flowers. In fact within the limits of 
 some cities are portions which more resemble a park than a city, and if any 
 complaint is to be made or fault found, it is that there is in many cases, if 
 anything too much shade and the trees too much crowded to permit their 
 development to masterpieces of nature. 
 
 It is true that although many thousands of trees are planted every year 
 the work is too often done by incompetent persons, or those having it done 
 are careless or not able at the proper time for planting to find those who 
 are competent to perform it. People also often expect to get good trees for 
 half the money which they are worth, or even if they do obtain good sound 
 trees and plant them at the right time and in the proper manner, take such 
 miserable care of them that they shortly die. 
 
 To plant and raise trees successfully requires knowledge and practical 
 experience, the same as any other business, and as shade trees are already 
 growing to some extent along the streets and avenues of nearly all our cities 
 and villages, it is an easy matter to tell what species to make use of for ad- 
 ditional planting in these places, as the selection should be made from 
 those which are doing the best in neighboring localities. In making the 
 selection of a kind for a certain street or avenue, take such as are growing 
 upon it, as nothing gives a more beautiful aspect to the street than rows of 
 trees on both sides, uniform in appearance. In case there are no trees to 
 serve as a guide, the following species may be chosen as being the hard- 
 iest and best fitted for any place when well cared for. 
 
 A.mt/ r ican Linden, American and European White Elm, Ash, White 
 
 —72— 
 
and Yellow, Hard Maple, Norway and Soft Maple, Box Elder and Hack- 
 berry. These trees are the only kinds to use in cold climates, for the pur- 
 pose of lining streets and avenues. If forced to draw our supply from the 
 •wild woods or forests, our aim must be to select young trees which will 
 answer to the following points. 
 
 1. No tree should be selected which has been oppressed or much 
 shaded by the others. 
 
 2. No tree which has equal thickness at the bottom and first 
 branches. 
 
 3. The top must be proportioned to the thickness of the trunk. 
 
 4. In heavy clay soil, grown trees have few small roots and should 
 be avoided if possible. 
 
 5. Trees with moss on their trunks and branches are suspicions and 
 should find no grace in the eyes of the selector. 
 
 6. Also should trees with two equal thick tops be looked upon as 
 unfit for our purpose. 
 
 But trees with a healthy appearance, well proportioned from bottom 
 to top and a uniform annual growth, are good trees to select, and if by tak- 
 ing them up, the roots are proportioned to the tops and the size of the 
 tree, they are worthy of painstaking with them. 
 
 For warmer climates and the eastern states, select Silver Maple, Buck- 
 eye or common Chestnut, Honey Locust, Magnolia or Cucumber and Um- 
 brella tree, Sycamore or Button Ball and the Catalpa or Indian Bean. 
 
 All these will not flourish in the same soils, but the preferences of the 
 most important have already been explained in the preceding pages. 
 
 Trees with a healthy appearance, well proportioned from bottom to 
 top and showing a good uniform annual growth, are the proper kinds to 
 select. Trees so chosen should be removed from their places with the ut- 
 most care and the exercise of the best of judgment. The digging around 
 the roots should be done at such a distance from the tree as to be beyond 
 their ends, so that after prunning they may be left unbruised and without 
 wounds. A ball of earth should be left around them and the whole tree 
 or ball undermined. To get this seperated from the roots, bend the tree 
 from one side to the other, so as to press it off and clear away such as is 
 then left, with the hands. To get rid of it in this way, drive into the bal 1, 
 perpendicularly, sharp, wooden stakes and pull them forward from the 
 tree, thereby taking away the earth without injuring the roots, as this will 
 give way before the stakes, and the stakes will break sooner than the roots. 
 In transplanting trees from a long distance, it is best to have all, or nearly 
 all the earth removed, as otherwise its weight resting on the bottom of the 
 wagon may cause the breaking of the roots. 
 
 Avoid the bruising of the bark, which will do a great, though perhaps 
 
 —73— 
 
not visible injury, to the tree. In moving trees upon a wagon, arrange 
 their roots well, filling in between and around them with earth until they 
 are covered, and if it is practicable, setting them upright and covering 
 the roots. This will prevent friction of the trunks with the wagon. 
 
 The digging of the holes depends upon the quality of the soil. The 
 poorer it is the larger and deeper they must be dug, and when it does not 
 interfere with travel, they should be made in the previous autumn, so as 
 to admit of the favorable action of the frost upon the excavated soil. For 
 a tree two or three inches in diameter, a hole six feet in diameter and two 
 feet deep is required, and in very poor soil it is better to make the diam- 
 eter eight feet. If the earth taken out is not to be used again in the plant- 
 ing, we must haul in, wherever the holes are six feet in diameter, two and 
 one-tenth cubic yards, and when eight feet, three and three-fourths cubic 
 yards for each. As the space between the sidewalk and the street proper, 
 is, in cities, not of sufficient width to allow of the above given diameter, 
 make the length of the hole greater than the width, resting assured that 
 the roots will always grow in the direction of the good soil. 
 
 74— 
 
CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 PLANTING OF LARGE TREES AND TRANSPLANTING. 
 
