Class r\ 6 /e:T Book_ :_ Copyright N°. copyright deposit. ^j^./iV,.*' Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/engineeringbookOOyeom ENGINEERING BOOK. BY R. C. YEOMAN, B. S. C. E. Dean of Civil Engineering, Valparaiso University; Professor of Civil Engineering, Valparaiso University; Former Instructor in Civil Engineering, Purdue Uni- versity; Associate Member of Western Society of Engineers; Certified Mem- ber of American Association of Engineers; Draftsman Pennsylvania Railway Company; Draftsman and Efficiency Man for National Bridge Company, Valparaiso, Indiana. ■r THE PEOPLES EFFICIENCY PUBLISHING CO. CLEVELAND. O. 1918 ' i;c^ Monograph Copyright 1917 By The People's Efficiency Publishing Co. CLEVELAND, OHIO , m -2 >3I7 (CI.A476945 1 V^ f AUTHOR'S PREFACE AN Indiana farmer recently remarked that his son, just home from school, was doing the same work with a tractor that formerly required three men and eleven horses to do. And this was done at less expense. What does this mean? He was able to release three men and eleven horses to be used for further production elsewhere and also to increase his own production with the same effort. This is a distinct addition to the wealth of society; that is, there will be more food, more shelter and more enjoyment for EVERYONE. The rapid growth in the use of machinery, con- crete and the more durable materials has improved the method of living until the poorest citizen lives in a palace compared with conditions of only a century ago. All this wonderful change in the things about us requires educational advancement to prepare those who are past the school age and to assist those who are in school to take advantage of them. The writer has in these pages that follow endeavored to give the reader the latest and most practical ideas and how they may be applied. Works of this kind now on the market have been excellent in their day, but new ideas and methods require new treatment. This work is written for the owner or operator of the farm who has always progressed as opportunity offered. Progress is the leading thought. In every subject are new and advanced ideas, with special treatment, designed for the immediate use of the most modern farm. The author has covered a broad list of subjects, each of them of vital interest to the farmer. These are handled in a way distinctly useful. High sounding and theoretical phrases are omitted. The work is intended to be a working guide to the busy man who has little time to theorize, but must and will get things done. In the chapter on Engines, Automobiles and Tractors will be found the result of experience with and the teaching of this subject for many years. The theory of the Gasoline Engine is presented in a simple, concise manner that any school boy of twelve years can understand. The treatise on fuels is brief, but complete. Power rating and testing of engines is a unique feature. The Trouble Chapter is a departure from the ordinary method. The troubles are listed and described first. The owner will have no use for this chapter until the trouble arises. The Upkeep Chapter should be mastered at once, and the Trouble Chapter will not become necessary. Automobiles are no longer a luxury, but a necessity. The chapter on Care is given first place, since proper study of the chapter will make the auto a profit instead of a loss. The farmer may become his own repair man and save the excessive fees charged by the average garage. Auto Hints are money savers to the sensible owner. Each is presented in a simple, usable style. One of the seven wonders is surely concrete. This magic powder changes sand and gravel hills into mansions of art and -usefulness. Now over a hundred cement mills pour out their millions of barrels" 4 a -ily- This tremendous output is indicative of the general application it so richly deserves. Although cement and concrete are as common now as timber was a few years ago, yet the science of making good concrete is in its infancy. Every day new ideas and discoveries are being brought to light. The writer is in touch constantly with the most recent practice in cement and concrete manufacture. The chapter on Materials for Concrete takes up each aggregate in detail. The origin and value of each material is plainly stated. The care and storing of these materials is taken up and suggestions made that will be easy for the farmer to fill. This chapter should be read with care, as it is the foundation of good concrete manufacture. The chapters on Concrete and Concrete Construction take up the mixing, coloring, cost and construc- tion in an extensive manner. The whole work is profusely illustrated, so as to make the application universal. Hundreds of other illustrations were available, but the author has selected only those which are typical and will be needed first on the farm. PREFACE When these are successfully made, the farmer will easily construct from his own plans larger and more complicated structures. The department on Heating Plants takes up the principal points in heating, and particular attention is called to the discussion on hot-air furnaces. If the instructions given are properly followed, success will always result. Simple and easy diagrams and plans are given. With the suggestions given, a farmer may put in his own heating plant, whether it be of hot air, hot water or steam, and save the excessive labor costs' charged by the union plumber. , It is said that the first convenience on the farm should be water under pressure. This is taken up in the chapter on Water Supply and Plumbing. The illustrations in this department portray so well modern practice and are backed up by the experience of the United States Government. Many of the suggestions were taken from their bulletins. After a careful study of this department, the farmer will be a.ble to provide the conveniences of city residence at a minimum cost. There is probably no other single factor which will improve a farm so much as drainage, especially when drainage is necessary. The thorough discussion given in this department is boiled down as result of long experience and study. It is made simple and convenient, so as not to tire out the reader with a lot of needless detail. Where expert advice is necessary, the use of an engineer is suggested. Second only to drainage is irrigation. In this department is briefly told the story of irrigation in the United States. The information is put in a workable style and the theory made as practical as possible. Irrigation in humid climates is touched upon The average opinion has been in regard to the future for the individual that if he couldn't do anything else, he could go on the farm. This is all changed. The farming business is the largest in the world and should be the best managed. The purpose of this department is to assist in bringing about this change. The theory of business is simply stated, and practical hints and outlines are given for increasing the efficiency of the farm in every way. The conservation of the country's resources is much talked of in the press, always referring to coal, oil and timber. This is unfair. The wastes of the nation are not limited to these three commodities. The protection of our structures against the destructive elements of the atmosphere is a branch of conservation well known but seldom talked about. This work would not be complete without giving some simple advice on the use and selection of paint. There are so many fraudulent paints and preservatives on the market that a simple treatise on the subject is needed at this time to safeguard the busy farmer who hasn't time to go into the science of the manufacture of these materials. Only practical formulas that have been long tried out and are easy for the farmer to secure and use are treated. There are_ thousands of recipes which are difficult to mix and apply and are no better than the simple ones suggested. Wherever it is advisable to buy on the market in prepared form rather than to mix the raw materials, the advice is so given. The author could have filled a hundred pages with formulas for the scientific man who is unlimited by capital or machinery, but this is not practical for the busy farmer and has been avoided. Probably there is nothing on the farm more useful than rope. In nearly every neighborhood is found some old sailor who is called upon for miles around to do what rope repairing is necessary. With this chapter the farmer will be able to do this work himself, and not only save the expense of hiring his neighbor to do it, but the time in going after him, which is ofte^i more valuable. In preparing this work the author is irid'eb&ed to the Witte Gas Engine Company, Fairbanks-Morse Company, International Harvester Companv, the Buick Automobile Company, the American Portland Cement Association. Universal Portland Cement Company, Wisconsin University Experiment Station, Minnesota Experiment Station, the Montana Experiment Station, Ohio Experiment Station. Department of Agriculture, Montgomery Ward & Company, and many other authorities mentioned in the foot- notes, where their work is used. Without the help of the above a work of this kind would be impossible. The hearty thanks of the author and the reader is here recorded to those who have helped to make this work a success. Should the reader at any time feel disposed to write concerning any part of this work, the author would be pleased to have criticisms submitted, and wherever corrections are necessary he will appreciate his attention being called to it. R. C. YEOMAN, Valparaiso, Ind. TABLE OF CONTENTS ENGINEERING Pages Farm Gas Engines 1-34 Mechanical Power on the Farm, Power Produces Profit, Gas Engine Uses on the Farm, Elements of Gas Engine, Principles of Combustion, Simple Principle of a Gas Engine, Operation of Gas Engine, Types of Two-Cycle Engines, Three-Port Engine, Details of Gas Engine, Carbu- ration, Adjusting the Mixture of Fuel and Air, Back-firing, Rich Mix- ture and its Effect, Gas Engine Combustion, Combustion and Explosion, Timing the Ignition, Cooling the Engine, Source of Power in Gas Engines, Kinds of Fuel, Composition of Crude Petroleum, Separation of Petroleum Products, Petroleum Products Classified, Baume Scale, Cor- rect Approximate Weight of Petroleum Products, Petroleum Fuels now on Market, Heating Value of Petroleum Products, Power Rating of Cias Engine, Power, Indicator or Indicated and Drawbar Horse Power, Calculating the Engine Horse Power, Best Way to Get Horse Power, Brake Test for Gasoline Engines, Operation, Need for Testing Engine, Economy Test, Power House or Shop on Farm, Care, Location of Power House, Shafting, Pulleys, Spacing the Hangers, Machines and Line Shaft, Engine and the Machines, Managing the Power Plant, Pulleys, Speeds and Sizes, Gas Engine Trouble, Troubles Analyzed, Miscellaneous Upkeep of a Gas Engine. Automobiles * 35-40 Automobiles, Auto Hints, Tires. Concrete • 41-97 Materials, Advantages, Some Mistakes About Concrete, Portland Ce- ment, How Portland Cement is Packed, Storing Portland Cement, Aggre- gates are Composed of Sand, Gravel or Broken Stone, Natural Deposits of Aggregate, Water Tight Concrete, Broken Stone, Screening the Aggre- gate, Dirt in Aggregate, Washing Aggregate, Mixing Concrete, Table of Recommended Mixtures, Amount of Water to Use, Coloring, Protecting Finished Work, Concreting in Cold Weather, Test for Hardness, Rein- forced Concrete, Cost of Concrete Work, Illustrations for Calculating Quantities and Cost for Simple Concrete Structures, Calculating Cost of Concrete, Forms for Concrete, Construction of Concrete, Floors, Walks, and Other Pavements, Hints, Concrete Foundations, Piers and Walls, Solid Concrete and Concrete Blocks for Foundations, Water Tanks or Troughs, Construction of Trough and Tank, Sheep and Hog Troughs, Rectangular Concrete Hog Wallow, Milk and Cream Vats, Manure Pits, Concrete in Cow Barn, How to Build Dairy Barn Floors, Alleyway, Stall Floor, Manger, Feedway, Horse Barn Floors, Concrete Mangers, Con- crete Fence Posts, Timber Post Facts, Cisterns, Construction, Material Required, Stairways and Steps, Construction of Basement Steps, Step Forms, Portland Cement Stucco, Constituents of Stucco, Stucco Lath, Application of Stucco, Methods of Applying Stucco on Old Brick, Mak- ing Old Frame Buildings, New Stucco on New Work, Surface Finishing and Coloring, Surface Finish for Concrete. TABLE OF CONTENTS Pages Modern Heating Plants 98-104 Advantages of Hot Air Furnace, Disadvantages, Pipe Hot-Air Furnace, Design and Installation of Hot-Air Furnace, Ordering Hot-Air Furnace, Chimney, Construction of Chimney, Other Heating Systems, Installation of Hot "Water, Steam and Vapor Systems, Steam Heating Systems, Va- por Heating Systems. Water Supplies, Plumbing and Sewage Disposal for Country Homes . . . 105-148 Sewage Disposal Systems, Farm Water Supply, Surface Supplies, Underground Water Supplies, Pumping, Storage and Distribution of Water, Plumbing, Sewage Purification and Disposal, Final Disposal System, Grease Trap. Drainage 149-163 Benefits of Drainage, Removal of Free or Ground Water, Drainage as a Speculation, Outlining the Farmers' Drainage Problem, Staking out Drainage System, Grades, How to Survey, Capacity of Main Drain, Plac- ing the Laterals, Constructing the Ditch and Grading, Under Drainage, Location, Outlet, Size, Depth and Grade of Tile Needed, Depth to Lay Tile, Size and Grade, Clay and Cement Tile, Trenching, Back Filling, Blasting Rock, Open Drains, Cost and Profit of Tile Drainage, Drainage Projects, To Determine the Value of Drainage. Irrigation 164-175 Acts of the Government of U. S., Sources of Irrigation Water, Conser- vation of Irrigating Water, Measurement of Water. "^arming as a Business 176-196 Business Methods, A Sample Farm Inventory, How to Figure Farm Profit, Co-operative Association, Kinds of Co-operative Organizations. Farm Planning and Farm Agriculture 197-228 Designing the Large Units, Farm Buildings, Hog House, Sheep Barn, Poultry House, Removable Chicken House, Granary, Potato Warehouse, Root Cellar, Lightning Protection. Paints 229-239 Precautions to be Observed in Painting, Paint Bases, Imitations of Dif- ferent Kinds of Wood, Varnishes, Glues. Rope and Its Use 240-271 General Information, Preventing the Ends of Rope from Untwisting, Loops Between the Rope's Ends, Hitches, Splices, Blocks and Tackle, Theoretical Discussion. HANDY HOME HELPS Kitchen Helps 272-297 Butter Paddles, Butter, Coffee, Eggs, Fruits, Meats, Keeping of Meats, Curing Meats, Vessels for Curing, Preservatives, Curing in Brine and Dry Curing Compared, Recipes for Curing, Smoking of Meats, Keeping Smoked Meats, Milk, Pastries, Cake, Vegetables, Miscellaneous. To Clean and Remove 298-307 To Clean, Marble, Painted Doors, Walls, etc., Silver, Sponges, Ammonia Facts, Javelle Water, to Remove. Bugs and Pests 308-314 Ants, Bees, Bird Robbers of Fruit, Bugs, Fleas, Flies, Gnats, Insects, Lice, Mice, Mosquitoes, Moths, Roaches, Sparrows, Spiders, Tobacco in Garden Use, Worms. TABLE OF CONTENTS Pages Laundry Helps 315-323 Washing, Liquid Dye Colors, Drying, Ironing, Excellent Stain Removers. Clothing — How to Fix Over and Renew 324-328 Aprons, Buttons, How to Save, Fix Over or Renew, Dye, Hats, Gloves, Shoes, Rubbers, Stockings, Ties, Rompers, Skirts, Shirts, Rag Bag, Silks, Sun Bonnets, Velvet, Unironed Clothes, To Fireproof Goods, To Keep Colors Bright, To Keep Furs, To Remove Grease from Cloth, Mending, Dress Form. Inks, Pastes, Cements, Etc 329-330 Cements, Ink, Pastes, Miscellaneous Recipes for Polishing Metals, Wood- work, etc. Recipes fob Polishing Metals, Woodwork, Etc 331-333 Miscellaneous _ 334-340 Handy Devices for the Farm 341-347 MECHANICS OF THE FARM. PART ONE. FARM GAS ENGINES. Introduction. In these days of high costs, the subject of power is of vital interest to every farmer. Farm labor is becoming so high priced, and so hard to get, that the farmer must adopt some means of getting the work done without the help of labor. Let us compare the cost of work done by man, horse, and engine. A horse can do approximately ten time as much work as the average man ; an engine at the same cost can do ten times more than a horse. Therefore, for certain classes of work it is evident that if the cost of man power to do it would be one dollar, a horse could do it for ten cents, and an engine could do it for one cent. This ratio will not work out for every use to which a man, a horse, or an engine may be put, for, wherever intelligence is required, man power is necessary, and the element of strength must take second place. Mechanical Power on the Farm. The recent development of farm machinery and internal combustion en- gines has made it possible for the farmer to do a large part of his work by machinery. Statistics from the census reports tell us that the farmer is one of the most extensive users of gas engines. Power Produces Profit. If the farmer applies an engine to one-fourth of his work, he can produce five times as much as he has been doing by hand, for the same money. A profit from such a multiplication of power of five hundred percent will retire interest and capital in a very short time. A 5-h. p. gas engine, linked up to a wood saw, with two men to operate it, will saw 30 cords of wood in one day. Any farmer can easily see the comparison between what two men do with a machine and without one. (See Plate I). Not only does the use of power on the farm produce profit, but it makes the farm work easier for the farmer and family, and gives him time to enjoy other things, to develop himself as a citizen, educate his family, and get all there is out of life. By the change in means of transportation alone, the life of the farmer has been revolutionized. The small touring car has practically eliminated the horse for quick transportation to and from the business center. But the strangest effect of all is that the horse has not been decreased in price. THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 30-60 H. Pi Kerosene Tractor FARM GAS ENGINES 3 The coming of the engine has opened so many new fields, and has made life so much broader and more profitable on a farm, that the demand for horses is greater than it ever was, even though they have been largely replaced by engines. Therefore the engine is a real step in the progress of the people, and in order to compete successfully with other professions during these progressive times, the farmer must be thoroughly equipped with power of a mechanical kind. Next to gas power, electricity is coming in very rapidly, and will be one of the chief sources of power in the future. Gas Engine Uses on the Farm. A number of uses for the small gas engine are listed below : air. compressors blowers bone cutters bottle washers bread mixers butter workers cement mixers cement tile and block machines churns cider mills clippers corn binders corn huskers corn pickers corn shellers corn shredders cotton gins cream separators dish washers drill presses electric light plants elevators fanning mills feed cutters feed mills grain binders grain dumps grain graders grindstones hay and grain hoists hay presses honey extractors ice cream freezers lathes lime pulverizers meat grinders milking machines motor boats mowing machines plowing machines potato diggers potato sorters pumps refrigerators sewing machines silage cutters spraying outfits stone crushers stump pullers threshing machines tool grinders transportation vacuum cleaners ventilating fans washing machines well drills wood saws wood splitters The above list is probably nearly complete today, but every year several new items will be added. Every farmer does not have this variety. He should pick out the ones which are necessary on his farm, study the machinery to be driven, and then buy the engine or engines which will most easily do the work. 4 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Ordinarily a farmer should have a portable engine. If he needs two engines one should be stationary. Many farmers have almost as many engines as they have horses. By getting them in different sizes and different designs, the greater part of the farm labor can be done mechanically. GROUPING. Instead of having a large barn full of horses to do the various kinds of work, the farmer now has a large shop, with a line shaft to which are connected sev- eral machines. The shop may be partitioned off so that one part can be used as a dairy, another as a wood shed, another as a corn shelling bin, another for electric lighting machinery, and so on. It must not be forgotten that the 6 H. P. Saw Kig at work cutting stove wood from poles. It is just as handy at this work as catting up corkwood i Plate I extension can be run into the home, thus solving the hired girl problem by operating the washing machine, the wringer, the churn, and many other household labor-saving appliances. Details of the various plans and usages will be given in the following chapters. Elements of a Gas Engine. inc gas engine is an internal combustion engine. By internal combus- tion engine is meant that the fuel is burned inside the cylinder. In contrast, the steam engine is an external combustion. The fuel is burned outside of the boiler, heating the water, thus producing steam, which, in turn, is ad- mitted to the cylinder and produces the power. Internal combustion engines use such fuel (either gaseous or liquid), FARM GAS ENGINES 5 as natural gas, producer gas, alcohol, gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, distillate, or crude petroleum. An engine burning any one of these fuels internally is said to be a gas engine, that is, it must be converted into a gas before it can be used in the engine. Strictly speaking, engines using natural gas, producer gas or any artificial gas would be called gas engines, all others, such as gasoline engines, alcohol engines, naphtha engines, kerosene engines, etc., being named after the kind of liquid used. Of these, gasoline engines are the most common. The word has been abbreviated to "Gas Engine" so that in common use, "Gas Engine" covers all of these engines. Principles of Combustion. Burning, as is usually observed and understood, is applied to the combus- tion of some liquid or solid, but before these can be burned they must be con- verted into a gas or vapor. Nearly all fuels are based upon the combinations of carbon and hydrogen. Natural and artificial gas, wood, coal, kerosene, and gasoline, are for the most part composed of these two materials or elements. In the combustion of solids or liquids, they are first heated to a high temperature, liberating the carbon and hydrogen which pass off in the form of gas. These then unite with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water. This chemical combination produces heat and is known ordinarily as combustion or burning. Just as the expansive power of steam is used in the steam engine, the expansive power of gas is used in the gas engine. Upon application of heat, steam becomes very powerful. The rapid combustion and sudden heating of gases in a cylinder by explosion will heat up these gases to such an extent that they must expand. The Simple Principle of a Gas Engine. Therefore if the proper amount of fuel and air be admitted to the cylinder in front of the piston and ignited, it will quickly burn, causing heat, raising the temperature, which will in turn expand the gases and push the piston to the other end of the cylinder. In doing this it accomplishes work. On the return stroke the cylinder must be cleaned out, ready for the next charge. On the third stroke a new charge is drawn in. On the fourth the new charge is compressed ready for ignition. The whole process is repeated. This is, in simple terms, the story of the gas engine. The Elements of a Gas Engine and Their Duties. One must be thoroughly acquainted with the principles above set forth and the simple elements of a gas engine before he can operate one and take care of it. At first it will seem complex but after a little study and use it will be easier to take care of than a horse or cow. The engine is composed of: 1st, a cylinder, where the combustion takes place and the heat energy is changed into mechanical energy. This is the 6 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING principal part of the engine. 2nd. Pistons which fit in the engine are free to move a limited distance back and forth in the cylinder. 3rd. The connect- ing rod, which joins the piston with the crank of the main shaft, thus limit- ing the motion of the piston. 4th. On the shaft will be placed one or more fly wheels which develop the energy and make the motion of the engine uni- form. 5th. The ignition, which in the modern engine is electrical, is used to discharge fuel and air in the cylinder. 6th. A governor to control the engine and keep it at a uniform speed. 7th. A base or a foundation to support the engine and take up the vibrations. 8th. The fuel intake which is controlled by the governor regulates as to quantity and the time of admission to cylinder. 9th. The exhaust valve which is connected with the control mechanism so that it will open at the proper time and let out the burned gases. 10th. The carburetor which mixes the fuel, either liquid or gases, with a proper amount of air. 11th. The lubricating system which carries oil to every part that needs lubrication. 12th. The cooling system which consists of a water jacket or an especially designed air cooled jacket which carries the excess heat away as fast as it is produced. The Operation of a Gas Engine. There are two distinct classes of the internal combustion engine, the four-stroke cycle and the two-stroke cycle. These terms have been abbrevi- ated to read four-cycle and two-cycle. In England the former names are still used, the abbreviated names being used only in America. The two-cycle engine has one explosion for every two strokes of the piston and similarly the four- cycle engine produces one explosion for every four strokes or two revolutions. The four-cycle engine is the more common of the two and will be given the first consideration and the most space. The two-cycle engine is used mainly in marine work. The events in the operation of a four-cycle engine are as follows: 1st, suction; 2nd, compression; 3rd, ignition; 4th, expansion; 5th, exhaust; 6th, suction, the same as number 1. (1) Suction or Intake Stroke. — With the cylinders clear of any gas and the piston at the head end as shown in figure 1, the crank begins to turn, the piston recedes and sucks in a charge of gas and air through the intake valve. This valve is fitted with a weak spring so that a small suction will open it, or in some engines it is fitted up with a mechanism so that it may be opened positively by a cam during the period of suction stroke. At the end of the suction stroke the intake valve closes and the crank is at the outward end of its motion. (2) Compression Stroke. — As the wheel turns the piston will return to the head end, and both valves being closed the charge will be compressed. This is the end of the compression event. (3) Ignition. — Shortly before the piston reaches the end of the stroke the charge of fuel is ignited or fired, by means of an electric spark. The charge is fired before the completion of the compression stroke in order to give FARM GAS ENG-INES Tnfak e 3tr~oke <7////////////////////////////A , ' : ,■' : : n <::■ / V/////////////////////////A Compress/or) Stroke 2ZZZZZZZZ2ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ1 - Y ///////.rrr—7 .".- -■— - '///////\ Horkma Stroke \\\\\\\\\\\ Exhaust Stroke irzzzrr.z^ 1 y ■■■ : ///////////////////////a figure I 8 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING time for complete compression before the piston starts on the return or work- ing stroke, thus utilizing the full heat energy in the fuel. (4) Expansion Stroke. — The outgoing stroke after ignition is caused by the high temperature and high pressure due to the combustion of the fuel charge. This forces the piston to the other end of the cylinder. During this stroke the intake valve and exhaust valve are both closed. At the end of the stroke the exhaust valve is opened. This is commonly spoken of as the "Working Stroke." (5) Exhaust Stroke. — This is the last event in the cycle. During this stroke the piston forces all of the burned gases out of the cylinder through the exhaust ports. At the end of the exhaust stroke the intake valve opens and the process is repeated as before. In the two-cycle engine operation, on first thought it would appear that the two-cycle engine is superior to the four-cycle, as it takes only two strokes for one explosion, and the four-cycle requires four strokes. But the losses and disadvantages in the construction and operation of the two-cycle render this inferior to the four-cycle for most uses. The construction of a two-cycle engine is more simple than the four-cycle type. It has no valve such as the four-cycle, and the openings are made to open and close by the piston covering and uncovering the ports or openings in the cylin- der walls as it travels back and forth. Types of Two-Cycle Engines. There are two types of two-cycle engines, those having two ports and those having three ports. Position A, Figure 2, shows the two-port motor, the dotted lines on the side of the cylinder showing the position of the intake for the three-port design. The two-port would be described as follows : Position A shows the piston going up on the compression stroke. This is compressing the fuel charges as in the four-cycle engine, and at the same time a vacuum is created in the crank casing D. This sucks in a fresh charge of gas from the carburetor as shown. The ignition takes place just as in the four-cycle, and the expansion stroke follows. In position B the piston is shown near the end of the working or expansion stroke. It is seen that during the movement from this position to position C, the exhaust event takes place partially. At position C the first gas comes from the crank casing D to the cylinder, and is deflected upward by the deflecting plate, pushes out the old gases ahead of it, and fills the cylinder with a new charge. As the crank passes its center and starts up the compression stroke the intake and the exhaust ports are closed, and the compression stroke progresses as shown in Figure 2. This completes the cycle. Three-Port Engine. In the three-port engine the fuel intake is placed in the side of the cylinder below the exhaust port, so that it is opened and closed by the piston the same way FARM GAS ENGINES fcf ?: ^zzzzz^ 10 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING that the other ports are, so that when the piston is at the upper end of the com- pression stroke the valve is opened and the first gas enters the crank case in the same manner as in position A, Figure 2. Aside from this the operations are exactly the same as in the two-port cycle. These engines may be reversed by changing the time of ignition. Other advantages are simplicity, light weight, and cheapness. Some of its disad- vantages are that it never has a clean mixture : always some of the burned gases are mixed in with the fresh charge. But in well designed engines the amount of this mixture is not serious. The explosions being more frequent, the cooling and lubricating problems are necessarily harder. For general farm use the four-cycle is to be recommended as being more reliable and more economical in the long run. The Details of a Gas Engine. The elements and principal events of gas engine operation have already been cited, and it will be unnecessary to repeat them here. A study in detail of the parts and process that make the gas engine a success will be taken up. Carburetion. As previously mentioned, whether gas or liquids are burned in the cylin- der, it must be properly prepared first. The liquid must be vaporized and the proper amount of air added to support the combustion. In the gas fuel only the mixture of air need be added. There are numerous devices for receiving the gas, or gasoline or other liquid fuel vaporizing and mixing the vapor with air. A carburetor is a mixer of fuel with air. On many engines the car- buretor is called a mixer. See Figure 3. When using a liquid fuel it must be broken up into fine particles or vaporized. Secondly, it must be thoroughly mixed. Thirdly, the proper amount of air must be added. The operation of mixing is a simple process. The accompanying il- lustration will show one way in which it is done. The large pipe is the air inlet, and the small one meeting it at right angles is the fuel supply. When the air is drawn into the cylinder the fuel is drawn into the passageway by the same suction, and as it passes the needle valve it is divided into a thin spray. The air picks it up and carries it into the cylinder. The needle valve not only breaks up the fuel into a spray, but by its adjustment regulates the amount of fuel mixed with the air to make a perfect combustion. Most of the air passageway is obstructed at the part where the fuel enters, in order to increase the velocity of the air as it passes the fuel inlet, which helps to break it up into a finer spray or vapor. The liquid fuels which are on the market today do not completely vaporize by the above process. Many methods to accomplish this have been invented and put on the market. Since gasoline has become so high priced, because of its scarcity, the manufacturers, in order to get more of the product have FARM GAS ENGINES 11 12 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING decreased its quality. This lower grade of gasoline is harder to vaporize than the original gasoline used when automobiles and gas engines first came into use. Various methods of applying heat to the gas are now on the market and one of the simplest schemes is to take the air which is used in the mixture from off the hot pipes that leave the exhaust chamber. After the engine is running and the exhaust has heated the pipes, this method works all right, but in cold weather it is hard to start such a device until the carburetor and adjacent parts are warm. This can be done with hot cloths or hot water. Adjusting the Mixture of Fuel and Air. As the supply of air for the mixture is drawn from the atmosphere, it will be subject to the change of atmospheric conditions. A change in temperature will change the volume admitted and also the amount of moisture that may be carried by the air. It will also change the vaporizing power as noted above. Therefore carburetors are fitted with certain adjustments to change the pro- portion of fuel and air to meet atmospheric conditions. A simple carburetor is shown in Figure III. Also the speed of the engine will vary the suctions so that adjustments must be made automatic to give the proper mixture of fuel during high speed as well as low. The best carburetors on the market will do this. • It is the function of the carburetor or mixer to properly proportion the gases before they are turned into the engine. To regulate the speed of the engine, the governor will open and close the throttle as the speed is being increased or decreased respectively. The throttle is nothing more than a damper valve placed in the passageway between the carburetor and the cylin- ders. In the hit and miss type of governor, the number of charges taken into the cylinder, is controlled to meet variations in load conditions. By experiment, it has been found that there is one mixture of air and fuel which is the most economical, i. e., one which will produce perfect combustion and give out the most power. If more fuel is used, the mixture is too rich and will not burn properly, if less fuel is used, the mixture is too lean with practi- cally the same result. Either too much or too little is a waste. Lean mixtures will cause flames to pass through the air openings, which is known as backfiring. Neither will the engine pick up speed when the mix- ture is too lean, for it lacks power. Back-Firing. Back-firing is caused by a lean mixture as explained above. The fuel charge burns so slowly in the cylinder that when the intake valve opens on the fol- lowing suction stroke, the gas which is still flaminsr ignites the new charge, which explodes back through the carburetor * through the air passage. To remedy this trouble, open the needle valve to give more fuel or cut down the amount of air, which is the same thing. The manufacturer of FARM GAS ENGINES 13 every gas engine will give proper instructions for the regulating or adjust- ing of the carburetor for the conditions which are liable to happen during its life. Rich Mixture and Its Effect. When black smoke issues from the exhaust pipe a rich mixture is in- dicated. An odor of fresh fuel will also be detected in the waste gases. This waste fuel ignites and explodes in the exhaust passages and sometimes blows off the muffler. A rich mixture will also heat up the cylinder quickly, and the ignition points or spark plugs will become covered with carbon deposits in a short time and will make the cylinders miss, a decrease in the amount of power resulting. To correct this, the process is just opposite to a lean mixture — either close the fuel valve or add more air. When the mixture is properly proportioned, the exhaust will be clear. Do not mistake the blue smoke coming from the exhaust for a rich mixture, because this is due to over-lubrication. It is a black smoke which indicates too rich a mixture. In kerosene engines a blue smoke may be seen coming from the exhaust at times. This will indicate incomplete combustion or excess lubrication. Conclusion. — The method of the modern manufacturer is to test out the mixing values and carburetors of his special engine and if the fuels which he recommends are used, there should be no trouble in operating the engine. Study carefully the discussion given here, and most cases of trouble will be taken care of with the least expense. Gas Engine Combustion. 'The ordinary definition of "combustion" means simply burning. The burning of fuel in the gas engine cylinder is the same simple chemical process. It takes place under peculiar conditions. Ordinarily one sees these same fuels burning in the open with excess of air. But actually the fuel is in excess and the burning smokes considerably. In a gas engine cylinder, the mixture of fuel and air is so perfectly made that the result of the combustion is a clear gas and the time of burning is so sudden that it is called an explosion. Fuels. All products of petroleum, such as gasoline, kerosene, etc., are composed of the compounds of hydrocarbons which are combinations of carbon and hydrogen. , These two elements occur in various proportions depending upon the specific gravity and the addition of other elements. Atmospheric air is a mixture of, approximately, 23 parts by weight of oxygen and 77 parts by weight of nitrogen. This is a physical mixture. Carbon and hydrogen as a fuel are in chemical combination and in order for combustion to take place the combination must be broken up. It is partly accomplished by the spray, and partly by intense heat. 14 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING THE COMBUSTION. The air is our chief supply of oxygen. Oxygen is necessary to support combustion. This is why air and the fuel are drawn into the cylinder together. As soon as they are brought into the cylinder, they are compressed, in order to bring the molecules of the oxygen and of the hydrocarbons close together. Then by electric spark or some flame the mixture is ignited and an intense heat occurs as a result of the combustion of all these elements. The carbon and oxygen unite to make carbon dioxide, and the hydrogen unites with the oxy- gen to make water. It would be ideal if only oxygen could be added to the fuel mixture, but it is cheaper to get the oxygen from the air, and since the air contains only 23 percent oxygen, a large quantity of it must be used. It has been theoretically determined that 203 cu. ft. of air are required to burn one pound of gasoline. In practice, from 240 to 260 cu. ft. are drawn into the cylinder for the proper combustion of the pound of fuel. It has been said before that each engine has its own peculiarities. The amount of air and gasoline should be mixed ac- cording to its demand. Combustion and Explosion. The process of combustion in the engine is oftentimes called an explosion. This needs an explanation. It is very near an explosion, and in one sense it can be said that it is. An explosive compound is a mixture of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen chemically, so that there is no necessity for an outside supply of oxygen, that is, all of the combustible parts are contained within the chemi- cal mixture or compound. When set on fire the chemical change takes place without the assistance of any outside influence excepting heat. Now the difference is only this : hydrocarbons of the fuel in the gas engine are mixed physically with the oxygen of the air, while the hydrocarbons in an explosive compound are combined chemically with the oxygen. The explosion is quicker, more certain and reliable. The combustion in the gas engine cylinder is slower' Timing the Ignition. The compression does not take place instantly. The ignition of a charge is usually a little bit previous to the time when it is actually needed in order to give the flame a chance to spread throughout the whole mixture. There- fore, the spark is applied to the mixture a little bit before the piston arrives at the compression end of the cylinder. As soon as it has completed its motion, combustion will have been completed, the temperature of the gases raised to the highest point, and the pressure developed so that the piston will be pushed back with maximum speed. To the human senses it appears that combustion takes place instanta- neously. However, with accurate instruments it will be found that this is not true. Some fuels will burn faster than others, and the speed is also affected by the volume of the charge, the temperature, and the perfection of the vapori- zation and proportioning of the air. Atmospheric changes during the year FARM GAS ENGINES 15 will affect these conditions, and make the starting: and working; of the engine erratic at times. Cooling the Engine. Almost constant burning of fuel inside the engine, at a high temperature, heats the cylinder up to two thousand to twenty-five hundred degrees F. Therefore it is necessary to provide some means of carrying off this heat. Water and air are the two common mediums for doing: this. If these fail to do their duty the cylinder will heat up, and before the electric spark will have a chance to ignite the fuel charge the heat of compression and the heat of the cylinder is likely to discharge it. This occurrence is called pre-ignition or premature ignition and is recognized by a knocking: sound. It may be caused by four other reasons : 1st, compression too high ; 2nd, glowing carbon or glowing sharp points on the cylinder wall ; 3rd, uncertain ignition, and 4th, pockets of burning gas in the combustion chamber. These defects will be discussed later. The Source of Power in Gas Engines. The ideal fuel for gas engines is a liquid or solid fuel, which can be easily vaporized and mixed perfectly with air to form a combustible vapor. In burn- ing it should leave no carbon deposit, nor should it g;ive off any smoke or foul gas. This kind of fuel has not been found in practice, although high grades of gasoline approach it very nearly. Kinds of Fuel. The total number of fuels that are available and profitable to use is so large that only the most important and common ones will be mentioned. Standing first in America are the petroleum products, such as benzine, naphtha, gasoline, kerosene, distillate, and crude oil. In the next important group are natural gas, illuminating gas, power or producer gas, alcohol, and wood oil. The petroleum products are largely obtained from North America. There are large deposits in Russia, and many other countries, but the American fields easily supply half the world. There are two kinds of petroleum by-products in the United States, and in general the Mississippi .divides the fields containing the two products-. The Eastern field contains the products having a paraffin base, and the Western field contains a product having an asphalt base. Paraffin base means the character of the product left after the gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, and distillate have been driven off by heating. Along the Mississippi Valley the two kinds of oil are mixed. Composition of Crude Petroleum. To the user of a gas engine, the exact composition of crude oil is not of much interest except in its broad economic sense. It will be noticed from what fol- lows that certain parts of the crude oil are more valuable than others. The sim- ple conclusion would be for an engine which could use the most available product to gain by getting the cheap fuel. In Figure 4 is graphically shown the pro- portion of gasoline, distillate, lubricating oils, asphalt residue and waste from the Western petroleum. Gasoline is seen to be a very small part, and it has therefore become high priced as the demand for it increased. Kerosene, which is about one- 16 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Figt/nc 4- FARM GAS ENGINES 17 half of the total product, in view of its availability, is cheaper than gasoline. This will help to explain some of the differences between gasoline and kerosene on the market today. Separation of Petroleum Products. It will be interesting to know how these products are separated. The process is known as "fractional distillation." Crude oil as it comes from the earth is a thick, heavy black liquid. This liquid is put into large vessels and heat is applied to the exterior, the temperature being maintained constant at various points along the line. That is, the whole mass will be heated up to the temperature at which the gasoline vaporizes, and will be held at that temperature until all of the gasoline has passed off as a gas. It is led through a series of tubes and cooled and con- densed until it will flow into another vessel. Then the mass is heated again to a higher temperature, at which kerosene will vaporize, and kept at the temperature for some time, and the kerosene is taken oft in the same way as the gasoline, and so on for the lubricating oils. The paraffin base of the residue is used directly in many commercial fields, or it may be further distilled, and produce vaseline and a number of other well known petroleum products. The original gasoline of a few years ago was 3 percent. The demand has be- come so great for fuel that some of the higher grades of kerosene have been added to the gasoline, thus decreasing the quality of gasoline, but increasing the amount available. Recent inventions have brought in new methods of "cracking" some of the lower distillates and producing gasoline. This will help to save the gasoline as a fuel of the future. Perhaps further progress will soon be made along that line and this most wonder-fuel will be saved for us through many years to come. Petroleum Products Classified. Petroleum products can not be classified by the temperatures at which they are distilled. On the market they are known by their weight or specific gravity. The following diagram will show the correct approximate weight of petroleum products and the various distillates, and will explain what is meant on the market by tests of 70 or 80, etc. : The Baume Scale. The Baume Scale is of French origin and was invented to make a more con- venient form. As an example, suppose that a gasoline had a specific gravity of .9 and also has a Baume reading of 75 degrees or 75 degrees Baume. The terms Baume gravity and degrees Baume are the same. To convert Baume to specific gravity or specific gravity to Baume the two following formulas may be used : 140 Baume gravity = 130 Specific gravity 140 Specific gravity Baume gravity -f- 130 18 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING CORRECT APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS. Product Petroleum ether . Gasoline Naphtha . Kerosene Distillate . Degrees Specific Pounds in Baume Gravity One Gallon 95 .6222 5.18 90 .6363 5.30 85 .6511 5.42 85 .6511 5.42 80 .6666 5.55 75 .6829 5.69 70 .7000 5.83 69 .7035 5.86 68 .7070 5.89 67 .7106 5.92 66 .7142 5.95 65 .7179 5.98 64 .7216 6.01 63 .7253 6.04 62 .7290 6.07 62 .7290 6.07 61 .7329 6.11 60 .7368 6.14 59 .7407 6.17 58 .7446 6.20 57 .7486 6.24 56 .7526 6.27 55 .7567 6.30 54 .7608 6.34 53 .7650 6.37 52 .7692 6.41 51 .7734 6.44 50 .7777 6.48 49 .7821 6.52 48 .7865 6.55 47 .7909 6.59 46 .7954 6.63 46 .7594 6.63 45 .8000 6.66 44 .8040 6.70 43 .8092 6.74 42 .8139 6.78 42 .8139 6.78 41 .8187 6.82 40 .8235 6.86 39 .8284 6.90 38 .8333 6.94 37 .8383 6.98 36 .8433 7.03 35 .8484 7.07 34 .8536 7.11 33 .8588 7.15 32 .8641 7.20 31 S695 7.24 30 .8750 7.29 29 .8805 7.34 28 .8860 7.38 FARM GAS ENGINES 19 Petroleum Fuels Now on the Market. As mentioned previously, the great demand for gasoline in the past decade has forced the manufacturers to decrease in quality in order to get more quantity. It is quite common now to get gasoline as low as 60 Baume and in some extreme cases they are listing it as low as 5*6 degrees, with kerosene as high as 48 degrees Baume. This fuel can be used in the small farm engines just as well as the high grade fuels with the exception that the starting is a little more difficult. If in- structions to warm the fuel and engine are followed strictly, there will be no trouble in using them. Heating Value of Petroleum Products. Although the commercial value of petroleum products is easily determined by the degrees Baume, it is another one of the properties which really decides the matter. Fortunately the higher degrees Baume correspond exactly with the higher heat values of the fuels. Heat is measured in "British thermal units" (B. t. u.). A British thermal unit is understood to be the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of pure water, one degree Fahrenheit Below will be given a table showing the B. t. u. value of the petroleum products before listed. Although the number of heat units vary in the different products, the avail- able power from each engine using that particular product seems to be about the same. The efficiency of the machine depends more upon the design of engine than upon the kind of fuel. Power Rating of the Gas Engine. Manufacturers of tools for any industry have certain terms which have special meanings, to describe the properties of their products. It is difficult for them to use any other terms, and even in talking to a layman, these terms become so familiar to the manufacturer that he feels because they are so familiar to him they must be to every one else. When he comes in contact with a layman, who has not encountered these terms, there is necessarily some confusion. The layman can see by his manner that he is expected to know what the terms mean, and rather than embarass his friend he will give his attention and assent to many things which he does not understand. Such terms as "power rating," "piston displacement," "Horse Power," "Brake Horse Power," "Draw Bar Horse Power," "Foot-pound," "work," "power," etc., will be defined here in a simple way and thus bring about an understanding between two friends. Power rating is a term used to express the strength of a gas engine, or the amount of work it will do in a given time. Displacement in cubic inches, is that volume of the cylinder through which the piston passes. It is the same as the volume of the cylinder whose height is the length of the stroke, whose diameter is the diameter of the piston. Automobile en- gines which are qualifying for races must not allow piston displacement to be over a certain number of cubic inches, so that the best car will be the one which will make the best use of the fuel in a given space. Competition, therefore, is be- tween quality of design and not in size of car or engine. Power. Power is defined as the amount of work that can be done in a unit of time. Work is a unit produced by a force acting through a distance and is measured in foot-pounds. That is, a foot-pound is the amount of work required to raise one pound a foot high. 20 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Remember that work and power are not the same. Work does not take into consideration the time element, but power does. The unit of measurement of power is defined by James Watt as the rate of doing 33,000 foot-pounds per minute. Indicator or Indicated, and Drawbar Horse Power. Mechanical engineers have a method of measuring the amount of power ex- pended by the burning gases in the cylinder. The instrument they used is called the "Indicator" and the horse power determined is the indicated horse power. Horse power referred to above is not that which is available for use, so that power is measured again at the fly-wheel. The power developed by the engine and transmitted to the belt is measured by means of a Prony Brake. The Prony Brake is clamped on the fly-wheel much the same as shown in the figure and the bar weighted so as to give the engine a uniform motion consuming the maximum amount of fuel. The calculations are then made giving the amount of horse power delivered. The difference between the last two horse powers will be the mechanical fric- tion of the engine parts. In motor vehicles, such as automobiles, tractors, etc., another kind of horse power is used. This is called the "draw bar horse power," and it measures the pulling power of a tractor or motor vehicle at the draw bar. Usually the draw bar horse power is about half of the brake horse power, that is, half the power is lost in the transmission and friction of gears and bearings. Calculating the Engine Horse Power. The horse power of engines may be determined by formula, but this method is inexact unless the exact quality of the fuel is known. However, for ordinary use it will give an approximate value. The formula for gasoline burning engines is as follows: DLN 0.5 Horsepower = 16,400 and for kerosene burning engines is D 2 LN 0.75 Horsepower = 21,875 D is the diameter of the cylinder; L is the length of the stroke; N is the number of revolutions per minute. Diameter and length are measured in inches. This will give the power for a single cylinder engine. When more than one cylinder is used, multiply the results by the number of cvlinders. The Best Way to Get Horse Power. The only sure way to know the horse power of the engine is to test it. The Prony Brake or drawbar spring either can be used to determine the respective kind of horse power. FARM GAS ENGINES 21 Formulas will be found unreliable, since all they can do is to give the dimen- sions of the cylinder, and some constant representing the quality of the fuel. One automobile concern has been able to almost double the power of its engines without increasing the size. This is accomplished by greater refinement in design. Brake Test for Gasoline Engines. The farmer often would like to know whether the manufacturer has given him all that he has paid for. This he can easily determine himself by the fol- lowing method. Construct a Prony Brake as shown in Figure 5. This can be done by anyone with four pieces of 2-inch lumber, a piece of strap iron, a platform scale, nails, screws, blocks, etc., as shown. The friction blocks that are set against the wheel should be of soft wood and a little wider than the wheel. It is con- venient to notch them so they will not slip off sideways. Operation. Place the brake on the wheel as shown, resting the shoe on the platform scale and with the wing nut on the strap loose, to balance the platform scale. Start the engine while the brake is loose. Slowlv tighten up the wing nut, at the same time putting on more power. Keep the platform scale balanced. When the full amount of fuel has been admitted, adjust the wing nut so that uniform speed will be maintained. With a speedometer or counter determine the number of revolutions per minute. By using the following formula the brake horse power will be determined. Compare this with the manufacturer's statement of the brake horse power. (W) (A) (N) H. P. = 5252 Where W = Weight registered on scales. A = Lever arm (see figure). N = Number of revolutions per minute. Follow the directions carefully. If one has never made the test before he should proceed with caution. Be sure that the brake is put on the fly-wheel so that it turns in the direction indicated by the arrow. To make an accurate reading follow the formula. If the engine should test higher than it is rated of course this will please. It should not be run at its maximum rating, however. Usually the manufactur- ers have tested out the engine and considered the rating at which it will be the most economical. Engines should be run at nearly their full horse power but in no case should they be overloaded. The Need for Testing the Engine. It is not so much to compare the rated horse power with the actual as it is a matter of maintenance that the brake test should be used. If the owner has 22 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING FARM GAS ENGINES 23 tested the engine when it is new, then once or twice a year repeating the process he will always have an idea as to the condition of the engine. He will know whether it is losing strength or gaining. In case he finds the engine is losing its power he should investigate immediately. (See chapter on Troubles.) Economy Test. Manufacturers will not only rate the horse power of the engines, but also say on what fuel the horse power can be maintained for a certain number of hours. Proceed as follows : After determining the brake horse power test, set the scale beam at the rated horse power loaded, and by adjusting the wing nut keep the scale beam balanced and run the engine for half an hour or an hour. At the end of this period of preliminary running, if everything is found to be uniform, measure the amount of fuel by weighing, and proceed with the test, noting the time it takes to uSe up a weighed amount of fuel. The amount of fuel used may be that which the manufacturer claims will do the work in the given time. This will be found the simplest way to run the economy test. The Power House or Shop on the Farm. Economical use of power on the farm is obtained mainly by concentrating it in one plant as near as possible. Of course there are some activities that must be handled by individual plants, such as a tractor for plowing, hauling, etc. This chapter will be given over to things which can be done mainly by a station- ary plant. The investment in the engine is oftentimes a burden, and unless it is kept at work it will not pay. An idle farm hand is certainly a losing proposi- tion. An idle engine will of course give similar results. Mistakes are often made in applying farm engines to work which is only done once or twice a year and over a short period of time, and leaving such work as is done every day to man power. This is a very serious mistake. Such work as pumping water, feed grinding, washing, weighing, churning, cream separating, dish-washing, milking, etc., should be the first ones to receive consideration. After the daily routine has been taken care of the special uses may be taken up in order of their importance. One of the first requirements for the proper use of an engine on the farm is a power house. In one corner of this power house should be a small room closed off with a dust-proof partition, in which the engine shall be placed. It should be placed on a solid foundation, with the fuel tank, water tank, etc., placed in the most advantageous position. The power may be transmitted by means of a line shaft or by an electric motor generator set much cheaper than the engine could be moved around from place to place as needed. The building should be made long, and narrow if necessary, with a line shaft running- the full length as shown in cut. Partitions can be placed between different types of machines. Some are necessarily dusty, and should be separated from the rest. 24 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Care. Too much cannot be said in regard to the care of the machinery, especially the gas -engine. There is nothing that will depreciate when exposed to weather more than a gas engine. It would be a better investment in every way to leave the gas engine in a well protected building and transmit the power by line shaft and belting or by electrical arrangement, than to continually move the engine and necessarily expose it to the elements. Location of the Power House. If a great amount of the power is used in connection with the barn, it should be located nearest the barn. If a connection with the house is impossible with a line shaft, and the expense too great to do it electrically, another small engine is usually the most "economical way for handling that trouble. The power to operate washers, sewing machines, etc., in the house are very small compared with that necessary for feed grinders, milking machines, buzz saws, etc. Design of the Power House. It is often necessary to build an entire new house, and this is the most ad- visable if funds will permit. In the beginning a section of the barn or wood shed might be used. After a small concrete mixer is installed the blocks can be made and as the farmer is not very busy at certain times of the year he should build the shop and move in at a convenient time. Considerable care should be given to the design of such a house, because changes are expensive. As has been said before, the building should be so made and arranged as to separate the various kinds of uses of the power and to fully protect the engine in a separate room. Diagrams are shown giving the ideal conditions. Of course these cannot be maintained in every place, but it will give some idea as to the best, and towards what one should work. FARM GAS ENGINES 25 Equipment of the Power House. After a satisfactory house has been built it should not be expensive to add the equipment and connect up the power with the machines to be used. A good buyer will look around the junk man's iron and steel pile and oftentimes find pieces of shafting- and pulleys which he can get for a very small price and which will answer the purpose satisfactorily. Shafting. Cold rolled steel shafting is the best for this purpose. In the table below is given the size of shaft, revolutions per minute, and horse power generated or transmitted. Following this table will be found another table showing the amount of horse power the different widths and thicknesses of belts will transmit with speed of a hundred feet of belt per minute. HORSE POWER OF SHAFTS FOR GIVEN DIAMETER AND SPEED. Diameter Revolutions per Minute of Shaft Inches 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 300 350 400 I- 3 - 1 16 2.4 3.0 3.6 4.2 4.4 5.4 6.0 7.2 8.4 9.6 1 -L - 1 16 4.3 5.4 6.5 7.6 8.6 9.8 10.8 13.0 15.2 17.2 1 ii 1 16 6.5 8.0 9.7 11.2 13.0 14.6 16.0 19.4 22.4 26.0 1 IS 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0 22.5 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 9_3_ & 16 14.0 17.8 21.0 24.5 28.0 31.5 35.6 42.0 49.0 56.0 HORSE POWER BELTING WILL TRANSMIT. Width of Belt H. P. per 100 Feet Belt-Speed Width of Belt Inches H. P. per 100 Feet Belt-Speed Width of Belt Inches H. P. per 100 Feet Belt-Speed Inches Single Belt Double Belt Single Belt Double Belt Single Belt Double Belt 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 .09 .18 .27 .36 .45 .55 .64 .73 .18 .36 .55 .73 .91 1.09 1.27 1.46 9 10 11 12 14 16 18 .82 .91 1.00 1.09 1.27 1.45 1.64 1.64 1.82 2.00 2.18 2.55 2.91 3.27 20 22 24 28 32 36 40 1.82 2.00 2.18 2.55 2.91 3.27 3.64 3.64 4.00 4.36 5.09 5.82 6.55 7.27 Pulleys. The local hardware man or implement dealer will be able to supply all the materials necessary from stock. If not you can easily order them. Use split wood pulleys, as they are most convenient to take off and put on when changes are necessary. However, the driving pulleys and any such pulleys as may be needed near the end of the shaft could be made of cast iron or steel, as these will be easily removable from the end of the shaft, and be more permanent than the wood. 26 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Spacing the Hangers. The hangers of the shaft should be spaced close enough to prevent any sagging, and especially should hangers be near heavy pulleys or pulleys with heavy belts carrying big loads. An extra hanger is of small importance in cost and will be very valuable in maintaining the shaft and bearing because if a shaft is allowed to bend too much it burns away the bearing and will ruin the shaft. An extra hanger or two will always prevent this. Machines and Line Shaft. The machines should always be placed with respect to the line shaft so that the belting will make an angle of about forty-five degrees with the horizontal. The distance from the pulley to the machine should be from eight to ten times the diameter of the largest pulley. Reliable Shop Power Set machine so that the center lines of the shaft of the machine and the line shaft are parallel so that the center lines of the pulleys will coincide. The Engine and the Machines. If possible place the largest machines or those requiring the most power near the engine. In transmitting the power the line shaft is twisted. The work of twisting the shaft takes up some of the power of the engine, and consequently, the shorter the shaft the less power will be lost this way. Managing the Power Plant. After the power house, machines, and engine have been placed, another very vital problem arises. The engine of course is large enough to drive the largest machines and may be made large enough to drive more than one of the large machines, if it is necessary during a day's use to put two machines in operation at the same time. Bear this in mind, that the engine should be run at its rated FARM GAS ENGINES 27 capacity if possible. Then it will consume the least amount of fuel per horse power hour. Therefore arrange to have one or two of the larger machines and several of the smaller machines running at the same time. Farm work may be managed to bring about this result. Also the caretaker of the machines and engine will find it possible to take care of several machines as well as one. Then the engine and one machine would not require all of his time and what was not necessary would not be lost. A speedometer or counter should be one of the tools about the power house. This is a convenient piece of apparatus shown in Figure 6. Pulleys, Speeds and Sizes. The calculation of pulleys, speeds and sizes is a very simple matter after the speed of the engine and the speed of the machines are shown. There are two kinds of pulleys, the driving pulley and the driven pulley. The driving pulley is the one at the engine or source of power and the driven pulley is at the machine or where the power is being used. The speed of the pulley will be represented in revolutions per minute (RPM). The diameter of the pulley will be called "D." When it is the driven pulley to have a subscript (m) and when it is the driving pulley it will have the subscript (p) ; (m) standing for machine and (p) for power. The speed will be indicated by (RPM), subscript used the same as for diameter of pulleys. Four formula? will be given as follows : 1 D -=D ( RFM) m P m (RPM)p * 2. (RPM) — D m (RPM) m. m D 3. D =D OR™) • m P(RPM)^ 4. (RPM)^( RPM V m r> t> m TROUBLES. Gas engines have a reputation for causing trouble, which they are fast over- coming. Many users have little or no complaint to make. Many instruction books list the parts causing trouble instead of the trouble. In this discussion the operator will observe the symptoms of the trouble and find the remedy listed under that heading. Gas Engine Troubles. 1. Engine will not crank — engine stuck. 2. Engine will not start. 3. Low power — loss of power. 4. Misfiring. 5. Misfiring in one cylinder. 6. Sudden stop. 7. Back-firing. 8. Irregular running. 9. Overheating in cylinder. 10. 28 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Pre-ignition or pounding in cylinder. 11. Crank case explosions — two-cycle. 12. Smoke. 13. Engine gradually slows down and stops. 14. Excessive vibration. 15. Cam shaft rattles. 16. Wheezing scraping sounds. 17. Knocking and pounding — regular. 18. Irregular knocks. 19. Speed variation. The above troubles will be taken up in detail and the cause or causes will be given and remedies for each. It is suggested that the operator of a motor first look over the list above and find which one of the main troubles he is having, then turn the pages ahead which take up such trouble in detail. Under each of the main headings will be found the causes with their remedies. Troubles Analyzed. Hard to Start. — The engine may refuse to start for the following reasons : hot bearings, overheated piston, water frozen piston cylinder, bolts rubbing on base or oil shields, friction clutch holding load on engine, broken gears and wedges, water in cylinder, obstacles blocking wheel or gears, broken crank shaft, and dry bearing or rusted piston. Hot bearings may be caused by tightness, poor lubrication, scored bearing sur- faces, bent or sprung shaft, poor alignment, or shaft out of round. If bearings are tight, loosen them. If they are poorly lubricated, put on some more oil. If the bearing surfaces are scored, they will need to be put in a machine and machined until the scores are removed. It might be necessary to put in new bushings. If the shaft is bent or sprung, it must be taken to a machinist and straightened. The poor alignment may be corrected by adjusting the shaft and bearings. If these are not adjustable, take them to a machinist for correction. If the main shaft is out of round, it should be given to a machinist and turned to a true surface and new bearing fitted. If the piston is stuck due to overheating, first cool the cylinder, then add more oil and decrease the load. Arrange to have the cooling system supply a larger quantity of cold water to prevent happening again. If the cylinder leaks and the water is frozen the best thing to do is to pour hot water in the radiator or the water cooling tank to warm up the whole machine. Bolts rubbing on the base or oil shields. The bolts will have to be filed down so as to miss the base, or the oil shield may be bent out of place. If the friction clutch is holding the engine, it should be uncovered and loosened. If broken gears give trouble, they will have to be taken off and replaced. If there is any obstacle or locking of wheels or gears this can be sometimes determined without taking off the gear casing from the fact that the gears will turn one way and will not turn the other. The gear casing may be taken off an'd the gears inspected. Look for other troubles first. Open the crank case and see if the crank shaft is all right, it may be broken. In that case a new crank shaft will have to be secured. If the engine has been standing a long time, the bearings may be dry or rusted and a thorough dismantling and cleaning up will be necessary and plenty of oil added. Starting Troubles. — The engine may refuse to start for the following reasons: the fuel valve closed in tank, no gasoline in the tank, gas shut off at FARM GAS ENGINES 29 meter, battery or magneto switch open, broken or disconnected magneto wire, dirty electrodes, broken ignitor springs, weak batteries, magneto not generating, foul spark plugs, short circuit, defective spark coil, defective timer, storage bat- teries, no compression indicator, carburetor trouble due to poor mixture, cold weather carburetor trouble, high altitude, air leaks in cylinder, vibrator on high tension spark coil may be out of action. If the engine refuses to start, investigate the fuel supply first, then the mag- neto and battery switch. If these are found all right, see if there is a broken con- nection, or dirty electrode, or a broken ignitor spring. Test the batteries and magneto for weakness. Take out the spark plug and see if it is clean ; there may be a speck of carbon between the two points. Be sure that the electric wires are not short circuited or crossed in some way. The spark coil may be defective, and if it is, it should be taken to an electrician for repairs. Open the timer and see if the contacts are all right. The piston may leak and give low compression. Due to a sudden change in weather or to tinkering, the carburetor may be im- properly adjusted and the mixture not properly made. If there are any leaks in the cylinder between the carburetor and the cylinder, these should be closed up, as a certain amount of air will get in. Watch the vibrator. It may be out of order. When the engine is turned over see that the vibrator buzzes. No Power or Loss of Power. — Power loss trouble may be brought about by the fuel valve being partly closed, the air damper closed, compression release cam being left in "starting" position, throttle left in "starting" position, retarded sparks reducing power, advanced spark causing excessive loss of power and pounding, weak batteries, vibrator adjustment, spark plugs foul, foul ignitor on make and break system, defective timer, clogged muffler, long exhaust pipe or exhaust has short bend, magneto troubles, lack of oil, hot bearings, crank case leak- age on two-cycle engines, and carburetor troubles. Fuel valves, dampers, etc., may jar shut or out of position. These should be inspected when the power seems to be varying. Note and see if all the adjustments have been changed from starting position to running position. A retarded spark will reduce the power and an advanced spark will cause pounding and also reduc- tion of power. Weak batteries will give a poor spark and reduce the power. Test the vibrator adjustment and see that it is working. Investigate the spark plugs and ignitors and see if they are fouled. The timer may be out of adjustment or con- tacts not clean. If the muffler is clogged up with soot or if the exhaust pipe has too many bends, it will reduce power. Test the magneto. Look at the supply of oil. If the bearings are hot, cool them with cold water and add oil. If the crank case leaks in a two-cycle engine, it must be closed. Inspect the carburetor and see if its adjust- ments are O. K. If there is a leakage in the compression, it may be found by turning the en- gine over dead center on the compression stroke. If it passes easy, there is a leak. This should be investigated and stopped up by new rings or machining. Too cold water on the water jacket will reduce the power. For gasoline en- gines the water should be about 160 degrees, and for kerosene 200 degrees F. The valves should be inspected for timing. 