 Planting of trees, if carlessly done, all our previous painstaking has 
 been in vain. In doing this work, three persons are required; one to hold 
 the tree, one to shovel in the soil, and the third to do the planting itself. 
 After filling the hole to the proper height with good soil, causing a little 
 hill in the center as a stool for thetre.', set it upon this so as not to be hollow 
 under the trunk after planted. While one man is holding the tree the 
 planter takes hold of the roots, and being supplied by the third man with 
 fine soil, places each seperately, according to its natural situation and place 
 of growth, the lowest at the bottom and the highest at the top, thereby 
 dividing and distributing them over the whole place around the trunk, 
 taking good care of the fibre rootlets, packing the earth around each and 
 pushing the earth under the trunk, to make sure no hollow is left there. 
 
 Great care must be taken during this process to keep the tree in a ver- 
 ticle position, as bending it to either side, when once planted, will move 
 the roots from their proper place. After the planting is completed, the 
 tops of the on et, or place where the roots start from the trunk, should be 
 exactly on a level with the surrounding earth, while the level of the earth 
 around the tree, should be one inch below the level of the original surface. 
 Some people having the idea that if a tree is set deep, it has a better 
 chance for receiving moisture and is less subject to drought in summer, 
 plant from one to two feet too low. Where this is done, the trees will die 
 of suffocation. The roots of a tree need air as well as the branches, and in 
 order to start new ones, the soil around requires a degree of temperature 
 fifteen degrees higher than that of the atmospheric air. Besiaes, a tree 
 needs such mineral substances as are soluble in water, and how can the 
 chemical process, which turns mineral matter into such a state as to render 
 it easily digestable by the roots, take place at a depth at which the atmos- 
 
 —75— 
 
pheric air with its oxygen, has no entrance ? 
 
 All deciduous trees, when planted too deep, will, if they survive at all, 
 form new roots near the surface of the ground, while the old ones will 
 either die or cease to perforin their alloted functions. Better plant trees 
 near the surface and even if some species require that certain sets of roots 
 should grow to a greater depth, a growth downward will be much easier 
 than one upward, which they would be compelled to make in order to get 
 air, if set too deeply. 
 
 If all the rules given for the transplanting of trees have been strictly 
 followed, we may be assured of success, and if we had the control of at- 
 mospheric and meteoroligical influences in the same degree as of the plant- 
 ing, our work woul 1 end at this point. But under existing circumstances 
 we must aid them in their grrwth by watering in dry weather once or 
 twice a week, and putting around them straw, manure, &c. as mulching. 
 This mulching should be about 8 or 9 inches in thickness and extended 
 over the roots of the trees. 
 
 TRANSPLANTING OF LARGE TREES. 
 
 If there are any fine large trees which shall not remain in their present 
 position much longer, and which are to be transplanted rather than cut 
 down for firewood, having at least a years time in which to do the work, 
 proceed as follows : Early in the Spring dig a ditch two feet wide at a dis- 
 tance of two or three feet from the tree, according to its size, and extending 
 in depth to the bottom roots, which must be cut off with an axe. This 
 must afterwards be refilled with earth and as many branches cut from the 
 top of the tree as can be without injuring its shape, after which it must be 
 left standing at least until the next fall, to allow those parts of the roots 
 which have been cut to send out rootlets by the thousand, which will after 
 it is transplanted abundantly supply the tree with sap. If the part which 
 was dug as a ditch in the spring be in the fall heavily covered with manure 
 and a hole made at the new place for the tree, and the earth taken from it 
 also covered in the same manner, it can be taken up and set theie in the 
 winter with a frozen ball of earth around its roots. 
 
 -76— 
 
CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 RAILROADS AS TIMBER CONSUMERS. 
 
 In the report on forestry, Volume IV, 1884, Nathaniel H. Egleston 
 said about the use of timber for railroad purposes as stated by correspon- 
 dents : 
 
 "During the years 1881 and 1882 our railroad system was greatly ex- 
 tended. Poor's railroad manual gives the total mileage of track on the 1st 
 of January, 1883, as 138,901.66. At the same rate of increase the amount 
 of track now in use would vary but little from 150,000 miles. If we adopt 
 this estimate it will show a greatly increased demand upon our forests for 
 the purpose of railroad construction, beyond that indicated by the returns 
 given in the report. It will show that for the construction of our existing 
 roads we have used 396,000,000 ties, or the wood supjilied by 3,960,000 
 acres, or an area larger than that of the states of Rhode Island and Connec- 
 ticut. Estimated that ties need be renewed on an average once in seven 
 years, there must be drawn from the forests annually, in order to keep the 
 existing roads in repair, 56,571,428 ties, or the timber growing on 565,714 
 acres. Allowing that a growth of thirty years is necessary to produce trees 
 of proper dimensions for ties it will require 16,971,420 acres of woodland 
 to be kept constantly growing as a kind of railroad reserve, in order to 
 supply the annual needs of the existing roads. This constitutes an area 
 considerable larger than the state of West Virginia and larger than the 
 states of New Hampshire, Vermont and Massachusetts combined, or the 
 states of New Jersey, Maryland and Deleware with the addition of Connec- 
 ticut. It is more than 4 per cent, of the total area of woodland in the 
 United States exclusive of the Territories and 3 per cent, of the area in the 
 States and Territories together." 
 