30 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Warm air intake will reduce the mixture in the cylinder, and thus reduce the power. High altitudes will reduce the output of engines. Worn cams, rollers, and timing gears will change the timing and reduce the power. When the valve opening is too small, it will cause a back pressure and loss of power. If the spring is too stiff on the intake valve, not enough fuel will get in. Valves may be stuck in the guides, especially if the oiling is not well done. The magneto may be out of time and the valve gear worn. Misfiring. — Misfiring may be caused by loose wires or dirty connections, swinging ground wire caused by poor insulation, a broken wire, weak or exhausted batteries, poorly adjusted vibrator on high tension system, foul spark plugs, dirty electrodes, moisture causing short circuit, magneto out of order, powerless some- times caused from misfiring, defective or short circuited spark coils, defective timer, run down storage batteries, water in gasoline, worn valve gear, leaky ex- hause valve, poor mixture of fuel and air, air leaks between carburetor and cylinder, valves out of time, leaky automatic intake valve, compression leaks, empty fuel tanks, spark gap too large in spark plugs. The above causes for misfiring suggest their own remedy except in a few cases. The adjustment of the vibrator may be done while the engine is running. The defects may be determined by listening to the buzz when the engine is stopped on the firing position. If the buzz is uniform and continuous the vibrator is prob- ably all right. If not it must be adjusted. Foul or dirty parts must be cleaned. By inspecting the timer, note particularly that the moving parts are well cleaned and that they have a good contact at every turn. In case of water in the gasoline, the tank should be emptied, the carburetor emptied and a complete new supply in- stilled. Leaky exhaust valves can be determined by turning* the engine over on compression. If the compression is weak and there is a hissing sound in the ex- haust valve, it indicates a leak. This may be corrected by cleaning but as a last resort they can be reground with emery. Air leaks between the carburetor and cylinder may be determined by listening closely to the intake valve and intake manifold. To correct, the manifold should be taken off and repacked. If the valves are out of time, the gears operating the cams will have to be taken off and readjusted. Look at the spark plug and see if the spark gap is too large. This can be determined by a test. Misfiring in Cylinders. — Misfiring in one cylinder may be caused by this cylinder having a heavier carbon deposit than any other, or one cylinder may have a leak, or it may be out of time, or a poor contact in the timer, or it may have a loose wire lead to the misfiring cylinder, or a sooted plug, or the magneto distribu- tor may be fouled with dust, or one vibrator may be stuck. All of the above causes are practically self-explanatory. Where there are poor contacts these should be corrected by piping or cleaning. Where the wires are loose, they should be tightened. Sudden Stopping. — Sudden stopping is caused when the ignition switch is jarred open, the fuel exhausted in the tank, wires broken, loose connections of the wires, carburetor nozzle clogged with dirt, fuel pipe clogged leading to the carburetor, timer broken, or defective magneto, hot bearings bind the shaft, or defective ignitor, or water in the gasoline, or hot cylinder when the piston is seized, no oil, or a poor mixture of oil, it is hard to find such troubles as open switches, FARM GAS ENGINES 31 broken wires or connections, etc., except by opening the casings or protecting cov- erings and inspecting. The first thing of course is to investigate the control switches and fuel connections. Try to turn the engine over and if it will not turn, the trouble is probably a hot bearing or a hot cylinder. These should be cooled with cold water and properly oiled and if any damage has been done to them it should be corrected before using again. Back-firing. — Back-firing is caused by a poor mixture due to carburetor adjustment, retarded spark, clogged carburetor nozzle or fuel pipe, leaky inlet valve on engine, air leaks in cylinder, or intake valve, wide open throttle at full load, on low speed may be caused by admitting too much air to the carburetor, valves out of time, or a defective timer on high tension system, and by weak batteries. When troubled with back-firing first try enriching the mixture by cutting off air supply and adding more fuel. If this corrects the trouble, a poor mixture was the cause. Try advancing the spark. If neither of these will cure the trouble, investigate the fuel supply to the carburetor. Test for leaks by putting on compression. If none of these will answer inspect the timing system and see if the timing gear has been placed correctly and last, test the batteries. Irregular Running. — Irregular running results from broken wire, dirty timer, sticking coil vibrator high tension system, worn make and break mech- anism, loose timer control rods, water in gasoline, clogged carburetor nozzle, weak exhaust valve spring or broken springs, air leaks between carburetor and cylinder, worn cams or cam shaft on multi-cylinder engine as well as a twisted shaft or loose gears. The above causes are mostly due to worn parts or negligence. These can be corrected by thorough inspection and over- hauling of the engina. Overheating in the Cylinder. — Overheating in the cylinder will result from a retarded spark, too rich a mixture, lack of oil in the cylinder, poor water circulation due to the jacket, poor compression, insufficient valve lift, clogged exhaust pipe, clogged muffler, clogged radiator, defective circulating pump, tight piston, lime deposits in cylinder, overload on the engine, and a closed water supply valve. What to Do With an Overheated Cylinder. — Advance the spark, and if this does not remedy it, try enriching the mixture. Next inspect the oil in the cylinder. Inspect the pump and water circulation around the jacket, and try the compression. Then open the valve edge and see if the lift is sufficient. Next inspect the exhaust pipe, muffler and radiator. If the engine will not turn over, the piston is probably tight. Cool the piston while the engine is still hot and this will loosen it. If none of these will do, probably the engine is overloaded. Inspect the water supply valve. Pre-ignition or Deep Pounding in the Cylinder. — Pre-ignition or pounding in the cylinder is caused by too much lubricating oil forming a deposit, a rich mixture forming a deposit, overheated cylinders especially in air-cooled en- gines, sharp edges in combustion chamber, deposit in cylinders, and deposits in kerosene engines are usually formed by running with a cold cylinder, or by having the intake air too cold. What to Do. — Open the cylinder and see if there are any deposits. If there are, use the methods already described to clean them. If there are any 32 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING sharp edges in the combustion chamber, file them off. They may be left to grow and cause pre-ignition. Crank Case Explosions in Two-Cycle Engines. — This will be caused by retarded spark or a poor mixture due to carburetor adjustment. Test both of these and see if the trouble is not eliminated. Smoke. — Black smoke is caused by too much gasoline or too rich a mix- ture, light colored smoke is caused by an excess of oil fed to the cylinder. Either of these can be remedied by taking care of the carburetor or the oil supply. Engine Gradually Slows Down and Stops. — This may be caused by weak or exhausted batteries, poor mixture due to carburetor adjustment, over- load on the engine, magneto slipping or governor out of order, or overheated bearings. Test your batteries. Enrich the mixture. If this does not help, take off some of the load, then try the magneto and see if it is slipping and put hand on the bearings and see if they are hot. Excessive Vibration. — Excessive vibration may be caused by poorly balanced engine crank shaft, twisted cam shaft may change valve timing and cause an uneven application of power, or an uneven wear on the cams or push rods may give an uneven application of power, or a defective timer may fire the cylinders at unequal periods, or the carburetor not situated at equal dis- tances from the cylinders may be the cause of the vibration. To correct this inspect the crank shaft and cam shaft especially as to wear. A machinist only can remedy the wear by machining and rebushing. If none of these are the trouble, note the position of the carburetor and change if necessary. Cam Shaft Rattle. — The cam shaft rattles because of retarded spark, or loose cam shaft bearings or gears, or loose cam rollers or pins. To remedy this, advance the spark, tighten up cam shaft bearings or cam rollers or pins. Wheezing and Scraping Sound. — A wheezing and scraping sound will be caused by broken piston rings, dry piston due to lack of oil, vibration of aux- iliary air valve on carburetor, tight piston, overheated cylinders, or fly-wheel scraping on metal shields. When a wheezing or scraping sound is heard, the cylinder should be opened and examined well for broken piston rings or lack of oil. Also see discussion for overheated cylinders. See if metal guards and shield are not rubbing on some moving part. Knocking and Pounding — Regular. — Knocking and pounding will be caused by ignition too far advanced, pre-ignition, overheated cylinders, loose bearings, loose piston rod bearing, loose fly-wheel, loose counterweights, end play in crank shaft, broken valve stem, broken circulating pump, and wear on cam shaft and cams. To remedy this, retard the spark. If this does not remedy the cause an examination of the cylinder should follow, then the bearings. Inspect thor- oughly the engine to see if there are any loose parts as indicated, to find any broken valve stems or broken pumps. Inspect also for wear. Tighten all loose parts. Take broken or worn parts to machinist. Irregular Knock. — An irregular knock is different from a regular and has an entirely different cause. It is usually caused by loose electrical connec- FARM GAS ENGINES 33 tions, loose piping, pre-ignition caused by same variable faults, or defective commutator or timer. Make a thorough inspection of electrical connections for loose piping. Look under discussion for pre-ignition for remedies to prevent this. Inspect commutator or timer for poor adjustment. Speed Variation. — Speed may vary due to misfiring, water in the fuel, irregular supply of gas, magneto slipping, defective fuel pump, defective gov- ernor, wear on valve gear, defective times, loose electrical connections, and a poor mixture. To remedy this read the paragraph on misfiring. Inspect engine for that cause. Empty the fuel tank and put in a fresh supply of clean fuel which is sure not to have water. Note the supply of gas, see if it is regular. See if the magneto belt is slipping. Inspect the fuel pump and governor, wear on valve gears, and make a thorough inspection of the timer. See if some electrical connection is not loose, which would part of the time be in contact and part of the time away. Enrich the mixture. The above discussion on gas engine troubles is quite complete and if properly followed will give a clue to most any trouble that has any chance whatever to happen. In cases where these do not cover, the engine should be taken to an engine works for treatment. Miscellaneous Upkeep of a Gas Engine. There are certain operations in the care of an engine which have been re- ferred to under "Gas Engine Troubles" but need a little further explanation. These will include the repair of worn parts, repair of cracked or broken parts, repair of warped parts, use of lubricating oil, general care of the engine, and starting and stopping the engine. Worn Parts. — The principal wearing parts of an engine are the piston rings, the valves and the bearings. If the piston rings are worn they may be replaced with new ones. Disconnect the connecting rods at the crank end and remove the piston by drawing out of the cylinder from below. Remove the old piston rings by springing them open with a screw-driver, put on the new ones and insert the piston, one ring at a time until all the rings are in. Some- times the piston becomes badly worn. In this case it must be replaced en- tirely. When valves are worn and leaking they can be repaired by grinding. If the valve does not show a bright bearing all the way around, it is in need of grinding. On the top of the valve will usually be found a slot which will re- ceive a screw-driver. To grind the valve proceed as follows : oil both seat of palate and seat of the valve. Sprinkle in some floured emery. Then with brace and screw-driver turn the valve backward and forward, occasionally lifting and supplying a new charge of oil and emery. When the valve becomes smooth and bright and turns without apparant grating friction, wipe it clean, examine it and proceed to grind more if necessary. When the grinding is done, wipe all the parts clean and replace the valve. If the spring is too 34 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING strong to allow placing the valve by the hand, compress the spring in a vise and tie it down with wires. When the valve is then put in position, cut the wires, replace the locknut and the valve is ready. Cracked Parts. — Sometimes the parts of the casings or even the moving parts are cracked from various causes. The water jacket suffers this trouble after freezing. Cracking of the water-jacket usually occurs after freezing and does not interfere in any way with the inside bore of the cylinder. A farmer with the proper tools will be able to make a satisfactory repairing of such an accident if it is not too large. Put a piece of sheet iron plate over the crack extending about an inch on each side. Bore a hole through the sheet into the jacket and tap the holes to receive screws. Clean the crack out with chisel so as to make a V-shaped groove. Saturate with a cream made of white lead and with an asbestos strip to form a mat in the groove. Cover it with the sheet metal and screw down tightly. This must be dried for several days before using. This will make a good temporary patch and will last well under ordinary service. Parts that are badly broken can not be replaced economically except from the factory or by some means of electric welding or acetylene welding. When engine is overheated or bearings are overheated, the expansion which takes place is oftentimes so great and uneven that the parts are twisted out of shape or warped. The only way this can be corrected is by turning the machine over to a machinist. Always use the best lubricating oils. Buy oil of a responsible dealer and take his advice where to use it. Care of Engine. — There is only one way to make an engine give a life long service and that is to take care of it. One of the first requisites is to keep it clean. Not only should the outside be kept clean, but all bearings and rubbing parts, whether oiled or not, should be carefully inspected from time to time and kept perfectly clean, and nothing but pure clean oil used. All these parts should be thoroughly looked over by the owner every two weeks. Give the batteries and connections the very best of attention. When the engine is not in use, they should always be disconnected or they will run down and be of no service whatsoever. To Start an Engine. — To a new owner, a little advice in regard to the routine of starting an engine will not come amiss. First, see that the engine is clean and all nuts are tight. Second, examine the fuel supply. Third, see that every part is oiled and adjusted. Fourth, test the battery switch and then close it. Fifth, turn the engine over slowly and note if the valves and piston operate freely. Sixth, admit cooling water from the radiator. Seventh, clank the engine two or three sharp turns with the ignition closed and the engine will start. To Stop an Engine. — Shut off either the gas or the spark. The more economical is to shut off the gas. After stopping the engine, close all oil cups, needle valves, and the water cocks which drain the water from the cylinder and from the cooling tank. PART TWO. AUTOMOBILES. Perhaps there is not a more live subject today than the automobile. There is literature of all varieties on the market, some good, some bad, telling the layman how to buy, use and care for his machine. Some go so far as to tell them how to pay for it. The engine, which is the prime mover of the automobile, has been care- fully explained in the past few pages. Reference is made to those pages to save repetition. Only those things which are peculiar to automobiling and not to the ordinary gas engine will be given in this chapter. The Engine. — The first care of an engine is cleanliness. Most automo- bile engines are properly protected from the dust by their housing, but even under the best conditions dirt will work its way in and cause unequal wear. Every part of the engine should be overhauled from time to time to deter- mine the amount of wear and take up all loose parts due to wearing. In the chapter on troubles of a gas engine will be found the symptoms of the troubles arising from the worn parts of engines and the remedy is also sug- gested. What to do in case of worn cylinders, piston rings, hot pistons, and worn bearings, have already been told in that chapter. The Carburetor. — For this as in a stationary engine it is absolutely neces- sary that the carburetor be kept clean. Since it gets the air supply from the outside, it also gets a large amount of dirt and in wet weather gets the moisture. Oftentimes water will collect in it. All carburetors are fitted with drain cups and adjustments so that a thorough cleaning can be made quickly without interfering with the proper adjustments of the air and fuel valves. Water in the gasoline will not only make the engine run irregularly but in cold weather the carburetor will freeze and break. The carburetor is often flooded by the sticking of the float, or when a cork float is used it becomes too heavy, or by a punctured metal float, or by leaky needle valves. To free the sticky float, open the float chamber and adjust. When the cork float becomes too heavy, remove and dry thoroughly. If the metal float is punctured, remove it, let the gasoline out and solder up the hole. If the needle valve is leaking the needles should be removed and the needle and valve seat inspected. If the needle is bent or rusted or the valve seat pitted, they should be brought to shape first by the machinist or by grinding as described under "Grinding of Valves." Clutch. — The clutch is the mechanism for connecting the driving shaft with the driven shaft and is so constructed that this connection can be made or broken at the will of the operator. There are two kinds of clutches in general use; the multiple-disc and the 35 36 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING one-cone clutch. The multiple-disc clutch consists of a series of metal discs se- cured alternately to the crank shaft and to the driving shaft. When the clutch is closed a spring presses the discs together, making .a gradual contact. Some multiple-disc clutches are submerged in oil, while others use no oil but face alternating discs with leather. The cone clutch is made of two members. The first or female member is a cone shaped cavity cut into the fly wheel itself so as to afford a tight fit for the second or male member which is forced to a tight fit by means of a powerful spring. There are various designs of cone clutches, some using the inside cavity and some the outside of the fly-wheel. In every case the principle is the same. Where clutches have leather contacts they should be carefully maintained and kept clean. The leather should be treated with oil once every two or three months. The leather may dry out from a number of causes and leave the surface rough, causing the cone to wear badly. When a first-class leather dressing is used fre- quently the cone will remain smooth and will always give good service. The con- trolling spring of the clutch should be of constant strength and properly designed. If it is too strong the clutch will grip and if too loose or too weak the clutch will slip. Gears and Driving Mechanism. — There are two kinds of transmission mechanisms, sliding and planetary. Either of these requires very little care. In the sliding gear transmission system, see that the gears are always run in oil. Inspect occasionally for worn corners due to improper meshing or sliding of the gears. Driving Mechanism. — There are two methods of transmitting the power of the engine to the gear wheels, the chain and the bevel gear drive. Practically all touring cars and many trucks are using the bevel gear or worm gear drive, while a few of the trucks are still using the chain drive. The chain should be kept tight enough to hold it in two straight lines between the top and bottom of the socket when the car is idle, but not too tight to bind. When the chains become noisy due to a grinding or snapping noise, they should be cleaned. To clean a chain thoroughly, first remove it and immerse it in a pan of gasoline. Rinse well and wipe clean. Prepare a bath of melted tallow and graphite, one part graphite and seven parts tallow. Maintain a temperature of 350° F. and bathe the chain for about twenty minutes, then hang it up to drain. When treated in this manner a chain will work like new. Bevel gears or worm gears are usually placed in dust tight covers and give very little or no trouble. Care of Magneto and Battery. — Keep all parts clean and see that con- nections are kept tight. Do not let batteries run down lower than six amperes. Dry cells may be improved for a short period by boring a hole in the wax and pouring in a little vinegar or water. Always use ammeters for testing dry cells. A storage battery consists of a positive set and a negative set of plates im- mersed in an electrolyte of dilute sulphuric acid. The positive set is a lead plate loaded with peroxide of lead, the negative set is pure lead. The plates covered with electrolyte do not discharge the battery below 1.8 volts per cell when the cur- rent is flowing. Always charge in the right direction and be careful to charge complete but not overcharge. Do not allow the temperature of the electrolyte to rise above 100° F. when charging. Change every two months whether it needs it or not. AUTOMOBILES 37 Lubrication. — It is hardly necessary to discuss lubrication since there are so many good oils on the market and every manufacturer is pleased to recom- mend such brands that he knows will be satisfactory with his car. Be careful about using unknown brands or one which contains a large percentage of acids. To test cylinder oil place the various samples you wish to test on a piece of plate glass which has been heated to a high degree. Incline the glass and the one which runs down the plane farthest is the best. Always use mineral oils of high fire test. The same oil can be used all over the car. For transmission gears and shaft bearings a heavy oil or petroleum jelly can be used. Follow strictly the suggestions for oiling the car as given by the manu- facturer. Radiators. — Radiators appear frail and in fact they are called upon to not only cool the water contained in them but to resist the impact of other cars. Radiators usually give trouble by leaking or filling up with scale. To remove the scale mix a half pound of lampblack with a half gallon of kerosene and pour through the radiator several times. When the scale becomes soft turn a hose into the radiator and allow the water to run until the scale has been washed out. When the radiator leaks, this may be stopped temporarily by throwing in a handful of bran or meal. Brakes. — The drum brake is probably the most universal. This brake does its work through friction and friction always wears, therefore the brake is always wearing out. The wearing parts are made removable and adjustable. They should be watched carefully and new parts put in as often as necessary. Never al- low the brake band to become so loose that when the foot paddle is pushed the full length it will not positively stop the wheels. Allow no oil or grease to remain on the brake as this eliminates friction and prevents them from doing their duty. In driving use the foot brakes. Keep the emergency brake for emergency purposes. The Steering Gear. — The steering gear very seldom requires any atten- tion but when there seems to be any trouble it should be thoroughly investigated. Some of the most careless accidents have been due to loose steering gears. Keeping the Automobile Clean. — Provide the bath house with two large sponges, two chamois skins and a hose. Use one set of sponge and chamois skin on the wheels and the other part on the body. The purpose is to keep the grease which will necessarily collect on the wheels from getting on the body. The grease takes the luster from the car and makes it look old in a short time. Wash the car often. Do not allow mud to remain on the car over night to harden~as it will spot up the finish and can be remedied only by a trip to the paint shop. To remove mud, first soak it off and then cover the surface with castile soap with a sponge. Rinse off the water and finish with a chamois skin. Celluloid Fronts. — Celluloid fronts soon become scratched and cloudy and often dent or crack. To restore them to their original color and appearance, paint with a thin coat of transparent celluloid in acetone. Use a thin solution. Apply two or more coats if necessary. Tires. — The tires contribute to the greatest expense of the car. There- fore they should receive the greatest consideration in the maintenance and upkeep. Everyone is acquainted with the construction of the tires, being made up of alter- 38 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING nate layers of rubber and cloth. Like other parts, they should be repaired as soon as out of order. When cuts or wounds in the rubber covering are discovered they should be sealed up immediately. Tires are worn out mainly by incorrect driving and carelessness. Too high speed in turning sharp corners, stopping and starting quickly are very hard on tires and should not be tolerated in any way by the owner of the automobile. Again rubber weathers or losses its life in the elements of light, heat or cold. It is said that rubber will die in two or three years whether it is used or not. Therefore the tires should be used to their limit in that time in order to get the most good out of them. When tires are stored, they should be protected from the light and placed in a cool room, and if possible slightly blown up. When cars are stored, the weight of the car should be lifted off the tires. Oils, grease and rust have a very bad effect .on rubber and should be kept entirely away from it. Incorrect Inflation. — It is important that tires be inflated to the right pressure, not too soft or too hard. There are so many pressure testers on the mar- ket that it is hardly necessary to give any other methods for getting the pressure of a tire. However, they should be pumped up in order to hold the car on which they are placed, high oft" of the floor so that there is very little or no noticeable indenture. The following table will give the proper weight on driving wheels or rear wheels for the various sizes of tires : Size Weight per Wheel 28 to 36 x 2Y 2 225 lbs. 28 to 36 x 3 350 lbs. 28 x 3K 400 lbs. 30 x 3H 450 lbs. 32 x 3y 2 550 lbs. 34 x 3V 2 600 lbs. 36 x 3H 600 lbs. 30 x 4 550 lbs. 32 x 4 650 lbs. 34 x 4 700 lbs. 36 x 4 750 lbs. 32 x V/ 2 700 lbs. 34 x 4^ 900 lbs. 36 x 4M 1>000 lbs. When the outside casing has the tread worn off it may be taken to a reputable repair shop and retreaded with a considerable saving of money. Tires should be washed quite often and all dirt and grit picked out. Use gasoline or kerosene to wash the tires. The Automobile in Cold Weather. — The greatest winter problem is to keep the water in the cooling tank from freezing. Without fail this will ruin the radiator and cylinder. It is common practice for some to allow the engine to run, but this appears to be needless wear and waste of gasoline. There are many anti-freezing compounds on the market that are very satis- factory and should be used in every case. With the approach of winter, drain the cooling system, mix the anti-freezing solution and refill. Solutions of calcium chloride and glycerine or wood alcohol are very common and successful. Calcium chloride sometime attacks the solder in the radiator. This can be prevented by placing a handful of quicklime in the solution. Glycerine will congeal at a very low temperature, but by adding a small quan- AUTOMOBILES 39 tity of sodium carbonate (washing soda) about 2 percent, by weight, to the gly- cerine solution, the difficulty may be prevented. When the car is to be stored for the winter, all tanks, oil, water and gasoline, should be emptied and the axles set up on supports to relieve the tires. Keep the car in a room which will remain at a uniform temperature with the outside. Do not place it near an open window or near a heater. Lamps. — There are two kinds of lighting systems today: the acetylene and the electric. The acetylene system, the gas is generated in one case and is released from storage in another. In the case of the acetylene storage tank there is nothing to ~5TO/f^G£ BATTERY F/gur-e do but open the valve and regulate it according to what is needed. When the tank is empty it may be taken to any garage and exchanged for a new tank. An acetylene generator consists of a carbide chamber, where the fuel is stored ; a water chamber, connected with it to supply the water ; a gas chamber in which the gas collects after being generated ; and the combustion chamber in which the air is making the gas by means of a special burner and in which the gas is consumed. When water is poured on carbide, chemical reaction takes place and releases acetylene. It is necessary for the proper working of the acetylene generator to have the water supply passageways always clear, also keep the passageway for the gas open. The lamp should often be taken apart and thoroughly cleaned. In rainy and muddy weather, the generator should be well protected. Always carry a reserve supply of carbide in an air tight package. ■±0 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING AUTO HINTS. Repair of Punctures on the. Road. — A method of repairing punctures on the road, which is superior to the vulcanizing method and does not use cement or patches is here given : — Remove the tire and locate the puncture, size and position. Take a small quantity of Michelin mastic of which always carry a good supply, and roll it in the palm of the hand. With a match or other small stick punch some of the mastic through the hole, being careful not to rupture the tire any further. When the mastic has been forced through on both sides then with fingers mold a rivet head on both inside and outside. This repair will be found immediately effective and permanent. To Remove Carbon from Cylinders. — Carbon from cylinders may be removed by a number of methods, oxidizing being one of the easiest and most convenient. Purchase a pint of peroxide of hydrogen. For a four-cylinder motor, pour about half of this in the intake manifold while the engine is running. The excess oxygen in the peroxide will combine with the carbon in the cylinders and effectively clean it. Do not add hydrogen peroxide until the engine has been run for some time and is warm. A cleaning once or twice a month will be sufficient to keep the engine in good running order. An Emergency Anti-Skid Device. — Carry with you 20 or 30 feet of one- inch new rope. If the car begins to skid, wrap the rope around the tires and rim of the rear wheel, much the same way that anti-skid chains are placed. It is bound to be an effective means of supplying a quick and cheap anti-skid device. An Effective Self-Starter. — Attach a small chain or rod to the air intake valve of the carburetor. Pass this through the dashboard so as to be in reach of the driver. When ready to stop, close up the air intake so that a rich mixture of gasoline may be drawn into the cylinders. This will leave the charge of gas which will in most cases start the engine on the spark. Try it and see how it works. How to Increase Tire Mileage. — If the tire is worn badly, remove the casing and place in it an inside tire protector. Get the kind that is cemented in. This will be found to increase tire mileage from two to three thousand miles. How to Make Regular Casing Puncture Proof. — Purchase long strips of chrome leather about the width of the tread, and put them on the inside the same way as for an inside tire protector. Cement over this a tire reliner. This will be found to increase the strength of the tire considerably and will oftentimes add ten to twelve thousand miles to the life of a tire. A Simple Rectifier for Charging Storage Batteries from an Alternating Current. — Operate as shown in sketch. Attach a lamp socket to the circuit as shown. Turn on the current and the apparatus will do the work. CONCRETE. Materials. Concrete is a mixture of Portland Cement, water, sand and pebbles or broken stone in proper proportions, to produce an artificial stone. The materials are mixed to a plastic mass and moulded to any shape desired. When left undis- turbed, it will become as hard as stone. The use of concrete is now so universal that everyone has some knowledge of its preparation. As simple as it is the most economical concrete must be pre- pared with great care. However, by following closely the instructions given in this discussion, the habit of correct manufacture will be soon learned and it will be easier for the layman to do concrete work than to lay brick, stone, or build timber structures. Advantages. Concrete compared with timber construction is more durable, strong, fire- proof, sanitary, artistic, and cheap. For example, suppose a timber structure costs $2,000. Its life is estimated at one-third of a century. To replace it at the end of a period of usefulness would take one thirty-third of two thousand, or $60.60 per annum. To pre- serve it with a proper coat of paint would cost $100 every five years. The total cost and investment at the beginning of the 31th year will be $2,000, plus 33 times $60.60, plus six times $100, which equals $1,600. A concrete house of the same size would cost $2,500. It will last a century or more and requires no paint. To reproduce it at the end of its useful period will cost one one-hundredth of $2,500 or $25 per annum. At the beginning 'of the 34th year the house will cost thirty-three times twenty-five plus $2,500, or $3,325 — a difference of $1,295 shown in favor of the concrete house. As the timber supply is decreasing, the value will increase so that the cost will equal that of concrete. Materials of which concrete is made are inexhaust- ible, and the price cannot raise from that cause. Therefore, for future building, the most economical planning will always use concrete. Some Mistakes About Concrete. The layman usually blames the failure of his attempt to make concrete to the cement. This is unfair and far from the usual cause. The Portland Cement manufacturer of today turns out a uniform product which has been thoroughly tested, and unless it has been damaged in transit or storage, the customer may depend upon it. 41 42 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Any one of the materials entering into concrete may be the cause of its fail- ure. One of the purposes of this work is to point out these mistakes and how to correct them, as well as to outline the correct methods of manufacture that will avoid them. Portland Cement. Portland Cement is an intimate mixture of clay and limestone which has been ground to a fine powder, burned almost to melting point, and then reground Interesting Example of .the Combined, t'sc of Concrete and Hubble Work. to very fine powder. The proportion of clay and limestone is very carefully guarded by expert chemists which guarantees the remarkable uniformity so well established with Portland Cement. How Portland Cement is Packed. Portland Cement is packed in standard packages (cloth sacks and paper bags) weighing 94 pounds net, which are considered as one cubic foot of packed cement when proportioning mixtures by the volume. A barrel contains four of such sacks or bags. Cloth sacks are billed separately to the cement purchaser at 10c each or 40c per barrel. They may be returned in good condition to the dealer who will refund the 10c. It is important however, that the sacks be in good condition. One which has been wet or torn so that it can not be filled again will not be redeemed. It is a fact that the use of paper bags is decreasing. This should not be the case, because the paper bags cost only 2y 2 c each and may be discarded. This will save the trouble of keeping track of the sacks. Some cement companies are furnishing cement in the bulk but this practice is not good except for large work. CONCRETE 43 Storing Portland Cement. It is absolutely necessary to keep Portland Cement dry until it is used. It should never be piled directly on the ground or any place where it will be subject to the effects of moisture. It is best to store it in a tight shed having a raised floor so that dampness cannot get to it. There should be air space all around the cement, to ventilate it and help to keep it dry. If much is used the farmer should build a cement storage shed or warehouse for cement. Cement which has hardened as a result of absorbing moisture must not be used in concrete mix- ture. If the lumps may be crushed with the fingers the cement has not been damaged. Before receiving cement from a local dealer or from the railway com- pany always inspect it for lumpiness. If the lumps are so hard as to require mechanical means for breaking them, the cement should be rejected. Aggregates Are Composed of Sand, Gravel, or Broken Stone. The sand is the fine aggregate and the gravel or pebbles or broken stone, is the coarse aggregate. All particles of sand or pebbles which are below % inch in diameter are classed as sand, and all above that up to 3 inches in diameter are classed as gravel or broken stone. No matter what kind of aggregate is being used it should be properly graded. The particles should be hard and tough which makes them durable. A round pebble taken from the seashore or a river bed usually has good durable quality, because it has resisted the wear of the elements for a long time. Natural Deposits of Aggregate. Bank run sand and gravel is a natural mixture of sand pebble (usually con- taining more or less foreign material also) that we find in the ordinary sand or gravel bank. This mixture is hardly ever suitable for concrete mixture. Many failures are directly caused by using this kind of material. See Plate I, Page 47. Sand is the predominating material in these deposits. There is usually twice as much sand as gravel or pebbles. The ratio should be just the other way. In order to correct this proportion the whole aggregate should be screened through a % inch sieve. All that goes through is sand and that which remains on top is gravel. With this division, a correct proportioning can be made. The voids or air spaces in a given volume of pebbles which are uniform in size are about 45% of the mass. The same is true of a sand which has particles of a uniform size. Where the size of particles will vary considerably, the per- cent of voids will be reduced, sometimes as low as 25%. For the average grad- ing of pebbles or broken stone it will be sufficientlv accurate to figure on 45%. This is nearly half the volume of the mass. The theory is to fill these voids with sand. Then there will be some air spaces left. These are to be filled with cement. When all are properly mixed together it will make a dense mixture sim- ilar to a natural stone. From this theory the so-called arbitrary mixtures are 44 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING derived. For instance 1 :2 :4 mixture means one cubic foot of cement, (packed cement) two cubic feet of loose sand and four cubic feet of loose pebbles, gravel or broken stone. In measuring the cement, a sack is used as a cubic foot of packed cement. The sand and gravel are mixed in boxes or wheelbarrows, which have been filled with the loose mixture. When mixed in this way the Portland Cement will coat every particle of cement and gravel sufficient to cause them to adhere together and form a dense mixture. If the bank sand were used where a large quantity of small particles existed, the surface to be covered would be considerably greater and the cement would not be able to cover them properly and a weak concrete would be the result. Water Tight Concrete. To make concrete water-tight means to make it so that the water cannot pass through the mass. This may be accomplished in several ways. The simplest is to properly grade the mixture so that the concrete will be as near like natural stone as possible. By properly grading, the particles can be made to fit in with each other so well, that there will be no room through which the water can pass. When this grading is not easily accomplished, artificial means of water proof- ing must be used. There are several preparations on the market suitable for this purpose. Some are mixed in the concrete and some are placed on the out- side. When secured from a reputable manufacturer they can be depended upon to do what they specify. On small work one should not try out any new com- pounds. The older ones which have been tried and found good should be the ones adopted. Broken Stone. In many localities where there are no gravel deposits, it is necessary to find some source from which broken stone can be obtained. Broken stone may be made either from a quarry product or by cracking "niggerheads" or "ruble- stones," which are found in the fields. These stones are in the way of the farmer in cultivating his fields, so he piles them along the side and often makes fences of them. They could not be put to a better use than to crush them and make con- crete. Low price stone crushers which may be operated by a three or four horse power gasoline engine can now be obtained. Any man can furnish his own crushed stone at about 50c per cubic yard. To buy broken stone, which is shipped in by a railway costs from two to three times as much as it can be produced by the individual, where he has plenty of these "niggerheads." Where a good quality of durable rock crops out from the surface of the ground it is easy to start a small quarry. By the proper use of dynamite the stone can be loosened and crushed at a very low cost. Usually about one dollar per cubic yard. The screenings from the stone crushers may be used in place of sand, es- pecially where sand must be shipped in. Oftentimes there are other materials such as mine tailings or slag that might be used for sand. CONCRETE 45 Screening the Aggregate. As stated before, most bank run material must be screened and properly proportioned to get the strongest and most economical concrete. It should be screened through a quarter-inch screen, that is, one containing four meshes to the inch (sixteen meshes to the sq. in.). See Plate 2, Page 47. That which goes through the sieve will be called sand. That which remains on top is gravel. When these are mixed according to the proper proportions for the kind of work on which it is used an economical and strong concrete will result. If the gravel is very coarse another screening will be required to screen out the largest particles, especially where small work is being done. No pebble, or particles of broken stone or gravel should be used in concrete mixture whose greatest diameter is more than half the thickness of the concrete structure in which it is being used. In large heavy concrete work, large boulders or gravels may be thrown in, if care be taken to have them perfectly clean and to have the mortar very care- fully puddled about them after they are placed. Dirt in Aggregate. Dirt, that class of fine, foreign material which usually contains some rotten leaves or other organic matter, should in no case be allowed in concrete material. Clay is commonly classed as dirt, but this classification is erroneous. Under certain conditions, clay is a decided benefit. But when it coats the particles, thus preventing the cement from touching them, it is decidedly injurious. It is also injurious when added to an aggregate which already has an abundance of fine or medium sized material. A concrete which is made of a coarse sand and gravel and which would otherwise be porous, will be distinctly benefited by the addition of clay, up to 10 or 20%. In laboratory tests benefits have been recorded up to as high as 50%. It is not advisable, however, for more than 10 or 15% to be allowed, unless the user is thoroughly acquainted with the conditions necessary for its success. Dirt, clay, loam, or other materials may be removed from an' aggregate by thorough washing. Washing Aggregate. There are many washing and screening devices on the market. The one here illustrated is easily and simply constructed, an improvement for the man who is doing his own concrete work on a small scale. It can be built and operated by anyone. The materials to be washed are shoveled into a trough at the high end, while the water is applied through a hose connected to the pipe shown, which causes the materials to be tumbled and rolled about until they reach the lower end of the trough where the screen separates the sand from the pebbles, and water carries off the foreign material. Wedge shaped cleats are nailed on the bot- tom of the cloth inside to assist tumbling the materials as they roll down. More elaborate schemes than this are used by large contractors who supply these mate- rials in large quantities. But this is sufficient for the work done on a small scale. 46 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Remember that washing aggregate is a very important feature and should not be considered lightly. , B0f//o boarsr ■fi^Pebe/es Fig. 1 A simple washing trough with screen at the lower end, by means of which dirty bank-run material can easily be washed free from clay or other foreign material and the saud separated from the pebbles. The platform on which the sand and pebbles are discharged should be sloped slightly to cause the wash water to flow away freelv. Mixing Concrete. For small work hand mixing is the most economical of mixing methods. If considerable work is to be done in concreting it is better to have a mixer which will be described later. The equipment for hand-mixing consists of a platform made of 2" by 6" timbers tongued and grooved so that tight joints will be formed to pre- sent loss of cement carried away when adding the mixing water with the materials. Make a floor of these planks by nailing them to 2" by 4" set on edge. Also nail 2" by 4"s flatwise around free sides making a railing as shown in Plate 4. The 2" by 4" joists may be cut slanting on one end and a clevis and chain be at- tached, so that a horse can be hitched to it and the platform moved anywhere about the place. Plates 4 to 14 show pictorially the process of mixing concrete. Next a mixing box as shown in Plate 4, Page 48, should be made. Use 1" by 1 2" boards and make it large enough to hold 4 cu. ft. and mark on the inside the height to which one, two and three cu. ft. of material would rise. As noted, the measuring box has no bottom. It is set upon the platform and the materials dumped into it. When the measurement is over, it should be raised up and set back. A measuring box of some kind should be used, whether in hand mixing, or machine mixing. Manufacturers of wheelbarrows have them at different capa- cities so that mixtures can be measured in the barrow. It is customary to use wheelbarrow measurements in machine work. CONCRETE 47 view. The fine material (sand) and coarse matt-rial (pebbles) lie in j layers, mn&lls with the sand greatly in excess of the. pebbles. ' _ Plate 2 — Bank -ran material should always ! in a concrete mixture. be screened before «s*ng. THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING — — — — ' ■ ■^j - .■■ ««r.i''. . Plate 3. Contrast of shades produced by using different colored aggregates. The concrete in the dark portion of this wall was made of red sandstone, while the light portion was made of colored trap rock. The finish of the surface was obtained by hand brush hammering. Plate 4. Mixing platform with bottomless box for measuring materials. This box should be marked on the inside to show capacities of 1, 2, and 3 cubic feet. When level full, the box holds i cubic feet. CONCRETE 49 i./ WBBB^p^yg, , r d , 7 V ^\ € £jfc 1 jHsL "**,'- v'SHtL?*^ w esmgm [Is \ * ■ ~^*^mm ^ ; " SSS* II I J il IIMWMWI) SO, (CM fck ;C% Plate 6 — Spreading the .Ccustnt ; Over , t|vc SancT 50 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING ,y«*- , -^ _,-— ~ ™ ~~ -^ "Plate J First Turning. Sand ami Cement.* Second Tumine, Snnd «nd Cement CONCRETE 51 52 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Plate 11— Placing the Water on . 'the Stone (or Gravel) : which is on Top of the Mixed Sand and Cement, Plate 12 — Mixing the Stone (or Gravel) with the Sand and Cement CONCRETE 53 \jFuU 13— A small self-contained mixer-engine outsit at | job of mixing concrete for a concrete walk. Sacfa as ! profitable, labor-saving and efficient piece of equipment. rk on a tfit is a ;ptefo.l4--»*tbe mixing platform can be placed near ' wl«re conerefc is io be deposited, the concrete may fee shoveled directly from " platform into ' the forms. 54 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING l Plate 15— On the concrete feeding fleer every -.grain of feed gets where: it beiones— inside the animals for whteh It i* intended. This floor { ■would have been better If .a curb had been built around it so that* grain ceufd not be pushed off the fioor while the hogs are feeding j and to prevent them from rootins underneath. ki -i-'-li 1 ^ EMLM *i Plate 17 — Concrete foundation for small building such as might ho used for milfchouse. Such a foundation ia rat-proof, rot-proof and , expense-proof. CONCRETE 55 Table of Recommended Mixtures. 1:1:1 Mixture for The wearing course of two-course floors subject to heavy trucking, such as occurs in factories, warehouses, on loading platforms, etc. l:l:l l / 2 Mixture for The wearing course of two-course pavements, in which case the pebbles or crushed stone is graded from ]/\ to y 2 inch. 1 :2 :3 Mixture for Reinforced concrete roof slabs. One-course concrete road, street, and alley pavements. One-course walks and barnyard pavements. One-course concrete floors. Fence posts. Sills and lintels without mortar surface. Watering troughs and tanks. Reinforced concrete columns. Mine timbers. Construction subjected to water pressure, such as reservoirs, swimming pools, storage tanks, cisterns, elevator, pits, vats, etc. 1 :2 :4 Mixture for Reinforced concrete walls, floors, beams, columns and other concrete mem- bers designed in combination with steel reinforcing. Concrete for arch ring of arch bridges and culverts ; foundations for large engines causing heavy loading, some impact and vibration. Concrete work in general subject to vibration. -Reinforced concrete sewer pipe. 1 '%y 2 :4 Mixture for Silo walls, grain bins, coal bins, elevators and similar structures. Building walls above foundation, when stucco finish will, not be applied. Walls of pits or basements, subject to considerable exposure to moisture, but practically no direct water -pressure. Manure pits, dipping vats, hog wallows. Backing of concrete block. Base of two-course road, street and alley pavements. 1 :2y 2 :5 Mixture for Walls above ground which are to have stucco finish. Base of two-course sidewalks, feeding floors, barnyard pavements and two- course plain concrete floors. Abutments and wing walls of bridges and culverts, dams, small retaining walls. Basement walls and foundations for ordinary conditions where water-tightness is not essential. Foundations for small engines. 1 :3 :6 Mixture for Mass concrete such as large gravity retaining walls, heavy foundations and footings. 1:1^ Mixture for Inside plastering of water tanks, silos, and bin walls, where required and for facing walls below ground when necessary to afford additional protection against the entrance of moisture. Back plastering of gravity retaining walls. 56 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 1 :2 Mixture for Scratch coat of exterior plaster (cement and stucco). Facing block and similar concrete products. Wearing course of two-course walks, floors subjected only to light loads, barn- yard pavements, etc. 1 :2y 2 Mixture for Intermediate and finish stucco coats. Fence posts when coarse aggregate is not used. 1 :3 Mixture for Concrete block when coarse aggregate is not used. Concrete brick. Concrete drain tile and pipe when coarse aggregate is not used. Ornamental concrete products. Amount of Water to Use. The water used in making Concrete should be clean and pure, preferably a drinking water is better. It should not contain any alkaline or organic matter of any kind. Although it is commonly believed the amount of water to be used is not essen- tial, late tests have proved that the least amount of water that will lubricate the mass and allow it to be placed properly is the best. That amount which makes a quaky mix is easily handled and placed. A sloppy wet mix will destroy two-thirds of the possible strength. The diagram shown here indicates the relation of the amount of water used to the maximum strength of the concrete : The table below shows the proper amount of water to use. This table is very accurate and reliable. It is the result of hundreds of tests made by D. A. Abrams, Professor in Charge, Structural Materials Research Laboratory, Lewis Institute, Chicago. ioo r C X 10 iC *.* 1 \ D f TO t <0 . 70 1 10 1 10 1 so / XJ 1 40 1 50 / SO 1 70 i w h w b TO Water Ustti- Percent of Qwntity Gmny /iofJmumStrmjth TABLE I Mix Approximate Mix as Usually Expressed Water Required (Gallons per Sack of Cement) Volume of Aggregate After Mixing Cement Aggregate Minimum Cement Fine Coarse Maximum 1 1 1 1 5 4 3 1 1 1 1 2 2 4 3 3 2V 2 6 5 6^ 6 5M CONCRETE 57 Mixing by Machine. — There are many small machines for mixing con- crete on the market. Some are operated by hand, and some by power. Most farmers have a gas engine on the farm or can get a mixer that is operated by its own engine. These can be obtained in sizes such as would not be a hardship on the pocketbook of any progressive farmer. Machine mixing is more convenient. cheaper, and much better. The batch mixers are, as a rule the best. The batch should be mixed for at least one minute, and more if there is plenty of time. Placing Concrete. — After the con- crete is mixed on the board or in the machine it should be immediately placed in the form. In no case should the con- crete stand in the mixer or on the board for more than one hour before placing. If let stand more than fifteen minutes it should be remixed before placing. In order that it may set properly after it is placed, there should be very little or no disturbance of the mass until after one hour. When the concrete is placed too long after mixing the time of com- plete hardening is delayed. The mixing board or machine should be placed as near as possible to the work. If the ma- terials have to be transported any great distance at all, they should be transported before the mixing is done. In case the concrete is to be placed in a trench care should be taken not to strike the sides of the trench thereby mixing dirt with the concrete. When placed in wooden or steel forms care should be taken in de- positing the mix so as not to bulge or any way displace the form. It should be placed in layers of from four to six inches and spaded as shown in Figure 2. Spading may be done with a trowel, a spade, a shovel, or a tapered stick. After the concrete is deposited, one of these tools is forced down into the concrete, next to the form, and worked forward and backward, and to right and left, in order to bring the mortar out next to the form, and work out any air pockets that may be there. This will insure a good mortar face next to the forms, and when the forms are removed it will give a true plane surface to a wall. This should be carefully and diligently performed, patience being well rewarded in the appearance of the structure. . The concreting should be so planned that the quantity of concrete will be placed during a working day or whatever time is to be devoted to concreting. It is important to have the 58 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING work advanced to a stage where it can be left in a suitable condition for resuming concreting later. It is best to roughen the surface at night so that the mixed concrete in the morning will be insured a good bond. For horizontal surfaces short pieces of iron or steel, placed upright and imbedded half way in concrete hfa// w/'f/r for/n For/r? show/ntf stop board in p/ace Fig. 3 If necessary or desirable to finish some section of concreting to the full height of the forms, a vertical joint may be provided for as shown in this illustration. are very useful. This practice assures a firm metallic bond between the old con- crete and that placed the following morning or at some later time. Figure 3 shows how a vertical joint should be made. Coloring. Concrete may be colored for artistic or economic reasons. Sometimes the whiteness of the cement produces a glare, which is injurious to the eyes and must be toned down by coloring. The amount of coloring matter to be added depends entirely upon the shade. The material should be mixed with cement before the sand or gravel is added. As concrete is usually built where permanency is desired, a permanent color should also be used. Cheap colors should be avoided. Blacks are usually the fa- vorite, and pure carbon blacks are best. Ultramarine blue, if of good quality, will hold its color for a number of years and fades evenly when it finally loses color. However' the most permanent are blacks, brown and ochre. Green can not be depended upon, especially when exposed to sun and water. Below is a table to be used with Portland cement. CONCRETE 59 TABLE No. 2 — COLORS TO BE USED IN PORTLAND CEMENT. Colors Desired Commercial names of colors for use in Cement Approximate price per lb. 1001b. lots for high grade Colors. Normal Market Pounds of color for each bag of Cement Light Shade Medium Grays Blue-black Black Blue Brownish red to dull brick red Bright red to vermillion Red sandstone to purplish red Brown to reddish brown Buff, colonial tint and yellow . Germantown lamp black. Carbon black Black oxide of manganese Ultramarine blue Red oxide of iron Mineral turkey red Indian red Metallic brown (oxide) . . Yellow ochre .10 .08 .06 .18 .03 .15 .10 .04 .06 1 5 5 5 5 5 5 2 10 10 10 10 10 10 See Page 48 Plate 3 for example of shading- with colors. Many grades arid varieties of yellow ochre will be found on the market. French ochre, if genuine, is the safest. In purchasing colors, like purchasing any- thing else permanent, one should buy only the standard grades from reliable manu- facturers and know whether the color was especially designed to be used in cement. Protecting the Finished Work. After the concrete is laid it must be handled with just as much care as it was in the placing. Sudden changes of weather have marked effect upon the hardening of concrete. Cold weather tends to make it slow setting. Hot and dry weather tends to make it set rapidly. Either procedure is a fault. Quick change 'of temperature should be prevented by covering the concrete with a loose moist sand or other suitable material, which must be kept moistened for four or five days. This will keep the concrete supplied with moisture, the element which makes it set. Many believe that the drying out is a part of the hardening, but this is a fal- lacy and should not be followed. It is water that makes it set and during that period it should always be supplied with plenty of water. When the concrete can- not be covered with sand or earth, or some other particular covering, it could be kept wet by frequent sprinklings. This should be kept up for several days, or two weeks is better. Leaving the forms in place will materially assist in retaining the moisture. The forms should not be taken away until the concrete is sufficiently hardened to carry the load. Concreting in Cold Weather. Concreting in cold weather is not an easy task. It should be avoided by the farmer unless he can do the work indoors. Frozen concrete is treacherous. In the majority of cases it will harden sufficiently if given time enough after it is thawed out. Sometimes it takes six months. If concreting must be done in freez- ing weather, the water and aggregate should be heated and covered well to pro- tect it from the frost. The covering should remain on at least two weeks. 60 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Test for Hardness. There is no definite test for hardness of concrete or rather the time of hard- ening. Experience is the best judge. Some cement will set quicker than others. Temperature, moisture and character of cement all have some effect. Usually two weeks is sufficient in good weather, but in cold weather three weeks or more is necessary. Reinforced Concrete. Concrete is like stone. It will take a large compressive load, that is, a weight resting on top of it, but will not take a heavy pull or tension. Steel will take a heavy tension, therefore it is imbedded in concrete where there is likely to be cracks due to tension. Where there are great changes of temperature, the concrete will expand and contract through considerable space. These changes of size will open cracks unless the various parts of the concrete are held together by steel or iron. In the making of tanks, beams, floors, and posts, steel is added to make the concrete tough and elastic. The most common form of reinforcement for beams, floors and tanks is chicken netting, barbed wire, or woven fencing wire, although the farmer can make use of his odds and ends of barbed wire, or any kind of steel or iron rods. Iron will not rust when imbedded in concrete. In making floors or tanks the steel should be placed as near to the surface as possible. When both sides of a wall are exposed, such as in a tank the steel may be put in the center. In a fence post the steel is placed near the surface at the four cor- ners. In beams and slabs the steel is placed near the bottom. Poor wire should not be used because it is likely to split in the concrete. In reinforced concrete work, the concrete should be of a high grade, usually 1 : 2 : 4 is specified. The largest stone used in the concrete should be small enough to pass between any of the reinforcing and the side of the form. The concrete should be made wet enough so as to just allow pouring but not wet enough for a slush. The amount of steel in special work should be determined by a competent engineer. Cost of Concrete Work. In the beginning of this discussion it was shown that concrete for house building was cheaper than timber in the long run. There are numerous smaller Fig. 4 4-Inch Mesh CONCRETE 61 examples of where concrete is far ahead of timber for particular kinds of con- struction, for instance, the sidewalk, or barn floor. It can be easily shown that a concrete floor is cheaper in first cost than a timber floor made up of two-inch ma- terial. Then its life is indefinite while the board floor must be renewed every few years. For example : suppose we have a floor made up of two by twelve joists placed twelve inches on centers and covered' with two-by-twelve-inch planks. It will re- quire four hundred feet of lumber for a ten-foot square. Suppose we use our cheapest lumber, say at about $24 per thousand. This would make the material cost $9.60, leaving out the bracings, bridges, nails and waste, which un- doubtedly would bring it up to something near twelve dollars per square of one hundred square feet. Suppose we build a concrete floor in the same place. A six-inch sub-base would contain fifty cubic feet of concrete. A 1-3-7 (see Page 55) concrete can be used. With cement at $2.00 per barrel, sand at 75c a yard, and stone at $1.50, the materials for the base will cost $8.68 per square of one hun- dred feet, as compared with $12.00 for timber. The labor on both jobs would cost about the same. The advantages of the concrete floor over the wooden floor are: Durability, Cheapness, Best of Drainage, and Sanitation, all of which properties are very vital to the floor. Another advantage which the farmer would enjoy by using a concrete floor in his barn is the saving of manure. A concrete floor can be made water-tight so as to save all of the liquid part of the manure and thus hold its strength, while a wooden floor in the first place would be hard to make water-tight and it would be impossible to keep it so. The saving of the loss be- tween the two has been calculated by reliable farmers to pay for the floor in five years, which would be a twenty percent investment on the money. Illustrations for Calculating Quantities and Cost for Simple Concrete Structures. Suppose it is proposed to build a sidewalk four feet wide and 100 feet long, with a four-inch concrete base and a half-inch wearing coat. Concrete base to be built of 1 : 2^2 : 5 mix and the wearing coat 1 : 2 mix. First determine the number of cubic yards of concrete of each kind that is needed. The number of cubic yards of base will be 4x4-12x100 divided by 27, which equals nearly 5 cubic yards. Now note in the table No. 3 Page 62, under the title "Quantities of Cement" sand and pebbles or stone required for one cubic yard compacted water or concrete just opposite the proportions 1 : 2 l / 2 : 5. It will be found that for every yard of concrete, 5 sacks of cement, VZy 2 cubic feet of sand and 25 cubic feet of stone is necessary. Multiplying each of these by 5, will give 25 sacks of cement, 62*^ cubic feet of sand and 125 cubic feet of stone, or the sand and stone may be expressed in cubic yards. The number of cubic yards of sand will be 5x.46 or 2.3 cubic yards and the same way 5x.92 is 4.6 cubic yards of stone. Now in the same table note the quantities opposite the 1 :2. It is noted that for each yard of mortar, 12.8 sacks are necessary and .95 cubic yards of sand per cubic yard of mortar. The amount of mortar necessary will be 4x1-24x100x1-27 equals .62 cubic yards of 62 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING concrete. Now multiply .62x12.8 which equals 7.94 sacks of cement. In the same way multiply .62x.95 which equals .59 cubic yards of sand. Now add to- gether the two quantities of cement and sand and this will'be the total neces- sary to complete the work. In the same way quantities for any simple struc- ture, whose volume is known, can be easily determined. Calculating the Cost of Concrete. It is easy to calculate the cost of concrete if table 3 on Page 62 is followed carefully. From this table the materials can be accurately itemized, and the builder can note the market on these three quantities and find out their unit cost delivered to the site. In general it will cost about one dollar per cubic yard for mixing and placing the concrete, if the mixing boards can be placed close to the work. It will take a little experience for one to find out just how much a gang can do in a day. By skillful management everyone can be kept busy and the price kept down to a very low figure. If the work is done at a time when the farmer is not very busy and his time not very valuable, the concrete can be said to have been made and placed for about the cost of the material. One example of calculating from the following table will be shown. QUANTITIES OF MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR VARIOUS MIX- TURES OF MORTAR AND CONCRETE Table No. 3 Mixture Materials for One Bag Batch Resulting Vol- ume in Cubic Feet Quantities of Cement, Sand, and Pebbles or Stone Required for One Cubic Yard of Compacted Mortar or Concrete Cement in Sacks Sand Cu. Ft. Pebbles or Stone Cu. Ft. Mortar Con- crete Cement in Sacks Sand Stone or Pebbles Cu. Ft. Cu. Yd. Cu. Ft. Cu. Yd. 1 ] 1 1 1:2 1:2 1:2H 1:3 2 23^ 3 3 4 4 5 6 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.5 2.5 3.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 1.75 2.1 2.5 2.8 3.9 4.5 4.8 5.4 6.4 15.5 12.8 11.0 9.6 7.0 6.0 5.6 5.0 4.2 23.2 .86 25.6 .95 27.5 1.02 28.8 1.07 14.0 .52 12.0 .44 14.0 .52 12.5 .46 12.6 .47 21.0 .78 24.0 .89 22.4 .83 25.0 .92 25.2 .94 (Based on tables in "Concrete, Plain, and Reinforced," 3rd Edition, by Taylor & Thompson). Forms for Concrete. Hints for Good Forms. — Design the forms as simple as possible and out of as few pieces of lumber. Avoid using nails by fastening together with wires and wedges so that they may be easily removed without damaging the material. Make forms too strong rather than not strong enough. Bulging forms make bad looking pieces of concrete. When they bulge too much, the forms will leak and let the water and cement out, weakening the concrete. Form lumber which CONCRETE 63 has been twisted out of shape cannot be used again. Where a great amount of concreting is to be done, two-inch forms should always be used. For temporary work, the lightest and cheapest will be the most economical. In planning the forms, take into consideration the structure which is being built. If it is an exposed position the form should be very carefully aligned so that the finished structure will be straight in every respect. In work that is to be covered up, money and time can be saved by not being so careful with the work. Forms that are to be used several times should not be nailed, especially they should not be nailed into small, narrow or angular spaces where the removal will be difficult. Do not cut the lumber any oftener than necessary. Plan the structures which are being built to use commercial sizes. A good plan in nailing is to use long nails and drive them in only part way so that they may be easily pulled. Materials for Forms. — The average farmer will use some kind of timber for forms. Cheaper and softer grades of lumber are the most economical. It does not pay to use hard lumber except where it is to be used several times and can be clamped, wired or wedged in place. To Prevent Concrete from Sticking. — Concrete will stick to the forms unless some kind of oil or foreign matter is placed on them. Oil is the most con- venient and serves the purpose and at the same time protects the lumber from the moisture. Steel Forms. — Where a great number of units of one kind are to be made, it is often cheaper to purchase steel forms from manufacturers on the market. Such items as Concrete Blocks, Concrete Fence Posts and Concrete Tile, demand the use of steel forms. There are several grades and kinds on the market. The amount of expenditure to make for such forms depends on the number to be made. For his own use, the farmer should limit his machinery to the smaller and simpler types, as he will not be using them all the time and the investment can be kept as low as possible. The Construction of Concrete Floors, Walks, and Other Pavements. In taking up the construction of concrete it is necessary to first handle the simplest form of concrete work. The sidewalk is found to be the most simple structure which is common to all farm work. A sidewalk is nothing more than a special form and shape of concrete floor, so when one is learned, it is possible to make either. The first thing to do in making concrete sidewalks or floors is to carefully stake out the work. Then excavate, set the forms, and stake them down, as shown in Fig. 5. Necessary tools outside of a few shovels are also shown. If the ground is firm and fairly well drained where the walk or floor is to be laid, the excavation should be made only deep enough to accommodate the concrete of which the floor is made. Where the soil is very loose or poorly drained the excavation is deepened and a sub-base of sand, gravel or cinders is added. The thickness of this base depends upon -local conditions. Three or four inches is usually enough, although as high as eight inches has been used. For the average work no sub-base is necessary if the bottom of the trench 64 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING CONCRETE 65 is carefully cut to surface. For a sidewalk with a 4-inch base and a one-inch wearing coat, a trench 4 inches deep should be made. The bottom should be struck off level. Mix enough concrete to make two or three sections four feet long. Mix it and spread evenly in the bottom of the trench at about seven inches depth. With a tamper, tamp it down to an even surface 4 inches deep. Then mix the mortar to a medium wetness and spread first with a shovel, and strike off later with a straight edge. If not too wet it may be rubbed with the smoothing trowel immediately. Otherwise, let it stand and try it every fifteen or twenty minutes and as soon as it will take the trowel, finish it. The least amount of troweling that can be done to bring it to a true surface and make it smooth is the best. Below will be found a table which will be very useful in figuring out quantities for various floor surfaces. TABLE 4 Bags of Cement to 100 Square Feet of Mortar Surface Thickness 1 :1 Proportions 1 :.1H 1 :2 X A inch 3V 2 Bags 2% Bags 2H Bags M inch 5 Bags 4 Bags 3J4 Bags 1 inch 7 Bags 5}4 Bag3 4H Bags \\i inches 8H Bags 6 Bags 5M Bags \Yt inches 10 Bags 8 Bags 6M Bags \% inches 12 Bags 9J4 Bags 7M Bags 2 inches 14 Bags 1 1 Bags 9 Bags Surfaces laid with one Barrel of Cement No. of Square Feet of Concrete (base) laid with 4 bags (1 bbl.) of Cement Proportions Thickness 1 : VA :3 1 :2 4 1:3:6 3 inches 47 Square Feet 60 Square Feet 83 Square Feet 4 inches 36 Square Feet 46 Square Feet 66 Square Feet 5 inches 27 Square Feet 36 Square Feet 52 Square Feet 6 inches 24 Square Feet 30 Square Feet 41 Square Feet 8 inches 17 Square Feet 22 Square Feet 33 Square Feet 10 inches 14 Square Feet 19 Square Feet 26 Square Feet 12 inches 12 Square Feet 15 Square Feet 21 Square Feet No. of Square Feet of Mortar Surface Laid with 4 Bags (1 bbl.) of Cement Thickness Proportions 1:1 \:W2 1:2 Yt inch % inch 1 inch 1J4 inches ljl inches 1% inches .2 inches 114 Square Feet 80 Square Feet 57 Square Feet 48 Square Feet 40 Square Feet 33 Square Feet 29 Square Feet 146 Square Feet 100 Square Feet 73 Square Feet 60 Square Feet 50 Square Feet 43 Square Feet 36 Square Feet 178 Square Feet 114 Square Feet 89 Square Feet 70 Square Feet 59 Square Feet 52 Square Feet 44 Square Feet NOTE — Four bags of cement equal 1 barrel. Hints. Be careful to mix the concrete and mortar well. Remember to place the wearing coat on the base immediately after the base is placed. If this is not done, the two will not adhere and the walk will be ruined by scaling or freezing. To prevent upheaval and scaling follow instructions care- fully and drain the soil well under the walk. Where walks are laid by a big tree, the growth of the roots may raise them. To prevent this cut off the roots. 66 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Settlement cracks may be prevented by thoroughly tamping the ground before laying the walk. Crumbling and scaling will not occur if good materials are used and the di- rections are followed carefully. Keep the surface moist for four or five days and no trouble from this source will occur. Floors or walks larger than twenty or thirty feet square should be provided with contraction joints. This can be done by cutting clear through the floor or walk and placing a ^-inch thick board on edge at the time the floor or walk is constructed. This can be left in or pulled out and the space rilled up with sand. Fig. 6 ^DETAl L- OF- Cb?2 Aj£Q- Form for Casting Concrete Slabs for Simple Sidewalks. For floors of milk-houses and spring-houses, or other small buildings with floors resting on the ground, and for walks; small slabs of concrete are very convenient. The slabs are cast at any convenient time and stored until needed. For walks where no great weight will come upon them, the slabs can be made 2 inches thick and about 2 by 3 feet in size. For floors the slabs should be made thicker. If the floor is to be made water-tight, it may be prevented from cracking through change of temperature by laying reinforcing steel or woven wire mesh a couple of inches below the surface. For large surfaces, fencing wire should be used, for small surfaces the ordinary chicken wire will suffice. MATERIALS FOR 100 SQUARE FEET OF CONCRETE. Table No. 5 — Bags of Cement to 100 Square feet of Concrete Surface. Thickness 3 inches 4 inches 5 inches 6 inches 8 inches 10 inches 12 inches 1:1H:3 SV 2 Bags 11 Bags U*A Bags 16% Bags 22% Bags 28% Bags 34% Bags 1:2:4 6 J^ Bags 8% Bags 11 Bags 13% Bags 18 Bags 21 H Bags 26 y 2 Bags 1:3:6 4% Bags 6 Bags W2 Bags W% Bags 12 Bags 15H Bags lS 1 /^ Bags NOTE — The farmer will have little use for any mixture but the 1:3:6. CONCRETE 67 Fig. 7 — An Illustration of the Method Commonly Used To Lay Out Foundation Lines And To Square Building Corners £ by 6 inches Fig. 8— Simple Form of Foundations For Small Buildings, Such As Might Have Been Used in Constructing The Foundation Shown on Page 42. No Forms Are Necessary Below Ground When The Earth Is Self Sustaining. 68 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Concrete Foundations, Piers and Walls. Because of its ease of handling, durability and strength, concrete has re- placed other materials for foundation and pier construction. Solid Concrete and Concrete Blocks for Foundations. There are two kinds of concrete walls in common use. One is made of poured or solid concrete and the other built up of concrete blocks The concrete block is the cheapest but not so strong or water-tight. The solid concrete wall is better and should be used in preference to the concrete blocks under the ground. Above the ground where some decoration is necessary, concrete blocks will more often be the best. Foundations should always extend below the frost line except where the ground is perfectly drained. The width of walls for ordinary dwellings and farm buildings will vary from six to eighteen inches. Probably eight or twelve-inch walls will answer most pur- poses. The base is usually increased in width as shown in Figure 8. In building a foundation wall, it is first necessary to stake it out, as shown in Plate 16, Page 54, and Figure 7, Page 67. Then build the forms as in Figure 8, depending upon the kind of foundation, whether there will be a base- ment or not. If the wall cannot all be poured at one time, make a joint as shown in Figure 3, Page 58. The resulting wall will be such as in Figure 3 and Plate 17, Page 54. It is often necessary to replace an old foundation which has been made of timber or stone. This can be easily accomplished as shown in Figure (9). First block up the structure as shown in the left hand figure, then build the new foun- dation, using the same method as described above, leave the forms on for two or three weeks, remove the props and the foundation is complete. CONCRETE 69 Below is a table of quantities of materials, different heights of walls used in masonry. TABLE NO. 6— THICKNESS OF WALLS AND QUANTITIES OF MATERIALS FOR DIFFERENT HEIGHTS OF BASEMENTS. Proportions: 1 Part Portland Cement to 2>2 Parts of sand, to 5 parts of gravel or stone. Height of Basement Depth of Foundation Below Ground Level Thickness of Wall at Bottom Thickness of Wall at Top 6 feet 8 feet 10 feet 4 feet 6 feet 8 feet 6 inches 10 inches 15 inches 6 inches 8 inches 10 inches Cement per 10 ft. Length of Wall Sand per 10 ft. of Length of Wall Gravel or Stone per 10 ft. of Length of Wall Bags 6 12 25 y 2 Cubic Feet \\y 2 29 60 Cubic Feet 29 58 120 Another concrete table is shown. TABLE NO. 7 — QUANTITIES OF PORTLAND CEMENT, SAND AND PEBBLES OR CRUSHED STONE FOR 100 SQUARE FEET OF CON- CRETE 10 INCHES THICK, EQUAL TO 3.08 CUBIC YARDS. Proportions Quantities Sacks Cubic Feet Cubic Feet Sacks Cubic Yard Cubic Yard of of Pebbles of of Pebbles Cement Sand or Stone Cement Sand or Stone 1 60.2 2.23 IK 47.7 2.65 2 39.4 2.92 2K ■ 33.8 3.13 3 29.5 3.29 1 1 41.7 1.54 1.54 w* 3 23.4 1.30 2.60 2 3 21.5 1.59 2.38 2 4 18.5 1.37 2.74 . 2K 4 17.2 1.59 2.54 2M 5 15.4 1.43 2.86 3 5 14.2 1.58 2.64 NOTE — These quantities can be safely used for estimating, ordering materials and, after the work is done, as a check to prove that the required quantity of cement has been used. Actual quantity of materials used in the concrete should not vary more than ten per cent above or below the quantities given in the table. 70 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Use of Table 7. This table can readily be used for any concrete structures which can be measured in area and which are of uniform thickness over any considerable area such as walls, floors and walks. The following examples illustrate the use of the table : EXAMPLE 1. — Required the quantity of materials for a 12-inch thick base- ment wall, 6 feet 5 inches high above footing, for a house 25 feet by 40 feet outside dimensions. The footing 1 foot 6 inches wide and 6 inches thick. Concrete pro- portioned 1 : 3 : 5. WALL: Length of wall 25+25+39+39=128 ft. Height of wall 6 ft. 5 in.=6 5/12=6.417 ft. Area of wall=128X6.417=821.4 sq. ft. Thickness of wall=12 in. Quantities of materials for wall concrete: Factor for multiplying units in 821.4 12 table = X ~ = 8.214 X 1-2 =9.8568 ; 100 10 Take 9.86 Sacks of cement=14.2X9. 86=140.0 Cu. yd. of sand =1.58X9.86=15.6 Cu. yd. of pebbles or crushed stone=2. 64X9. 86=26.0 FOOTING: Length of footing=25.5+25.5+37.5+37.5=126 ft Width of footing=l ft. 6 in.=l 6/12=1.5 ft. Area of footing=126X 1.5=189 ft. Thickness of footing=6 in. Quantities of materials for footing: Factor for multiplying units in the 189 6 table= X — = 1.89X.6=1. 134=1. 13 100 10 Sack of cement=14.2Xl-13=16.0 Cu. yd. of sand=1.58X 1-13=1.8 Cu. yd. of pebbles or stone=2.64X 1.13=3.0 Total quantities of materials : Sacks of cement=140+16=156.0 Cu. yd. of sand=15.6+1.8=17.4 or 17. Cu. yd. of pebbles=26.0+3=29.0 CONCRETE 71 EXAMPLE 2. Required the quantities for a concrete floor for a basement. Interior dimensions of the basement 23 feet by 38 feet. Floor 5 inches thick over all, with 4-inch base of concrete proportioned 1 : 2y 2 : 5, and 1-inch wearing course composed of cement mortar proportioned 1 : 2. Area of floor=23X 38=874 sq. ft. Factor for multiplying quantities in table for 874 4 base = X — = 8.74 X -4 = 3.5 100 10 Quantities of materials for base concrete: Sacks of cement=15.4X3. 5=54.0 Cu. yd. of sand=1.43X3.5=5.0 Cu. yd. of pebbles or stone=2.86X3. 5=10.0 . Factor for multiplying quantities in table for 874 1 wearing surface = X — = 8.74 X -1 = .9 100 10 Quantities of materials for wearing surface mortar : Sacks of cement=39.4X-9=35.5 Cu. yd. of sand=2.92X-9=2.6 cu. yd. Total quantities of materials for floor : Sacks of cement=54.0-f-35.4=89.5 Cu. yd. of sand=5.0-f-2.6=7.6 or 7.5 Cu. yd. of pebbles or stone=10.0 TABLE NO. 8— SURFACE AREA (IN SQUARE FEET) OF CONCRETE SLABS OR WALLS OF VARIOUS THICKNESS AND PROPORTIONS, THAT CAN BE MADE WITH ONE SACK OF CEMENT. Thickness of Concrete Mixture Slab or Wall in Inches 1:2:3 1:2:4 1:2J4:4 1:2^:5 1:3:5 3 15.52 17.88 19.42 21.77 23.2 3^ 13.31 15.33 16.65 18.67 19.9 4 11.64 13.. 41 14.56 16.33 17.4 ^A 10.36 11.93 ±2.96 14.53 15.5 5 9.31 10.73 11.65 13.06 13.9 5V2 8.46 9.74 10.58 11.86 12.6 6 7.76 8.94 9.71 10.88 11.6 6K 7.18 8.27 8.98 10.07 10.7 7 6.65 7.66 8.33 9.33 9.9 8 5.82 6.70 7.28 8.16 8.7 10 4.66 5.36 5.83 6.53 6.9 12 3.88 4.47 4.85 5.44 5.8 14 3.32 3.83 4.16 4.66 4.7 16 2.91 3.35 3.64 4.08 4.3 72 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Overflow Pipe "Front Wagon Wheel Tire Water Tanks or Troughs. After learning how to make feeding floors, sidewalks, cellar floors, etc., it is an easy matter to add to this some simple vertical walls for tanks or troughs. The concrete watering tank is becoming universally popular and universally used. When properly built, it is permanent and cheap. Great care should be exercised in making it and seeing that the concrete is the very best and is placed to the best advantage. In large tanks attention must be given to the drainage in order that when the ground freezes it will not heave and break the tank. (See Plate 18, Page 76). Construction of Trough and Tank. A simple circular tank can be made by cutting a barrel half in two and setting it inside of a box so that a space of six inches will be left around the barrel and about eight inches from the bottom of the barrel to the bottom of the box. Across the bottom may be laid several pieces of heavy wire, scrap iron, say about three or four inches apart both ways. A row of fencing wire may be cut to fit around in the space between the barrel and the box. Then pour the concrete. Use a 1-2-3 Concrete, pour very care- fully, and spade it well. Keep it wet for two weeks, and remove the forms, and an excellent tank will result. (See Figure 10.) Slop and Hog Troughs. The hog is generally considered to be the scavenger animal on the farm. It is supposed to eat the leavings of food from every other living thing on the place. Consequently it is thought that it can eat out of most any kind of a receptacle. As a matter of fact, the hog is just as careful about his eating as any other animal. In order to produce good meat, it should be taken care of just the same as any other food producing stock. Concrete makes clean, sanitary, durable hog troughs. In Figure 11 are shown the forms of reinforcing and a section through a finished trough. The form is a bottomless box placed on a level floor or a piece of ground which is level and clean. On the inside is placed an oblong box having outside dimensions equal to those of the trough. Three half-inch round rods and some chicken wire placed as shown and then add 1:2:4 concrete, will make the trough complete. Fie- 10 — Design of Forma for Cii Fig. 11— Hog i -H c ,hP<*>lrrf N *"""J- Chicken TroughB CONCRETE 73 Rectangular Concrete Hog Wallow. Among the structures which may properly be classed as a kind of tank is the concrete hog wallow. The value of a hog wallow from the standpoint of promoting better sanitation and hence raising the standard of health among hogs, has been proven many times. (See also Plate 18). 7 ft Ground level ~7 v, -§- : nch bars t^Lop - Tar filled Join t 6 in fy^tif Well compacted earth $' yfejfc SECTION CROSSWISE rI i General, view. a bin . Concrete pavement, -*H/ '| ■ // feet -■£=~Water lerel / Corrugations g -in. bars ~~g Section lengthwise. 74 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING CONCRETE 75 Milk and Cream Vats. Modern dairying demands complete sanitation in the care of the cows and the milk. There is no better material than concrete to insure this condi- tion. Milk should be kept at even temperatures which are most easily possible in heavy masonry tanks. An excellent milk and cream vat can be made by setting a concrete tank in the ground. First dig a pit to a depth of V/ 2 feet and place the regular wooden forms for a tank, making the walls six inches thick and the base eight inches. Make the inside dimensions 1 foot 10 inches in height, using a 1:2:4 mixture on the walls and floor at the same time, placing inlet and outlet pipes before the concrete is poured and seeing that mortar is packed closely around each one. (Fig. 13 shows design of milk and cream vat that is successful). Small round rods spaced G in. horizontally and vertically 9 1 }•' ^I/Metal fobr/c i— J j|£« >Ve// compacted ear//? Section v /?/■'.-/'/£>; Fig. 14 — Another Design For Reinforced Concrete Manure Pit Show- ing a Cistern Provided for caring for Liquid Fertilizer Manure Pits. The farmer does not need advice on the value of manure, nor does he need to be told how wasteful it is to pile it on the ground. Records show that manure will in a short time lose half of its value. Many save this loss 76 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING CONCRETE 77 Plate 21 Plat* 22 78 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Plate 24 Plate 25 CONCRETE 79 by hauling out the manure as fast as it is produced, but this is not always possible. The only remedy is to properly store in a concrete manure pit. By placing in a concrete manure pit, it can be kept damp so that it will not fire. The liquid is retained and all the strength is saved for the crops when it is hauled out. The details of making floor and walls and tanks have been too well Fig. 15. given to go into detail of construction on manure pits. One design will be added as a suggestion. (See Figure 14.) The method of procedure is the same as in all other structures of this kind. Concrete in the Cow Barn. With cleanly milk and butter producers, it is no longer a matter of floor or no floor; it is merely a question of which is the best floor for the cow barn. The best dairymen long ago decided in favor of concrete. On account of many epidemics of "catching" diseases, directly traceable to milk, city authori- ties are forcing the careless dairyman to decide — concrete floors are one of the requirements for certified milk. (See Plate 22, Page 77). The stalls of dairy barns are arranged with the cows in the opposite rows of stalls standing with their heads or their heels towards each other. The stall plan depends entirely upon the arrangements for bringing in feed and removing manure. The plan below is for a barn with the cows' heads toward each other. If the dairymen prefer the other arrangement, the same plan can easily be adapted to it. A width of 8 feet 6 inches provides sufficient room for a manure spreader. How to Build Dairy Barn Floors. Consider a barn planned to have the two rows of cows facing each other. Remove all manure and other foreign matter together with such humps of earth as may be necessary to give the floor a slight slope in the direction in which the manure will be taken out. Begin the construction of the floors 80 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING at the two sides of the barn so that the middle and ends may be used as working space. On the earthen floor, at a distance of 4^ feet from the side walls of the barn, set on edge a line of 2 by 6-inch boards, extending the entire length of the building. Support these boards by stakes driven firmly in the ground on the side of the board away from the barn wall. By means of a carpenter's spirit level and a grade line, see that the tops of these boards have an even slope (say. }i -inch per foot) toward the manure pit. Allowing a clear intervening space of 10 inches, set up in a similar way a line of 2 by 8-inch boards with the supporting stakes inside of the 10-inch space and with the top of this board 2 inches higher than the 6-inch board. In this space the drop gutter will later be constructed. The Alleyway. Between the wall and the 6-inch board tamp in sufficient gravel to even off all irregularities in the ground surface and to allow the building of a 5-inch thickness of floor, sloping y 2 inch from the wall toward the gutter. Mix the concrete 1 : 2y 2 : 5, tamp into place, and finish the surface with a wooden float and a wire brush. The roughened surface thus produced gives the cows a good footing. The Stall Floor. With the alley finished, begin the construction of the floor of the stalls proper. For the average sized cow, the usual length of stall is 4 feet 8 inches from stanchion to drop gutter and the width is 3 feet 6 inches. The stall floor should slope not less than z / 2 inch toward the drop gutter to provide for drainage. If an adjustable stanchion fastener is to be used, set it in the center of the 6-inch manger wall. The length of the stall is regulated by this device. For a stall 4 feet 8 inches long, set the outside board (2 by 12 inches) of the manger wall 5 feet 2 inches from the drop gutter. The top of this board will be 7 inches above the finished floor. This extra height provides a form for the manger wall. In this space, place the 5-inch floor in the same manner as the alleyway was laid. If gas-pipe stall divisions are to be used later, make mortises in the floor at the proper points by tamping the concrete around a core of the right size, removing the core when the concrete has stiffened. (See Fig. 15, Page 79). The Manger. As soon as the floor of three stalls has been concreted and while the con- crete is yet green, build the concrete manger wall upon the new stall floor. The projecting 7 inches of the 2 by 12-inch board already in place serves as the outer wall form. "Toe nail" two 1 by 6-inch boards together at their edges, thus providing a 7-inch height for the other manger wall form and a bearing plate to rest on the green stall floor. Set this wall form so as to leave a 6-inch space for the manger wall. Cross-brace these wall forms upon each other and if necessary drive an occasional nail through the bearing plate into the new concrete. Fill the space between the forms with concrete, setting CONCRETE 81 the stanchion fasteners at the same time. Continue in the same manner until the stall floors are finished. If desired, the back wall of the manger may be given a dish shape for a swinging stanchion. (See Plate 20, Page 76). Then commence the work on the other side of the barn, constructing the floor of the alleyway and stall in exactly the same manner. (See Plate 21, Page 77). The Feedway. With the alleys and stalls finished, begin work on the feedway. If pos- sible, this should be at least 8 feet wide. As the bottom of the manger should be on a level with the stall floor and since the top of the feedway floor must be at least 8 inches above the bottom of the manger, place sufficient gravel fill (well tamped) to bring about this result. To hold in place the 5-inch concrete of the feedway alley floor and to provide for sloping front walls of the mangers, set a 2 by 10-inch board, spaced (from the other wall of the manger) 1 foot 6 inches at the bottom and 1 foot 10 inches at the top. These sloping walls allow all feed to be swept back into the mangers and all trash to be easily removed from them. Build the 5- inch floor of the feedway, crowning it to 6 inches thick in the middle. (See "Sidewalks," Page 63). Horse Barn Floors. Concrete floors are equally as valuable for the horse barn as for the cow stable. The same principles govern the .floor construction. Naturally there must be a few changes in the dimensions. Single stalls are usually 5 feet wide and 9 feet from the front wall of the manger to the drop gutter. As the gutter is generally covered with a rough cast-iron plate sunk flush with the concrete, carrying liquids alone, it need not be so wide and deep as for the dairy barn. A clear width of 10 and a depth of 3 inches are sufficient. Concrete Mangers. Many farmers are today building their mangers or racks of concrete. "Stump suckers" lose the habit when fed in concrete mangers. The manger is constructed along the general lines laid down for Out- door Feeding Troughs, Page 72. A form satisfactory for building horse barn mangers is shown in the photograph. The feed trough can be molded as a part of the manger by using a box form like an ordinary wooden feeding trough, but 6 inches wider and without end pieces. Saw out the manger forms so that the box will fit the opening. When the manger forms have been filled with concrete to the feed trough level, place 1 inch of concrete over the bottom of the trough form, lay in a strip of heavy woven wire fencing, and then place the remaining 2 inches of the 3-inch bottom. Immediately set upon this con- crete a bottomless box with end pieces, of a size to allow for the 4-inch man- ger wall and the 3-inch side walls of the trough. Fill both manger and trough forms and imbed a ^-inch rod in the side walls of the trough 1 inch 82 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING from the top. Make holes in the manger wall for the hitching strap by in- serting a 2-inch greased peg in the concrete. Imbed a 1-foot length of 1/2- inch rod in the concrete above this hole. Scientists have found that rats distribute more disease than any other ani- mal. Recognizing the danger, state and city authorities, the world over, are spending vast sums of money in exterminating this pest. If rats have no nesting-place, they cannot stay on the farm. Rats and mice cannot find a home about concrete floors, nor can they climb concrete barn walls. In a stable floored with concrete, the horses can rest at noontime instead of stamping at flies. Concrete Fence Posts. Some facts concerning the Durability of Timber Posts, taken from the Ohio Experiment Station Bulletin. Relative Durability of Post Timbers. — This may be compared to the durability of concrete posts as given farther on. Timber Post Facts. 1. A large post usually lasts longer than a small one of the same wood. 2. There is no difference which end is put in the ground, except that the sounder or larger end should have the preference. 3. In stiff clay soil, the posts rot principally just beneath the top of the ground, and in a porous sandy or gravelly soil, they usually rot from the top- of the soil all the way down ; the effect is the same in both cases. 4. In soil that is full of water all the time, posts will last longer. It is the alternating between wet and dry that causes decay. 5. From data collected so far, seasoning does not seem to have any marked effect on durability. The best catalpa fence examined was set when green. In the best oak fence examined, the posts were cut and put in the ground the same day. Likewise some of the best fences are those in which the posts were well seasoned. It has been very difficult to get accurate data on the matter of seasoning, especially in fences where the posts have been only partially seasoned when set. But there has been a sufficient number found, in which the posts when set were well seasoned or entirely green, to justify the above conclusion. 6. Timber that grows rapidly and in the open is not as good as the same variety that grows in the woods. This has been observed especially in the red cedar, the catalpa and the locust. 7. There is some evidence that it is not a good time to cut posts just as the tree begins to grow in early spring. 8. The wood at the center of the tree is not as good as that just inside the sap wood. This characteristic is very common with nearly all the va- rieties of timber examined, especially so with the locust, the white cedar, the hardy catalpa and the oaks. CONCRETE 83 9. The quality of the wood or the condition of the wood fiber of a post is a very important item in its ability to endure in the soil. In an average lot of so-called first class posts on the market, usually a number can be selected that are defective, though they may appear sound and firm. This quality of post is usually somewhat darker than the usual color, especially near the center of the tree. At the State Experiment Station at Wooster, Ohio, there are on file the data of every fence that was examined in this investigation. These data contain, among other items, the name and address of the owner, the location of the fence on the farm, and the date the fence was examined. Any one who feels inclined to examine any of these fences that happen to be in his com- munity can get their location by writing to the Forestry Department of the Experiment Station. Concrete Fence Posts. — The timber posts discussed above lasted any- where from ten to fifty years. Only one kind of timber, the Osage Orange, had a good record of fifty years of age. The rest of them fell along the wayside considerably less than this age. As timber becomes scarce and high priced and cement much cheaper and easier to form into useful structures, the con- crete fence post is becoming the real solution to the problem. Timber fence posts, no matter what kind, must be kept up annually. This continual drain eats up what would otherwise go to make up profit. Farmers have been recognizing the value of concrete and are adopting this material for post construction. The early concrete posts of course were an experiment, but this is no longer the case. They do not rust or break, and do not need painting, can be made easily and in any size. Every farmer can make his own fence posts. It is important, however, that he follow instructions from experienced men. In the first place the size and length should be determined. The best material should be secured, both in concrete and kinds of steel. Use only reliable grades of Portland Cement and the best stone and sand available. The mixture should not be poorer than 1:2:3. Table 9, Page 87, gives dimensions of concrete line posts and materials needed. Note that the table gives the amount and sizes of all material needed. These dimensions are given for tapered post only and for a post of square section both at the bottom and top and all reinforcing is round rods. This type of home-made fence post molds is economical where only a few posts are to be made, or where only a few are to be made at a time. Where a large number are to be used, it would be well for the farmer to co- operate with his neighbor to buy a steel form. The advertisements in a farmi paper will give the names of a number of manufacturers who have these for' sale. After the farm fence post mold is made, plan the batches of concrete 1 so that the mold will be filled in one mixing and no materials are wasted. The mold shown will make only four posts. It will be an easy matter for the farmer to make a mold which will manufacture two, three, four or five times that many at one time. Figure 18 will show how the reinforcing rods are 84 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 4 V Fig. 16 — Methods of Attaching Fence Wire to Concrete Posts WON HATC 3M-£ Fig. 17 — Type of Home-made Fence Post Mold That Permits Making Four Posts at a Time. Posts Made In This Mold Have Two Faces Parallel and Two Tapered. CONCRETE 85 Concrete end post with brace cast monolithic with the post. Such construction is rigid enough to stand almost any. fence strain th:U — —■ — /.^;..-;y 'W '■WlmW'i- .- ■„; ' : .- ."...'..__.. . ilp==iP wm X:.- Concrete end posts braced like this need no further they are plnced. attention. once 86 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING placed. Figure 16 will show the methods of attaching the fence wire to the concrete post. Plate 27, Page 85, will show a concrete fence corner. it Spacer of hay-t?oi//ng i*i(^ wire bent with loops l ~~ s %\ as shown 4 reinforcing rods at each corner ■—■' from surface, of post Fig. 18 — Simple Spacers For Reinforcing Rods, to Hold Them In Correct Position While Placing Concrete In The Post Mold, Can Readily Be Made By Twisting Wire As Shown In This Illustration SxS BRACE Fig. 19— Suggestion For a Form For Casting In Place Corner or End Posts With The Necessary Brace Corner End Posts and Post for Gateway.— Fig. 19, Page 86, will show the method of constructing forms for a corner post. Plates 26-27 show the completed post. Table 10 will give quantities and dimensions of corner post and ma- terials needed. CONCRETE TABLE 9. Dimensions of concrete line posts, and materials needed 87 VIENSIONS Volume of Post in Cubic Feet Weight of Post in Pounds Amount of Rein- forcing Metal Required MATERIALS DI 1 -Cement" 3-Sand 1-Cement 2-Sand 3-Pebbles No. Posts Per Fok 10 Posts No. Posts Per Barrel Cement For 10 Po Top Bottom 3TS Length Sacks Cu.Ft. Sacks Cu. Ft. Cu.Ft. Cement Cement Sand Cement Sand Pebbles (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) 6' 6" 3"x3" 5"x5" .72 100.8 Four 15.7 2.6 11.5 21.7 1.9 3.7 5.5 7'0" 3"x3" 5"x5" .78 109.2 M" 14.5 2.8 12.4 20.0 2.0 4.1 6.0 7' 6" 3"*3" 5"x5" .83 116.6 Round 13.6 3.0 13.2 18.8 2.1 4.3 6.4 8'0" 3"x3" 5"x5" .89 124.6 Rods 12.7 3.2 14.2 17.5 2.3 4.4 6.8 €'. 6" 4"x4" 5"x5" .91 127.4 Four 12.4 3.2 14.5 17.1 2.3 4.7 7.0 7'0" 4"x4" 5"x5" .98 137.2 T5 11.5 3.5 15.6 15.9 2.5 5.1 7.5 7'C" 4"x4" 5"x5" 1.05 147.0 Round 10.8 3.7 16.7 14.8 2.7 5.5 8.1 8'0" 4"x4" 5"x5" 1.12 156.8 Rods 10.1 4.0 17.8 13.9 2.9 5.8 8.6 6' 6" 5"x5" 6"x6" 1.36 191.1 Four 8.3 4.9 2r.7 11.4 3.5 7.1 10.5 TO" 5"x5" 6"x6" 1.47 205.8 3 A" 7.7 5.2 23.4 10.6 3.8 7.6 11.3 7' 6" 5"x5" 6"x6" 1.57 220.5 Round 7.2 5.6 25.1 9.6 4.1 8.2 12.1 8'0" 5"x5" 6"x6" 1.68 235.2 Rods 6.7 6.0 26.8 9.3 4.3 8.7 12.9 Concrete gate posts may be made quite attractive by building on a capi- tal and base, then panelling the sides. A farmer boy with a little artistic trend can make up forms for various kinds of decorations for posts. TABLE 10. Dimensions of corner posts and materials needed Amount of Reinforcing Metal MATERIALS DIMENSIONS Volume of Posts Weight Posts 1-Cement 3-Sand 1-Cement 2-S AND 3-PEEBLE3 No. For 1 Post No. For 1 Post in in Required Posts Posts Length Size Cu. Ft. Pounds for Each Post Per Barrel Cement Sacks Cement Cu.Ft. Sand Per Barrel Cement Sacks Cement Sand Cu. Ft. Pebbles Cu.Ft (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) 8'Q" 6"x 6"' 2.0 280 Four 5.7 .7 2.1 7.8 0.5 1.0 1.5 7"x 7" 2.72 381 7 // 4.1 1.0 2.9 5.7 0.7 1.4 2.1 8' 6" 7"x 7" 2.89 405 Round Rods 3.9 1.0 3.1 5.4 0.7 1.5 2.2 8'0" 8"x 8" 3.56 498 Four 3.2 1.3 3.8 4.4 0.9 1.8 2.7 8' 6" 8"x 8" 3.78 528 16 3.0 1.3 4.0 4.1 1.0 2.0 2.9 9'0" 8"x 8" 4.00 560 Round Rods 2.8 1.4 4.2 3.9 1.0 2.1 3.1 8'0" 10"xl0" 5.55 776 Four 2.0 2.0 5.9 2.8 1.4 2.9 4.3 8' 6" 10"xl0" 5.90 . 826 W 1.9 2.1 6.3 2.7 1.5 3.1 4.6 9'0" 10"xl0" 6.25 875 Round Rods 1.8 2.2 6.6 2.5 1.6 3.3 4.S 10' 0" 5"x 5" 1.73 243 Four % /%' 6.5 .6- 1.8 9.0 4.4 0.9 1.3 12' 0" 5"x 5" 2.03 292 Round Rods 5.4 .7 2.2 7.5 5.3 1 1 1.6 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Cisterns. A cistern is a useful and often a very necessary article. A leaky one is useless. A concrete cistern has no joints or cracks and therefore can not leak. It is sanitary and does not give up any of the lime which makes the water hard, therefore an ideal cistern. Place the cistern convenient to the inside plumbing - . Make it big enough to allow for 8-inch walls, lying outside of the plan. A large cistern is more useful than a small one. Construction. Stake out the limits of the hole and dig it, being careful to keep the soil quiet and firm, so it will stand alone if possible. If the soil is of a caving nature, the outside form must be Went Pt<*9 A a •■■■9.0. ,/aV V w A"/ < % ills % a; Fie. 20 V J=^ '■a;/ AJ ■a a Ma A'.-A placed as fast as the hole is dug and properly braced across the top. After the hole is dug and the outside form placed if necessary, mix the concrete 1:2:4 and lay a 6-inch reinforced floor in the bottom. First put four inches of concrete, then lay in some chicken wire, and put two inches of concrete on top of that. Then im- mediately set the inside wall forms on all sides and carefully shovel the con- crete in place. Use long poles to tamp the concrete as fast as it is placed in about 6-inch layers and spade it well against the side of the form. (See Figure 20). After the concrete side walls have been brought to the ground level, set a 5-inch board on edge around the outside of the cistern so as to hold the concrete on the platform. Saw off the up- rights of the inside form, six inches below the finished top of the concrete cover and nail 2x4-inch joists even with their tops. Floor the joist with one-inch boards. Columns or bases may be placed in the middle of the wooden platform to keep from sagging. The manhole opening can be made with a bottomless box with tapered sides as shown in Figure 21 and Plate 28, or a tinsmith may make a tin form of the same shape or round. After placing the manhole form, begin at one side of the platform and tamp iy 2 inches of concrete upon it. Lay a heavy woven wire fencing on top of this and bend the ends of the wire down into the outside walls about six or eight inches, then cover the wire with d]/ 2 inches of concrete. Work rapidly and do not stop the work until the cistern is complete. After the top form is filled, trowel off the top surface with a wooden float. It is better to reinforce the manhole cover by placing four short half-inch iron rods along each side and about two inches from the bottom. After the floor has • vci . -^ iv^v-jo <2>'-c; CONCRETE 89 Fig. 21 properly set, pull out the manhole form, cover the sides of the manhole with paper or oil, so that new concrete will not stick to it. Fill in y 2 -'mch on the manhole, then lay a few small rods, say about a half-inch in diameter, criss- cross through the hole. Have on hand an old bridle bit or hitching post ring to serve as a lifting ring for the concrete cover. Be sure to anchor the bit well in the concrete with a twisted wire or a big nut and washer. After it has set for one or two weeks, the cover may be easily lifted by taking hold of the ring. Remove the cover, cut through the forms, descend into the cistern, tear out all woodwork, and paint the inside with a neat cement paint. The open- ings for downspout and outlets may be made by in- serting tile. To keep the water clear and pure the first re- quisite is to waste the first water that comes off the roof. An ingenious method is to run it into a barrel containing a float, which when raised to the top of the barrel, will operate a valve to cut over the water from the barrel and turn it into the cistern. After each rain, the barrel is emptied so that the first water of the next rain will fill the barrel and thus wash the roof. Simple filters may also be constructed just out- side the cistern wall. It can be made of concrete in a similar way to the cistern, the. dimensions about 4x3x4 feet deep. One wall of the cistern can serve as one wall of the filter. Through this an 8-inch tile should be laid on a level with the filter floor. A small %-inch mesh removable screen should be placed over this opening. Put two feet of coarse charcoal, cover with one foot of coarse sand and gravel. Run the cistern water from the roof in top of the filter. Cover the filter with a loose concrete slab. Remove sand and charcoal and replace with new material once a year. Four men built a cistern 8 feet square and 8 feet deep with a 6-inch floor and a 5-inch platform in two days. The cistern holds 122 barrels of 31^ gallons each. The Material Required. Screened gravel or crushed rock 8 cu. yds. Sand " 4 cu. yds. Portland Cement 13 barrels Make cistern large enough to store plenty of water through any drought period so that bathing and washing may be done regularly with soft water. Make covers to cistern large and heavy so that mischievous children can not remove them. Stairways and Steps. Stairways and steps are usually considered difficult to build from con- crete. After observing cuts shown, this will be proven untrue. Concrete is an ideal material for stairways and steps, especially in the basement, where timber soon rots out.. 90 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Construction of Basement Steps. First excavate the required space. Build the form rigidly in place. (See Fig. 22). Build the side walls and allow it to set for a week. Remove the forms from the walls and construct a form similar to the one in Figure 23. Fig. 22 — Forms in Position For Retaining Walls for Cellar Steps Step Forms. The best type of form is shown in Figure 23. Cross pieces are wedged between the side walls and assisted by a bracing, supported from a frame, also wedged between the walls. For a starting point mark on the side wall the position of the top of the finished landing, which should be the same ele- vation as the basement floor (Figure 24). Measure out along this line from the face of the building wall a distance equal to the width of the pro- posed landing, less the thickness of the material to be used as cross forms ; this point can be designated as "Q." From "Q" measure vertically a distance equal to the rise of one step ; this point which will be referred to as "R" indicates the point to which the upper outside corner of the cross form will come. Locate a point at the junction of the face of the side wall with the building wall, a distance from the level of the finished landing equal to the rise of four or more steps ; measure out from this point in a horizontal direction a distance equal to the tread of one less number of steps than used in getting CONCRETE 91 the elevation, plus the width of landing, less the thickness of the raised form ; this point will be known as "W." Draw a line along the face of the wall through "R" and "W." Starting at "R" the distance "X" between points can be selected from Table "A." After these points are located, project a vertical line through each by the use of a plumb level. Figure 23. Method of laying out form3 for cellar steps. Fig. 24 — -Method of Laying Out Basement Steps 92 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING The cross pieces which are held in place by wedges should be cut about a quarter of an inch shorter than the distance between the walls. In placing these bring the face flush with the vertical line, the upper outside corner com- ing to a point located on the line "R-W." TABLE II. Distance "X." (See Figure 24 Rise in Inches TREAD IN INCHES m 9 9^ 10 iok 11 11 J* 12 6 10H n 11 16 11 16 n* 11 16 12 UK 12* 12^ 12^ ll^i 11 16 11 *£ 11 16 121* 12H 12 M 12 H 12* 12tt 13 13* 123^ 12« 13 13* 13^ 12« 13* 13* 13i* 14 13* 6M 7 ..»-. 7V2 8 13tt 13*1 14* 14* In addition to wedging, which should be sufficient to keep the cross pieces in a true horizontal position, bracing, as shown in Figure 23, is desirable to keep them from being pushed out when the concrete is placed. It will be noted that the upper ends of the vertical pieces supporting the cross forms are nailed to pieces which are held tightly against the walls by braces between them. This frame should be built in place, as better results will be obtained than if placed after building. Portland Cement Stucco. Stucco is not a new method of surface finish. It dates back almost as far as history goes. The Greeks and Romans developed the use of stucco to a high degree and used it not only for a protective but decorative purposes. Much has been done in this country, in Mexico, New Mexico and in California by the early Indians. With the development of Portland Cement the use of stucco has grown with great rapidity. When properly made, the cement stucco is easily applied, absolutely reliable and permanent. Stucco may be used on new or old sur- faces. Constituents of Stucco. Stucco is a mixture of Portland Cement and sand with the addition of one part to ten parts of cement. The lime may be either hydrated or slaked lump lime. The hvdrated lime is a lump lime slaked with water by a mechanical process. The moisture driven off leaves the lime dry in the form of an impalpable powder. Hydrated lime is probably more satisfactory as it has been thoroughly slaked and there is no chance of damaging the stucco with unslaked lime. However, if care be taken in slaking the lump lime, giving it plenty of water and leaving it stand for several days, there will be no trouble from that CONCRETE 93 source. After the lime has completely slaked, it is run off into a crater of sand, the lime and sand are thoroughly mixed, enough sand being used to form a thick paste. One part of lime to nine parts of sand are needed. The cement and remainder of sand are added just before the plaster is applied and only a small quantity should be prepared at one time. The cement sets rapidly and if this occurs before application, it will lose its value. Be sure to observe this point as it is important. Mix only enough to last 15 or 20 minutes. The lime is added to make the mixture impervious and fatten the mortar so it will cover up more surface and work much easier with a float. The final mixture with cement and sand and lime should be wet enough to work easily but not enough to cause it to flow after it is applied. Stucco Lath. Two kinds of lath are supplied on the market, metal and wood lath. Metal lath is the better and easier applied. Metal lath must be protected from corrosion. It must either have a backing of wood sheathing or must be plastered on both sides. In order to plaster it on both sides, force the mortar through with the trowel against the back well so as to form a tight covering. This will imbed the lath entirely. Several styles of stucco boards are on the market. Be careful about buying cheap boards, as some of them have no merit except cheapness. Care should also be taken in applying the mixture. Application of Stucco. Application of stucco requires a good deal of patience and perseverance. The old adage, "If at first you don't succeed try, try again." applies well, but before trying again, read the instructions carefully to see that nothing has been forgotten. Be sure to have the proper materials and mix them in the proper way and particularly at the prop.er time. Remember that the stucco must be applied immediately after the cement is added. If the day is hot the mixture will dry rapidly. Small amounts of water will have to be added from time to time unless the mixing board is covered with a damp cloth. The stucco should not be exposed to sun or heating; either one will destroy it. After the stucco is placed do not disturb it until the cement is entirely set. Methods of Applying Stucco on Old Brick. Pick back the joints between the brick ^-inch. Clean surface with solu- tion 1 part commercial muriatic acid and 5 parts water. Wash off acid thoroughly. Saturate surface thoroughly just before applying plaster, and keep wet as plaster is placed. Start plastering at top of wall. Make each coat continuous. Stops shall be made only where natural breaks occur in the wall surface. If no breaks occur, plaster the whole surface from edge to edge in one operation. For proportion see Page 94, Table 12. 94 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Instead of applying the cement plaster directly to the brick, wire or expanded metal is sometimes fastened to the brick, and the stucco placed on it. Metal furring strips, placed from 12 to 18 inches apart, are attached to plugs driven in the joints of the brickwork, flush with the surface, and the wire is fastened to these strips. The strips should be y 2 -'mch thick. The stucco is then applied by spreading it over the wire and forcing it into the meshes. Making Old Frame Buildings New. This may be done by covering the building with metal lath and stuccoing as previously described. Stucco on New Work. There are hardly any new features to this. The metal lath can be ap- plied to the studding and the stucco placed as has been described. Below is a table giving quantities for 100 square yard lath. TABLE NO. 12 Material Lineal Ft. per Lb. Pounds Required Width of Furring 12-inch 16-inch Centers Centers Flat Wire Band Iron Band Iron Band Iron 20 20 15 10 . 50 37 3^-inch (specified) 22 gauge 40 34 67 45 90 67 Surface Finish and Coloring. The architectural possibilities of Portland Cement stucco houses are many and varied. The surface can be treated with many of the various methods described on Page 94, and in addition the stucco can be colored in many ways. Mix the coloring matter through as directed on Page 58. The table of colors is also found on that page. Surface Finish for Concrete. There are several ways for finishing the surface of concrete to make it look architecturally beautiful. For inside work especially the average farmer could -do a limited amount of this. Probably the simplest would be to mold the concrete in the ordinary way, then scrub the walls with a solution of muriatic acid. This will clean off the pebbles in the concrete that are next to the surface and give it a mottled appearance, which improves the old concrete surface very much. Another method which is used quite a good deal, is to grind the surface with emery or carborundum. This will give an imitation of a mosaic, which is very beautiful especially when pebbles of various colors have been used to make the concrete. Another method which is illustrated in Plate 31 is accomplished by imbed- CONCRETE 95 late 36— This is'' « view" of like above' structure as it appeared v,r=c: finished, . .„.. -_i .-.-. .' — - _..~~™ — 96 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING tile imbedded has been wort making a fire Plate 32 — Small garatrc with metal lath 'ready for first coat. Note I that this building is without sheathing and thus intended for back- plastered wall construction. „ CONCRETE 97 ding broken pieces of pottery, burned clay or china in the surface of the com- crete, in such a way as to work out certain designs. The women on the farm will find this a very interesting and profitable pastime. Slab Method. — After these designs are worked out, lay the pieces of tile or burned clay on the forms in reverse order, and pour the concrete backing over them about one inch deep. Then put on some wire netting and another inch of concrete and let set. When hardened sufficiently, set the slab in place and cement it With mortar. This method has one disadvantage, the structure has to be made in pieces and then must be joined together after- wards. Unless the joints are very carefully made or worked into the design, it may not be so satisfactory. Monolithic or One-Piece Method. — This work can be made without joints. Place the forms in the usual way. Coat with a thin layer of clay to make a bed in which the tile may be laid as before in reverse order. Then pour the concrete behind it. After setting properly, the forms are taken down and the clay can be washed off with a spray of water. This will leave the surface and give it a mottled appearance, which improves the old concrete If it is desired to imbed the tile, they may be fastened to the form in reverse order by melting paraffin around them. If the concreting is done very carefully, it will remain in place during the placing and setting of the concrete, and the paraffin being weaker than the concrete, the forms can be removed without tearing the tile loose. The paraffin may be washed off with a solvent or the surface may be warmed with a torch and wiped off. With a little practice along any of these lines, considerable proficiency can be attained, and beautiful work will be the result. MODERN HEATING PLANTS. The old fashioned fireplace, although not yet extinct, has been replaced, for the most part, by numerous systems of heating which will heat the whole house at the same cost that a fireplace will heat one room. Formerly, houses were built with but one room in order that the fireplace might heat the whole house. With modern systems of plumbing and heating, the house may be designed for other conveniences and the heating system installed after- ward. In other words, the heating system is made to heat the house and not the house made so that the heating system can serve it. The first improvement in the fireplace was the stove. These can be bought now in many designs and sizes, a hard-coal base-burner, being the highest type. The advantages of the base-burner are its cleanliness, evenness of heat, and convenience of op- eration. However, it is like the fireplace. It is good for only one room at a time, and heats only one part of the room. In order to become thoroughly warm at a base-burner, one must turn around several times. To eliminate this inconvenience, further improvements in heating have been devised. The simplest and cheapest of these is the hot-air furnace. Advantages of a Hot-Air Furnace. The advantages of a hot-air furnace are many : 1st. Cheapness in first cost. 2nd. Simplicity of operation. 3rd. Sanitation. 4th. Ventilation. 5th. No obstruction in the room. 6th. No freezing. 7th. Economy in fuel, especially when temperature control device is used Disadvantages. 1st. Short life. 2nd. Maintenance to keep it clean. 3rd. Does not hold heat well. 4th. Hard to design and install properly because of delicacy in pro- portioning of lead pipe, size and location. The simplest furnace on the market is the Pipeless Hot-Air Strange to say, it is the last one to have been perfected. This furnace is set in the base- ment, and has but one register opening, which is directly above the furnace. Its principle is very simple. It is nothing more than a stove inside of a double 98 MODERN HEATING PLANTS 99 100 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING box. The stove heats the air of the inside box which rises immediately into the room through the central register. Another cold-air register surrounds the central, so that the cold air may come in from all sides and go down through the space between the inside box and the outside box. The air then enters the inside box from below, where it is heated by the stove and rises through the register as before. Reports on this type of furnace show that it is very efficient. Where the house is built and used by a private family it is very satisfactory. It is better that the inner doors of the house be kept open at all times so that the heat may circulate. Any rooms that need not be heated may be closed off by closing the doors. With ceiling registers, and the doors cut off at the bottom, the upstairs may be as easily heated as with any kind of furnace. Where privacy is not desired, this system is highly recommended. The Pipe Hot-Air Furnace. A higher type of furnace than the one just previously mentioned is the pipe hot-air furnace. This circulates the air, in very much the same way, throughout the house but makes each room private and the heat supply can be cut off either at the room or. in the basement. In the selection of these furnaces it is necessary first to select one large enough. Measure the cubical contents of the house and usually it is best to buy a furnace one size larger than the maker recommends. The Design and Installation of Hot-Air Furnace. The hot air furnace is probably one of the most sanitary means of heating the house. It keeps the air in circulation and makes it possible to draw in fresh air from the outside heated to a living temperature. Very few, if any, hot air plants are designed and placed properly. It must be remembered that the move- ment of the air is dependent upon the difference in weight between cold air and hot air. It is evident that this difference is very small indeed, and any small influence which might oppose this difference will make the system inoperative. The furnace should be so placed that each lead will be balanced against the others with no part of the house having an advantage over the other, and the fur- nace placed low enough so that the hot air may have a chance to rise and take advantage of its difference in weight over the cold air. Then the sys- tem will work perfectly in any kind of weather and any part of the house. There are three or possibly four principal precautions. First, the furnace should be located as near the center of the house as possible. When impos- sible to locate in the center, it should be placed considerably deeper than would otherwise be necessary. Second, it should be placed deep enough so that the heat pipes will rise on leaving the furnace and will continue to rise until they open into the room. Third, the lead pipes should be as near the same length as possible. Fourth, there should be few sharp bends. With these precautions taken care of, a hot air furnace may be designed and placed which will give per- fect satisfaction. MODERN HEATING PLANTS 101 Ordering the Hot Air Furnace. Make a plan, Fig. 2, of the home showing the size and exact location of every room. Take the depth of the basement and the distance between the floors and ceilings of each room. Send this to the furnace manufacturer, and ask him for a plan. If his plan conforms to the principles stated above, order the plant. If not, ask him to change it accordingly. Many furnace companies have com- wff/^y^a Scalefy'/' SCCONO FLOOR RADIATOR RlAA/ Fier. 2 petent engineering forces who understand these four principles, but unfortunately some wish to sell their goods more than they wish to install them properly. If their goods do not work they blame the installation. The Chimney. It is common knowledge with all users of stoves, furnaces and fireplaces, that the chimney is a very important part of the equipment. The chimney should be made as large as the furnace demands, and should not serve any other stove or furnace. That is, a chimney should be made to serve but one fire unit and if made as large as the door opening or a minimum of 20 inches, it will always 102 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING give perfect service. It is better to have too much draft than not enough as it is always possible to cut off the draft when it is often impossible to increase it. Construction of Chimney. The chimney may be made either of brick, concrete, or tile. Brick is the most common. Concrete is coming into use very rapidly. Either concrete or brick chimneys should be lined with clay tile. Chimney tile is a protection of the brick and concrete against the hot gases. It also gives a smooth surface and is less liable to become covered with soot. It is more fire-proof. Other Heating Systems. There are three other heating systems which are said by many to be superior to the hot air. This is a matter of opinion. They have some advantages and some disadvantages. They are the hot water, the steam, and the vapor systems. The hot water is the oldest and the most advantageous in some ways. The ad- vantages and disadvantages will be listed below in comparison : Advantages : 1. Positive Heating. 4. Cleanliness in Operation. 2. Uniform Heating. 5. Cheapness in Fuel Consumption. 3. Ease of Operation. Disadvantages : 1. High First Cost. 4. Radiators in Valuable Space. 2. Liability to Freeze. 5. Radiators Hard to Clean. 3. Slowness to Heat up. 6. Leaky Water Joints. Steam System. — The steam system has about the same advantages and disadvantages as the hot water, except it heats quickly, but does not hold the heat so long. It is high in first cost but not so high as the hot water system. It takes more trouble to operate and maintain. Not liable to freezing. Vapor System. — The vapor system is about half way between the steam and hot water systems in advantages with the exception that its cost, due to recent patents, is as high as the hot water usually. Installation of Hot Water, Steam and Vapor Systems. The installation of hot water, steam and vapor systems is very much alike. Hbwever, the hot water system will be taken up first and handled in detail. As in the case of a hot air furnace, a building plan should be carefully made and sent to the manufacturer, who employs competent heating engineers to make out a suitable plan for heating. If the dimensions sent to them are correct, they will be able to give sizes and lengths of every piece of pipe that goes in the system. These will be shipped, properly labeled, so that they can be placed by the average farmer boy of twenty years. Send a typical floor plan as shown in Figure 2. Be sure to give the depth of basement and height of ceiling in each floor. This is very important. Show all MODERN HEATING PLANTS 103 windows and doors. Calculate cubical contents of house and use Tables for selecting size of furnace. The Hot Water Boiler. — There are a number of hot water boilers on the market. The efficiency of these boilers depends upon keeping them clean and in good working order. The hot gases from the coal pass by a cool surface which puts out the incandescent pieces of carbon, thereby causing them to be deposited as soot on this surface. When the soot becomes thick it acts as an insulator to the passage of heat. Hence to prevent heat loss the water tube should be kept clean and also free from any rust. Location of the Furnace. — In hot water systems it is not so important to place the hot water furnace in the center of the building as it is when placing hot air furnaces. However, the design is different for various positions of the fur- nace. The short leads from the furnace to adjacent rooms will receive more heat than long leads. The engineering force at the manufacturer's office will correct this by making sharp bends in the short pipes and none in the long pipes. This will balance one difficulty against the other and make the system heat uniform throughout the building. Piping. — It is not economy to put in too small a pipe system. The manu- facturer will usually recommend the correct size. If he makes an error (either way) it will be larger rather than smaller which will be an advantage rather than a disadvantage to the operation of the system. It is absolutely necessary that all pipes be sloped or graded toward the furnace so when the system is to be cleaned all the pipes can be emptied to prevent freezing and also aid in the circulation of the water for heating purposes. Radiators. — It should be remembered that the lower form of radiator is more efficient than the higher ones, although they are more expensive. The size of radiator is indicated by the number of square feet of heating surface. These have been accurately measured by the manufacturer and can be depended upon by the customer. Operation. — After the system has been properly installed and filled with water, it should be tested for leaks. When these are taken care of it is ready for use. There is nothing extraordinary to do in the operation of a hot water system. Merely make a fire in the furnace as you are accustomed to do in any stove or heating device. When the water has reached a temperature which will make the room comfortable, hold the fire at that heat by properly setting the cutoff and the drafts. This can be done if the furnace has been selected large enough for the plant. In no case should the furnace be operated without a good chimney and a cut- off in the pipes. A cutoff is a great saver of fuel if properly operated. Temperature Control or Thermostat. — There are a number of tempera- ture control devices on the market which are very successful. These should be connected with the front draft and the cutoff and check in the chimney. When the temperature in the room above is lowered, the device will operate the draft and check in such a way as to build up the fire. When the temperature rises to the required room temperature, the apparatus will close down the fire. This is not only a wonderful convenience but also a great saver of fuel. 104 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Steam Heating Systems. As stated before, steam heating systems are cheaper than hot water systems, in first cost, but they are more difficult to maintain and operate. For convenience it is practically necessary to have some kind of temperature control apparatus as spoken of above. For very large plants where it occupies one man's time to take care of the furnaces, steam systems are the best, but in the small plants such as the farmer uses, the steam system without a temperature control requires so much attention compared with hot water, that it would be advisable to adopt the latter when possible. The steam system requires only one set of pipes and a small amount of radia- tion. Each radiator is equipped with automatic valves that let out the cold air as the steam pressure comes on in the morning. As soon as the cool air is out and the warm steam strikes the valve, it automatically closes. As the steam in the radiator condenses the water of condensation runs back in the lower part of the pipe and fresh steam comes up in the upper half. The plant is kept warm as long as fire keeps the steam pressure up. Such steam under pressure is hotter than hot water. More heat will be given off per square foot of heating surface. Therefore, the radiators can be smaller. Like the hot water system, the pipes should all drain toward the furnace. Installation of Steam Heating Systems. — Like the hot water system, a plan should be sent to the manufacturer who will in turn send drawings and speci- fications and bill of material necessary for such a plant. It is not advisable for the farmer to attempt to design such a plan. However, after putting in one plant and using it awhile, a little study will help him to suggest improvements or additions as he may need them. It is very necessary with any of these plumbing systems installed to have the joints tight. Red lead or some special filler could be used on every screw joint. Vapor Heating Systems. The vapor heating system is an invention of recent years. Wherever it has been properly installed, it has given excellent satisfaction. It has a few advantages over both steam and hot water systems. It consists of a furnace and radiator system which is air tight. When this system is installed, an opening is made at each radiator and a big fire built. When steam has escaped from each radiator opening for some time, in order to insure that all the air is out of the system, these openings are all closed and sealed. When the fire goes down and the pressure drops, a vacuum is created in which water will boil at a much lower temperature than the ordinary boiling point, which is 212 degrees. When the fire is made up again, warm vapor will begin to rise in the pipe at 150 degrees, whereas in the steam it takes 212 degrees or more. This is quite an advantage. The system works on less pressure and the heat storage is greater than steam, but not so much as hot water. Considering all the advantages and disadvantages of the last three sys- tems, the vapor system is considered by many to be the best and most advanced in design. WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL FOR COUNTRY HOMES. Introduction. — It is the purpose of this chapter to handle in a simple way such parts of the subject of farm sanitation as is necessary for the convenience and health required. 1st. A pure supply of water is necessary. 2nd. Sewage must be disposed of in a sanitary way. With the assist- ance of the Department of Agriculture the following pages were written. Due acknowledgment is given to those authorities mentioned. It is well at this time to digress from the proposed discussions of this subject and list some of the advantages accruing from the proper installation of water supply and sewage disposal systems. The efficiency of today demands that the useless waste of man power be diminished. Consider the comparison of employing man power to carry water in buckets to supply a city or a home, to the now wonderfully efficient water works plants, which will deliver water any place about the house under pres- sure and in any quantity at the rate of 6c per ton. Is there any commodity, besides air, so cheap? The farmer has identically the same problem. Com- pare the expense of the farm hands at 20c an hour pumping water against the kerosene engine which can do it for less than 2c an hour. Compare the lost time in walking back and forth with pails to the saving when one trip is made to turn on or off a faucet. It is the inconveniences about a farm that drive a large number of the boys to the city. In this day of highly developed manufacture, it is possible at a reasonable cost for the farmer to have all the conveniences of the city life ; plumbing, heating and lighting plants are made in small sizes that are cheap and durable. Installation of Modern Conveniences. — It is the fear of every farmer who desires the conveniences of city life that he will be unable to install or operate it because of its complexity. A few years ago the farmer would not buy an automobile because he was afraid he could not run the engine. Such an explanation is hardly necessary today. In the same way the imaginary com- plexities of electricity, plumbing and heating are being overcome by the sciences of engineering and manufacture. The modern conveniences neces- sary about the farm are now manufactured in large quantities. They are more simple of installation and operation than the automobile which is bought by such a large number of the farmers. Plumbing. — The plumbing business in large cities is controlled by the plumbing union. At the bottom of the system are good reasons for this con- 105 106 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING dition, but, unfortunately, the ideals of union control have been grossly abused. The control and abuse has not yet reached the farmer. If the first must come, it is hoped that the second will never arrive. The farmer is an all around mechanic. He can, during his leisure hours in the winter, install his plumbing and heating system himself. Quality of Material. — Low grade quality in materials in heating, plumb- ing and lighting are a serious menace to the health and profits of the farm. Buy standard materials of reliable manufacture and require a guarantee of quality. Sewage Disposal Systems. The installation of the sewage disposal system is suggested. This will not be difficult for the farmer, since he is accustomed to the handling of brick, tile and earth excavation. Other instructions will not be necessary. THE FARM WATER SUPPLY. Dangers from Contamination. — Without doubt many of the germ diseases may be transmitted by means of water; and some of the diseases are so uniformly transmitted by water that they are known as "water-borne" diseases, and if they may be carried by water it is of the greatest importance that every precaution be taken to insure a pure water supply. Farm water supplies may be divided into three classes, which, in the order of their liability to pollution, are: surface, shallow underground, and deep underground supplies. That from the surface is obtained from streams, ponds, reservoirs, and cisterns; both shallow and deep underground supplies are obtained from dug, bored, driven, or drilled wells, and from springs. That farm water supplies are very subject to pollution is evidenced by the investigations of various authorities. The investigations of K. F. Keller- man and H. A. Whitaker, of the United States Department of Agriculture, in co-operation with the Minnesota State Board of Health, indicate that of 79 carefully selected and typical water supplies in Minnesota 20 were good and 59 were polluted. Of the polluted wells 11 were so located that even extreme care would not make them safe ; 10 were poorly located, but im- provements in the protection from surface wash and infiltration would make them safe; 25 were bad only because of poor surface protection and could easily be made safe. Practically all the surface supplies investigated were polluted. During these investigations 23 of the farms examined showed a record of typhoid fever. F. T. Shutt, of the Canada Experimental Farms at Ottawa, reviewing his study of the subject since 1887, states, that of the farm water supplies examined, 30 percent may be classified as safe and wholesome, 25 percent as suspicious and probably contaminated, 36 percent as seriously polluted, and 9 percent as undrinkable through a high percent of alkali. WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 107 SURFACE SUPPLIES. Contamination. — Surface water supplies are those most liable to pollu- tion, and authorities agree that they are the most unsatisfactory for farm use. Streams and ponds receive the greater part of the surface wash from the immediate neighborhood, and in many cases barnyard or stockyard drain- age from points remote from where the water is taken for household use. Streams or ponds located in pastures, manured fields, or where stock can gain access to them are polluted. Sometimes sewage and house drainage are emptied into streams and ponds. In fact, since they are open and unprotected, there are a thousand and one different sources of pollution for such supplies. Rain waters from the roof are polluted by dust, dirt, and leaves which collect in the eaves trough, and by the droppings from' birds. Surface water supplies should therefore not be used for household pur- poses, not even for washing milk cans or for laundry purposes, unless no other supply is available. And it may be safely assumed that the person i-QOSC 1//WI/VG Of 0R/Cff Off sro/vs Fig. 2. i -Crib of brick or stone for intake from pond, who drinks water from surface supplies endangers his health if such supplies are not first protected from the sources of contamination as far as possible and then purified. Cisterns. — In localities where underground waters are hard to obtain, cisterns may be used for the filtration, partial purification, and storage of rain water, and surface supplies. The size of the cistern will depend on the number of persons in the house and on the general water consumption, as discussed here- after, under "Pumping, Storage, and Distribution." The cistern should be of water-tight construction, to prevent leakage and to prevent pollution from the neighboring soil. It should have an overflow drain and a tight cover. There should also be suitable provision for straining or filter- ing the water previous to its entrance into the cistern. The cistern should ordinarily be in two compartments. Build a filter wall of porous brick between them. One compartment serves as a settling chamber and the water receives a final filtration before entering the storage compartment. 108 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Concrete is probably the most sanitary and durable material for cisterns. See chapter on concrete for details of cistern construction. If water is piped from a stream or pond subject to pollution, the pipe en- trance should be placed in a crib and screened, as shown in Figure 2. The pipe can then empty into a receiving filter, made of concrete, which contains fine sand, gravel, and powdered charcoal in layers (Fig. 3), and from which it empties into the cistern. The rain-water pipe from the eaves trough should be provided with a switch or cut-off, so that the flow may be diverted to the outside — as, for instance, for a short time at the beginning of rains — to exclude the filth collected on the roof and gutters. An overflow pipe should be provided in the side of the cistern and should be screened to exclude rats and other vermin. r 1 j 1 1 it. 33! 1 LQNCITUDINAL SECTION. TOP V/EW Fig. 3.— Cistern SJter of concrete and stone. The above treatment will, in a large measure, purify surface water for household uses other than drinking or cooking; but if this water is to be used for these purposes it should first be boiled. Distilled Water. — Sometimes a simple still can be conveniently used on a kitchen range to provide distilled water for drinking purposes. Saline (alkali) waters are satisfactorily treated in this way. Figure 4 illustrates a form of still which has been found effective and convenient for household use. It has the advantage of being inexpensive and can be made by any tinner. The still con- sists essentially of a water boiler (A) on the range, having a capacity of about 13^2 to 2 gallons, and a condenser suspended at the proper height from the ceil- ing. The pipe (B) conveys steam to the condensing chamber (C) and is kept cool by water in the compartment (D). The distilled water collects in (E) and can be drawn off from time to time or allowed to run continuously into the bucket (F). The metal used in the construction of the still should be well-tinned cop- per and no solder should be exposed to the action of either the steam or the dis- tilled water. WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 109 UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLIES. Contamination. — It is usual to distinguish between shallow underground supplies and deep underground supplies. Wells from 15 to 30 feet in depth, to water flowing in a layer of gravel or sand, which rests on an impervious or extra hard stratum, are considered as sources of shallow underground supply. Both shallow and deep farm wells are often polluted from local sources. They are often located for convenience in the barnyard, under the barn or stable, FlQ. 4.— Water still for household use. close to stock pens, privy vaults, or leaching cesspools, or close to the back door, out of which household slops are thrown and near which animal and vegetable refuse is often allowed to accumulate and decompose. The soil surrounding the well becomes saturated with organic filth. Unable finally to perform its useful work of filtration and purification, the soil allows the surface water percolating through it to carry contamination into the well. 110 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING The curbing or covering is often loosely constructed of boards, permitting small animals and vermin to fall into the well ; surface water carrying filth and manure, especially after rains, runs into the well from the top. The well may be located at such a distance from sources of contamination that ordinary pumping will bring no bad results, but in case of unusually heavy pumping the underground water surface for a distance around the well may be sufficiently lowered to reach the zone of contamination. This principle is il- lustrated in figure 5. Deep bored or driven wells are less liable to pollution than those which are shallow dug or bored. In the first case, the wells are usually solidly cased ; the sur- face water must filter through a depth of soil equal to the depth of the well before gaining access to it. In the second case, the wells are usually loosely lined with brick or stone, and the surface water, having only a short distance to filter, seeps through the entire depth. That both deep and shallow wells are subject to contamination is shown from many examinations which have been made. Of 177 deep and 411 shallow farm Fig. 5.— Effect of pumping on ground water. wells examined in Indiana, 116 of the deep well waters were of good quality, 45 were bad, and 16 were doubtful; 159 of the shallow well waters were good, 209 were very bad, and 43 were doubtful. The safety of water supplies when near sources of possible surface pollution often depends largely on the character and quality of the material in which the well is sunk. Surface waters in sinking through sandy soils are filtered, and in the finer sands much of the polluting matter which they carry is frequently removed. In coarser sands or gravel the degree of filtration is less, but water taken from sands and gravels at a considerable depth may be considered relatively safe. Waters from wells in clay are not often polluted, since surface pollution filters through clay very slowly. Waters from wells in limestone are frequently polluted, owing to the fact that limestone soils usually contain passages and channels at different depths. These sometimes form a continuous passage of underground water for a considerable distance. They are often directly connected with sinks and basins occurring on the surface. It is a common practice to dump manure, trash, and garbage into WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 111 such sinks or basins, and rain water falling into these plunges directly into the underground channels, carrying with it the impurities from the basin to those points where wells are sunk. In this manner garbage or refuse dumped anywhere in the neighborhood of, or even at a considerable distance from, a well in limestone may pollute the water. Figure 6 shows how the pollution of wells and springs may occur in limestone. Deep wells in granite or jointed rock are often polluted, although cased to a great depth, since polluted water may sink in a zigzag course along the rock joints until it reaches the bottom of the well casing. It is therefore necessary to exercise care in the location of the well and in the preliminary protection from pollution. Well-Location and Preliminary Protection. — The farm well, especially a shallow dug well, should be located somewhat above the barns, buildings, yards, and stock pens, or at least in such a position that the surface drainage from all SPGING-* Fig. 6.— Pollution of subsurface water in limestone. possible sources of animal and vegetable contamination is away from the well. The location should also be as far removed from these sources as convenience will permit. To properly safeguard wells against outside contamination, first, all sources of contamination should be removed as far as possible. If local conditions and prices will permit, it is a good idea to provide impenetrable floors with water- tight drains for farm buildings and stock pens. Under the same conditions con- crete manure pits might well be provided to not only prevent the liquid manure from polluting the neighboring soil but to save the manure. No garbage, manure, or rubbish should be dumped into sinks or basins in the immediate neighborhood and these should be fenced off and kept free from polluting matter. The house should be provided with some safe method of sewage disposal, while slops and garbage from the kitchen should be deposited in tightly covered garbage cans and disposed of by burying in the fields, burning, or feeding to pigs before it is de- composed. The use of privy vaults and leaching or overflowing cesspools should be absolutely avoided, since they are likely to be sources of the worst contamination. Second, the farmer should become acquainted with the various types of wells and the best methods of protection, and the well should be so protected as to exclude 112 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING filth from those sources of contamination which it has been impossible to remove or which have been overlooked. Type of Wells and Methods of Sinking. — In the selection, location, and sinking of a well it is always a good idea to consider permanence in addition to safety. This will depend on the kind of well used, and one should be acquainted with well types and methods of sinking. The well should penetrate to levels below that of the ground-water surface in the driest seasons. Figure 7 illustrates four different common types of deep and shallow wells. No. 1 shows a dug well, with pump, which may be lined with either concrete or cemented brick. No. 2 shows a driven well, which is constructed by attaching a 2 3 Fig. 7.— Types of deep and shallow wells. point on the end of the pipe and driving the pipe into the ground until water is reached. The point is provided with a short length of pipe with perforations which permit the water to enter the pipe and keeps out the sand and gravel. This arrangement is best suited to shallow wells, as the cylinder is near the surface in a dry well. If the depth to water is greater than the suction limit, it is necessary to dig a dry well deep enough to place the cylinder within the suction limit. Nos. 3 and 4 are drilled wells consisting of a small hole which may be from 3 inches to 15 inches in diameter. This hole is lined with an impenetrable iron casing which prevents caving in and keeps out all water, except that which enters at the bottom. This type of well can pass through as many water-bearing beds as desired and none but that from the lowest will enter. The. casing is large enough to allow the cylinder to be placed below the water surface, or as near the water as is necessary. No. 4 shows a drilled well with a dry well installed above it to accommodate the lower half of a pump made for underground discharge. WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 113 M. L. Fuller states in regard to types of shallow wells and conditions to which they are adapted : "Dug wells are generally circular excavations 3 to 6 feet in diameter. They are adapted to localities where the water is near the surface, es- pecially where it occurs in small seeps in clayey materials, and requires extensive storage space for its conservation. Bored wells are wells bored with various types of augurs from 2 inches to 3 feet in diameter rotated or lifted by hand or horse- power. They are usually lined with cement or tile sections with cemented joints and often with iron tubing. They are adapted to localities where the water is at slight or medium depth and to materials similar to those in which open wells are sunk. Punched wells are small holes usually less than 6 inches in diameter sunk by hand or horsepower by dropping a steel cylindei slit at the side so as to haul FOUNPATtON STRATUM Fig. 8. — Concrete well lining, showing arrangement of forms. and lift material by its spring. They are adapted to clayey material in which water occurs as seeps within 50 feet of the surface, but not at much greater depths. These wells should also be lined with tile, iron tubing, or sheet-iron casing. Driven wells are sunk by driving downward, by hand or horsepower apparatus, small iron tubes, usually V/^ to 4 inches in diameter, and provided with point and screen. They are adapted to soft and fine materials, especially to sand and others similarly porous ; which carry considerable water at relatively slight depths, and are particularly desirable where the upper soil is likely to be polluted." Since most well-water supplies are obtained from sand and fine gravels, the cheapest and best method of well sinking is by driving. In a driven well the water can only be polluted at the depth of the strainer. In some materials, such as clay, it is necessary to bore the well, in which case it is absolutely necessary for safety 114 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING that the well be lined with impenetrable casing to the strainer. Deep and shallow dug wells should also be lined. Protective Well Linings. — For lining shallow dug wells the latest prac- tice has been to use re-enforced concrete. This has also been successfully prac- ticed in lining deep dug wells. Concrete may be made practically impenetrable to water, so that a concrete lined shallow or deep dug well can only be polluted from the bottom. Figure 8 suggests a method of lining dug wells with concrete. Dug wells are usually about 6 feet in diameter. The concrete need be only about 6 inches with vertical steel re-enforcing of j^-inch rods spaced 18 inches apart, and circular re-enforcing of ^-inch steel rods spaced about 9 inches. The two sets should be bound together by steel wire with the circular re-enforcing placed inside the vertical. A carefully proportioned concrete mixture of 1 part cement and 2 parts sand to 4 parts of gravel or crushed rock should be used. A circular collapsible form is neces- sary, with diameter 12 inches less than the diameter of the well and about 5 feet long. The two rings, A and B, are cut to a diameter equal to that of the shaft, less twice the thickness of the concrete and 4 inches for the 2-inch lining boards. The rings are made by drawing a circle the size of the frame and laying boards around its circumference. The boards are then lightly tacked together and a circle of the same radius marked on three ends. Finally, around the circumference of the ring are fastened boards, each 2 inches thick and of the required length of the form. The concrete lining rests on the bottom of the well, which has been pre- viously level to receive it. A wet mixture is advisable for this class of work. The form should be left in until the concrete has properly set, before it is raised to construct the next section. In regard to other types of well lining or casing M. L. Fuller says: "Cemented rock or brick linings protect the well from pollution, except at the bottom, as long as the walls are not cracked. They also prevent the entrance of sediments and animals and do not impart a taste to the water. Iron casings are used in both rock and uncon- solidated materials. They are usually used in deep wells. They may be either iron tubing 1 to 4 inches in diameter, or sheet-iron casings 4 to 16 inches in diameter, with snug joints. They are adapted to wells of all depths in which water is obtained from a stratum below the casing or from a stratum between cased sections, or in case it is decided to procure water from a number of strata." Fio. 9.-iron well Iron casings may be obtained from manufacturers of md^cjtadwta! pmnping apparatus or from hardware dealers. Figure 9 side. shows a type of iron casing with pump inside. WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 115 Protective Well Curbings or Coverings. — Both shallow and deep wells should have water-tight curbs, in addition to air-tight casings. The drip from the pump is often the cause of serious pollution. The casing or lining should extend 6 or 8 inches above the ground surface except when a dry well is used, and a concrete curbing should be built over the top, with a slope away from the pump opening in the center. This cover should extend at least 2 feet beyond the Fig. 10.— Well protection. edge if it is a dug well, and if a bored or driven well the cover should extend 4 to 6 feet in all directions from the center. The outer edge should be raised to form a trough emptying into a tight drain ; or a drain trough should be provided to catch the drip. E. Bartow suggests that the earth be excavated for 4 feet outside of the regular casing to a depth of 4 feet. That an extra 4-inch coating of water- proof Portland cement mortar be placed outside this casing with 4 to 6 inches of mortar in the bottom of the excavation. This bottom should have a raised portion at its outer edge to divert' the seepage water to a tile drain. This arrangement -C(xv£^rrr *rsr/?ro//? Fig. 11. — Method of walling in springs. prevents surface water that has not been filtered through at least 4 feet of earth from gaining access to the well. Figure 10 shows a combination of these pro- tective arrangements. Springs. — Springs are good sources of water supply, since they usually come from great depths within rock or are filtered through many layers of sand and gravel. However, they are subject to pollution from the same sources as wells and should be closely watched in this respect. Farm spring supplies are 116 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING often polluted by the drainage from buildings and stock pens. Spring water sup- plies from limestone are also subject to pollution from distant garbage and sew- age dumps in sink holes as shown in figure 6. The same precautions should be taken for safeguarding spring supplies as in the case of wells. The spring should always be fenced to keep out stock. It should be cleaned of all trash and walled in to form a kind of reservoir, as shown in figure 11. The water may then be conducted to the house by gravity or by means of a hydraulic ram. Where a spring is small a large vitrified tile may be so placed as to form a small storage reservoir. This reservoir should be covered and protected as much as possible from filth and vermin. After rains the spring should be noticed for any signs of turbidity which may indi- cate pollution from distant surface sources. Spring supplies should be frequently examined for pollution of any kind. Pumping, Storage, and Distribution of Water. After a pure water supply is made available the first things to be considered are the quantity of water needed, choice of pumping equipment, and means of storage and distribution. Quantity of Water Needed. — The quantity of water needed de- pends on the power used and whether the service is for the entire farm or for the house only. Hand- operated systems are applicable where small quantities are required for house service. Where water is wanted for stock the use of a windmill, engine, electric motor, or hydraulic ram is necessary. If a windmill is used the storage should be large enough for at least three days' supply, to provide water in case of calm weather. Where the other sources of power are used the storage capacity need not exceed one day's supply. The following table gives approximate quantities of water required per day: Fig. 12.— Gravity supply system with storage tank In attic. WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 117 Approximate Quantities of Water Required Per Day. Gallons Each member of the family for all purposes will require. .25-40 Each cow will require 12 Each horse will require 10 Each hog will require 2]/ 2 Each sheep will require 2 The water consumption will vary from day to day and with the seasons. Fire protection should also be considered, and in determining the size of tank the maximum likely to be required should be provided. For a family of 6 persons a 200-gallon supply should be sufficient if the water is used in the house only. On a farm where water is supplied to a family of 6 persons, 10 horses, 12 cows, 25 hogs, and 15 sheep, the daily storage supply should be at least 500 gallons, with whatever additional amount, if any, the farmer deems necessary for fire protec- tion. There are three general systems of storage and distribution which may be readily applied to farm conditions, viz., the gravity, pneumatic, and auto- pneumatic systems. The Gravity System. — In the grav- ity system water is forced into an elevated tank placed higher than the highest discharge cock. A storage tank may be placed in the attic, on the roof, or on a tower outside. The agri- cultural experiment station at Ames, Iowa, has designed a silo with the storage tank placed on top. Figure 12 shows a gravity system with the stor- age tank in the attic and figure 13 shows the storage tank placed on the windmill tower. Since there is considerable fric- tional resistance to the flow of water through the distribution pipes, the tank should be placed at least 10 feet higher than the highest discharge cock to in- sure a flow under pressure. ,, r , . . „~ - , Fie. 13.— Gravity supply system with storage tank on Water weighs 62.5 pounds per windmin tower * V../*?o-S£„ 118 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING cubic foot, or about 8.4 pounds per gallon, so that in placing a tank in the attic or on the roof the supports should be made sufficiently strong to uphold this weight. Either wooden or galvanized tanks may be used. Wooden tanks may be ob- tained, of almost any size, either circular or rectangular in shape. They are gen- erally built of cedar or cypress, and are slightly conical. They are usually knocked down when shipped, and should be set up and filled with water as soon as received. The foundation should be good and solid and the weight of the tank should rest on the tank bottom and not on that part of the stave which projects below. The capacities of circular tanks may be found by the following: Capacity in gallons =*g=srt — TO PLUMBIN9 SYSTEM ppaPg^^^fii^KPiPl^? Fia 15 —Pneumatic tank supply system with tank in basement supplied by windmill deep-well pumping outfit. equals diameter in feet, squared, multiplied by 0.7854, multiplied by the depth in feet, multiplied by 7.48. One cubic foot equals 7.48 gallons. When located in buildings wooden tanks are commonly made rectangular. They may be lined with tinned copper, but never with lead. To obviate the use of heavy planking, rods are used to rigidly tie together the end and side braces. Steel tanks may be purchased in circular, round end, oblong, and rectangular shapes. Commercial sizes of these tanks are given on next page. The Pneumatic Tank System. — The pneumatic tank system consists of a force pump, an air-tight steel tank, necessary pipe, valves, fittings, etc., and power for operating the pump. The system may be a small one operated by hand, wind- WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 119 Round storage tank*. Diameter. Height Capacity. Diameter. Height. Capacity. Feet. Feet. Gallons. Feet. Feet. Gallons. 3 2 106 5 3 440 2 189 5 4 588 2* 235 5 5 735 3 283 5 6 880 4 378 5J 8 1,400 5 470 6 2 423 6 567 6 2* 528 8 756 6 3 635 5 2 299 6 4 845 5 2'. 368 6 5 1,056 Round end storage tanks. Width. Height. Length. Capacity. Width. Height. Length. Capacity. Feet. Feet. Fed. Gallons. Feet. Feet. Feel. Gallons. 2 2 4 118 2 14 820 2 2 5 150 2 16 945 2 2 6 181 2§ 8 536 2 2 7 202 2J 10 756 2 2 8 236 2* 16 1,200 2 2 10 299 3 8 725 2 24 8 299 3 10 915 24 2 8 299 5 10 1,480 24 2 10 378 5 2 16 1,200 2* 24 8 378 5 2J 16 1,480 3 2 8 362 6 2 8 740 3 2 10 440 6 2 10 900 3 2J 8 440 6 2 16 1,420 3 2j 10 567 6 24 8 900 3 3 10 662 6 2i 10 1,120 4 2 8 473 6 3 10 1,340 4 2 10 598 6 4 10 1.760 4 2 , 12 693 6 5 10 2,200 Tanks 4 feet long, 1 top brace; 5, 6, and 7 feet, 1 side and 1 top brace: 8 feet, 2 side and 1 top brace; 10 feet, 3 side and 2 top braces; 16 feet, 5 side and 3 top braces. Square end storage tanks. Width. Height. Length. Capacity. Width. Height. Length. Capacity. Feet. Feet. Feet. Gallons. Feel. Feet. Feel. Gallons. 2 2 4 118 3 2 10 448 2 2 5 150 3 2i 8 448 2 2 6 181 3 24 10 565 2 2 7 210 3 3 10 673 2 2 8 240 2 8- 478 2 2J 8 299 2 10 598 2i 2 8 299 24 8 598 2i 2J 8 378 24 10 748 3 2 8 360 3 8 718 Tanks 4, 5, and 6 feet long, 1 side and 1 top brace; 7 and 8 feet, 2 side. 1 top brace; 10 feet, 3 side, 2 top braces; longer and deeper tanks are extra well braced. 120 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING mill, or small engine; or it may consist of a large pump operated by a powerful engine with two or more tanks of large capacity. The tank may be placed in the basement or underground, thus keeping the water cool and preventing freezing. Figure 14 shows a pneumatic system with the tank in the basement and supplied by a hand force pump. This figure also well illustrates the water plumbing. Figure 15 shows the tank in the basement supplied by a windmill deep-well pump- ing outfit. The tank may be set in the ground below the frost line close to the well or house foundation. In the operation of the pneumatic system water is forced into.the air-tight tank ; this compresses the air into a smaller space and creates an air pressure which forces the water to the discharge cocks. In determining the capacity of the tank, it is necessary that about one-third of the computed storage capacity be added to provide space for the compressed air. For commercial sizes of pneumatic tanks see next page. Each tank is equipped with a pressure gauge which will show the internal pressure at any time. If the water is pumped into the tank until the pressure gauge registers 25 pounds, water can be forced about 60 feet above the tank. If a discharge cock 20 feet above the tank is opened, water is discharged until the- pressure falls to 8.6 pounds; it is then insufficient to deliver the remaining water 20 feet high. It will also be found that when air is compressed in the same tank with water, the water gradually absorbs the air, thus making constant re- newal of the air necessary. Both of the above troubles are overcome by com- pressing excess air in with the water until the pressure gauge again registers 25 pounds, if the tank is half full of water. Excess air pressure may be secured by an air intake valve in the suction pipe. This may be controlled by hand, by a combination of air and water pump, or by use of an air compressor when power is used. The following table gives the pressure in the tank necessary to force water to certain heights in the house : FEET HEAD OF WATER AND EQUIVALENT PRESSURE IN TANK Elevation Pressure Elevation Pressure Elevation Pressure in tank in tank in tank Feet Pounds Feet Pounds Feet Pounds 1 0.43 20 8.66 75 32.48 2 .87 25 10.83 80 34.65 3 1.30 30 12.99 85 36.81 4 1.73 35 15.16 90 38.98 5 2.17 40 17.32 95 41.14 6 2.60 45 19.49 100 43.31 7 3.03 50 21.55 110 47.64 8 3.40 55 23.82 120 51.97 9 3.90 60 25.99 130 56.30 10 4.33 65 28.15 140 60.03 15 6.50 70 30.32 150 64.96 Pipe friction should be included in computing the pumping height, as dis- cussed under "Pumping." WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 121 Commercial sizes c /pneumatic tanks. Diame- ter. Length. Weight. Capacity. Diame- ter. Length. Weight. Capacity. Inches. 24 24 24 30 30 30 30 36 36 36 36 42 Feet. 6 8 10 6 8 10 12 6 8 10 12 8 Pounds. 445 560 675 560 700 870 900 750 900 1,050 1,200 1,450 Gallons. 140 195 245 220 295 365 440 315 420 525 C30 575 Inches. 42 42 42 42 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 60 Feet. 10 12 14 16 10 12 14 16 18 20 24 20 Pounds. 1,650 . 1,900 2,200 2,400 2,066 2,320 2,610 2,900 3,600 3,950 4,650 5,900 Gallons. 720 865 1,000 1,150 1,000 1,130 1,300 1,500 1,700 1,880 2,200 2,940 Fig. 14,-Pneumatic tank supply system with tank in basement supplied by hand force pump. 122 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING The Autopneumatic System. — In the autopneumatic system the water is delivered fresh from the well to the faucets. This system consists essentially of an air compressor driven by a small gas engine or electric motor, an air-tight steel air-pressure tank, and one or more autopneumatic pumps. No water tank is required, since nothing is stored but compressed air. The pump consists of two small metallic chambers submerged in the water. When a faucet is opened they automatically fill and discharge, owing to the air pressure from the storage tank. This gives a continuous flow of fresh water. /*o ON P&SSSWC C/tl/OC ow to £.3 /"aw?- ornt»o. Fig. 23.— Hydraulic ram pumping to a pneumatic tank supply system, showing usual relative position of spring, ram, and storage tank. about 7 times the height of fall, although this may vary between 5 and 10, de- pending on the height and distance to which water is to be delivered. The di- ameter of the drive pipe is usually twice that of the discharge pipe. The proper size of ram to suit certain conditions depends on the following: (1) The flow of water from the source of supply, determined by the time necessary to fill a vessel of known capacity or by weir measurement; (2) the difference between the level of the supply and the lowest point within a reasonable distance for the location of the ram; (3) the distance between the source of supply and the proposed location of the ram; (4) the difference in level between the ram lo- cation and the highest point to which water is to be delivered; (5) length of pipe necessary to conduct the water to the point of delivery. In purchasing a ram this information should be sent to manufacturers. Sometimes a double-acting ram is installed where there is a spring too small to operate a single-acting ram but located near a brook from which an ample supply and fall can be obtained to operate the ram. These are so constructed that if properly installed under a fall of at least 2 feet below the spring and 3 feet below the brook, it is impossible to deliver anything but the spring water. WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 131 Figure 24 illustrates this method. If this method is preferred, it should be so stated in purchasing. The following table gives approximate sizes of hydraulic rams to suit certain conditions. There are four separate problems connected with the hydraulic ram. These, with practical examples, are described by W. C. Davidson as follows: (1) Given the fall, lift, and quantity of water desired, find the necessary supply at spring. poiv/r/f tv/rrottsm. i \ f. ■■■■■;• i ft \ Cs 8 - z -~-~~ 1 5 sfirwe wiTre itysi.-. V* Supply check Mtvc *\P(JP£ WAT£0 ~^s, 0O0Y PlPC FlQ. 24.— Double acting hydraulic ram, showing method of using a turbid creek supply to pump clear spring water. (2) Given the lift, quantity of drive water, and quantity of water desired, find the fall required. (3) Given the fall, lift, and quantity of drive water, find the quantity of water supplied to the storage tank. (4) Given the fall, quantity of drive water, and quantity of water desired, find how high this water can be pumped. SIZES OF HYDRAULIC RAMS Dimensions Size of drive pipe Size of delivery pipe Quantity per minute required to operate engine Least fall Number Height Length Width recom- mended 10 15 20 25 30.. 40 Ft. Ins. 2 2 2 2 2 5 2 5 2 7 3 7 Ft. Ins. 2 10 3 3 3 3 4 3 ,7 4 9 Ft. Ins. 12 12 1 2 1 3 1 3 1 8 Ins. IK VA 2 2V 2 3 4 Ins. u l l 1M 2 Gallons 2- 6 6-12 8-18 12-28 20-40 30-75 Feet 2 2 2 2 2 2 The computations which follow are based upon an approximate rule, which is stated as follows : Multiply the fall in feet by the quantity of water supplied to the ram in gallons per minute, divide the product by the height the water is to be raised, and the result will be in gallons per minute. This may be expressed ■ Qxh in an equation as follows : q = ( ), in which Q = supply of spring in gallons per minute. H = fall in feet from spring to ram, h=height of storage tank above the ram in feet, q = quantity of water pumped in gallons per minute. The re- sult should be reduced by about one-third to allow for friction. 132 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Example 1. It is desired to find the quantity of drive water in the spring necessary to raise 8 gallons per minute to a height of 60 feet, when the head of drive water on the ram is 8 feet. Substituting in the equation h X q 8 X 60 Q = = = 60 gallons per minute. H. 8 In this case about one-third of the result should be added to allow for fric- tion in pipes, valves, etc., making the necessary drive water supply 80 gallons. Example 2. It is desired to find the necessary fall from the spring to the ram in order to supply the storage tank with 2 gallons per minute, when the drive water supply in the spring is 10 gallons per minute and the height to which the water is to be pumped is 40 feet. Substituting in the equation h X q 2 X 40 H = = = 8 feet. Q io Add one-third to allow for friction, making the total fall necessary 10.66 feet. The following table gives commercial estimates of the quantities of water de- livered in 24 hours under certain conditions : Capacity of hydraulic rams. Power head in feet. Pumping head in feet — 4 10 15 20 30 140 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 1,0 160 180 200 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 2G 28 30 540 192 301 432 540 12S 192 256 315 432 505 9C 144 192 240 302 378 432 4S5 510 G4 96 128 160 192 235 270 300 360 430 505 43 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 "252 301 353 432 486 540 29 58 77 96 115 134 154 173 192 230 270 323 390 430 475 520 24 43 64 80 96 112 128 144 160 192 224 257 303 336 370 405 470 505 540 37 55 69 82 96 110 124 137 165 192 220 247 288 303 346 375 430 465 27 43 60 72 84 96 108 120 144 168 192 216 240 264 288 328 354 405 24 38 53 64 75 86 96 107 128 150 171 192 214 235 256 278 300 336 29 43 57 67 77 86 96 115 135 154 173 192 212 230 250 269 288 24 30 43 50 64 72 80 96 112 128 144 160 176 192 208 224 240 26 31 36 55 62 68 82 96 110 124 137 151 161 178 192 206 27 31 43 54 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144 156 168 180 24 28 38 43 53 64 75 85 96 107 118 128 139 149 160 25 29 39 43 57 67 77 86 96 105 115 125 131 144 . 1 . "1 1 Multiply factor opposito "power head" and under "pumping head" by the number of gallons per minute used by the engine and tho result will bo the number of gallons delivered per day. Example: With a supply of 6 gallons per minute, 10 foot fall, 40 feet elovation, No. 10 or 15 engine will deliver 1,512 gallons per day; 6X252=1,512. This table will give only approximate quantities since the results will vary with tho length of delivery pipe. Due consideration of pipe friction will give more correct results. The efficiency developed is governed by the ratio of fall to pumping head, being greatest for a ratio of I to 2} or 1 to 3, and tho ram will not usually work well when tho ratio is over 1 to 25, friction in tho delivery pipe being duly considered. Example 3. It is desired to find how much water will be delivered into the storage tank if the drive water supply is 6 gallons per minute, the fall is 10 WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 133 feet, and the height to which the water is to be pumped is 40 feet. Substituting in the equation 2 X H 6 X 10 q = = = 1.5 gallons per minute. h 40 Deduct one-third of this result to allow the fraction, making the quantity de- livered per minute 1 gallon. Example 4. It is desired to find how high 1 gallon per minute can be pumped if the drive water supply is 4 gallons per minute and the fall is 15 feet. Substituting in the equation QXH 4X15 h= = =60 feet. q 1 Deduct one-third to allow for friction, making the result 40 feet. The above computations are only approximate, but should give a good gen- eral idea of the operation of a ram. SUPPLY 7*NH CPIV£ T/W/t tYATCit trrei. tArrcff/f£o//»T£ m/v/r ffAM PIT Fig. 25. — Two methods of securing the necessary fall in drive pipe. The spring should be walled in to form a reservoir as shown in the dis- cussion of springs, page 115. If a stream is used it should be dammed back until a sufficient flow and fall is obtained. Rams may be obtained to supply water for both elevated tank and pneu- matic tank systems. In purchasing a ram this should also be specified. In order to obtain the desired fall it is often necessary to convey the water a greater distance than the length of drive pipe used. Figure 25 illustrates two methods of securing the necessary fall. It is necessary to provide a shelter for the hydraulic ram to prevent freezing in cold weather. The pipes should also be placed below the frost line. In setting a ram the foundation should be firm and level. The drive pipe should be laid on 134 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING a perfectly straight incline without bends or curves, except where the pipe enters the ram, and this should be made by bending the pipe. Fittings should not be used. The upper end of the drive pipe should be sufficiently below the surface of the water to prevent air suction — at least a foot. A good open strainer should be provided at the upper end. Above all things the drive pipe should be air- tight- The delivery pipe may be laid with the necessary tends, according to the usual practice in laying water pipes, but all pipes should be connected before starting the engine and they should be left uncovered until all leaks are stopped. However, there should be as few bends and elbows in the delivery pipe as pos- sible in order to reduce friction. Manufacturers of hydraulic rams should supply directions .for the proper installation, operation, and care of their particular rams, and these directions should be carefully followed. Plumbing. Important Points to be Considered. — The important points to be con- sidered in the arrangement of a plumbing system are (1) durability of material and construction, and (2) simplicity. Avoid any complication of pipes and arrange the water pipes so as to carry the water to the point of discharge in as nearly a straight line as possible. The use of lead pipe or lead-lined receptacles for drinking water should be avoided in small private systems. Water Plumbing.— The main pipe from the supply tank should be about 1%. inches in diameter and never less than 1 inch. It leads to the kitchen range and then branches. One branch conveys cold water to the fixtures and the other conveys water through the heater, through the hot-water tank, and thence to the hot-water fixtures. The hot-water pipe should parallel the coldwater pipe but should not be so close that the temperature of either will affect that of the other. The arrangment of water pipes, hot-water tank, etc., is shown in figure 14. The hot-water pipes are shown in black. All water pipes should be put in with red lead and all fittings should be screwed tight. The natural direction of travel of hot water is upward, and this should be aided, in arranging the hot- water pipes, as much as possible. The sizes of pipes generally used for supplying water to the various fixtures are given in the following table : SIZES OE WATER PIPES IN BUILDINGS Supply Branches Low Pressure High Pressure Supply Branches To water-closet flush pipes To kitchen sinks To pantry sinks To slop sinks Low Pressure High Pressure To bath cocks To basin cocks To water-closet flush Inches M-i l A Vz l -1M Inches l A- Z A A Inches Inches tank To water-closet flush valve YrY% WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 135 All water pipes should have sufficient slant to drain them back into the tank or drainage system. A drain pipe and cock should be provided at the low point in the system, so that in extremely cold weather the system may be drained into the sewer or drainage system to prevent freezing. This necessitates a stop cock on the pressure-tank outlet to prevent draining the tank. Pipes should be kept from the outer walls to prevent freezing. Also pipes located where they are in any danger whatever of freezing should be boxed in sawdust or some other nonconducting material. Since a plentiful supply of hot water is convenient and a large quantity re- tains heat for some time, it is well to provide a fairly large hot-water tank. However, the size of boiler depends on the existing conditions, such as the water supply and the size of building. A safe rule is to allow a 35 or 40 gallon boiler *«»*\WM Fig. 26.