 This shows the case of the present and the past. But there is another 
 view. The increase of railroad mileage in the United States from 1873 to 
 
 —77— 
 
1882, both inclusive was 48,879 miles Oi ',ri average annual increase of 
 4,887.9 miles. Taking the twenty years from 1863 to 1883 tin vverage in- 
 crease is 4,150 miles per annum. Estimating the yearly increase from 
 January 1, 1883 to be the same for the last twenty years, there would be an 
 addition of 41,500 miles in ten years to the 138,901 miles existing at that 
 period making a grand total of 180,401 miles. To construct these addi- 
 tional miles will require 10,956,000 ties annually or for the ten years 
 109,560,000, the product of 1,095,600 acres of woodland. Allowing thirty 
 years as the period of growth for ties, this would add 3,286,800 acres to the 
 timber reserve needful to keep up the existing roads, or a total of 18,995,- 
 570 acres. If the calculations were extended to thirty instead of ten years 
 for the construction of new lines, then the reserve of woodland necessary 
 to keep the existing roads in repair would be not less than 25,950,356 
 acres. These figures show in an impressive light the large and rapidly in- 
 creasing demands which are made upon our forests from one source alone. 
 
CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 DUTY OF THE GOVERNMENT. 
 
 [By E. T. Baker, U. S. Forestry Agent.] 
 "One of the questions propounded by the Department is, 'What should 
 the Government do for the preservation and increase of the forests on the 
 public domain?' To this question it may be replied that the first thing the 
 Government should do, is to consider its forest domain as separate and apart 
 from every other. The rules and regulations which apply to the prairie 
 should not be made to govern the sale &c, of the timber lands. The ex- 
 tent of the forests still belonging to the United States should be ascertained 
 and considered separately. 
 
 "To begin with, the Government should stop the wholesale spoliation 
 of these lands by private individuals or corporations, and whatever the 
 means necessary to this end, should be applied promptly. The Government 
 should, as a rule, withdraw its timber lands from sale or occupancy. To 
 sell them does not promote the settlement of the country ; it only enables 
 some individual to obtain for his own benefit timber at less than its value. 
 The Government should make the custody and care of its forest domain the 
 particular charge of officers who regard the interests of the Government. 
 These officers should have regular stations and prescribed districts of coun- 
 try assigned them, not mere roving Commissioners. The Government 
 should impose necessary regulations to prevent the wholesale destruction of 
 its forests by fire. This should be done by the general Government to pro- 
 tect and preserve its own property. Further than this, the general Govern- 
 ment should encourage the increase of the tree area in this country. It 
 should do this by first disseminating information. It has been shown, that 
 the present agencies at work are not sufficient. The Government should 
 supply the people, to some extent at least, with instruction on the great 
 subject. It should be furnished in the shape of reports and other printed 
 
 —79— 
 
matter, issued at frequent intervals in convenient form, free from discus 
 sions remote from the points at issue before the people, and free from tech- 
 nical terms unintelligible to the masses. 
 
 The Government should establish collections, accessible to the people,, 
 of the woods of the United States. These collections can be best made un- 
 der the directions of the Government, and they should not be kept at Wash- 
 ington exclusively, but at as many different points as possible. The agri- 
 cultural colleges in the various states would be suitable depositories and 
 where States maintain agricultural departments, the offices and rooms of 
 such departments. Finally, the Government should make it understood 
 that forestry and its ally, irregation, are interests which are to be fostered 
 in common with the general interest of commerce and agriculture. 
 
 In conclusion I submit, as evincing the interest our neighbors of the 
 Dominion of Canada feel in the question of forest-preservation and as con- 
 taining ideas of value, the following extracts from a Canadian gentleman : 
 
 "A little more than one hundred and fifty years ago Europe was awak 
 ened to the fact, that her timber supply was being gradually exhausted; the 
 forests were either in private, municipal, or ecclesiastical hands, or so sad- 
 dled with private rights that the states had no adequate control ot them. 
 The consequences apparent were exploitation of miniature timber, to 
 the serious depreciation of the yield; the consequent want of first-class tim- 
 ber for ship building and other important works; the destruction of seed- 
 ling trees by cattle, resulting in a scanty crop of low bushy trees. In a 
 word, the area was being gradually contracted and the annual yield reduc- 
 ed so much by mismanagement and neglect that it fell below the annual 
 consumption ; capital stock was being strengthened on a condition under 
 which the utter exhaustion becomes a mere question of time. 
 
 Austria, Germany and France rose to the emergency ; they extinguished 
 private rights, introduced state control and demarcated the areas to be 
 maintained as permanent forests. Germany reserved a third of her total 
 area as forests. Austria a triffle less. And France nearly a fourth. Their 
 aim was to increase the timber production to the highest capacity of the 
 reserved area, and to limit annual exploitation to annual increment. 
 
 Forest management in all these countries is now a great state of in- 
 dustry, scientifically conducted. It is under the control of a specially 
 trained department. The remedial measures exercised an important bear- 
 ino- on the well being of the countries named and what is more to the pur- 
 pose, the undertaking has proved remunerative. The timber and other for- 
 est products yield a revenue leaving a margin of profit on all costs, includ- 
 ing rent of the land. 
 
 In America, both the States of the Union and Provinces of the Domin- 
 ion have already passed the stage at which remedial measures were intro- 
 
 —80— 
 
duced in Europe, our population is growing at a rate unparalleled in the 
 past, and secondly, because the whole interior ot the North American con- 
 tinent depends now, and must continue to depend upon the Atlantic and 
 Pacific states for the great bulk of its timber. 
 