— Sewer trap at bouse foundation, showing ventilator to a building having one bath-room and to add 30 gallons additional capacity for every extra bath-room. One hundred square inches of water-back heating surface is sufficient for a 40-gallon boiler. Boilers should be galvanized inside and out, particularly inside. Copper boilers are preferable if properly coated inside with block tin. These are classed as light, heavy, and extra heavy, the latter being tested to 150 pounds water pres- sure. Ordinary steel or iron boilers are tested to 150 pounds water pressure and extra heavy ones to 250 pounds pressure. The latter should be used when the gauge pressure is more than 40 pounds per square inch. The following table gives standard sizes of galvanized boilers : STANDARD SIZES OF GALVANIZED BOILERS Capacity Length Diam. Capacity Length Diam. Inches Capacity Length Diam. Gallons Feet Inches Gallons Feet Gallons Feet Inches 18 3 12 36 4M 14 82 5 20 21 3K 12 40 5 14 98 6 20 24 4 12 42 4 16 100 5 22 24 3 14 47 4^ 16 120 6 22 27 4^ 12 48 6 14 120 5 24 28 3^ 14 52 5 16 144 6 24 30 5 12 53 4 18 168 7 24 32 4 14 63 6 16 182 8 24 35 5 13 66 5 18 36 6 12 79 6 18 136 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Sewer Plumbing. — The sewer plumbing serves as a drain for the water plumbing. The drainage system should be so constructed as to carry away com- pletely everything emptied into it, and it should be constantly vented, frequently and thoroughly flushed, and have each of its openings into the house securely guarded. All drains, soil pipe, and waste pipe should be water-tight and air- tight. The soil pipe or house-drainage main begins at the sewer opening and passes up through the house as nearly vertical as possible and out through the roof for free ventilation. It should be at least 4 inches in diameter, of extra heavy cast iron, and all joints should be tightly calked with lead and oakum. All discharge from the wash basins, sinks, and toilets empties into the soil pipe, and connections should be tightly made. The sewer inside the cellar wall should al- ways be soil pipe ; tile should never be used except outside of the wall. A soil- pipe trap should be provided at the house foundation, as shown in Figure 26. Every fixture should have a trap to prevent foul air from coming back through the waste pipe. Vent pipes should be provided on all waste pipes to prevent siphonage and the consequent destroying of the traps. Figure 27 shows a good arrangement of sewer plumbing. Note the traps and vent pipes on each waste pipe. The least sizes of waste and vent pipes are given in the table below. SIZES OF WASTE AND VENT PIPES Name of Pipe Main and branch soil pipe Main waste pipe Branch waste pipes for kitchen sinks Bath or sink waste pipes Basin waste pipe Pantry sink waste pipe Water-closet trap Diameter Inches 4 2 2 1^-2 33^-4 Name of Pipe Wash tubs, 13^-inch waste pipe to 2-inch trap for 2 tubs Waste pipes for 3 or 4 tubs Main vents and long branches .... Branch vents for traps over 2 inches Branch vents for traps less than 2 inches Diameter Inches lVr-2 2 2 2 \v All plumbing should be tested by filling with water or smoke to detect leaks. Sewage Purification and Disposal. The problem of the purification and disposal of farm sewage by small pri- vate systems, differs somewhat from that of city sewage disposal, owing prin- cipally to the extreme fluctuations in flow, small size of the system, and varia- tion in the quality of the sewage. The process of sewage disposal is partly mechanical and partly bacterial, consisting of (1) preliminary or tank treatment and of (2) final treatment, which is application to a natural soil by surface or subsurface distribution or to an es- pecially prepared filter. Preliminary or Septic-Tank Treatment. — The exact nature of the action which takes place in a septic tank is a subject of dispute among sanitary experts and bacteriologists. Several theories have been advanced, but it is apparent that no definite conclusion has been reached. Some authorities advocate the use of open ventilated tanks, others advocate the use of air-tight tanks. WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 137 l/^nfi/affort Experience has shown that, in a small sewage disposal system, a dark, air- tight tank of sufficient capacity and so constructed that sewage may remain in it entirely at rest for a period of from 18 to 24 hours gives the best results and the least annoyance. The solid matter settles out in such a tank and is partially liquefied, deodorized, and destroyed by countless numbers of bacteria, which thrive in filth and live without air. Some authorities assert that these bacteria also slightly affect the dissolved organic matter in raw liquid sewage. In such a tank a thick scum forms on the surface of the sewage, which protects the bacteria from the incoming air and is evidence of good bac- terial action. The breaking up or disturbance of this scum will destroy the bacterial ac- tion for the time being and is likely to cause considerable annoyance of bad odors. Final Treatment. — It is found that the septic tank ef- fects only about 40 percent purification. The liquefying action in the tank, however, makes it possible to subject the sewage to a final treat- ment by filtration or distribu- tion in a natural soil. This final purification is effected by means of bacteria which work in the air. Therefore it is necessary that the sewage be applied to the final disposal system in intermittent doses so that the system may have a chance to air out. If the sew- age is applied continuously and in such quantities that the system is kept saturated, the filter or disposal area becomes water-logged and "sewage sick" and ceases to be effec- tive. It is therefore necessary Wote/-C/ot»f 7"^ Sewsr- -* Fig. 27.-Plumbing system for sewage disposal. 138 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING that the final treatment system be of sufficient capacity to dispose of each sew- age quickly. Double-Chamber Septic-Tank Systems. — The septic tank for a small sewage-disposal system should ordinarily consist of two chambers. In this type of tank the sewage is received, settled, and partially purified in one chamber and collected and discharged from a second chamber. This type of tank, if properly designed, should give satisfactory operation, since the sewage in the settling chamber suffers little disturbance, and the discharge to the final disposal sys- tem may be made intermittent by means of an automatic siphon placed in the discharge chamber. Design. — Practice indicates that the settling chamber of a small septic tank should have a capacity of from 5 to 15 cubic feet or from 40 to 80 gallons per person in the family. Some allow an average of 10 or 11 cubic feet per person. The best results are obtained when the capacity approaches the larger limit, so that 18 to 36 hours' sewage from the house may be held at one time, thus causing the sewage to remain in the tank and undergo sedimentation and bacterial action for this length of time. But care should be taken not to make the tank so large that liquefied sewage will remain in it more than 36 hours, for in that event putrefaction is likely to set in. For this reason one should make an accurate estimate of the daily sewage flow, which will be practically equal to the daily water consumption- Although a depth of 3 feet may be sufficient for some classes of sewage, it is better to have the depth from 4 to 8 feet, according to the number of people, in order to give the sludge a good chance to settle and liquefy. The width of the chamber may ordinarily be about one-third or one- half the length, although this may vary for economy and convenience. However, the width should not be less than 3 feet. The inlet from .the house should be provided with an elbow, so that the discharge will be at least a foot below the contained sewage, thus preventing disturbance of the surface scum. The outlet from the settling chamber should be equipped in the same way. Where the entrance and discharge velocities are very strong, baffle walls of wood or concrete should be placed before these open- ings to break the current. These precautions are especially beneficial in the smaller sized tanks. The discharge chamber should be of such capacity and depth as to discharge about every 10 to 12 hours. It may be desirable to discharge at more or less frequent intervals, according to the nature of the soil in the disposal area, and this may be controlled by the arrangement of the discharge chamber and siphon. Where little outlet fall is available it is possible to so construct the discharge chamber that its floor will be considerably above that of the settling chamber. The capacity and depth of discharge chamber and the size of siphon will de- pend on the number of persons served and the means of disposal. If a sand filter is used or a distribution system in heavy loam, the discharge chamber must be larger and deeper, in order that the discharge interval may be lengthened and the distribution system be given ample time to aerate. If the distribution is in sandy or very porous soil the discharge may be more frequent. WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 139 The following table of dimensions of septic tanks, suggests sizes of settling and discharge chambers and the corresponding siphon sizes applying to various average conditions. The depths of siphon chamber given are the minimum allowable. DIMENSIONS OF SEPTIC TANKS Siphon Chamber Number Persons Settling Chamber Sand Filter or Heavy Sandy or Porous Soil Siphon Diam- Loam Distribution Distribution Mini- Mini- eter Width Length Depth Width Length mum Width Length mum Inside Inside Inside Inside Depth Inside Inside Depth Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Ft. In. Feet Feet Ft. In. Inches 6 4 6 Wz 4 3 2 4 3 2 2 4 3 8 4 &A 4 4 4 2 4 3 2V 2 2 4 3 12 4 7 5 4 5 2 5 3 4 2 5 4 15 4 8 5 4 6 2 5 3 4 2 5 4 25 4 10 5 4 6K 3 2 3V 2 4 3 2 5 35 4^ 12 5 4 6M 3 2 3% 4^ 3 2 5 The above table is computed on the basis that the inlet and outlet of the settling chamber should be placed with their inverts 12 inches below the roof of the tank, thus making the depth of sewage in both settling and discharge chamber 12 inches less than the mean inside depth. The tank dimensions given in the above table, it should be remembered, are for average cases only and are not standard for all such cases. They are sub- ject to such variations to suit local conditions as the farmer's judgment indicates; ""7 -1 I — s'-o"- — . Cancrs/e ey/xcA-* *."\ 4&/X- .3 yybocfe/r ma/riafe cove/? Fic 28.— Double chamber septic tank for six people, suited to conditions where plenty of outlet fall is available. 140 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING yet care should be taken not to vary any of the essential dimensions and not to go below the given minimum depth of siphon chamber. Figure 28 shows a type of double chamber septic tank for a family of six people, designed by W. C. Davidson. Figure 29 is another type of septic tank for a family of eight people. These tanks are suited to conditions where plenty d HI jq C./.MANHOLS C. / ff/WHOLE _ |^»| \. °. m 3 ■ v > ".■.«. ■.■■a, ■ ■ 'id fcnj-;, a .. '/4 m RODS WATER LINC. 6'6' SiORS SLIGHTW TOWARD /NL£T SFCT/ONAL V/EW. OVERFLOW H c: 4o \t 6 6" \ J o \r -I . 1 1 1 1 I \ ! • i i i ■TO" TOP V/£W. Fjg. 29.— Double chamber septic lank for eight people. £=t> of outlet fall is available. Figure 30 is a double-chamber tank for a family of six persons, designed by C. A. Ocock of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station. This tank is suited to flat ground where outlet fall is difficult to obtain, as will be noted by the difference in elevation between the floors of the two chambers. For satisfactory operation a small septic tank should not be built of smaller size than for six persons. Location and Construction. — The septic tank, although air-tight and sup- posedly water-tight, should be located as far from the house and the well or spring as convenience and local surroundings will permit. It thus reduces the danger of pollution or nuisance in case of leakage or improper operation of the system. The sewer from the house should be of vitrified sewer pipe, usually of 4 inch size, with tightly cemented joints, and should be laid to a grade not less than WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 141 9 inches per 100 feet. Where the fall from the house to the tank is excessive, it is a good idea to lay the last 100 feet of tile at the minimum grade to break up entrance velocity. The septic tank should be constructed as nearly water-tight as possible, pref- erably of concrete. The walls should be 6 or 8 inches thick, the floor 4 to 6 inches thick, and the roof, about 6 inches thick and re-enforced. Some means should be provided at the bottom to aid the cleaning out of settled sludge. Either the fL p^ssmss^iss^^^gs^M^^^^gi ID Capacity, . Ca/xx?//y 320^crA \S\\ gE££2gSS^3S33i£aa^E^312cg^M '/yzp/77 /7ot*se f tsr or i->±l ^ -ft 'ca ,.S_J /• i kj .1.0 611 %y $<*£ i i ir-i '-•'• ->i ; Fig. 30. — Double chamber septic tank for family of six people, suitable to conditions where outlet fall is difficult to obtain. floor may be sloped toward the inlet end for this purpose or a pipe with a valve may be installed below the tank, as shown respectively in figures 29 and 28. The discharge chamber should be fitted with an outlet set above the siphon which will allow the sewage to escape in case the siphon becomes clogged. A concrete mixture of 1 part cement to 2 or %y 2 parts sand and 4 or 5 parts of broken stone or gravel should be used in the construction of the tank. The Automatic Siphon.— The automatic siphon may be installed to operate as frequently as may seem desirable- Figure 31 shows a 3 or 4 inch au- tomatic siphon installed. The siphon operates as follows: As the liquid enters the discharge chamber its weight increases with increasing depth, and the air between the water surface in the bell and the water inside the "siphon leg" is compressed. As the water outside increases in depth the compression inside becomes greater until the water outside reaches the drawing or discharge depth for the siphon. Then the inside pressure is sufficient to force the water in the 142 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING siphon leg around the bend, instantly relieving the compression. The water from the tank then rushes in to fill up the space which was occupied by the air and starts the siphon, which continues until the outside and inside pressures are again equalized. L.WL ■" jfrfote JC\ Fig. 31. — Three-inch or four-inch automatic siphon installed. The following table gives working data and dimensions, as shown in figure 31, to be used in-installing 3, 4, and 5 inch siphons. Sizes of 5 inches and over are constructed a little differently from the 3 and 4 inch sizes, although the work- ing principles are the same. DIMENSIONS FOR AUTOMATIC SIPHONS Dimension Diameter of siphon Diameter of bell Diameter of discharge head . Drawing depth Depth of trap Width of trap Height above floor Clearance under bell Diameter of carrier Invert to discharge line Average discharge per second cubic feet . Reference Letter A B C D F G II K S J Inches 3 10 4 13 12 10 2 4 20K 0.16 Inches 4 12 4 14 13 12 SH 2 4- 6 22^ 0.35 Inches 5 15 6 23 22 14 3 6- 8 33U 0.73 WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 143 The Final Disposal System. Disposal by Surface or Subsurface Distribution. — Where the soil is porous or sandy and there is plenty of area available, which is used for no other purpose, the sewage from the septic tank may be discharged through 4-inch distribution- tile laid on the surface of the ground in gridiron or herringbone fashion. Four hundred and fifty to 500 square feet of area are necessary for each person served 6Ar£ en/ween Fig. 32.— Ground plans of tile sewage disposal systems. if the soil is very porous and sandy, and the soil should either be tile-drained or have natural underdrainage A better method of disposal is by subsurface distribution. In this method the tile are placed in the ground in herringbone or gridiron fashion, not deeper than 14 or 16 inches from the surface of the soil to the top of the tile. Figure 32 shows ground plans of such systems. In very porous or sandy soils 1 foot of 4-inch tile per gallon of discharge per day is sufficient. In the heavier loam soils 2 feet of 4-inch tile are necessary and sometimes more for every gallon. A rough estimate should be made of the number of gallons of sewage in each dis- charge from the tank and the number of discharges per day. Not less than 35 feet of 4-inch tile per person should be used in sandy or porous soil and not 144 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING less than 60 feet per person in very heavy loams. In average loams 300 to 400 feet of tile are sufficient for a family of six or eight- Aeration of heavy soils can be brought about by the use of coarse cinders or gravel laid in 12-inch to 16-inch layers in the bottom of the tile ditch with the top about 12 inches below the surface. The tile are laid in these at the usual depth. Figure 33 shows such an arrangement. The disposal tile should have a fall not to exceed 1 inch in 50 feet, else the water will rush to the lower end and water-log the soil there. The tile are usually laid about % inch and in rows about 15 feet apart. The latter distance, however, will vary with the porosity of the soil. Where there is no sub- surface drainage, artificial drainage should be provided by means of tile drains laid below the sewage tile as shown in figure 34. In some cases an impervious stratum underlying the filter earth is underlain by a stratum of sand. Cases have been noted in which this impervious stratum has been broken by dynamite at 15-foot to 20-foot intervals along the tile line, thus providing natural drainage. Disposal by Intermittent Sand Filtration. — If subsurface disposal is not feasible, as when the soil is com- pact and nearly impenetrable or is swampy and under-drainage difficult to obtain, disposal by intermittent sand nitration is necessary. The sand filter usually is a bed of sand 3 to 4 feet thick which is fine on top and gradually increase in size to coarse gravel at the bottom. The sewage from the tank is distributed over the filter by means of tile laid loose jointed over the surface in much the same manner as in the ground-surface distribution system. The filter should be sufficiently porous. There should be sufficient natural or artificial under-drajnage to allow all sewage to sink away rapidly. Sewage should not stand on the surface of the filter for any length of time,' as this will soon destroy its purifying properties. About 45 square feet of filter should be provided for each person served by the sewer. The area should be divided into from three to five beds so that each bed may be allowed to rest occasionally. Figure 35 shows a plan and partial section of a sand filter for a family of eight persons. In constructing a filter a sufficient area should be leveled off and small earth embankments be made 18 inches to 2 feet hi eh to inclose the beds. The Fig. 33. — Cross section of single tile sewage disposal system, showing method of aerating heavy soils. WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 145 depth of the filtering material will depend largely on the porosity of the subsur- face and the means of under-drainage, but it is well to have it not less than 2 l / 2 feet ; 3 to 5 feet is better, and the depth should not exceed 6 feet. A good plan is to allow a minimum of 1 cubic yard of filtering material for every 50 gallons of sewage flow. Single-Chamber Tank Systems. Single - chamber septic - tank systems may be made to give good satisfaction if properly designed and operated. In such a system the sewage is received, settled, partially purified, and discharged by one chamber. There is necessarily consider- able disturbance of the sewage in the tank, and, in addition, the dis- charge is continuous. This makes necessary two disposal systems, with a diverting gate to allow an occasional breathing spell for each system. If such an arrangement is not used the disposal system must be of much larger capacity than for the double-chamber tank system. This is necessary to pre- vent the continuous discharge from waterlogging the system. If a single-chamber tank is used it should be designed and constructed on the same basis as the settling chamber of a double- chamber tank, with the elbows at inlet and outlet and baffle boards before these openings to break up the current. Figure 36 shows a single- chamber tank for a family of six. This tank has a continuous dis- charge, and it is necessary to use a switch or diverting gate, as shown in figure 37, so that the liquid sewage may be intermittently diverted from one part of the disposal system to another. The disposal system should be divided into at least two divisions for inter- mittent application, and the capacity of the system should be 10 to 15 per cent larger than for a double-chamber tank system. Fig. 34.— Cross section of single tile sewage disposal system, showing second tile below for underdrainage. 146 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING The single chamber septic system requires considerable attention, since there is no provision for automatic discharge. Figures taken from the work of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station show that in the long run there is little difference in the cost of the single- and double-chamber tank system. scrriwa ta/vx i/rtoeiroaAiNS Fig. 35.— Sand filter for eight people _ i — C.f./tANHOLC ON LCVCL G0OV/V0 USe THI3 OUTLET. c scct/onal view. l£L £.01 ' 'I' 1 t ;_.!_*.. O .. ^ j j =C=«=t=P top v/ew. Fio. 36.— Single-chamber septic tank for six people. WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 147 The Grease Trap. The grease trap acts as a separator of the grease and sewage from the kitchen sink or dairy room. If grease is allowed to enter the sewer it accumu- lates and eventually clogs the system. CAST IRON COVER ^m))))M)^))kw/M lllllllffli C^ST IfPON CYLINDER D/AMCTEff 12 FPOri SEPTIC TANK gijj I.2& G CONCRETE I SECT/ON. ] h&Mgmmmz Wmn^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^mm, PLAN. Fia. 37. — Plan and section of sewage diverting gate. Figure 38 shows a grease trap. Two large, glazed sewer tiles are placed in the ground. The inlet is usually a 2-inch iron pipe. The outlet must be so ar- ranged that the mouth of it is at all times below the surface of the sewage. The grease, being lighter, naturally floats upon the water, and is thus prevented from entering the outlet. The outlet is made of 44-inch glazed sewer tile and is con- nected with the sewer inlet of the septic tank. A concrete cover is provided, and grease and dirt which may accumulate are removed when necessary. Suggestion on Operation. — Contrary to the usual opinion, small sewage systems require some watching and care. It is well to study the system and 148 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING watch the action in the entire plant for any signs of clogging or waterlogging. In this way you will soon become acquainted with the conditions of location and soil best suited to your needs and will be able to operate the plant on a satisfac- tory basis. Conclusion. It is hoped that the foregoing discussion has presented information of a nature practical enough at least to indicate the general requirements to be met in planning sanitary systems adapted to the average farm home. Nevertheless, CONCRETE- COVCtt w? Fig. 38.— Grease trap. should the farmer feel that, though desirable, such an installation is beyond his own skill, the matter is still of such importance as to make it advisable to em- ploy a reliable pump expert, plumber, or sanitary engineer, local prices of labor and materials and other conditions permitting. Enormous expenditures are be- ing made by progressive cities in the installation of sanitary systems to protect the health of their people, and similar protection is surely due the country resi- dent. It is urged, therefore, that the questions discussed above be considered of prime importance in planning or improving the farm home, instead of being postponed to a time when matters do not press for attention. We have recommended nothing but that which will be an economical in- vestment for every progressive farmer. It is believed that convenience, comfort, and economy may be combined in the practical application of the suggestions made, providing common sense and proper care are exercised in the installation, operation, and maintenance of the conveniences. DRAINAGE. Introduction. — Most farms need a drainage system of some kind. Even highlands under certain conditions are improved by under-drainage. Fortunes are being made every year by certain men who know the value of drainage, by acquiring large areas of semi-wet and swampy land for a small sum per acre and scientifically ditching and under-draining until the same becomes a deep rich bed of black loam of unequalled fertility. The larger projects are given aid by the state and national governments and nearly all of the tillable land is settled. Many of the states have vast areas of undrained land, mostly in the middle states and northwest. Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin and the Dakotas have the largest acreage respectively. Fortunately a large part of this is located so as to be easily drained. The county or state aids the farmer in constructing the larger outlets and main ditches, but he must do the small work incident to his particular farm. It is the purpose of this discussion to aid the farmer in solving his in- dividual problems rather than to present methods for large work. BENEFITS OF DRAINAGE. Water is deposited in the soil in three forms. Free water, hydroscopic, and capillary. The first is that which is visible and that which can be carried off by drainage. The last two are invisible and are the forms from which the plants derive their supply. It is the free water or excessive water which the farmer wishes to eliminate. It is a waste of time to tell any farmer that his free water is not good for the soil. An ideal drainage soil is one in which the free water or excessive water is from three to four feet below the surface. This will give the plants plenty of root space and will afford a supply or reservoir, which will dampen the upper layers of the soil through capillarity. The benefits of drainage are best expressed by the statement that banks con- sider loans on drainage a good investment. Also the buyer will look to the drainage of the land before he will look to the good roads which supply it. REMOVAL OF FREE OR GROUND WATER. To appreciate the value of drainage one must understand the effects of free water and the necessity for its removal. First, free water on top of the ground will make it muddy and it can not be cultivated. Second, the wet places are usually in long, narrow and irregular strips, which cut up the farm and make it inconvenient for cultivating. Third, it delays working the ground particularly in the spring. Fourth, it keeps the soil cold, (a) because it takes 149 150 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING more than half of the heat available to warm this unnecessary water, (b) because the evaporation of the water consumes heat which the soil could other- wise retain, and (c) because it prevents the warm spring rains from moving downward raising the temperature of the soil. Fifth, it excludes the air from between the soil particles thus stopping oxidation in the organic matter in the soil. Sixth, it limits the root zone of the plants. DRAINAGE AS A SPECULATION. Good crops bring prosperity to a community. Drainage will bring good crops. Prosperity will bring good roads. Good roads will bring prospective buyers and when a prospective buyer sees a well-drained piece of land with a uniform crop he is interested. The writer is personally acquainted with a number of farmers who have taken farms that were in a poor state of drainage and repair, have opened the ditches, under-drained the land, built new fences, new barns and new houses, arranged the fields and the buildings in an attractive manner, and have sold them for practically double the money for which they bought them. Their next step was to buy another and larger farm of the same condition and repeat the process. It takes only two or three years to do this, providing the farmer has good health and has not taken too big a piece of land. Since speculation brings wealth seemingly without effort, because society in general is helping to make that wealth, it is a good plan for a young and progressive farmer to take a small farm and improve it to increase its specula- tive as well as real value. Once he has shown his ability in handling a thing of this kind, he can readily borrow money to handle a larger project. OUTLINING THE FARMER'S DRAINAGE PROBLEM. The time to judge a farm is before purchasing. The following outline will assist both buyer and owner: Buying Hints. — 1st. Before buying he should see just how much of the farm needs draining, and how badly it needs it. 2nd. He should look for an outlet. If this is not obtainable he should stop right there. 3rd. He must study the source of the water, whether it comes in on him from other lands or whether it is stored for lack of outlet. 4th. He should investigate the level of the free or ground water. When it is above ground it is called surface water, and when it is below it is called soil water or ground water. 5th. He should plan a drainage system, a surface system for the surface water, and an under-drainage system for the ground water. At this point he will determine whether he wishes to buy or not. Owners Hints. — 6th. He should stake out a drainage system in accord- ance with his own plans. 7th. He should consult his neighbor and learn if it is practicable to co- operate in order to get larger and better drainage. DRAINAGE. 151 8th. He should employ an experienced surveyor and drainage engineer, who checks maps and improves his plans. 9th. He should select the kind of tile he will use and purchase it in carload lots. 10th. He should have the work done by day labor or contract, whichever is most convenient to him at the time. 11th. He should inspect the work daily, comparing with the engineer's notes. 12th. He should carefully cover the tile and clear the land for plowing and cropping. 13th. He should erect monuments along the fence lines, which will assist him in finding the drains at a later period. 14th. He should observe the results in the following year and locate lines of drainage which will be necessary. 15th. He should maintain both tile and open ditches by keeping them clear throughout' the entire year. 16th. He should maintain a definite program for drainage and tabulate the results, and when a prospective buyer comes around, he will be able to show accurately the increased value of the land. 17th. He should become a progressive, contented and valuable citizen to the community. Now that the problem of drainage is completely in mind, the various details will be worked out. STAKING OUT THE DRAINAGE SYSTEM. Drainage is a possible and a permanent improvement, and it should not be executed in a careless and slovenly manner. The success or failure of the whole farm may be dependent upon the proper system of drainage. Where the ground is rolling, the outlet good, it is an easy matter for the average farmer to lay out small drainage systems, but even in these cases it is advisable to use a leveling instrument. Where the grades are small, such as occur in large flat areas, the best engineering services are the cheapest. THE GRADES. Most farmers have had considerable experience in ditching, both in open and tile drains, and. many of them can ditch very well using a water level, but this is unreliable for large projects. The cost of doing the work with an instrument or employing a surveyor is such a small part of the benefit to be derived that it is not worth while to take chances. Now if there are a number of farmers who can co-operate and have an engineer work out a drainage plan for a large area, the whole project to cover a number of years for its comple- tion, when the cost is divided up, it will be a small matter for each farmer. A table will be inserted to show at what grades open ditches and tiles may be laid for good service. Less grades than these may be used in case the work is very carefully done and diligently maintained. Tile ditches will 158 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING operate surprisingly well on low grades, when laid to a true grade, on a firm bottom which will not allow any of the tile to be broken or moved out of position. Two simple instruments and the methods of surveying will be described. In plates I and II are shown two simple instruments connected by a rubber tube. Each instrument consists of a board to which is fastened a glass tube. Plate I. Plate II. The board is divided into feet and tenths of feet as shown. The use of the instrument depends upon the principle that water seeks its own level. So long as the communication between the two tubes is not interfered with, the principle will hold. Therefore if one of the instruments is placed on higher ground than the other, the difference in reading on the board is readily noticed. This apparatus can be constructed for less than five dollars and for small work will be found to be satisfactory. For extensive surveying another and better instrument is suggested. HOW TO SURVEY. The method of surveying may be described thus : Secure a surveyor's level and tripod as shown in figure I. An instrument of this kind sufficient for farm drainage can be bought for ten to fifty dollars, the best ones ranging from $35 to $40. It is not advisable to pay less than that amount. The instru- DRAINAGE. 153 ment should read well about twenty rods away, but it will be well for the beginner to use shorter distances. In the figure is shown the positions and calculations for two set-ups covering a distance of 40 rods, A to C. Suppose that A and C, which are 40 rods apart, are different elevations and it is desired to find out the difference in elevation of the two points. First set up the instrument at point X, about one-fourth of the distance from A to C. Adjust the foot screws on the instrument until the bubble is exactly on center. Have the rodman hold the rod on the stake at A. Sight through the telescope and read the number where the horizontal cross-hair cuts the rod. Suppose that to be 3.68 feet. This is called a back sight, and shows that MJ=. LOJL 68 Ok5 Ai tion or Datum P/an t/on = /QoooF t) ,,„„. hU,= S&.4-5. Grounds — -Sffig-5.= I '«■ 40 Pods Figure I the instrument is 3.68 feet above stake A. Assume the stake A to be at elevation of 100, then the elevation of the instrument, or the HI will be 103.68. Now send the rodman forward towards C to a point half way between A and C and drive another stake B. Hold the rod on this stake and take the reading as before. This time it is found to be 6.85 feet. This is a fore sight reading. This means that the point B is 6.85 feet below the height of the instrument. Subtract this from 103.68 and the elevation of B becomes 96.83 feet. Now move the instrument from X to Y, a point half way between B and C. Back sight as before and add this reading to the elevation of B. It gives the new height of the instrument 98.45. Now send the rodman ahead to C and take a reading of the fore sight which is found to be 11.59 feet. C is 11.59 feet below the new HI, which gives the final elevation as 86.86 feet. In the following table I will illustrate the form of notes to be kept for doing this work. A brief study of the figure and the description and the table will readily make plain all of the operations that must be taken. TABLE 1. Station B. S. H. I. F. S. Elevation Remarks A 3.68 1.62 100.00 96.83 86.86 Stake at hedge fence B c 103.68 98.45 6.85 11.59 Stake 5 feet north of maple tree Stake at bank of creek 154 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING If the instrument is in proper adjustment, after once leveled up it should remain level for every position of the telescope. Should this not be true, be careful to level every time when a shot is to be taken. Do not try to adjust the instrument unless thoroughly acquainted with its adjustment. It should be taken to a competent engineer for proper adjustment when out of order. He can do it in 15 or 20 minutes. Op- en .drain M^" ==^= = _WetMorshMueJs2cejOO^ sfTTjy '//////'/ '////s/'/, '. ''/ urte» et the Wisconsin Experiment Suiloo To determine the value of tile drainage a number of ques- tions must first be answered. 1. The value of the undrained land, the character of the soil, cost" of the tile, the average cost of digging, expense in laying the tile. 2. Does it have an outlet? 3. What will be the value of the crop after draining? All of these can be accurately determined by ordinary observation and comparison with results under similar conditions. Cost of trenching and laying is shown in table No. 2. TABLE No. 2— DEPTH IN FEET. Size of Tile 3 4 5 6 4 inches $0.30 $0.50 $0.80 $1.25 5 inches .35 .55 .85 1.30 6 inches .40 .60 .90 1.35 8 inches .45 .65 .95 1.40 10 inches .50 .70 1.00 1.45 12 inches .55 .75 1.05 1.50 Nothing less than 4-inch tile can be used and these should be used sparingly. Five-inch are better and do not cost much more. The prices given in table 2 are only average and presume that the farmer boards and lodges the tiler. DRAINAGE 163 CONCLUSION. A typical example of drainage is illustrated on page 162 . The writer is acquainted with the particular piece of ground, 120 acres, which before drain- ing had not raised over 15 bushels of corn to the acre, which, two years after draining with proper cultivation, raised 70 bushels to the acre. Men of broad experience who have observed drainage conditions all over the United States assert that in their wide experience they have never known a case of drainage, when properly done, to fail to bring profit to the investor. An annual profit of 20 to 60 percent can confidently be expected, where the drainage was seriously needed. The fact that there are numerous instances where the soil was of no value at all until drained, and became very valuable afterwards is conclusive proof of necessity of drainage. IRRIGATION Introduction. — Irrigation in the United States is fast becoming one of the most important branches of our engineering and agricultural work. Up to 1910 a total of 31,112,110 acres of land of the United States was subject to irrigation projects. Over 13,000,000 acres were actually in crops and the rest was irrigable. About three and one-half percent of this acreage was irrigated by pumped water, the rest from streams and reservoirs. Acts of the Government of the U. S. The early settlers were allowed to irrigate in most any way they pleased. The most favorable plots for this kind of work were picked out where water could be secured by merely diverting from a stream or natural lake. As soon as these first areas were all taken up and it was necessary to attack the problem on a much larger scale, the U. S. government stepped in and offered its help. The result was the "Carey Act". This act provided that the state receive 1,000,000 acres of public domain to be parceled out. The state could install the irrigation system itself or sublet the work to contractors. The farmer contracted to occupy the land six months after the water was available and at least 20 acres of each 160 acres had to be under cultivation within two years after the occupation of the land. A further provision was made that the land could not be sold in larger tract than 160 acres nor smaller than 40 acres. This was to prevent speculation. The water rights must be secured from the party who installed the irrigation system. The Reclamation Act. — In 1902 the government stepped in again and offered still further opportunities in the field of irrigation when the "Reclama- tion Act" was passed. This act permits the setting aside the proceeds from the sale of the public land for the purpose of surveying, constructing and main- taining irrigation works for the storage and diversion of water for use on arid land. This created a large fund in the Treasury which was immediately put to use and several projects are now under way or complete under this law. The Reclamation Service has charge of the water rights until a Water Users' Association can be formed. Under this act more than 3,000,000 acres of land are either constructed or projected for irrigation. Practically all of them are in the western districts. Water Rights. — As previously stated the early settler had to select a favor- able piece of ground and divert such water from stream or lake as he needed. Sometimes he was careless and because he had plenty of water would allow too much water to flow, even to the detriment of his crops. As more settlers came in, competition increased or the demand for the water increased, and certain laws had to be made to regulate the use of water. In some states it has become a criminal offense for the water user, during periods of water short- 164 IRRIGATION 165 age, to change the head-gates in any way after they had been regulated by the water commission. The original owners and the first users of the water along the stream have "prior rights" over those who appropriate water at later dates. A prior right is like the ownership to land. It gives the owner eternal right to a cer- tain number of miner's inches or cubic feet of water called for in his title before any subsequent user along the stream. These prior rights are valuable pieces of property or like well located pieces of property become very valuable. Most cases are decided by the courts as first, second and third in accordance to the size of the stream. Certain times of the year, during flood water, those holding second or third rights can get any amount of water that they may need. An intelligent irrigator, who understands irrigating during flood water seasons, will practi- cally manipulate the irrigation and often times raises a better crop than his neighbor who has prior rights and has land wet all the time. Unfortunately the legislation has been different in each state. When there is a question in regard to the water, it is best to confer. with lawyers who are specialists in irrigation law, or with the irrigation officer of the state. This should certainly be done before buying any irrigated land. Where the Federal Government has taken up the irrigation of the land, the law concerning ownership and control is much simpler. If available, the buyer should consider these opportunities first. The Government has done a great deal of irrigating, yet it comprises only about 30 percent of what has been done. Individual and co-operative enterprises have taken care of the rest. When purchasing from a company or the Government, it is the practice now that the company or Government will take care of all water rights and convey them in the deed so that the buyer will not have to worry about this. In recent years many localities in humid climates are being irrigated with a great deal of success. It is the opinion of the writer that before many years, irrigation in all parts of the United States will be quite common. There is never a season in humid climates but what some parts of the territory have been injured by drought and other parts by too much water. Just as scien- tific drainage will take care of too much water, so will scientific irrigation take care of too little water. Water Values. — There is much more land to be irrigated than there is available water to irrigate it. Unless some other source is discovered, it will be impossible to convert all the land which needs irrigation into arable land. Wherever there is a supply of water, the number of water users has grown so rapidly that the demand is becoming acute, although the irrigator has been called upon to be very economical in his use of water. In other words he must watch the losses of water. Water may be lost in the following ways : , 1. By seepage and evaporation from the conveying canals and ditches. 2. By deep percolation into the soil on the farm. 3. By evaporation of soil moisture. 4. By surface run-off or waste at the ends of fields or furrows. 166 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 5. By unequal distribution due to poor manipulation. Under these conditions it is just as important that the irrigator knows exactly how much water he is going to need as the power user needs to know how much electric current he is using. Where water is sold by the cubic foot or in definite measured quantities, the irrigator is paying for just what he gets and no more, and will use more care and skill to get the greatest results from the supply. When water is plentiful and cheap, he is likely to become careless and will waste the water, which might have been retained and conveyed to some other irrigator, who has second or third right and there do much more good. Over-irrigation will not only be wasteful but will destroy the productive- ness of the soil through water-logging or the accumulating of alkali salts in the surface soil. Sources of Irrigation Water. Gravity sources of supply have been taken up by the early settlers in irrigated regions and the possibility worked out' by the owners of the land so that it will be unnecessary to discuss that phase in any length here. The buyer in those regions would merely have to learn the practice of the present owner to become thoroughly familiar with the possibilities of the land and the water supply. Some of the newer problems will be taken up in this discussion and especially those in the humid and semi-humid climates. There are still some opportunities for using stream water in the west on the gravity supply. These entail such large expenditures of capital that it would be out of reach to the individual farmer and out of the field of discussion in this work. Where considering the source of supply, it must be particularly borne in mind that enough water can be secured at the time when it is needed. ' So many make the mistake that when they visit the property to be irrigated, they do so out of season and if they find a large quantity of water available they are quite well satisfied. Unless the water can be stored and made available at the time it is needed, the source may be of no value whatsoever. Streams. — Streams that are useful for irrigation must have sufficient flow at the time when water is needed and must be so located that water can be cheaply obtained from them and let over land to be irrigated. When the fall is steep, canals should be run at a light grade long distances up stream and the water carried down to the land below at a considerable height above the land. When this can be done it is very satisfactory. However, pumping systems are fast coming into use and are found to be satisfactory and profit- able. Not only should there be a proper quantity of water but of the kind necessary for irrigating purposes. Springs. — In a few favored localities springs offer a valuable source for irrigation, but in most cases the springs are not large enough to give a supply fast enough to irrigate. In this case a storage basin should be pro- vided. The water in an irrigating canal should run at a good speed. Storage Reservoirs. — In large reclamation work the storage reservoir has been probably the best means of serving the water for irrigation pur- IRRIGATION 167 poses. In smaller projects, owners have gotten together and built reservoirs, some of them improperly constructed. With the services of competent engineers they would have proved very satisfactory. The average farmer should not attempt to build such a basin without the advice of one who is able to design such work successfully. Pumping Plants. — These plants are coming in use more and more every year. In certain parts of western Texas, irrigation is carried on entirely from a pumping station. There is a large supply of water underlying the ground and so far seems to be inexhaustible. The land in that region will be quite valuable. With the development of the gasoline and the oil engines, cheap methods of pumping and irrigation have become quite profitable. In pumping from a stream, water should be first carried to one side through a small channel into a sump or well. The pump should be sub- merged so that it will always be primed. The size of the pump should be such that it keeps one irrigator busy. Automatic alarms or tell tales can be so installed as to indicate whether the water is being pumped at full capacity or not. If the distribution is through ditches it is easy to measure the water by automatic alarms or tell tales made by connecting the moving part of an electric switch with a float on top of the water in the weir box. When the water goes too low, the float will drop and open the switch or close it as the operator desires, or it may ring an electric gong. Flags that may be pulled from the vertical to horizontal position have been attached. Wells. — As in western Texas, there are many localities in which there is an ample supply of underground water. This may be obtained by drilling wells. It is best to put the pump below the surface of the water as in the sidecut of the stream so that priming will be unnecessary. In the selection of the pump, the farmer should consult the best engi- neering advice he can and study over the different kinds so that he may buy the best pump for the particular piece of work. Some pumps are good for low lift and are no good at all for high lift. Centrifugal pumps are very effi- cient when properly placed at the source. When they can be so placed they should be given preference. It is the duty of the engineer to judge which would be the best. Power. — No matter what kind of power is going to be used, whether gas, steam, electric or water power, in most cases the problem is too complex for anyone but an engineer to solve. However, the widespread use of gas and oil engines seems to indicate that some form of power from this source should be depended upon. Conservation of Irrigating Water. As before stated, irrigation water is becoming so valuable that greater interest should be taken to conserve its supply. After the water is once secured, the matter of saving it is an important topic. Storage Reservoir Losses. — Storage reservoirs are usually built from the natural earth by constructing large embankments and enclosing an area 168 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING sufficient to hold the required amount of water. Most reservoirs have not been made of water-tight materials. Wherever concrete can be used or the reservoir located in a rock basin, leakage will be at a minimum. In earth embankments, concrete core walls, and clay puddle walls are used to cut off the leakage of the water. Canal Losses. — Canals, like reservoirs, will loose through leakage and evaporation. In large canals, the loss is about one percent a mile and from farmers' laterals it is from ten to twelve percent a mile. A canal carrying water heavily laden with dirt, will deposit some of the fine material and seal up the pores, thus reducing the losses considerably. It is good practice to line the canal with any fine grained material which will tend to make a tight surface. The most effective and permanent material yet found is concrete. This is expensive and is only used in the larger projects where a great amount of money is invested and permanency desired. Value of Different Ditch Linings for Protection from Seepage. — In 1906 the U. S. Department of Agriculture and the California Experiment Station investigated a number of linings with the following results: 1. An asphaltum oil, applied on the ditch sides and bed, using three gallons per square yard, will stop from 50 to 60 percent of the seepage. 2. A clay puddle lining, well constructed, is equally as good as the oil. 3. Cement mortar lining about one inch thick, made of one part cement to four parts of sand, will prevent 75 percent of the losses by seepage. 4. A concrete lining, three inches thick, made of one part cement, two of sand and four of gravel, will take care of 95 percent of the seepage. 5. Timber lining, when new, is as efficient as a concrete lining, but in a few years, repairs and maintenance increase the cost so as to make it im- practical. The life of timber lining is eight or ten years. 6. Rubble masonry, made of river boulders set in lime and mortar and pointed with concrete, makes a costly but efficient lining. 7. A heavy lining of river boulders and cobbles set up in forms and cemented with cement mortar is the highest type but is expensive and is used only under the most favorable conditions. Cost of Lining. — Oil lining costs about J / 2 cent per square foot when oil is 2 cents per gallon. Cement mortar lining costs from 2 cents to 4 cents a square foot. Concrete lining 3 inches thick costs from 6 to 8 cents per square foot. Clay is cheaper than any of these if it is available on the site. But its competing with other methods depends upon its availability. Of all the linings that have been tried, the concrete lining seems to be the best and should be considered first when a permanent lining is being planned. The other methods should be adopted only for temporary pur- poses. When concrete linings are used, there is no trouble due to weeds or burrowing animals, no breaks to mend, therefore the cost of controlling and maintaining is very low. In most projects it does not take a very great amount of saving in seepage to pay the interest on the cost of a concrete lining installed to prevent it. IRRIGATION 169 The above losses are usually aken care of by a co-operative company or the larger controlling interests, but often the losses in the farmers' laterals run very high and are the ones in which he is most interested. As indicated before losses in laterals may be from ten to twelve percent. Farmers, too, should use concrete lined ditches whenever possible, especially for his main distributing lines. Gates can easily be constructed in the sides of the concrete flumes to let the water into each lateral. This is a distinct advantage. The ease in operating the controlling gauge, makes equal distribution possible when using a channel lined with concrete. Field Losses. — Field losses of water are many and some of them are peculiar to the kind of dis- tribution methods used. The method that is most econom- ical is the distribution of water through an overhead pipe system. These are now used only in highly favored regions, where land values are very high and the soil is very fertile. However, they are being used success- fully. The writer believes that in humid climates, where droughts are frequent, this class of irrigation system will be adopted by the individual farmer to taike care of the garden crops and will, in time, gradually be increased to take care of the field crops. The losses of water in the field are tabulated as follows, according to the causes : A Currugator or Furrow Plow. This is used for making the small furrows or ditches when the furrow system of irrigation Is used. The implement is adjustable both as to the depth and the spacing of the furrows. Courtesy of the Montana Experiment Station. Section showing water in furrows between potato rows Showing Furrow Method of Irrigating Potatoes. The arrows indicate the direction taken by the capillary water. 1. The climate. 2. The different kinds of crops. 3. The kind of soil. 4. The method of applying water. 170 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING The last is probably the most inexcusable loss. These losses may be due to an excessive amount used owing to the greediness of the farmer, ill prepared land, improper and unequal distribution, or finally due to the fact that the farmer has not studied his problem properly. For that farmer who reads and studies his problem thoroughly, continued success is certain. 5. After the water is applied, it is just as important to till the crop properly as to have the water, for if the waer is run on and left without any attention, the top soil will become crusty and the water will evaporate rapidly. Various farming methods will remedy this. In semi-humid or humid climates, the farmer should begin by irrigating a small patch, and, after a few years of experience, he can extend his plant to cover some of the smaller crops, always studying his problem and conferring with his neighbors in order to get the results of experience. Conclusion. — In the more careless methods of irrigation 40 percent may be lost in conveyance, 15 percent by deep percolation, 10 percent by soil evapo- ration, and 5 percent by surface run-off, a total of 70 percent. Where the water is valuable and a more expensive construction is pos- sible, these losses may be reduced to 5 percent for conveyance, deep percola- tion about 8 percent, evaporation can be reduced to 8 percent and surface run-off loss can be eliminated so that the total losses for the best plan would be 21 percent, a result well worth considering. Measurement of Water. In the larger project of irrigation the measurement of water is taken care of by the company selling the land, so for this purpose alone it will hardly be necessary to discuss this phase of the problem. Since the systematic use of all his resources is a valuable asset to the farmer, he will want to supply the water to his crops according to a measured amount, therefore one or two methods will be given. Units of Measurement. — Although the miner's inch has been used con- siderably in the west, another term is becoming more familiar year after year. For the average man, the cubic foot per second will probably be the most valuable as well as the most accurate. A cubic foot contains 7^2 gallons, therefore a source giving 1 l / 2 gallons per second of time would have a discharge of one cubic foot per second. A flow of one cubic foot per second will cover one acre one inch deep in one hour. Therefore the time in hours to cover a given tract of land with water from the available water supply to a depth of one foot is equal to the number of acres multiplied by twelve and one tenth and divided by the number of cubic feet of water per second flowing from the source. The measurement of the flow from the source is not to be considered. The Cippoletti Weir. — A weir is nothing more than a notch in a board through which the water flows and when the depth of the flow through this notch is known, the quantity flowing can be accurately determined. This is the most accurate and cheapest of all methods and at the same time IRRIGATION 171 very convenient for irrigation purposes. The Cippoletti Weir was invented by an Italian of that name. The notch is shown in the sketch (Fig. 1) with the proper dimensions and instructions given. The description should be strictly adhered to, in constructing the weir. Note particularly that the slope of the sides is one inch in four, that is, if the length (L) at the bottom is ten inches, (H) height at the side four inches then (EF), width at the top should be equal to ten plus one plus one or twelve inches. Any size may be constructed on this plan. See that the edge of the weir from the side (H) and the bottom of the notch or the crest of the weir, as it is called, is some distance from the side of the ditch or flume supplying the weir. Table 1 is here printed to give the size and capacity of various weir boxes as shown in Fig. 1. Figure Weir Box It is best to have some kind of a weir box or flume so that the water can be properly controlled previous to falling over the weir. Since the irriga- tion is to be continued for some time it is always better to make a permanent box. Details of Construction. — When possible, set the weir in concrete and construct the weir box on the approaches of concrete. See Figure 1, for sample weir box. 172 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Observe the following rules : Make the channel above the weir straight and long enough to allow the water to approach the weir at right angle and without eddies or cross currents. Bring the water as nearly as possible to a state of rest above the weir by widening the channel into a lake or pond and by deepening the channel for some distance above the weir. Make the distances from the edge of the weir to the sides of the stream of the proportion shown in the sketch. The water should fall freely over the weir and meet with no obstruction until it has reached the bed of the outlet. Make the weir notch beveled to a knife edge on the upstream side, the beveling or cutting away being on the loAver side. (See Fig. 2, 3.) The crest of the level and the weir board should be vertical. The length of the crest L (Fig. 2) should be such that the depth will be not more than one-third of its length. TABLE I WEIR DIMENSIONS Dimension L A-B C-D E-F G-H L I-H Apron 1 -foot weir 48 in. 12 ft. 16^ in. 18 in. 1 ft. 9 in. 2x12 in. 1 Yi-i oot weir 60 in. 12 ft. 23 M in. 21 in. IK ft. 10K in. 2x12 in. 2 -foot weir 72 in. 14 ft. 30 in. 24 in. 2 ft. 12 in. 2x12 in. 3 -foot weir 90 in. 16 ft. 42 % in. 27 in. 3 ft. 13K in. 2x12 in. 4 -foot weir 108 in. 16 ft. 55 Y 2 in. 30 in. 4 ft. 15 in. 2x12 in. 5 -foot weir 128 in. 18 ft. 68K in. 34 in. 5 ft. 17 in. 2x12 in. 6 -foot weir 144 in. 18 ft. 81 in. 36 in. 6 ft. 18 in. 2x12 in. 7 -foot weir 156 in. 20 ft. 93 in. 36 in. 7 ft. 18 in. 2x12 in. 8 -foot weir 168 in. 20 ft. 105 in. 36 in. 8 ft. 18 in. 2x12 in. 9 -foot weir 170 in. 22 ft. 117 in. 36 in. 9 ft. 18 in. 2x12 in. 10 -foot weir 184 in. 24 ft. 129 in. 36 in. 10 ft. 18 in. 2x12 in. 15 -foot weir 222 in. 24 ft. 189 in. 36 in. 15 ft. 18 in. 2x12 in. The distance from the crest of the weir above the channel should be twice the depth of the water flowing over the weir. The distance from the end of the crest to the sides of the weir box should be about twice the depth of the water on the weir. In measuring the depth of water passing over the crest, the level of the water in the pond or lake will have to be known in respect to the level of the crest. To determine this a stake (Fig. 3) is driven in the lake or pond and the water brought to the level of the crest and the stake marked. Then the water is released and as it raises on the stake in the stream above the height on the crest of the weir will be equal to the number of inches raised above the mark. There are a number of devices on the market for doing this very accurately. One is the hook gauge. If the weir is improperly constructed or maintained there will, of course, IRRIGATION. 173 .' ■ • ■ " >-::T •---?— ■ ,' \ ■ Homemade J-Og. Ditcher.* 1 *? -'Th'e'V'slope "of ilio'- front i« - Ihue givinc, 'a smooth " ditch. The "plank w inBS cm leaving it 'hard, smooth' nnchijrni. ( .'>::■-■ tin M :'■< 174 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING -a — -" -i r Mefol-Faccd Weir Board Measuring H F i qare 3 Right way Wrong wajj Fioure 4 IRRIGATION 175 be errors in measurement of water. The device is so simple it will not be necessary to discuss those errors. As soon as it is found to be out of condi- tion it should be immediately corrected. There should be no mistakes in the measurements of the water. Figure 4 shows improper construction, the stake having been left out. Determination of Flow. — To compute the flow of water in cubic feet per second over a Cippoletti weir: Let Q equal the cubic feet per second, L the length of crest of the. weir and H the head of water, measured in feet on the crest as described in the previous paragraph. Then Q equals 3.336 L H 3 ; 2. The table is here com- puted from the formula and will be found more convenient for the average irrigator. This table handles up to ten cubic feet per second. Over ten cubic feet is more than one irrigator can handle. This will irrigate one acre to a depth of one inch in six minutes. TABLE No. 2 DISCHARGE OF CIPPOLETTI WEIRS 12 to 60 INCHES LONG IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND- COMPUTED FROM FORMULA Q^=3 3C7LHVj Head, H Length of weir [,, lnel^ cs In. Ft. J2 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 22 24 36 48 00 Vi 042 03 .03 .04 04 04 04 04 04 04 06 06 % 052 04 04 .05 05 05 06 06 06 07 07 .08 H .15 19 % 062 05 05 06 06 07 07 .08 08 .08 .09 .10 .15 20 .25 Va 073 07 .08 .08 09 09 10 .10 11 .12 .13 .13 .19 25 .31 1 083 .08 09 09 .10 11 .11 12 13 13 .15 .10 .23 30 .38 1H 094 .10 11 12 12 .13 14 .15 .16 .17 .18 .19 .27 36 .46 IK 104 .11 12 13 14 .15 16 17 .17 18 .20 23 .32 43 .53 \% 115 .13 14 15 16 .17 .18 20 .21 22 .24 20 .37 49 .61 VA 125 15 16 18 .19 20 21 22 .24 .25 • .28 30 .42 56 .70 \% 135 17 18 .20 .21 .23 .24 25 .27 28 31 „33 .47 63 .79 V4 .146 19 21 .22 24 25 .27 28 .30 32 35 .38 .53 70 .88 iy* 156 21 23 24 .26 .28 .30 .31 .33 35 .38 .42 .59 78 .98 2 167 23 .25 .27 29 .31 .33 34 .36 38 .42 .46 .71 94 1 18 2J4 188 27 .29 .32 .34 .36 .38 41 .43 45 .50 .55 .84 1 12 1 39 2H 208 .32 35 .37 .40 .43 .45 .48 .51 53 59 64 .97 1 30 1 62 2% 229 .37 .40 .43 .46 .49 .52 .55 .59 02 68 .74 1.11 1 48 1 86 3 250 .42 .46 .49 .52 .56 .60 .63 .66 70 77 .84 1.26 1 68 2 10 3K 271 .47 .51 .55 .59 .63 .67 .71 .74 78 86 .95 1.42 1 89 2 36 3H 292 .53 .57 .62 .66 .71 .75 .80 .84 88 97 1 06 1 58 2 10 2 03 3% 312 .59 J 64 .69 .74 79 .84 .88 .93 98 1 08 1 17 1 74 2 32 2 90 4 .333 .65 .70 .76 .81 .87 .92 97 1 03 1 OS 1 19 1 29 1 92 2 55 3 19 4l< 354 .71 .77 .83 .89 .95 1.01 1 06 1 12 1 18 1 30 1 42 2 09 2 79 3 49 4V 2 375 .77 84 .90 96 1 03 1 09 1 16 1 22 1 28 1 41 1 55 2 27 3 03 3 79 4H 396 .84 .91 98 1 05 1 12 1 19 1 26 1 33 1 40 1 54 1 68 2 56 3 41 4 26 5 417 .91 99 1 06 1 14 1 21 1 29 1 36 1 44 1 52 1 67 1 81 2 75 3 66 4 58 5% 438 .98 1 06 1 14 1 22 1 30 1 38 1 46 1 55 1 63 1 80 1 95 2 95 3 93 4 91 5V 2 458 1 04 1 13 1 21 1 30 1 39 1 47 1 56 1 65 1 73 1 91 2 09 3 15 4 20 5 25 5M 479 1 12 1 21 1 31 1 40 1 49 1 58 1 67 1 77 1 87 2 05 2 23 3 36 4 48 5 60 6 500 1 19 1 29 1 39 1 49 1 59 1 68 1 78 1 88 1 98 2 18 2 38 3 57 4 76 5 95 6J4 521 1.37 1 48 1 58 1 69 1 79 1 90 2.01 2 11 2 32 2 53 3 79 5 05 6 31 6H 542 1.46 1 57 1 68 1 80 1 91 2 02 2 13 2 24 2 47 2 69 4 01 5 34 6 68 6% 562 1 66 1 78 1 89 2 01 2 13 2 25 2 37 2.60 2 84 4 23 5 64 7 05 7 583 _ _, 1 75 1 88 2 00 2.12 2 25 2 38 2 50 2 75 3.00 4 46 5 95 7 44 7K 004 1 98 2 11 2 24 2 37 2 50 2 63 2.90 3 16 4 69 6.26 7 82 7 l A 625 646 2 08 2 22 2 33 2 36 2 48 2 50 2 62 2 64 2 77 2 78 2 91 3 06 3 20 3 33 3 50 4 93 5 29 6.57 7 06 8 22 7% 8 82 8 667 2 44 2 60 2.75 2 90 3 06 3.36 3 67 5 54 7 38 9 23 8'/ 688 708 729 750 2 72 2 84 2 88 3 01 3 14 3 28 3 04 3 18 3 31 3 46 3 20 3 34 3 49 3 64 3.52 3 68 3 84 4 01 3 84 4 01 4 19 4 37 5 79 6 04 6 30 6 56 7 72 8 06 8 40 8.75 9 65 8H 8% 9 10 07 10.50 10 93 9M 771 3.61 3 SO 4.18 4.56 6.82 9 10 11.37 FARMING AS A BUSINESS The methods of modern business have made such wonderful changes in the living conditions of today that it is impossible for the farmer to isolate himself on his little kingdom, the farm. Formerly he was accustomed to raise what food he needed and manufacture what few tools were necessary. He disposed of his excess products to the city man for cash, thus remaining independent of the rest of the world. Much of this is changed. The introduction of factory made tools and machinery, factory made clothes and factory prepared food has brought him in close touch with the manufacturer. The competition for land has also increased so that the farmer must make the best use of what he has in order to keep up with his neighbor. He is in the same position as a manufacturer, and must use manufacturing methods. Heretofore the farmer has considered money only as his capital. Some have considered their land as capital, which is true. We quote T. N. Carver, of the United States Department of Agriculture, who says : "There is no mystery about credit or capital. Capital consists of tools and equipment, though sometimes we speak of it as though it were the money necessary to buy the tools and equipment. Capital and land are the factors which call for investment by the farmer. Thus the large use of capital in farming has come be- cause of the invention of agricultural machinery. When farming was done with a few very simple tools, most of which were made either by the farmer himself or by the local blacksmith, capital did not play a large part in agriculture. Another way of saying the same thing is that it did not then take so much money to buy all the equipment the farmer needed or knew how to use. The purchase of land was the only thing requiring much money, and land, in this country, was either free or very cheap. Therefore, there was very little money required to start in agriculture. At the present time, not only is the price of land rising, but the equipment of a farm requires more capital because of the increased use of improved machinery. This is likely to increase more and more as the years go by." "Capital is brought into existence in only one way — that is, by consuming less than is produced. If one has a dollar, one can spend it either for an article of consumption, say confectionery, or for an article of production, say a spade. He who buys a spade becomes a capitalist to the amount of a dollar — that is. he becomes 176 FARMING AS A BUSINESS 177 an owner of tools. The process is precisely the same, whether the amount in ques- tion is a dollar or a million dollars. If he does not have the dollar, his only chance of getting the spade is either to borrow it or borrow the money with which to buy it. That is, he must use credit. Again, the process is precisely the same, whether the amount be a dollar or a million dollars." The problem of the farmer today is to meet these new conditions in a businesslike way, which will put him on an equal footing with the manufacturer who uses business methods, instead of considering his farm as a gift of nature, he should give it a value of so much capital and make it pay interest as well as profit. There are many farmers today who are living on the interest of their investment rather than on the profits of their farm. The new farmer will receive interest on his capital as well as wages for his labor and profit from the enterprise. The successful farmer today therefore must take up some method of business administration. Scientific management and business efficiency is the rule in facto- ries, railroad shops and large business houses everywhere. Farming is the largest business in the world, and there is no reason to believe other than that it would yield to the same method of treatment. Now that farming is to be considered as a business and deserves systematic order of administration, the discussion will proceed to the development of these methods. Business Methods. The first essential to business methods is a record of all transactions, values, and labor which occur throughout the year. It is not necessary for the farmer to have an elaborate system of bookkeeping. The kind of a record to be kept will be illustrated with such simplicity that any farmer will be able to handle it. The main thought is to keep track of the gains and losses of the business, so that each loss may be met at the proper time, and where possible, made into a gain. The beginner is cautioned not to begin too elaborate a system the first year. The out- line given will assist in getting started and give the basis for a more elaborate system as the user becomes accustomed to making up records. One year of its use will be sufficient to prove its value. The farm record may be divided into eight divisions. The first four are called the primary list and the second four the secondary list. The divisions are as follows : Inventory, cash account, pro- duction record, farm map, labor record, feeding record, household record, and seeding record. In making up a record of this kind it will be necessary to define more clearly certain terms. Definitions will be taken up in the order of the foregoing list. 178 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Inventory. — An inventory is a tabulated list of the value of the farm, buildings, equipment and stock at a given time. Inventory should be made once a year. By means of comparison it can be determined whether the farm has been of profit or not. Such a list of property shows the total and itemized investment, the bills owed to and by the proprietor, and the net worth of the business. The net worth is the total value of all the property owned by the proprietor, plus the amount owed to the business, less the amount owed by the proprietor. The latter are known as bills payable, or what I owe others. A Sample Farm Inventory. In making out the inventory some of the items cannot be easily estimated as to value. Land should be given a reasonable value compared with that of the sur- roundings. Recognition should be taken of improvements such as tiling, ditching or clearing, etc. The value of buildings should be estimated at their original cost, giving a depreciation of three to five percent per year of their life. Machinery and tools are estimated in the same way. For large machinery that is used from year to year the depreciation is usually .from seven to ten percent. There are certain classes of tools, however, which only last one or two years, and should be de- preciated accordingly. Tools or buildings which have been repaired can often be brought back to their full value as new. This should be considered. Live stock and food supplies should be listed at their market value at the time. Live stock should be listed at so much per head, and feed as mentioned in the con- tainers, allowing for the cost of marketing. The cost of marketing will usually be three to four cents per bushel of grain, and $2.50 to $3.00 a ton for roughage. To find the number of bushels of ear corn in the crib, divide the number of cubic feet by 2 l / 2 , and for small grain divide by V/\. To find the number cf tons of hay, divide the cubical contents by 343 to 512, depending on the compactness of the hay. Bills Receivable or Bills That Others Owe Me. — It is very important that these bills be listed and constantly kept in mind. It is advisable to have some kind of notation to indicate those that are collectible and those that are not. Bills Payable or What I Owe Others. — Like the preceding item this is also an important matter to keep in mind. Not only should the amount be known, but the date on which it is expected to be paid. In this list will be found mort- gages, store bills, feed bills, interest, etc. It is essential to the credit of the owner that these be kept track of and attended to at the proper time. Cash on Hand or Bank Account. — Cash on hand and in the bank is a part of the investment, and should be listed in the inventory as such. FARMING AS A BUSINESS 179 z£o^m rf <^>cts^rn cfe»^. /, /9/G czfci^i. /./r/y ($-Zst,6>-fa£^£2S £&. (7&Zs& CZ^rvX ■Uvt 22* fCktXl (font rttJL CfceaX' £o£c6<,-riai 600.00 000.00 (7 1600000 /6066.6C o&ta^isU fVfXjZ&L f?«fr;*4 \HL SO- 00 70O.OC /-^- tzt^K^-^esTTtmi, 2 / 7 S.OO 33040 2 /7S00 3S0OO <¥/1^CZ^ls6^ -7-7^^ 2 1 2.O.00 24001 2 /30-co 26000 ^SSSL / / 70-00 /70.0O / / 70-00 / 70-00 1120-00 //4/O00 ^/-erzz^s %&^£ 80 ■ SO 4*000 73 .so 37S0 t/c'trirxis£e>Vfvt&L, z #.sc 9-oo 2 VSO ^.00 /t£/a/jk*&ta ■eul&va/ri' / /.eo / oo 7 /00 / 00 ^01^7, Jj^&l&^S / 5-00 s.oo / A/S0 //SO /l^a/^tyyiG ~A£o-t*STi-. z I0.SO 2/ OO 2 <7.00 /A 00 JC^^^L'tH^duA / VS. 00 //S.OO / 4/0 00 77/P.00 /Ojrirt£ jfiz&&rLe /uwun<) / 8.oo 8.00 / 8.00 g-00 ^/&4£"-&^z^y?t£&z^>i*i*r / 72.00 /2O0 jL- /0 00 /ooo /9^/^v^^vc^/e.^unx^A, / 3S-00 3S0O / 3000 30 00 .J+Ost/ j£ZZs7^£&t^ / 2 S.OO 2S.0O o5^^>l^S^- Lt/tZ&jr?*^' 2 2700 S+.00 2 27*0 3~V00 ^ga^&M,™^40OO / //0 00 7/0.00 ?77a^t^t£ Ji^Ae^/e^ / //C.OO //coo / 7000 <70.0O ^^eitsrZ -^%/^za^eA^ / 70-0O moo / //zoo M2.00 rf3tr&- -<££a£^zJ?^ z 73.00 2600 2 72 00 2 7/. 00 3c^7^2^^^z^Z. / /cf.OO /s.oo / /6-0O 7600 ■^O-^O^L -t^^^st^i- / 7/.oO ¥00 / 7/00 7/. 0O d j^y^^gJi^z^a^L- / 36.00 36oo / 3O-0O 3000 ^/lyiT^JcT^t^T^e^d^ /<*£ 4-O.CO */coo /rf 3S-O0 3f.oo ^Wo-^JC i£*Zsfsri&t£ KU Jl J%a& tZmf //*!. « ■ FARMING AS A BUSINESS 181 cd^^s., A '7/6 c^-sc<^v-&t'<^e^, / 2E.00 £&-00 <&4^JJpjic£ rtsr^J^/UAt. ^/,Ajuz&. --£n. " //3 / £>£ S/^-.2& &£Z£c ^-Z^r^^£aus^.-2£5« /£*ao //Zaa. £?^£rZr&l-^/g£a£ . £&£. 3o ,'j- MSo JfcsrrzsftA*/ ^££a£s. &* 3/f .A*/ /.?-6 &str01*^u/^££^. £&f 2/24 /?£/ /cc A3S t/3s&as>^^, j^&t*^—- ?■*/ 22.ee J2&6 ?6 r/f£ 26.00 6>sc 62i£^n&*£ . 0*. 986 .c/v -^ &*irGL 30 97 3a f 7 <^2HJ6 4/2-eo // /££t/£z. /7Ce&?. - > {TJ.t/irtJsrvd. . &rt- PvcUf, \t*7i4. 3- 72-00 J2S/.60 frS^Jjtf.'' 4*£J&*. £ 30 >n, rj^zsts^cc. /S~0.06 / fa.oe c&i -frez^tsle. . (£SYX0fl 9 za e# astM*. (7^~J&- */Lc4*£<>h£t&<~ /^^^^t^^AZ. 'C'tU^J^ J^&iZl^c&^str&ty^rt&vviC J3^£lZSrtc7}~ /,/ ff-2- 3-S-2Q 3- to 7-$~c 7- So &3e£-<^* ^Z^^g^ ■-^■'x^^ j£z£l/ ~@^Z& ^SiSSS &£Zel . 3tSa /SAO /7J:go /4/62-40 •45f.ft ■ 36 SO /2-S-0 /73~tio /SM.IO -V/X.Ql /^■c/a •2J~C<>0 /^~0.ao ym&k ## ■& /ISO yzj'oc i& sm. 3S9S.HA 4/2?- f 2J UL£[ > //7S.£c 0Z2JJ T '■*. s-^£Zse^tsz, tut* ~S63-7/ ^-Z2aoo V.3C-CQ 73S-4S 184 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING JuVVVLf t%Jfy <&,4*\ * zM^ CvcZa. 6{4&7 ,424**l6LIa //Vp ' - 1 ' 4i%f7l tfsL*£ui 1 4-0 32. 3 D-0 2. to 2.S.2.0 j 3 6o 3-9o 70 -CO //.*/o \. - 26*9 3-96 / 6.3~C 27 vo S^J^j, A^S- Z^ *~ J\6?9 7/Xac 3£/s. 96iAT ¥#2A /479J£ /J-J7./X 3.7J- f9f-M /* fo S3.// J-Z'-GO JT39-20 2.31 So /0?7Z 96 vs ■m /7 &¥.69 747976 ZOT./2- /7$>& &>f.g# /9tK /3~.<)0 Z-oo\ Vt&JTO //772\ rt-XS /7X-/7 ss¥69 7*974 J2/I7./2. //*, 7S f*f» 79&Z& /*} -/A #7/lA ZP.i* 3L/2.S6 32 a 5 /^3JS ?^ tc 2.36/2. < V *M28 &26j6o * 9 9.1 3 *W/f9 *J/7J3 + 4&Z7 3 43J3 P3W2. ?/?%%£> I FARMING AS A BUSINESS 185 /?/7 Me e^3^Vt-<3 ■/&14&V11 a£cf&-1s Jt/tnacc- £i£_ /Ae. J36 60 ^ &-*-l^4- -Cr&ezsT^ gg/^g — M*/ 'CO jZ^ a-t£- Z*U $&~/7^lZ^^/e v_^£^^s£- - 9-£*s**~ £zJz>^ 2.ZSO Sec 2/J- ?Zeo ZZ-VQ &Csm^t~As yj^-t^evC, — 8^£ £z^zn^ £~Z-cc ,gg. 00 *2* ^^n 4<££L ^■oo 1>L<2~4sV-z~£-^-^- *jf~<0 00 ■^rcoo ^//^r /<*~.0O / ^~.oo -~3&^ v^^z/ &c 7£ £/m3^ z^Lc^^t &t &r&z/ C^z^Jl t5^Ae^^^zi^c^. /6x2 36 Z23V' /7<6~32- 2^7X3 V^'.'f s/tzZ*^£ /? -^^atz&^cjS. £-4?£ / t^Z^ s? r ¥* ■tr£. # /9/6 ?f2' ^5S y/ yW ?&*£ J5r ~-&t^i^c ^^ci^-c-^s— ?&fe 2&6c y^rJ^t^e tf?^u»^£a^£ ^L£&^ Z7S/6 <2jT<6Q \b/ ZZ St /Soo •3~,Cfi e^ue^cxL 7 /t^- , ^ 'JU • s&ti^ . £?^4- -C -^itza/. ¥£> /*/* 3 J -2-2- /2S.4t> J2-S36 J-X-36 /SS-U 3SXO 97S-7Z 23SC2. //<£j Z2.&C /7S7J *S.3° //2-70 2/ 2- 36 yj-e/ g FARMING AS A BUSINESS 187 Cash Account or Classified Cash Record. — A daily classified cash record should be kept in such convenient form that the incoming and outgoing cash can be compared easily. It is convenient to keep these in a book having on one side the incoming cash and on the other side the outgoing, balancing up at the bottom of each page and carrying forward the totals so that at the end of any day the cash standing will be known. By comparing the cash standing at any time with the result of the last inventory a gain or loss can be easily detected. A sample classified record book is shown. Record of Production. — A production record is a new thing to many farmers, but a suggestion as to its value is all that is necessary to bring about its adoption. For instance, the writer is acquainted with a farmer who put trap doors on the nests in his poultry house and thus he was able to catch the hens that were laying. These he marked with suitable coloring matter, and when the laying season was well advanced he picked up all of the hens that were not marked and sold them. Thus he was relieved of feeding non-producing fowls. This is work preliminary to keeping a production record. Following this a number of select hens were separated from the rest and an accurate record was kept of how many eggs each one laid. Eggs from those with good records were kept separate and used to produce the new flock. The excess of these eggs was advertised on the market as being those of especially good layers, and sold for a much higher price than the ordinary eggs. In a similar way the record of a sow, cow or horse may be kept and only those animals which are good producers retained. Not only should the product of the animal be kept but the amount of feed sup- plied to it as well. It is a well known fact that some animals have a more efficient producing machine than others, and the one that produces the most market- able goods for the least cost of feed is the one to be retained. Farm Map. — A captain of industry never enters upon a task without a plan or a map produced by the best engineering skill obtainable. As the farm has come to be a factory or a big industrial institution, it is necessary that the organiza- tion be carried on, to the minutest detail. The keeping of cash accounts, inventories, and production records will tell the operator where the money is being made and where lost. These records are of priceless value and will serve to cut off many leaks which otherwise would not be found. But a farm which is well planned in the ordinary sense, when put on paper might look quite different. In another section a number of plans are given to illustrate this point and to bring the advantages of farm planning directly home to the farmer. It is essential in the keeping of records, inventories, etc., to have a farm map which has been properly made with each part of the farm named or numbered in 188 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING order to make the record systematic and easily understood. Therefore one of the first steps in modern business organization for a farm will be the production of a map giving the topography, drainage, houses, timber, etc. The Secondary Record. — Although the above records or the primary records are the most important and should by all means be well kept, the following or secondary record should receive some attention also. It is very hard to separate primary and secondary records and say which is the most important, because one depends so much upon the other. If the individual is limited in keeping records, he should take the primary first and later on add the secondary. Labor Record. — There is probably nothing more important on the farm at times, than the labor record. It makes a part in all the other records mentioned. The cost of labor constitutes from 30 percent to 50 percent of the cost of pro- ducing, since the labor on the small farm is so much varied, that is, so many different things are done in one day, it becomes a tedious process for a farmer to take care of it. He will often spend more time trying to keep the records than he will get- ting the work done. However, with a little grouping of the various duties the labor report can be made very careful, and the amount paid to labor divided among the various activities on the farm. A sarnnle of a monthly work report is shown : MONTHLY WORK REPORT Month of June. Date Corn Wheat Oats Hogs Cattle Misc. Total Man Horse Man Horse Man Horse Man Horse Man Horse Man Horse Man Horse 1 5 10 20 40 tit 4^ 5 36 50 2 10 20 10 20 2 3 2 2 27 42 3 9 18 9V 2 19 | IV2 4 4 1 24 42 4 5 10 3 6 8 16 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 29 30 31 1 Total . . . 1 Of course to be very accurate in the above table, it will be best to take down the hours of men and horses at each task, which is not often necessary. This would only be used where a special study was to be made for a short time. If each FARMING AS A BUSINESS 189 day's labor of man and horse is apportioned to the proper enterprises as corn, hay, cattle, etc., without the description of the operation performed, it becomes more simple. REGULAR WORKER'S DAILY TIME SHEET John Jones Day of Week. Tuesday. Date, May 15. ■ Kind of Work Man Horse Include Implements Used, No. of loads, etc. Field Hours No. Hours 4.30 5.00 5.30 6.00 Feeding and. caring for horses. 1 6.30 Breakfast. 7.00 7.30 8.00 Plowing Potatoes. IK 2 m 8.30 9.00 9.30 10.00 10.30 11.00 11.30 12.00 Planting corn. S 4 2 4 12.30 1.00 Dinner 1.30 2.00 2.30 3.00 3.30 4.00 Finished Planting Corn — South Field. S 3 2 3 4.30 5.00 Hauled two loads of Manure. 1 2 1 5.30 6.00 Care of Horses. 1 6.30 Supper. 