 The saddest feature in the American timber problem is that the peo- 
 ple have not yet shaken oft' the old tradition that, "timber land is worth the 
 value of the land, less the cost of clearing." The stock of American tim- 
 ber is now so reduced, that if artificial causes were not at work, to keep 
 down prices, there is not an acre of timber land on the North American 
 continent that could not be sold for the amount which it would cost to re- 
 produce it. 
 
 These artificial causes referred to are on the surface. England, with 
 her wealth of iron and coal, favored by her insular position and laro-e for- 
 eign tradf , did not trouble herself about growing timber, as lono- as she 
 could supply herself from the supposed inexhaustible supplies of northern 
 Europe, cheaper than she could grow it. She consequently supplied her- 
 self from Sweden and Norway, which possessed large natural forests cost- 
 ing nothing. Europe was a first-rate customer to these countries and in 
 due course North America began to compete for a share of the trade, the 
 market was overstocked and prices fell to the narrowest possible margin 
 on cost of bringing the timber to market. 
 
 In the struggle, Sweden and Norway have damaged their nat- 
 ural forests, and are now organizing measures for restoring them at about 
 three times the price at which they sold their natural crop. As a conse- 
 quence, America has the monopoly of the English trade, an enormous 
 home demand is being rapidly developed, and her stocks are undero-oino- 
 such rapid exhaustion that, with holding supplies, she could command 
 prices undreamed of by the most visionary. But in the face of tljese facts 
 the government of the United States and the Dominion, have the control of 
 private parties who, in spirit of competition, go on flooding the markets to 
 their own and the national detriment. 
 
 Good Pine timber requires a century for its development. There is 
 as much timber now growing on the American continent as, with proper 
 management and restriction of exploitation to ascertain annual increment 
 would avert a severe timber famine. But if the problem is not soon grap- 
 pled with, America will ere long be dependent on Europe for her timber 
 supjDlies. 
 
 The position is too critical for temporizing or half measures. The dif- 
 ficulty can only be met by the resumption by the State of untrammekd 
 control of its remaining forests. This is an heroic measure, but nothino- 
 less would save the country. It would be costly, but the most pecuniarilv 
 profitable investment the state ever ventured on. The problem is so grave 
 
 -81— 
 
as to demand the most careful consideration of the ablest advisers of the 
 union and dominion government and much would be gained, if the two 
 would operate harmoniously on a prearranged basis. 
 
 If the programme I have suggested were adopted conjointly by the 
 union and dominion governments, existing stocks held back and felling 
 stopped for three years, to work of private stocks and let the demand make 
 itself felt, prices would go up with a bound and I do not think they would 
 stop far short of $200 per mile, American quotations. 
 
 At such rates the remaining forests, instead of hastening to extinction, 
 would be permanently revenue producing, besides yielding a fund to meet 
 the costs of a measure of forest administration commensurate with the fu- 
 ture requirements of the continent. 
 
CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 The following paper read by the author before the convention of the 
 Wisconsin State Agricultural Society, in Madison, held in February, 1881, 
 will prove that he kept a watchful eye upon the subject at all times; it 
 reads as follows: 
 
 THE TASK BEFORE THE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES OP THE COUNTRY 
 IN THE NEAR FUTURE. 
 
 No one will deny the influence of our Agricultural Societies in the 
 good results realized from the farms of the country, but we cannot help ad- 
 mitting that one branch necessary to successful farming as well as to health 
 and prosperity of the country has been so far sadly neglected, and this is 
 the forests of the country. 
 
 We are aware that the National Agricultural Department in Washing- 
 ton has made several efforts to have the government take the preservation 
 and restoration of the forests in hand, and that the Secretary of the Interior 
 authorized by Congress, has adojited some means to prevent the cutting 
 down of the forests in the territories. But all this is not sufficient for the 
 preservation of that extent of forests which is needed for agricultural and 
 manufacturing purposes. 
 
 The forests should cover from one quarter to one third of the area of 
 a country if that country is to be healthy and fitted to fulfil the conditions 
 under which agriculture may be carried on with success. 
 
 And not only is the extent of the forests to be consideied. We must 
 also take into account their proper distribution over the face of the country 
 if we would secure the utmost possible benefit to its inhabitants. The shel- 
 ter and the humid healthful atmosphere of the forests in the far western 
 territories have no effect upon the inhabitants of Wisconsin or New York. 
 
 As the time between the planting and harvesting of forest trees is be- 
 
 —83— 
 
tween eighty years for Pine and from two to three hundred years for white 
 Oak trees, it is of great importance to select for arboriculture those soils ot 
 the country where no other crops could possibly be produced, and limit the 
 cost of first planting to the lowest possible figures. 
 
 When we consider that some soils are in reality not fit for agriculture 
 and have to be termed on the assessors list and on the maps as uncultur- 
 able land, would it not be a welcome sight to see young forests springing 
 up in such places, and though growing slowly, benefitting the surrounding 
 agricultural districts with a humid atmosphere, shelter against high winds, 
 and against changes of temperature, frequently so sudden and so disas- 
 trous? 
 