7.00 7.30 8.00 Workman Total Hours. . . Remarks Report O. K. In the figure shown, it is only necessary to keep the total number of hours done by all labor. Should any particular laborer, horse, or team deserve a careful study, 190 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING a report blank can be made especially for that, giving the number of hours in day- opposite the days of the month. This of course would be much larger but would need to be used only for short periods. After the owner had become convinced of the efficiency of his man and horse power, .it works easily in the larger unit. The previous page shows the detail record kept by the laborer himself. These might be kept for a week at a time at various periods during the year in order to get a line upon how the man is using his time. This will not only be a benefit to the owner, but will be an education to the laborer himself. The latter record is used by many large farms and is a part of scientific management. Feeding Records. — Efficiency in feeding is as valuable, if not more valuable, in eliminating losses, than efficiency in handling labor or other productions on the farm. It is a matter of record that the farmer is making more per hour in the field than in the barn with his live stock. This would hardly seem true since the live stock are becoming more valuable in his absence and without his special effort, just the same as the crops in the field. If then it costs more to feed the live stock than to take care of plant life, feeding is a proper subject to study carefully. The animal machine is the most perfect machine the Creator has given us and if properly used will develop and reproduce unerringly. It is not only necessary to know what kind of food each kind of stock requires but how much and when. Food is given for two different purposes, one to produce work and the other to produce fat. In the book on feeding will be given the various classes of foods and the proper amounts to administer. An overfed or underfed animal is a loss not only because it does not grow properly but because of its liability to disease. Therefore it is important for the farmer to divide his stock up into various classes, those producing work and those producing food, and feed each kind of stock according to its wants and needs. This is possible only when a record is kept, and the condition, size and weight of the animal is closely watched and compared with the feeding record. Productive elements on the farm should show profit. The question will often arise what to do with the field crops, whether to sell them or feed them. The decision will depend upon the conditions of the market, capital available to buy stock, and the facilities for handling stock. All these items should be considered carefully before a decision is made. Household Records. — Many farmers try to separate the household management from that of the farm. This is practically impossible to do. The home is just as much a part of the producing machine as the barn or the fields. It must board and shelter the help. In many cases the housewife is able to assist in many of the duties about the farm and thus the home becomes a vital element in the producing machine. It is customary for the farmer to consider the housewife as a personal necessity for which no wages are usually assigned. For the same rea- son he forgets to give himself wages. This is not good business. In order that an accurate account be kept of the profit made on employment of labor, it must be known exactly what it costs. Unless the housewife's time is given some value, it will not be possible to learn what the labor really costs. Food, fuel and interest values on the equipment are easily determined. These should be accurately kept. FARMING AS A BUSINESS 191 Farm of John Jones. FARM PRODUCE Month, June. Year, 1917. Date Eggs Laid Poultry Used Lbs. Milk Used Qts. Butter Made Lbs. Eggs Used 1 47 69 9 HM 9 2 62 34 17 17 3 39 16 32 25M 8 4 * * * * * * * * * * * * 29 t 30 31 Totals. . . The form given above makes it possible to enter a record every day of the month. This is always the best. If the individual depends upon placing a monthly record, so many little details will be forgotten. It is only when these are done daily that anything like accuracy is obtained. For short periods of time it may be interesting for the housewife to watch the feeding record of each laborer. How- ever, this could be done as a detailed study only at a time when other duties are not pressing. Seeding Record. — In figuring the balance for the year, it should not be forgotten to make allowance for seeding for the next year, or what would be better, subtract from the gross amount produced, the amount of seed actually used during the current year. When this is done, the net profit from the crop can be obtained. Summary of the Year's Record. — The value of the year's record will be immediately seen by the practical farmer, and when he compares the results of his various activities he will plan to do better the next year. However, he will not realize the full value of his records until he has kept them for two or three years. It is only by comparison from year to year under different conditions that the final plan of the proper procedure can be decided upon. Even the pur- chase of a new machine or a particular crop will change conditions so much from one year to the next that the previous year's record may be of little value. The farmer is warned against making yearly records or yearly balances from memory. These can only be accurately made from well kept records that are diligently kept up. The Definition of Income and Profit. — Incomes and profits are very often misunderstood and many times used interchangeably. In fact experts sometimes make these mistakes. The relations of the two terms will be illustrated by an example as follows : Assume $30,000 invested in a farm and equipment, and that the current 192 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING rate of interest on farm loans is 5 per cent. Without any effort or labor on the owner's part this investment would yield $1,500 a year interest income, not profit. Presume the unpaid family labor was $400 and allow the owner for his time and executive ability $600, which adds another $1,000 and represents wage income and not profit. Therefore, the net income will have to exceed $2,500 in order to have any real profit. How to Figure Farm Profit. 1. Take two inventories, one at the beginning and the other at the end of the year. 2. Keep a cash account in order to show all expenses both personal and household, interest paid on indebtedness and cash on hand at the end of the year. 3. Determine the value of the farm produce used in the household. The fol- lowing table will illustrate the method of calculating such profit : Item Farm inventory: Real estate Live stock Machinery and tools Feed and supplies Bills receivable . . . . Cash on hand and in bank . Total farm investment . Bills payable Net worth each year. Increase in net worth . Increase in net worth Cash account Personal expenses Household expenses Interest on mortgage of $2,000 Total money paid out for other farm expenses during year. Supplies and rent: Supplies furnish Rent of farmhouse (its value to owner) Total supplies and house rent Total farm grain . Interest and labor: Interest on average of total farm investment of $19,953 at 5 per cent Unpaid family labor (estimated) Owner's labor (estimated) Total interest on investment, etc . Actual farm profit . . April 1, 1916 $14,500.00 2,729.00 475.00 658.00 46.00 670.00 $19,078.00 2,000.00 $17,078.00 148.00 420.00 100.00 100.00 120.00 180.00 997.65 300.00 480.00 April 1, 1917 $14,500.00 2,883.00 461.00 836.00 2,148.00 $20,828.00 1,400.00 $19,428.00 $ 2,350.00 2,350.00 768.00 300.00 3,418.00 1,777.65 $ 1,640.35 The above table may bring out several items that the average farmer has never considered. FARMING AS A BUSINESS 193 A Study of Each Enterprise. — Now that the total farm profits and the labor income have been determined, it is necessary to find out which activity pays best and what plan to follow for the ensuing year. Not much help can be taken from the inventory alone, but by going back and classifying the various items in the total number of records kept, certain enterprises may be studied in detail. A study of both kinds of enterprises should be made, i. e., of stock and crops. For con- venience tables are shown illustrating the proper form of each. CROP COST TABLE Crop Field Acres Man Labor Cost Horse Labor Cost Seed Cost Twine Cost Thresh Cost Total Direct Cost Assumed Land Rent per Acre Corn .... Oats .... Wheat . . A B C 40 30 30 $200.00 55.00 55.00 $170.00 75.00 75.00 $30.00 50.00 42.00 $6.00 6.00 $30.00 13.00 $400.00 216.00 191.20 $4.00 4.00 4.00 Crop Direct Cost per Acre Total Cost per Acre Total Yield Bushels Yield per Acre Value Grain per Acre Profit per Acre Loss per Acre Profit per Bushels Loss per Bushels Corn .... Oats .... Wheat . . $10.00 7.33 6.37 $14.00 11.33 9.87 2400 1200 330 60 40 11 $30.00 12.00 8.80 $16.00 .16 $1.07 $0.27 .16 80.97 DIAGRAM FOR ABOVE COST TABLE Cost Figure Field and Acreage . . . Labor Cost Seed Cost Twine Cost Threshing Cost Land Rent or Interest Yield Taken from Farm map or sketch. Labor record. "Seed Used" record or cash account. Cash account and twine inventories. Cash account — (Charge at the cost per bu. in figuring for each crop.) Cash rent or estimated rental value. Crop acreage and yield record. To be more accurate it would be well to include machinery, manure, taxes, buildings, charge, overhead expenses, etc., and also some credit should be given to the straw or anything of value left in the field. A live stock record would be kept as follows: 194 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING CATTLE STATEMENT Average Number of Head, 32 Cows. Year 1916 Average Number of Other Cattle, 19 Head. Decrease or Costs Increase or Receipts Opening inventory, 48 head $3,840.00 4,320.00 $1,236.16 964.52 112.15 Closing inventory, 54 head $ 480 00 Feed— Ground Feed, 54,500 lbs. at $1.01 cwt Silage, 86.8 ton at $3.00 550.06 265.79 245.06 11.25 164.00 Hay, 32.5 tons at $7.54 Corn Fodder, 2.5 tons at $4.50 Pasture Labor — 5,088 hours man labor at 17 K cents 593 hours horse labor at 123^ cents 890.40 74.12 Cash Expense — Stock 100.00 12.15 Medicine Cash Receipts — Cream 1,844.62 870.00 220.00 150.00 Stock Fed to stock Used in household. 3,084.62 Profit $2,312.83 1,251.79 $3,564.62 $3,564.62 $3,564.62 All costs and receipts are not included. Some few are left out for the sake of simplicity. However, this will give a general idea to be worked out and will assist the owner in making every item on the farm pay. It is very important to know whether to feed the crop or to sell it, and this can be determined only by keeping such records as have been described. The owner who once tries this system will never quit it. It will be interesting for the farmer to go into more detail along several lines suggested in this chapter, for instance to study the cost of maintaining a farm hand or a farm horse, or the cost problem in a certain field. Most farmers will find this kind of work hard at the start. After being in the field all day long and becoming physically tired, book work is not easily done. However, it is worth a great sacrifice and should be attended to immediately after the supper hour, while the day's work is still fresh in mind. Some like the morning hours better. If a time can be taken so as not to interfere with the management of the help, it is a more desirable time. The mind and body are in better con- dition to do accurate work. It is worth all the time it takes and it is hoped that the suggestions made in these pages will go a long way toward putting the farm on the same industrial basis of efficiency, and scientific management, as our big factories are today. CO-OPERATIVE ASSOCIATIONS The individuality of the American farmer is seldom shown so well as in his inability to co-operate with his neighbor. It has been said that rich people are smart, that is why they are rich. They are "smart" enough to understand the old principle, "United we stand, divided we fall." Consequently they will group themselves together and take advantage of co-operative bargaining and planning. For example, a group of wealthy people will buy a tract of land and build hand- some homes and live in considerable pomp for a few years, at the same time they will attract the "would-be rich" and sell the nearby properties to them for a hand- some profit. As soon as they have completed their sale they will quietly move on to new ground and repeat the process. This is not exactly a parallel case with the farmer, however, it is similar. Class the captains of industry, who by their "trust" methods are able to control the markets of the world, as the rich people spoken of above, then class the would-be rich and the poor people in the position of the farmer and you have somewhat of a parallel case. However, the farmers of today are gradually growing out of the old idea of extreme independence and individualism. The telephone, automobile and free delivery of the mail, have brought them closer together. They realize that their neighbors are human beings like themselves and that co-operative selling, buying and protection, will be a benefit to all. Thus the farmers are getting together in a more democratic spirit. In a number of the states successful co-operative organizations have been created. In the state of Minnesota, for example, they have their Co-operative Creameries, Co-operative Elevators, Co-operative Live Stock Shipping Associations and Co-operative Insurance Companies. The Co-operative Scheme. — The writer after reading the results of the organization and operation of these companies, suggests the following rules for guidance of those who wish to take up this work. 1st. Call a meeting of all those who you think would be interested and would make good members. Notify them by postal card, telephone, or in person. The latter method is the best. 2nd. At the preliminary meeting state the purpose of the organization as being strictly co-operative for the benefit of all. 3rd. Effect a temporary organization and appoint a constitution and by-laws committee. 4th. Give the report of the constitution committee. Elect new officers. 5th. Adopt the constitution, engage a competent manager. Do not be afraid to pay the price necessary to get a good manager. A five-dollar-a-day man is cheaper than a three-dollar-a-day man for a job like this. 6th. Adopt the one-man-one-vote policy. 7th. Offer inducements to the non-member to become a patron. These inducements may be in the form of premiums or part dividends or both, but not to be as large as those the members receive. Let premiums to patronizing non- members pay on membership if you think it advisable. 195 196 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 8th. Loyalty to the organization is absolutely necessary, as the bitterest kind of competition is sure to come up. Those merchants and captains of industry, whom this organization will affect, are trained business men. They will lower their prices for the goods they are selling and raise the price of those they are buying temporarily, in order to cause dissatisfaction among the ranks of the co-operators. In this they will succeed, unless loyalty to the organization is beyond reproach. Do not be carried away by temporary inducements from an outside party, tho they may seem to be better than the association is offering. These are only traps to catch the unwary. Remember that the association can do business cheaper on a co-operative basis when each one helps to take care of a share of the general business, than can the merchant living in the city and paying rent on expensive property. 9th. Do not fear losing. Make it win by working hard. If at first it does not succeed, investigate the organization and see if something is going wrong. 10th. After having successfully worked out an organization along one line, gradually bring in others. Not only co-operative selling can be done, but co-opera- tive buying can be handled as well. Kinds of Co-operative Organizations. Creamery. — Dairy products call for creameries. These will oay when supplied by a large number of people and managed by an efficient organization. Elevators. — Farmer's Elevators and storage houses are indeed a great success. In 1914 one farmer out of every five in Minnesota owned stock in a co-operative elevator company. Their annual business aggregated $24,000,000.00. These organizations operate on the one-man-one-vote basis, which is the only way to get real co-operation in an organization. . "~ Co-operative Stores. — Co-operative stores in Minnesota in 1913 did more than $4,000,000.00 worth of business. Most of these stores were very successful. A few failed. The cost of doing business was 10.9%, which is lower than ordinarily privately owned stores. The one-man-one- vote principle prevailed in the majority of associations. Co-operative Live Stock Shipping Associations. — These associations in Minnesota do over $6,000,000.00 worth of business or more than one-eighth of the total live stock marketed by the Minnesota farmers. The association hires its manager, who takes the place of a local live stock commission man. He collects the small groups of marketable stock and sends them out in carload lots. The farmer is often benefited 5 to 10 percent by this method. A competent, reliable business manager is necessary. Insurance Companies. — Minnesota claims 154 township mutual insurance companies. The amount of insurance in force is nearly half a billion dollars. The cost is about 18 cents per $100.00, compared with 46 cents charged by stock companies. All of these policies are three-year contracts. This makes a saving in the one state of $20,000,000.00. Conclusion. — The above brief notes will give sufficient proof of the great benefits of co-operative associations. Every farmer should ally himself with one or more of these associations and become an active member in it. FARM PLANNING AND FARM ARCHITECTURE. Introduction. — The farm is a factory and the farmer is a manufacturer. The raw products are the land, stock and buildings. From the land he produces stock food, and then converts it into butter and eggs, beef or bacon, as the case may be The buildings are units in a great industrial plant. Considerable care should be exercised in placing and designing them to most conveniently take care of the needs. Light, ventilation, sanitation, attractiveness, and convenience are all to be considered in working out an efficient design for the plant. The Site. — The choosing of a farm site is a decision upon a permanent improvement, and should be made only after a very careful study. An efficient design will serve the farm for many years in the future, and it is necessary for one to have foresight into future conditions, in order that a most efficient site may be selected. First, a farm house should be set out in the open where it can get plenty of light and ventilation. A few shade trees are convenient and attractive. They should be placed where they will be most useful but not so close as to shade many of the buildings, nor should there be so many as to shut off proper ventilation. A southern slope is usually the best. Many desire a wind break on the north. This may be accomplished by the planting of an orchard, or selecting a site on the south side of a grove. A farm site may or may not be located on a main road. This is an important matter as to convenience, but it should not be the deciding one. All other properties should be considered and it will be found that light, ventilation and attractive- ness will easily overcome location near a main road. Very few realize the time lost in walking to and from the various buildings about the farm, to do the chores. The unnecessary walking of four hundred feet a day means over six miles a year, and also ten minutes a day going to and from the calf lot or pig pen will lose twelve 10-hour working days a year. When a man is hired to do this unnecessary walking it is obvious that the ex- pense is needless. Of all shapes of areas, the circle or the square is the most economical and compact. Architecturally the circle would be the better, but the square is the most convenient arrangement to be used. The buildings should be separated by short distances and arranged in a square so as to make the distance back and forth between them as short as possible. At the same time they should be far enough apart so that, in case of fire, an individual building may be isolated from the group. An economical distance for placing buildings is about a hundred to a hundred and fifty feet. When the farm is equipped with an excellent fire-fighting apparatus and a water supply, this distance may be considerably lessened. 197 198 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING - Location of Individual Buildings. — The locating of individual buildings is necessarily a cut and dry process. Lay out first a square into which all of the buildings are to be placed. Next, place them in some order that first suits the fancy. Draw a diagram showing the distance walked by the hired man when he does the chores. From this study, a number of improvements will be evident. (See figures 4 and 5). The farm house or the home is the dominant figure. Size of lawn and shade trees serve to show it off. Young people especially like attractive homes. One cause for large numbers of them leaving the farms is that they find more at- tractive places to live in the city. This can be offset by a little more care on the part of the farmer in making the country home as cheerful and convenient as pos- sible. Therefore, place the farmhouse in the most desirable position, and build a rectangle or square of adjacent farm buildings back of it or on the leeward side from the prevailing winds. It is desirable to send the odors from the barns and poultry houses away from the homestead. Conclusion. — The farmstead should have good light, good ventilation, good drainage, accessibility, water supply, economical arrangement and archi- tectural beauty. Designing the Large Units. In the study of designs of the farm the whole area should be seen at a glance. This can be done only by making a sketch on paper. On this sketch should be shown such natural conditions and culture as would effect the location of the farm- stead. There are a few simple principles in the location of this important part of the farm as will be illustrated by the following figures : Figure 1 shows the farmstead in the center of the farm. This brings all of the fields in close relation to the center of activity and management. This is a great time-saver and lends itself to the hard-working individual who does not care to be near the public highways where his attention may be attracted at any moment. Figure 2 shows a similar arrangement with the farmstead in the middle of one side next to the highway. This is probably the better location since the enjoyment of life is more often the association with one's neighbors in addition to getting so much work done. Also the products of the farm may be better advertised by having the farmstead where it can be seen. The farmer's family usually objects seriously to being secluded from the road and oftentimes such seclusion will lead to a final dissatisfaction and encourage the young people to leave the farm. Figure 3 shows a more intensely developed farmstead with the home near the highway and lanes leading to the various fields. This is a very neat and compact arrangement and it will be found to be a good pattern after which to copy. Often the topography will not permit an exact copy of this arrange- ment, but the idea can nevertheless be used in many locations. Proportions. — Farmsteads for 160-acre farms should cover five or six acres and if made as shown in figure 2 may be surrounded by a number of small fields used for calf pastures, hog lots, etc. Those areas which require daily visits on foot should be arranged close around the farmstead in order to save time in FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 199 ■■■ ■— < X X i | X ^ • 1 r V If X HT « ■Sh „$s ] < 1 if ' * $ LU — * .^tf' /l .^^■r , ,/-v *— ^*- V-/ ^■K.vJ ^^Jioml/Bi^i oi/qn^/ | .S* -V X K T & j ^1 < X \ J L/ X fr i * 1 c: © a ^ © «v © ft S § © @ 3 £ ,? o Q s ® i^ p ^ 1* or 9 @ v, 5 CD \ ■<1\ £ N v ' i $ _i * +---OQ— -fck-*. / ~°0 -^ <5 ,o v nr_£.\o ". CD k \K »0 --■**£ <--.'"" ^ o v* > • isa ic: to 6 K O © &> Ql ^ @ A r^ h* 1. Farm House. Q © © uj (T) 2. Smoke House. ! r»» 3. Poultry House. pS 4. Hog House. ^ 5. Horse Barn. . 6. Hog Shed. **J 7. Cow Barn and ^J Granary L^ 8. Ice House, i 9. Corn Crib. £; 10. Machine Shed. ^ 11. Milk and Well (_) House. 12. Silo. 13. Feeding Floor. *@ «« @ <& <3«a-®&®'@#@ ^^a.&a^a-tS •■J" ^ a ft • . «% - . % ® ® &J?l <$ A ® © ©^ <§ * J til 1 % ®" <2 > < e $ h ® ® "» 202 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING ab>o^/ pf-jan^ W £ FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 203 the daily labor of the farmer can be eliminated. These few designs are offered as examples and inspiration to further study and improvement. The idea is so simple and the needs so great, that few farmers should be unable to be benefited. Note the regularity of all of the fields. Oftentimes the topography will not allow such arrangement. Whenever possible the drainage should be so made and the land cleared, that, as far as possible, the fields may be kept regular. Circular or angular fields are hard to till or plant. Short rows, requiring so much time to turn at the ends, are more expensive than long rows. Long narrow fields would be the most profitable. Farm Buildings. Having planned the farm as a whole, so that the larger units will be closely related. The details of the farmstead will now be taken up. The location of the buildings has already been explained so that the types which are most economical are to receive our next consideration. The Dairy Barn. — A dairy barn must be both sanitary and convenient. It is hardly necessary to say why we should have clean milk and sensible handling of the stock. Milk is such a rich food for bacteria that most any form will rapidly multiply when coming in contact with it. Several disease germs may con- taminate the entire milk supply, which, after being distributed to a city, would cause untold suffering and misery to hundreds. With modern science, the source of such contamination can easily be detected. Not only should the farmer desire to protect his friends from such injury, but he should protect his business. Although the barn should be kept sanitary, it is impossible to keep it in such a condition that milk may be stored in it. Therefore, the milk should be taken from the barn as soon as possible. The milk house and dairy barn should be separate. Amount of Air for Animals as Follows: For horses 71. cubic feet per minute per head cows 59. cubic feet per minute per head swine 23.2 cubic feet per minute per head sheep 15.3 cubic feet per minute per head hens 524 cubic feet per minute per head If air travels 200 to 300 feet per minute in a flue, a 16 x 24 flue will have 16X24 =2.66 sq. ft. 149 or will accommodate 2.66X300 = 11 horses. 71 It is hardly necessary to describe these barns in detail. In the chapter on concrete, many of these details have already been shown. Note particularly the high ceilings both in the dairy barn and in the loft. This is a necessary form in proper ventilation and economy in building. 204 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING DAIRY BARNS loft plan. DRIVE WAY Mi _]• PL O O ft PLAN TJ LT n XL LOFT PLA.W Clnurtesy pf the North Dakota Experiment Station ^K ">> FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 205 Ventilation. — The cow is an animal which is accustomed to outdoor life, and when brought in the stable she can never be kept under perfectly normal conditions. She must have pure air to remain in a healthful state and withstand the ravages of tuberculosis. For the principles of ventilation by means of flues see figures 6 and 7. This system is very successful and operates on the principle that warm air is lighter than cool air. Animal heat from the cow will start the circulation and by arrangement of the flues and inlet as shown, there will be no drafts. It is very necessary to prevent colds, which might later on result in tuberculosis. Lighting. — There is probably no other fault so common in a barn as poor lighting. Sunlight is nature's best disinfectant. Sunlight will kill any germ known, within ten minutes. Therefore why not admit this great cheap disin- fectant to the barn every day ? Make the windows at least six feet high and con- tinue them along the whole side of the barn. Designs of stalls giving dimensions will be shown under concrete. There are many steel designs of stanchions, pens, etc., on the market that may be had by consulting any farm journal 'advertisement. In connection with the dairy barn there are two very important accessories : the silo and the manure pit. Both are amply illustrated in the chapter on Con- crete. Silo. — A word concerning silos. Every farmer is familiar with the methods of putting up his own food for winter by preserving in cans that can be hermetically sealed. Only recently the same idea has been brought to use for the stock. The silo is the result. It is nothing more than a large can in which the green food is cut and placed, and so long as this is well tamped in and kept free from the air, just the same as preserves, it will ripen and be preserved almost in its original flavor. Materials of Which Silos are Made. — Silos have been made of almost all kinds of building material ; tile, concrete, stone and steel. The silo is a permanent structure. It should be considered as such when purchased. Such materials as timber, which are light and hard to maintain should never be used except as a temporary expedient. While there are a number of excellent types of timber silos on the market, some of which have considerable merit, their only advantages are usually their cheap first cost. The capital required to invest in building a good silo of concrete or tile should be easily borrowed by the progressive farmer. Indeed it is a safe investment in the hands of one who knows how to use it. Good engineering advice will say that nothing but the most per- manent material should be used. These are cheapest in the end. Very few farmers are able to handle a structure as large in proportion as the silo. Usually the best way is to let the building of it by contract, as there are many experts on the market who can build them cheaper than the farmer himself. It is a poor banker who will not lend money to build a permanent and profitable structure like a silo. It will be found safe and in most cases economical to borrow the money to put up this very valuable structure. 206 • THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Fig. C — Best method of ventilating an ordinary stable The intake flues, constructed In I he side wall, or if stone, brick or concrete is used, as in Figs. D. 10. 11 The ventilator tlues. CE. will take up space occupied by two cows, but they will be found more efficient than a single flue. They should have their lower openings at or near the floor level and rise 2 or 3 feet above the ridge of the roof, or an adjoining roof. These flues may be constructed as shown in Fig. 12. or lined with very light galvanized iron Caps may ba placed over these flues or cowls as shown in Fig. 6. The latter will be found more satisfactory. Courtesy of the Wisconsin Experiment SlatloD Fig. 7 <—:\ wall section of a stable < onstruct ed of vood. Ing at C The c oss sectic n 13. s lows the ITU'lll 3d of Th< out Idc opi-l Ing Is shown at 1> and the III! de at to 1 egul. tc the s apply of f resh nl r Is also showi at E Counts >■ of t le Wlscons II Kiprrlnir i Slarlo ■ior A. shows the open- IB the fresh-nir Intake, dple hut effective valve FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 207 Below is a table to indicate the size to buy for silo construction. The second table gives the comparative silos of various dimensions and will be valuable in esti- mating the value of the contents. Third table gives quantities for concrete silo. Table No. 1. CAPACITY OF SILOS OF VARIOUS DIMENSIONS Inside Diameter of Silo in Feet Depth of Silage 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 Feet Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons 25 36 52 68 96 122 136 173 206 28 40 61 81 108 137 160 205 245 44 68 90 115 150 180 226 270 32 50 72 95 126 162 200 248 295 34 53 77 108 142 171 223 269 313 36 57 82 114 158 194 230 290 341 Table No. 2 RELATION OF SIZE OF SILO TO SILAGE TO BE USED DAILY Silage Acres of SIZE OF SILO Silage Acres of SIZE OF SILO for 180 corn at for 240 corn at of 15 tons Inside Depth days at 15 tons Inside Depth cows 30 lbs per day per acre diameter of silage 30 lbs. per day per acre diameter of silage Tons Acres Feet Feet Tons Acres Feet Feet 14 38 2 to 3 10 26 50 3 U>3'A 10 32 15 40 3 to3H 10 28 54 3H to4 10 33 20 54 3H to 4 12 26 72 4 . c •a o ■s •o o "a ■o o G •a => t -a g c ■a a Feet § 5 00 5.1 00 | 5 d so bo § 6 a 00 00 c O 00 00 1 o CO 00 S O 00 to § 6 oo & 20 16.5 10.2 21 6.5 13.0 22 17.9 5.5 11.0 22.7 7.0 14.0 24 19.2 6.0 12.0 21.5 7.5 15.0 29.6 9.1 18.2 26 20.5 6.3 12.6 26.1 8.0 16.0 31.7 9.8 19.5 28 21.9 6.7 13.4 27.1 8.5 17.0 33.8 10.4 20.8 39.8 12.2 24.4 30 24.2 7.1 14.2 29.7 9.0 18.0 35.9 11.0 22.0 42.3 13.0 26.0 32 31.2 9.6 19.2 37.9 11.6 23.2 44.7 13.7 27.4 51.3 15.9 31.8 34 32.9 10.1 20.2 40.0 12.2 24.4 47.1 14.4 28.8 54.3 16.7 33.4 36 34.6 10.5 21.0 42.1 12.8 25.6 49.4 15.1 30.2 57.1 17.5 35.0 64.8 19.9 39.8 38 36.4 11.1 22.2 44.0 13.4 26.8 51.9 15.8 31.6 59.8 18.3 36.6 67.9 20.8 41.6 40 38.1 11.5 23.0 46.2 13.8 27.6 54.3 16.5 33.0 62.6 19.1 38.2 71.0 21.7 43.4 79.4 24.3 48.6 42 48.3 14.7 29.4 56.7 17.3 34.6 65.3 19.9 39.8 74.1 22.6 45.2 82.9 25.3 50.6 44 50.3 15.3 30.6 59.2 18.0 36.0 68.1 20.8 41.6 77.2 23.6 47.2 86.3 26.4 52.8 46 52.4 15.9 31.8 61.5 18.7 37.4 70.8 21.6 43.2 80.3 24.5 49.0 89.8 27.4 54.8 48 54.4 16.5 33.0 63.9 19.4 38.8 73.7 22.4 44.8 83.5 25.4 50.8 93.3 28.4 56.8 50 56.5 17.1 34.2 66.3 19.9 39.8 76.4 23.2 46.4 86.6 26.3 52.6 96.7 29 ■> 59.0 Note. — For simplicity the amounts given above apply to silos with continuous doors. If intermittent doors are used, slightly greater amounts of material will be needed. The above table is based on a proportion of 1:2:4 for the walls and l:2M:5for the floor and footings. 208 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING The Cattle Barns. — The beef cattle barn differs materially from the dairy- barn in its principal features. The purpose of a beef barn is for protection and the economical administering of the feed. It has been proved that cattle without any protection from weather will grow and fatten just as well as with protection but with this exception, that they require more feed when exposed to the weather than when protected. Therefore it is economical to have pro- tection. CLE MVir, C Al LC Y A ( 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 I ] I t i i i i i i m r~ri [ I 3 I, Ci.£A/V//VC ALLCiy FLOOR PLAN Sc*ll~ i n rr. 1 ?-ts ft5 CNB SECTION BARM FOR BEEF CATTLE Fi«. 9 — An Outdoor Feeding Rack FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 209 The Horse Barn. — The design of a horse barn is very much like the design of a house. Each person has his own taste. However, a few samples will be given, which, after a little study, will be noticed to be about as efficient as could be suggested. Note Figure 10. It has a separate vehicle room which is away from the stalls so that the varnish will not be ruined by the fumes. Stalls are placed along the south side where they can receive plenty of window space and sunlight. The floors are all of cement, which is both durable and sanitary. The stalls slope one inch in six feet and are roughened to prevent slipping. Combination Barn. — On small farms it is often necessary to build the barn in combination since the amount of capital is not available to build two separate units. Figures 11 and 12 well illustrate these types. The Hog House. Hog houses may be made in two general ways, permanent and movable. The permanent must be made of such materials and in such a way that it can be easily cleaned. The temporary is moved about from place to place for sanitation and isolation. The permanent hog house is the better and should be followed by all who own their farms and expect to raise hogs as a business. For the renter or one temporarily engaged in hog raising the movable is the better. The Permanent Hog House. Location. — The location of the hog house is very important from the standpoint of sanitation, ventilation, light and convenience to the homestead. It is better to place it on a south slope to get the light so hog wallows will not be possible. Wallows are unsightly and disease breeders. Design. — Figure 13 shows an ideal plan for a combination hog house. A blueprint is shown to bring out the details as well as the form of construction and arrangement. Swing doors lead from the alley to the pen. In one corner is a plank platform 4' x 4' with a railing of gas pipe on the side adjacent to the wall. The gas pipe is arched six inches above the floor and far enough away from the wall so that a small pig will have room to pass. It will prevent the sow from lying down and crowding the small pigs against the wall. A panel over the trough is swung from above so that the pigs can be kept out until the slop is poured. The windows should face the south to get the best light ; also the outside door should be on the south side. The floor slopes toward the center alleyway where the excess water can be taken care of and will be inaccessible for the hog to lie down in and form a wallow. It is best to have the floor in a hog house made of cement, something that the hog cannot root up or render it in any way unsanitary. The small overlaid platform which is usually placed in one corner is neces- sary to prevent hogs from getting rheumatism, which may follow after lying on a .cement floor. The overlay should always be ventilated, and therefore it must be raised above the floor at least two inches, better four inches. 210 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING iSTA ICiS Hay Doo/f i 1 HaRH£SS Room Plate fro t8 Df? i very a y 2n Ha v Door — &LRILZB-— _ _ — : >i i ^±£0. --^^if^—j^kb J-. Box 3 A TALL6 HORSE BARN \Scau er Plan Fig. 10 Courtesy of tne North Dakota Experiment Station. FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 211 D D' CATTLE BARN scalc //v ft: M ■ ■ ■ ■ \ o s 10 HORSE O LE Fig. 11 Courtesy of North Dakota Experiment Station. 212 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING CAT ILL SOX ST/\LL ORI V£WAV H O KSE-S >>/h*>/JN^,*/h^dNdw FLOOR PLAN HORSE £r CATTLE BARN H chvTQ Chotc Sc a l c in rr 6/LO > Z Sin,/ X&/iV CHVT/T r- I. * * LOFT PLAN Fig. 12 Courtesy of the North Dakotu Experiment Klatluu FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 213 S ^s 214 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING The Farrowing Pens. — A sow must never be allowed to farrow on a cement floor, since the little pigs are liable to be pushed on to the bare cement and take cold and die of the chill and exhaustion. Special pens should be built for farrowing, constructed as shown in figure 14. Note how the corners are blocked to keep the sow from crushing her litter against the wall. In general the hog house should be made substantial. The walls should be made air-tight, and the roof water-tight and durable. Plenty of sunlight and air should be admitted. The Temporary or Removable Hog House. The Wisconsin Experiment Station gives a blueprint, figures 15 and 16, of a movable hog house that is adjustable to any size. These houses may be moved from Fig. 14 — Corner of the Farrowing Pen Courtesy of the Wisconsin Experiment Station season to season to a new pasture, leaving the old to be completely disinfected by air and sunlight. This is considered by the best authority to be advisable. Also the manure from the hog lots will be distributed over different areas and be better used. The figures show very clearly how these removable houses are made. They are made very cheaply by any farmer. FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 215 Q'-O'- Fig. 15 — Front Elevation of A-Shapcd Hog House Fig, 16 — Rear Elevation of A-Shaped Hog House 216 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Hot weather is the greatest enemy of the hog. If he is not provided with a cool wallowing place he looks for shade. In fact, a hog prefers a shady place and if given the option he will take it rather than the wallow. It is a mistaken idea that the hog pen must be provided with a filthy hog wallow. With sanitary hog quarters, cholera would be unknown. f.b'Bumrl Fie. 17 — Frame of A-Shaped Hob House Courtesy of the Wisconsin Experiment Station The Sheep Barn. Sheep barns like other stock barns should be on high and dry ground and have plenty of sunlight and ventilation. However, sheep are very particular and dainty about their eating, and therefore must be provided with clean floors, clean mangers, and clean food and water. An earth floor will be satisfactory if it is kept dry and clean. Partitions. — Partitions between the pens are made readily movable. A separate space should be provided for weak and disowned lambs. Doors. — All gates and doors should be made wide, as the sheep are sure to crowd. Feeding Racks. — Always feed the sheep out of doors if possible, and FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 217 only in the very worst weather take care of them with inside racks. A feed rack with slats one foot apart will be sufficient. Remember the rack must be cleaned often or the sheep will not eat. Pens. — Since the wool is a very valuable part of the sheep, the pens should be kept dry and clean or the fleece will become ruined. " ">^>>-^ x " ^FTT^--^ **«!!!Ep^^=fs! FLOOR PLIKN SCAL£ IN FE£T SHEEP BARN PLATE NO. /9 Fit;. 18 Courtesy of the North Dakota Experiment Station 218 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 1 ; *l. — ".'.v.. •>•• Fig. 21— A Well Constructed Floor for i Poultry House is shown above The Poultry House. Considering the price of poultry and eggs on today's market, there is no excuse for neglect of the proper design and building of the poultry house. Too often it is only a shed against the bam or wood house, and scarcely ever offers any light or ventilation, being only a shelter and a poor one at that. The Location of the Poultry House.— The site of the poultry house should always be on high and well drained land. If no high land is available it must be on tile drained land. A wet muddy yard is a poor place to raise fowls. Like the location for the farmstead, it should be on the south slope, where it can get plenty of sunlight and warmth. Chick- ens should be kept in the poultry yard and poultry house. It is poor practice to allow them to live anywhere about the barn or wood shed, for in this way they become a nuisance. Like the hog house, there are two classes, the permanent and the movable chicken house. The permanent will be discussed first. The Permanent Poultry House. — A blue print from the University of Wisconsin Experiment Station, figures 19 and 20, will give an idea for a first class chicken house. Like the hog house, the floor of the chicken house should be made of con- crete. Not only is the concrete floor the most durable and sanitary, but it is rat and vermin proof. This is a very necessary requirement. The walls should be made of cement or wood, preferably of wood, as this is not so cold in the winter time. The house should be made tight on all sides, and ventilation brought about systematically so there will be no draft. Follow the blue print carefully and the most desirable form of chicken house will result. Note the abundance of windows. Face the chicken house to the south so as to get full advantage of the rays of light, as the sun is the best and cheapest disinfectant. Ventilation.— The best type of ventila- tion for a chicken house is the open window. Make the opening on one side of the building, so there will be no draft. Partitions. — In long poultry houses where partitions are necessary it is advisable to make only a part of the partition solid, and the' rest of it with chicken netting. The Roost. — The roost should be constructed as shown in figure 24. Note the dropping board below. This makes for sanitation and convenience. £X£* S^B^gS Fig. 24 — Hinged Perches and Dropping Board FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 219 Y/ak*-J7 '~*y+J '-Hh%J '-H K-JJ7-»'*/7W'IK- J7~-*A\*J '-H^J '-^HKJ/'Hrrtfl Fig. 19 — A two-pen laying house for a small flock. A cross section is shown below. ^— S' Cfl Figure 20 — Cross section of two -pen house shown above. 220 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING COVER BODY iLi-J—j- ,1 ■ t -L-L ,.!.. ,' I '.i , ,i, , ! ,i .,1 ,,i ! i. ,-L. 5-o Fig. .22 — Working Flans of h Single Indoor Hopper Courtesy of the New Sort Bwiawni Statfcs, Corneal. Fig. 23 — The End View of Grit Hopper, Showing Method of Construction !' Courtow of too Now York Experiment Station, Cornell. FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 221 A. )"/o ><> ^ t L >m '.' 9 L o "/S ? Fig. 25 — Different Types of Nests. A is a Tier of Nests with Broody Coop on Top. B and C Are Types of Wall Nests. D Is a teonsm EiKMrcem swim Nest Under the Dropping Board 222 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING The dropping board should be laid on the bracket so it can be removed if necessary for thorough cleaning and disinfecting. Nests. — Figure 25 shows the proper design for single and multiple nests. Some of them should be fitted with doors in order that the laying hens can be trapped and marked, thus weeding out the non-producers from the flock. Feeding and Watering Devices. — Figures 22 and 23 show feeding devices that are on duty all the time. The same styles may be used to contain grit. The Removable Chicken House. There are some advantages in the removable poultry house over the permanent type, especially that they can be changed from place to place and render the location more sanitary. The old location is disinfected by sunlight and air. Such a house is shown in figures 26 and 27. It will be noted that these houses are quite small, and for large flocks several of them must be made. It makes feeding rather difficult, but the health and vigor of the flock will more than pay for the difference. The Brooder. — Figure 28 shows a brooder house which is portable and Fie. 28 — A Brooder House Courtesy of tiie Wisconsin Kxperiment Station. a necessary part of successful poultry raising. Young chicks should never be fed along with the older ones. They will stand no chance of getting their share in the competition that will result. The Granary. The average farmer perhaps does not store his grain very long. As soon as the harvest season comes he markets it. However, for the man who owns his farm it is becoming the practice to store it and hold it for higher prices. For the farmer this is a good practice ; for the public it is sometimes disastrous. FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 233 'I .,-A,-, i =d , Fig. 26— A Small Flock Movable Laying House DO DO DO Pou/try o a t d Mouses ao a a a a d a IF o o a o d a a o a a o D Fig. 27— A System ©f Rotation Is Possible With Portable Colony Houses. The Houses Can Be Moved Each Tear to a Different Field Courtesy of the Wisconsin Experiment Station 224 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Site. — The site of the granary should be near the barn or feeding pens, so that the trouble in filling and emptying will be as small as possible. The trips to and from the granary should be as short as possible. When they are used to store the excess grain, the location is not important. The Design. — There are four common types of granaries: One-story, two-story, the metal, and the elevator. The one- and two-story types are nothing more than a simple building with four walls and a roof, into which the grain is placed by hand after harvesting. The cost of filling and empty- ing such a granary is expensive. The metal type is made in a factory and costs from eight to twelve cents XTah. cr S/n jiijxj A Fig. 29 — A Good Type of Farm Granary for Average Sized Farm, showing arrangement of a simple elevator for handling grain Courtesy of the MfiffiesOUT&Peflmeht Station - per bushel capacity. It comes knocked down but is simple of construction and can be erected without expert advice. It has several advantages. It is mouse and vermin proof, movable, and effective. The fourth type, or the elevator granary, represents the highest develop- ment. In this type the granary room is placed in the second story and is served by an elevator, which is in turn operated by a gas engine. As many up-to-date farmers have gas engines, this would be a very practical design. FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 225 Figure 29 shows an excellent plan designed to carry 3,700 bushels on the first, floor and more than 2,000 on the second. The figure shows well how the apparatus is made and placed. Construction. — The principal dimensions of the building are 22' x 32', with 12' height of the first story. The elevator pit is 3 feet below the surface of the ground and 5 feet below the first floor. It is set in a concrete lined pit. The elevator is 22 feet long and 10" x 22" on the outside. The unloading spout A is 8" x 10" outside measurements. All other spouts are 6x6 inches. The main pulleys on the side of the elevator are 12 inches in diameter with an 8-inch face. All other pulleys have a 4-inch face. The diameter is regu- lated by the speed of the engine. This can be calculated from instructions given in the chapter on engines. Of course, the elevator may be made proportionally smaller, if so desired. The cost of this, elevator is very little compared with the value. Conclusion. — An improved grain storage is like an improved piece of machinery. It adds to the convenience and saves the farmer considerable time and protects his crops. With this means of handling grain by machinery he is able, during his leisure hours, to clean the grain and get a higher price for it. The Potato Warehouse. Potato warehouses are a necessity in communities where large quantities of potatoes are raised for foreign market. • Requirements for Design. — Potatoes should be stored in a room which is maintained at 34 degrees fahrenheit. To accomplish this the house must be well protected from the weather and easily drained. It is best to set the house into the ground as far as the water table permits, perhaps a little above that, and then bank up the sides almost to the eaves. Avoid the artificial heat if possible, as it is hard to distribute it evenly and if not so distributed it will overheat some of the potatoes while others will be freezing. To maintain an even temperature the walls should be insulated with paper or felt. The arrangement should be very convenient, since potato harvesting must be done mostly by manual labor as no machine has been invented to date that will not bruise and otherwise injure the product. There are three particular types of potato warehouses which are commonly used : the combination cellar type, and the above-mentioned ground storehouse. The combination cellar type is exactly like the root cellar which will next be described. An excellent plan of potato warehouse is shown in the several sketches, from the North Dakota Experiment Station. Plan. — Figure 30 is of the basement type. The operation is readily understood. Note the doors in the gable end through which the chute extends to unload the crop. In the center is a scale where the' potatoes are weighed just previous to being loaded on the cars through the side door placed in the gable of the dormer. The driveway along the sides may be 226 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING rr-Tj ,.", ->,.f. ■•. ' ■ ' .- ■ ..■■ ' ■', ■ ■■..-,--. ■ •■ !- ' ■■:■ ■'.■: ;-'.■.■■ ' . ' ■ '. ■■ ' . . .:: •/■■.■'. ' /■V?'.-''. •■<■ J-,-- - v-Vv^i^iii^V^ V !.' ^■•;^ ^ 7 7T7 7 i. y-' -f • C • ii' ' r» * a ■ n i ■ '« v 'u 'n ' '» n n »' ii ii n ii • i i ' ii i ii i i i i ii 'i n n n , i ii: Plan or Ba MftH',WWi-J:*c-y:A'.-.^."=-.!« •;, ! 1 1 i : ; ■'■ A S A * i i i i i /, i i 1 i i i i l « - \ / ■n* X X 1 1 ttH+lllllll 1 1 ! i 11 II 1 ^^^ wzmzsi sEsssssg Plan or Wonxnoon Front £lcv atiqn Fig. 30 — Potato Warehouse Courtesy of the. North Dakota Experiment Station FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 227 used either by a wagon or trucks, or if possible the warehouse should be placed right next to a railroad track. The heating system should be installed near the elevator so that the elevator room and car can be warmed in the winter time during the process of loading. The plan will be found an efficient one. A larger type may be made from this by doubling the design, but this will serve as an actual type on which to begin. The Root Cellar. In the conservation of the food supply a root cellar is very necessary for storage during the winter. During the summer it is a cool place to keep dairy products. Concrete or clay products are the only materials suitable for the building Pla H' Vertical. Section. Round Root Ce.li.kr, attached to bark Fig. 31 Courtesy of tlie Minnesota Experiment Station of root cellars, since they are buried under the ground and timber structure will rot. Location. — Root cellars should be placed on the south slope with the rest of the farm buildings. There the tendency to freeze is the least and drainage is more easily accomplished. Freezing. — To prevent freezing in the root cellar, all walls should be made of very thick concrete or of hollow tile or hollow concrete construction. Even the roof should be double. Air space is the cheapest and most efficient insulator. Ventilation. — Contrary to the common knowledge on root cellars, it is necessary to ventilate them, to remove all bad odors and assist in preserving the roots. Place inlets for air near the ceiling, and outlets near the floor. Drainage. — Make the drainage of the site absolutely certain, even to placing a tile around -the entire structure. Storage. — In placing the roots in the cellar, they should be handled with care and placed so that the ventilating air will reach them. 22S THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING A design of a root cellar is given in figure 31. The ditch is built outside and away from the house so that odors from stored fruits will not inconvenience the household. Lightning Protection. Lightning protection is a necessity to every farmer. The first protection is insurance. The second, lightning rods. Buildings with metal roofs should have the metal continued to the ground at two of the corners by means of a heavy wiring of piping. Buildings with shingle or other roofs than metal should be provided with lightning rods. Lightning rods can be bought cheaper on the market than they can be made, but care should be taken in their installation. There are a few essentials to look for. 1st. Top points should be bright and sharp. 2nd. Points should extend well above the buildings. 3rd. The rod should have few or no sharp bends before reaching the ground. 4th. The ground end should be well imbedded under the soil. 5th. The rod should be large enough. A reliable manufacturer can be depended upon to suggest the proper sizes. Avoid adopting new and untried schemes. Iron is as good a lightning rod as copper if it is made large enough. The ground end of the cable should always reach the water table. Ground the rods in several places rather than attempt to bring them together by bending. PAINTS On the farm the lack of paint is often more evident than the paint itself. There is probably no other point neglected more than the judicious use of paint. This is due probably to the idea that paint is solely for ornamental purposes, and its use is regarded as a luxury rather than a necessity. While true that it does improve the appearance of the property, its fundamental purpose is for protection. A small investment in properly made and applied paint will furnish the best guarantee of the life of machinery or buildings. Paint also improves the sanitary condition wherever it is used. The purpose of this discussion is to give some simple ideas in regard to paint and its uses. These suggestions are for the buyer and user who is securing it for the protection of his property and not all together for appearance. All artistic painting should be left to an expert in that line. The discussion will cover the method of application and the cost. Tools Used in Painting. — The most necessary implements are brushes. For large work the bristles are usually about six inches long and are set either round, with a diameter of 2 inches to 2 l / 2 inches, or the flat brush, which is 4 or 5 inches across. Some like a 4-inch long flat brush better than the 6-inch. There are many styles and prices of brushes on the market for various special uses. For narrow work a small brush should be bought. For large work the wide brush. It never pays to buy a cheap brush. Along with the paint brush should be secured a number of stiff bristle brushes for fitting off the surface before painting. Steel or wire brushes are the best. These range in length from two to six inches, and should be inspected and selected according to the work for which they are to be used. The paint container should be a strong metal bucket with a tight lid. Also scraping and putty knives are necessary and should be a part of the equipment. A paint strainer made of two thicknesses of cheesecloth is satisfactory. Care of Brushes. — The most extravagant waste in the use and application of paint is probably in the care of brushes. If the work is continued from day to day it will only be necessary to wrap the brushes in several thicknesses of paper and not put them in water to keep them from drying out. If the brush is not to be used for several days the paint should be thoroughly washed out. Turpentine is the most satisfactory agent for cleansing, but kerosene is much cheaper and when 'used in connection with gasoline or benzine and a little soap and warm water, the brush can be thoroughly cleaned. After cleaning the brush it should be thoroughly dried. However, it is about as cheap and satisfactory to suspend the brushes in turpentine or kerosene until used again. The brushes that are used in paint where water is the vehicle can be washed out with the water and easily dried. 229 230 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Action of Paints. — Water paints, such as whitewash and kalsomine, dry in the ordinary way, that is, by evaporation of the water. Oil paints, however, dry in a very different manner. Take a mineral oil for instance, and spread a little on a glass plate and let it stand a while and examine. It will be found to be greasy. Try the same experiment with linseed oil and after a few hours examine it, and it will be found to have set hard in the form of a black film. If this experiment is tried with other oils it will be found that none of them will set like linseed oil Therefore we have this oil as the vehicle of most of our paints. There are a number of oils on the market which dry something like linseed oil and are called "drying oils." Drying is a chemical change which is hindered by cold or dampness but assisted by warmth and sunlight. The process requires oxygen. It is found sometimes that oils do not dry fast enough for the purpose at hand. Then other chemicals are added, such as. compounds of lead and manganese. Also the boiling of the oil will hasten its drying. This is probably the best process and the least harmful. There are a number of chemicals or mixtures on the market called dryers, but these are compounds of lead and manganese thinned with tur- pentine or benzine. They accomplish the purpose in making a quick dry, but will decrease the durability of the oil film after it is applied. Of all oils that are called dryiflg oils linseed oil is the best. A film of linseed oil will resist moisture to a certain extent, but upon test will be found to admit some dampness. If a pigment is added to the linseed oil it will be found that the mixture will be moisture-proof. Therefore a good paint should contain linseed oil, pigment, and for convenience a dryer. When it is necessary to thin the paint always use turpentine and not benzine or gasoline. Some ex- perienced men in paint say that they would not allow gasoline or benzine to be even near the work. This is because benzine or gasoline are often used as thinners but are detrimental to paint and should never be used. Preparation of Surface for Painting. — It is necessary that all surfaces, before being painted, should be thoroughly cleaned. The resins in such woods as yellow pine and spruce tend to destroy any paint that is laid over them. It is there- fore advisable to allow such a surface to remain exposed for six months, so that these compounds may seep but. In order to cover these surfaces at once while new, a covering of shellac and wood fillers is used. The proper mixing of these will be given later. Sometimes a small amount of benzol (coal tar and naphtha) will dissolve the outer surface of the resin and permit the paint pigment to penetrate into the fiber of the wood. The first coat of paint is usually called the priming coat and is mostly oil". After this coat all nail holes and blemishes should be closed up with putty. In painting iron surfaces all rust and grease should be carefully removed, scraping the surface down to bright metal with wire brushes or sandpaper and finally dusting off all remaining particles. The time to do painting is in the summer when it is warm, dry and bright. The paint will go on better, be absorbed quicker by the wood, and dry more perfectly. PAINTS 231 Exterior Work. — First put on a thin coat of priming paint, which is usually mostly linseed oil. Ordinarily a mixture of paint with an equal volume of linseed oil will make a good priming coat. This coat should be well applied and spread, in order to penetrate the wood deeply. Sufficient time should be allowed this coat to dry and to fill up the pores of the wood. Wait one week before applying the next coat. Later another coat should be applied. Neither of these will take so much paint. The second one will give the body, and the third will give the gloss. These should be spread thin and even. Interior Painting. — Much of the interior protective covering is made of varnish, now that interior painting is out of date. The paint for this work may be entirely different from the outside, as the service to which it is put is very much less severe. Most any paint of any value will last well inside. It must be borne in mind that paint is likely to fade. Aside from, that there is not much trouble of failure if rnade from pure material. Painting on Metal. — Metal is so smooth that it often gives up the paint with ease. This is probably due to the greasiness of the surface. Whenever a metal surface is to be covered with paint it should first be cleaned with benzine or gasoline. No expense should be spared in cleaning the surface. The best paint for metal surfaces is oil with red lead. If this color is too bright it may be darkened by an addition of lampblack till the color suits. Remem- ber that any good oil paint will give a good protection for iron if properly made and applied. Paint Mixing. — Formerly it was advised that the individual make his own paint, but there are so many good paints on the market already prepared, machine mixed, that if they can be bought at the right price it will certainly pay to do so. However, where labor and power is cheap and where there is much to do, a paint mixing machine would be advisable. Cost and Composition of Paint. — It is true that as many paints can be made in a well equipped factory as by any individual at home, or any small shop. Ready mixed paint may be good or bad. The market is flooded with both kinds. The number of different paints found on the market is enormous. Only a few typical formulae of paint and methods of calculating the cost can be given here. It is best never to buy any paint material that has not the manufacturer's name on the package. Then try to find out about the reliability of the manufacturer. The large paint manufacturers turn out a reliable standard product. White paints or the very light tints are the most expensive because there are few white pigments which have covering power. Most white pigments when dry seem to be opaque, and when mixed with oil become quite transparent. White lead, zinc, white, sublimed white lead, zinc lead, and lithopone are practically the only white pigments which have good covering power in oil. All these pigments are expensive. Of the dark shades there are a number of cheaper pigments which have a good covering power. Iron oxide pigment is much cheaper than lead and will make a good dark brown paint. For this color, then, it would be cheaper than white lead. 232 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Calculating the Cost of White Paints. — A good white paint consists of 90 to 95 percent of linseed oil and from 10 to 15 percent of japan drier. Fourteen pounds of dry white lead and 1%. pounds of vehicle will make a gallon of paint, or 15 pounds of paste lead and 6% pounds of vehicle will make a gallon of paint; 9j/2 pounds of white zinc and 5^4 pounds of paint vehicle will make a gallon of zinc white paint. If linseed oil costs 95 cents a gallon, white lead 7 cents a pound, and zinc white 8 cents a pound, a gallon of white lead paint will cost $1.87, and a gallon of zinc paint $1.46. To find the cost of the paint at any particular place or time it will only.be necessary to find out the cost of these ingredients on the market and compare figures. Paints are sometimes adulterated with cheaper mixtures.. White lead is often adulterated with silica, whiting, barytes, china-clay, etc. These have no injurious effect on, the paints and sometimes will be beneficial, but they decrease the covering power of the paint. Therefore there is no reason why a paint should cost more than linseed oil and white lead. In buying a mixed paint one should be care- ful to investigate and see if the price is higher than pure white lead and linseed oil would cost. For colored paint the coloring matter might be the most expensive in- gredient, and in this case the paint might be higher priced than ^hite lead and oil. Cost of Colored Paints. — The lighter tints of colored paints consist of white lead and some coloring matter. Since the coloring matter is not uniform COMPOSITION AND COST OF TINTED AND COLORED PAINTS 1 Tints Colored Paints Data Gray Buff Yellow Drab Blue Brown Red Green Black Percentage composition : Linseed oil 43.4 43.0 45.0 13.0 25.0 5.0 41.0 43.0 49.0 12.0 24.0 57.0 34.0 65.0 White lead Zinc white 21.0 27.0 2.0 5.0 21.0 29.0 21.0 26.0 2.0 4.0 22.0 27.0 2.0 4.0 2 Sublimed white lead Barium sulphate 5.0 25.0 49.0 China-clay Whiting 11.0 Ground slate 26.0 Asbestine 1.0 .6 56.6 (1) .541 .782 1.32 1.0 6.0 57.0 (2) .582 .779 1.36 1.0 11.0 55.0 (3) .512 .777 1 .29 1.0 5.0 59.0 (4) .583 .763 1.35 1.0 1.0 57.0 (5) .591 .779 1.37 1.0 9.0 51.0 (6) .451 .805 1.26 Color '. 5.0 43.0 (7) .51-1 .810 1.32 17.0 66.0 (8) ' .606 .684 1.29 9.0 35 Nature of color (9) Cost per gallon, dollars: Pigment Vehicle Total .116 .796 .91 Bone black; tuscan red; ultramarine blue. Umber or ocher. Golden ocher. Ocher and bone black. Prussian blue. Bone black; Venetian red; chrome yellow. Para-red. Five-sixths chrome yellow, one-sixth Prussian blue. Carbon. PAINTS 233 nor are colors graded scientifically, the total amount of coloring matter employed in paints rarely amounts to as much as five percent. A table will be given showing the mixture of the various coloring matters to produce the most common colors. For dark shades of brown or red there is probably nothing which is as cheap as the oxide of iron pigments.. These vary very much in shade, giving both browns and dull reds. A pigment that gives a very satisfactory reddish brown and contains about 40 percent of iron oxide makes a satisfactory paint containing approximately 56 percent pigment and 44 percent vehicle, the vehicle, or mixing liquid, being very much the same as that used in a first class white paint. This pigment is cheap, under normal conditions costing not more than 1 or 1^ cents per pound. The pigment in a gallon of this paint, therefore, would cost approximately 10 cents, and the 5.94 pounds of vehicle about 73 cents, giving a cost of 83 cents for the gallon of paint. An inspection of these figures shows that the expensive part of this paint is the vehicle and not the pigment. A paint of this character is a very good material to apply either to wood or iron. There are more expensive paints, however, frequently used on iron to protect it from rusting, the most popular being red lead and linseed oil. This material undoubtedly affords very good protection, but it is also expen- sive. A red lead paint cannot be made and kept as can most other paints. The red lead itself causes the oil to dry, and no additional drier is necessary. In fact, red lead should not be mixed until just before it is used. A paint made of 70 percent of red lead and 30 percent of linseed oil will weigh about 19.8 pounds to the gallon. A gallon of paint, therefore, will contain 13.86 pounds of red lead. The 30 percent of linseed oil will weigh 5.94 pounds, and a gallon of linseed oil 7.75 pounds. Whitewash. — Whitewash is the cheapest of all paints, and for certain purposes it is the best. Lime, which is the basis of whitewash, makes a very sanitary coating, and is probably to be preferred for cellars and the interior of stables and other outbuildings. The following directions for making white- wash are taken from "White Paints and Painting Materials," by W. G. Scott : Ordinary whitewash : This is made by slaking about 10 pounds of quick- lime with 2 gallons of water. The lime is placed in a pail and the water poured over it, after which the pail is covered with an old piece of carpet or cloth and allowed to stand for about an hour. With an insufficient amount of water, the lime is "scorched'' and not all converted into hydrate; on the other hand, too much water retards the slaking by lowering the heat. "Scorched" lime is generally lumpy and transparent; hence the use of the proper amount of water for slaking and an after addition of water to bring it to a brush consistency is necessary. Factory whitewash (interiors) : For walls, ceilings, etc. (1) Sixty-two pounds (1 bushel) quicklime, slake with 15 gallons water. Keep barrel covered until steam ceases to rise. Stir occasionally to prevent scorching. (2) Two and one-half pounds rye flour, beat up in *4 gallon of cold water, then add 2 gallons of boiling water. 234 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING (3) Two and one-half pounds common rock salt, dissolve in 2y 2 gallons of hot water. Mix (2) and (3), then pour into (1) and stir until all is well mixed. This is the whitewash used in the large implement factories and recom- mended by the insurance companies. The above formula gives a product of perfect brush consistency. Weatherproof whitewash (exteriors) : For buildings, fences, etc. (1) Sixty-two pounds (1 bushel) quicklime, slake with 12 gallons of hot water. (2) Two pounds common table salt, 1 pound sulphate of zinc, dissolved in 2 gallons of boiling water. (3) Two gallons skimmed milk. Pour (2) into (1), then add the milk (3) and mix thoroughly. Lighthouse whitewash: (1) Sixty-two pounds (1 bushel) quicklime, slake with 12 gallons of hot water. (2) Twelve pounds rock salt, dissolve in 6 gallons of boiling water. (3) Six pounds Portland cement. Pour (2) into (1) and then add (3). Note. — Alum added to a lime whitewash prevents it rubbing off. • An ounce to the gallon is sufficient. Flour paste answers the same purpose, but needs zinc sulphate as a preserva- tive. Molasses renders the lime more soluble ana causes it to penetrate the wood or plaster surface ; a pint of molasses to 5 gallons of whitewash is sufficient. Silicate of soda solution (about 35° Baume) in the proportion of 1 to 10 of whitewash produces a fireproof cement. A pound of cheap bar soap dissolved in a gallon of boiling water and added to about 5 gallons of thick whitewash will give it a gloss like oil paint. An old recipe for whitewash, issued by the Lighthouse Board of the Treasury Department, said to be very good for outdoor exposure, is as follows : Slake half a bushel of unslaked lime with boiling water, keeping it cov- ered during the process. Strain it and add a peck of salt, dissolved in warm water; three pounds of ground rice put in boiling water and boiled to a thin paste; half a pound of powdered Spanish whiting and a pound of clear glue, dissolved in warm water; mix these well together and let the mixture stand for several days. Keep the wash thus prepared in a kettle or portable furnace; and when used, put it on as hot as possible, with painters or whitewash brushes. The washes which contain milk, flour, or glue are not to be advised for use in damp, interior places, owing to danger of decomposition of the organic matter. For such locations it is better to use one of the formulas containing none of these ingredients. Whitewash is applied with a broad whitewash brush and is spread lightly over the surface, no attempt being made to brush it in, as would be done with an oil paint. Calcimine. — Cold water paints or calcimine have as their basis whiting or carbonate of lime instead of caustic lime, as in whitewash. This material PAINTS 235 itself does not adhere, and it is necessary to use binder of some kind, generally glue or casein. Scott also gives the following directions for making calcimine : Ordinary white stock (calcimine) : (1) Sixteen pounds dry Paris white (whiting) mixed until free of lumps, with 1 gallon boiling water. (2) One-half pound white sizing glue; soak 4 hours in one-eighth gallon cold water. Dissolve on a water-bath (gluepot) and pour into (1). The above recipe makes about 2 gallons of stock, weighing 12)4 pounds per gallon. It is of proper brush consistency and may be used at once, but is better after standing half an hour. Any tint may be given the white stock by stirring the desired dry color in a little water and adding sufficient liquid color to the base. The following data in regard to the covering capacity and time of applying was obtained as an ayerage of several years' work from shop records : One gallon covers on plaster = 270 square feet. One gallon covers on brick = 180 square feet. One gallon covers on wood = 225 square feet. A man in 1 hour, using a 5-inch brush, will coat the following amount of surface : Rough walls = 22 square yards (198 sq. ft.) Smooth walls = 38 square yards (312 sq. ft.) Brick walls = 20 square yards (180 sq. ft.) Flat surface (bench or floor) 40 square yards. Ceiling (with stepladder) 25 square yards. Damp-proof calcimine (white stock) : For plastered walls. (1) Sixteen pounds Paris white or extra gilder's whiting, 1 gallon boiling water. (2) One-half pound white sizing glue, soak 4 hours in one-half gallon cold water, then dissolve on a water bath. (3) One-fourth pound phosphate of soda, dissolve in one-eighth gallon boil- ing water. Mix (3) with (1), then add (2). If a thick white stock is wanted, use half a gallon of water with the 16 pounds of Paris white instead of one gallon. For tinting, use colors that are not affected by lime, namely, yellow ochers, sienna, umbers, Venetian red, para- red, maroon oxide, ultramarine blue, ultramarine green, chromium oxide, bone black, etc. If lampblack is used for tinting, it must be stirred up in hot water containing a little soap or in cold water containing a little borax, the alkali overcoming the* greasy nature of the lampblack. Precautions to Be Observed in Painting. Do not use any paints containing compounds of lead about stables or outbuild- ings where the fumes from decaying organic matter occur, as these gases are likely to darken the lead paints. Do not use with lead compounds any pigments which may liberate compounds of sulphur. For example, ultramarine blue, con- taining sulphur in a form in which it may be set free, is a beautiful and very per- 236 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING manent blue. It may be used with zinc white, but should not be used with white lead or any other lead pigments. Prussian blue, on the contrary, does not contain sulphur and may be used with lead pigments. Remember that turpentine and benzine are very inflammable, and especial precautions should be taken not to bring paint containing these substances near any light or open fire. Many pigments are poisonous, and the workman should be particularly care- ful to remove all paint stains from the skin, and not under any circumstances allow any of it to get into his mouth. A man before eating should not only change his clothes but wash all paint stains from his skin. It is not advisable to use turpentine or benzine in removing paint stains from the hands. Oil the hands thoroughly with linseed oil or with any other fatty oil, then thoroughly wash with soap. The paint may be removed in this way if it has not been allowed to dry too thoroughly on the hands. PAINT BASES. There are numerous formulas for mixing paint on the market. The table quoted before gives a variety which will be sufficient for any farm use, but the following list is also offered since it might not be possible to get some of the material in the preceding table. The following will be used as pigment to which linseed oil and a dryer must be added to make the proper consistency. The fol- lowing colors and minerals must first be ground to a very fine powder and mix to a uniform color. The addition of a small quantity of varnish will improve the quality : Buff- Yellow ocher 45 pounds Whiting . 5 pounds Oxide of zinc 4^ pounds Plaster of Paris 1 pound Brick Brown — Yellow ocher 25 pounds Calcined copperas 2>y 2 pounds Red hematite. iy 2 pounds High grade silica 7 pounds Whiting 18 pounds Gray — Oxide of zinc 30 pounds White lead 7 pounds Whiting 11 pounds Bone black 34 pound Yellow ocher *2 pounds Crimson — Indian red 25 pounds Crocus martis 7 pounds Oxide of zinc 5 pounds Whiting 7 pounds PAINTS 237 Vandyke Brown — Yellow ocher 24^ pounds Whiting 18 pounds Umber 4J4 pounds Oxide of zinc : 7 pounds Purple oxide of iron 1 pound Blood Red- Crocus martis 30 pounds Whiting t . 18 pounds r Hematite 3 pounds Silica 3 pounds Venetian red 2 pounds Drab- Yellow ocher 40 pounds Whiting . . '. 10^ pounds Oxide of zinc 8 pounds Sulphate of barytes 1 pound Blackboard Paints. — Black : Shellac 1 pound Alcohol 1 gallon Lampblack (fine quality) 4^ ounces Powdered emery 5 ounces Ultramarine blue 3 J/2 ounces First dissolve this shellac in alcohol. Strain the lampblack, emery, and ul- tramarine blue through a cloth strainer. Mix slowly with the shellac solution, concentrate. Fire-Proof Paint. — Fire-proof paint may be made by mixing 40 pounds of powdered asbestos, 10 pounds of aluminate of soda, 10 pounds of lime, 10 pounds of silicate of soda with the addition of any fire-proof coloring. Graining With Paint. — The graining of paint may be accomplished by the following means : Prepare the mixture as shown in the following formula, spread them on a flat surface about eighteen inches wide at a time and with a goose feather pro- duce the graining that is desired. As the paint dries, a coat of varnish may be put on to bring out the grain. Formula. — Use two-thirds of white lead, one-third of golden ocher, mix with boiled linseed oil and dryer. Put on two coats, then apply a coat of varnish and sienna and treat with goose feather as indicated above. IMITATION OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF WOOD. Birch. — Produce a light clean buff color, a mixture of white lead, yellow ocher or rough sienna oil. Over this add a thin layer of warm brown, pro- ducing a panel of two or three broad color shades. Then take a large mottler, and mottle the darker parts into the light. Draw the mottle slantwise as for maple but leave a broad stiff mark. Before this is hardened, draw the 238 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING mottle across the painted work and break it up. When thoroughly dry, carefully wet the work with clean water and clean mottler and add a darker over-grain with a thin oak over-grainer. Maple. — Use 30 pounds of white lead, y 2 ounce of vermilion, y 2 ounce of lemon chrome. Ash. — Use 30 pounds of white lead, y 2 ounce of deep vermilion and y 2 ounce of lemon chrome. Medium. Oak. — Use 30 pounds of white lead, 1 pound of French ocher, y 2 ounce of burnt umber. Dark Oak. — Use 30 pounds of white lead, 5 pounds of burnt umber, 24 pounds of medium Venetian red. Light Mahogany. — Use 30 pounds of white lead, \y 2 pounds of burnt umber, 5 pounds of medium Venetian red. American Walnut. — Use 15 pounds of white lead, 4^ pounds of French ocher, 2 pounds of burnt umber, y 2 p>ound of medium Venetian red. Roof Paint.— A good paint for a roof covered with tarred or roofing paper is : Distilled coal tar, 70 parts ; heavy mineral oil, 10 parts ; American rosin, 20 parts. Varnishes. Varnish is a solution of resinous matter forming a clear limped fluid capable of hardening without losing its transparency. It is prepared by mixing a gum in a suitable solvent in order that each conveys the good qualities and counteracts the bad ones of the others. This produces the desired colors without detracting from the hardening and drying properties of the varnish. The gums used in mixing the varnish are usually juniper gum or true sanderac. The preparation , mixed from its constituents is not an easy task and it is not advised that the amateur attempt such work. It will always be found advisable to buy a good varnish on the market. There are plenty of them at the right price. For outside work be sure to buy an outside var- nish. See that the purpose is always marked on the can. Do likewise for interior work, observing the amount of heat and moisture to be considered, and select with these in view. Shellac Varnish. — A good varnish can be made from 3 pounds of shellac to a gallon alcohol. This should be added uniformly with a brush and rubbed with a rag. A very fine polish can be produced by patiently applying this mixture and rubbing with a rag wet with shellac varnish. How to Varnish. — First buy a first-class varnish and do not dilute it. Warm it, if thinning is needed. Varnish only on smooth clean surface. Handle only in a clean vessel and with clean brushes. Apply varnishes of all kinds as uniformly as possible. They should be flowed on with a brush and not rubbed in while wet. Allow the first coat to dry thoroughly before the second is applied. Allow to dry slowly. Protect them from dirt and flies until perfectly dry. A new brush does not varnish well. It is only after one has been broken PAINTS 239 in that it is good. The thin film that forms over a varnish after it stands, indi- cates that the varnish has linseed oil and is fat and permanent. A meager varnish will not produce a thin skin even when it dries thick. A varnish that turns white is a poor quality. Whitening can be removed only by taking off the varnish. Lastly it is to be emphasized that in buying a varnish a reputable manu- facturer be considered. Only an article that has been thoroughly tried and is guaranteed should be used. Do not blame the varnish if it fails, without investigating whether it has been properly applied. Enamel Varnishes. — Enamel varnish consists of solutions of spirituous gum lac, resin and copol with the addition of salicylic acid. Enameling is a very important process and cannot be well carried out with home mixed material. However, a few formulas will be given. These may be mixed with any good varnish. Enamel Formulas. — White. — Lithopone, 2 parts, by weight ; white lead purest y 2 part, by weight; varnish, 20 parts, by weight. Black. — Ivory black, 2 parts, by weight ; Paris blue, 0.01 part, by weight ; varnish, 23 parts, by weight. Pale Grey. — Graphite, 2 parts, by weight; ultramarine, 0.01 part by weight; lithopone, 40 parts, by weight; varnish, 100 parts, by weight. Pink, pale. — Carmine, y 2 part, by weight; lithopone, 15 parts, by weight; varnish, 40 parts, by weight; bezine, l]/ 2 parts, by weight. Sky Blue. — Ultramarine, 5 parts, by weight ; lithopone, 5 parts by weight ; ultramarine green, 0.05 parts, by weight ; varnish, 30 parts, by weight ; bezine, 1 part, by weight. Leaf Green. — Chrome green, pale, 5 parts, by weight ; varnish, 25 parts, by weight ; benzine, y 2 part, by weight. Glues. The bases for glues are made by a patent process from bones and sinews which are a waste from the meat packing industry. A test for glue is the amount of water which it will take to swell it. The more water it takes the better. Four ounces of glue soaked for twelve hours in four pounds of cold water, should swell up to 16 ounces, yes, even to 20 ounces. Liquid glue can be made by mixing, first 3 ounces of glue, 3 ounces of gelatine, 4 ounces of acetic acid, 2 ounces of water and 30 grains of alum. For six hours skim and add one fluid ounce of alcohol, 2 pounds of ground glue No. 2, 11 ounces of sodium carbonate, 2>y> pints of water and 116 minims of oil of cloves. The soda to be dissolved in water and poured over the dry glue and allowed to soak for 12 hours. Then heat carefully in a water bath and add the oil of cloves before the mixture cools. Glue Formulas. — There are dozens of formulas for glues on the market as well as a number of prepared mixtures. Those who are experienced in the uses of glues advise that it is cheaper to buy the glue already made than to try to make it. ROPE AND ITS USE The ability to tie a few useful knots and splice a rope is of use not only to the sailor, but to the farmer, the construction engineer, and the contractor. Indeed there are times when it is useful to people in nearly all walks of life. There are two reasons for publishing this bulletin : First, that it may serve as a reference or notebook to the students who take this work in class, and, second, that it may serve as a book of instruction to those who desire to acquire this ability by them- selves. Only a few knots, hitches, and splices are shown, as it is believed that the average person has not the time or persistence to learn a large number of them so thoroughly that he can make them at any time from memory. There are sev- eral ways of tying some knots, and more than one way of making some of the splices and hitches, but the author has shown only one way of making each and, so far as he can decide, the way that is easiest to learn, though it may not be the quickest and easiest way used by the expert. To those who may have some word of criticism, the author desires to say that this bulletin is not written for the in- struction of those who consider themselves proficient in this work. Information regarding other methods and other knots will be gladly received. . General Information. Construction of Rope. — A rope is made of fibers so intertwined or twisted together as to form a thick cord capable of sustaining a severe strain. The pri- mary object of twisting the fibers together to form a rope is that by friction they may be held together when a strain is applied to the whole. Hard twisting has the further advantage of compacting the fibers and preventing the penetration of moisture. The steps in manufacturing rope are as follows: 1. The fibers are twisted into yarns in a direction called "right hand," as shown at A in Figure 1. 2. From two to eight of these yarns are then twisted together into a strand in a direction called "left-hand," as shown at B in Figure 1. 3. Three of these strands for a three-strand, and four for a four-strand rope are then twisted together in a direction called "right hand," as shown at C in Figure 1. 4. If these ropes are twisted together to form a cable, shown in Figure 2, they are twisted in a direction called "left hand." When a strand is twisted up, the yarns composing it are untwisted; and when a rope is twisted up, the strands composing it are untwisted, but the yarns in the strands are again twisted up. It is this opposite twist that keeps the rope 240 ROPE AND ITS USE 241 Figure 1 from untwisting. When a weight is hung at the end of a rope, the tendency is for the rope to untwist and become longer. The weight will revolve until the strain of the rope trying to untwist is just balanced by the strain of the strands being twisted up. All makers of rope twist them in the same direction ; other- wise it would not always be possible to splice- ropes obtained from the different factories. S\\^\\\\ v /^our Strand Three Strand Figure 2 242 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Sources of Fiber. — Many different vegetable fibers are used for rope- making. The most common ones are Manila, or Manila hemp, common hemp, sisal hemp, and cotton. Flax, jute, coir fiber, and other materials are also used. Manila fiber is obtained from the abaca plant which grows only in the Philippine Islands. It obtains its name from the city of Manila, from which most of it is exported. The trunk of this plant resembles the banana tree and is closely wrapped by long leaves which yield fibers from six to twelve, and even eighteen, feet in length. Common hemp is an annual herb of the nettle family, from four to eight feet high. It has green flowers and a tough, fibrous inner bark. The tough, strong fibers obtained from the inner bark are used in making coarse cloth and rope. Sisal hemp comes principally from Yucatan and Mexico. Its fiber is es- pecially valuable for ship cables as it seems to resist the action of sea water bet- ter than most other materials. Cotton is planted annually in the United States and is the staple agricultural product of our southern states. The commercial cotton is the soft, woolly, fibrous material which is attached to the seed of the cotton plant. The fiber is white or yellow, and from two-thirds of an inch or less to two inches long. The fibers are contained in a three- to five-celled capsule or boll which bursts open when ripe and allows the fibers to escape. After the seeds are removed, the fiber is manufactured into thread, cloth, twine, and rope. Flax is an annual plant with stems about two feet high, blue flowers, and a fibrous inner bark which yields the flax of commerce. Jute is obtained from two tall, slender-stemmed, annual, Asiatic herbs of the linden family, now naturalized in various countries. The fiber obtained from the inner bark is used in the manufacture of carpets, bagging, canvas mats, and rope. Coir fiber, which is obtained from the husk of the cocoanut, is an important material used for rope-making and cordage. It is fairly strong and is lighter than Manila or hemp. How Sold. — Rope is usually retailed by weight, but is ordered by giving the diameter in inches and number of feet wanted. Wholesale dealers sell it by the weight stamped on the coils by the manufacturer, but usually do not break the coils. Strength of Rope. — The strength of a new rope of a given size will de- pend on (1) the kind of fiber used, (2) the quality of the fiber, (3) the quality of the workmanship, (4) the effect of preservatives on the fibers, and (5) the number of strands. No accurate rule can be given for calculating the strength, and any table giving the strength will be only approximately correct. Four-strand ropes have about 16 percent more strength than three-strand ropes. Tarring ropes decreases the strength by about 25 percent because the high temperature of the tar injures the fibres. The strength of a rope is decreased by age, exposure, and wear. The breaking strength of a rope is the weight or pull that will break it. The safe load is the weight you may put on a rope without danger of breaking it. The safe load must be very much less than the breaking strength, in order that life and property may not be endangered when heavy objects are being moved and ROPE AND ITS USE 243 lifted. The safe load is usually regarded as one-sixth of the breaking strength. The breaking strength and safe load for old ropes must be largely a matter of good judgment and experience. Calculation of Strength. — For new Manila rope the breaking strength in pounds may be found approximately by the following rule : Square the diameter, measured in inches, and multiply this product by 7,200. Results obtained from this rule may vary as much as 15 percent from actual tests. The safe load can be found by dividing the breaking strength by six. Suppose we wish to find the breaking strength and. safe load of a three- fourths-inch Manila rope. The square of Y is 9/16, which, multiplied by 7,200, gives 4,050 pounds as its breaking strength, and 4,050 by 6 gives 675 pounds as its safe load. INFORMATION ABOUT THREE- STRAND UNTARRED ROPE Breaking Strength Safe l.oad Circum- ference Feet per Weight per Weight per Feet per Diameter Coil Coil 100 Feet Pound Manila ' Hemp Manila Hemp Inches. Inches. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 3 /io %8 2,400 40 1% 00 240 ISO 40 30 M "4 2,400 55 2H 43 450 330 75 55 5 Ae 1 2,400 70 3 32 720 540 120 90 y% IH 1,200 45 4K -:;'_• 1,070 810 180 135 m 1>2 1,200 90 7H 13H 1,800 1,350 300 225 % 2 1,200 170 13H 7V 3 3,000 2,340 500 390 ' H 2% 1,200 210 17 G 3,900 2,940 650 490 34 2% 1,200 295 25 4 5,520 4,140 920 690 l Ws 1,200 340 30 SVs 0,900 5,160 1,150 860 Wi 3H 1,200 455 40 2y 2 8,850 6,040 1,475 1,100 IX W% 1,200 510 45 2H 10,800 7,950 1,800 1,325 m 4M 1,200 785 70 IH 15,000 11,400 2,500 1,900 1M 5H 1,200 1,160 100 1 •20,640 15,600 3,440 2,600 2 CM 1,200 1,440 125 ■\i 24,660 1S.000 4,110 3,100 Hemp rope is approximately three-fourths as strong as Manila so that we use the following rule for it : The breaking strength of hemp rope in pounds is 5,400 times the square of the diameter in inches. The safe load is found by di- viding the breaking strength by six as we did for the Manila rope. Thus breaking strength for a three-quarter-inch hemp rope would be H X Ya X 5400 = 3037.5 pounds. and the estimated safe load would be 5037.5 -=- 6 = 506.25 pounds. Calculation of Weight. — One rule for calculating the weight of rope is the following : To find the weight of a piece of rope one foot long, square the diameter measured in inches, and multiply this number by 0.32. Results ob- tained by this rule may vary as much as ten percent from the actual weight of new rope. Rope will take up moisture if stored in damp places, as basements, so that its weight will be considerably increased. The actual diameter of rope is usually a little larger than the figures given in the table. The circumference is given to the nearest eighth of an inch. The num- ber of feet in a coil may vary from the figures given in the table. Nearly all sizes are now put up in half coils also. The weight per coil will vary with the 244 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING number of feet and the amount of moisture contained in the rope. The weight of coils of new rope of equal length as received from the factory may vary as much as 15 per cent from the weights given in the table. The weights given for coils have been obtained by averaging values obtained from various manufacturers' catalogs Figure 3 with the calculated value. The figures giving the weights of one hundred feet and the number of feet in one pound have been obtained by averaging values obtained from manufacturers' catalogs. The actual weights and lengths may vary as much as 10 percent, because of differences in hardness of twist and moisture content. The breaking strength of Manila rope has been obtained by averaging values ob- tained by calculation with those obtained from tests by C. W. Hunt, Spencer Mil- ler, Kent's Mechanical Engineers' Pocket Book (1909), page 344, the Watertown ROPE AND ITS USE 245 Arsenal, and the American Civil Engineers' Pocket Book (1911), page 398, John Wiley and Sons. The figures are considered more reliable than those from manu- facturers' catalogs. The figures for the breaking strength of hemp are approxi- mately three-fourths of the values given for Manila. The safe loads are ap- proximately one-sixth of the breaking strengths. Gare of Rope. — Keep rope in a dry place, do not leave it out in the rain. If a rope gets wet, stretch it out straight to dry. Do not let the ends become un- twisted but .fix them in some way to prevent it as soon as the rope is obtained. A k C^ >^^# BlA WjkSsp aMf***" ;• Figure 4 stiff and hard rope may be made very soft and flexible by boiling for a time in pure water. This will of course remove some of the tar or other preservatives. Cowboys treat their lasso ropes in this way. Uncoiling Rope. — 1. Start with the end found in the center of the coil as shown in Figure 3. 2. Pull this end out and the rope should uncoil in a direction opposite to the direction of motion of the hands of a clock as shown by the arrow in Figure 3. 3. If it uncoils in the wrong direction, turn the coil over and pull this same end through the center of the coil and out on the other side. 4. If these directions are followed, the rope will come out" of the coil with very few kinks or snarls. 246 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Relaying an Untwisted Rope. — Knowing- how to relay the strands is use- ful because it enables you to save a part of the strands that would otherwise have to be cut off and wasted. In relaying do not twist or turn the rope but twist each strand up tight and lay it in its proper place as shown by strand A in Figure 4, holding it with the thumb. Strand B is next put in place, then strand C, and then strand A again. Principles of a Knot. — "The principle of a knot is that no two parts which would move in the same direction if the rope were to slip should lay along side of and touching each other." Kent's Mechanical Engineers' Pocket Book (1907), page 345. Figure 5 Hi ^BHk Figure 6 Figure 7 "Another principle that should be added to the above is that a knot or hitch must be so devised that the tight part of the rope must bear on the free end in such a manner as to pinch and hold it, in a knot, against another tight part of the rope, or in a hitch, against the object to which the rope is attached." Cornell Read- ing Courses, Vol. 1, No. 8. Elements of a Knot. — The open bight, Figure 5, bight, Figure 6, and round turn, Figure 7, are elements that are used in making knots, hitches, and splices. Preventing the Ends of Rope from Untwisting. Whipping. — Whipping 1 should be used wherever the end of the rope must pass through small openings, as in reeving a set of blocks. In whipping, carefully observe these directions : 1. Put a string under a strand of the rope at a distance from the end which is equal to a turn of one strand, as shown in Figure 8, and allow several inches of end, as shown at A in Figure 8. ROPE AND ITS USE 247 2. Give the end B one turn around the rope as shown by the arrow in Figure 8, and then fold the end A over as shown in Figure 9. 3. Continue whipping or wrapping the end B tightly around the rope and end A until you have reached a point about midway between the starting point and the end of the rope, as shown in Figure 10. Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 4. Fold the end A back, making a loop that will reach slightly beyond the end of the rope as shown in Figure 10. 5. Continue whipping the end B around the rope outside the loop which should be laid in the groove formed by two strands, until the work appears as shown in Figure 11. 6. Pass the end B through the loop, then pull end A until it draws the end B under the whipping as far as possible, and cut both ends off very close. The completed work should appear as shown in Figure 12. Slip Knot and Half Hitch.— The slip knot and half hitch constitutes a combination that is used for the same purposes as the Flemish loop but is made in this way: 1. Tie a slip knot as shown in Figure 13. 2. Move end A as shown by the arrow in Figure 13, which gives Figure 11 Figure 12 it a half hitch around the long end as shown in Figure 14. 3. Complete the knot by drawing up tight as shown in Figure 15. Spliced Eye. — The spliced eye is used to fasten a rope permanently into a ring or eye, or to make a permanent loop at the end of a rope. The same method 248 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Figure 13 may be used for splicing one rope into the side of another. Learn to make the short splice before trying to- make the spliced eye, then follow these directions: 1. Unlay the strands about five turns, and start strand 1 under any strand as shown at point B in Figure 16. The dis- tance from A to B should be enough to make an eye of the de- sired size. 2. Draw strand 1 through the rope and start strand 2 under the next strand at point B as shown in Figure 17. Be sure not to get strand 3 in the place of strand 2. 3. Pass strand 3 under the next strand at point B as shown in Figure 18. 4. Draw the three strands up tight and splice them into the rope just as you do in making the short splice. The remainder of the work is shown in Figures 19, 20 and 21. Figure 14 Loops Between the Rope's Ends. Double Bowline. — The double bowline is used when a loop is wanted between the ends of a rope that will not pull tight or slip. It may be tied as follows : 1. Grasp the rope as shown in Figure 22. 2. Tie an overhand knot as shown in Figure 23. 3. Fold loop A back over the overhand knot as shown by the arrow in Figure 23, and then grasp the knot with the left hand exactly at point B, as shown in Figures 23 and 24. 4. Hold the double bight securely in the left hand and draw that part of the rope which forms loop A through the double bight, as shown by the arrow in Figure 24. The finished knot is shown in Figure 25. The knot may be tied through a loose ring. Harness Hitch. — The harness hitch is used when vou wish to make a Figure 15 ROPE AND ITS USE 24:9 loop at a point in a rope and still pull on both ends or on one end of the rope. It is made as follows : 1. Hold the rope as shown in Figure 26. 2. Move the right hand as shown by the arrow in Figure 26, thus putting the rope in the position shown in Figure 27. Figure 16 Figure 17 250 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 3. Move point B of the large loop as shown by the arrow in Figure 27 and pass it through loop A, when it should appear as shown in Figure 28. 4. Complete the hitch by drawing it up tight as shown in Figure 29. Figure 18 Figure 19 Figure 20 Figure 21 ROPE AND ITS USE 251 Farmer's Loop. — The farmer's loop is used for the same purpose as the harness hitch. The method of making this loop was obtained from the Cornell Reading Course Leaflet, Vol. 1, No. 8, Page 74. Figure 22 Figure 23 Figure 24 1. Make two round turns as shown in Figure 30. 2. Pass part A under part B as shown by the arrow in Figure 30, and it should then appear as shown in Figure 31. 3. Pass part C under part A as shown by the arrow in Figure 31, and it should then appear as shown in Figure 32. 4. Pass part B under part C as shown by the arrow in Figure 32, and it should then appear as shown in Figure 33. 5. Complete the loop by drawing it up tight as shown in Figure 33a. 252 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Hitches. Sheep Shank. — The sheep shank is used for shortening a rope tem- porarily. It is made in the following manner : 1. Grasp the rope as shown in Figure 34. 2. Make a half hitch around the loop A, as shown in Figure 35, by moving the right hand as shown by the arrow in Figure 34. Figure 25 Figure 26 Figure 27 3. Grasp loop B with the left hand and half hitch the long part of the rope around the loop as shown in Figure 36. 4. Pull on the long ends of the rope, and the completed sheep shank should appear as shown in Figure 37. It may be made more secure by passing the long ends through the loops or by fastening the loops to the main parts. Half Hitch. — In Figure 38 the short end of the rope is half hitched around the other part. ROPE AND ITS USE 253 Timber Hitch. — The timber hitch is used for dragging and lifting logs and timbers, and is shown in Figure 39. To make it, take a half hitch and then give the short end one turn around the rope. Two Half Hitches. — Two half hitches constitute a useful fastening for dragging and lifting timbers and for fastening guy ropes. Figure 41 shows the two half hitches made, correctly and Figure 40 shows the incorrect way of making them. Figure 28 Figure 29 Figure 30 Figure 31 Timber Hitch and Half Hitch. — A timber hitch and half hitch combined make a more secure fastening than either the timber hitch or half hitch used sepa- rately, and are used for similar purposes. The combination is shown in Figure 42. Make the half hitch first and then the timber hitch. Splices. Short Splice. — The short splice is used to fasten two pieces of rope to- gether securely, but should not be used where the splice must run over sheaves or 254 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING pulleys. In making the short splice with three-strand rope observe the following directions : 1. Count off seven and a half turns from the ends to be spliced and tie strings around the ropes at the points thus found, as shown in Figure 43. 2. Unlay the ends back to the strings and open each end as shown at A in Figure 44. The end shown at B, Figure 44, is not opened in the right way. No strand should pass between the other two. Be sure to have both ends opened as the one at A, for if you do not, the splice will never be correct. Figure 32 Figure 33 Figure 33A. 3. Put the two ends together as shown in Figures 45 and 46, being sure to have a strand from one end between two strands from the other end. We now have three pairs of strands, C and D, forming one pair. Have the strand D from the left hand rope between yourself and C as shown in Figure 46. 4. Start the twisting of the strands by tying each pair together with over- hand knots, having the direction of twist in the knot the same as the direction of twist in the strands, as shown by the arrow in Figure 47. ROPE AND ITS USE 255 5. Draw the three knots up tight by drawing each one up a little in turn, un- til they appear as shown in Figure 48. Figure 34 Figure 35 Figure 36 V - "^ mm J mi ^ mtm ^.. W&$&&&&- , Figure 37 6. Remove the string from the right hand end of the knots and continue the twisting with the aid of a marline spike as shown in Figure 49, giving one strand two turns, one strand three turns, and one strand four turns about the strands they are tied around. A marline spike is a piece of wood of the shape shown in Figure 49 and is 256 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING used to separate the strands in splicing rope. This one has a hole in the end in which the strand of rope may be placed with ease when the ends are whipped as shown at N in Figure 49. Be sure you continue the twisting in the same direction as it has been started in tying the knots. Keep the same pair of strands together all the time and twist the strand you are working with up tight every time it is put around the other, as this is the only way to get a firm, compact splice. Try to have the Figure 38 Figure 39 Figure 40 Figure 41 Figure 42 slope of the twist in each pair of strands the same as the slope of the twist in the yarns that make up the strand, as this will make a smoother splice. It is better to work with three pairs at the same time than to complete the twisting of each pair separately. 7. Divide the strand that has been given two turns into two nearly equal parts, as shown at E in Figure 50, and continue splicing with one part, giving it about three turns more. 8. Divide each of the other strands in the same way and give one part of each about three turns more. There should now be six half strands ending at different points along the splice as shown at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 in Figure 51. The strands are divided to make the splice taper out gradually. ROPE AND ITS USE 257 9. Remove the other string and finish that end of the splice in exactly the same way. 10. Finish the splice by cutting off the loose ends a short distance from the rope, as shown in Figure 52. If you cut the ends off close, they are likely to work Figure 43 Figure 44 loose. If your work has been done properly, you should be able to untwist the splice at any point, and it should show three separate strands, each one being twice the size of the original strands at the center of the splice. Long Splices. — Long splices are used to fasten two pieces of rope to- gether securely and are especially adapted to ropes that must run over sheaves or pulleys in hoisting and transmission work, as the completed splices are the same size as the rope. In making one with three-strand rope: %C I ^. HSr**** ^%S*5|P - JP* Wi H IS % w3 Figure 46 Figure 45 1. Count off sixteen turns (instead of seven and one-half as shown in figure 43 for making the short splice) from the ends to be spliced, and tie strings tightly around the ropes at the two points thus found. 258 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 2. Open and put the ends together in exactly the same way as shown in figures 4-5 and 46. 3. Select the pairs as shown in figure 46. 4. Twist two pairs together as shown at A and B in figure 53.' ■ Hf : "■■■ jf^ ■.;— * -•^fe-K. \ ^M f M \m Figure 47 5. Observing the cautions given below, remove the right hand string and start the splicing by unlaying strand C and laying D in its place as shown in figure 54. Continue this process until you have left only enough of strand D to reach a little more than three turns, as shown in figure 55. Then half-hitch D around the rope so as to hold itself and C from untwisting, as shown in figure 56. Figure 48 Figure 49 C and D are on the left of Figure 56. The rope is usually turned as it is easier to work toward the right hand ; or else the workman gets on the opposite side of the rope. Be sure that the ends of the ropes are forced closely together when you begin splicing. Be sure to keep the strand you are relaying, as D in figure 54, ROPE AND ITS USE Zo 9 twisted very tightly. As you unlay one strand, as C in figure 51, relay the other in its place immediately ; that is, keep them close together. 6. Untwist the strands at A, in figure 55, remove the other string, and then unlay one of the strands and lay the other in its place exactly as you did with C and D, but work in the opposite direction from the center of the splice as shown in figure 56. Figure 50 Figure 51 7. Cut off the middle pair of strands, as shown at B in figure 57, leaving enough of each one to reach at least three turns further. 8. Unlay each strand of this pair three turns from the center point E, as shown in figure 58. ' 9. Divide each strand into two equal or nearly equal parts, as shown in figure 59. 10. Relay one part of each strand three turns again and tie an overhand knot, as shown in figure 60. Tie this knot exactly as shown, which is just like the start of the short splice. Figure 52 11. Draw this knot up tight and then continue twisting these two parts of strands together as shown in figure 61. The direction of twist and the method are the same as in making the short splice. Strand F should end at K and strand G should end at H as shown in figure 62. Be sure to keep the parts of strands twisted up tight. Do not twist either part of a strand around one of the other whole strands. Have the slope of the twist the same as the slope of the twist in the other whole strands for these two parts make a whole strand again. 260 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 12. Cut the ends of the parts of strands off a short distance from the rope, as shown in figure 63. 13. Finish one of the other pairs of strands by first loosening the hitch and cutting off the long strand, leaving it equal in length to the short one as shown in figure 64. The remainder of the work of finishing this pair is exactly the same as for the center pair, starting with step No. 8. Figure 53 Figure 54 14. Finish the third pair in a similar way and the completed splice should appear like figure 65. There are two parts of strands ending at each of the points M, N, O, P, R and S. In making a long splice with four-strand rope: 1. Count off twenty-two turns of the strands, instead of sixteen as in mak- ing the long splice in the three-strand rope. Be sure to pass over three strands at each count instead of two, and tie strings tightly around the ropes at the two points thus found. Figure 55 2. Spread the strands out from the centers of the ropes and put the ends together, allowing the cores to pass out on one side, as shown in figure 6Q. 3. Select the pairs of strands in the way shown in figure 46, but there are now four pairs. 4. Twist three pairs together as shown at A, B and C in figure 67. ROPE AND ITS USE 261 5. Observing the precautions given in step 5 of the directions for making a long splice in a three-strand rope, remove the right hand string and unlay strand 8 eighteen turns, and lay strand 7 in its place as shown in figure 68. 6. Remove the left hand string, unlay strand 3 eighteen turns, and lay strand 4 in its place, as shown in figure 68. Figure 56 Figure 57 7. Unlay strand 2 six turns and lay strand 1 in its place as shown in figure 69. 8. Unlay strand 5 six turns and lay strand 6 in its place as shown in figure 69. 9. Cut off all the long strands, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 and 8, leaving enough of each one for three more turns. Figure 58 Figure 59 10. Finish each pair of strands at the points D, E, F and G, figure 69, using the methods shown in figures 58-63. In splicing transmission rope the ends of the half-strands are usually fastened as shown in figures 70 and 71. In this method one part is divided and the other passed through as shown at H in figure 70. The end that has not been divided is then tucked under the two adjacent strands as shown at K in figure 71. Cut the ends off a short distance from the rope. A four- strand splice finished in this way is shown in figure 72. 262 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Blocks and Tackle. A sheave or pulley or set of pulleys mounted within a shell or frame to which is fixed a hook, eye or ring at one end for attaching - it to a fixed or moving object and often a becket, consisting of an eye or some similar fasten- ing, at the other end for attaching one end of the rope, is called a block. Figure 60 Figure 61 A tackle is a mechanism of ropes, pulley-blocks, hooks, etc., for raising, lowering and moving heavy objects. Some of the common names applied to a tackle consisting of, two blocks and a rope are : fall and tackle, set of falls, set of blocks and pair of blocks. That ply of the rope of a tackle to which the power is applied is called the fall-rope. The block from which the fall-rope passes is called the fall-block. The block shown in figure 73 is a double block with a becket. The lower block in figure 74 is a double block without a becket. Figure 62 Figure 63 The fall-block in figure 76 is a triple block without a becket. The fall-block B in figure 77 is a single block with a becket. The lower block A in figure 77 is a single block without a becket. Reeving Blocks. — Reeving blocks is the process of passing the rope through the blocks in the proper way so as to get them ready for use. In any set of blocks one of them has a becket to which one end of the rope must ROPE AND ITS USE 263 be fastened. If both blocks have the same number of sheaves, the one having the becket is the fall-block. If one block has one sheave less than the other, the becket must be on the block with the smallest number of sheaves, but the other is the fall-block. Figure 64 Figure 65 In reeving blocks by the directions which follow, the rope is passed through the blocks in the direction opposite to that in which it runs when the blocks are being used to lift or pull. This is to avoid the necessity of pulling all the rope through the blocks in order to get them reeved. A set of blocks in which both blocks have the same number of sheaves is reeved .in the following way : Figure 66 Figure 67 1. Start with the block having the becket, the fall-block, by passing the rope over the sheave which is farthest from the becket as shown in figure 73. If the becket is in the middle the rope may be passed over either outside sheave. 2. Pass the rope over the proper outside sheave in the other block and then over the next sheave in the block, having the becket as shown in figure 74. 3. Now pass the rope back and forth from block to block, always passing 26-1 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING the rope over the sheave next to the ones the rope has been passed over, until all the sheaves are filled, and then fasten the end that you have been passing over the sheaves to the becket with a spliced eye, like the one shown in When completed the work should appear as shown in figure 75. figure 21 Figure 68 A set of blocks in which the block having the becket has one sheave less than the other is reeved in the following way : 1. Start with the block without the becket, the fall-block, by passing the rope over one of the outside sheaves, as number 1 in figure 76. Figure C9 2. Pass the end of the rope in the right direction over the sheave in the other block which is farthest from the becket, as number 2 in figure 76. Start in the same way even if the block having the becket has onl} r one sheave. If the becket is in the middle of the block, start with either outside sheave. 3. Now pass the rope back and forth from block to block, always pass- ROPE AND ITS USE 265 ing the rope over the sheave next to the ones that the rope has been passed over until all the sheaves are filled and then fasten the end that yotrhave been passing over the sheaves to the becket with a spliced eye made as is the one shown in figure 21. The completed work should appear as shown in figure 76. Figure 70 Figure 71 Lifting Force of Blocks. — The load that can be lifted or moved with a set of blocks by applying a certain force to the fall-rope depends on (1) the number of plies of rope leading from the block that is fastened to the load; (2) the direction of pull when the fall-rope leads from the block fastened to the load ; (3) the amount of force necessary to overcome the friction in the sheaves and Figure 72 the stiffness of the rope; and (4) the ultimate strength of the rope and parts of the blocks, for as soon as we strain any part to the breaking point, the blocks will give way. 266 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Suppose that the two plies of rope leading from block A in Figure 77 are cut at the points a and b, and then a spring scale like the one shown in Figure 78 is tied between the ends of each ply. Now if a pull of 100 pounds is exerted on the fall-rope, each of the scales will show it is holding a force of approximately 100 pounds, the small error being due to friction and the stiffness of the rope. Figure 73 Figure 74 This would show that all parts of the rope are under the same strain or tension. Since each of the scales lifts on block A with a force which is nearly equal to 100 pounds, the block A will lift on a load with a force which is little less than 200 pounds. We thus see that the block A lifts with a force which is nearly equal to the pull on the fall-rope times the number of plies leading from block A. If the pull on the fall-rope is 100 pounds and directly downward, parallel to the other plies, we then have three plies pulling down on block B, so that block B pulls down on its support with a force of approximately 300 pounds. It is thus seen that the pull exerted by the fall-block on its support is greater than the pull ROPE AND ITS USE 267 or lifting force exerted by the other block on the load, by an amount which is equal to the pull on. the fall-rope. By applying the same method of reasoning to Figure 75, a weight may be lifted which is nearly equal to four times the pull on the fall-rope for there are four plies leading from the block which would be attached to the load. The Figure 75 Figure 76 fall-block will pull down on- its support with a force which is nearly five times the pull on the fall-rope. In a similar way by using a set of blocks like those shown in Figure 76 a weight may be lifted which is approximately five times the pull on the fall-rope.. The pull-down by the fall-block on its support will be nearly six times the pull on the fall-rope. The lifting power of a set of blocks containing any number of sheaves may be calculated by applying the same method of reasoning to it. 268 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING The following table gives the ratios of load to a fall-rope pull for tackles consisting- of two blocks : Figure Number Number Sheaves Diameter of Rop e in Inches Fall- Movable block block % v% 1 1M m 1M 2 77 1 1 1.93 1.92 1.93 1.92 1.91 1.91 1.91 79 2 1 2.73 2.6S 2.74 2.68 2.67 2.64 2.65 75 2 2 3.48 3.37 3.50 3.37 3.36 3.30 3.32 76 3 2 4.12 3.95 4.16 3.95 3.93 3.84 3.87 Compiled from the American Civil Engineers' Pocket Book. Example. — Suppose we wish to know how much can be lifted by a pull of 150 pounds on the fall-rope when the fall-block has two sheaves, the movable block two sheaves, and the rope is one inch in diameter. Looking at the table, we find that in the second line from the bottom each Dlock has two sheaves. Then following along this line to the column for one-inch rope, we find the number of 3.50. If we multiply 150 by 3.50, we obtain 525, which is the number of pounds that can be lifted. Moving Heavy Objects. — In the previous discussions regarding the lift- ing force of blocks it has been shown that the fall-block pulls down on its support with a force which is greater than that exerted by the other block on the object to be lifted. It is then advisable, if possible, when heavy objects such as build- ings are to be moved, that the fall-block be fastened to the object to be moved. The pull on the fall-rope should also be directly toward the fixed block. In this way all of the pull exerted on the fall-block will be in the same direction and it will have a greater effect on the object to be moved. When the fall-block is not fastened to the object to be moved, the pull on the fall-rope may be in any direc- tion, without changing the direction or amount of the pull exerted on the object to be moved. Maximum and Safe Loads. — The maximum or heaviest load that can be lifted with a set of blocks depends on the strength of the rope and parts of the blocks. The strength of a set of blocks depends so much on care and wear after they have been used for a short time that it is not possible to give any reliable figures. If the strength of new blocks is proportional to the number of plies of rope that will lead from them, then we can find the safe load they will lift using the table previously given. If in the table we find the safe load for the size and kind of rope that is used and multiply this figure by the number of plies leading from the block that is to be attached to the load, we shall obtain the safe load that can be lifted. Example. — Find the safe load for a set of new blocks like those in Figure 79, if a three-quarter-inch manila rope is used. The lower block has three plies leading from it. 3X650=1,950 Then 1.950 pounds is the safe load that can be lifted. When a set of blocks becomes weakened by wear, and lack of care, the safe ROPE AND ITS USE 269 load that can be lifted is largely a matter of good judgment. There is one rule that should always be observed in lifting heavy objects and that is, never stand beneath the object or in any place where it can injure you if it falls. Figure 77 Theoretical Discussion. Let P = the force applied to the fall-rope A = the angle between the fall-rope and the other plies of rope W = the weight lifted N = the number of plies of rope leading from the lower block (not fall-block) V = the velocity of the weight W v = the velocity of P 270 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Then in all cases where friction, etc., are neglected. W = NP VW = vP v = NV Figure 78 Figure 79 When the fall-rope pulls at an angle to the other plies, the force exerted by the fall-block on its support and directly towards the other blocks is W-f-P cos A = (N + cos A) P. This is a maximum and is equal to (N + 1) P .= W + P when cos A = 1 ; i. e., A = O. Then in all cases where the fall-block is the moving block; i. e., the block attached to the load, the angle A should be zero in order to get a maximum force exerted in one direction. If angle A is not ROPE AND ITS USE 271 zero, there is a component equal to P in A exerted at right angles to the force (N + cos A) P. Information for Ordering Blocks. — Common wood blocks like those shown in this bulletin have a wood shell, iron sheaves, steel pins for the sheaves, and iron straps that pass through the hook and through which the steel pin passes. The becket is formed by the extension of the ends of one or more of the straps through which is passed a bolt carrying a thimble. For very heavy work such as stump pulling, railroad and bridge work, blocks may be had with extra heavy hooks and straps and these also have roller bear- ings for the sheaves. They may also be had with a shackle or device instead of a hook. Blocks made of steel may be had in all sizes and strengths. If blocks are wanted for wire rope, it must be so stated when ordering them as the sheaves are of a different style and the general construction of the blocks is different. In ordering common blocks the size or rope, number of sheaves, and whether with or without becket should be stated. If extra heavy roller-bushed blocks with shackles are wanted, these requirements should be stated. HANDY HOME HELPS. KITCHEN HELPS. Butter Paddles. To keep butter from sticking to the butter paddle, rub salt well over the pad- dle before using. Butter. To Keep Butter Firm. — A cloth which has been wrung out of cold water and then placed over the top and all about the butter dish will keep butter almost as firm as it could be kept in a refrigerator. Butter may be kept firm in Handy Butter Worker. This slopes toward the narrow end, enough to drain readily. A piece of lead pipe "A" many be inserted for this purpose. The working bar may be easily inserted into the hole at the end. The bar is shaped so that two flat sides meet at right angle and the other sides form a half round. Delivery or Shipping Box for Butter. Cut shows how one box is placed inside the other. Put a deep rectangular can of fine ice in the middle of the box: then place the pound prints around it. this way even in a hot kitchen if placed in a draft. The draft increases the evap- oration — the cause of the firmness. To Tell Pure Butter. — To determine if butter is pure, put a little in a teaspoon and hold it over a flame. If pure it will boil, if adulterated it will sput- ter as it heats. Butter and Sugar, to Cream. — Scald a bowl with boiling water then mix butter and sugar. It will then cream very easily. 272 HANDY HOME HELPS 273 Butter, to Keep. — Work it free from milk. Salt it good. Pack in earthen crocks or jars, sprinkling thin coverings of sugar between the layers. This will keep it fresh for four to six months. Butter will remain fresh much longer if it is put into a crock containing charcoal. Wring a cloth out of cold water and cover the butter dish to keep the con- tents from becoming strong. Rancid Butter. — Wash in lime water and rinse in clear cold water to sweeten. Wash butter first with fresh milk, then with water, and work out. Add half teaspoonful chloride of lime to each two pounds of butter in hot water bath, mixing with it some pure animal charcoal. Stir well, then strain through a clean funnel. This takes out the charcoal and the butter is sweetened. When butter becomes rancid sweeten it by soaking in water to which a hand- ful of bicarbonate of soda has been added. Then wash it in sweet milk which can be used for cooking purposes. Coffee. To Economize on Coffee. — Soak the coffee for some time after grinding, and before boiling. Of course it should not be soaked in a metal pot for this would give an unpleasant flavor. To Insure Good Coffee. — Keep the pots bright on the inside. This may be done by boiling soapy water and washing soda in them. To Keep Tea and Coffee Fresh. — Each should be kept in a closed chest or other closed vessel. To Clear Coffee. — When a pound of coffee is bought it should be placed in a bowl and three eggs added. Mix these thoroughly and dry on a pan in the oven. Put back in coffee box. The coffee will clear without adding an egg to it each time. By doing this, about half the cost of serving clear coffee is eliminated. Egg shells dropped into the coffee pot in the place of the egg will clear coffee. To Sweeten Coffee Pots. — Almost fill with cold water adding a teaspoon- ful of powdered borax and a lump of washing soda. Let come to a boil slowly, then empty and wash in good soapy water. Coffee Percolator. — Take old tin wick holder from an oil stove, remove wick and boil it half an hour in soda water. Clean thoroughly. Bind down the prongs that held the wick. Insert an upturned glass lid and hang by wires in old coffee pot. This makes a fine coffee percolator. Eggs. Egg Test. — Go into a dark room and hold egg up to a candle or light. If transparent or easily seen through in the center, it is fresh. If dark colored in the center it is not fresh. To Beat. — Add just a little salt to the whites and it will make the beating quicker and easier. Egg Shells. — They are good for cleaning purposes and should be powdered or broken into small pieces if desired for bottles. 274 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING To Keep Yolks Fresh. — A yolk of an egg can be kept fresh several days if a little cold water is poured over it. To Make a White of Egg Go Twice As Far. — Beat the egg as usual, first adding a pinch of salt and one tablespoonful of water. Also add one table- spoonful or two of sugar when light. Have a kettle of boiling water ready and drop this in until set. It will be puffed up twice as much and can then be spread as usual. To Prevent Whites from Breaking in Poaching Eggs. — Add a few drops of vinegar to the water. This also keeps the whites from spreading too much. Quick Way to Beat Whites of Eggs for Frosting. — Add one teaspoonful of cold water and beat fast. To Swallow. — Break it in a slender glass and swallow whole. It goes down easily. To Preserve Eggs for Winter. — Get a water-tight barrel. Fill it half full of a mixture consisting of two pints of fresh slaked lime and one pint of salt to a pailful of water. Eggs may be placed in this mixture any time after June. This method is also reliable. Eggs have been kept two years in this way. Prepare a mixture of ten parts water to one part water glass. Drop fresh, dry, clean eggs into the mixture. When the vessel is filled, put in a place where it will not freeze. Every druggist handles water glass (silicate of soda). The lady sending in this recipe says that she has used it for years and has always found the last egg taken out in the spring quite as good as the first one used. The up-to-date house wife can take advantage of the opportunity to secure eggs at a moderate price and preserve them by this method. She can then keep up her table at a reduced expense. Fruits. Canning. — Picking fruit for canning. Rain-soaked fruit does not jelly well. Pick firm, ripe fruit for pickling. In preserving, add 2 l /> teaspoonfuls of peroxide of hydrogen to each quart of fruit preserved. Preserving With Dry Sugar. — Place fruit in thick layers of sugar. Leave for some time, then wipe off sugar and wash fruit completely drying it. Canning Without Sugar- — Put juices in glass cans set on strips of wood in the boiling pan. Fill with water, leave uncovered. Boil water and continue until the juice is at boiling point. Then close bottles but do not seal. Sun Process of Canning. — It is understood by many that setting jellies in a sunny place will save considerable sugar. After filling glasses before covering, set on window ledge. A little sugar sifted on top of the glass will give added flavor. Always dry fruit and vegetables in the sun if possible, and the fruit flavor will be retained. Drying Fruit. — Tie slats or screens close to the ceiling and place sliced fruit on it to dry. The heat goes to the ceiling and therefore is well used. To Restore Rubber Bands. — One cup ammonia and two cups of water. Soak any rubber goods in this and they will become elastic again. To Take Corks From Bottles. — While filling with juices or catsup put a HANDY HOME HELPS 275 loop of stout cord around the cork, then insert in bottle leaving a couple inches of cord hanging out. Seal with wax. When wanted, the cork can easily be removed by pulling the cord. To Keep Apples. — Fall apples may be put in pits lined with straw. Do not cover for several days. Then cover with sand leaving several air holes. Cranberries. — Fill butter or lard tub with fresh cranberries and water. Close cover tightly. Put in basement. Lemons. — These may be kept fresh by wrapping closely and packing in dark, cool jar. Also by placing in can of cold water. Change water daily. Lemons and Oranges. — Dry thoroughly and wrap in clean tissue paper. See that no skin of one orange touches that of another. Peaches or Pears. — Pick before they mellow, wipe and wrap in separate papers. Keep in cool place below 60 degrees. To Dry Currants and Grapes. — Dip bunches in a mixture of egg whites and gum arabic. Let them drip a while, roll in powdered sugar, then put in heated oven and turn them often until dried. Several bunches at a time can be handled on a wire screen. Figs. — Lay ripe figs in hot sun to dry. They can be packed in paper lined boxes. Grapes. — Pick and lay on wooden trays placed in rows slanting toward the sun. In turning, merely place an empty tray on top and turn over leaving grapes with undried side toward the sun. Peaches. — Take mellow peaches, put in hot water so they will peel easily. Quarter and place on drying racks or papers in the sun. Brown sugar will make grapefruit sweeter than powdered or granulated sugar. Jelly Making. — Save all olive bottles and glasses as well as the tops for use during canning season. Acid fruits attack aluminum while being cooked in such dishes, so use good clean and unchipped enamel ware. Wooden stirring spoons, forks, and ladles are fine for kitchen use. To Learn If Fruit Juice Will Make Jelly. — Some fruits are lacking in pectin, the part which is necessary to make them "jell." To test fruit juice to see if it has the necessary pectin in it, add a small amount of a 15 percent solution of grain alcohol to an equal amount of fruit juice. If the mixture remains clear it will not jell; otherwise the juice will make the jelly. Orange Peel. — Dry thoroughly and save orange peelings. Then in the winter evenings turn out the lights, place some of the dried peelings on live coals and a very pretty effect is obtained. Raisins. — Always boil in water, then squeeze and the seeds will come out easily Rotting Apples. — Sort, cut out spots and peel. Then cook. They will keep as sauce and will save considerable fruit. Sugar Substitute. — For acid fruits add a little baking soda to the cooking fruit and it sweetens them very much. Less sugar need be added. 276 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE- ENGINEERING Stone Cherries. — Take a large sized hairpin. Insert the loop of hairpin into the cherry close to the stem and draw out the stone. It comes out clean with stem and leaves the cherry whole. Once this way is used the cherry pitter will not be used again because this method is so much quicker and leaves the cherry in fine condition. MEATS Beef. The numbers on this picture locate various cuts of beef : No. 1 Porterhouse. No. 2 Sirloin. No. 3 Round. No. 4 Top Sirloin. No. 5 Rib Roast No 6 Rump. No. 7 Cross Rib. No. S Flank. No. 9 Chuck. No. 10 Blade. No. 11 Shoulder. No. 12 Neck. No. 13 Brisket. No. 14 Plate. No. 15 Navel. No. 16 Shin. Do you know that the less tender cuts are more nourishing than the more expensive cuts ? Do you know that the less expensive cuts, if properly cooked and seasoned, are mighty good eating? Flank steak costs much less than top sirloin or round steak, but it makes an excellent roast. It can also be pot-roasted or used as chopped meat. Chuck or round steak costs much less than porterhouse or sirloin and can be broiled in the same manner. Chuck roast costs much less than rib roast and will make just as appetizing a dish if the bone is removed, the meat rolled and then roasted. The beef neck is juicy and well flavored. It rarely sells for over 16 cents a pound and makes a good pot roast and excellent stews and soups. The cross rib makes an excellent pot roast and there is no waste. Shin of beef makes a good "beef a la mode.'' Cut it up the same as for stew ; brown the pieces in hot fat ; then add water ; cook in a pot the same as pot roast, and serve with the gravy. By browning the meat in hot fat you retain its juices and this adds greatly to the flavor of the dish. HANDY HOME HELPS 277 Shin of beef makes a very nourishing soup and the meat can be taken from the pot afterward and served with horseradish sauce. In broiling or roasting the less tender cuts, if you are afraid that they will not be as tender as you would like, they can be made tender if treated in the following simple manner: Mix two tablespoonfuls of oil and one tablespoonful of vinegar; brush this over the meat and let the meat stand for half an hour before cooking it. If you buy a rib roast of beef, have your butcher cut the rib end off so that you can use it for making soup. If it is left on and roasted with the rest of the meat it is largely wasted. In corned beef, the flank piece, the navel piece, the plate piece and the brisket piece cost the least. These cuts are much more juicy and palatable than the rump piece, and the left over portions can be used to make a splendid hash. Be sure that the beef you buy has a red, rosy color ; that it is well streaked with fat; that the fat is yellow white; that the lean is firm and elastic and scarcely moist when touched with the finger. Do not buy beef that is wet or flabby or that looks pink or purple as it lies on the counter. You work hard to earn a dollar. Use the information contained in this circu- lar to help save part of that dollar. Little vinegar added to water makes meat tender. Add a pinch of baking powder and the dressing will not be heavy. Turn roasts with a big spoon instead of a fork and the juices will not be let out. After roasting for twenty minutes lower the temperature of the oven and the juices will not be boiled away. To fry thin bacon without it curling up, put a teaspoonful of water in pan while frying. Allow twenty minutes to the pound for roasting meat. For three pounds allow one hour. MEATS ON THE FARM. Keeping of Meats. Cooling the Carcass. — While it is almost impossible to get the best con- ditions for handling meat on the farm, a knowledge of the best principles may aid in getting a better quality of meat. It is very important that the carcasses be cooled soon after slaughtering, and yet that they be not allowed to freeze. While the temperature can not well be controlled on the farm, it is possible to slaughter when the weather is favorable to the proper cooling of the carcass. If during the winter season choose a day when there is prospect for cooling the carcass before the surface freezes. The most desirable temperature for cooling meat is 34° to 40° F., and an approach to these temperatures will give good results. In summer seasons it is best to dress the animal in the evening, leaving the carcass in the cpen air over night and carrying it to a cool, dark cellar before the flies are out in the morning. Very often a cool room in the barn can be used for the purpose if made dark. There should be no fresh paint, tar, kerosene, or other 278 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING like substance around, however, as freshly killed meat absorbs such flavors read- ily. Cooling is often hastened by splitting the carcass into halves or even into small pieces. It is best, however, not to divide the carcass until the meat is firmly set unless absolutely necessary to prevent it from souring. Stripping out the leaf lard materially aids in quickly cooling the hog carcass. For the best results in cooling meat, the air should be dry, as well as of low temperature ; and free cir- culation aids greatly in carrying away foul odors and mold spores. It is also important that flies and insects be kept away from the meat. If it is fly blown, maggots will soon appear and it will be very difficult to save the meat. Keeping Fresh Meat. Cold Storage. — Meat used while fresh is more nutritious and palatable than salted or cured meats. It is therefore desirable to use as much of it uncured as possible. It is very difficult to keep meat fresh during the summer months without the use of ice, and even then but little can be handled at one time on the ordinary farm. Where a room or family refrigerator can be kept at a tempera- ture of 40° or less, with good ventilation and circulation of air, fresh meat can be kept for a week or ten days. It is very important that the circulation be free and the air dry. Moisture in a refrigerator tends to develop wet mold or slime, and a little decay soon contaminates the whole piece. Less difficulty will be experienced in keeping fresh meat if it is kept in a room where the temperature is high and the air dry than where the temperature is low and the air damp. Where an ice house is filled each year a small portion of it may be partitioned off as a cold storage room. With the ice properly packed on three sides of it, and with good drainage, this makes a very satisfactory place for keeping meat, and it may also be used for storing butter and other perishable products. In the North meat is kept during the cold season by freezing. A carcass is cut up into quarters, or even smaller pieces, and hung in an outbuilding, where it will remain frozen solid. When a portion is wanted it may be cut off with a saw. If the meat is taken into a cold room and slowly thawed out the flavor is only slightly injured. No more should be taken in at one time than is wanted for im- mediate use. Repeated freezing and thawing are injurious to the flavor and quality of the meat ; hence the importance of keeping it where the temperature will remain sufficiently low to prevent thawing. Insects should not be allowed to get at the meat. For this reason a dark, cool cellar is the best place for keeping fresh meat on the farm. The cellar should be clean and free from odors or the meat will become tainted. Snow Packing. — Freezing the pieces and packing them in snow is a better way of keeping meat than freezing the carcass and thawing to remove a portion as wanted. The carcass should be cut into steaks, roasts, and boiling meat. All trimming for table use should be done before allowing the meat to freeze. Lay each piece out to freeze separately, where it will not come in contact with other meat. Secure a box large enough to hold it all and put a layer of dry snow at the bottom. When the meat is frozen put in a layer, packing it so that no two pieces touch. Cover this with a laver of snow and lav alternate lavers of snow and meat HANDY HOME HELPS 279 until the box is filled. Set the box in an outside shed where it will not be subject to sudden changes of temperature. For convenience in getting the meat when wanted it is well to pack the steaks in one section or end of the box and the roasts and stews in another. It will not then be necessary to disturb anything but the piece desired when a supply is needed. Use only dry snow in packing, be sure the meat is frozen solid, and it can then be kept through the winter unless there is a very warm spell. This method is applicable only to localities where snow and continued dry cold weather prevail during the winter months. Cooking. — Partial cooking and packing in jars is also resorted to as a means of preserving meat in some localities. This method is applicable to a larger territory than either of the methods already given. It will be the most satisfac- tory in the keeping of fresh pork in any instance. Slice the loin and side meat or any portion of the carcass desired and fry until a little more than half done. Pack the slices as closely as possible in a stone jar and cover with hot lard. As the meat is wanted for use it may be removed from the jar and warmed up. If the jar is to stand for any length of time after it has been opened without using from it, it will be best to cover the top over again with the lard. It is better to use several small jars than one large one. They should be kept in a cool, dark cellar to insure safe-keeping of the meat. When meat is to be kept for only a few days a light coat of fine salt applied to the surface will be found sufficient if the meat is kept in a dark and compara- tively cool place. Usually when meat is to be salted, however, it will be best to put it in brine of sufficient strength to preserve it for several weeks. Curing Meats. Meat must be properly and thoroughly cooled to insure good keeping qualities when cured. If salted before the animal heat is out, the shrinkage of the muscles causes the retention of injurious gases, giving an offensive odor to the meat. Neither should meat be frozen when salted, as the action of the frost will prevent the proper penetration of the salt and uneven curing will result. It is important, also, that curing should begin as soon as the meat is cooled and while it is still fresh. Tainted meat may be cured so that it will keep, but nothing in the line of preservatives can bring back the natural flavor when it is once lost. The safest rule to follow is to salt meat as soon as the animal heat is out, and before it freezes or starts to decay. Ordinarily twenty-four to thirty-six hours after slaughtering will allow sufficient time for cooling. Vessels for Curing. A clean hard-wood barrel is a suitable vessel in which to cure meat. A barrel made for the purpose is best, but where it can not be had a molasses or syrup barrel will answer. A kerosene barrel that has been burned out and used for a water barrel for some time is often used for a meat barrel. The important point is to have it clean and tight enough to prevent leakage. A large stone jar is the best vessel that can be had. One holding 25 or 30 gallons is expensive, however, and must be carefully 280 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING handled to prevent breakage. The jar is more easily cleaned than a barrel and is in every way preferable if the first cost can be afforded. A barrel or jar that has once held meat may be used again and again unless meat has spoiled in it. If used repeatedly it will be necessary to scald it out thoroughly each time before packing with fresh meat. Preservatives. Salt and sugar or molasses are the preservatives most commonly used, and are considered the only ones necessary for perfect curing and the finest quality of cured meats. Borax, boracic acid, formalin, salicylic acid, and other chemicals are sometimes used in preserving meats, but they are considered by so many au- thorities to be harmful to the health of the consumer that their use should be avoided. The proprietary preparations put on the market are also dangerous to health. They are more active than salt, and the chief reason for their use is to hasten the curing process. Salt is an astringent, and when applied alone to meat renders it very hard and dry. Its action is first to draw out the meat juices. In a few days it will con- tract and harden the muscle fibers, thus shrinking the volume of meat. Saltpeter is used to preserve the natural color of the flesh or to give a reddish color, but it is harmful to the health. It is even more astringent than salt. Sugar is not an astringent and its presence in the pickle softens the muscle fibres and improves the flavor of the meat. Saleratus (baking soda) is used in small quantities to sweeten the brine. In warm weather a small quantity will aid in preventing the brine from spoiling. Curing in Brine and Dry Curing Compared. Brine-cured meats are best for farm use, for the reason that a suitable place for dry curing is not usually obtainable. It is also less trouble to pack the meat in a barrel and pour on a brine than to go over it three or four times to rub in the salt. The brining method also gives better protection from insects and vermin. Trouble is sometimes experienced in keeping brine, but if pure water is used and directions followed in making the brine there should be no difficulty in keeping it for a reasonable length of time. During warm weather brine should be closely watched. If it becomes "ropy," like syrup, it should be boiled or new brine made. A cool, moist cellar is the best place for brine curing. Dry curing may be done successfully in a cellar also, though even more moisture is needed to effect a thor- ough cure. The cellar should be dark and tight enough to prevent flies and vermin from damaging the meat. Recipes for Curing. Corned Beef. — The pieces commonly used for corning are the plate, rump, cross ribs, and brisket, or in other words the cheaper cuts of meat. The loin, ribs, and other fancy cuts are more often used fresh, and since there is more or less waste of nutrients in corning, this is well. The pieces for corning should be cut into convenient-sized joints, say, 5 or 6 inches square. It should be the aim to cut them all about the same thickness so that they will make an even layer in the barrel. HANDY HOME HELPS 281 Meat from fat animals makes choicer corned beef than that from poor ani- mals. When the meat is thoroughly cooled it should be corned as soon as possible, as any decay in the meat is likely to spoil the brine during the corning process. Under no circumstances should the meat be brined while it is frozen. Weigh out the meat and allow 8 pounds of sait to each 100 pounds; sprinkle a layer of salt one-quarter of an inch in depth over the bottom of the barrel; pack in as closely as possible the cuts of meat, making a layer 5 or 6 inches in thickness; then put on a layer of salt, following that with another layer of meat ; repeat until the meat and salt have all been packed in the barrel, care being used to reserve salt enough for a good layer over the top. After the package has stood over night add for every 100 pounds of meat, 1 pounds of sugar, 2 ounces of baking soda. Three gallons more of water should be sufficient to cover this quantity. In case more or less-than 100 pounds of meat is to be corned, make the brine in the proportion given. A loose board cover, weighted down with a heavy stone or piece of iron, should be put on the meat to keep all of it under the brine. In case any should project, rust would start and the brine would spoil in a short time. It is not necessary to boil the brine except in warm weather. If the meat has been corned during the winter and must be kept into the summer season, it would be well to watch the brine closely during the spring, as it is more likely to spoil at that time than at any other season. If the brine appears to be ropy or does not drip freely from the finger when immersed and lifted, it should be turned off and new brine added, after carefully washing the meat. The sugar or molasses in the brine has a tendency to ferment, and, unless the brine is kept in a cool place, there is sometimes trouble from this source. The meat should be kept in the brine twenty-eight to forty days to secure thorough corning. Dried Beef. — The round is commonly used for dried beef, the inside of the thigh being considered the choicest piece, as it is slightly more tender than the outside of the round. The round should be cut lengthwise of the grain of the meat in preparing for dried beef, so that the muscle fibers may be cut cross wise when the dried beef is sliced for table use. A tight jar or cask is necessary for curing. The process is as follows : To each 100 pounds of meat weigh out 5 pounds of salt, 3 pounds of granulated sugar ; mix thoroughly together. Rub the meat on all surfaces with a third of the mixture and pack it in the jar as tightly as possible. Allow it to remain three days,, when it should be removed and rubbed again with another third of the mixture. In repacking put at the bottom the pieces that were on top the first time. Let stand for three days, when they should be removed and rubbed with the remaining third of the mixture and allowed to stand for three days more. The meat is then ready to be removed from the pickle. The liquid forming in the jars should not be removed, but the meat should be repacked in the liquid each time. After being removed from the pickle the meat should be smoked and hung in a dry attic or near the kitchen fire where the water will evapo- rate from it. It may be used at any time after smoking, although the longer it hangs in the dry atmosphere the drier it will get. The drier the climate, in general, the more easily meats can be dried. In arid regions good dried meat can be made by exposing it fresh to the air, with protection from flies. Plain Salt Pork. — Rub each piece of meat with fine common salt and pack 282 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING closely in a barrel. Let stand over night. The next day weigh out 10 pounds of salt to each 100 pounds of meat and dissolve in 4 gallons of boiling water. Pour this brine over the meat when cold, cover and weight down to keep it under the brine. Meat will pack best if cut into pieces about 6 inches square. The pork should be kept in the brine till used. Sugar-Cured Hams and Bacon. — When the meat is cooled, rub each piece with salt and allow it to drain overnight. Then pack it in a barrel with the hams and shoulders in the bottom, using the strips of bacon to fill in between or to put on top. Weigh out for each 100 pounds of meat 8 pounds of salt and 2 pounds of brown sugar. Dissolve all in 4 gallons of water, and cover the meat with the brine. For summer use it will be safest to boil the brine before using. In that case it should be thoroughly cooled before it is used. For winter curing it is not necessary to boil the brine. Bacon strips should remain in this brine four to .six weeks ; hams six to eight weeks. This is a standard recipe and has given the best of satisfaction. Hams and bacon cured in the spring will keep right through the summer after they are smoked. The meat will be sweet and palatable if it is properly smoked, and the flavor will be good. Dry-Cured Pork. — For each 100 pounds of meat weigh out 5 pounds of salt, 2 pounds of granulated sugar, and mix them thoroughly. Rub the meat once every three days with a third of the mixture. While the meat is curing it is best to have it packed in a barrel or tight box. For the sake of convenience it is advisable to have two barrels, and to transfer the meat from one to the other each time it is rubbed. After the last rubbing the meat should lie in the barrel for a week or ten days, when it will be cured and ready to smoke. To cure nicely it is desirable to have a cool and rather moist place in which to keep it. This recipe should not be used where the meat must be kept in a warm and dry place, as the preservatives will not penetrate easily and uniformly. Head-Cheese. — Cut a hog's head into four pieces. Remove the brain, ears, skin, snout, and eyes. Cut off the fattest parts for lard. Put the lean and bony parts to soak overnight in cold water in order to extract the blood and dirt. When the head is cleaned put it over the fire to boil, using water enough to cover it. Boil until the meat separates readily from the bone. Then remove it from the fire and pick out all of the bones. Drain off the liquor, saving a part of it for future use. Chop the meat up finely with a chopping knife. Return it to the kettle and pour on enough of the liquor to cover the meat. Let it boil slowly for fifteen minutes to a half hour. Season to taste with salt and pepper just before removing it from the fire. Turn it into a shallow pan or dish. Cover with a piece of cheese cloth and put on a board with a weight to make it solid. When cold it should be sliced thinly and served without further cooking. Scrapple. — This article of food is made just as head-cheese is until the bones are removed and the meat chopped, when the liquor is added and the dish returned to the stove to boil. Corn meal is then stirred in until the contents are as thick as corn meal mush. Stir it constantly for the first fifteen minutes. Then set it back on the stove to boil slowly for an hour. When it is done pour it into a shal- low dish to mold. When cold it is sliced thin and fried. Pickled Pig's Feet. — Soak the pig's feet for twelve hours in cold water. HANDY HOME HELPS 283 Scrape them clean and remove the toes. Boil until soft ; four to five hours will usually be required. Salt them when partially done. Pack them in a stone jar and cover them with hot, spiced vinegar. They are served cold, or split and fried in a batter made of eggs, flour, milk, and butter. Trying Out Lard. — Only the best of fat should be used for choice lard. Leaf fat is the best. The back strip of the side also makes nice lard, as do the ham, shoulder, and neck trimmings. Gut fat should never be mixed with the leaf and back fat. It makes a strong-smelling lard and should be kept separate. All scraps of lean meat should be cut out of the fat before trying out, as they are very likely to stick to the kettle and get scorched, giving an unpleasant flavor to the lard. When preparing the fat for trying cut it into pieces from 1 to 1 1 / 2 inches square. They should be nearly equal in size, so that they will try out in about the same time. Fill a clean kettle about three-fourths full and put in a quart of water, or, if convenient, a quart of hot lard. One or the other is necessary to pre- vent the fat from burning before the heat is sufficient to bring out the grease. Keep the kettle over a moderate fire until the cracklings are brown and light enough to float. Frequent stirring will be necessary to prevent burning. When done remove from the stove and allow to cool slightly, and then strain through a muslin cloth into a large jar. Stir it occasionally until it is cool enough to begin to solidify. If pails or smaller jars are to be filled the lard should be dipped out while just warm enough to be liquid. Stirring while the lard is cooling tends to whiten it and make it smoother. A quarter of a pound of saleratus added to each 100 pounds of fat has a like effect. Sausage. — Pork sausage should be made only from clean, fresh pork. To each 3 pounds of lean pork add 1 pound of fat. As the pork usually used for sau- sage is the shoulder, neck, and lean trimmings, the sausage is quite likely to be too fat unless part of the fat is removed and used for lard. Mix the fat and lean meat together in chopping. Where a rotary cutter is used it is best to cut the meat twice. After it is cut the first time spread it out thinly and season. One ounce of pure, fine salt, one-half ounce of ground black pepper, and one-half ounce of pure leaf sage, rubbed fine, to each 4 pounds of meat, will suit the taste of most persons. The seasoning should be sprinkled thinly over the cut meat and the meat again run through the cutter to mix the seasoning thoroughly. This method will give a more even mixing of the spices than can be obtained by working it with the hands. For immediate use the sausage may be packed away in stone jars or crocks to be sliced for frying. Many people stuff it into casings made from the small in- testines of the hog. When this is done the intestines must be turned inside out and carefully cleaned. Casings for sausage can be bought for about 3 cents a pound. At this price it will hardly pay to bother cleaning them for home use. The bought casings are more uniform in size and strength and will usually give better satisfaction. A good sub- stitute for casings may be had in narrow muslin bags. These, when filled, should be %y 2 or 3 inches in diameter and 18 to 24 inches long. Stuff the sausage in tightly by hand and hang in a cool place. If the sausage is to be kept for some time, melted lard should be rubbed over the outside of the bag. This excludes the 284 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING air. Sausage may b'e kept for some time in a large jar if a thin coat of lard is put over the top. Mixed sausage may be made from a mixture of pork and beef in almost any proportion. It is the custom on many farms to kill three or four hogs and a beef during the winter for the year's supply of meat. When this plan is followed a nice supply of sausage can be made from the trimmings. Sausage should not con- tain too much fat. A good proportion is 2 pounds of lean pork, 1 pound of fat pork, and 1 pound of lean beef. Chop together fine and season the same as pork sausage. Pack in jars, muslin bags, or casings. Many people prefer this to clear pork sausage, as it. is not so fat. Hamburg Steak. — This is made from lean beef by running it through a sausage cutter. A very little fat should be added to the lean beef to make it juicy. It should be run through the cutter twice before using and salted slightly. A small amount of sugar-cured bacon is sometimes cut in with the beef to add flavor. Lean beef from the round makes the choicest Hamburg, but neck pieces, flanks, and trimmings are frequently used. Hamburg steak is not stuffed into casings, but left in bulk and made into patties for frying. Bologna Sausage. — To each 10 pounds of lean beef use 1 pound of fat pork, or bacon if preferred. Chop finely and season with 1 ounce of salt to each 4 pounds of meat, 1 ounce of the best black pepper (ground, pure) to each 6 pounds of meat, and a little ground coriander. Stuff into casing called beef "middles" or beef "rounds." If stuffed into middles, make the sausages 10 or 12 inches long, and allow them to hang straight. If stuffed into rounds make them 12 to 15 inches long, and tie the ends together so as to form rings. Smoke for ten or twelve hours. Cook in boiling water until the sausages float. Dry on clean hay or straw in the sun, and hang away in a cool place until wanted. Casings. — Sausage casings are the intestines of hogs, cattle, or sheep which have been emptied and cleaned. They are turned inside out and soaked in a solution of lye or limewater, thoroughly washed, and then salted down. When cleaned and put up by a reputable packer they are as good as when cleaned at home, and when they can be bought at a reasonable price it hardly pays to clean them for home use. The casings from different animals are used for the various kinds of sausages. Beef casings are of three kinds, "rounds," made from the small intestines ; "bungs," made from the large intestines ; and "middles," made from that part of the entrails leading from the bung to the rectum. The "rounds" are used for bologna, the "bungs" for bologna, ham, and blood sausage, and the "middles" for bologna and summer sausage. Hog casings are made from the small intestines of the hog, and are used mainly for pork link sausage. Sheep casings are from the small intestines of sheep, and are commonly used for wiener- wurst and other small sausages. Smoking of Meats. Pickled and cured meats are smoked to aid in their preservation and to give flavor and palatability. The creosote formed by the combustion of the wood closes the pores to some extent, excluding the air, and is objectionable to insects. House and Fuel. — -The smokehouse should be 8 or 10 feet high to give the HANDY HOME HELPS 285 best results, and of a size suited to the amount of meat likely to be smoked. One 6 by 8 feet will be large enough for ordinary farm use. Ample ventilation should be provided to carry off the warm air in order to prevent overheating the meat. Small openings under the eaves or a chimney in the roof will be sufficient if ar- ranged so as to be easily controlled. A fire pot outside of the house proper with a flue through which the smoke may be conducted to the meat chamber gives the best conditions for smoking. When this can not well be arranged a fire may be built on the floor of the house and the meat shielded by a sheet of metal. Where the meat can be hung 6 or 7 feet above the fire this precaution need not be taken. The construction should be such as to allow the smoke to pass up freely over the meat and out of the house, though rapid circulation is at the expense of fuel. Brick or stone houses are best, though the first cost is greater than if they are built of lumber. ^ Large dry-goods boxes and even barrels may be made to serve as smokehouses where only small amounts of meat are to be smoked. The care of meat in such substitutes is so much more difficult and the results so much less satisfactory that a permanent place should be provided if possible. The best fuel for smoking meats is green hickory or maple wood smothered with sawdust of the same material. Hard wood of any kind is preferable to soft wood. Resinous woods should never be used, as they are likely to impart bad flavors to the product. Corn cobs are the best substitute for hard wood and may be used if desired. Soft wood and corn cobs give off large amounts of carbon in burning, and this is deposited on the meat, making it dark in color and rank flavored. Juniper berries and fragrant woods are sometimes added to the fire to flavor the meat. Filling the House. — Meat that is to be smoked should be removed from the brine two or three days before being put in the smokehouse. If it has been cured in a strong brine, it will be best to soak the pieces in cold water overnight to prevent a crust of salt from forming on the outside when drained. Washing the meat in tepid water and scrubbing clean with a brush is a good practice. The pieces should then be hung up to drain for a day or two. When drained they may be hung in the house. All should be suspended below the ventilators and should hang so that no two pieces come in contact, as this would prevent uniform smoking. Keeping Up the Fire. — A slow fire may then be started, warming up the meat gradually. During the winter months in cold climates it is best to keep the fire going continually until the smoking is complete, holding the temperature at about the same point. If the fire is allowed to die down, the meat becomes cold and the smoke does not penetrate readily. This results in heavy smoke on the outside and very little on the inner portions of the meat. During the spring months and in the summer a light fire may be started every second or third day for two weeks, the meat being allowed to hang in the smokehouse until sufficiently colored. When the fire is kept going steadily and an even temperature is main- tained, twenty-four to thirty-six hours will be required to finish one lot of meat. Smoke will not penetrate frozen meat and it will be necessary to extract all frost from it before filling the house. The house should be kept dark at all times to 286 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING prevent flies entering. As soon as smoked sufficiently the meat should be cooled by opening the ventilators or doors. When hard and firm it may be canvased or packed away for summer use. Keeping Smoked Meats. Smoked meat may be left in the smokehouse for some time during moderate weather. The house should be kept perfectly dark and well enough ventilated to prevent dampness. A dry, cool cellar or an attic with free circulation will be a satisfactory place for smoked meats at all seasons if it is kept dark and flies are excluded. If to be held only a short time, hams and bacon will need only to be hung out separately without covering. For longer keeping it will be necessary to wrap them first in paper and then in burlaps, canvas, or muslin and bury them in a grain bin or other suitable place, the object being to gain a uniform temperature and to keep away insects. A coat of ground pepper rubbed into the piece before wrap- ping will be distasteful to them. For absolute safe-keeping for an indefinite period of time, it is essential that the meat be thoroughly cured. After it is smoked and has become dry on the surface it should be wrapped in parchment paper; or old newspapers will do where parchment can not be had. Then inclose in heavy mus- lin or canvas, and cover with yellow wash or ordinary lime whitewash, glue being added. Hang each piece out so that it does not come in contact with other pieces. Do not stack in piles. Recipe for Yellow Wash. — For 100 pounds hams or bacon take— 3 pounds barytes (barium sulphate). 0.06 pound glue. 0.08 pound chorme yellow (lead chromate). 0.40 pound flour. Half fill a pail with water and mix in the flour, dissolving all lumps thor- oughly. Dissolve the chrome in a quart of water in a separate vessel and add the solution and the glue to the flour; bring the whole to a boil and add the barytes slowly, stirring constantly. Make the wash the day before it is required. Stir it frequently when using, and' apply with a brush. To Cook Poultry, rub inside with a piece of lemon. It whitens the flesh and makes it tender. To Make the Back Piece of the Chicken Appetizing. — This has been con- sidered the least desirable piece of the chicken because of the difficulty of separ- ating the meat from the bones when eating it. Break the ribs where they are attached to the backbone and peel them out when preparing the chicken for cook- ing. Then fold the two sides around the back-bone and fasten with a toothpick. You then have a piece that closely resembles a thigh. To Keep cheese Fresh. — Wrap in a cloth which has been dampened in vinegar and place the cheese and cloth in a covered vessel to shut out the air. Sausage. — Put the sausage in the oven to heat or cook. Then pack tightly in cans and cover with hot lard and seal. Sausage may also be packed in, earthen jars if covered with hot lard. Meat bought in cold weather and preserved cuts the meat bill in two and yet you have a nice supply the year around. HANDY HOME HELPS 287 Ham. — Spread the cut surface thickly with lard. When ready to slice again scrape off the lard. After cutting, the lard which was removed may be placed on the surface cut last. In this way ham may be kept for any length of time in a cool place. Ham may also be kept from spoiling by rubbing the cut surface thoroughly with salt in the same way. Steak or Fresh Meat- — Wrap it in a cloth wrung out of vinegar. 'Then wrap in butcher's paper and put the parcel in the ice chest in the ice compart- ment. This method has proved very successful. Beefsteak. — Cut up steak. Season as for table use with salt and pepper. Then place in a crock or jar and cover with melted lard. It will keep until spring when preserved in this way. Frying Beef. — Buy a whole quarter. It will cost no more than half the quantity bought in small amounts. Slice all you can for frying. Then prepare a mixture as follows: one pint salt, two tablespoonfuls sugar, two tablespoonfuls pepper, and one teaspoonful saltpeter. Take a jar large enough to hold the meat and sprinkle the bottom lightly with the mixture. Then alternate layers of the meat and the mixture. Use just as much of the mixture as if salting the meat for present use. While packing the meat into the jars press each layer down firmly to exclude the air. When the meat is all packed into the jar cover with a plate and put a small weight upon it to hold it down rather tightly. Beef kept in this way will be in fine condition until used. The meat which could not be sliced off the bones may be canned as above described. Thus the entire quarter is pre- served and nothing is wasted. To keep beefsteak tender sprinkle a pinch of soda over the steak when frying. To Can Fresh Beef. — Cook the meat as for table use. Salt and pepper it. When very tender take out all the bone, cut the meat small enough to put in cans, return the meat to the liquid and when heated to the boiling point can and seal it. Meat preserved in this way will keep nicely. Corn beef may be kept in the same way. To Get All Possible Lard. — First cut the fat in small chunks and run through a food grinder. Add a little cold water and render thoroughly. Very little material is left. Burned fat is of no use. To remove any burned taste, put several slices of raw potatoes into melted fat and heat until the potatoes are brown. Milk. To Keep Sweet. — Keep it in shallow pans rather than in deep pans or jugs. It has more air surface for radiation. Put a spoonful of scraped horseradish into the bottom of each milk pan. It will keep several days.. To Sweeten Sour Milk. — Add carbonate of magnesia or baking soda to slightly sour milk or cream and it will sweeten. The magnesia is preferable. Soda spoils the taste slightly. Removing Taste from Burned Milk. — Pour into clean vessel and let it cool. After cooling the taste will be removed. To Prevent Burning of Milk. — Before putting in the milk, rinse the pan 288 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING in boiling water. To be doubly sure put water in the pan and let it boil; then pour out the water and pour in the milk immediately. Substitute for Milk. — When fresh milk or condensed milk are not available this may be used — beat one or two fresh eggs and add about twice as much cold water. Mix well together. Baby will like this in the morning cereal, especially. Milk and Acid Fruits Will Curdle. — Cream and fruits like strawberries, peaches, etc. will not curdle. A very little baking soda added to whipping cream will make it whip quicker. Pastries. Biscuits. — To make biscuits crisp, use water instead of milk for mixing, and use twice as much shortening. To warm cold biscuits, sprinkle several drops of water on top of each biscuit, stand on edge in a pan and set in a hot oven for several minutes. The steam will make them fluffy and fresh. Birthday Cakes. — For lettering, select letters of children's names, dates, etc., from alphabet noodles. Put them in a dish which contains a teaspoonful of gelatin dissolved in hot water. When the letters are colored remove them to a cloth to absorb moisture. After this they may be arranged on the top of the cake. If the letters are arranged on patty cakes unique place cards can be made. Bread. — To cut hot bread, hold steel bread knife over the flame until it is hot and it will cut warm bread easily. Brown Bread. — Save all tin cof- fee cans. They make fine cans for baking Boston Brown Bread. To Cool Bread. — Take out of tin and rub the top with butter. Leave uncovered and it will cool better and also remove the chance for it to be- come heavy. Milk Bread.