 In Europe the various governments have found it necessary to make 
 
 the care of forests a particular subject of consideration and legislation, and 
 have created special bureaus under the management of competent men, who . 
 had to serve a long apprenticeship, graduate in the art and science of forest 
 culture, and who have made the forests a source of revenue to the govern- 
 ment amounting to millions of dollars from the poorest soil of that country. 
 While the direct net income of these forests is counted by millions, their in- 
 fluence upon health and agriculture can not be estimated. And when we 
 consider the rapid increase of population in our own country, the wants and 
 requirements already made upon the forests, and the present comparitive 
 scarcity of timber, it is easy to see that here also similar measures will soon 
 have to be adopted. 
 
 It will perhaps be objected that in the vast area of these states the mil- 
 lions of acres of woodland still remaining will be sufficient for all the wants 
 of the country for years to come. But it must be remembered: — 
 
 1. That this abundance of wood is found just in those parts of the 
 country where it is least needed, and that in consequence of the expense 
 to bring so bulky an article as timber to the centres of demand, it is com- 
 paratively valueless where produced and is for the most part left to fall be- 
 fore the axe of the settler. 
 
 2. That two-thirds of the timber left to us is of such quality as to be 
 only fit for fuel. 
 
 3. That in the census and tax statement a large area is classed as 
 woods without deserving this classification. 
 
 4. Tha: Chicago alone employes a capital of f 80,000,000 in the lum- 
 ber trade and that hundreds of thousands of acres of timber are annually 
 sacrificed. 
 
 5. That Michigan and Wisconsin, the main pine timber states, which 
 had ten million acres of the finest timber before the main settlement began 
 have only about two million acres left, and this at the present rate will be 
 cut down in about five years. 
 
 —84— 
 
6. That according to the census of 1860 the value of the lumber im- 
 provement in the United States was $3,322,520,000. All this had been cut 
 from the soil and most of it within thirty years previous, and nothing has 
 been done to replace it. 
 
 7. That there are five hundred thousand artisans in wood in this coun- 
 try and if we estimate the value of their labor at $1,000 each per annum, 
 we have an aggregate of $500,000,000 worth of wood annually consumed as 
 raw material for their use. 
 
 8. That it takes one and one-third acres on the average to produc*. 
 one cord of wood yearly. 
 
 9. That it takes three hundred acres for the production of wood sui 
 ficient to build and keep up one mile of railroad year by year. 
 
 10. That the United States sends $11,000,000 per annum to Canada 
 for timber, while millions of acres of land capable of producing the finest 
 timber are laying waste in our own country. 
 
 11. That the farmer from year to year cuts down vast forests to en- 
 large his fields, and only saves what will suffice for his domestic uses and 
 seldom that. 
 
 12. That the population of the country is daily increasing, the wood 
 consuming industries are developed year by year to larger dimensions, and 
 hundreds of miles of new railroads are added annually to those already in 
 operation, and in general, that while the wood producing area has been 
 greatly reduced, the demands upon the wood have multiplied, and since the 
 larger area has been so greatly reduced in supplying the smaller demand 
 how will the smaller area supply the larger consumption ? 
 
 From the above facts it is evident, that unless measures are speedily 
 taken to replace by plantation, the supplies consumed in the destruction ot 
 our old forests, there will be an actual famine for wood in this country 
 within the next thirty years. Can this matter of forest culture be sefely 
 left to private enterprise ? 
 
 A period from eighty to two hundred years is required for the growth 
 and maturity of valuable forest trees. Now, if so many neglect to plant 
 fruit trees and grape vines, the product of which they can enjoy in a few 
 years, will they plant forest trees, whose completed growth they will never 
 see ? To carry on the culture of forest trees successfully, it is also neces- 
 sary that extensive regions should be devoted to it, for the trees that from 
 year to year are ready for the woodman's axe, are necessarily a considera- 
 ble distance apart. In small, isolated areas there could not be an econ- 
 onomical adaptation of the means to the end. Forest culture can only be 
 carried on upon a large scale. 
 
 But there is still another reason why the supply of timber cannot b e 
 left to private parties. There is needed for the profitable growth of forest 
 
 —85— 
 
trees a scientific and technical knowledge which few farmers have it in 
 their power to acquire. This knowledge, so far as it is not purely scien- 
 tific, must necessarily be traditional. It cannot be acquired by personal 
 experience. The mistakes of one year cannot be discovered as in the case 
 of ordinary farm crops, by the immediate results, for the tree's life out- 
 measures man's. The cultivator sees his error, if at all, when it is too late 
 to remedy it. 
 
 In Germany therefore, where these facts are^ully appreciated, the for- 
 ester has to undergo a special scientific and technical education. He has 
 to serve a long apprenticeship. The culture of trees and the management 
 of the forests becomes the business and study ot his life. 
 
 From all this and numerous other reasons, it is evident that upon the 
 government rests the necessity and duty of providing against the antici- 
 pated deficiency in the supply of timber, by initiating and controling the 
 plantation of new forests as well as the preservation of the old. 
 
 It is not neceseary to cite the disastrous consequences which have oc- 
 cured in those parts of the globe where the destruction of forests has taken 
 place, and which have been described by travelers in a most alarming 
 manner. They are doubtless as familiar to others as to myself. 
 
 In 1869 I sent a memorial to congress in respect to the destruc- 
 tion of the old forests. I have not changed my opinion on this subject 
 since and believe that it cannot be refuted. I hope that all farsighted 
 men will share it with me and assist me in my patriotic recommendation. 
 
 — 80— 
 
MEMORIAL. 
 