— Milk added to the flour in bread making will keep the baked bread moist longer. It also has more food value. Good Bread. — Knead the dough until perfectly smooth and elastic. It may then be indented and will immediately fill up again. Bread should be double the bulk at the first rising. After it is baked, it should be kept in earthen jars or tin boxes which should be scalded once a week and dried in the sun. Board for Cutting Bread. Cake. To Flavor Cake. — Put leaves from a walnut geranium in the bottom of the pan before putting in the dough. Of course the leaves are to be washed carefully before placing in the pan. The leaves can be pulled off the cake easily after it is baked. The cake will be found to have a most delicious flavor. HANDY HOME HELPS 289 Cakes and Pies. — To remove from pans, set hot cakes and pies on a wire netting so the air can circulate underneath. They can then be easily removed without sticking. Fried Cakes and Doughnuts. — Use curved wooden stick in turning cakes in the boiling grease. The fried cakes will be light and white if not pricked with a fork. Icing. — If it sugars add a teaspoonful of melted butter and whip. To Prevent Pie Boiling Out. — Moisten the edge of the lower crust all around (be sure you touch every part) with the white of an egg, then press the upper crust on firmly. One lady writes, "I have tried this method for three years and have not once had the juice run out." Add a little common baking powder to the flour, then mix well and pie crust will bake light. Always put one good tablespoonful of cornstarch in the dough for each eight teaspoonfuls, or half cup of common white flour you use. This makes nice light pie crusts and cakes. Toasts. — Bread should be cut in slices the night before and let stand in the air if they are to be used for toast in the morning. It browns better and is more crisp. Hard, crisp toast is more digestible than that which is merely scorched on the outer surfaces. Vegetables. Eating Raw Vegetables. — Apples and fruits bought from stores are always handled more or less. Before being eaten raw they can be thoroughly cleaned by washing in water to which has been added some peroxide of hydrogen. As prevention is better than a cure this will surely keep many children from getting sore mouths and infections. Beans. — Gather string beans and cut in lengths. Dry and hang in bag. When used soak them before cooking. Dry King Beans. — Pick while tender and spread in hot sun. Cabbage. — Cut cabbage close to the ground and suspend to rafters, head down, by a string in a cool cellar. Carrots a Substitute for Pumpkin. — If you have no pumpkins, cook and prepare carrots for pies the same as you would pumpkins. They make an ex- cellent substitute. Cauliflower. — Almost cover them in trenches, then place a layer of straw over the heads and cover with enough dirt to hold the straw down. Celery Blight. — Spray celery with Bordeaux mixture. Also pull up and cut out the diseased plants and parts. Burn them. Clean up the celery patch in the fall. Celery Flavoring. — Cut tops from plants, run through chopper and dry. This makes a fine flavoring for soups. 290 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Corn. — Clean well then steam ten minutes. To dry on the cob clean out the pulp between rows and place in oven. Clean the corn well, then cut from the cob with a sharp knife. Mix one cup sugar with six quarts of cut corn. Dry either in oven for a few minutes or place in hot sun. Cucumbers. — Planting a few radish seeds in a hill of cucumbers tends to keep worms and bugs from eating the young plants. Lettuce. — To keep lettuce fresh wet a clean white cloth with cold water and wrap it about the lettuce. Turn the ends in all around and keep wet. Don't put it on the ice or outdoors. To Dry. — An effective way of drying lettuce for salad is to place it in a clean dish-towel after washing, gather the sides and corners in the hand so as to form a bag. Step to the kitchen door and whirl the bag at arm's length three or four times. This drives out the water and leaves the lettuce practically dry. Onions. — To keep onions, cut off tops after gathering and place in lofts or on floors to thoroughly dry. Pack in bags or barrels and cover under hay to keep from freezing. Parsley. — Pick and place on paper in oven. When dried, rub it into pow- der and pack in sealed cans. Parsnips. — Dig late in fall. Heel them in close together and cover with straw and sand. Peas. — Pick and hull, drying hard over open fire or in open oven. Then put in cans or jars and cover tightly. Soak before cooking. They will taste like fresh. Pick tender and place on papers in sun. Potatoes. — Dark cellar is preferable. Place in sand pit deep in the ground or dig well trenched surface pit and line with straw. Cover with layer of straw and thin earth, then more straw and plenty of earth. Leave small air hole in top with no covering but thick straw. To bake potatoes, let stand in hot water ten or fifteen minutes. Rub with a little grease and bake in hot oven. They will cook quicker and be more mealy. Let potatoes stand in hot water for fifteen minutes before baking them. They will then bake in half the time and will be more mealy and palatable. Rub a little lard, butter, or olive oil over the potato before baking. The skin will then be as, thin as paper and easily removed. Treat sweet potatoes the same way. To make mashed potatoes light and fluffy — after the milk has been added to the potatoes, put in a pinch of baking powder. Sunburned potatoes have green spots. These spots should be cut out as they give a bitter taste to the vegetable. To whiten potatoes, put a teaspoonful of vinegar in a saucepan when they are frosted or when they turn black while cooking. Sweet Potatoes. — Pack in sand or bran without bruising. Keep in cool temperature about twenty degrees above freezing. HANDY HOME HELPS 291 Pumpkins. — When cooking pumpkin it nearly always boils dry and must have careful attention. Wash the pumpkin split in halves, clean out the seeds, then place in oven and cook as you would a squash. Clean out of shell and it is immediately ready for pie and is very dry and nice. Very little work is necessary, and it does away with the sieve. Pare ripe pumpkins, cut up and cook to soft mash. Then spread pulp on plates about half an inch thick. Dry slightly without scorching and let stand for a day. They will be dry and crisp and can be packed well in boxes, thus being always ready for use. Radishes.— Salt placed in the furrow is said to keep worms from eating radishes. It should be sifted in while planting. Rhubarb. — When rhubarb is peeled it drys quickly. However, it will be as easy to can. Squash. — Pile in warm dry room. An attic is good. Hanging up by strings keeps it in good condition. Tomatoes. — Run fork through stem end, and light a small flame in a stove; hold tomato over blaze and turn slowly. The skin will soon burst open and it may be easily peeled. This is much better than dipping in boiling water as the tomato does not heat and become soft. Also the work is much more rapidly done. Pick the tomatoes while green and place on strips or screens hung in cool, dry places where they wont freeze. Turnips. — Keep in barns where temperature is not high during winter. Keep sprouted and covered with straw. Vinegar. — Add an equal amount of sweet water to the quantity of vinegar you use. It makes the vinegar stronger and saves the cost of new vinegar. Wash your hands in diluted vinegar after washing dishes and the strong soapy water will not chap them. If diluted it will keep meat fresh in hot weather. Will polish steel work quickly. Vinegar and bran makes a fine poultice for all bruises, pains and aches. Added to rinse water vinegar will help revive red and pink colored goods. Diluted and rubbed on furniture before polishing makes a brilliant surface. Vinegar is often used for this purpose. Miscellaneous. All loose bread crumbs should be saved dried and rolled for scalloped dishes and frying. There is a saving of fifty percent in buying broken, instead of whole rice. Try it. Gelatin. — This is nothing but clean glue. Glue is nothing but dirty gelatin. A good test is to soak gelatin for four hours in cold water and then heat. If good it will not give off any offensive odor. Mushrooms, to Test. — While cooking stir with an old silver spoon. If there is any foreign substance in them, the spoon will turn color. 292 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING w Foods, If Too Salty. — Add a couple slices of potato and cook a little longer. Potatoes absorb the salt. Pecans, to Crack. — Soak in boiling water for four hours. Then crack evenly and the meats come out without the bitter lining being attached. Iron Pots. — Always boil new iron pots containing wood ashes and water. This keeps them from burning. Wood Ashes. — Sift and put up a canful for use in scouring dishes and pans. For appetite lost while cooking beat a raw egg then add a little sugar, put in a glass and fill with milk. Add a few drops of the flavoring you like best and drink it. This will remove the faint nauseated feeling you have after working in a hot kitchen. To Cool Food. — Add bluing to can of cold water until it is a dark blue, then put in a handful of salt. Place article to be cooled in this water. It acts quickly. Uses of Sugar Sacks. — Save them and boil in weak lye water. This will make them clean and white. They make good table cov- ers to keep flies away; good linings for quilts; fine dust or polishing cloths ; can be used to hold dried fruits and children can use them for handkerchiefs especially when hav- ing colds. To Use Marbles in Cooking. — Most people know that placing a marble in a teakettle prevents "fur- ring," or collecting of lime in the kettle. A large clean marble boiled in milk, porridge sauces or stews will do the stirring automatically, and prevent burning. Chilling Fudge. — This is much better than the old way — beating fudges or candies till cold after removing them from the fire. Take the candy from the fire when the soft ball stage is reached. Then place the pot in a larger one con- taining cold water. Stir until firm. It will be more creamy and less granular than it could be by the old method. A chemist tells us this is because the con- tact of the pot with the cold water underneath immediately arrests crystallization. It may be that the motion of stirring, rather than beating, tends to prevent granu- lating. At all events, chill your candy in the water. To Freshen Cocoanut. — Pouring a cup of sweet milk over shredded cocoanut will freshen it. You will find this almost as good as freshly grated Ideal Cooler for Food. Sink a large barrel in the ground. Choose a shady place and fill around the barrel with moistened gravel and sand, or small stones may be used. Build a box over the top of the barrel, and bank with clay if possible to drain off water. Put a hinged lid on the box as shown above, also an inner top on the barrel. You can also keep fruit fresh this way. HANDY HOME HELPS 293 cocoanut. It makes cake or candy much more delicious than when dry cocoanut is used. The milk should be pressed out by using a wire sieve so that it will not affect the icing or candy. Olive Oil. — This is fine for flesh building and can be used on foods as dressings for fruits or vegetables. To Improve Cocoa or Chocolate. — When making a large quantity add a pinch of salt. This lends piquancy to the flavor. Left-over Mush and Oatmeal. — Corn meal mush and oatmeal can be fried into cakes' that will be relished in the morning. Syrup can be used as a covering. Shortenings. — Butter is usually too expensive to use in cooking so use lard, vegetole, or cotton seed oil. The latter is used by many women and is a good flesh builder as well as cheap. Baking soda, a little on the tip of the spoon, when added to chocolate fudge and beaten, makes it light and creamy. A little baking soda added to all cooking water will help to quicken the cooking. To Save Steps. — Buy some cheap tin spoons and keep them in the boxes that hold things like spices, salt, lard, etc. To Save Matches. — Cut old postal cards in thin strips. Light in fire and use for lamps, lanterns, etc. The strips will carry fire well. To Rid of Tin Cans. — Burn in coal fire. They are consumed and help clean the chimney. Use of Baking Powder Cans. — Label them and fill with spices, etc. Keep Corset Stay Handy for Scraping Pans. — It will bend and fit into any utensil. To Soften Blacking. — Add few drops of turpentine to shoe or stove black- ing. This softens and makes better. To Blacken Stoves. — Use brush and put hand in paper bag when holding polishing rag. Brooms. — For use in scrubbing it is well to cut the top from a sock or stocking large enough and slip down over the broom. A good stout cord tied about the middle will hold it in place and make the broom stiffer for scrubbing. Broom Covers. — For spring work put a couple of ruffles on the broom cover. This aids in cleaning out cracks and corners by catching the dirt. To Hold Twine. — Hang a funnel to ceiling by strings and run end of twine through the spout. Tie and add all new string and you will find it counts up fast. To Pack China. — Lay paper or blotters between each plate, etc., that can be laid together and tie tightly with heavy twine. Put in barrel or box lined with straw. Do not leave loose dishes or open spaces. A Fine Fuel Saver. — Place an inverted skillet or pan over the flat-irons on the burner. By holding the heat this shortens the time necessary for heating the irons. To Renew Mason Jar-lids. — When your Mason jar-lids appear dull and dingy-looking boil them in a solution consisting of three tablespoon fuls of borax, one-third of a cake of Ivory soap, and about two gallons of water. Have the 294 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING lids completely covered by the water and boil for 30 minutes, then rinse thor- oughly with hot water. Fuel Saver. — Soak your old newspapers in water, tear and make into balls and thoroughly dry. Equally good in stove or furnace. Throws fine heat. To Make Brooms Last Longer. — You will make brooms last much longer by placing a loose cover over their heads. After using the broom remove the dust from the bristles, button on the cover, and hang the broom in the cupboard head upward. Can Rubbers. — Add one teaspoonful of ammonia to a quart of hot water. Bring to a boil and drop in any old can rubbers you may have. They will be- come soft and just as good as new. How to Cover Old Floor and Save Money. — If you have a rough or worn floor in your house obtain a roll of rubberized roofing paper and fit the floor, next get a can of floor paint and a pint of varnish. The price of these materials is very reasonable and they will last several years. The lady who wrote this to us says the total cost for a large room was but two dollars. Lamp Wicks. — Wool strips or wicks made from old felt hats are fine. Old Felt. — For cracks about doors and windows take old hats and cut into strips. Nail these to the crevices in the door or window and the wind and cold will be kept out. Make a pad the size of the shoe and place it next to the sole. This will keep the feet warm and also absorb the moisture that may come in. Fertilizer. — Put soapy water on plants and they will grow well. To Make Lamp Chimneys Tough. — Always put new chimneys in cold water and heat to boiling point. Let them cool in the same water and they will wear very good. To Keep Cut Flowers. — Add a little charcoal or piece of camphor gum. Another good suggestion is to add a little bluing to water. Cut the stems a quarter of an inch each day. To Keep Garbage Can from Tipping Over. — Drive several stakes into ground around can letting them come slightly above can cover. To keep garbage from freezing sprinkle a handful of salt in bottom of can before throwing in garbage. To Keep Icing from Cracking. — Add one tablespoonful of cream to the white of each unbeaten egg. Stir together and add powdered sugar. When being cut the frosting will not crack. To Keep Kettles from Becoming Black. — To do this when set on the stove, rub the bottom with soap (soft soap is best). The black very easily washes off. To Keep Kettle from Burning. — While pouring in material for cooking shake the kettle several times Oil-Stove Oven. — To keep from burning, place asbestos bottom in your oil-stove oven. To Keep Pans from Sticking. — Put oiled paper in bottom of pan and the cake will not burn or stick. Fresh pork and flour is also good to rub on bottom of the pan. HANDY HOME HELPS 295 To Keep Paraffin for Continuous Use. — Buy a cheap teapot and as you open a can of preserves or anything with paraffin top wash it well and drop wax into teapot. When you wish more paraffin heat it in pot and pour on as needed. To Keep Salt Dry. — Place in fruit jars and mix rice with it. Keep covered when not using. To Keep Silver and Glasses. — Washing in a small wooden or fiber tub will be found excellent. TO MAKE. Green Plant for Table Centerpiece. — Take a two or three-inch deep glass dish. Put good soil in it and plant a number of grapefruit seeds in this. Keep it damp and warm. Soon there will be a very pretty looking centerpiece. Baking Powder. — Mix together and stir thoroughly, sifting through a flour sieve the following: y 2 pound cream tartar, 3 ounces of tartaric acid and one cup of flour. This makes a fine baking powder. Dustless Mop. — Take a strip of cheese-cloth, rope, or an old mop and soak in cedar oil, linseed oil, or kerosene. Dry and use. They are handy and easily made. An old broom handle may be used. Food Covers. — Take a small wire and loop into a complete circle. Cover with cotton or cheese cloth. This will be found handy for covering warm dishes and keeping out insects. These covers can be kept nice and clean. Handy Drier. — Instead of a dripping pan fold a bath towel and lay on the table. As dishes are washed place them on the towel. They will practically dry themselves. If rinsed before placing on the towel they can be put away without wiping. Handy Hooks. — Tie small hooks or wire loops on shelves in warming oven and you can hang pans and dishes in it to dry, as well as to keep them out of the way. Hot Pan Holders. — Make holders of heavy material and leave one side open. The hand can be inserted into the holder while using and it will be pro- tected from heat or steam. Iceless Ice Box. — For people who cannot get ice. Place layer of sawdust in bottom of larger box into which a smaller box has been placed. Fill up the spaces between with sawdust and bore hole in bottom of box. Set up from floor and keep cover on tightly. To Make Molasses Run. — Molasses will run out of a measuring cup quickly if first dipped in corn starch. Mush, to Keep from Lumping. — Add hot water and stir. It is best to pour the meal in gradually stirring all the time. To Make Odorless Kerosene. — Add ten or twelve drops of oil of lavender and two tablespoonfuls of vinegar to a pint of kerosene. For washing or clean- ing purposes as well as lamps this makes an odorless oil. Labels, to Remove. — Wet the labels and hold near heat. They will then come off. Woody Taste, to Remove. — First scald vessel with boiling water, leaving 296 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING it in pot until cooled. Then pour out the water washing a second time with water containing common soda and a little lime. Scald again and rinse w*ith cold water. Brooms, to Keep. — Hang up with straw down to keep soft and pliable. Boil brooms in hot water before using the first time. This makes them tough and elastic. Table Mats, to Make. — Rubber matting is good for tables and is the best to protect table from hot dishes. It can be covered with cloth if desired. Pads for Table and Ironing Board, to Make. — Papers spread out over the surface make a fine substitute for cloth and are not expensive. They can be smoothed and are soft for working on them. Take an old piece of Brussels carpet and nail to the ironing board, nap side up. Cover this with an old blanket and then a sheet. This will last for years- and not get hard. Do not leave hot flat-iron on sheet. A Good Water Filter, to Make. — Take a large flower pot with a hole in the bottom. Stop hole with sponge and place few inches of charcoal in bottom. Put pot over a pail by setting on slats laid across the top and pour water in the pot. It will filter through the sponge and run into the pail absolutely pure. Change charcoal and sponge several times a year. Setting Table. — Knives, place sharp edge toward the plate on the right side ; forks at the left ; spoons are laid at the right of the knife according to their use ; cocktail fork comes at right of spoons. This is the order for placing silver on the table. The customary use of the knives and forks and spoons according to the courses is to begin the use of the outer one first. The guests are usually arranged, man and woman alternately. Fat from Soup, to Remove. — Pour the hot soup into a lard pail having a hole in the side near the bottom into which a plug or cork has been fitted. Let the soup stand until the fat rises to the surface, then remove the plug allowing the soup to run into another receptacle and stopping its flow when the fat nears the bottom. This method is especially convenient in hot weather. Eggs, to Test. — Place the egg in a pan of water. If fresh the egg will lie on its side at the bottom of the pan. If stale it will stand on end. If very old it rises to the surface. When just a few days old it will begin to tilt a little and as it ages the angle at which it tilts will increase. Thus the relative freshness of the egg can be told by noting just how it lies in the water. Meat. — Always unwrap meat before putting it into the ice box or the paper will absorb the juices. Fish. — To keep fish in the refrigerator without spoiling the flavor of other things, put the fish in glass jars with the tops screwed on tightly. Bread Box. — An apple put in the cake or bread box will keep the contents fresh and moist. Vegetables. — The most valuable parts of carrots, peas, spinach and other vegetables are contained in the mineral salts and vitamies. Do not pour the water from these vegetables into the sink but use it for soups, etc. Wash and boil potatoes with jackets on. The flavor is better when they are not nared and there is no water. HANDY HOME HELPS 297 To give green vegetables a bright color, pu> a pinch of borax in the water in which the vegetables are boiling. To Keep. — Lay them on the dry ground and cover them with a heavy carpet. The carpet can then be covered with leaves, etc. The vegetables will be found free from wilt at any time, and are always fresh. Carrots, winter radishes, turnips and even pears have been kept in fine condition in this way. Celery and endive may be covered in the same way. They bleach to the tips. If more are on hand than needed, vegetables may be kept in this way for a few weeks or for all winter. Handy Articles for the Newly Wedded Girl. Grinding Mill. Bread Slicer. Knife Sharpener. Dipper. Nut Cracker. Peach and Cherry Pitter. Hot Pan Lifter. Dish Washer. Dish Drier. Washing Machine. Can Cutter. Kitchen Knife Set. Grapefruit and Orange Set. Spatula. Carving Knife. Bread Knife. Fireless Cooker. Bread Mixer. Double Egg Beater. Meat and Food Chopper. Ice Pick. Cookie Cutter. Wooden Spoon. Measuring Spoon. Frying Pan. Dish Towel Rack. Spice Set. Bread and Cake Box. Flour Canister. Sugar Can. Electric Kitchen Utensils. Small Hammer. Rolling Pin. Double Boiler. Butter Crock. Vegetable Slicer. Measuring Cup. Coffee Percolator. Tea Kettle. Lemon Squeezer. TO CLEAN AND REMOVE. To Clean. Aluminum. — Oxalic acid will clean aluminum well. A soft brush and soapsuds will keep it clean, but non-gritty polishes are best for shining. Bathtubs, Enamel, etc. — First rub with kerosene. Then wash regularly. Baby's Nails. — To clean, simply fold sheet of writing paper and use the double edges. This is neat and efficient. Bed Springs. — To clean, use a small dish-mop well soaked in kerosene. Beadsteads. — For brass ones, cloth moistened with sweet oil, followed by rubbing with a chamois is good. Wooden bedsteads should be wiped with a cloth dampened in turpentine. Black Lace. — Rinse in black coffee with a teaspoonful of ammonia added to each cup. Blackened Cooking Dishes. — Add half can of lye and a teaspoonful of coal oil to a dishpan of water. Place utensils in dishpan and boil for over an hour. Then wash with clean hot water. Burners, Lamp. — Wash them in a mixture of wood ashes and water. Burners, Gas. — To brighten up the tops of gas burners on a range, wipe with an oiled cloth while warm. Carpets. — Soak paper in water, wring out, then tear in small pieces and throw on carpets before sweeping. You can clean a carpet by rubbing it with grated raw potatoes. A new broom should be used. Let the carpet dry before using. Use 1 quart of bullock's gall mixed with 3 quarts of cold soft water. Wet a clean flannel cloth with solution and rub carpet. Then rub off with another cloth. Dirty spots should be rubbed with pure gall. Make a solution of 1 ounce each of ether and chloroform, add a cup of salt, a ten-cent bottle of household ammonia; put in a wide-mouthed bottle and cork. Put two tablespoonfuls of solution in 2 gallons of hot water into which has been shaved a bar of white naphtha soap. Scrub carpet with stiff brush using only foam of water. Sprinkled with salt and swept, they will keep their color fine. Always place papers on floors before laying carpets or rugs. Make solution first of — four parts of liquid ammonia and three parts of alcohol diluted with water ; second — dissolve ten parts of soap in twenty parts of warm water, add 3}i parts of soda and J / 2 each of liquid ammonia and alcohol. After the first solution has been used and the dirt loosened by it removed, the soap solution is applied. Carpets thus treated regain their 298 TO CLEAN CLOTHING 299 original colors and freshness. Time required for a large carpet is about 2 hours, and carpet need not be taken up. To brighten rugs, first sweep well and then rub with a cloth soaked in ammonia water. Mix y 2 pound borax, two quarts of water, two cakes white soap and boil until well dissolved. Let cool, then, after sweeping, rub paste into rug with brush. Hang on line and rinse with water. Let it drip until dry. Coat Collars. — Dip tooth brush into naphtha or gasoline and rub collars to clean them. Combs. — Put ammonia in pan and lay the comb in it. The dirt will all come off. Curtains. — New curtains are always dressed in lime. Soak them in salt water before washing and they will clean much easier. Dust Mop. — Put soft cloths in old mop handle and you will be able to reach many places and corners. To clean dust mops, brush with wire hair brush. Also good for brushes in vacuum cleaners and carpet sweepers. Eiderdown Bed Covers. — Hang in the wind and sun. This sweetens and fluffs them up. Feather Pillows. — Pour hot water into pillow case, without removing feathers. Wash thoroughly with soap and water. Rinse several times then put in clean case and hang where wind and sun can dry them. They will be clean and fluffy. Flat Irons, Sticky. — Rub on sandpaper. This keeps them clean and smooth. Never heat an iron red hot. It will never afterward retain heat. Fluid for Cleaning. — For paints, grease and stains. One pint benzine, y> teaspoonful of chloroform, 1 teaspoonful each of alcohol and oil of wintergreen. Floors. — Spread thinly a coating of the following mixture over the floor and leave on about 24 hours before washing off: y 2 pound of pearlash, y 2 pound of Fuller's earth. Make into paste with 2 quarts of boiling water. Wash boards lengthwise. Furniture. — Mix vinegar and sweet oil. Rub lightly with flannel and polish with clean cloth. Furs. — The furs should be well shaken then rubbed with fresh bran. White furs may be rubbed with moist bran. Garbage Can. — Put paper in bottom and just before emptying pour boiling water around edges. Glass. — For store windows a paste of calcined magnesia and purified benzine rubbed on well, gives a brilliant polish. A soft paper is fine for polishing mirrors. Burnt magnesia and benzine are good for cleaning milk glass and lamp globes. The following is good for lamp globes : a warmed solution of potash put into the globe and then rubbed with a linen rag. It should be rinsed and dried. 300 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Several drops of muriatic acid applied and rubbed with a soft cloth will remove any substance on glassware. Plate glass and mirrors can be wiped with alcohol and a soft cloth. This prevents frost too. First washing with soapy water and rubbing with a Turkish towel de- velops a highly polished appearance on glass. Piano keys and mirrors can be cleaned well by pouring a little peroxide of hydrogen on the cloth with which you clean them. For bottles or decanters, mix pearlash and soap shavings. Pour into bottles and shake well. Rinse well several times and turn end-up to drain. Put a teaspoonful of baking soda into two cups of warm water. Let stand in bottles for some time then shake well and rinse. A tablespoonful of kerosene oil to a pail of water will cleanse and give a fine polish to windows. A cloth wet with alcohol or or ammonia and dipped in finely sifted wood ashes is good to clean mirrors. For Eye Glasses. — Glycerine soap rubbed on the lenses which are then polished with soft tissue-paper will keep them from becoming steamed or frosted. For Bottles. — Boil equal quantities of soda and quicklime. When cold pour this lye into bottles with some pebbles and shake well. Let drain and dry thoroughly. Incrustations on water bottles may be removed instantaneously by using a few drops of diluted hydrochloric or muriatic acid. Put a little pearlash or soda and cinders with water in bottle and shake well. Rinse and dry. This cleans the bottle effectively. Also coarse rock salt or carpet tacks are good. Then fill bottle half full of soapy water. Shake well. Hands Soiled. — Pumice stone will take off paint and dirt. Soda or potash in water makes a good cleanser. Kerosene will take off paint. Hats, Panama. — Dissolve one tablespoonful of oxalic acid in a cup of cold water. Brush hat with stiff brush and hang or lay it in sun to dry. Kid Gloves. — Fresh milk is fine for washing kid gloves. They can be washed on the hands or sponged with a soft cloth. Drying on the hands prevents shrinking. Knives. — Mix baking soda and pumice stone. Steel knives respond well to this. Lamp Burners. — Make a solution of one teaspoonful of sodium bicar- bonate to six spoonfuls of water. Boil the burner in this water. This is fine for renewing. Lacquered Goods. — Make paste of wheat flour and olive oil. Apply with flannel rag. Wipe and polish with silk cloth. Rub thoroughly with a paste made of wheat flour and olive oil which should be applied with a bit of soft flannel or old linen, rubbing hard. Wipe off and polish with an old silk handkerchief. TO CLEAN CLOTHING 301 Marble. Soap and warm water cleans marble well. White wax in turpentine is a good marble polish. Don't wash with soap as it destroys the polish. Don't rub with oil as it makes marble yellow. First dust marble, then rub spots with soft damp cloth and dry thoroughly. Mattress. — Place mattress in sun. Make paste of starch and water. Rub this in and let stand a couple hours. Brush off with a broom. Matting. — Wash it frequently with salt and water. Painted Doors, Walls, Etc. Mix together one tablespoonful of pulverized borax and one cake of brown soap of good quality, cut in small pieces in two gallons of water. Let simmer gently over fire, stirring constantly. The mixture is applied by means of flannel and rinsed off at once with pure water. Put four tablespoonfuls of ammonia in six quarts of clean water and wash the walls. Rinse and rub dry. Gold frames should be rubbed with a slice of onion then wiped with gauze dipped in soft water. Dry with clean cloth. The painting should be dampened, dried gently and then pure linseed oil applied with powder puff or soft ball. In cleaning an oil painting take it out from its frame. Lay on it a piece of cloth moistened in rain water to take up dirt from the picture. Several applications may be required to secure perfect results. Wipe very gently with a tuft of cotton wool dampened with pure linseed oil. A freshly cut onion will clean gold frames. A few hours after the onion has been applied the frame should be wiped with a cloth wet with rain water, then finally wiped with a soft dry cloth. Onion rubbed over picture frames will protect them from fly specks and remove old ones. For gilt picture frames rub surface with raw potato. Then wash with soapy water and dry well. Woodwork. — Wash first with water then rub with oiled cloth. Make oil by mixing half cup of turpentine and one cup linseed oil. Rugs. — Wet tea leaves and coffee grounds are fine to freshen rugs and prevent dust while sweeping. Silver. Make a solution of % ounce fine salt, *4 ounce powdered alum, *4 ounce cream of tartar, and one quart of water, stir well until thoroughly dissolved. Put mixture in clean bottle and cork. Shake well each time before using. Wash the silver with some of the liquid and a soft linen cloth. Let stand a few minutes and then rub dry with a piece of buckskin. Very effective. 302 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Dip a soft cloth in a weak preparation of ammonia water and rub the silver. Wash in a rather strong solution of concentrated lye and hot water. If silver is very black boil in soft water and washing soda. To each quart of water add one teaspoonful or baking soda, and one tea- spoonful of table salt. When water is boiling drop into it a piece of aluminum (aluminum discs can be bought) or zinc. Place each piece of silver in vessel so it will touch aluminum. Let stand a few seconds. Rinse with clear water and dry well with a soft cloth. Put rhubarb leaves in kettle with some water and bring to a boil. Place tarnished silver in with leaves and leave a short time. Take out and dry ; the silver will be like new.. Rub with soft cloth dipped in ammonia. Immerse silverware with sour milk and let stand three-quarters of an hour. Rinse, wash and dry. Sink Cleaner. — Use common baking soda. It will clean fine. Woodwork cleans readily if baking soda is added to the water. Sponges. Rub with lemon juice and then wash with cold water. Rinse first in warm weak soda lye then in clear warm water. Place in solution of bromine water and stand in the sun. When whitened, place in sun to dry. Upholstered Furniture. — Wet a sheet in water and wring it out. Place over the piece of upholstered furniture and beat good. This way the dust will not fly about the room. Ammonia Facts. Cheaper than soap or cleansers. Cleans spots, grease, woodwork or practically anything about the house. Excellent fertilizer for house plants. Avoiding Rings. — Add a little salt to gasoline or benzine and the spot will disappear without rubbing. This is for cleaning spots. For Rings from Gasoline. — Add a few drops of water to gasoline that is used for removing stain and it will leave no ring. Javelle Water. For Stains in White Goods. — First dissolve one pound washing soda in quart of boiling water. Then dissolve half pound chloride of lime in two quarts of cold water. After settling pour off the solution and mix with the soda water. Put in cans and keep in dark. To use this on white goods put three teaspoonfuls in water then soak goods for several minutes. When boiling clothes add javelle water in boiler. This water should not be used on silk or wool. To Neutralize Acid on Clothes. — Apply spirits of ammonia immediately after the acid has spotted the clothes. TO CLEAN CLOTHING 303 To Remove. Broken Cork in Bottle. — Loop fine wire or string and drop into the bottle. Empty bottle and catch cork in loop. It can be either pulled out with the wire or twine or held so a corkscrew can be put in to pull it out. Chewing Gum, — Hold ice on gum spot several minutes. Then crumble gum from the clothing. Dents in Furniture. — Place damp cloth over dent and apply a hot flat iron for a short while. The wood fibre will spring back into place. Egg Stains. — Rub salt on egg stain to remove from silver. Enamel. — This will remove old enamel. Lay articles in solution of boiling alum water. Finger Marks. — Kerosene will remove finger marks from oiled furniture, and sweet oil from varnished furniture. On Books. — Pour benzol on calcined magnesia until it crumbles. Rub prints of fingers with it and let it evaporate. A rubber eraser will do the rest. Grease. — To take from stove. Mix washing powder and turpentine and apply. Grease Eraser. — Apply the following solution to the spot : mix equal parts of ether, alcohol and benzine. Apply with a sponge. Place a piece of blotting paper on either side and iron with a hot iron. To Prevent Grease from Spreading. — When lard is spilled on the floor throw cold water on it immediately, thus preventing the grease from spreading and soaking into the wood. Then it can easily be taken up. Heated sawdust will remove grease spots from carpet or linoleum. Sprinkle sawdust over spot, leave for a short time and then sweep off. On Stove. — Wiping with a newspaper will remove all the grease and prevent stove from smoking because of spilled grease. On Wallpaper. — Rub marks and spots lightly with damp cloth and pumice stone. Wipe with dry cloth. On White Shoes. — Mix water with one teaspoonful each of starch and ful- ler's earth. Apply to spot, leave for several minutes and brush off. Lime. — A strong solution of salt and vinegar will remove lime from water bottles, pitchers, etc. Match Marks. — Rub the mark with lemon, followed by chalk or whiting. Then wash with soap and water. Marks on Dishes. — Common table salt will remove brown marks from dishes. Mildew. — One-eighth ounce each of pulverized resin and gum shellac, %. pint of linseed oil, % pint of 98 percent alcohol, well shaken and applied with a sponge will remove mildew. This will also remove stains from furniture. Cover spot with paste made of lemon juice and salt. This takes it away almost immediately. Javelle water should be applied to the spots and garment dried in bright sun. 304 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Apply soft soap and salt to white cotton goods, then place in the sun to remove mildew. Keep wet. Odors. — To remove odor from pasteboard lay it in a solution of viscose and water for a few seconds. Place on flat glass or window to dry. Odor from Pots and Pans. — Wash and dry the pan and scour it with common salt. Place it on the stove until the salt is brown. Shake often and afterwards wash the utensil in the usual way. This method is quick and simple. Paint. — Cover paint spot with lard and soak in turpentine a couple of hours. Then wash in hot suds. Soaking in turpentine or gasoline will do for cotton or linen goods. Ether is better for silks. Soak spots in equal parts of turpentine and spirits of ammonia. Apply kerosene and alcohol to hinges and slats or shutters of blinds. This loosens them quickly. Make a mixture of two parts of ammonia and one part oil of turpentine. Shake in a bottle until mixed well like milk. Apply to the coating with a little oakum and after a few minutes wipe off old paint. This is very effective. Rust. — An ink eraser cut to a fine edge will remove rust from many small articles. It can be inserted into small cracks and furrows. Powdered alum in strong vinegar is good for removing rust. Oil of tartar has been found very good for machinery. Rub kerosene oil or turpentine on machines and leave over night. Rub with fine emery paper or cloth. Put white wax in heated benzine, two parts of benzine and one of white wax, by weight. Let it dissolve. This gives excellent results when applied to rusted tools with a brush. Iron pipes can be kept from rusting by filling the pieces with fine saw- dust and coating outside with tar and burning. This is good for both inside and outside protection. Dissolve one teaspoonful of potassium bioxalate, one teacupful of water and five teaspoonfuls of glycerine. Moisten the rust or ink spot with this solu- tion. Let goods stand three hours, then wash thoroughly. Keep the spot moist during the three hours. Boiled rice rubbed on rust spots, which are then washed, is fine in re- moving rust. Rub lard on tin pans then put in hot oven. This will stand water con- tinuously and not rust. For steel, first rub with kerosene then with coarse sandpaper. Put cork in oil and rub rusted part. This takes off rust as well as gives a good shine. For rust on blue steel, cover it with sweet oil and let stand for a couple of days. Then rub with powdered unslaked lime. Sour milk is fine for rust on white sroods. TO CLEAN CLOTHING 305 Rhubarb or pie plant juice is excellent for removing rust from clothes or dishes. Lemon juice and salt will remove rust and is fine for polishing brass. Put rust stain over a bowl or pan, sprinkle with oxalic acid and pour boiling water on it. Put one tablespoonful cream of tartar in quart of boiling water. Put rust-stained goods in this and let stand a few minutes. Rusty Screw. — Hold a redhot iron to the head of the screw. When the screw is hot remove with screwdriver. Sooty Smell. — Burn ground coffee in newspaper to remove sooty smell. Scratches on Wallpaper. — Moisten a sample of the wallpaper, scrape off the color and apply to scratches. Smooth with knife blade. Spots. — To rembve white spots from furniture, make a paste of salt and olive oil. Rub on spots and let stand an hour or so, then wipe off and polish with a dry cloth. On Paint. — Rub with cloth dipped in kerosene. On Furniture from Heat. — Apply camphor and rub gently with a soft cloth and the spot will disappear immediately. Mud. — First, dry the material, brush well and if any mud remains wash with flannel dipped in hot coffee with several drops of ammonia added. This applies to black silk and wool goods. Oil Spots from Feathers. — Swab spot with (sal) ammonia. Rinse with clear water. It may be repeated several times. Not injurious. Apply clean butter. After standing a while scrape off and wash the spot with tepid water and soap. Mud. — After brushing dry mud spots thoroughly, rub with a slice of raw potato. This is fine. Making a colored stitch over or around a spot on clothes before being sent to the cleaner will assure you of their being cleaned. Often a spot when not caught by a glance, will not be seen or found by the cleaner. Alcohol applied with a soft cloth will also remove spots from dark wood. Spirits of camphor rubbed on spot carefully with a soft cloth, then good furniture polish applied, will remove white spots from furniture. A mixture of one teaspoonful of ammonia in one gallon of warm water will remove whitewash spots from carpet. Vaseline spots can be removed before they are washed by applying kerosene. White Spots on Varnish. — Rub with soft cloth soaked in turpentine. Stains. — For removing any kind of stains from rugs. Use one box of borax and J4 pound of soap chips. Boil chips in water, cool and then sprinkle rug with borax, one section at a time. Wash with suds. Use fresh suds for each section. Stains will be removed. Blood Stains. — Peroxide of hydrogen is best for fresh stain while soap and cold water are best for old stains. 306 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Bluing Stain. — Place one teaspoonful of muriatic acid in two gallons of water. Boil the stained garments in this solution. This will remove the stains. Coffee Stains. — For wool, silk or chiffon brush stain with glycerin then with warm water. Press on wrong side. Coffee Stains. — Pour boiling water and borax over coffee stain. Dye Stains. — Soak dye spots in ammonia water. Fruit Stains. — Fresh stains can usually be removed simply by pouring boiling water on them while holding over a bowl. Sponge goods with clear water. Then rub with peroxide of hydrogen or soap and ammonia. For orange stains, moisten spot with cold water. Hang in bright sun. Hold spot over bowl and pour Javelle water on it. Tie cream of tartar about stain in linen and boil it in soapsuds for a few minutes. Then rinse in clean cold water. For freshly soiled table linen cover, strain dampened laundry starch through the linen. This absorbs the color. Grass Stains. — Alcohol is best for goods that cannot be washed. Butter and salt is fine. Make a paste of soap and baking powder. Apply this to the stains on coat collar and sleeves. Fresh stains respond to soaking in alcohol. Old stains may be taken out by rubbing molasses in well and allowing it to stay several hours before washing out. Grass stains can be removed by thoroughly rubbing with table syrup, then washing. Grease Stains. — Gasoline or ether is good, but should be applied in the open air or near open window away from a fire. Starch can be mixed to make a paste before applying. Heat Stains on Polished Wood. — First apply hot irons on four blotters laid over the surface. Then while warm rub paraffin into the spot following up by brisk rubbing with a flannel rag. Iodine. — Swab spots with alcohol on cloth or apply paste of starch and cold water. Rinse with cold water. Ink. — To remove from carpets. After as much has been taken up as pos- sible with a sponge, pour cold water on spot repeatedly, taking up liquid with sponge each time. Rub place with a little oxalic acid dissolved in cold water, then rub with hartshorn. Ink Eraser. — One part citric acid, 10 parts distilled water, 2 parts of con- centrated solution of borax. Dissolve citric acid in water and add borax. In applying to the paper use a delicate camel's hair pencil, removing with a Motter any excess of water. A mixture of equal parts of tartaric acid, citric acid and oxalic acid dis- solved in just enough water to give a clean solution, acts energetically on most inks. TO CLEAN CLOTHING 307 First place stained spot over deep dish. Cover with powdered borax. Then pour hydrogen peroxide over it. This is a quick remover. Removing Ink from Linen. — Mash juice from a couple of strong onions and add a half ounce of white soap and two ounces fuller's earth. Place this in a cup of vinegar and stir till it boils. After cooling, spread it on the ink spot and put in sun to dry. After the linen is boiled every trace of the ink will have disappeared. Put boiled rice instead of soap in boiler with ink-stained article. This is fine. After boiling, rinse the goods in clear water. Ink Remover. — Mix 10 parts of oxalic acid, 2 parts of stamic chloride, 5 parts of acetic acid, 500 parts of water. Soak spot with mixture. Leather. — For stockings, put two tablespoonsful of borax in water and wash stockings in it. Medicine. — Apply alcohol; in most cases it will absorb stain. Milk. — Fresh milk stains are best treated with soap and cold water. Perspiration Stain. — Place stain on white blotter and sponge with alcohol and ether mixed equally. Rub dry and apply ammonia. Peruvian Balsam Stain. — Place stain over filter paper and moisten with chloroform. Don't rub. Do this near open window. Scorch Stains. — If it is white linen, wet spot and lay goods in bright sunshine. Sunburn. — Vaseline should be rubbed on hands, face and neck before going into the glaring sun or hot wind. Tar on Clothes. — Rub lard on tar spot. Scrape off then wash out the grease with soap and water. Tar on Hands. — Rub hands with lard then wash off with soap and water. Cold cream will soften hands after washing. Varnish Stains. — Wet stain with gasoline then rub baking soda into it. Let stand half hour. Rinse in gasoline then wash in soap and water. Wax Stains. — Place white blotting paper over and under wax stain and press with hot iron. BUGS AND PESTS. Ants. Fill a container with water and put under table, the legs of cabinets and refrigerators. Ants fall in and drown. Sprinkle pepper where ants are found. Mix corrosive sublimate and wood alcohol. Spray the shelves and floor in pantry. This will destroy the ants. For ants in trees, fumigate with any one of several materials obtained from drug store and put a ring of tar around the tree several feet from the ground. Cucumbers or their peelings placed in pantrys or refrigerators have given wonderful results in keeping ants away. Wormwood leaves spread around ant holes act very well in driving ants away. Walnut shells will collect ants rapidly, then they can be thrown into the fire. Soak a sponge in sugar water, then squeeze out. The ants will fill the sponge and it can be dropped into boiling water. Rub the edge of dishes holding foods with cedar oil or oil of sassafras. Ants like grease. Put small quantity of liquid grease in pan and thus collect the ants. Brush all parts and corners of refrigerator and shelves with gasoline. This will drive ants away. One ounce each of powdered aloes and insect powder scattered around shelves and holes, will keep the ants away. Boil 2 ounces of cape aloes in a pint of water, then add 1/4. ounce camphor gum. Wash floors and shelves. Pour or spray around holes. Bees. If bothered with bees fill pan with sugar water. They will become wet and drown. Bird Robbers of Fruit. Tie white cloths in trees. Hang little bells on the limbs. Bugs. Bedbugs. — Brush bed springs and mattress with the following mixture: J4 ounce corrosive sublimate, l / 4 ounce powdered camphor, ! 4 pint wood alcohol and Y\ pint of spirits of turpentine. Spray kerosene oil in all the joints of the bed and fill cracks with plaster of paris. Fresh paint with lots of turpentine will drive bedbugs away. 30s BUGS AND PESTS 309 One-half teaspoonful oil of pennyroyal, 4 ounces of turpentine and a quart of kerosene. Mix and apply to cracks and springs with a brush. Book Bugs. — Blow powdered flour and pyretheum into the backs of books and on shelves. Carpet Bugs. — Spray carpets and floors with a solution of one quart of hot boiling water and one tablespoonful of corrosive sublimate. Bugs on Cucumber Vines. — Sprinkle flour or air-slaked lime around the plants. Alum or Salt for Bugs. — Dissolve salt or alum in boiling water and pour into cracks in wood. To Keep Bugs, etc., from Wallpaper. — Add 2 teaspoonfuls of colocynth powder to each pint of paste before papering. To Rid Greens of Bugs. — After picking off all dead leaves and other foreign matter, just put a small quantity of vinegar into the panful of water in which you rinse the greens. You will be surprised to see how the little bugs will drop off into the vinegar water. Flower Bugs. — Boil tobacco stems in water for twenty minutes. Spray on the plants. The stems also keep moths away. Grain Weevil. — Burn sulphur in pans after closing all doors and windows of granary. Fumigate before and after putting grain in bin. Potato Bug. — Paris green sprayed on plants will kill the bugs. Carbonate of lime may be sifted on the plants. Make a solution by soaking mandrake roots for two days and strain. Sprinkle on plants and the younger bugs will die before changing plants. Drop three seeds of flax in each potato hill. No insects will bother flax plants, so the potatoes are protected. Let the flax grow. Crickets. — Sprinkle quick lime near doors and cracks. It keeps away crickets. Fleas. Oil of pennyroyal, or pennyroyal plant leaves if applied to body of animals will keep the fleas away. Apply mixture of 2y 2 drams oil of cloves; J / 2 dram carbolic acid; 3 ounces water; diluted alcohol 2 ounces. Sprinkle on beds and bedding. Put soap and water on the floors. Put naphthalene powder on carpets and floors. Also on cats and dogs. Flies. Fly Catcher. — Sprinkle little sugar on piece of old carpet. When flies gather simply use the vacuum cleaner on it. Cut a small hole in box cover and apply syrup around the hole on one side of the box. Turn cover over a glass half filled with soapsuds, being sure the sticky side is down. The flies will crawl into hole and drown in the water. To Kill Flies. — Put a blotter in a solution of one teaspoonful each of eucalyptus oil and oil of pennyroyal. This solution will kill flies quickly. 310 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Oil of lavender, y 2 teaspoonful, placed on a sponge soaked in boiling water is fine to use in fighting flies. The fumes from a teaspoonful of carbolic acid on a hot shovel will quickly kill the flies in a room. Close doors, windows and get out of room. Kerosene oil is good if poured into the sink or around the places where food is .setting or water is thrown. Screens should always be used. Prevention will do many times the good a cure will do. A fly which begins to lay eggs in June will have a billion offspring by September. Kill early in the year. The following spray is good to drive the flies away from room or porch where the baby sleeps : eucalyptus 10 parts, bergamot oil 3 parts, acetic ether 10 parts, cologne water 50 parts, 9 per cent alcohol, 100 parts. Mix. Use 1 part of this solution with 10 parts water for spraying. The fumes from two pounds of burning pyretheum powder (Persian insect powder) per 1,000 cu. ft. of air space will either kill or stupefy flies or mosquitoes so that they may be swept up and burned. The powder may be placed in pots and pans and lighted after sprinkling with alcohol. To Keep Away Flies and Mosquitoes. — Put a few drops oil of penny- royal in saucer on chair or window-sill. Put laurel oil around pictures and curtains. Make fly swatter of old screen and limber stick. Fly Mixture for Cattle. — Take 2 quarts of fish oil, 1 quart oil of tar, and add four teaspoonsful of carbolic acid. Mix well and apply with sprayer or whisk broom. Fly Mixture. — Spraying places with pine oil will keep flies from breeding near them. Fly Mixture and Insect Bites. — Mix one ounce each of oil of citronella, spirits of camphor, and oil of cedar. Sprinkle two or three drops on a hand- kerchief. If hung near the head this will keep mosquitoes away while one is sleeping. Fly Poison. — Apply one pound of borax for every four feet of space occu- pied by manure. Sprinkle about the barn at times. This has been found very good. Simple Rules for Fly Time. — Keep garbage buckets carefully covered and perfectly clean. Pour kerosene into the drains. Burn or bury all table refuse and see that no decaying vegetable matter is left about the premises. A stable should be carefully screened as well as the house in order to prevent fly breeding and save much annoyance to the horses. Exterminate flies and mosquitoes by exposing a saucer of 1 per cent formalin solution. Gnats. Apply camphor to body and to stings of the gnats. Rub kerosene on the hands. Put a few drops into bath water at night. BUGS AND PESTS 311 Inseets. On Plants. — Mix one cup kerosene oil and 2 quarts thin milk. Sprinkle or spray on plants. Dust with powdered helebore. An effective insect destroyer is made of heated alum water. Lice. Apple Tree Louse. — Spray with strong tobacco juice and lime made in a thin solution. This is very effective. Chicken Lice. — Tie tape to legs of chicken and hang to tree several feet from ground. Good lice powder, snuff or wood ashes can then be sprinkled through the feathers to the skin. Also under the wings and legs. Take 5 pounds of sublimated sulphur, l / 2 pound powdered naphthalene, 2 pounds fuller's earth, and 1 teaspoonful of carbolic acid. Mix these and sprin- kle nests. Oil of eucalyptus may be dropped about nests or an Qgg soaked in it and laid in nest. For Head Lice. — Grind 5c worth of "fish berries" and cover with pure alcohol over night. Apply to scalp at night. Wash hair next day and use fine toothed comb. This is poison if taken inwardly. Mix kerosene (1 cup) and vinegar (1 cup) and wash the hair. Cover head with towel for short time then wash hair with soap and water. Rosebush Lice and Ants. — Spray with a solution of tobacco or nicotine as directed. Boil stavesacre seed and apply. This is one of the finest remedies known. These seeds applied in almost any form are successful. Mice. Place few drops of oil of peppermint about the holes and on the shelves and they will leave. Mosquitoes. Mix 3 ounces of sweet or olive oil with 1 ounce of carbolic acid. Rub exposed parts but do not get in eyes. Mix pennyroyal and peppermint and apply. A powder made of six parts oil of eucalyptus, 12 parts powdered talcum, and 84 parts of starch, should be applied to exposed portions of the body and face by means of a powder puff in order to keep the mosquitoes away. When annoyed by mosquitoes during camping, rub the hands and face with a little glycerine, and the mosquitoes will bother you no more. Flies and mosquitoes may be repelled by leaving a bottle of oil of pennyroyal uncorked in bedroom at night. A little laurel oil on backs of picture frames will repel them. Glycerine rubbed on hands and face will keep them away. 312 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 1 teaspoonful eucalyptus oil; 2 teaspoonfuls powdered talcum and y 2 cup of starch. Apply to exposed parts of body. Moths. Corn Moth, — Clean floors of crib then wash floors and walls with strong solution of vinegar and salt. Salt can also be thrown into crib with corn. To Kill Moths. — One dram flour of hops ; snuff, 2 ounces ; flake camphor, 1 ounce ; black pepper, 1 ounce ; cedar sawdust, 4 ounces ; mix this well and put around in cupboards or put in bag among furs and clothes. Mix 2 teaspoonfuls of powdered alum and 1 of black pepper. Put upon the floor before laying rugs or carpet. Hot alum water is good to kill moths. Shake clothes and put in sunshine every few weeks. A mixture of 1 dram of white pepper, 2 drams of camphor, 5 drams of naphthalene and some insect powder is used. A mixture of 1 dram of capsicum, 5 drams of insect powder, and 4 drams of naphthalene will drive away moths. Ground cedar wood or cedar chests are fine for keeping away moths. Brush clothes clean, hang in sunshine for several hours then place tar balls or camphor with them when laying away. Boil 1 ounce cayenne pepper in 1 quart of water. Add y 2 teaspoonful of strychnine powder. Sprinkle this in boxes and clothes closets where moths may come. Moth Preventives. — Equal parts of ground tobacco stems and insect pow- der make a good moth powder. Para Dichlorbenzol is the latest real moth destroyer. It may be purchased in crystalline powder form or as a liquid, the vapor of which kills the moth, their eggs and larvae. The liquid preparation may be used as a paint for chests, trunks or wardrobes. It can be used as a spray onto the goods, in case it does not discolor them. Liquids containing benin, carbon tetra-chloride, oil of turpentine are preferred because alcohol will affect most of the aniline dyes. The liquid may be used to saturate blotting paper and placed between goods. Directions for Preventing Moths. — Thoroughly beat, shake and brush, and in case of furs also comb the goods, then expose them to the sunlight as long as possible. Sprinkle the moth powder between goods, and on top in abundance in case of exposure to air. The goods should be placed in tight receptacles as boxes, trunks, etc., in order that the odor of powder will thoroughly pen- etrate the goods and no moths can be admitted. Several Good Moth Powders Are As Follows: Camphor,' 20 grammes; white pepper, 10 grammes; insect powder and naphthalene, 50 grammes of each. BUGS AND PESTS 313 Napto Moth Powder consists of the following parts: 10 grammes of Capsicum, 40 grammes naphthalene, and 50 grammes insect powder. Cedar Mothaline composed of equal parts of ground cedar wood and naph- thalene is good Roaches. To Kill Roaches. — Dust or sprinkle a half and half mixture of sodium fluorid and flour in cracks and on floors. Blow a mixture of one ounce of flour and sugar, one ounce of powdered saffron and one-half pound of borax, into cracks and places frequented by roaches. Sprinkle powdered borax and powdered chocolate in cracks. Flowers of sulphur or powdered pyretheum is good to sprinkle around. Phosphorus paste consisting of a cup of flour and a half teaspoonful of phos- phorus will kill roaches. Mix 7 ounces insect powder, 6 ounces ground cinnamon, and 1 ounce pow- dered white hellebore. Sprinkle in places where needed. Take a pan with two- or three-inch sides and grease it with poor butter. Set it in the cupboard or on the floor. Roaches will climb over edges and fall into pan. Grease keeps them from getting out. Kill roaches in fire or hot water. Sparrows. To Drive Away. — Hang moth balls near sparrows' nests and they will leave. Spiders. Soak cotton wool in oil of pennyroyal and tie it in corners or near webs. Tobacco in Garden Use. Boil tobacco stems in water twenty minutes and use on nasturtiums or other plants and flowers. It is harmless to plants, and keeps the bugs away. Bury tobacco stems in the ground in the autumn or a week before planting seeds, for a good cheap fertilizer. The odor of tobacco stems makes a good substitute for moth balls. Worms. Ball Worm. — For corn relief, the corn must be planted early so it may ripen early. Large fires at night will burn many worms that are drawn to the fires. Apple Tree Borers or Worms. — A brush and strong lye soapsuds will kill the borers, if the trunks of the trees are washed in the spring. On bushes, the affected limbs should be cut close and burned. Cabbage Maggot. — Mix one pound hard and one quart soft soap in one gallon of water. Add one pint of crude carbolic acid. When applying to or spraying cabbage plants, put one and one-half teaspoonful of the mixture in a cup of water. 314 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Cabbage Worms. — Put one tablespoonful of saltpeter in 3 gallons of water. Sprinkle on cabbage plants. Caterpillars. — Boil foxglove in water and spray bushes. Sift powdered helebore on infected bushes. When large webs collect in trees, containing caterpillars, tie a rag soaked in kerosene to the end of a pole and burn out the nests. If this is done early, excellent results are obtained. Cutworms. — Wrap paper on tomato stems before planting. This will keep away cutworms. Cut cardboard into two inch strips. Soak in kerosene oil. Wrap once around plant stalks before planting. This is fine to keep away cutworms. Strawberry Worms. — Spray plants with solution of half pound of white helebore in 10 gallons of water. Tobacco Worm. — On account of their destructiveness it pays to look carefully over the leaves with pincers, or with gloves on ; when one is found kill. LAUNDRY HELPS Washing. For Soaking Clothes. — Make a solution consisting of 1 tablespoonful of turpentine, 1 bar ordinary soap, 2 tablespoonfuls ammonia, and 3 gallons water. Saving Time When Washing. — Make a soap solution before beginning the washing. It is more easily handled and gives a quick suds. Its use will save time and money. Have plenty of hot water before beginning. If using hard water soften it, with a teaspoonful of borax to each gallon of water. Quick Remedy for Sprung Leak. — Should your wash boiler spring a leak, an emergency remedy is to put in some corn meal. This fills up the hole at once. Saving Time on Ironing Days. — Fold dust cloths, Turkish towels, etc., at the middle and put through the wringer. Try this once and you will con- tinue. To Correctly Put on a Silk Glove. — Work each finger and the thumb down separately. Never use force by putting the finger of the opposite hand into the crotch of the fingers. You can easily break the seam and ruin the glove by not following these directions. Keeping Table Pads Clean. — Cut thin oilcloth to fit shape of tables. Place this between the table pads and table cloths. No Frayed Corners When Hanging Sheets. — When hanging sheets to dry, do not hang them from the middle, but fold the ends together, then pin on the line. To Retain Heat in Flatirons. — To retain the heat of an iron twice as long as usual, use a brick for an iron stand. Drying Curtains. — Hang two curtains together on the line lengthwise. This makes them dry straight and saves time and worry. Dyeing Children's Hose. — Crepe paper may be used for dyeing hose by putting enough of the paper in the rinse water to obtain the color wanted. Dyeing Goods. — Always use soft water, 4 gallons to each pound of goods to be dyed. Always clean goods well first. After dyeing, always- air, rinse and dry them. Hang the goods on clothes hangers, wooden ones preferred to avoid rust. Fireless Dress. — Put one ounce of sal ammoniac or alum in the starch to stiffen cotton or muslin goods, or in the last water when rinsing. This renders them practically fireproof and makes it impossible for them to burn with flame. Use especially for children's clothes. 315 316 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING To Make Lace Yellow. — Dip in tea or coffee. To Fix Dyes. — Add 3 ounces of bichromate of potash to a solution of twenty ounces of gelatin dissolved in water. Do this in a dark room. Then add the coloring matter. Put the goods in this and expose to the light. The color will be fast. Blue Dye. — Make a decoction of one pound of lacmus or litmus and a sufficient quantity of potash lye. Red Dye. — In a lye of potash boil ground brazil wood. This is fine in which to boil straw hats to obtain a rich red color. Into a weak water of carbonate of potash dissolve carmine, or this may be dissolved in ammonia. Powdered cochineal dissolved in water to which a little gum is added will be found satisfactory. Liquid Dye Colors. Blue. — Dilute sulphate of indigo with water and neutralize with chalk for delicate work. Purple. — To a strained decoction of logwood add a small amount of alum. Fine Bluing for Clothes. — Put J4 ounce of oxalic acid in a quart of clean rain water, add 1 ounce of soft Prussian blue which has been powdered. Use 1 teaspoonful for a good sized washing. Fine Cleansing Fluid. — Use a strong solution of borax in washing the kitchen towels and blankets. Fine Hard Soap. — Strain 5 pounds of melted grease through cheesecloth. Dissolve a can of concentrated lye in a quart of water. Dissolve a table- spoonful of sugar in Y\ cup of ammonia and add to the lye solution. Then dissolve 2/3 cup of borax in warm water and add. Put lukewarm grease with this mixture and stir until it thickens. Put into a granite pan. Cut into cakes as it hardens. This soap is pure and excellent for dishes. To greatly increase the value of starch add one of the following: Borax to make the garment more glossy, whiter, and more lasting. Alum to improve the color, increase pliability, and to thin the starch. Butter, lard, wax or turpentine to add smoothness and finish. Gum arabic to increase its stiffening power. Stir the starch with a paraffin candle while boiling to add glossiness and smoothness when ironing. Starch Lustre. — To Yz pound of starch add a piece of stearine the size of a quarter, then boil for 4 or 5 minutes. Apply to linen and it will greatly add to its beauty. Rice Water as Starch. — Boil rice as usual and use the water to stiffen flimsy waists and dress goods. This is a good substitute for starch. Fine White Soap. — Dissolve one can lye in three pints cold water and one cup borax. Strain five pounds grease through cheesecloth and add to above while quite hot. Stir for at least 30 minutes, then add two tablespoon- LAUNDRY HELPS 317 fuls of ammonia. Line a pan with heavy paper and into this pour the con- tents. Cut in squares when cold and let stand for three weeks. Fine Washing Fluid. — Into one gallon of soft water put one ounce of salts of tartar, one ounce dry ammonia, and one can potash. To a boiler of clothes use one teacupful. Put clothes in cold water and let come to a boil. Washing Fluid Which Requires No Rubbing. — An excellent fluid which requires no rubbing is made by mixing 5 cents worth of salts of tartar, 4 cents worth of ammonia, one small package borax, one small can of lye, one cake common soap, and one gallon water. Stop boiling when soap is dissolved. After the clothes have been soaked all night use one cup of fluid to each boiler of clothes. To Clean Bathtubs, Sinks, Etc. — Rub the sink or bathtub with a cloth dampened in kerosene. This makes the stains come off easily. To Clean Soiled Leather. — To remove every spot from soiled leather dip a piece of cloth in spirits of wine and rub the spots. To Clean Ribbons, Silks, and Satins. — When only lightly soiled they may be cleaned by brushing with powdered starch, magnesia, or bread crumbs. They should then be well dusted. To Clean Velvet. — A good method of cleaning any kind of velvet is to sponge it with benzoline, and apply a weak solution of gum arabic to the back. Then sew in a frame (an embroidery frame will do) and press the velvet on the wrong side through a damp rag. To raise the nap, hold it with the wrong side downward over a basin of water. To remove grease spots, pour turpen- tine on the spot and rub with a flannel till dry. Removing Chocolate or Tea Stains. — Cover the spot with borax and soak in cold water. Soak in glycerine, then wash. Coffee, Fruit, or Indigo Stains. — Spread over bowl and pour boiling water from a sufficient height to strike the stain with considerable force. Grass Stains. — Salt and butter applied as a mixture is good. After applying lard wash with a strong soapy water. Wash with naphtha soap and warm water. Soak in alcohol. Apply molasses, or a paste of baking soda and soap for colored fabrics. Grease Spots. — Dissolve the grease in benzine, alcohol, carbona, or ether. Lamp Black. — Pour kerosene on the spot. Wash thoroughly with naphtha soap and water. Ink. — Remove a fresh ink stain by soaking it in fresh milk. Wet the stain in cold water. Apply a solution of oxalic acid, and repeat in a few minutes. Rinse the material in water to which ammonia or borax has been added. Treat the stain with lemon juice and salt. Machine Oil. — Use turpentine to wet the stain. In a few minutes wet again and pat with a cloth. Continue this treatment several times if necessary. 318 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Mildew. — Wet the spots with lemon juice then expose to the sun. A paste of powdered chalk applied to the stain and exposure to the sun is good. Perspiration. — Expose to the sun after washing well in soapsuds. Treat with a ten percent solution of oxalic acid. Scorch. — If the threads are uninjured, wet the stained part and expose to the action of the sun. Paint. — Wet with turpentine, alcohol, or benzine. After it has stood for a few minutes, wet again and sponge with a clean, cloth. Repeat until the paint disappears. If the paint is old use equal parts of turpentine and am- monia. Treat varnish stains the same as for paint. Iron Rust. — Rub the stain well with salt and lemon juice, then place the garment in the sun. Wet the stained part with ammonia, or borax and water and spread over a bowl of boiling water. Apply a ten percent solution of hydrochloric acid until the stain begins to brighten. This acid should be applied drop by drop. Then dip in alkaline water at once. Rinse in borax or ammonia water which will neutralize any remaining acid. Renewing Rusty Looking Silk. — Sponge with potato water and the silk will be made clean and look like new. Stove Polish. — Kerosene applied to the spot which is then washed with a strong soapsuds will remove even an old stain. Vaseline. — Wash with turpentine or kerosene. Do not boil as this will set the stain. Wagon Grease. — Soften with oil or lard and wash vigorously in strong, soapy water. Keeping Bedspreads Fresh. — Put some starch in the last water in which you rinse the spreads. They do up nicer and keep clean and fresh much longer. Cleansing Blankets. — Dissolve one cake of naphtha soap in a tub of cold water. Let the blanket stand in this for twelve hours. Run cold water over it until the soap is removed. Hang the dripping blankets out of doors- Cur- tains and spreads may be washed the same way. When Washing Chiffon.— Squeeze until clean in lukewarm soapy water. Dissolve a lump of sugar in the rinsing water. After being ironed this gives a little firmness to the fabric. To Launder Centerpieces. — Iron first with no starch. Then put the centerpieces on a board and place over them a thin cloth saturated in raw starch. Iron them smooth and dry. To Launder Colored Fabrics. — Set the color before the garments are washed by soaking them in water to which has been added 2 cups of salt to each gallon of water. Salt cannot be used with soapy water; rinse carefully before putting them into the wash water. LAUNDRY HELPS 319 To Stiffen Crocheted Baskets, Etc. — Make a stiff flour paste ; after soak- ing crocheted article in it, dry it on a pint or quart dish. Then put several coats of shellac on both sides of the basket. Washing Flannels. — Soak flannels 15 minutes in warm soapy water. Scrub with brush on washboard instead of rubbing. They clean much quicker and are stretched. They will be soft when dry. To Wash Garment with Colored Trimming. — Cover the trimming with a white cloth after you have first lightly wrung the garment out, and wring it again. It is then too nearly dry to run into the white. Do not use hot starch nor soak colored goods. Doing Up Curtains. — Boil dried onion skins for 10 minutes and strain. Use this water to make the starch for the curtains. They will come out a pretty, evenly colored tan. Washing Crepe de Chine. — Put a piece of crepe paper of the same color as the waist into the rinsing water. In this way the cloth will retain its original color and appear as fresh as new. To Wash Heavy Quilts. — Lay the quilt on a flat surface. Scrub the quilt thoroughly with a good lather and a soft scrub brush. Plang it on a clothesline and rinse thoroughly. Dry by turning as necessary. In this way the batting will remain light and the heavy lifting is avoided. Washing Handkerchiefs When Traveling. — Wash and rinse them, then smooth out full size on a window pane ; as soon as dried they look like new. Laundering Lace Articles. — Put three or four lumps of loaf sugar in cold water. After they are dissolved crisp the lace articles in this fluid. Stretch the pieces while wet, then dry on a towel. Renewing Lace Veil. — Put veil in white soapy water. Use soft water if possible. Boil slowly for twenty minutes. Rinse several times after squeez- ing the water out lightly. Use a small quantity of weak boiled starch in the last water. Dry by pinning on white cloth. To Get Overalls Clean. — Scrub them with a scrub brush which has been thoroughly soaped. This gives better results than washing them on a board. When Laundering Silk or Pongee. — After washing the garment quickly roll it in a dry cloth while wet. Never sprinkle silk. Add a small amount of gelatin to the rinsing water. This gives enough stiffness with no starchy look. To Wash Silk Hose. — Wash first in borax water, then in slightly warm soapy water. Squeeze and rinse in at least two waters. Never wring them out. Fold the stockings in a hot wet towel for 45 minutes. Press with a cool iron on the wrong side. Keeping Veils Clean and Crisp.- — Wash veils in thick suds. Rinse three times in water then rinse once in skimmed sweet milk. Squeeze the veil as dry as possible, then wave back and forth until quite dry. Veils washed this way last much longer and look like new. 320 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING White Corduroy. — Wash until apparently clean, using good soap. Boil 30 minutes in soapy water. Rinse in three waters, then rinse in cold bluing water. Hang in open air to dry without wringing. Do not iron. This gives satisfactory results. After Washing a Sweater. — Make a hammock of any thin material and lay the sweater on it. Be sure the hammock is flat so the garment will not leed to be doubled up. This keeps the sweater from losing its shape. To Wash White Gloves. — Use pure white soap and slightly warm water. Never fold them when wet. It is best to wash them on the hands ; otherwise stretch carefully while still wet. To Take Yellow Out of White Goods. — Put a few drops of turpentine into the water when washing white goods. Dry in the sun on the grass. To Make Easier Washing of White Clothes. — Lemon juice helps to re- move grease and dirt. It whitens and refreshes white clothes and makes the washing easier. Do not use for colored clothes. Washing White Clothes or Chamois Gloves. — Rub the glove with the white of an egg while still wet. This keeps the gloves from getting a yel- lowish look. When White Silk Turns Yellow. — Wash the articles with white soap and cold water. Lay them in sour milk over night. Rinse several times and dry in the shade, preferably in the house. This bleaches them white. Washing Much-Soiled Woolens and Delicate Colors. — Use a solution of 34 pound borax, y 2 pound of mild soap and 3 quarts of water. Washing Woolens and Flannels. — If you would keep woolens and flannels as soft as new be sure to rinse them in soapy water. Drying. Drying Clothes. — The last rinsing water should be warm, salty water. The clothes do not stick to the line nor freeze so quickly and they dry faster. Hanging Curtains Properly. — Cut the selvage from portiere material and turn in one-half inch and then make the two-inch hem. This insures perfect hanging and straight folds. To Dry Heavy Articles. — When drying a comforter or blanket place it on the line, then slip several coathangers under it on the clothes line, allowing it to dry tent fashion. This will permit the air to circulate between the two parts. Drying Irish Lace. — Dry by pinning in a little frame, the same as with lace curtains. Do this instead of ironing and it will look like new. Drying Net Curtains. — Put them at the windows on the poles while wet. They will hang straight and in graceful folds when dry. Saving Pillows. — Avoid hanging pillows in the sun to air as this draws the oil out of the feathers. Clothes LAUNDRY HELPS 321 To Make Tablecloth Smoother. — After washing tablecloth roll and fold once or twice on mailing tubes of cardboard. This makes fewer creases and a smoother cloth. Ironing. Ironing, to Hold Cover in Place. — Put a couple of screw TT^.'.'rTT eyes or tacks on each side underneath the ends of the ironing jfly \ ( board. Then tie a heavy cord or tape over the cover. This will J i \ hold it in place. To Dampen for Hasty Ironing. — After washing the article, wrap it in a Turkish towel. This makes it easy to iron by absorbing the water. If the article is dry, dampen it in a wet warm Turkish towel. This makes the ironing easy. Ironing Starched* Pieces. — When boiling the starch, stir it several times with a paraffin candle. Ironing the starched pieces Sprinkler will then give insurance of glossiness and smoothness. Starched Articles Sticking to Iron. — Add a small quantity of lard and a pinch of salt to the boiled starch. This will prevent the starched articles from sticking. To Take Shine From Blue Serge. — Brush to eliminate all dust. Go over the shiny parts with a good solution of common wash blue. Dry outside or out-of-doors. Repeat whenever necessary. To Take Shine From Cloth. — Take a fine steel suede shoe brush to remove the shine from worn cloth. Brush with a circular motion. This is much better than pumice-stone. To Keep Silk Looking New. — Always press silk under dampened mus- lin and use a moderately hot iron until the muslin is dry. This keeps silk from becoming crackly and hard. Sponging, Pressing and Removing Spots. — Brush the suit thoroughly, then sponge with a slightly warm mixture of three-fourths common ammonia and one-fourth water until well moistened. Hang up to dry, then press with a heavy iron having a cloth over the goods. Remove any grease spots that may be left, by using gasoline. To Keep the Color of Matting. — Wash matting frequently in salt water to prevent it from becoming dark colored. Cover for Wash Tub. — A good cover for a set wash tub is to cover it with oilcloth. Nail one side of the cloth to the tub and nail the opposite edge to an old broom stick which is rolled back to open the tub. For Sprinkling Clothes. — With a cheap whisk broom you can sprinkle the clothes quickly and keep the hands dry. When Bleaching Linen. — Put a slice of lemon or a teaspoonful of per- oxide of hydrogen in the water for soaking clothes. Either of these will act as a bleach and are harmless. 322 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Shrinking Cotton Goods. — Lay it in a bathtub filled with hot water. Lift it carefully to the edge of the tub when the water is cold and let it drain into the tub. Keep the folds smooth. It will not need to be ironed. The Use of Lye. — Sprinkle vessels which have held milk or cooked food, with lye. Follow this with boiling water and they will be as clean as new. Bleaching Cotton. — Take one pound of chloride of lime and one small tablespoonful of washing soda. Dissolve them in soft water. This is enough for 30 yards of goods. Leave the cloth in this solution for 15 minutes, then rinse in soft cold water to prevent rotting. To Make Clothes White. — Put a teaspoonful of peroxide of hydrogen in the soaking water. This bleaches the linen and is harmless. It distributes the bluing evenly and makes the cloth clean and white. Protecting Colored Lawns. — To keep away the fading effect of a bright sun, hang your fine colored lawns inside of long nightgowns. They dry as well and do not fade. To Prevent Wash Goods From Fading. — Delicately colored wash goods should be washed in cold water with a good soap. Salt added to the last rinsing water will set the color. Add some common or Epsom salts to the wash water and this will keep colored clothes from fading. Try this the next time you wash colored dresses. To Prevent Colors From Running. — Stir a tablespoonful of black pepper into the first suds. This prevents the color from running. To Keep Comforts Clean. — Bind the edges with a deep band of swiss. The colored comforts will not need to be cleaned so often if this is done. This swiss may be easily removed for washing if basted on. To Wash Feathers. — Transfer the feathers to a cheesecloth case about the same size as the pillow. This can be done by leaving a slit of six inches in the case and joining to a similar slit made in a corner of the pillow. Fasten these openings together and shake the feathers into the case. Sew the opening, then wash and rinse thoroughly. Hang in the sun until dried. Leave the feathers in cheesecloth cases and put back in ticking. In this way feathers are not lost. Assistance for Laundering. — Sprinkle the clothes several hours before ironing in order to make this work much easier. When taking the clothes off the line be sure to fold them. This saves time in handling them again. Add a small teaspoonful of kerosene, benzine or turpentine to the washing water to whiten the clothes. Soak the clothes over night to make them wash easier. It is a good plan to have ammonia or borax in the water while soaking. Do not have the water too hot when washing colored clothes, nor the iron too hot for ironing. These assist in keeping the color from running. LAUNDRY HELPS Excellent Stain Removers. Gasoline, naphtha or benzine, Oxalic acid £ arbona ' Benzol, ' Kerosene, T „ Turpentine, J aVe " e Water > Chloroform, q u ' Olive Oil, v ' Lard, Vinegar, • Alcohol, Lemon jmcc, French chalk, Hydrogen pero X1 de. 323 CLOTHING— HOW TO FIX OVER AND RENEW Aprons. Make ten or twelve inch hems on short work aprons. They can be turned over and later the hem can be turned down and inside out. Neat little aprons can be made from the back of a man's old shirt. Buttons. Always use heavy thread and you won't have so much trouble Trom the buttons coming off after being sewed on. No. 30 size is good. Excellent Way to Work Buttonholes. — Mark the place, then put two rows of machine stitching, then cut between the two stitchings ; it will then be much easier to work the hole as this prevents all fraying of the material. How to Save or Fix Over or Renew. To Prevent Buttonholes from Tearing Out of Children's Garments. — Take the garment when new and bind the buttonholes with a piece of tape the color of garment, turning square at corners and felling out at both sides. This makes a strong, neat job. It makes the coats' last twice as long. However an old coat may be mended the same way. To Keep Buttons On. — First take several stitches on opposite side of cloth from button. Then sew through and through occasionally wrapping thread around underneath button. Knot on cloth underneath button. Dye. Silk Waists. — Wash first then add the desired color to the rinse water. Red or blue ink is very good. Red Colored Blouses. — If they are fading add a few drops of red ink to the rinsing water and it will give a good flesh color. Hats. Derby. — For cracked derby hold lighted match inside under the crack. This will soften the texture and a stiff brush will eliminate the fault. Straw Hats. — Oxalic acid and water, made into a solution and applied with a toothbrush cleans very good. To Renovate Straw Hats. — Natural colored soiled straw hats can be cleaned by sponging thoroughly with a weak solution of tartaric acid in water, then rinse in fresh water. Fasten hat by the rim to a board by means of pins, so it will keep its shape in drying. 324 CLOTHING— HOW TO FIX OVER 325 Sponge with a solution of Sodium hyposulphite 10 parts, glycerine 5 parts, alcohol 10 parts, water 75 parts. Lay aside in a damp place for 24 hours and then apply citric acid 2 parts, alcohol 10 parts, water 90 parts. Press with a moderately hot iron, after stiffening with weak gum water. Gloves. How to Mend a Rip in a Kid Glove. — Button over each side of the rip putting the needle through the holes made by the original stitching and tak- ing two stitches over both edges at each end of the rip. Then sew firmly over the cords formed by button-holing, catching the edges together. When merely sewed together, over and over, the appearance is not nearly so attractive. Recoloring Old Kid Gloves. — Put a few drops of black ink in olive oil to darken the worn 'spots in kid gloves. Taking Care of Kid Gloves When Wet. — When wet with rain rub your kid gloves carefully with a damp cloth. All danger will be thus removed from the kid becoming spotted or rough. Do this while they are still on the hands. Silk Gloves, Long. — When worn out in the fingers cut oft' at the wrist and baste tightly around the bottom. Sew a thin strap or strip of cloth about them like a stirrup. Slip on long stockings of cotton underneath and draw on the silk glove tops. The strap holds them below the shoe tops and they look like new silk hose. Shoes. Brown Shoes to Make Black. — Carefully remove the dust, take part of a raw potato and rub hard all over the shoe, next apply a heavy coat of black- ing. After this drys, blacken the leather again and rub thoroughly, using a fresh piece of potato. More Wear From Shoes. — Have them polished at once while new. It waterproofs them and keeps from staining. Moving Shoe Tongues. — Make couple slits near top and slip shoestrings in before tying. This keeps them in place. To Restore Patent Leather. — Rub well with a rag soaked in olive oil and milk; polish with a cloth which is soft and dry. Equal parts of linseed oil and cream makes a fine polish for patent leather. Rubbers. Doubling the Life of a Pair of Rubbers. — Pack into the heels of new rub- bers a half-inch layer of soft, crushed tissue paper. This will double the life of a pair of rubbers. This soft cushion retards wear and adjusts itself to the worn shoe heel, giving the rubber a perfect fit. Stockings. Black Stockings. — They will keep color fine if vinegar is added to the rins- ins: water. 