 To the Honorable Senate and House of Representatives^ 
 
 of the State of Minnesota., St. Paul. 
 
 The undersigned, animated by the conviction, that the subject here 
 treated is of a most important nature for our State and well worthy your 
 attention and thorough consideration, lays the same most respectfully before 
 your Honorable Body, the subject is: 
 
 THE FORESTS OF THE STATE. 
 
 Experience teaches, that the majority of the people of this State as well 
 as of the whole country are ignorant of the necessity of having at least one- 
 quarter to one-third of the whole area of a country covered with forest tree 
 growth, if that country is to be healthy and its climate salubrious, to fulfill 
 the conditions, under which agriculture may be carried on with the assur- 
 ance of success. 
 
 To overcome this ignorance and apathy and to convince the general 
 public and especially the farmers of the importance, necessity and bless- 
 ings of the forests for each country as servants and agents to carry out na- 
 tures great plans, I have endeavored to lay down in a treatire such facts 
 and truth, which are according to experience and science in unison with the 
 workings of nature in regard to forests. 
 
 As the forests upon the public land are by far not sufficient, even if 
 left for the production of timber for all future time and are not so distribut- 
 ed over the fctate to benefit agriculture and the general wellfare uniformly, 
 it is left to the farmers to produce the surplus. It becomes therefore the 
 duty of the people and Legislature to give him all the inducements in their 
 power and open all resources for his instruction in the art and science of 
 forest culture to avoid failures in his noble undertaking for the benefit of 
 the State and the country. 
 
 The consequences which have followed the distruction of the forests in 
 other countries are too serious to be visited upon and repeated in this pros- 
 perous land and it cannot be denied that the sudden changes of temperature, 
 the severity of climate, the frequent occurrances of high floods and the 
 sometimes long lasting droughts we now endure were not formerly known 
 in this country, and the hurricanes and cyclones, which sometimes break 
 loose upon sections of this country, dealing destruction and death in their 
 path, are of late origin with us and are a warning signal to stop and not 
 ruin the country by deforesting it in the crazy hunt after the almighty dol- 
 lar. Equal causes have equal results, such occurances took place in all 
 those countries, where the forests have been ruined. 
 
 This, your Honorable Body, is a subject in which every inhabitant of 
 
 —87— 
 
the country should be interested personally and individually and the nar- 
 • rowest selfishness as well as the most kindly and broadest philanthropy and 
 patriotism should lead us to due consideration of it and then to the adop- 
 tion of such measures as will adequately provide for the improved condi- 
 tion of the forests and thereby to the material prosperity of our State and 
 
 commonwealth. 
 
 The memorialist most respectfully recommends for your wise and in- 
 telligent legislation the consideration of the following points : 
 
 1. The distribution of a book among farmers and land owners, treat- 
 ing upon this subject in a digestible language for everybody. 
 
 2. To encourage and animate farmers to plant trees, especially such, 
 which will fulfil the requirement of the market and will have a market 
 value for the owner when matured. 
 
 3. Advice and instructions as to the fitness of their soil for certain 
 kinds of trees, &c, by a competent professional. 
 
 4. The same advice in regard to treatment of already existing groves 
 
 of trees. 
 
 5. The establishment of experimental stations, where to try new and 
 more useful varieties. 
 
 6. The pushing and bringing the forests gradually to such places 
 which are not fit for the production of farm crops, especially hills, moun- 
 tains or to places with poor soil, &c. 
 
 7. The planting of shade trees along roads and all places, where noth- 
 ing else can be profitably produced, so as to make use of every foot of J and. 
 
 8. The ascertaining of the area of existing forests in the State and 
 their condition and nature. 
 
 9. The improvement of the forests as well as the farm land by drain- 
 age, where necessary. 
 
 10. The printing of condensed annual reports for distribution among 
 farmers. &c, containing the experience made during the ye..r, etc. 
 
 11. The passing of strict laws against fire, cattle and men. 
 
 12. Petitioning Congress to transfer the public land to the State, 
 while the State in return pledges to maintain the same, or turn it into for- 
 est growth for all future time. 
 
 Hoping that your Honorable Body will give that attention to this sub- 
 ject, which the importance of the same deserves. 
 
 Very Kespectfully, 
 Minneapolis, January, 1887. P. P. SCHOTZKA. 
 
 — 4B8 — 
 
CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 TREES PER ACRE. 
 
 Rows 
 
 Apart, 
 
 Feet. 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 3 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 5 
 5 
 5 
 5 
 5 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 5 
 5 
 
 llowing tabl 
 
 i gives the nuj 
 
 nber oi 
 
 trees on an acre, 
 
 at various 
 
 Plants 
 Apart in rows, 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 Plants. 
 
 Rows 
 Apart, 
 Feet. 
 
 Plants 
 Apart in rows, 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 Plants. 
 
 2 
 
 10,890 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 3,111 
 
 2 
 
 7,260 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 2,074 
 
 3 
 
 4,840 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 1,556 
 
 3 
 
 3,630 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 1,246 
 
 2 
 
 5,445 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 1,037 
 
 4 
 
 2,722 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 880 
 
 4 
 
 2,178 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 2,722 
 
 2 
 
 4,356 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 1,815 
 
 3 
 
 2,904 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 1,316 
 
 4 
 
 2,178 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 1,098 
 
 5 
 
 1,742 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 907 
 
 2 
 
 3,630 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 778 
 
 3 
 
 2,904 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 681 
 
 4 
 
 1,815 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 302 
 
 5 
 
 1,452 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 170 
 
 6 
 
 1,210 
 
 
 
 
 —89— 
 
CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 VALUE OP THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF WOOD AS FUEL. 
 
 The following table is useful as showing the relative value of various 
 kinds of wood for fuel, taking Shell-bark Hickory as the standard at 100. 
 
 Shell-bark Hickory 
 
 100 
 
 White Elm 
 
 58 
 
 Pig-nut Hickory 
 
 96 
 
 Red Cedar 
 
 56 
 
 White Oak 
 
 81 
 
 Wild Cherry 
 
 55 
 
 White Ash 
 
 77 
 
 Soft Maple 
 
 54 
 
 Black Oak 
 
 71 
 
 Yellow Popular 
 
 52; 
 
 Red Oak 
 
 69 
 
 Butternut 
 
 51 
 
 Black Walnut 
 
 65 
 
 White Birch 
 
 48 
 
 White Beech 
 
 65 
 
 White Pine 
 
 42 
 
 Black Birch 
 
 63 
 
 Lombardy Poplar 
 
 40 
 
 Hard Maple 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 -90— 
 
CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 FOREST TREES AS PROTECTORS OF FRUIT TREES IN UNFAVORABLE CLIMES. 
 
 In the creation, the careful observer will find that one creature is de- 
 pendent upon others and is bound to serve nature in the fulfillments of "her 
 plans, to beautify the earth. That the assistant and servant is frequently 
 badly paid by the assisted for his services is the run of the world. So is 
 the thin, wimsy creeper, running up the majestic trunk of a tree, and 
 while not able without such an assistant to rise even a foot from the oround 
 that nature's servant enables that helpless creature to grow up to the very 
 top of him, and twist his thin but strong branches around those of its 
 giant supporter, and in many cases takes the very life out of its benefactor. 
 Many a creeping and sucking creature thanks her existence to the support 
 received by the trees in the forests. 
 
 But the forest trees do not only show their existing qualities to nature 
 inside of their own domain, but their beneficial influence as mentioned in 
 other parts of these pages, extends to much farther limits, and most prob- 
 ably are their great beneficial services as nature's assistants, not half fully 
 known, or at least not appreciated by most of those that enjoy their bles- 
 sings daily. 
 
 The variety of the forest trees shows to the thinking man, who has • a 
 particle of appreciation and sympathy for the beautiful forests of the coun- 
 try, that as various as their variety, must be their services to the human 
 family. The writer of this treatise had the opportunity to observe in the 
 milder climate of Westchester county, New York, the following facts and 
 beneficial influences of forest trees to fruit trees. 
 
 An orchard located in a low valley near a pond or lake, protected by 
 mountains from the north and partially from the west, exposed to the east 
 and south sun, was in a poor condition; the trees half dead, very dwarf 
 and here and there with an apple upon the neglected trees, while in on© 
 
 —91— 
 
■corner forest trees had grown between two apple trees belonging to the 
 same orchard and planted with the rest of the orchard trees, but what a 
 contrast between those two trees and those of the rest in the orchard with- 
 out the protection of forest trees. The dwarf habit, in the desire and effort 
 to keep up in growth with the forest trees to gain light, had been abandon- 
 ed. The rough bark of the branches had changed to the most smooth, shin- 
 ing and the trees were loaded with beautiful apples, for the. benefit of our 
 game bags, as we were hunting. 
 
 In Wisconsin, near Madison, a similar occur ranee was observed. A 
 nursery for temporary use had been started at one end of the orchard, and 
 after most of the shade trees and Evergreens had been disposed of at other 
 places, some of the deciduous trees had been left around two orchard trees, 
 and some Scotch fire or Spruce near the trees. The deciduous trees were 
 two Soft Maples and one Elm, and the beneficial assistance of those trees 
 to the fruit trees were astonishing, and in their effects fully up to those 
 observed in Westchester, N. Y. 
 
 Why not consider the above as a wink from kind Nature to assist us 
 in those parts of the country in the raising of apples, where the realization 
 of this task belongs almost to the impossible? The Spruce, even if planted 
 near the trunks of apple trees, will not take much nourishment from the 
 latter, as her roots run right underneath the surface, and the deciduous 
 trees can be planted far enough from the fruit trees, not coming much in 
 contact with the latter and all trees together will prevent the leaves in 
 autumn to be driven away and the ground will be well shaded to keep the 
 burning sun from it. The Spruce is intended for the protiction of the 
 trunks and the deciduous trees that of the branches, and either or both can 
 be trimmed if too much shade is produced. It is anyhow worthwhile, giv- 
 ing this subject a little consideration, as in former times, Germany grew 
 such an abundance of wild apples in their forest area that farmers fatten 
 their pigs upon them and upon acorns. 
 