326 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Holes in Stockings. — When mending large holes in stockings or merino underwear, fasten a piece of net over the rent and darn through it. Keep Stockings Mated. — Sew each pair of sox at top with a few stitches of thread. Use different colors for each pair of socks. Shine on Clothes, to Remove. — Rub with the "nap," using a sheet of fine sandpaper. Ties. Save old neckties to make pillow tops. Cut the ends and underparts in small pieces and make the top. Work seams with floss. If you have only a few ties, make pincushions. Rompers. To Preserve Elastic in Child's Rompers. — After fitting the elastic above the child's knee, put a hook on one end and an eye on the other, run through bottom of rompers, press the hook down and leave it fastened until they are ready to launder. At this time remove the elastic from rompers. By keeping a bodkin threaded with tape to which an eye has been attached you can easily run the elastic into the rompers by fastening the hook on the elastic to the eye on the tape, then run it through rompers. Skirts. In making an underskirt to match your house dress use an old white under- skirt with worn trimmings removed ; bind top with a bias fold of dress goods through which is run the drawstring. Make a ruffle of dress material from length scraps or trim with two bias bands. You will be rewarded with a neat costume. To Hang a Skirt. — Open table leaves and insert piece of chalk. Close so it is held tightly. Fit skirt around hips and waist. Then stand against chalk and turn slowly. Measure to the bottom from the chalk ring for the desired length. To Get Straight Hems on Linen. — Lather a strip where you desire to cut. Then pull out a thread. It will come easily. Shirts. To Double the Life of Shirts. — Sew a small piece of muslin inside the shirt to shoulder seam and collar-band. In this way you protect men's negligee shirts from the wear of stiff collars against the collar bone. To Make Old Shirts New. — Take a shirt broken in the front near the band or worn around neckband. First rip neckband off to shoulder seam, rip sleeves out around front of shirt to side seams, then rip down side seams. Loosen both fronts, lay right side on left, about three inches down on goods, cut out shape around neck ; reverse ; lay left on right side and cut out the same. Shirts made over this way last at least one-half longer and look as good as new. CLOTHING— HOW TO FIX OVER 327 To Make Work Shirts. — Take a shirt with a worn neckband and sew a soft collar to it. These will make good working shirts. Where the soft collars on shirts are worn, cut off the collar and make the neckband so stiff collar can be worn. Faded by Washing. — When men's and boys' shirts become faded by washing and wear in the sun, add some blue ink to the rinse water; this will make them look much better without any expense. Old Shirts. — Your husband's old shirts can be used to make nightshirts for the boys. When the cuffs and neckbands are worn out cut off cuffs at top of opening; hem the sleeves; use cloth cut from bottom of sleeves to fit around neck, and face over on the right side a piece about iy 2 inches wide. Stitch top and bottom of facing, making a substantial and neat finish. Put on buttons and make buttonholes through facing. Sew up the bottom of front. This makes a good, neat, summer nightshirt with little work and no expense. Rag Bag. One made from strong mosquito netting is best. You can see very quickly just where the pieces of cloth you wish is located. Silks. To Renew. — Unravel and put in a tub, after covering with cold water let them remain an hour. Dip them up and down without wringing. Hang up to drain, and iron while quite damp. Sunbonnets. Children's. — Slit hole in back and drop braid through, or slit top and tie hair ribbon through it. Velvet. To Revive Black Velvet. — Hold the article, pile side up, over the steam of nearly boiling water to which has been added a little ammonia; brush well and press on the under side. Another Method. — Strain velvet lightly over a board and sponge with pure gin. Sponge should be damp, not wet ; then hold near a flame, the wrong side to the heat, until pile begins to rise, press wrong side with a warm flat- iron. Expensive hat flowers have been made to look like new after season's wear by washing them in gasoline with a small hand brush. Unironed Clothes. If ironing of dampened clothes cannot be finished, place in bottom of re- frigerator to prevent mildewing. 328 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING To Fireproof Goods. Wash flimsy goods in a solution of alum, ammonia or borax. Linen or cotton are the best goods to treat this way. To Keep Colors Bright. A piece of alum in the starch will keep colors very bright and clear. To Keep Furs. Wrap furs in common newspapers. Printers' ink keeps moths and flies away. A little colocynth pulp (or bitter apple) or spice (cloves, pimento, etc.), may be wrapped in muslin and placed among the furs ; or the furs may be washed in very weak solution of corrosive sublimate in warm water of 10 to 15 grains to the pint, and then carefully dried. They should be kept in a clean, dry place, but taken out occasionally, well beaten, exposed to the air, and returned. Another Method. — Sprinkle spirits of turpentine over furs or woolen goods, also drawers or boxes in which they are kept. The unpleasant odor will soon evaporate on exposure to air. Tailors often put bits of camphor, the size of a nutmeg, in papers on the shelves of their shops and as they brush their cloths every 2, 3 or 4 months, this keeps them free from moths. A tallow candle placed in each muff when laid away, will prevent moths. Snuff or pepper is also good. To Remove Greases From Cloth: Hang in hot, steamy bathroom or over a steaming pan of water. Mending. With several little ones to wash, iron and patch for, a button off this or that piece, slips the memory till time to put the clothing on. To remedy this make a drawer, divided in three parts, one for buttons, one for needles already threaded, and one for tape, spools of thread, etc. Children will enjoy placing these articles and threading needles which they can place on a square of cardboard. It takes but a few seconds to sew on a button as you iron, and saves much worry later. Dress Form. Cut heavy sacking or canvas equal in length to your waist. Cut out a round board or hoop. Stretch canvas across a hoop, or tack to the edges of board. You can fill this with cork, hay or pine needles. Sew up arm holes and neck. Place one of your old corsets about it to get the right form at waist and hips and you can easily fit your own waists and skirts. For length, set on a round post or stand. INKS, PASTES, CEMENTS, ETC. Cements. Take one teaspoonful of caustic soda, 3 of gypsum, 3 of rosin and 5 of water. Boil them together stirring continuously. Apply quickly, as it hardens fast. This will cement brass and glass together very strong. For glass or iron cement take 1 teaspoonful of yellow wax, 5 teaspoonfuls of rosin, and while stirring in a water bath add 1 teaspoonful of Venetian red. Let it cool while being stirred. Calsomine, Home-made. — Take common whiting and add any color de- sired. Mix into a cream, then add plenty of thick flour paste. One coat is enough. A pailful should be allowed for a room. This is a cheap home-made remedy for dirty walls and ceilings. Glass or Iron. — Mix ]/ 2 ounce clean white sand, y^ ounce powdered chalk, 1 ounce of Portland cement and in order to make a salvy liquid add sodium silicate. Iron Cracks, to Mend. — Mix fine wood ashes, clay and salt with water to keep pasty. This is fine for cracks in stoves or iron. Iron, to Mend. — Mix white of egg and finely sifted lime to make a thin paste. Dry iron about crack and apply. This makes a very firm connection. Ink. Black Ink. — Put 2 quarts of soft water in an earthen jar. Add 1 ounce gum arabic, 1 ounce brown sugar, 1 ounce pure copperas, 3 ounces powdered nut- galls. Shake this up well. Shake again before using. Blue Ink. — Add 1 ounce of Prussian blue to a pint of water. If a darker color is desired add more of the blue. If a lighter color is desired add more water. Marking Ink, for Clothes. — Mix thoroughly the following ingredients for a very lasting ink; 1 ounce gum arabic, 3 ounces nitrate of silver, V/2 cups of strong ammonia and 4 tablespoonfuls of archil to give the permanent color. Permanent Ink. — Mix bluestone with water and add lump of sugar. Dis- solve thoroughly. Pastes. Ever-mend Mucilage. — Cut the gummed sap from plum and cherry trees, put in bottle and cover with water. Cork bottle and set away to dissolve. This is good for most purposes. 329 330 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Iron Paste for Leaks. — Iron borings or sifted filings mixed with vinegar are good for use in broken pipes. Dry the pipe and apply the paste. Let it dry thoroughly before using pipe. Paste for Wallpapering. — Add 1 pint of vinegar to 1 gallon of water and let come to a boil, then sift flour into cold water and stir to make the right thickness. The addition of the vinegar makes it especially good. Paste for Leaks in Wood. — Mix 1 cup salt, 1 cup wax and l l / 2 cups lard. Melt slowly over fire then stir in 1 cup powdered charcoal. Fill cracks or holes in pails or troughs and they will hold water indefinitely. Miscellaneous. Glue. — A fine glue that is fireproof can be made by putting 1 tablespoonful of gelatin in 8 tablespoonfuls of linseed oil and letting it stand over night, Melt it by heating the oil slowly over the fire. Quickly add 2 tablespoonfuls of quicklime and stir together. Spread out thinly on plates to dry. For future use melt in a glue pot and apply at once. Mix together 1 teaspoonful of kaolin, 2 teaspoonfuls of slaked lime and 3 teaspoonfuls of white chalk. Just before using this mixture an equal amount of water glass should be added. It makes a fine glue. Mix 1 tablespoonful each of starch and flour, pour on a little boiling water and continue to stir the boiling material until thick enough for your pur- pose. Dissolve 1 ounce of pure gum arabic in a half cup of boiling water. Add 1 tablespoonful of pure glycerine. Let settle and pour off for using. Toothpaste. — Place a little peroxide of hydrogen on the toothbrush and sprinkle baking soda on it. This whitens the teeth and cleans the gums. Whitewash. — Mix a pint of varnish with a bucket of whitewash. This is fine for outside work. RECIPES FOR POLISHING METALS, WOODWORK, ETC. Buttons, Polishing. — If pearl buttons look blurred first rub them with a little olive oil, then apply some nail powder as for finger nails, letting it dry on for a few seconds. Polish with a buffer or a piece of chamois skin. Brass Beds. — Do not wash. Rub with chamois slightly dampened. Brass, to Polish. — Mix vinegar and salt in a slight paste. Brass Goods, to Clean Discolored. — Polish with mixture of common salt and sour milk. This gives a very brilliant and cleansing polish. Glass. — After washing, polish with salt. Dip a moistened linen rag in powdered indigo and rub over glass, then wipe off with a dry cloth. Mix 1 pint of vinegar, 1 ounce butter of antimony, 1 ounce alcohol and 1 pint of oil. Shake well and polish with soft cloth. Use a bar of castile soap, 2 ounces borax, 2 ounces washing soda ; boil in y 2 gallon water till dissolved, then add 2 gallons of tepid water and boil 10 minutes. Add ]/ 2 pint of alcohol when cold. Rub on with clean piece of flan- nel. Polish for Any Article With Shiny Surface. — Mix thoroughly V/z ounces calcined magnesia, y pound cream of tartar and 2 pounds good whiting. Apply with a chamois skin or extremely soft, pliant cloth dampened slightly with alcohol, and a beautiful luster is developed. Brisk rubbing is preferable. Leather Cream. — Mix together with hands or ladle y 2 cup castor oil, y 2 cup glycerine, 1 cup yellow vaseline and %y> pounds of lard. Knead well and add lamp black if that color is preferred. Patent Leather Dressing. — Melt 6 level teaspoonfuls of wax in %. cup of olive oil and heat, slowly stirring it. Remove from stove to window and cool slightly before adding 6 teaspoonfuls of turpentine oil. For the odor a couple teaspoonfuls oil of lavendar will be good. Harness Oil. — Mix 1 tablespoonful of lamp black with 1 ounce turpentine and 5 ounces neatsfoot oil. Then stir in 2 ounces of melted petrolatum. Shake well. This is fine for waterproofing and softening harness or leather goods. Linoleum. — Give old linoleum a good coat of paint, white usually, then fol- low with desired color of floor varnish. If it is grained it appears like hard- wood. Varnishing several times a year will protect the linoleum and keep it like new. It also cleans easier. Linoleum Substitute. — Cover floor evenly with well matched strips of heavy building paper. Dissolve 1 pound of sizing in 2 quarts of water. Spread 331 332 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING evenly and let dry. Give 1 or 2 coats of thin paint, any color you desire, and varnish once. This will make a fine and lasting floor covering. Waxing Linoleum. — Many people believe that waxing linoleum with some good floor wax will do it more good than varnishing. It makes it soft and pli- able and it cleans easy like hardwood. It should be polished with a clean cloth after waxing. Paint, to Keep From Peeling From Iron. — Wash the iron thoroughly, paint and give a coat of boiling linseed oil. Paint will never crack. Plated or Nickeled Parts, to Clean. — Mix 2 ounces of turpentine, 8 ounces powdered chalk, 1 ounce alcohol and 2 teaspoonfuls of ammonia. Apply with a sponge. Let it dry, and polish with a rag. Silverplate Polish. — Powder 1 teaspoonful of alum and mix with 2 tea- spoonfuls each of cream of tartar and finely sifted chalk. Put in tight fitting box with top. Dampen soft cloth and rub silver lightly with the powder. Wash in clear water. Silver, to Clean — Electrolysis Action. — Add 1 teaspoonful each of sal soda and salt to each quart of water. Place small aluminum dish in pan con- taining the above solution. Pile in the silverware on top of the aluminum utensil. All the pieces must come in contact with one another or the aluminum. Leave in water for several minutes, take out and wash in clear water. Polish with clean, dry, soft cloth. The silver must be cov- ered with the solution. Stoves. — Gas Stoves, Polish For. — Take a felt eraser and moisten with kerosene. Wash stove, then dry. Now rub well with eraser. Blacking Stoves. — Sandpaper rough surfaces before blacking. This gives a brilliant shine. To Care for Stoves. — Rub with linseed oil before putting away in the spring. A little turpentine and polish will keep the stoves from rusting. To Polish Stove. — Use an old piece of velvet to polish the stove, applying the blacking with it. The blacking will not burn off quickly when applied this way. If rusty, wash the stove with vinegar then dissolve stove polish in gasoline and rub in with a brush or rag. Don't do this on a hot or warm stove. Polish the stove when cold. Stove Polish, Liquid. — Take 1 cup copperas, y 2 cup bone black and y^ cup powdered graphite. Add water and make light paste. Apply and rub on with brush. Woodwork. — Cracks in Floor, to Fill. — Soak y 2 pound of old newspapers for three days in 3 quarts of soft water. Then add 1 quart of wheat flour and 1 tablespoonful of alum. Stir and boil on stove until quite thick. Let it cool and fill up any cracks with it, after first brushing them out. The paste hardens like wood and will take paint well. Floor Dressing. — Mix thoroughly 1 pint each of turpentine, linseed oil and vinegar. Apply with soft cloth or new oil mop. RECIPES FOR POLISHING METALS, ETC. 333 Dustless Polish for Floors. — Mix a quart of linseed oil and a pint of strong vinegar. Apply with a rag or mop. Painted Floors, to Polish. — Mix 1 cup linseed oil, y 2 cup vinegar and 2 tablespoonfuls of turpentine. Apply to floors with a woolen cloth. Polish for Floors, Linoleum, Etc. — Pour into bowl 1 cup each of turpentine linseed oil and kerosene. Rub in well with a soft cloth or floor mop. It makes it look new. Polish for Varnished Work. — Make a polish of y 2 quart of vinegar, 1 ounce butter of antimony, 1 ounce alcohol and y 2 quart of oil. Shake well before using. Polish for Mahogany Wood. — Fill 1 pint of proof alcohol with enough cut gum shellac to make it thick and add 2 ounces of Venice turpentine. This polish will last for a. long time. Mahogany Polish. — Boiled linseed oil is the best thing for mahogany. Rub with soft flannel cloth. This oil hardens and will fill and smooth off cracks. A little vinegar can be added to the oil to give a bright, dry finish. Scratches on Mahogany. — Rub a little vaseline on mahogany scratches and wipe well with a soft cloth. This is very good and highly satisfactory. Stains on Mahogany. — Combine and stir together 3 ounces spirits of salts and y 2 ounce lemon salts. Put few drops on the spot and rub with a soft cloth. Oak, Cherry or Walnut Polish. — First dust with a dampened cloth, wash \with white soapsuds and warm water. Dry and polish with a few drops of kerosene on soft cloth. Oak, Dull Finish Polish. — Wash carefully with a piece of old flannel wrung dry out of tepid water. Varnished or Enameled Furniture. — Never should be washed with water. Soft cloths and different polishes can be used. Furniture Polish. — Mix cold coffee and linseed oil. Willow Work, Polish or Cleaner. — Wash with warm soapsuds containing borax. Set in sun to dry. Woodwork or Paper, to Clean With Ease. — Stand on table upon which is placed a stool or chair to hold the pail. This saves lots of moving and stooping. Woodwork, to Protect. — Heat 2 quarts of water and add \y> cups of gum lac and 2 cups sodium borate. Dissolve them by stirring and add ?>y 2 cups of powdered asbestos. Mix well together and if too thick add more hot water. Apply with a brush to woodwork around hot places. Several coats can be ap- plied. Kitchen Floor. — When made of wood, scour the kitchen floor with a good cleaner and when dried rub in linseed oil with a cloth or felt mop.. In this way the floor will need a scrubbing and oiling but once in two or three weeks. Zinc. — Mix thoroughly 1 teaspoonful oxalate of potash, 2 teaspoonfuls of sal ammonia and 1 cup of vinegar. Apply with brush to get a good bronze tint. MISCELLANEOUS Umbrella Top, to Make. — Tear off old top, press out one whole section and measure off sufficient sections on piece of new satin, then sew together on ma- chine. Place over ribs of umbrella and sew firmly at the end of each rib and about the top. Net Curtains, to Hold. — Stitch strips of braid across where they are tied and it will keep them from tearing. For Crocheting. — Put end of. hook in a cork when through using. Rugs, Braided. — Cut rags and sew together. Roll several strips to- gether and braid in three strands. Start to sew edges together, beginning in a circle with a strong cord. Many patterns can be made. Hospital Bag. — Take unbleached muslin and sew in plenty of pockets for rolls, cotton, tape, salves, etc. Keep supplied all the time. Wall Pockets. — Take heavy piece of Denim cloth and make a hem at top into which you can. insert a rod of steel or wood. Put a brass eyelet at each end directly under the rod and it will hang neatly. Bed Covers. — Newspapers placed just on top of mattress under the sheets or blankets and also over the top covers between a comfort and blanket will keep all the heat of the body about the sleeper, and prevent it from circulating and radiating off through the bed clothes. This is extra good for cold nights. Bandages. — Boil and wash old tablecloths thoroughly. Iron them and cut in long strips 3 inches wide. Place in hot oven a few minutes to thoroughly sterilize. Then roll them up and place in tightly covered boxes. To Make Adjustable Lace Curtains. — Tie securely to the rod and fix pulley over top of window bringing it out to the side and down the casing. This en- ables it to be raised in the day time and lowered at night for ventilation. Washable Comforters. — Sew the cotton in mosquito netting and tack down as usual. Slip this into quilt cover and when the cover needs washing slit one side and remove. Rose Beads. — Gather plenty of rose leaves and mix in some of the blos- soms. They must be ground very fine in a food grinder. Add several teaspoon- fuls of olive oil and grind several times more. Roll on bread board with rolling- pin. Cut into sections with a thimble or smooth band ring. Roll around in palm of the hand. String on a hat pin and let harden several days. Take off and place in olive oil for 2 hours. They can then be strung as desired on a strong cord. Rose Jar. — Gather large quantities of rose petals. Put in a jar for about ten days, stirring it every morning. Add half an ounce of ground cloves, all- 334 MISCELLANEOUS 335 spice and stick cinnamon. Keep mixing and stirring for several weeks. Put in jars and it will last for years. Paper Beads. — Let children cut ten-inch strips of colored paper one inch wide and tapering to a point. Start the wide end over a hat pin and after a couple rolls apply mucilage, complete winding and apply mucilage. Leave on hat pin to dry. Run on a string. Plants, to Keep Stems From Breaking. — Push the head of a clothes pin into the earth beside the plant and rest the stem in the crotch. This will not bruise it. Keeping Ferns. — Cut out the brown parts as they appear. Dampen with cold tea each day. Keep plant in window where the sun shines part of the day. Keep where there is good ventilation. Keeping Flowers. — Rub baking soda in water with flowers. Dip while fresh in gum water. This keeps shape and color. For faded flowers dip stems in hot water half way up and lay them aside until cool. Cut off the heated part of the stems and place flowers in clear, cold water. Roses, to Cut and Plant. — For long-stemmed flowers cut the slip for re- planting with only two or three new small eyes or buds upon it. Cut down all new shoots from the roots as the more the woody growth, the shorter the stems of the flowers. If foliage is desired let all the sprouts develop. To Start Bulbs. — Cover bottom of bucket or box with several inches of dirt. Put bulbs in pot and set in bucket or box. Cover all about four inches deep. In six weeks examine them. If the bulbs have grown about two inches take the pots from the box. Keep in dark for two days and the plants will then grow fine for winter flowers. Umbrella Stand. — Place sponge in bottom of stand. It will protect jar as well as make it easy to take out the water. To Prevent Soft Rubber. — Place in dry talcum powder after drying ar- ticles. f To Preserve Wooden Posts. — Soak ends of posts in limewater, then dry and paint with diluted sulphuric acid. This is even better than tar posts. Broken Phonograph Records. — Take good mending cement and use tooth- pick to apply to broken edges. If not in more than two pieces it will work fine. Press the edges tightly together and leave on flat surface until thoroughly dry. To Fix Cistern. — Melt paraffin and apply to sides with a large brush. Ap- ply to holes or leaks thickly. To Mend Cans That Are Not Heated. — First dry thoroughly in sun or oven, then pour melted paraffin into container and whirl around until cool. This will make a water-tight can. To Prevent Mold. — Whitewash with carbolic acid added will keep mold away. Glass, to Cut. — Take the glass to cut and place it under water in a tub. 336 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Simply cut the glass with shears or scissors as you would paper, making it the size you wish. Binding for Magazines. — Paste and sew through and through strips of solid cloth as long as the magazine and wide enough to lap over the back an inch. Do this with each magazine, then sew them together by means of strong cord through the edge of the cloth. This prevents the loss of a number you most desire. For Hiccoughs. — Hold breath and take nine swallows of water. Hold breath and simply try to swallow three times. For bad cases scare the person by some startling method. To Save Rubber Heels. — Cut piece of an old rubber sole to fit the heel of a new rubber. Glue in tightly. This will save the heels and practically double the wear of the rubber. Money-making Hints for Girls. — Pillows filled with pine needles sell fine in cities. They may also be filled with balsam. Clover blossoms or milkweed down are fine as pillow fillers. Hopvine blossoms or sweet clover sprays are often used. All of these can be put in some heavy material and are fine for porch chairs, campers or floor pillows. Blackboard, to Make. — Take clear, wide board and smooth well with sand- paper. To a mixture of gum shellac dissolved in alcohol, add enough charcoal to blacken well. Apply to board and test with chalk. If too smooth, add more alcohol. This is fine for children in the country to practice on and saves lots of paper. Furnace or Coal Dust. — Cut squares of cheese-cloth slightly larger than the registers. Lift up registers and tack over hole or underneath the register. The cloth will not hold out the heat, but will catch the dust and dirt particles coming up the flue. Canary Birds. — If their bowels are loose drop a rusty nail in the drinking water. It will soon disappear. Put white cloth over the cage. If red specks are seen on it in the morning the bird has lice. Treat accordingly. Keep bird out of draft while it is molting. Tie a piece of fat bacon covered with red pepper in the canary's cage and the bird will keep in excellent condition. Bird Food. — One ounce maw seed, 6 parts canary seed, 2 ounces millet seed and 2 ounces of rape seed make a fine mixed feed for birds. Ventilation. — Several methods are practical. Placing a six- or eight- inch board outside and at the bottom of the window will permit the window to be raised without allowing the rain to enter. Cloths can be hung across to pre- vent splashing. Porch Swings, to Keep From Squeaking. — Before hanging up, slip old glove finger over the hook. This will be good for any article that is hung by a hook. Egg-eating Chickens. — Put a couple of tablespoonfuls of lime in a pail MISCELLANEOUS 337 of drinking water and feed meat scraps. This will keep chickens from eating their eggs. Bristles, to Stiffen. — Clean and dip in equal mixture of milk and water. Shake and let dry. Finger Nails. — Before working in dirt fill beneath finger nails with soap. This will keep out sand and dirt. Washing will dissolve soap and keep nails in good condition. Water Pipes, to Keep From Freezing. — Bind newspapers about pipes in exposed places. Paper is a non-conductor and fine to keep pipes from freezing. For Water Spilled in Bed. — Rub hot flatiron over it a few times. It will dry very quickly. Hot Water Bag. — To keep from cracking rub with glycerine or olive oil frequently. Preventing Curling of Rug Corners. — Put a piece of whalebone or corset stay under the corner and sew it on. This will keep them from curling. Button Stiff Collar. — Use a buttonhook the same as you would button a shoe. Damp-proof Matches. — Dip tips in hot paraffin and let cool. These will not be hurt and will stand all wetting. To Separate Stamps. — Place between papers and apply hot iron. To Make Black Tracing Paper. — Mix smooth lamp black and sweet oil. Paint over paper and dry it. Place under the pattern and trace with smooth- pointed stick. To Frost Glasses. — Rub with a solution of Epsom salts. To Deaden Watch Ticking. — Place glass tumbler over watch on chair. Fountain Pen. — Writing with a fountain pen on a pad of paper or placing sheet on blotters causes a much smoother stroke and more steady flow of ink than when using a single sheet of paper on a hard surface. Uses of Old Paint. — Paint flower pots, posts, tin boxes, plow handles, etc. To Sharpen Scissors. — Cut on a steel needle. This sharpens them nicely. Oil Lamps. — To prevent smoking soak wicks in vinegar and dry them. Boil burners in strong soapsuds, wash and dry them. This makes a fine light. If top comes off melt alum and fill inside of brass ring. Set back on lamp evenly. It will harden and not pull off. Oil will not dissolve it. To Fill Metal Lamp. — Find out the weight when full of oil, then place on scales each time for weighing. This will make the work easier and keep from overflowing. , Tack Puller. — A good, strong spoon can be used for pulling out tacks, by simply running it under the carpet close up underneath the tack. The round surface enables it to give good pressure beneath for pushing out the tack. The carpet is not likely to be torn. Holes in Aluminum. — Place hole over end of a flatiron and tap the hole gently with a hammer. This brings the edges together and stops the leak. It is a quick remedy. 338 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING How to Save Hot Water Bottle. — Hot water bottles made of rubber will last at least twice as long by pouring half a cup of cold water in the bottle before turning in the hot water. It is better to use a small funnel in the neck when filling. This will save you dollars. To Mend China. — Into a solution of gum arabic put some plaster of Paris and stir until it is the consistency of cream. Apply this to the broken dishes with a brush, press together and let stand for three days. The dish will not show where it was mended nor will it break again in the same place. To Renew Old Oil Paintings. — Dilute a small quantity of deutoxide with about 7 times its weight of water. Touch up the blackened lights of old pictures and their original hue will be instantly renewed. Then wash the part thus restored with a clean sponge and water. Buffer Cover. — When chamois on nail buffer wears out cut a strip from the wrist of an old kid glove and cover buffer with it. To Preserve Plaster of Paris Articles. — Put a coat of paint or enamel over it, and it will keep well. How to Hang the Flag. — Take a flag from the staff and sew it strongly so it will not fray. Put an eyelet at each end and tie tape through them to fasten on nails driven into porch. Tape can be sewed on flag with which to tie it to the nails. That Run-Down Spring. — Put a button-hook over the metal end of the window shade spring. Then wind the spring, using the button-hook as a wrench. You can do this quickly. To Mend Grain Sacks. — Make a thick boiled paste of flour and water as for starching clothes. Cover the patch with this, place over tear and iron dry. They will last longer than when sewed on. Making Quilts. — Make regular cotton quilt with plain white cover, then merely insert the whole of it into the regular colored cover. Outside cover can be washed as needed. Feathers, to Put Into New Cases. — Shake well and then soak the old pil- low and feathers before slitting the case. Then wring out and shake dry. Shake to one end before rolling back the case, place clean case up close to bunch of wet feathers. Roll them into a new case and sew up. Hang in wind and sun to thoroughly dry. Window Blinds, to Make. — Get a roll of oatmeal paper, any color you desire. Cut strips of the required length for the window and sew a half inch hem all the way around. Double over at the end to prevent tearing and tack to the roller. This is an economical way to make new blinds. Warmer, for Cold Riding. — Mix one cup or eight ounces of sodium ace- tate with 72 ounces or two good full quarts of sodium hyposulphate and place in a three or four-quart earthen jar or bottle. Cork tightly and heat slowly until it is a liquid. This will hold and expel heat half a day and can be renewed from time to time by shaking. Dogs, to Make Them Loosen Hold. — When a dog, especially a bulldog, bites an animal or person it is often hard to tear them loose. Light a match MISCELLANEOUS 339 and hold it to the nose of the dog. It will let go almost instantly. Burned sulphur is fine, too, but not handy at times. Diamonds, How to Tell. — Always hold a diamond over a black spot. If one clear point is seen the diamond is real, but if it is blurred or shows several points it is an imitation or is imperfect. Fire, a Good Extinguisher. — Put one-half cup of baking soda in four gal- lons of water and dissolve. Keep this solution in a small covered tub or barrel and it will be found very efficient in putting out small fires. It will go twenty- five times as far as pure water. The baking soda forms a gas that will not permit flames to develop. To Keep Children's Hands Warm in Winter. — Just before children start for school give them each smooth stones which can be easily held in the hand, that have been nicely heated in the oven. They can hold these in their gloves or mittens and keep from frosting their fingers in very cold weather. Baby Help. — Nail a strip of smooth wood or strong cord across the bot- tom of the screen door on the inside and just high enough for the baby to reach and stand by. During hot months he will enjoy standing there and can get plenty of air. This will take his attention, enabling the mother to work without fear of his being injured. To Keep Baby Warm. — Lay cheesecloth over the crib at night and the draft will be shut off ; this still gives the babe plenty of fresh air. Of course, the child should be covered warmly. Baby's Blanket. — Make a band of white rubber and put around cart over the blanket to keep it from blowing up or away. To Warm Baby's Bottle While Autoing. — Carry common fruit jar or can and draw hot water from radiator of car. Slip baby's milk bottle into the hot water and leave until warm. For Baby's High Chair. — Sew tape on strong cloth and tie to tray of high chair. Make pocket in which to slip baby's feet or tack cloth onto the chair seat, leaving enough room for babe to sit in chair with feet hanging down. This will keep him from falling out under the tray. To Keep Covers on Babe. — Make baby's nightgown a foot longer than he, and pin down at the side and bottom with big blanket pins. He can roll over but can't kick the covers off. Cutting Child's Hair. — Bring thin cloth around forehead over the face and clip the hair over the cloth. It can be kept from getting into the eyes, nose and mouth. Putting a bowl over the head and cutting around the edge will get a straight edge. Baby, to Train. — A nicely padded stool in which the baby can be set com- fortably, will be found very good in training the baby to have regular bowel movements. Padding around the edges made of thick quilting pad, and if desired covered with rubber will enable the baby to sit still for some time without becoming restless. Oil cloth coverings can be used equally as well as rubber. Measles. — As the eyes are easily affected by light during and shortly 340 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING after measles, small auto goggles with dark glass can be used to good advan- tage in protecting the children's eyes. Fresh air is a good healer and when able to go out place the glasses over the eyes. This enables children to avoid having to be shut in a dark room which is not very cheering. Rugs That Fray Out. — Take some good oil cloth of color similar to the rug and bind over the ends. This not only keeps the rugs from unravelling but prevents them from curling up. Rugs, to Prevent Curling. — Suit boxes can be cut in strips, placed under- neath the edges of the rugs and carpets and overcast with some strong thread. The rugs can be used for a much longer time this way. Old Carpets, Making Over. — Clean thoroughly an old rag or other kind of carpet, then stretch on the floor. First give it two good coats of paper- hanger's paste or flour paste that you can easily make. Let it dry, then give it one or two coats of good paint, the color you prefer. You will find this practical and inexpensive. This covering can be washed or dusted with an oil mop and it will be good and warm. HANDY DEVICES FOR THE FARM Butchering Rig Used by One Man. I Tff "p^ Derrick for Handling a Carcass. 341 342 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING Cow Out to Graze. Drive two stakes a considerable distance apart. Stretch a rope or wire between them on which a ring has been placed. Fasten securely to the stakes and tie the rope from the halter to the ring. Milking Stool Which Holds Pail. Self-feeder for Horses. Make the above of inch boards large enough to hold but one feed. Make the bottom with suffi- cient slant so all the feed is sure to enter the trough. This keeps a horse from bolting his food. a — | e-». 1 ~A- 2> ^ * p tfita Fine Cow Stall. (1) Shows the rack about 2 l / 2 feet high. The cow can thrust her nose through the slats up to her eyes. The rack is V/i feet wide at the bottom. (2) Shows the feed box which may be entered from the barn floor. (3) Shows the haltei strap at a comfortable length. (4) Shows the gutter which is about 8 inches lower than the stall floor. HANDY DEVICES FOR THE FARM 343 Type of Swinging Stanchion. Used in many modern barns. The Chain Tie. Have plenty of slack in cross chain. The chain in the middle goes around the animal's neck and fastens with a snap. The cross chain is fastened to iron rods. Very convenient and inexpensive. A Handy Wrench. Remove the wood- en handle from a monkey wrench. Weld the stock of an old bit to the wrench. This is a great saver of time. A Rail Anvil. 344 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING An Effective Wagon Jack. (1) Is the only part of this jack which is not wood, except the iron bolts at (2) and (3). Press down on the handle, and this will lift the axle. One-Man Sack Holder. The upright 3 by 4 should be three feet high. The arms should be about iy 2 feet in length. This is well worth while. «w Jack for Heavy Log Wagons. Two-inch plank should be used for this. The support through the level would be a bolt %-inch in thickness. Fasten a strong rope to the base and over the handle as shown above. When in use hook the rope in another notch. This holds it in position. HANDY DEVICES FOR THE FARM 345 Hog Trough Nicely Partitioned. Excellent Bag Holder. Barbed Wire Tightener. Take an inch board and cut it into shape above shown. Make a small hole to hold the face of a hammer. It is usually best to insert a bolt through the board near the head of the hammer. This is done to pre- vent splitting. Use leather straps to fasten the hammer. Sharp brads should stick out half an inch. Use good hardwood. 346 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING A Shaving Horse. Make a bench 16 to 20 feet in length. Make the clamp (1) of hard, heavy wood that you feel sure will not split. Number (4) is an extention of (1). The treadle (5) is held in position by a peg. Place the wood to be clamped under edge of (1), and push backward upon treadle. The drawing knife can be used better this way than when a vise is used. *«o ft v v v ^ ft Tree Remover. HANDY DEVICES FOR THE FARM -347 ¥1 : j | : | An Efficient Gate, Easily Opened. 1 : :/v.\:-.ft r C3 • _ _:e ■ — i — i — i — ». v. v. v.4:i X -, :\\\:.3k =p \v.\v. :i ' T Heavy Door Locks. /ty Position of an Efficient Post Puller. Make a notch in one end of a four board and nail on cross pieces to strengthen. Follow about cut carefully. MEMORANDA INDEX ENGINEERING • A PAGE, Account, Cash '. 187 Acid on Clothes, To Neutralize 302 Action of Paints 230 Adjusting Mixture of Fuel and Air 12 Advantages of Concrete Construction . . 41 Advantages of Hot Air Furnace 98 Aggregate, Dirt in 45 Aggregate, Natural Deposits of 43 Aggregate, Screening the 45 Aggregate, Washing the 46 Aggregate, Composition of 43 Alleyway, Concrete 80 Aluminum, How to Clean 298 Aluminum, How to Mend Holes in.... 337 Ammonia, Facts About 302 Anti-Skid Device for Tires 40 Ants 308 Anvil, A Rail 343 Apple Tree Borers or Worms 313 Apples, Rotting, How to Take Care of . . 275 Apples, How to Keep 275 Application of Stucco 93 Ash Wood, Imitation of 238 Associations, Cooperative Live Stock Shipping 196 Auto Hints 40 Automobile Brakes 37 Automobile, Care of Magneto and Battery 36 Automobile, Clutch of 35 Automobile, Effective Self-Starter 40 Automobile Engine 35 Automobile Engine, Carburetor of.. 35 Automobile, Gears and Driving Mechanism 36 Automobile Lamps 39 Automobile, How to Keep Clean 37 Automobile Radiators 37 Automobile Tires 37 Automobiles 35 Automobiles, Celluloid Fronts for 37 Automobiles in Cold Weather, Care of.. 38 Automobiles, Lubrication of 37 Automobiles, Steering Gear of 37 Automatic Siphons, Dimensions of 142 Automatic Siphon in Septic Tanks 141 Autopneumatic Water System 122 349 B PAGE. Baby, Blanket 339 Baby, Bottle, How to Keep Warm While Autoing 339 Baby, Help 339 Baby's High Chair 339 Baby, How to Keep Covers on 339 Baby, How to Keep Warm 339 Baby, How to Train 339 Baby, Nails, How to Keep Clean 298 Back Filling in Drainage 159 Back-Firing 12, 31 Bacon, Sugar Cured 282 Bag Holder 345 Bag, Hospital 334 Baking Powder Cane, How to Use 293 Baking Powder, How to Make 295 Baking Soda 293 Ball Worm 313 Bandages 334 Bank Account 187 Barbed Wire Tightener 345 Barn, Combination 209 Barn, Dairy 203 Barn Floors. Concrete 81 Barn Floors, Dairy Concrete, How to Build 79 Barn, Horse 209 Barn, Sheep 216 Barns, Cattle 208 Basement Steps, Concrete Construction of 90 Baskets, Crocheted, How to Stiffen 319 Bathtubs, Enamel, How to Clean 298 Bathtubs, How to Clean 317 Battery, Care of in Automobiles 36 Baume Scale 17 Beans 289 Beans, How to Dry 289 Bed Covers, Eiderdown, How to Clean.. 299 Bed Bugs 308 Bed Covers, Newspapers as 334 Bedspreads, Keeping Fresh 318 Bed Springs, How to Clean 298 Bedsteads, How to Clean 298 Beef, Corned 280 Beef, Cuts of 276 Beef, Dried 281 Beef, Fresh, How to Can 287 Beef, Frying, How to Keep 287 Beefsteak, How to Keep 287 350 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE FAGE. Bees 308 Benefits of Drainage 149 Bills, Payable, Accounts .187 Bills, Receivable, Accounts 187 Birchwood, Imitation of 237 Bird Food • 336 Birds, Robbing of Fruit • • 308 Birthday Cakes, Lettering of 288 Biscuits, How to Make Crisp 288 Black Ink 329 Blackboard Paints 237 Blackboard, How to Make 336 Blackened Cooking Dishes, How to Clean 298 Blacking Stoves 332 Blacking, How to Soften 293 Blankets, Cleansing 318 Blasting Rock 161 Bleaching Cotton 322 Block and Tackle 262 Blocks, Concrete vs. Solid Concrete 68 Blocks, Information for Ordering 271 Blocks, Lifting Force 265 Blood Stains, How to Remove 305 Blue Dye 316 Blue Ink 329 Bluing Stain, How to Remove 306 Boiler, Hot Water 103 Boilers, Galvanized, Standard Sizes of... 135 Bologna Sausage 284 Book Bugs 309 Books, Finger Marks on, How to Remove 303 Bottle, Broken Cork in, How to Remove. 303 Bottles, How to Clean 300 Brake Test for Gasoline Engines 21 Brake Test, Operation of 21 Brakes, Automobile 37 Brass, How to Polish 331 Bread Box, How to Keep Fresh and Moist 296 Bread, Brown, What to Bake in 2S8 Bread, Good, How to Make 288 Bread, How to Cool 288 Bread, How to Cut Hot 288 Bread, Milk, How to Keep Moist 288 Brick, Old, Methods of Applying Stucco on 93 Bristles, How to Stiffen 337 Broken Stone for Concrete 44 Brooder 222 Broom Covers 293 Broom, How to Make Last Longer 294 Brooms 293 Brooms, How to Keep 296 Brown Bread, What to Bake in 288 Brushes, Paint, Care of 229 Buffer Cover 368 Bugs, Alum or Salt for 309 Bugs and Pests 308 Bugs, How to Keep from Wall Paper.. 309 Bugs, How to Rid Greens ct 309 PAGE. Buildings, Farm 203 Buildings, Old Farm, How to Make New. 94 Bulbs, How to Start 335 Burned Milk, How to Remove Taste from 287 Burners, Gas, How to Clean 298 Burners, Lamp, How to Clean 298, 300 Business Methods 178 Butchering Rig 341 Butter and Sugar, How to Cream 272 Butter, How to Keep : 273 Butter, How to Keep Firm 272 Butter, How to Test Purity of 272 Butter Paddles 272 Butter, Rancid, How to Sweeten 273 Buttons, How to Keep on 324 Buttons, Polishing 331 Buttonholes, How to Prevent from Tear- ing Out 324 Buttonholes, How to Work 324 C Cabbage, How to Keep 289 Cabbage Maggot 313 Cabbage Worms 314 Cake •• 288 Cake, How to Flavor 289 Cake Making 288 'Cakes, Birthday, Lettering of 288 Cakes, How to Remove from Pans 289 Calcimine 234 Calcimine, Home Made 329 Calculating Engine Horse Power 20 Calculating Quantities of Concrete 61, 62 Cam-Shaft Rattle 32 Can Rubbers, How to Remove 294 Canal, Losses in Irrigation 168 Canary Birds 336 Cans, Not Heated, How to Mend 335 Capacity of Main Drain 154 Capacity of Pumps 126 Carbon, How to Remove from Cylinders. 40 Carburetor, Automobile Engine 35 Carburetion 10 Carcass, How to Cool 277 Care of Machinery 24 Carpet Bugs 309 Carpets, How to Clean 298 Carpets, Old, How to Make Over 340 Carrots, A Substitute for Pumpkin 2S9 Cash Account 87 Cash on Hand, Accounts 187 Casings for Sausage 284 Caterpillars 314 Cattle Barns 208 Cattle Statement 194 Cauliflower. How to Keep 2S9 Celery Blight 289 Celery Flavoring 290 Cellar. Root 227 Celluloid Fronts for Automobiles 37 Cement, Portland 42 ENGINEERING INDEX 351 PAGE. Cement, Portland, for Stucco 92 Cement, Portland, How Packed 42 Cement, Portland, Storing 43 Cements 329 Center Pieces, How to Launder 31S Chain Tie 343 Chamois Skin, How to Wash 320 Cheese, How to Keep Fresh 286 Cherries, How to Remove Stones 276 Cherry Polish 333 Chewing Gum, How to Remove from Clothing 303 Chicken House, Removable 222 Chickens, How to Stop from Eating Eggs 336 Chiffon, How to Wash 318 Children's Hands, How to Keep Warm in Winter .* 339 Child's Hair, How to Cut 339 Chimney of Hot Air Furnace 102 China, How to Mend 338 China, How to Pack 293 Chocolate, How to Improve 293 Chocolate Stains, How to Remove .317 Cippoletti Weir 172 Cisterns, Concrete, Construction of 88 Cisterns, Concrete, Materials for 89 Cisterns, How to Fix 335 Cisterns, Water Supply from 107 Cleaning Fluids 299 Cleansing Fluid 316 Cloth, How to Remove Grease from 328 Clothes, Bluing for 316 Clothes, How to Make White.. 322 Clothes, How to Neutralize Acid on 302 Clothes, How to Remove Shine from... 326 Clothes, Mending of 328 Clothes, Soaking 315 Clothes, Sprinkling 321 Clothes, Unironed, How to Prevent Mildewing 327 Clothing, How to Fix Over and Renew.. 324 Clutch of Automobile 35 Coal Dust, How to Prevent 338 Coat Collars, How to Clean ..299 Cocoa, How to Improve 293 Cocoanut, How to Freshen 292 Coffee 273 Coffee, How to Economize in Using 273 Coffee, How to Insure Good 273 Coffee, How to Keep Fresh 273 Coffee, How to Make Clear 273 Coffee Percolator 273 Coffee Pots, How to Sweeten 273 Coffee Stains, How to Remove . .306, 317 Cold Riding, How to Keep Warm 338 Collar on Coat, How to Clean 299 Collar Stiff, How to Button 337 Coloring, Concrete ; , .58, 94 Coloring, Concrete, Table for 59 Colors, How to Keep Bright 328 Colors, How to Prevent from Running.. 322 Combination Barn 209 PAGE. Combs, How to Clean 299 Combustion 14 Combustion and Explosion 14 Combustion, Gas Engine 13 Combustion, Principles of 5 Comforters, How to Keep Clean »322 Comforters, Washable 334 Companies, Insurance 196 Composition of Crude Petroleum 15 Compression Stroke 6 Concrete 41 Concrete, Advantages of 41 Concrete Alleyway 80 Concrete Basement Steps, Construction of 90 Concrete Blocks vs. Solid Concrete 6S Concrete Cisterns, Construction of 88 Concrete Cisterns, Materials Required for 89 Concrete, Coloring of 58, 94 Concrete, Coloring Table for 59 Concrete Corner End Posts 86 Concrete Corner Posts, Dimensions of.. 87 Concrete Corner Posts, Materials for.. 87 Concrete Feedway 81 Concrete Fence Posts 82, 83 Concrete Floors in Horse Barn 81 Concrete, Forms for 62 Concrete Foundations, Piers and Walls . . 68 Concrete Hardness, Test for 60 Concrete, Hints for Mixing 65 Concrete, How to Prevent from Sticking. 63 Concrete Line Posts, Dimensions of 87 Concrete Line Posts, Materials for 87 Concrete Manger 80 Concrete, Materials for 41 Concrete Mixing 46 Concrete Mixing by Machine 57 Concrete Mixtures, Recommended, Table for 55 Concrete, One-Piece Method 97 Concrete, Placing 57 Concrete Posts for Gateway 86 Concrete Rectangular Hog Wallow 73 Concrete, Reinforced 60 Concrete, Showing Proportions of Ma- terials 69 Concrete, Slab Method 97 Concrete Slop and Hog Troughs 72 Concrete, Some Mistakes About 41 Concrete Stall Floors 80 Concrete, Steel Forms for 63 Concrete Steps and Stairways 89 Concrete Steps, Forms for 90 Concrete Structures, Calculating Cost and Quantities 61 Concrete, Surface Area 71 Concrete, Surface Finish 94 Concrete, Table for Basement Work 69 Concrete, Table of Materials for 66 Concrete, Use in Cow Barn 79 Concrete Water Tanks and Troughs, Construction of 72 352 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE PAGE. Concrete, Water Tight 44 Concrete Work, Cost of 60 Concreting in Cold Weather 59 Conservation of Irrigation Water 168 Constituents of Stucco 92 Construction of Concrete Floors 63 Construction of Rope 240 Construction of Septic Tanks 140 Contamination of Underground Water Supplies 109 Contamination of Water Supply, Dan- gers of • • • 106 Conveniences, Modern, Installation of.. 105 Cooking Dishes, Blackened, How to Clean 298 Cooperative Associations 195 Cooperative Creamery 196 Cooperative Elevators 196 Cooperative Live Stock Shipping Associations 196 Cooperative Organizations, Kinds of 196 Cooperative Scheme 195 Cooperative Stores 196 Corduroy, White, How to Wash 320 Cork, Broken in Bottle, How to Remove. 303 Corks, How to Take from Bottles 274 Corn, How to Keep 290 Corn Moth 312 Corned Beef 280 Corner End Posts 86 Corset Stay, Use for Scraping Pans 293 Cost of Concrete, Calculating 61, 62 Cost of Concrete Work 60 Cost Table, Crop 193 Cotton, Bleaching 322 Cotton Goods, Shrinking 322 Covers for Bed, Eiderdown, How to Clean 299 Covers, How to Keep on Baby 339 Cow Barns, Use of Concrete in 79 Cow Stall 342 Cow, Tying Out to Graze 342 Cracked Parts of Gas Engine 34 Cracks in Floor, How to Fill 332 Cranberries, How to Keep 275 Crank Case Explosions 32 Cream Vats, Concrete 75 Creamery, Cooperative 196 Crepe de Chine, How to Wash 319 Crickets 309 Crochet Hook, How to Keep 334 Crop Cost Table 193 Crude Petroleum, Composition of 15 Cucumber Bugs 309 Cucumbers 290 Curing Meats 279 Curing Meats, Vessels for 279 Currants, How to Dry 275 Curtains, How to Clean 299 Curtains, How to Dry 315 Curtains, How to Hang Properly 320 Curtains, How to Wash 319 Cut Flowers, How to Keep 294 PAGE. Cutting Child's Hair 339 Cutworms 314 Cylinder, Deep Pounding in 31 Cylinder, Mishring in 30 Cylinder, Overheated, What to Do With.. 31 Cylinder, Overheating in 31 Cylinders, How to Remove Carbon from. 40 D Dairy Barn 203 Dairy Barn Floors, Concrete, How to Build 79 Dairy Barn, Lighting 205 Dairy Barn, Ventilation 205 Deep Pounding in Cylinder 31 Dents in Furniture, How to Remove. .. .303 Deposits of Aggregate, Natural 43 Derby, Cracked, How to Mend 324 Derrick for Butchering...." 341 Design, Double Chamber Septic Tank System 138 Design for Granary 224 Design for Permanent Hog House 209 Design of Power House 24 Details of a Gas Engine 10 Diamonds, How to Tell 339 Dimensions for Automatic Siphons 142 Dimensions of Septic Tanks 139 Dirt in the Aggregate 45 Dishes, Blackened, How to Clean 298 Dishes, Marks on, How to Remove 303 Disposal of Sewage 136 Distilled Water 108 Ditch, Construction of 156 Ditch Linings for Protection Against Seepage 168 Dogs, How to Make Them Loosen Hold. 338 Doors, Painted, How to Clean 301 Double Bowline Knot 248 Double Chamber Septic Tank System . . 138 Doughnuts 289 Drainage 149 Drainage as Speculation 150 Drainage, Benefits of 149 Drainage, Buying Hints 150 Drainage, Cost and Profit 161 Drainage, How to Determine Value of.. 162 Drainage System, How to Stake Out 151 Drainage of Root Cellar . .227 Drainage Owners, Hints 150 Drainage Problem Outlined 150 Drainage Projects 161 Drainage System, Grades 151 Drainage System, Location 156 Drainage System, Outlet 157 Drains, Open 161 Drawbar Horse Power 20 Dress Form 328 Dried Beef 281 Driving Mechanism of Automobile 36 Dry-Cured Pork 282 Drying Clothes 320 Drying Curtains 315 ENGINEERING INDEX 353 PAGE. Dust Mop, How to Clean 299 Dustless dVlop, How to Make 295 Duties of the Elements of * Gas Engine. 5 Dye Colors, Liquid 316 Dye Red Colored Blouses 324 Dye, Silk Waists 324 Dye Stains, How to Remove 306 Dyes, How to Fix 316 Dyeing Children!' s Hose 315 Dyeing Goods 315 E Economy Test 23 Egg- Eating Chickens, How to Cure 336 Egg Shells, How to Use 273 Egg Stain, How to Remove 303 Eggs 273 Eggs, How to Beat 273 Eggs, How to Keep Whites from Break- ing in Poaching 274 Eggs, How to Make Whites Go Twice as Far 274 Eggs, How to Keep Yolks Fresh 274 Eggs, How to Preserve for Winter 274 Eggs, How to Swallow Whole 274 Eggs, How to Test 273, 296 Eggs, Whites of, Quick Way to Beat. .. .274 Eiderdown Bedcovers, How to Clean.. 299 Elements of a Gas Engine 4 Elevators, Cooperative 196 Emergency Anti-Skid Device for Tires.. 40 Enamel Formulae 239 Enamel, Old, How to Take Off 303 Enamel Varnishes 239 Engine and Machine, Relation of 26 Engine, Automobile 35 Engine, Cooling of 15 Engine Horse Power, Calculating of.... 20 Engine, Need for Testing 21 Engine Slows Down and Stops 32 Engine, Three Port 8 Engine Vibration, Excessive 32 Engines, Cam Shaft, Rattle in 32 Engines, Crank Case Explosions 32 Engines, Gas 1 Engines, Gasoline, Brake Test for 21 Engines, Two-Cycle, Types of 8 Enterprises, Farm, A Study of Each 193 Equipment of Power House 25 Eraser, Ink 306 Exhaust Stroke 8 Expansion Stroke 8 Explosives and Combustion 14 Eye Glasses, How to Keep Clear 300 F Fabrics, Colored, How to Launder 318 Fading, How to Prevent Wash Goods from 322 Farm Buildings 203 Farm Buildings, Location of 198 FAGE. B^arm, Designing the Large Units 19s Farm Enterprises, Study of Each 193 Farm Gas Engines l Farm Map 187 Farm, Mechanical Power on l Farm Power House or Shop 23 Farm Produce Record lyi Farm Profit, How to Figure 192 Farm, Sample Inventory. . •. its Farm Site 197 Farm, Water Supply for 106 Farmer's Loop 251 Farming as a Business 176 Farmstead, Details of the Design 200 Farmsteads, Proportions 198 Farrowing Pens 214 Feather Pillows, How to Clean 299 Feathers, How to Put Into New Cases.. 338 Feathers, How to Remove Oil Spots on.. 305 Feathers, How to Wash 322 Feeding and Watering Devices for Poul- try Houses 222 Feeding Racks for Sheeo Barns 216 Feeding Records 190 Feedway, The Concrete si Feet Head of Water and Equivalent Pressure in Tank 120 Fence Posts, Concrete 82, 83 Ferns, How to Keep 335 Fertilizer 294 Fiber, Rope, Sources of 242 Field Losses in Irrigation 190 Figs, How to Dry 275 Final Disposal System for Sewage 143 Finger Marks, How to Remove 303 Finger Nails, How to Keep Clean 337 Fire, A Good Extinguisher 339 Fireproof Paint 237 Fireless Dress 315 Fish 1...296 Flag, How to Hang 33s Flannels, How to Wash .319, 320 Flatirons, How to Retain Heat in 315 Flatirons, Sticky, How to Clean 299 ^J eas 309 r lies 309 Flies, How to Keeo Away 310 Flies, How to Kill 309 Floor, Concrete, Construction of 63 Floor Dressing 332 Floor, Kitchen 333 Floor of Stall, Concrete 80 Floors. Concrete, Dairy Barn. How to Build 79 Floors, Concrete, Horse Barn si Floors, Dustless Polish for 333 Floors, How to Clean 299 Floors, Polish for 333 Flow, Determination of Water in Irrigation 175 Flower Bugs 309 Flowers, Cut. How to Keep 294 Flowers, How to Keep 335 354 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE PAGE. Fluid, Fine .Washing 317 Fluids for Cleaning 299 Fly Mixture for Cattle 310 Fly Poison 310 Fly Time, Simple Rules for 310 Fly Catcher 309 Food Covers, How to Make 295 Foods, How to Cool 292 Foods if Too Salty 292 Forms of Concrete 62 Forms, Materials for 63 Forms of Concrete, Hints for 62 Forms, Steel, for Concrete 63 Foundations, Concrete for 68 Fountain Pen, How to Use 337 Freezing, How to Prevent in Root Cellar. 227 Fresh Beef, How to Can 287 Fresh Meat, How to Keep 27S, 287 Fried Cakes 289 Fruit, Drying 274 Fruit Juice, How to Tell If It Will Jell.. 275 Fruit Stains, How to Remove 306, 317 Fruits 274 Fruits, Canning of 274 Fruits, Canning Without Sugar 274 Fruits, Preserving with Dry Sugars 274 Fruits, Sun, Process of Canning 274 Frying Beef, How to Keep 287 Fudge, How to Chill 292 Fuel and Air, Adjusting Mixture of 12 Fuel and Air, Rich Mixture, Effect of.. 13 Fuel for Smoking Meats 284 Fuel, Kinds of 15 Fuel Saver 293,294 Furnace, Hot Air, Advantages of 98 Furnace, Hot Air, Construction of ■Chimney 102 Furnace, Hot Air, Installation of 100 Furnace, Hot Air, Ordering 101 Furnace, Hot Air, Pipe 100 Furnace, Location of 103 Furnace or Coal Dust, How to Prevent.. 336 Furniture Dents, How to Remove 303 Furniture, Enameled or Varnished 333 Furniture, How to Clean 299 Furniture, How to Remove Spots from.. 305 Furniture Polish 333 Furniture, Spots from Heat. How to Remove 305 Furniture, Upholstered, To Clean 302 Furrine. Table of 94 Furs. How to 'Clean 299 Furs, How to Keep 328 G Galvanized Boilers, Standard Sizes of 135 Garbage Can, How to Clean 299 Garbage Can, How to Keep from Tipping Over 294 Gas Burners, How to Clean 298 Gas Engine, Back-Firing 31 Gas Engine, Care of 34 PAGE. Gas Engine Combustion 13 Gas Engine, Cracked Parts of 34 Gas Engine, Details of 10 Gas Engine, Duties of the Elements of.. 5 Gas Engine, Elements of 4 Gas Engine, Hard to Start 28 Gas Engine, How to Start 34 Gas Engine, How to Stop 34 Gas Engine, Irregular Knocking in 32 Gas Engine, Irregular Running of 31 Gas Engine, Loss of Power 29 Gas Engine, Miscellaneous Upkeep of.. 33 Gas Engine, Operation of 6 Gas Engine, Power Rating 19 Gas Engine, Regular Knocking and Pounding in 32 Gas Engines, Simple Principles of 5 Gas Engine, Speed Variation 33 Gas Engine, Starting Troubles 28 Gas Engine, Sudden Stopping of 30 Gas Engine Troubles 27 Gas Engine Troubles Analyzed 28 Gas Engine, Wheezing and Scraping Sound in 33 Gas Engine, Worn Parts of 33 Gas Engines, Farm 1 Gas Engines, Source of Power in 15 Gas Engines, Uses on the Farm 3 Gasoline Engines, Brake Test for 21 Gate on Wheel 347 Gateway Post 86 Gears for Automobile 36 Gelatin, How to Test 291 Girl, Handy Articles for the Newlv Wedded 297 Glass, How to Cement 329 Glass, How to Clean 299 Glass, How to Cut 335 Glass, How to Polish 331 Glasses, Eye, To Keep Clear 300 Glasses, How to Frost 337 Gloves 325 Gloves, Kid, How to Clean 300 Glasses, How to Frost 337 Gloves 325 Gloves, Kid, How to Clean 300 Gloves, White, To Wash 320 Gluei 330 Glues 239 Glues, Formulas for 239 Gnats 310 Goods, How to Fireproof 328 Goods, Lacquered, How to Clean 300 Goods, White, Stains in. How to Remove. 303 Grades, Drainage System 151 Gradinsr, Ditch 156 Grain Sacks, How to Mend 338 Grain Weevil 309 Graining with Paint 237 Granary 222 Granary, Construction of 225 Granary Design 224 Granary Site .....224 ENGINEERING INDEX 355 PAGE. Grapes, How to Dry 275 Grass Stains, How to Remove 306, 317 Gravity System, Water 117 Grease Eraser 303 Grease, How to Prevent from Spreading. 303 Grease, How to Remove 303 Grease on Stove, How to Remove 303 Grease Spots, How to Remove 317 Grease Stains, How to Remove 306 Grease Trap of Sewer System 147 Grease, Wagon, How to Remove 318 Ground Water, Removal 149 Gum, Chewing, How to Remove from Clothing 303 K Half Hitch 247, 252 Ham, How to Keep 287 Hamburg Steak 2S4 Hams and Bacon, Sugar Cured .282 Hams, Sugar Cured 282 Handkerchiefs, How to Wash When Traveling 319 Hands, Soiled, How to Clean 300 Handy Drier, How to Make 295 Handy Hooks, How to Make 295 Hardness, Concrete, Test for 60 Harness Hitch 248 Harness Oil 331 Hats 324 Hats, Panama, How to Clean 300 Head Cheese 282 Heat Stains on Polished Wood, How to Remove 306 Heating Plants 9S Heating Systems, Operation of 103 Heating Systems Other Than Hot Air.. 102 Heating Systems, Steam 104 Heating Systems, Steam, Advantages of.. 108 Heating Systems, Steam, Installation of.. 104 Heating Systems, Vapor, Advantages of. 102 Heating Value of Petroleum Products.. 19 Heavy Articles, How to Dry 320 Heels, Rubber, How to Save 336 Hiccoughs, What to Do for 336 Hints on Mixing Concrete 65 Hitches, Rope 252 Hog House 209 Hog House, Permanent 209 Hog House, Temporary or Removable. . . .214 Hog Trough 345 Hog Troughs, Concrete 72 Hog Wallow, Rectangular Concrete 73 Holes in Aluminum 337 Horse Barn 209 Horse Barn Floors, Concrete 81 Horse Power 20 Horse Power, Amount Belting Will Transmit 25 Horse Power, Best Way to Get 20 Horse Power, Engine, Calculating of.... 20 Horse Power Indicator 20 PAGE Horse Power Shafts for Given Diameter and Speed 25 Hose, Dyeing 315 Hospital Bag 334 Hot Air Furnace, Advantages of 98 Hot Air Furnace, Disadvantages of.... 98 Hot Air Furnace, Installation of 100 Hot Air Furnace, Ordering 101 Hot Air Pipe 100 Hot Pan Holders, How to Make 295 Hot Water Bag, How to Keep from Cracking 337 Hot Water Boiler 103 Hot Water Boiler, How to Save 338 Hot Water Systems, Advantages of 102 Hot Water System, Disadvantages of 102 House, Poultry 218 Household Record 190, 191 . Hydraulic Ram, Installation and Operation 129 Hydraulic Rams, Sizes of 131 I Iceless Ice Box, How to Make 295 Icing 289 Icing, How to Keep from Cracking 294 Ignition 6 Ignition, Timing of 14 Income and Profit 191 Income, Definition of 191 Indicator, Horse Power 20 Indigo Stains, How to Remove 317 Inflation of Tires, Incorrect 38 Ink Eraser 306 Ink, How to Remove 306 Ink Remover 307 Ink, Removing from Linen 307 Ink Stains, How to Remove 307 Inks 329 Insects on Plants 311 Installation of Hot Air Furnace 100 Insurance Companies 196 Intake by Suction Stroke 6 Intermittent Sand Filtration Disposal of Sewage 144 Inventory, Sample, Farm 178 Iodine Stain, How to Remove 306 Irish Lace, How to Dry 320 Iron, Cracks in, How to Mend 329 Iron, How to Cement 329 Iron Pots 292 Iron Rust, How to Remove 318 Ironing 321 Ironing Board Cover, How to Hold in Place 321 Ironing Days, Save Time 315 Ironing, How to Dampen for Hasty.... 321 Ironing Starched Pieces 321 Irregular Running of Gas Engine 31 Irrigation 164 Irrigation Acts of U. S. Government 164 Irrigation Reclamation Act 164 356 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE PAGE. Irrigation Water Rights 164 Irrigation Water, Sources of 166 Irrigation Water Values 165 J Jack for Heavy Log Wagons 344 Jack for Wagon 344 Jelly Making 275 K Kerosene, How to Make Odorless 295 Kettles, How to Keep from Becoming Black 294 Kettles, How to Keep from Burning. .. .294 Kid Gloves, How to Clean 300 Kid Gloves, How to Mend a Rip 325 Kid Gloves, Recoloring 325 Kid Gloves, When Wet, How to Take Care of 325 King Beans, How to Dry 289 Kitchen Floor 333 Kitchen Helps 272 Knives, How to Clean 300 Knocking and Pounding in Gas Engine.. 32 Knocking, Irregular, in Gas Engine 32 L Labels, How to Remove 295 Labor Record 188, 189 Lace Articles, How to Launder 319 Lace, Black, How to Clean.... 298 Lace Curtains, How to Make Adjustable. 334 Lace, How to Make Yellow 316 Lace Veil, How to Renew 319 Lacquered Goods, How to Clean 300 Lamp Black, How to Remove 317 Lamp Burners, How to Clean 29S, 300 Lamp Chimneys, How to Toughen 294 Lamp Metal, How to Fill 337 Lamp Wicks 294 Lamps, Automobile 39 Lamps, Oil, How to Prevent Smoking of .337 Lard, Frying Out 283 Lard, How to Get All Possible 287 Laterals, Placing of 156 Lath, Stucco 93 Laundering, Assistance for 322 Laundry Helps 315 Lawns, Colored, How to Protect 322 Leak in Boiler, Quick Remedy for 315 Leather, Cream for 331 Leather, How to Clean Soiled 317 Leather Stains on Stockings, How to Remove 307 Lemons, How to Keep 275 Lettuce, How to Dry 290 Lettuce, How to Keep Fresh 290 Lice 311 Lice, Apple Tree 311 PAGE. Lice, Chicken 311 Lice, Head 311 Lighting of Dairy Barn 205 Lightning Protection 228 Lime, How to Remove from Bottles 303 Line Shaft, Machines 26 Linen, Removing Ink Stains from 307 Linen Skirts, How to Get Straight Hem on 326 Linen, When Bleaching 321 Lining for Seepage, Cost of 168 Linoleum, How to Renew 331 Linoleum, Waxing 332 Linoleums, Polish for .333 Liquid Dye Colors ' 316 Live Stock Shipping Associations 196 Loads for Rope, Maximum and Safe 268 Loops Between Rope Ends 248 Lubrication of Automobiles 37 Lye, Use of 322 M Machine Concrete Mixing 37 Machine Oil Stain, How to Remove n? Machinery, Care of 24 Machines and Line Shaft au Magazines, Binding for 336 Magneto, Care of, in Automobile 36 Mahogany Polish 333 Mahogany Wood, Imitation of 238 Mangers, Concrete SO, 81 Manure Pits, Concrete 75 Map, Farm 187 Maple Wood, Imitation of 238 Marble, HoW to Clean 301 Marbles, How to Use in Cooking 292 Marking Ink for Clothes 329 Marks, Finger, How to Remove ;303 Marks, Match, How to Remove 303 Marks on Dishes, How to Remove 303 Mason Jar Lids, How to Renew 293 Match Marks, How to Remove 303 Matches, How to Make Damp Proof... 337 Matches, How to Save 293 Materials for Concrete 41 Materials for Forms 63 Materials for Plumbing, Quality of 106 Materials of Which to Make Silos 205 Matting, How to Clean 301 Matting, How to Keep Color 321 Mattress, How to Clean 301 Measurement of Water in Irrigation 171 Measurement, Unit of .171 Meat 296 Meat, Cooking to Keep 279 Meat, Packing in Snow to Keep 278 Meats • • 276 Meats, Curing 279 Meats, Curing in Brine 280 Meats, Dry Curing 280 Meats on the Farm 277 ENGINEERING INDEX 35? PAGE. Meats, Preservatives for 280 Meats, Recipes for Curing 280 Meats, Smoking of 284 Meats, Smoked, Keeping of 286 Meats, Yellow, Wash for 2S6 Mechanical Power on the Farm 1 Medicine Stains, How to Remove 307 Mending 328 Metal Lamp, How to Fill 337 Metals, Polishing 331 Methods, Business 178 Methods of Applying Stucco on Old Brick 93 Mice 311 Mildew, How to Remove 303, 318 Milk , 287 Milk Bread , 288 Milk, Burned, How to Remove Taste from 287 Milk, How to Keep Sweet 287 Milk, How to Prevent Burning 287 Milk Stains, How to Remove 307 Milk, Substitute for 288 Milk Vats, Concrete 75 Milking Stool 342 Miscellaneous Suggestions 291 Misfiring 30 Misfiring in Cylinders 30 Mixing Concrete by Machine 57 Mixing Paint 231 Mixing the Concrete 46 Mixtures, Concrete, Recommended, Table of 55 Mixture of Fuel and Air, Adjusting 12 Molasses, How to Make Run 295 Mold, How to Prevent 335 Money Making Hints for Girls 336 Monolithic or One-Piece Method in Concrete 97 Mop, Dust, How to Clean 299 Mosquitoes, How to Keep Away... 310, 311 Moth Powders 312 Moth Preventives 312 Moths 312 Moths, How to Kill 312 Mucilage, Ever-Mend 329 Mud, How to Remove 305 Mush and Oatmeal, Left Over 293 Mush, How to Keep from Lumping 295 Mushrooms, How to Test 291 N Net Curtains, How to Dry 320 Net Curtains, How to Hold 334 Nickeled Parts, How to Clean 332 O Oak Polish 333 Oak Wood, Imitation of 238 Odors, How to Remove 304 PAGE. Oil Lamps, How to Prevent Smoking.. 337 Oil, Machine, How to Remove Stam 317 Oil Spots on Feathers, How to Remove.. 305 Olive Oil 293 Onions, How to Keep 290 Open Drain 161 Orange Peel 275 Oranges, How to Keep 275 Organizations, Cooperative, Kinds of 196 Outlet, Drainage System 157 Oven, Oil Stove, How to Keep from Burning 294 Overalls, How to Clean 319 Overheated Cylinder, What to Do With.. 31 Overheating in the Cylinder 31 P Pads for Ironing Boards 296 Paint Bases 236 Paint, Cost and Composition of 231 Paint, Fireproof 237 Paint, Graining with 237 Paint, How to Remove Spots from 305 Paint, How to Keep from Peeling from Iron 332 Paint, How to Remove 304, 318 Paint Mixing 231 Paint, Uses of 337 Painted Doors, How to Clean 301 Painted Floors, How to Polish 333 Painted Walls, How to Clean 301 Painting Exterior 231 Painting Interior 231 Painting, Old Oil, How to Renew 338 Painting on Metal 231 Painting, Precautions to Be Observed in. 235 Painting, Preparation of Surface 230 Painting, Tools Used in 229 Paints ■ • 229 Paints, Action of 230 Paints, Calculating, Cost of White 232 Paints, Composition of Colored 232 Paints, Cost of Colored 232 Panama Hats, How to Clean 300 Pans, How to Keep from Sticking 294 Paper Beads, How to Make 335 Paper, How to Clean Easily 333 Paraffin, How to Keep for Continuous Use 295 Parsley, To Keep 290 Parsnips, To Keep 290 Paste for Wall Papering 330 Pastes 329 Pastries 288 Patent Leather Dressing 331 Patent Leather, How to Restore 325 Pavements, Concrete, Construction of.... 63 Peaches, How to Dry 271 Peaches, How to Keep 275 Pears, How to Keep 275 Peas, How to Keep 290 358 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE FAGE. Pecans, How to Crack 292 Pens for Farrowing 214 Pens, Sheep 217 Percolator, Coffee 273 Permanent Hog House Design 209 Permanent Hog House, Location 209 Permanent Ink 329 Perspiration Stains, How to Remove. 307, 318 Peruvian Balsam Stain, How to Remove. .307 Petroleum, Composition of Crude 15 Petroleum Products Classified 17 Petroleum Products, Heating Value of.. 19 Petroleum Products, Separation of 17 Petroleum Products, Weight of 18 Phonograph Records, Broke, How to Mend 335 Piano Cases, How to Clean 301 Pickled Pigs' Feet 282 Pie, How to Prevent Boiling Out 289 Piers, Concrete for 68 Pies, How to Remove from Pans 289 Pigs' Feet, Pickled 282 Pillows, Feather, How to Clean 299 Pillows, How to Save 320 Pipe, Hot Air Furnace 100 Pipes, Paste for Leaks in 330 Piping 103 Pits, Manure, Concrete 75 Plants, How to Keep Stems from Breaking 335 Plaster of Paris Articles, How to Preserve 338 Plated Parts, How to Clean 332 Plumbing 105, 134 Plumbing, Important Points in 134 Plumbing, Quality of Material for 106 Plumbing, Sewer 136 Plumbing, Water ^ 134 Pneumatic Tank System, Water 118 Poaching Eggs, How to Keep the Whites from Breaking 274 Polish for Varnished Work 333 Polish, Shiny Surfaces 331 Polished Wood, Heat Stains, How to Remove 306 j utfisning Metals, Woodwork 331 i'orch Swings, How to Keep from Squeaking 336 Pork, Dry Cured 282 Portland Cement 42 Portland Cement, How Packed 42 Portland Cement, Storing 43 Portland Cement, Stucco 92 Post for Gateway 86 Post Puller 347 Post, Timber, Facts 82 Post Timbers, Relative Durability of S2 Posts, Corner . . 86 Posts, Fence, Concrete S2, 83 Posts, Wooden, Flow to Preserve 335 Potato Bug 309 PAGE. Potato, Warehouse 225 Potato, Warehouse, Plan 225 Potato Warehouse, Requirements for Design 225 Potatoes 290 Potatoes, How to Keep 290 Potatoes, Sweet 290 Poultry House 213 Poultry, House, Feeding and Watering Devices 222 Poultry House, Location 21 S Poultry House, Nests in 222 Poultry House, Partitions of 218 Poultry House, Permanent 21S Poultry House, Roost 218 Poultry House, Ventilation of 218 Poultry, How to Cook 2S6 Power 19 Power House, Design of 24 Power House, Equipment of 25 Power House, Location of 24 Power House or Shop on Farm 23 Power, Loss of in Gas Engines 29 Power, Mechanical, on the Farm 1 Power Plant, Management of 26 Power Produces Profit 1 Power Rating of the Gas Engine 19 Power, Source of, in the Gas Engine.... 15 Power Used in Ignition 167 Precautions to Be Observed in Painting. .235 Pre-Ignition or Deep Pounding in the Cylinder 31 Pre-Ignition, What to Do 31 Principles of Combustion 5 Production, Record of 187 Profit and Income 191 Profit, Definition of 191 Profit, Farm, How to Figure 192 Protecting the Finished Concrete Work.. 59 Protection from Lightning 228 Protection of Wells Ill Protective Well Curbings or Coverings. .115 Protective Well Linings 114 Pulleys 25 Pulleys, Speeds and Sizes 27 Pumping Plants for Irrigation 167 Pumping Water 116, 126 Pumpkins 291 Pumps, Capacity of 126 Pumps, Types of 127 Puncture Proof for Tire Casing, How to Make 40 Punctures, Tire, Repair of on Road 40 Purification and Disposal of Sewage. .. .136 Purification of Sewage 136 Q Quilts, Heavy. How to Wasli 319 Quilts, How to Make 238 ENGINEERING INDEX 359 R PAGE. Radiators, Automobile 37 Radiators of Heating System 103 Radishes 291 Rag Bag, How to Make 327 Rancid Butter, How to Sweeten 273 Raisins, How to Remove Seeds 275 Rattle, Cam-Shaft 32 Raw Vegetables, How to Clean Before Eating 2S9 Recommended Mixtures, Concrete, Table of 55 Record, Farm Produce 191 Record Labor 188, 189 Record of Production 187 Record, Secondary 1SS Record, Seeding * 191 Record, Feeding 190 Record, Household 190 Record, Year's Summary of 191 Records, Phonograph, Broken, How to Mend 335 Rectangular Concrete Hog Wallow 73 Reeving Blocks 262 Reinforced Concrete 60 Relaying Untwisted Rope 246 Removable Chicken House 222 Removable Hog House 214 Reservoirs, Losses in Irrigation 16S Reservoirs, Storage 167 Rhubarb, How to Keep 291 Ribbons, How to Clean 317 Rich Mixture of Fuel and Air, Effect 13 Roaches . 213 Rock Blasting in Drainage 161 Rompers, How to Preserve Elastic in 326 Roof Paint 238 Roost, Poultry House 21S Root Cellar 227 Root Cellar, Drainage 227 Root Cellar, Location of 237 Root Cellar, Storage in 227 Root Cellar, Ventilation 227 Rope, Blocks and Tackle 262 Rope, Calculation of Strength 243 Rope, Calculation of Weights 243 Rope, Care of 245 Rope, Construction of 240 Rope, Double Bow Line Knots >248 Rope, Farmer's Loop 251 Rope, Fiber, Sources of 242 Rope, General Information 240 Rope, Half Hitch'. 252 Rope, Harness Hitch 248 Rope Hitches 252 Rope, Knots, Elements of 246 Rope, Knots, Principles of 246 Rope, Lifting Force of Blocks, 265, 266, 267, 26S Rope, Long Splices 257 Rope, Loops Between the Ends 248 PAGE. Rope, Maximum and Safe Loads 268 Rope, Moving Heavy Objects 268 Rope, Preventing Ends from Untwisting. 246 Rope, Reeving Blocks 262 Rope, Sheep Shank Kaot 262 Rope, Short Splices 253 Rope, Slip Knot and Half Hitch 247 Rope, Spliced Eye 247 Rope Splices 252 Rope, Strength of 242 Rope, Timber Hitch 253 Rope, Timber Hitch and Half Hitch 253 Rope, Two Half Hitches 253 Rope, Uncoiling of 245 Rope, Whipping 246 Rose Jar, How to Make 334 Rosebeads, How to Make 334 Rosebush, Lice and Ants 311 Roses, How to Cut and Plant 335 Rubber Bands, How to Restore 274 Rubber Heels, How to Save 336 Rubber, How to Prevent from Softening. 335 Rubbers, Doubling the Life of 325 Rug Corners, How to Prevent Curling.. 337 Rugs, Braided 334 Rugs, Fraying Out, How to Prevent 340 Rugs, How to Clean 301 Rugs, How to Prevent Curling 340 Rugs, How to Remove Stains from 305 Rust, How to Remove 304 Rusty Screw, How to Remove 305 S Sack Holder 344, 345 Salt, How to Keep Dry 295 Salt Pork, Plain 281 Sample Farm Inventory 178 Satins, How to Clean 317 Sausage 283 Sausage, Bologna 284 Sausage, Casings for .284 Sausage, How to Keep 285 Save Money 294 Scale, The Baume 17 Scheme, Cooperative 195 Scissors, How to Sharpen 337 Scorch, How to Remove 31S Scorch Stains, How to Remove 307 Scrapple 2S2 Scratched on Mahogany 333 Scratches on Wall Paper, To Remove.. 305 Screening the Aggregate 45 Secondary Record 188 Seeding Record 191 Self-Feeder for Horses 342 Self-Starter, Effective, for Automobiles.. 40 Separation of Petroleum Products 17 Septic-Tanks, Automatic Siphon in 141 Septic-Tanks, Dimensions: of 139 Septic-Tanks, Location and Construction. 140 Septic-Tank Systems, Double Chamber. . .138 360 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE PAGE. Septic-Tank, Treatment of Sewage 136 Serge, How to Take Shine from 321 Sewage Disposal by Intermittent Sand Filtration . .144 Sewage Disposal by Subsurface Distri- bution 143 Sewage Disposal by Surface Distribution. 143 Sewage Disposal Systems 106 Sewage Final Disposal System 143 Sewage, Final Treatment of 137 Sewage, Preliminary Treatment of 136 Sewage, Purification and Disposal of 136 Sewage, Septic-Tank Treatment 136 Sewer Plumbing 136 Sewer System, Grease Trap of 147 Sewer System, Suggestion on Operation. 147 Shafting 25 Shafts, Horse Power of, for Given Diameter and Speed 25 Shaving Horse 246 Sheep Barn 216 Sheep Barn, Doors> of 216 Sheep Barn, Feeding Racks 216 Sheep Barn, Partitions of 216 Sheep Pens 217 Sheep Shank Knot 252 Sheets, No Frayed Corners When Hang- ing 233 Shelf Hangers, The Spacing of 26 Shine, How to Take from Cloth 321 Shirts, Faded by Washing 327 Shirts, How to Double Life of 326 Shirts, How to Make Old Ones New.... 326 Shirts, Old, How to Use 327 Shirts, Work, How to Make 327 Shoe Tongues, How to Keep in Place... 325 Shoes 325 Shoes, Brown, How to Make Black 325 Shoes, More Wear from Them 325 Short Splices, Rope 253 Shortenings 293 Silk Glove, How to Put on 315 Silk Gloves, When Worn Out, How to use 325 Silk Hose, How to Launder 319 Silk or Pongee, How to Launder 319 Silk, Renewing Rust> Looking 318 Silk Waists, How to Dye 324 Silks, How to Clean 317 Silks, How to Keep Looking New 321 Silks, How to Renew 327 Silo 205 Silos, Materials of Which to Make 205 Silver, How to Clean 301, 332 Silver Plate Polish 332 Simple Principles of Gas Fngine 5 Single-Chamber Tank Systems 145 Sink Cleaner 302 Site for Granary 224 Size of Water Pipes in Buildings 134 Sizes of Waste and Vent Pipes 136 PAGE. Skirts, How to Hang 326 Slab Method, in Concrete Work 97 Slip Knot 247 Slop Troughs, Concrete 72 Smell, Sooty, To Remove 305 Smoke, Black, What It Designates in Gas Engines 32 Smoked Meats, Keeping of 2S6 Smokehouse • • 284 Smokehouse, Filling of 2S5 Smoking Meat, Keeping Up Fire for 285 Smoking of Meats 284 Snow Packing to Keep Meat 278 Soap, Fine Hard 316 Soap, Fine White 316 Soiled Hands, How to Clean 300 Sooty, Smell, To Remove 305 Soup, How to Remove Fat 296 Sour Milk, How to Sweeten 2S7 Source of Power in Gas Engines 15 Spacing the Shaft Hangers 26 Sparrows, How to Drive Away 313 Spectacles, How to Keep Clear 300 Speed Variations in Gas Engines 33 Speeds and Sizes of Pulleys 27 Spiders 313 Spliced Eye, Knot 247 Splices, Long Rope 257 Splices, Rope 253 Splices, Short, Rope 253 Sponges, How to Clean 302 Sponging Clothes 321 Spots on Furniture from Heat, How to Remove 305 Spots on Furniture, How to Remove 305 Spots on Paint, How to Remove 305 Spots, White, on Varnish, How to Remove ■ • • 305 Spring of Window Shade, How to Wind Up 338 Springs 115 Springs, Used for Irrigation 167 Sprinkling Cloths 321 Squash, How to Keep 291 Stain, Blood, How to Remove 305 Stain, Bluing, How to Remove 306 Stain, Coffee, How to Remove 306 Stain, Dye, How to Remove 306 Stain, Fruit, How to Remove 306 Stain, Grass, How to Remove 306 Stain, Grease, How to Remove 306 Stain, Heat, on Polished Wood 306 Stain, Iodine, How to Remove 306 Stain, Medicine, How to Remove 307 Stain, Milk, How to Remove 307 Stain on Mahogany, How to Remove 333 Stain, Perspiration, How to Remove 307 Stain, Peruvian Balsam, How to Remove. 307 Stain Removers 323 Stain, Scorch, How to Remove 307 Stain, Varnish, How to Remove 307 ENGINEERING INDEX 361 PAGE. Stain, Wax, How to Remove 307 Stains, How to Remove from Rugs 305 Stains, in White Goods, How 'to Remove. 303 Stairways and Steps, Concrete 89 Staking Out Drainage System 151 Stall Floor, Concrete SO Stall for Cow 342 Stamps, How to Separate 337 Stanchion, Swinging 343 Standard Sizes of Galvanized Boilers. . .135 Starch, How to Greatly Increase Value of 316 Starch Lustre 316 Starch, Rice Water Used as 316 Starched Articles Sticking to Iron 321 Starting Troubles, Gas Engine 2S Statement, ■ Cattle * 194 Steak, Hamburg 284 Steak or Fresh Meat, How to Keep.... 287 Steam Heating Systems, Installation of.. 101 Steel Forms, Concrete 63 Steering Gear of Automobile 37 Steps and Stairways, Concrete S9 Steps, Concrete Basement, Construc- tion of 90 Steps, How to Save 293 Sticking, How to Prevent Concrete from. 63 Stockings, Holes in 326 Stockings, How to Keep Color 325 Stockings, How to Keep Mated 326 Stockings, Leather Stains, How to Remove from 307 Stone, Broken, for Concrete 44 Storage Batteries, How to Change from Alternating Current 40 Storage in Root Cellar 227 Storage of Water 116 Storage Reservoirs 167 Stores, Cooperative : 196 Storing, Portland Cement 43 Stove, Grease on, How to Remove. .. .303 Stove Polish, How to Remove 318 Stove Polish, Liquid 332 Stoves, How to Blacken 293 Stoves, How to Care for 332 Stoves, How to Polish 332 Straw Hats, How to Clean 324 Strawberry Worms 314 Streams, Used for Irrigation 166 Stroke, Compression 6 Stroke, Exhaust 8 Stroke, Expansion 8 Stroke, Intake or Suction 6 Stucco, Application of 93 Stucco, Constituents of 92 Stucco Lath •. 93 Stucco, Methods of Applying on Old Brick 93 Stucco on New Work 94 Stucco, Portland Cement 92 Study of Each Farm Enterprise.. 193 PAGE. Subsurface 'Distribution of Sewage 143 Suction or Intake Stroke 6 Sudden Stopping of Gas Engine 30 Sugar-Cured Hams and Bacon 282 Sugar Sacks, How to Use .292 Sugar, Substitute for 275 Summary of Year's Record 191 Sunbonnets, Children's 327 Sunburn, How to Remove 307 Surface Area, Concrete 71 Surface Distribution of Sewage... 143 Surface Finish, Concrete 94 Surface for Painting, Preparation of... 230 Surface Supplies of 'Water 107 Surface Supplies of Water, Contamina- tion 107 Survey, How to 152 Sweater, How to Wash 320 Sweet Potatoes, How to Keep 290 T Table Mats, How to Make 296 Table Pads, How to Keep Clean 315 Table Pads, How to Make 296 Table Setting 296 Tablecloth, How to Make Smoother 321 Tack Puller 337 Tank, Construction of Concrete 72 Tank, Feet Head Water and Equivalent Pressure in 120 Tank-Systems, Single-Chamber 145 Tanks, Water, Concrete 72 Tar on Cloths, How to Remove 307 Tar on Hands, How to Remove 307 Tea, How to Keep Fresh 273 Tea Stains, How to Remove 317 Temperature Control or Thermostat 103 Temporary Hog House 214 Test for Concrete Hardness 60 Testing the Engine, Need for 21 Thermostat or Temperature Control 103 Three-Port Engine 8 Tie, The Chain 343 Ties, Old, How to Use 326 Tile, Cement 159 Tile, Clay 159 Tile, Depth to Lay 158 Tile, Grade 158 Tile, Size 15S Timber Hitch 253 Timber Hitch and Half Hitch 253 Timber Post Facts 82 Timber Post, Relative Durability of 82- Time Sheet, Regular Workers' Daily.... 189 Timing the Ignition 14 Tin Cans, How to Destroy 293 Tire, Casing, How to Make Puncture Proof 40 Tire Mileage, How to Increase 40 Tire, Punctures, Repair of, on Road 40 Tires, Anti-Skid Device for 40 362 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE PAGE. Tires, Automobile 37 Tires, Incorrect Inflation of 38 Toasts 289 Tobacco, How to Keep Bugs Away 313 Tobacco Worm 314 Tomatoes • . 291 Tools Used in Painting 229 Toothpaste 330 Tracing Paper, Black, How to Make 337 Treatment of Sewage, Final 137 Tree Remover 346 Trenching for Tile 159 Trimming, Colored, to Wash Garment with 319 Troubles, Ga^ Engine 27 Troughs, Concrete 72 Troughs, Construction of Concrete 72 Troubles of Gas Engine Analyzed....... 28 Turnips, How to Keep 291 Twine Holder .293 Two-Cycle Engines, Types of S Two-Cylinder Engines, Crank-Case Explosions in 32 Types and Methods of Sinking Wells.. 112 Types of Pumps . . . .' 127 Types of Two-Cycle Engines 8 U Umbrella Stand 335 Umbrella Top, How to Make 334 Uncoiling Rope 245 Under-Drainage 156 Underground Water Supplies 109 Underground Water Supplies, Contami- nation of 109 Untwisted Rope, Relaying 246 Upholstered Furniture, How to Clean. . . .302 Upkeep of Gas Engine, Miscellaneous.. 33 V Vapor Heating System, Installation of 102, 104 Varnish, How to 238 Varnish, How to Remove White Spots from 305 Varnish Stains, How to Remove 238 Varnishes 238 Vaseline, How to Remove 318 Vats, Milk and Cream, Concrete 75 Vegetables 289, 296 Vegetables, How to Keep 297 Vegetables, Raw, How to Clean Before Eating 2S9 Veils, Keeping Clean and Fresh 319 Velvet, Black, How to Revive 327 Velvet, Flow to Clean 317 Vent Pipes, Sizes 136 Ventilation During Rain 336 Ventilation of Dairy Barn 205 Ventilation of Root Cellar 227 PAGE. Vessel, How to Remove Woody Taste from 295 Vibration, Excessive in Engine 32 Vinegar o 91 W Wagon Grease, How to Remove. ..... .318 Wagon Jack 344 Walks, Concrete, Construction of 63 Walks, Concrete for 68 Wall Pockets 334 Wallpaper, How to Keep Bugs from.... 309 Wallpaper, How to Remove Grease from. 303 Wallpaper, How to Remove Scratches on. 305 Wallpapering, Paste for 330 Walls, Painted, How to Clean 301 Walnut Polish 333 Walnut Wood, Imitation of 23S Warehouse for Potatoes 225 Washing Aggregate 46 Washing Fluid 317 Washing, Saving Time 315 Wash Tub, Cover for 321 Waste Pipe, Sizes 136 Watch Ticking, How to Deaden 337 Water, Amount to Use for Mixing Concrete 56 Water Boiler, Hot 103 Water, Distilled 10S Water, Distribution of 116 Water Filter, How to Make _ 296 Water Flow, Determination of, in Irrigation 175 Water, Gravity System 117 Water, Irrigation, Source of 116 Water, Measurements of, in Irrigation. . .171 Water Pipes, How to Keep from Freezing 337 Water Pipes in Buildings, Size of 134 Water Plumbing 134 Water, Pneumatic Tank System US Water, Pumping 116, 126 Water, Pumping, Storage, Distribution of 116 Water, Quantity Needed 116 Water, Quantities Required Per Day 117 Water, Removal of Free or Ground. .. .149 Water Spilled in Bed, How to Dry 337 Water, Storage of 116 Water Supplies, Underground .109 Water, Supply, Dangers from Contami- nation 106 Water Supply for the Farm 106 Water Supply from Cisterns 107 Water, Surface Supplies of.. 107 Water System, Autopneumatic 122 Water Tanks, Concrete 7; - Water-Tight Concrete 44 Wax Stains, How to Remove 307 Weevil, Grain 309 ENGINEERING INDEX 363 PAGE. Weight of Petroleum Products 18 Weir Box . .- 171 Weir Construction 172 Weir Dimensions 172 Weir, The Cippoletti 172 Well Curbings or Coverings, Protective. . 115 Well, Linings, Protective 114 Well, Location and Preliminary Protec- tion Ill Wells, for Irrigation 167 Wells, Types and Methods of Sinking.. 112 Wheezing and Scraping Sound in Gas Engine 32 Whipping, Rope 246 White Clothes. How to Wash Easily 320 White Goods. How to Take Yellow Out. .320 White Good, Stains in, How to Remove.. 302 White Shoes, How to Remove Grease on. 303 White Silk, When Turning Yellow 320 White Spots on Varnish, How to Remove 305 Whitewash .233, 330 Willow Work Polish 333 Window Blinds, How to Make 338 PAGE. Window Shade Spring, How to Wind Up 338 Wood Ashes 292 Wood Imitation of Different Kinds 237 Wood, Paste for Leaks in 330 Wood Posts, How to Preserve 335 Woodwork, How to Clean 301 Woodwork, How to Clean Easily 333 Woodwork, How to Fill 332 Woodwork, How to Protect 333 Woodwork, Polishing 331 Woolens, How to Wash 320 Work Report, Monthly 188 Worms 313 Worn Parts of Gas Engine 33 Wrench, A Handy 343 Y Year's Record. Summary of 191 Z Zinc, How to Brighten 333 SfC ■,--.-■- ■ w ,^.'?- = .t . ,1 ■ _ J -:-£-, f f .^ ■ ■ . . . ■ - mgwmm^wm r:HS.'^Aft tfi^ vS^r-* rife _ .^ 4 J «fe';{%jKP' S^; '-- -.r - - - ;' '^■^ M^w f^Sfl ?.'-' fi ^>/tff im