 In taking good bye the author wishes and hopes that all who peruse 
 these pages may arrive at the same conclusion — that of preserving and ad- 
 vancing the forests of the country, and that each may lend his assistance to 
 divert the calamity which must neccessarily follow the destruction of the 
 forests. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 -92- 
 
*ABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Preface 
 
 Introductory - - 
 
 Chapter I. Consequences of deforesting - 10* 
 
 Chapter II. Causes of decrease of our Forests - 11 
 
 Chapter III. Forests in their present and future state 13 
 
 1. Second or third growth ; 
 
 2. Groves of trees which supply the wants of farmers ; 
 
 3. Forests situated in swamps and marshes ; 
 3. Evergreen Forests; 
 '5. Primeval Forests. 
 
 Chapter IV. Forests as natures agents to fulfil her plans 16 
 
 1. Forests beautify the earth and improve the character 
 of its inhabitants. 
 
 2. Forests help to sustain the relative proportion of the 
 component properties of atmospheric air and purify 
 it from unhealthy substances and obnoxious gases. 
 
 3. Extensive forests prevent sudden and extreme changes 
 in the temperature. 
 
 4. Abundant forests effect climate by regulating the 
 moisture and electricity of the atmosphere. . 
 
 5. Forests as protection against grasshoppers. 
 
 6. Forests as supplier of fuel and building material. 
 
 7. Forests as preventative of malaria, etc. 
 
 8. Forests as markets for game and fur. 
 
 9. Forests as supplier of plants for medical purposes etc. 
 
 Chapter V. Treatment of Forests, so far, not destructed 19 
 
 Chapter VI. Treatment of Forests in this and other countries 26 
 
 Chapter VII. Preparing soils for seeds of Forests. 30 
 
 Chapter VIII. Selection of Seeds. 32 
 
Chapter IX. Advantages of a Nursery. 33 
 
 Chapter X. Results from increase of population. . .'. 34 
 
 Chapter XI. Production of timber. 36 
 
 Chapter XII. Matters to be considered in forestry. 38 
 
 Chapter XIII. Selection of trees. 40 
 
 Chapter XIV. Mixed forests. 53 
 
 Chapter XV. Drainage of forests 58 
 
 Chapter XVI. The thinning of forests. 60 
 
 Chapter XVII. Damages to forests. 62 
 
 1. By Insects. 
 
 2. By heavy frosts. 
 
 3. By the Sun.. 
 
 4. By wind. 
 
 5. By snow. 
 
 6. By water. 
 
 Chapter XVIII. Rotation of species in forests. 66 
 
 Chapter XIX. The harvest. 67 
 
 Chapter XX. The future of the Southern forests. 69 
 
 Chapter XXI. Prunning of trees 70 
 
 Chapter XXII. Planting of trees in cities. 72 
 
 Chapter XXIII. Planting of large trees and transplanting 75 
 
 Chapter XXI V. Railroads as timber consumers. 77 
 
 Chapter XXV. Duty of the Government, by E. P. Parker, 
 
 U. S. Forestry Agent. 79 
 
 Chapter XXVI. A paper read by the Author before the 
 
 Wisconsin State Agricultural Society, Madison, Wis 83 
 
 Chapter XXVII. Number of trees per acre, 89 
 
 Chapter XXVIIP Value of the different species of wood 
 
 as fuel. 90 
 
 Chapter XXIX. Forest trees as protector of fruit trees in 
 
 unfavorable climes. 91 
 
TO THE PUBLIC. 
 
 The undersigned introduce themselves respectfully to all parties desiring services of 
 below named nature, after an experience of twenty-five years, gained in most of the leading- 
 parks of this country and in all departments of their construction, and assure those that 
 will patronize them and engage their services, that they will not be bound to pay any ap- 
 prentice money in the execution of their work. 
 
 We offer our services for a reasonable compensation, without charging those fancy or 
 novelty prices which are a source of discouragement for many, to secure the services of real 
 experienced professionals. 
 
 Our field of duty will be confined mainly to the following: 
 
 1. — As a foundation for all kind of improvement requires a plan to work by, we will,, 
 when necessary, supply each party engaging our services, with a most thorough studied 
 plan, and as a preliminary work for a plan, make the necessary survey. 
 
 2. — We will transfer such plan after adopted, upon the ground, give required grades, in 
 general, do all work pertaining to the Civil Engineer and Landscape Gardner. 
 3._We will execute the work from the beginning to the end if desired. 
 4.— The supplying and planting of the necessary trees and shrubs, &c, shall have our 
 full attention, and only the best of trees shall be supplied, and success guaranteed. 
 
 5.— The planning and laying out, as well as improving of Cemeteries, shall form a 
 branch of our business. 
 
 6.— The drainage of farm and other land will be executed after the latest methods, and 
 combined with irrigation during the dry season where practicable, possible and desired. 
 
 7.— The improvement of private parks r.nd gardens oi sriall dimensions, will receive- 
 our attention as well as a thousand acre park. 
 
 8.— Our advice in regard to intended improvements will be cheerfully given. 
 9.— Parties wishiug estimates of costs of excavations or fillings to be made, will go safe 
 if employing our services. 
 
 Hoping that the public will reward us with full confidence and patronize as by sending 
 us their orders, and direct to 
 
 P. P. SCHOTZKA & CO., 
 Civil Engineers & Landscape Gardene:i», 
 No. 611 25th Ave. South. 
 
 REFERENCES. 
 
 From Central Park, New York. 
 " Prospect park, Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 " Albany, New York. 
 «« West Chicago Parks, Illinois. 
 " LaKewood Cemetery, Minneapolis. Minn. 
 " Minneapolis City Parks, Minn., 
 At the latter place planted besides other work, nine thousand shade and ornamental 
 trees, with unequaled success.